ENCYCLOPAEDIA
HK1TANNJCA
FXKVENTH
JMMT10M
; & *
m
HBH
VOL. XI
FBA TO GJB
giSP
ii
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 17681771.
SECOND ten 17771784.
THIRD eighteen 17881797.
FOURTH twenty 1801 1810.
FIFTH twenty 18151817.
SIXTH twenty 18231824.
SEVENTH twenty-one 18301842.
EIGHTH twenty-two 1853 1860.
NINTH twenty-five 18751889.
TENTH ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
ELEVENTH published in twenty-nine volumei, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XI
FRANCISCANS to GIBSON
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1910
E.-3
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
...... *
** *
**
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. B. R. ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. [
Ktt-per, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on -j Fruit.
Classification of Flowering Plants; &c.
A. B. W. K. SIR ALEXANDER BIACKIE WILLIAM KENNEDY, LL.D., F.R.S. J
Kmeritus Professor of Engineering, University College, London. Consulting | friction.
Engineer to Board of Ordnance.
A. Ca. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. / Gauss.
See the biographical article, CAYLEY, ARTHUR.
A. E. H. L. AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f
Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Hon. I Function: Functions of
Fellow of Queen's College; formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge.! R ea i Variables.
Secretary to the London Mathematical Society. L
A. E. S. ARTHUR EVERETT SHIPLEY, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. J
Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. ] Gastrotrlcha.
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History.
A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, LL.D. / Geology.
See the biographical article, GEIKIE, SIR A. I
A. Co.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J F ranc ij geb
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. \
A. G. B.* HON. ARCHIBALD GRAEME BFLL, M.lNST.C.E. f Georgetown British
Director of Public Works and Inspector of Mines, Trinidad. Member of Executive -\ _ ,
and Legislative Councils, Inst.C.E. I Guiana.
A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A., Lirr.D., F.R.,HiST.S. f
Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. I p r nnti>mp ot Pnllitan
Author ot The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint-editor of Documents relating]
to the Constitutional History of Canada.
A. H. Sm. ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A. f
Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. J Gem: II. (in part).
Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue \
of Greek Sculpture in the British Museum; &c.
A. M.* REV. ALLEN MENZIES, D.D. f Free church of Scotland
Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, University of St Andrews. Author -i ,\
of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy. I wn fan >-
A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. / Galileo
See the biographical article, CLERKE, AGNES M. \
A. M. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. / Frigate-Bird; Gadwall;
See the biographical article, NEWTON, ALFRED. \ Gannet; Gare Fowl.
A. H. B. ALFRED NEAVE BRAYSHAW, LL B /Friends, Society of.
Author of Bible Notes on the Hebrew Prophets. \
A. H. W. ALFRED NORTH WHTTEHEAD, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Geometry: VI. (in part)
Fellow and Lecturer in Mathematics, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of-( , ,< vn
A Treatise on Universal Algebra ;&c. [ and VIL
A. R. C. ALEXANDER Ross CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S.
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Royal Medallist, Royal Society, 1887. In charge of T Geodesy (in part).
the trigonometrical operations of the Ordnance Survey, 1854-1881. I
A. S. M. ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D. /Gem- II (i
See the biographical article, MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART. \
Frederick II., Roman
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND.
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray'* Inn, .
Emperor;
French Revolution:
1900. Republican Calendar;
Germany: History (in part)
and Bibliography.
1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appear* in the final volume.
1980
VI
A. W. W.
B. A. W. R.
B. S. P.
C. B.*
C. D. W.
C. E.*
C. F. A.
C. H. Ha.
C. K. S.
C. Mi.
C. M. K.
C. Pf.
C. R. B.
C. R. C.
C.T.*
C.We.
C. W* W
D.C.
D. F. T.
D. H.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LITT.D., LL.D.
See the biographical article, WARD, A. W.
HON. BERTRAND ARTHUR WILLIAM RUSSELL, M.A., F.R.S.
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author
Geometry; Principles of Mathematics; &c.
BERTHA SURTEES PHILPOTTS, M.A. (Dublin).
Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge.
CHARLES ESMOND LITT.D. (Oxon.).
See the biographical article, BEMONT, C.
HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT.
See the biographical article, WRIGHT, HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON.
CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Garriek, David (in part).
of Foundations on Geometry: VI. (in part).
j Germany: Archaeology.
/Fustel De Coulanges;
I Gascony.
/Friendly Societies:
\ United States.
-j Geometry: History.
CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London *
(Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
Franco-German War
(in part);
French Revolutionary
Wars: Military
Operations;
Germany: Army;
Gibraltar: History.
Gelasius II.
CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. r
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York. City. Member -j
of the American Historical Association.
CLEMENT KING SHORTER. r
Editor of The Sphere. Author of Sixty Years of Victorian Literature; Immortal -j Gaskell, Elizabeth.
Memories; The Brontes, Life and Letters; &c.
CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. r
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipoten- J Garashanin.
tiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900 and 1902-1903. [
SIR CHARLES MALCOLM KENNEDY, K.C.M.G., C.B. (1831-1908). r
Head of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer on Inter-
national Law, University College, Bristol. Commissioner in the Levant, 1870-1871, J _
at Paris, 1872-1886. Plenipotentiary, Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Editor 1 Free Ports.
of Kennedy's Ethnological and Linguistic Essays; Diplomacy and International
Law.
Franks;
CHRISTIAN PFISTER, D.-ES.-L.
Professor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author)
of Etudes sur le regne de Robert le Pieux; Le Duche merovingien d' Alsace el la legende | *reaegOnd;
de Sainte-Odile. (. Germanic Laws, Early.
CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hisi.S. f
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. J Gerard of Cremona.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of |
Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c.
I
CLAUDE REGNIER CONDER, LL.D.
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly in command of Survey of Palestine. Author
of The City of Jerusalem ; The Bible and the East ; The Hitlites and tlieir Language ; &c.
Galilee (in part);
Galilee, Sea of (in part).
REV. CHARLES TAYLOR, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1908). r
Formerly Master of St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-Chancellor, Cambridge-! Geometrical Continuity.
University, 1887-1888. Author of Geometrical Conies; &c.
CECIL WEATHERLY.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford.
Barrister-at-Law.
Gate.
SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). f
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-J _ ... e . /. ,
mission. Director-Genera' of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General ] Galilee, 5>ea 01 (in part).
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korli to Khartoum; Life of
Lord Clive; &.C. [
DUGALD CLERK, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.S.
Director of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd.
Engine.
Inventor of the Clerk Cycle Gas -I Gas Engine.
DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. r
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The J Fugue.
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical 1
works.
DAVID HANNAV.
Formerly British Vice-consul at Barcelona.
Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c.
[French Revolutionary Wars:
Author of Short History of Royal -i. Naval Operations.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii
E. Br. EKNCST BARKER, M.A. f
Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modem History at, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly i Fulk, King of Jerusalem.
Fellow and Tutor of Morton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. I
E. B. EL EDWIN BAILEY ELLIOTT, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Waynflete Professor of Pure Mathematics, and Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. I . I17
Formerly Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. President of London Mathematical ueomelr y.
Sviety, 1896-1898. Author of Algebra ofQuantics; &c. L
E. C. B. RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BCTLER, O.S.B., D.LITT. (Dublin).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladium " j Franciscans; Friar,
in Cambridge Texts and Studies.
E. E. LADY EASTLAKE. / Gibson John
See the biographical article, EASTLAKE, SIR C. L, I
E. C. EDMVND GOSSF, LLJ). f EW..H. Garland John
See the biographical article. GOSSE. EDMUND. \ * TyxeU> l
E J. D. EDWARD JOSEPH DENT. M.A., MUS.BAC. f
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. \ Galuppi.
E. 0.* EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Qoctrlc Ulcer
Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, ]
Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. (.
E. Pr. EDGAR PRESTAGE. f
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. J Garqao;
< nmmendador Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon I Garrett.
Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society ; &c.
E. W. B. SIR EDWARD WILLIAM BRABROOK, C.B., F.S.A. f
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies, 1891-1904. J Bi-t.-ji,, c .i-i
Author of Building Societies; Provident Societies and Industrial Welfare; Institutions ] * rl n <"y Societies.
ofThrift;&c. I
F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Geissen). f
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford, -j Funeral Rites.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. L
T. C. M. FRANCIS CHARLES MONTAGUE, M.A. f
Astor Professor of European History, University College, London. Formerly I p ron ch Bavnlntinn
Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. Author of Limits cf Individual Liberty; chapters 1
in Cambridge Modern History; &c. L
F. P.* SIR TAMES FORTESCUE-FLANNERY, BART., M.P., M.lNST.C.E. f
Ex-President of the Institute of Marine Engineers. M.P. for the Maldon Division , Fuel: Liquid.
of Eieex, 1910. M.P. for the Shipley Division of Yorkshire, 1895-1900.
F. C. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. /Germany: Ethnography and
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. \ Early History.
F. H. B. FRANCIS HENRY BUTLER, M.A. / Frftnkinrpn<*- fialls
Worcester College, Oxford. Associate of Royal School of Mines. ^Frankincense, balls.
F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERJIELD, M.A.. LL.D., F.S.A.
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, -, Gaul.
Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907.
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c.
F. M. M. COLONEL FREDERIC J^ATCSCH MAUDE, C.B. J Franco-German War
Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and the\
World's Policy; The Leipzig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. I (ln t arl >-
French Congo;
German East Africa;
German South-West
Africa.
F. R. H. FRIEDRICH ROBERT HELMERT, PH.D., D.ING. f rftftHMtf , j. nrl )
Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. \ Geodes y " n P art >-
'Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officer d'Acadcmic (Paris). { Games > Classical.
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f _
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. J arne 'l
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. ! Gem: I.
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMCNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S.' f _ . . fr . . *
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brascnosc College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. | GeWerland (.Ducky).
G. L. GEORG LUNGE. f Fuel: Gaseous;
See the biographical article, LUNGE, G. \ Gas: Manufacture, IL
C. Sa. GEORGE SAISTSBLRY, D.C.L., LL.D. / Fnch Literature;
See the biographical article, SAINTSBURV, G. I Gautier.
F. R. C FRANK R. CANA.
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union.
Vlll
G. W. T.
H. B.
H. B. W.
H. Ch.
H.C. L.
H. F. Ba.
H. L. C.
H.M.*
H. M. W.
H.N.
H. R. M.
H. W. C. D.
H.W.S.
LA.
J.A.P.
J. A. H.
J. B. B.
J. B. McM.
J. Ga.
J. 0. C. A.
J. G. R.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. f
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and \ Ghazall.
Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. L
HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1909). f
Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of < Fuel: Solid.
A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. l_
HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S. f
Late Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and Wales. Wollaston J Gaudrv
Medallist, Geological Society. Author of The History of the Geological Society of |
London; &c. L
HUGH CrasHOLM, M.A. f Gambetta;
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition-^ Garnett, Richard;
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. I George IV. (in pi
HON. HENRY CABOT LODGE.
See the biographical article, LODGE, HENRY CABOT.
[ George
| Gallatin.
part).
HENRY FREDERICK BAKER, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Function: Functions of
Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayley Lecturer in -^ Cnmblev Vnr : n '
Mathematics in the University. Author of Abel's Theorem and the Allied Tlieory; &c. [ < ~- om l >lex arM
HUGH LONGBOURNE CALLENDAR, F.R.S., LL.D.
Professor of Physics, Royal College of Science, London. Formerly Professor of -
Physics in MacGill College, Montreal, and in University College, London.
HUGH MITCHELL.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
H. MARSHALL WARD, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (d. 1905).
Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge. President of the British Mycological
Society. Author of Timber and Some of its Diseases; The Oak; Sack's Lectures on '
the Physiology of Plants; Diseases in Plants; &c.
HENRY NICOL.
HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D.
Director of British Rainfall Organization. Editor of British Rainfall. Formerly
President of the Royal Meteorological Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographi-
cal Society. Hon. Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, "
Berlin, Budapest, St Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. Author of The Realm of Nature ;
The International Geography; &c.
HENRY WILLIAM CAKLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford,
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne.
H. WICKHAM STEED.
Correspondent of The Times at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna.
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge.
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short "
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism; &c.
JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow
of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John s College, Cambridge, .
and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author of Magnets and
Electric Currents.
JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of -
The Geology of Building Stones.
JOHN BAGNALL BURY, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article, BURY, J*. B.
JOHN BACH MCMASTER, LL.D.
Professor of American History in the University of Pennsylvania.
A History of the People of the United States ; &c.
JAMES GAIRDNER, LL.D., C.B.
See the biographical article, GAIRDNER, J.
Fusion.
Gibraltar (in part).
Fungi (in part).
French Language (in part).
Geography.
Geoffrey, Archbishop of
York;
Geoffrey of Monmouth;
Gerard;
Gervase of Canterbury;
Gervase of Tilbury.
Garibaldi.
Frank, Jakob;
Frankel, Zecharias;
Frank], Ludwig A.;
Friedmann, Meir;
Gaon; Geiger (in part);
Gersonides.
Galvanometer.
Fuller's Earth.
| Gibbon, Edward.
Author of J Garfield, James Abram.
- Gardiner, Stephen.
JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f
Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College; J Galatia.
Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893.
JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. f Freiligrath;
Professor of German, University of London. Author of History of German Litera- -I r.rmon T i'torofnra
ture; Schiller after a Century; &c. I German Literature.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. Hn. J-JITUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. [ Frederick Augustus I.
Privat-doient in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of l and II.;
Dtu Rktinland und die frant&sische Herrschaft. I Frederick William I.
J. H. Or. JOHN HILTON GRACE, M.A., F.R.S. f
Lecturer in Matheraaticaat Peterhouse and Pembroke College, Cambridge. Fellow I Geometry, V.
of Peterhouse. |_
J. H. H. JOHN HENRY HESSELS, M.A. J -^ t
Author of Gutenberg: an Historical Investigation. }.
J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.). f
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peeiage and\ Geoffrey De Montbray
Pedigrte; &c. L
J. HI. R. JOBS HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lirr.D.
Christ ' College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge
University Local Lecture* Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic
Studies ; Tin Development of the European Nations ; The Life of Pitt j &c.
J. Mt. JAMES Mori-ATT, M.A., D.D. J^.i.. . n>_i.i.
Jowett Lecturer. London. 1907. Author of Historical New Testament; &c. \ GwaUans, Epistle to the.
J. P.-B. JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST. f F Urn iture.
Editor of the Guardian (London). \
J. SI. JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895). f Frederick the Great
Author of A History of Germany; &c. \ (in part).
J. S. BL JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D. f Free Church of Scotland
Assistant Editor 9th edition Encyclopaedia Britannica. Joint-editor of the i <: j, art \
Encyclopaedia BMica. {.
J. S. r. JOHN Surra FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Fulgurite;
burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 Gabbro.
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. L
J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY. f
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical <, Georgia (Russia), (in part)
t/agatine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. {.
J. T. C. JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. r
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly I Castronoda
Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in |
the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. L
J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St. Andrews). f
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic ~\ Froramel.
Age; &c.
J. Ws. JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S. f ,. . . _. _
Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex County Council. Author of Practical! *
Guide to Garden Plants; French Market Gardening; &c. ! (tn part).
J. W. H. JAMES WYCLTPTE HEADLAM, M.A. f
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly Frederick HI of Prussia*
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at 1 nrmiw w !-., ' ,\
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Wrmany. titstory (in part).
Empire; Ac.
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. r _ .
Author of 7 'he Instruments of the Orchestra; &c. Editor of the Portfolio of Musical J Free Reea v ">rator,
Archaeology. \ Gelge.
L. D. Louis DUCHESNE. f _
See the biographical article, DUCHESSE, L. M. O. \ Gelaslus I.
L. H ' Louis HALPHEN, D.-is.-L. ' Fulk Nerra;
Principal of the course of the Faculty of Letters in the University of Bordeaux. -| Geoffrey, Count of Anjou;
Author of Le Comtt d' Anjou au XI* stecle; Recueil des actes angevines; Sec. Geoffrey Plantaeanet
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. f
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J Galena
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of the |
Mineralogical Magazine. L
L. V. LINDA MARY VILLARI. f Frederick HI. King of
See the biographical article, VILLARI, PASQUALE. \ Sicily.
H. G. MOSES CASTER, PH.D.
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchcster Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzan-
tine Literature. 1886 and 1891. President. Folk-lore Society of England. Vice- <
President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular
Literature; A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The Hebrew Version of the
Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle.
Ghlra.
H. H. T. MARCTS NIEBUHX Too. M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. -\ Gerousia.
Joint -author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum,
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
0. Ba. OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. I"
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the ] Genealogy: Modern.
Honourable Society of the Baronetage.
0. H. OLAUS MAGNUS FRIEDRICH HENRICI, PH.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
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ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XI
FRANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites;
also the Seraphic Order ; and in England Grey Friars, from the
colour of the habit , which, however, is now brown rather than grey) ,
a religious order founded by St Francis of Assisi (?..). It was
in 1 206 that St Francis left his father's house and devoted himself
to a life of poverty and to the service of the ooor, the sick and the
lepers; and in 1209 that he felt the call to add preaching to his
other ministrations, and to lead a life in the closest imitation of
Christ's life. Within a few weeks disciples began to join them-
selves to him; the condition was that they should dispose of
all their possessions. When their number was twelve Francis
led the little flock to Rome to obtain the pope's sanction for their
undertaking. Innocent III. received them kindly, but with
some misgivings as to the feasibility of the proposed manner of
life; these difficulties were overcome, and the pope accorded a
provisional approval by word of mouth: they were to become
clerics and to elect a superior. Francis was elected and made
a promise of obedience to the pope, and the others promised
obedience to Francis.
This formal inauguration of the institute was in 1209 or (as
seems more probable) 1210. Francis and his associates were
first known as " Penitents of Assisi," and then Francis chose the
title of " Minors." On their return to Assisi they obtained from
the Benedictine abbey on Mount Subasio the use of the little
chapel of St Mary of the Angels, called the Portiuncula, in the
plain below Assisi, which became the cradle and headquarters of
the order. Around the Portiuncula they built themselves huts
of branches and twigs, but they had no fixed abode; they
wandered in pain over the country, dressed in the ordinary
clothes of the peasants, working in the fields to earn their daily
bread, sleeping in barns or in the hedgerows or in the porches of
the churches, mixing with the labourers and the poor, with the
lepers and the outcasts, ever joyous the " joculatores " or
"jongleurs " of Cod ever carrying out their mission of preaching
to the lowly and to the wretched religion and repentance and
the kingdom of God. The key-note of the movement was the
imitation of the public life of Christ, especially the poverty of
Christ. Francis and bis disciples were to aim at possessing
nothing, absolutely nothing, so far as was compatible with life;
they were to earn their bread from day to day by the work of their
and only when they could not do so were they tc beg;
XI. I
they were to make no provision for the morrow, lay by no store,
accumulate no capital, possess no land; their clothes should be
the poorest and their dwellings the meanest ; they were forbidden
to receive or to handle money. On the other hand they were
bound only to the fast observed in those days by pious Christians,
and were allowed to eat meat the rule said they should eat
whatever was set before them; no austerities were imposed,
beyond those inseparable from the manner of life they lived.
Thus the institute in its original conception was quite different
from the monastic institute, Benedictine or Canon Regular.
It was a confraternity rather than an order, and there was no
formal novitiate, no organization. But the number of brothers
increased with extraordinary rapidity, and the field of work
soon extended itself beyond the neighbourhood of Assisi and even
beyond Umbria within three or four years there were settle-
ments in Perugia, Cortona, Pisa, Florence and elsewhere, and
missions to the Saracens and Moors were attempted by Francis
himself. About 1217 Franciscan missions set out for Germany,
France, Spain, Hungary and the Holy Land; and in 1219 a
number of provinces were formed, each governed by a provincial
minister. These developments, whereby the little band of
Umbrian apostles had grown into an institute spread all over
Europe and even penetrating to the East, and numbering
thousands of members, rendered impossible the continuance of
the original free organization whereby Francis's word and ex-
ample were the sufficient practical rule of life for all: it was
necessary as a condition of efficiency and even of existence and
permanence that some kind of organization should be provided.
From an early date yearly meetings or chapters had been held
at the Portiuncula, at first attended by the whole body of friars;
but as the institute extended this became unworkable, and after
1219 the chapter consisted only of the officials, provincial
ministers and others. During Francis's absence in the East
(1219-1220) a deliberate movement was initiated by the two
vicars whom he had left in charge of the order, towards assimilat-
ing it to the monastic orders. Francis hurried back, bringing
with him Elias of Cortona, the provincial minister of Syria,
and immediately summoned an extraordinary general chapter
(September 1220). Before it met he had an interview on the
situation with Cardinal Hugolino of Ostia (afterwards Gregory
IX.), the great friend and supporter of both Francis and Dominic,
FRANCISCANS
and he went to Honorius III. at Orvieto and begged thatHugolino
should be appointed the official protector of the order. The
request was granted, and a bull was issued formally approving
the order of Friars Minor, and decreeing that before admission
every one must pass a year's novitiate, and that after profession
it was not lawful to leave the order. By this bull the Friars Minor
were constituted an order in the technical sense of the word.
When the chapter assembled, Francis, no doubt from a genuine
feeling that he was not able to govern a great world-wide order,
practically abdicated the post of minister-general by appointing
a vicar, and the policy of turning the Friars Minor into a great
religious order was consistently pursued, especially by Elias,
who a year later became Francis's vicar.
St Francis's attitude towards this change is of primary importance
for the interpretation of Franciscan history. There can be little
doubt that his affections never altered from his first love, and that
he looked back regretfully on the " Umbrian idyll " that had passed
away; on the other hand, there seems to be no reason for doubting
that he si.w that the methods of the early days were now no longer
possible, and that he acquiesced in the inevitable. This seems to
be Professor Goetz's view, who holds that Sabatier's picture of
Francis's agonized sadness at witnessing the destruction of his great
creation going on under his eyes, has no counterpart in fact, and who
rejects the view that the changes were forced on Francis against
his better judgment by Hugolino and Elias (see " Note on Sources "
at end of article FRANCIS OF ASSISI ; also ELIAS OF CORTONA) ;
Goetz holds that the only conflict was the inevitable one between
an unrealizable ideal and its practical working^ among average men.
But there does seem to be evidence that Francis deplored tendencies
towards a departure from the severe simplicity of life and from the
strict observance of poverty which he considered the ground-idea
of his institute. In the final redaction of his Rule made in 1223 and
in his Testament, made after it, he again clearly asserts his mind
on these subjects, especially on poverty; and in the Testament he
forbids any glosses in the interpretation of the Rule, declaring that
it is to be taken simply as it stands. Sabatier's view as to the differ-
ence between the First Rule " and that of 1223 is part of his
general theory, and is, to say the least, a grave exaggeration. No
doubt the First Rule, which is fully four times as long, gives a better
picture of St Francis's mind and character; the later Rule has been
formed from the earlier by the elimination of the frequent scripture
texts and the edificatory element ; but the greater portion of it stood
almost verbally in the earlier.
On Francis's death in 1226 the government of the order rested
in the hands of Elias until the chapter of 1227. At this chapter
Elias was not elected minister-general; the building of the great
basilica and monastery at Assisi was so manifest a violation of
St Francis's ideas and precepts that it produced a reaction, and
John Parenti became St Francis's first successor. He held fast
to St Francis's ideas, but was not a strong man. At the chapter
of 1230 a discussion arose concerning the binding force of St
Francis's Testament, and the interpretation of certain portions
of the Rule, especially concerning poverty, and it was determined
to submit the questions to Pope Gregory IX., who had been St
Francis's friend and had helped in the final redaction of the Rule.
He issued a bull, Quo elongali, which declared that as the Testa-
ment had not received the sanction of the general chapter it
was not binding on the order, and also allowed trustees to hold
and administer money for the order. John Parenti and those
who wished to maintain St Francis's institute intact were greatly
disturbed by these relaxations; but a majority of the chapter of
1232, by a sort of coup d'etat, proclaimed Elias minister-general,
and John retired, though in those days the office was for life.
Under Elias the order entered on a period of extraordinary
extension and prosperity: the number of friars in all parts of the
world increased wonderfully, new provinces were formed, new
missions to the heathen organized, the Franciscans entered the
universities and vied with the Dominicans as teachers of theology
and canon law, and as a body they became influential in church
and state. With all this side of Elias's policy the great bulk of
the order sympathized; but his rule was despotic and tyrannical
and his private life was lax at least according to any Franciscan
standard, for no charge of grave irregularity was ever brought
against him. And so a widespread movement against his govern-
ment arose, the backbone of which was the university element
at Paris and Oxford, and at a dramatic scene in a chapter held
in the presence of Gregory IX. Elias was deposed (1239).
The story of these first years after St Francis's death is best told
by Ed. Lempp, Frere Elie de Cortone (1901) (but see the warning
at the end of the article ELIAS OF CORTONA).
At this time the Franciscans were divided into three parties:
there were the Zealots, or Spirituals, who called for a literal
observance of St Francis's Rule and Testament; they deplored
all the developments since 1219, and protested against turning
the institute into an order, the frequentation of the universities
and the pursuit of learning; in a word, they wished to restore
the life to what it had been during the first few years the
hermitages and the huts of twigs, and the care of the lepers and
the nomadic preaching. The Zealots were few in number but of
great consequence from the fact that to them belonged most of
the first disciples and the most intimate companions of St Francis.
They had been grievously persecuted under Elias Br. Leo and
others had been scourged, several had been imprisoned, one
while trying to escape was accidentally killed, and Br. Bernard,
the " first disciple," passed a year in hiding in the forests and
mountains hunted like a wild beast. At the other extreme was
a party of relaxation, that abandoned any serious effort to practise
Franciscan poverty and simplicity of life. Between these two
stood the great middle party of moderates, who desired indeed
that the Franciscans should be really poor and simple in their
manner of life, and really pious, but on the other hand approved
of the development of the Order on the lines of other orders,
of the acquisition of influence, of the cultivation of theology and
other sciences, and of the frequenting of the universities.
The questions of principle at issue in these controversies is reason-
ably and clearly stated, from the modern Capuchin standpoint, in
the " Introductory Essay " to The Friars and how they came to
England, by Fr. Cuthbert (1903).
The moderate party was by far the largest, and embraced
nearly all the friars of France, England and Germany. It was
the Moderates and not the Zealots that brought about Elias's
deposition, and the next general ministers belonged to this party.
Further relaxations of the law of poverty, however, caused a
reaction, and John of Parma, one of the Zealots, became minister-
general, 1247-1257. Under him the more extreme of the Zealots
took up and exaggerated the theories of the Eternal Gospel of
the Calabrian Cistercian abbot Joachim of Fiore (Floris) ; some of
their writings were condemned as heretical, and John of Parma,
who was implicated in these apocalyptic tendencies, had to resign.
He was succeeded by St Bonaventura (1257-1274), one of the
best type of the middle party. He was a man of high character,
a theologian, a mystic, a holy man and a strong ruler. He set
himself with determination to effect a working compromise,
and proceeded with firmness against the extremists on both
sides. But controversy and recrimination and persecution had
stiffened the more ardent among the Zealots into obstinate
fanatics some of them threw themselves into a movement
that may best be briefly described as a recrudescence of Mon-
tanism (see Emile Gebhart's Italic mystique, 1899, cc. v.
and vi.), and developed into a number of sects, some on the
fringe of Catholic Christianity and others beyond its pale. But
the majority of the Zealot party, or Spirituals, did not go so far,
and adopted as the principle of Franciscan poverty the formula
" a poor and scanty use " (usus pauper et tenuis) of earthly goods,
as opposed to the " moderate use " advocated by the less strict
party. The question thus posed came before the Council of
Vienne, 1312, and was determined, on the whole, decidedly in
favour of the stricter view. Some of the French Zealots were not
satisfied and formed a semi-schismatical body in Provence;
twenty-five of them were tried before the Inquisition, and four
were burned alive at Marseilles as obstinate heretics, 1318. After
this the schism in the Order subsided. But the disintegrating
forces produced by the Great Schism and by the other disorders
of the i4th century caused among the Franciscans the same
relaxations and corruptions, and also the same reactions and
reform movements, as among the other orders.
The chief of these reforms was that of the Observants, which
began at Foligno about 1370. The Observant reform was on
the basis of the " poor and scanty use " of worldly goods,
but it was organized as an order and its members freely pursued
FRANCK FRANCK, C.
theological studies; thus it did not represent the position of the
original Zealot party, nor was it the continuation of it. The
Observant reform spread widely throughout Italy and into
France, Spain and Germany. The great promoters of the move-
ment were St Uernardine of Siena and St John Capistran. The
council of Constance, 1415, allowed the French Observant
iruries to be ruled by a vicar of their awn. under the minister-
general, and the same privilege was soon accorded to other
countries. By the end of the middle ages the Observants had
some 1400 houses divided into 50 provinces. This movement
produced a "half-reform" among the Conventuals or friars of
the mitigated observance; it also called forth a number of lesser
imitations or congregations of strict observance.
After many attempts had been made to bring about a working
union among the many observances, in 1517 Leo X. divided the
Franciscan order into two distinct and independent bodies,
each with its own minister-general, its own provinces and
provincials and its own general chapter: (i) The Conventuals,
who were authorized to use the various papal dispensations in
regard to the observance of poverty, and were allowed to possess
property and fixed income, corporately, like the monastic orders:
(j) The Observants, who were bound to as close an observance
of St Francis's Rule in regard to poverty and all else as was
practically possible.
At this time a great number of the Conventuals went over to
the Observants, who have ever since been by far the more
numerous and influential branch of the order. Among the
Observants in the course of the sixteenth century arose various
reforms, each striving to approach more and more nearly to St
Francis's ideal; the chief of these reforms were the Alcantarines
in Spain (St Peter of Alcantara, St Teresa's friend, d. 1562),
the Riformati in Italy and the Recollects in France: all of these
were semi-independent congregations. The Capuchins (q.v.),
established c. 1 525, who claim to be the reform which approaches
nearest in its conception to the original type, became a distinct
order of Franciscans in 1619. Finally Leo XIII. grouped the
Franciscans into three bodies or orders the Conventuals; the
Observants, embracing all branches of the strict observance,
except the Capuchins; and the Capuchins which together
constitute the " First Order." For the " Second Order," or the
nuns, see CLARA, ST, and CLARES, POOR; and for the " Third
Order " see TERTIARIES. Many of the Tertiaries live a fully
monastic life in community under the usual vows, and are formed
into Congregations of Regular Tertiaries, both men and women.
They have been and are still very numerous, and give themselves
up to education, to the care of the sick and of orphans and to
good works of all kinds.
No order has had so stormy an internal history as the Francis-
cans; yet in spite of all the troubles and dissensions and strivings
that have marred Franciscan history, the Friars Minor of every
kind have in each age faithfully and zealously carried on St
Francis's great woik of ministering to the spiritual needs of the
poor. Always recruited in large measure from among the poor,
they have ever been the order of the poor, and in their preaching
and missions and ministrations they have ever laid themselves
out to meet the needs of the poor. Another great work of the
Franciscans throughout the whole course of their history has
been their missions to the Mahommedans, both in western Asia
and in North Africa, and to the heathens in China, Japan and
India, and North and South America; a great number of the
friars were martyred. The news of the martyrdom of five of
his friars in Morocco was one of the joys of St Francis's closing
yean. Many of these missions exist to this day. In the Univer-
sities, too, the Franciscans made themselves felt alongside of
the Dominicans, and created a rival school of theology, wherein,
as contrasted .. ith the Aristotrlianism of the Dominican school,
the Platonism of the early Christian doctors has been perpetuated.
The Franciscans came to England in 1224 and immediately
made foundations in Canterbury, London and Oxford; by the
middle of the century there were fifty friaries and over 1200
friars in England ; at the Dissolution there were some 66 Fran-
ciscan friaries, whereof some six belonged to the Observants
(for list see Catholic Dictionary and F. A. Gasquet's English
Monastic Life, 1904). Though nearly all the English houses
belonged to what has been called the " middle party," as a
matter of fact they practised great poverty, and the com-
missioners of Henry VIII. often remark that the Franciscan
Friary was the poorest of the religious houses of a town. The
English province was one of the most remarkable in the order,
especially in intellectual achievement; it produced Friar
Roger Bacon, and, with the single exception of St Bonaventure,
all the greatest doctors of the Franciscan theological school
Alexander Hales, Duns Scotus and Occam.
The Franciscans have always been the most numerous by
far of the religious orders; it is estimated that about the period
of the Reformation the Friars Minor must have numbered
nearly 100,000. At the present day the statistics are roughly
(including lay-brothers): Observants, 15,000, Conventuals,
1500; to these should be added 9500 Capuchins, making the
total number of Franciscan friars about 26,000. There are various
houses of Observants and Capuchins in England and Ireland ; and
the old Irish Conventuals survived the penal times and still exist.
There have been four Franciscan popes: Nicholas IV. (1288-
1292), Sixtus IV. (1471-1484), Sixtus V. (1585-1590), Clement
XIV. (1769-1774); the three last were Conventuals.
The great source for Franciscan history is Wadding's Annales;
it has been many times continued, and now extends in 25 vols. fol.
to the year 1622. The story is also told by Helyot, Hist, des ordres
religieux (1714), vol. vii. Abridgments, with references to recent
literature, will be found in Max fieimbucher, Orden und Kongrega-
tionen (1896), i. 37-51; in Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexicon
(2nd ed.), articles " Armut (III.)," " Franciscaner orden " (this
article contains the best account of the inner history and the polity
of the order up to 1886); in Herzog, Realencyklopadie (3rd ed.),
articles " Franz von Assist " (fullest references to literature up to
1899), " Fraticellen." Of modern critical studies on Franciscan
origins, K. Miillcr's Anfdngc des Minoritenordens und der Buss-
bruderschafttn (1885), and various articles by F. Ehrle in Archiv fur
Litteratur- und Kirchengeschiclite des Miltelalters and Zeitschrift fur
Katholische Theologie, deserve special mention. Eccleston's charm-
ing chronicle of "The Coming of the Friars Minor into England "
has been translated into English by the Capuchin Fr. Cuthbert,
who has prefixed an Introductory Essay giving by far the best
account in English of " the Spirit and Genius of the Franciscan
Friars " (The Friars and how they fame to England, 1903). Fuller in-
formation on the English Franciscans will be found in A. G. Little's
Grey Friars in Oxford (Oxford Hist. Soc., 1892). (E. C. B.)
FRANCK. The nameof Franck has been given indiscriminately
but improperly to painters of the school of Antwerp who belong
to the families of Francken (q.v.) and Vrancx (q.v.). One artist
truly entitled to be called Franck is Gabriel, who entered the
gild of Antwerp in 1605, became its president in 1636 and died
in 1639. But his works cannot now be traced.
FRANCK, C&SAR (1822-1800), French musical composer, a
Belgian by birth, who came of German stock, was born at
Liege on the loth of December 1822. Though one of the most
remarkable of modern composers, C6sar Franck laboured for
many years in comparative obscurity. After some preliminary
studies at Lifige he came to Paris in 1837 and entered the con-
servatoire. He at once obtained the first prize for piano, trans-
posing a fugue at sight to the astonishment of the professors,
for he was only fifteen. He won the prize for the organ in 1841,
after which he settled down in the French capital as teacher
of the piano. His earliest compositions date from this period,
and include four trios for piano and strings, besides several
piano pieces. Ruth, a biblical cantata was produced with
success at the Conservatoire in 1846. An opera entitled Le
Valet de fermc was written about this time, but has never been
performed. For many years Franck led a retired life, devoting
himself to teaching and to his duties as organist, first at Saint-
Jean-Saint-Francois, then at Ste Clotilde, where he acquired
a great reputation as an improviser. He also wrote a mass,
heard in 1861, and a quantity of motets, organ pieces and other
works of a religious character.
Franck was appointed professor of the organ at the Paris
conservatoire, in succession to Benoist, his old master, in 1872,
and the following year he was naturalized a Frenchman. Until
then he was esteemed as a clever and conscientious musician,
FRANCK, S. FRANCKE
but he was now about to prove his title to something more.
A revival of his early oratorio, Ruth, had brought his name
again before the public, and this was followed by the production
of Redemption, a work for solo, chorus and orchestra, given
under the direction of M. Colonne on the loth of April 1873.
The unconventionality of the music rather disconcerted the
general public, but the work nevertheless made its mark, and
Franck became the central figure of an enthusiastic circle of
pupils and adherents whose devotion atoned for the comparative
indifference of the masses. His creative power now manifested
itself in a series of works of varied kinds, and the name of Franck
began gradually to emerge from its obscurity. The following
is an enumeration of his subsequent compositions: Rebecca
(1881), a biblical idyll for solo, chorus and orchestra; Les
Beatitudes, an oratorio composed between 1870 and 1880,
perhaps his greatest work; the symphonic poems, Les Bolides
(1876), Le Chasseur maudit (1883), Les Djinns (1884), for piano
and orchestra; Psyche (1888), for orchestra and chorus;
symphonic variations for piano and orchestra (1885); symphony
in D (1889); quintet for piano and strings (1880); sonata for
piano and violin (1886); string quartet (1889); prelude, choral
and fugue for piano (1884); prelude, aria and finale for piano
(1889); various songs, notably "La Procession" and "Les
Cloches du Soir." Franck also composed two four-act operas,
Hulda and Ghiselle, both of which were produced at Monte
Carlo after his death, which took place in Paris on the 8th of
November 1890. The second of these was left by the master
in an unfinished state, and the instrumentation was completed
by several of his pupils.
Cesar Franck's influence on younger French composers has
been very great. Yet his music is German in character rather
than French. A more sincere, modest, self-respecting composer
probably never existed. In the centre of the brilliant French
capital he was able to lead a laborious existence consecrated
to his threefold career of organist, teacher and composer. He
never sought to gain the suffrages of the public by unworthy
concessions, but kept straight on his path, ever mindful of an
ideal to be reached and never swerving therefrom. A statue
was erected to the memory of Cesar Franck in Paris on the
zznd of October 1904, the occasion producing a panegyric from
Alfred Bruneau, in which he speaks of the composer's works as
" cathedrals in sound."
FRANCK, or FRANK [latinized FRANCUS], SEBASTIAN (c.
1499-c. 1543), German freethinker, was bom about 1499 at
Donauworth, whence he constantly styled himself Franck von
Word. He entered the university of Ingoldstadt (March 26,
1515), and proceeded thence to the Dominican College, incor-
porated with the university, at Heidelberg. Here he met his
subsequent antagonists, Bucer and Frecht, with whom he seems
to have attended the Augsburg conference (October 1518) at
which Luther declared himself a true son of the Church. He
afterwards reckoned the Leipzig disputation (June- July 1519)
and the burning of the papal bull (December 1520) as the begin-
ning of the Reformation. Having taken priest's orders, he held in
1524 a cure in the neighbourhood of Augsburg, but soon (1525)
went over to the Reformed party at Nuremberg and became
preacher at Gustenfelden. His first work (finished September
1527) was a German translation with additions (1528) of the first
part of the Diattage, or Conciliatio locorum Scripturae, directed
against Sacramentarians and Anabaptists by Andrew Althamer,
then deacon of St Sebald's at Nuremberg. On the I7th of March
1528 he married Ottilie Beham, a gifted lady, whose brothers,
pupils of Albrecht Diirer, had got into trouble through Anabaptist
leanings. In the same year he wrote a very popular treatise
against drunkenness. In 1529 he produced a free version
(KlagbrieJ der armen Diirftigen in England) of the famous Supply-
cacyon of the Beggers, written abroad (1528?) by Simon Fish.
Franck, in his preface, says the original was in English; else-
where he says it was in Latin; the theory that his German was
really the original is unwarrantable. Advance in his religious
ideas led him to seek the freer atmosphere of Strassburg in the
autumn of 1529. To his translation (1530) of a Latin Chronicle
and Description of Turkey, by a Transylvanian captive, which
had been prefaced by Luther, he added an appendix holding up
the Turks as in many respects an example to Christians, and
presenting, in lieu of the restrictions of Lutheran, Zwinglian
and Anabaptist sects, the vision of an invisible spiritual church,
universal in its scope. To this ideal he remained faithful. At
Strassburg began his intimacy with Caspar Schwenkfeld, a con-
genial spirit. Here, too, he published, in 1531, his most im-
portant work, the Chronica, Zeitbuch und Geschichtsbibel, largely
a compilation on the basis of the Nuremberg Chronicle (1493),
and in its treatment of social and religious questions connected
with the Reformation, exhibiting a strong sympathy with
heretics, and an unexampled fairness to all kinds of freedom in
opinion. It is too much to call him " the first of German
historians "; he is a forerunner of Gottfried Arnold, with more
vigour and directness of purpose. Driven from Strassburg by
the authorities, after a short imprisonment in December 1531,
he tried to make a living in 1532 as a soapboiler at Esslingen,
removing in 1533 for a better market to Ulm, where (October 28,
1 534) he was admitted as a burgess.
His Weltbuch, a supplement to his Chronica, was printed at
Tubingen in 1534; the publication, in the same year, of his
Paradoxa at Ulm brought him into trouble with the authorities.
An order for his banishment was withdrawn on his promise to
submit future works for censure. Not interpreting this as apply-
ing to works printed outside Ulm, he published in 1538 at Augs-
burg his Guldin A rch (with pagan parallels to Christian sentiments)
and at Frankfort his Germaniae chronicon, with the result that he
had to leave Ulm in January 1 539. He seems henceforth to have
had no settled abode. At Basel he found work as a printer, and
here, probably, it was that he died in the winter of 1542-1543.
He had published in 1539 his Kriegbilchlein des Friedens (pseu-
donymous), his Schrifftliche und ganz griindliche Auslegung des
64 Psalms, and his Das verbiitschierte mil sieben Siegeln ver-
schlossene Buck (a biblical index, exhibiting the dissonance of
Scripture); in 1541 his Spruchvidrter (a collection of proverbs,
several times reprinted with variations); in 1542 a new edition
of his Paradoxa; and some smaller works.
Franck combined the humanist's passion for freedom with the
mystic's devotion to the religion of the spirit. His breadth of
human sympathy led him to positions which the comparative
study of religions has made familiar, but for which his age
was unprepared. Luther contemptuously dismissed him as a
" devil's mouth." Pastor Frecht of Nuremberg pursued him
with bitter zeal. But his courage did not fail him, and in his
last year, in a public Latin letter, he exhorted his friend John
Campanus to maintain freedom of thought in face of the charge
of heresy.
See Hegler, in Hauck's Realencyklopadie (1899) ; C. A. Hase,
Sebastian Franck von Word (1869); J. F. Smith, in Theological
Review (April 1874) ; E. Tausch, Sebastian Franck von Donauworth
und seine Lehrer (1893). (A. Go.*)
FRANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN (1663-1727), German Pro-
testant dLvine, was born on the 22nd of March '1663 at Liibeck.
He was educated at the gymnasium in Gotha, and afterwards at
the universities of Erfurt, Kiel, where he came under the influence
of the pietist Christian Kortholt (1633-1694), and Leipzig.
During his student career he made a special study of Hebrew and
Greek; and in order to learn Hebrew more thoroughly, he for
some time put himself under the instructions of Rabbi Ezra
Edzardi at Hamburg. He graduated at Leipzig, where in 1685
he became a Privatdozent. A year later, by the help of his friend
P. Anton, and with the approval and encouragement of P. J.
Spener, he founded the Collegium Philobiblicum, at which a
number of graduates were accustomed to meet for the systematic
study of the Bible, philologically and practically. He next passed
some months at Liineburg as assistant or curate to the learned
superintendent, C. H. Sandhagen (1639-1697), and there his
religious life was remarkably quickened and deepened. On
leaving Liineburg he spent some time in Hamburg, where he
became a teacher in a private school, and made the acquaintance
of Nikolaus Lange (1659-1720). After a long visit to Spener,
FRANCKEN
who was at that time a court preacher in Dresden, he returned
to Leipzig in the spring of 1680, and began to give Bible lectures
of an exegetical and practical kind, at the same time resuming
the Collegium Philobiblicum of earlier days, lie soon became
popular as a lecturer; but the peculiarities of his teaching almost
immediately aroused a violent opposition on the part of the
university authorities; and before the end of the year he was
interdicted from lecturing on the ground of his alleged pietism.
Thus it was that Francke's name first came to be publicly
associated with that of Spener, and with pietism. Prohibited
from lecturing in Leipzig, Francke in 1600 found work at Erfurt
as " deacon " of one of the city churches. Here his evangelistic
fervour attracted multitudes to his preaching, including Roman
Catholics, but at the same time excited the anger of his opponents;
and the result of their opposition was that after a ministry of
fifteen months he was commanded by the civil authorities
(27th of September 1691) to leave Erfurt within forty-eight
hours. The same year witnessed the expulsion of Spener from
Dresden.
In December, through Spener's influence, Francke accepted
an invitation to fill the chair of Greek and oriental languages
in the new university of Halle, which was at that time being
organized by the elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg; and at
the same time, the chair having no salary attached to it, he was
appointed pastor of Glaucha in the immediate neighbourhood
of the town. He afterwards became professor of theology. Here,
for the next thirty-six years, until his death on the 8th of June
1727, he continued to discharge the twofold office of pastor and
professor with rare energy and success. At the very outset of
his labours he had been profoundly impressed with a sense of his
responsibility towards the numerous outcast children who were
growing up around him in ignorance and crime. After a number
of tentative plans, he resolved in 1695 to institute what is often
called a " ragged school," supported by public charity. A single
room was at first sufficient, but within a year it was found
necessary to purchase a house, to which another was added in
1697. In 1698 there were 100 orphans under his charge to be
clothed and fed, besides 500 children who were taught as day
scholars. The schools grew in importance and are still known as
the Francke'scke Sliftungen. The education given was strictly
religious. Hebrew was included, while the Greek and Latin
classics were neglected ; the Homilies of Macarius took the place
of Thucydides. The same principle was consistently applied in
his university teaching. Even as professor of Greek he had given
great prominence in his lectures to the study cf the Scriptures;
but he found a much more congenial sphere when, in 1698, he
was appointed to the chair of theology. Yet his first courses
of lectures in that department were readings and expositions of
the Old and New Testament ; and to this, as also to hermeneutics,
he always attached special importance, believing that for theology
a sound exegesis was the one indispensable requisite. " Tbeo-
logus nascitur in scripturis," he used to say; but during his
occupancy of the theological chair he lectured at various times
upon other branches of theology also. Amongst his colleagues
were Paul Anton (1661-1730), Joachim J. Breithaupt (1658-1732)
and Joachim Lange (1670-1744), men like-minded with him-
self. Through their influence upon the students, Halle became
a centre from which pietism (?..) became very widely diffused
over Germany.
His principal contributions to theological literatnre were : Manu-
duftio ad leclionem Seriplurae Sacrae (1693); Praelectiones herme-
neulifae (1717); Commenlatio de scope (ibrorum Veteris et Novi
Trt lament i (1724); and Lectionei paraenelicae (1726-1736). The
Uatuduitio was translated into English in 1813, under the title A
Guide to the Reading and Study of the Holy Scriptures. An account
of his orphanage, entitled Segensvolle Fussstaf>fen,&c. (1709), which
subsequently pamed through several editions, has also been partially
translated, under the title The Footsteps of Divine Providence:
or. The bountiful Hand of Heaven defraying ike Expenses of Faith.
See H. E. F. Guericke's A. H. Francke (1827), which has been trans-
lated into English (The Life of A. H. Francke, 1837); Gustave
Kramer's Beiirdge tur Geschichte A. H. Francke's (1861), and Neve
Beitrdge (1875); A. Stein, A. H. Francke (3rd ed., 1804); article
in Hrrzog-Hauck'i RealencyUopadie (ed. 1899); Knuth, Die
Francke' schen Stiftungen (2nd ed., 1903).
FRANCKEN. Eleven painters of this family cultivated their
art in Antwerp during the i6th and i;ili centuries. Several
of these were related to each other, whilst many bore the same
Christian name in succession. Hence, unavoidable confusion in
the subsequent classification of paintings not widely differing
in style or execution. When Franz Francken the first found a
rival in Franz Francken the second, he described himself as the
"elder," in contradistinction to his son, who signed himself
the " younger." But when Franz the second was threatened
with competition from Franz the third, he took the name of
" the elder," whilst Franz the third adopted that of Franz " the
younger."
It is possible, though not by any means easy, to sift the works
of these artists. The eldest of the Franckens, Nicholas of
Ill-rent luls, died at Antwerp in 1506, with nothing but the
reputation of having been a painter. None of his works remain.
He bequeathed his art to three children. Jerom Francken, the
eldest son, after leaving his father's house, studied under Franz
Floris, whom he afterwards served as an assistant, and wandered,
about 1 560, to Paris. In 1 566 he was one of the masters employed
to decorate the palace of Fontaineblcau, and in 1574 he obtained
the appointment of court painter from Henry III., who had just
returned from Poland and visited Titian at Venice. In 1603,
when Van Mander wrote his biography of Flemish artists, Jerom
Francken was still in Paris living in the then aristccratic
Faubourg St Germain. Among his earliest works we should
distinguish a " Nativity " in the Dresden museum, executed in co-
operation with Franz Floris. Another of his important pieces
is the " Abdication of Charles V." in the Amsterdam museum.
Equally interesting is a " Portrait of a Falconer," dated 1538, in
the Brunswick gallery. In style these pieces all recall Franz
Floris. Franz, the second son of Nicholas of Herenthals, is to
be kept in memory as Franz Francken the first. He was born
about 1544, matriculated at Antwerp in 1567, and died there in
1616. He, too, studied under Floris, and never settled abroad,
or lost the hard and gaudy style which he inherited from his
master. Several of his pictures are in the museum of Antwerp;
one dated 1597 in the Dresden museum represents " Christ on
the Road to Golgotha," and is signed by him as D. 6 (Den ouden)
F. Franck. Ambrose, the third son of Nicholas of Herenthals,
has bequeathed to us more specimens of his skill than Jerom or
Franz the first. He first started as a partner with Jerom at
Fontainebleau, then he returned to Antwerp, where he passed
for his gild in 1573, and he lived at Antwerp till 1618. His
best works are the " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes " and the
" Martyrdom of St Crispin," both large and ambitious com-
positions in the Antwerp museum. In both these pieces a fair
amount of power is displayed, but marred by want of atmosphere
and shadow or by hardness of line and gaudincss of tone. There
is not a trace in the three painters named of the influence of the
revival which took place und.er the lead of Rubens. Franz
Francken the first trained three sons to his profession, the eldest
of whom, though he practised as a master of gild at Antwerp
from 1600 to 1610, left no visible trace of his labours behind.
Jerom the second took service with his uncle Ambrose. He
was born in 1578, passed for his gild in 1607, and in 1620
produced that curious picture of " Horatius Codes defending
the Sublician Bridge " which still hangs in the Antwerp museum.
The third son of Franz Francken the first is Franz Francken
the second, who signed himself in pictures till 1616" the younger,"
from 1630 till his death " the elder " F. Francken. These
pictures are usually of a small size, and are found in considerable
numbers in continental collections. Franz Francken the second
was born in 1581. In 1605 he entered the gild, of which he
subsequently became the president, and in 1642 he died. His
earliest composition is the " Crucifixion " in the Belvedere at
Vienna, dated 1606. His latest compositions as " the younger"
F. Francken are the " Adoration of the Virgin " (1616) in the
gallery of Amsterdam, and the " Woman taken in Adultery "
(1628) in Dresden. From 1616 to 1630 many of his pieces are
signed F. Francken; then come the " Seven Works of Charity "
(1630) at Munich, signed " the elder F. F.," the " Prodigal Son "
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
(1633) at the Louvre, and other almost countless examples.
It is in F. Francken the second's style that we first have evidence
of the struggle which necessarily arose when the old customs,
hardened by Van Orley .and Floris, or Breughel and De Vos,
were swept away by Rubens. But F. Francken the second, as
before observed, always clung to small surfaces; and though
he gained some of the freedom of the moderns, he lost but little
of the dryness or gaudiness of the earlier Italo-Flemish revivalists.
F. Francken the third, the last of his name who deserves to be
recorded, passed in the Antwerp gild in 1639 and died at Antwerp
in 1667. His practice was chiefly confined to adding figures to
the architectural or landscape pieces of other artists. As Franz
Pourbus sometimes put in the portrait figures for Franz Francken
the second, so Franz Francken the third often introduced the
necessary personages into the works of Pieter Neefs the younger
(museums of St Petersburg, Dresden and the Hague). In a
" Moses striking the Rock," dated 1654, of the Augsburg gallery,
this last of the Franckens signs D. 6 (Den ouden) F. Franck.
In the pictures of this artist we most clearly discern the effects of
Rubens ; s example.
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1870-1871). The victories of
Prussia in 1866 over the Austrians and their German allies (see
SEVEN WEEKS' WAR) rendered it evident to the statesmen and
soldiers of France that a struggle between the two nations could
only be a question of time. Army reforms were at once under-
taken, and measures were initiated in France to place the
armament and equipment of the troops on a level with the
requirements of the times. The chassepot, a new breech-
loading rifle, immensely superior to the Prussian needle-gun,
was issued; the artillery trains were thoroughly overhauled,
and a new machine-gun, the mitrailleuse, from which much was
expected, introduced. Wide schemes of reorganization (due
mainly to Marshal Niel) were set in motion, and, since these
required time to mature, recourse was had to foreign alliances
in the hope of delaying the impending rupture. In the first
week of June 1870, General Lebrun, as a confidential agent of
the emperor Napoleon III., was sent to Vienna to concert a
plan of joint operations with Austria against Prussia. Italy
was also to be included in the alliance, and it was agreed that
in case of hostilities the French armies should concentrate in
northern Bavaria, where the Austrians and Italians were to
join them, and the whole immense army thus formed should
march via Jena on Berlin. To what extent Austria and Italy
committed themselves to this scheme remains uncertain, but
that the emperor Napoleon believed in their bona fides is beyond
doubt.
Whether the plan was betrayed to Prussia is also uncertain,
and almost immaterial, for Moltke's plans were based on an
accurate estimate of the time it would take Austria to mobilize
and on the effect of a series of victories on French soil. At any
rate Moltke was not taken into Bismarck's confidence in the
affair of Ems in July 1870, and it is to be presumed that the
chancellor had already satisfied himself that the schemes of
operations prepared by the chief of the General Staff fully
provided against all eventualities. These schemes were founded
on Clausewitz's view of the objects to be pursued in a war against
France in the first place the defeat of the French field armies
and in the second the occupation of Paris. On these lines plans
for the strategic deployment of the Prussian army were prepared
by the General Staff and kept up to date year by year as fresh
circumstances (e.g. the co-operation of the minor German armies)
aroso and new means of communication came into existence.
The campaign was actually opened on a revise of 1868-1869,
to which was added, on the 6th of May 1870, a secret memo-
randum lor the General Staff.
Under the German organization then existing the preliminary
to all active operations was of necessity full and complete
mobilization. Then followed transport by road and rail to the
line selected for the " strategic deployment," and it was essential
that no part of these operations should be disturbed by action
on the part of the enemy. But no such delay imposed itself of
necessity upon the French, and a vigorous offensive was so much
in harmony with their traditions that the German plan had to
be framed so as to meet such emergencies. On the whole,
Moltke concluded that the enemy could not undertake strategic
this offensive before the eighth day after mobilization, deploy-*
At that date about five French army corps (150,000 meat
men) could be collected near Metz, and two corps
(70,000) near Strassburg; and as it was six days' march
from Metz to the Rhine, no serious attack could be
delivered before the fourteenth day, by which day it could be met
by superior forces near Kirchheirnbolanden. Since, however, the
transport of the bulk of the Prussian forces could not begin till the
ninth day, their ultimate line of detrainment need not be fixed
until the French plans were disclosed, and, as it was important
to strike at the earliest moment possible, the deployment was
provisionally fixed to be beyond the Rhine on the line Wittlich-
Neunkirchen-Landau. Of the thirteen North German corps three
had to be left behind to guard the eastern frontier and the
coast, one other, the VIII., was practically on the ground already
and could concentrate by road, and the remaining nine were
distributed to the nine through railway lines available. These
ten corps were grouped in three armies, and as the French might
violate Belgian neutrality or endeavour to break into southern
Germany, two corps (Prussian Guard and Saxon XII. corps)
were temporarily held back at a central position around Mainz,
whence they could move rapidly up or down the Rhine valley.
If Belgian neutrality remained unmolested, the reserve would join
the III. army on the left wing, giving it a two to one superiority
over its adversary; all three armies would then wheel to the
right and combine in an effort to force the French army into a
decisive battle on the Saar on or about the twenty-third day.
As in this wheel the army on the right formed the pivot and was
required only to stand fast, two corps only were allotted to it;
two corps for the present formed the III. army, and the remaining
five were assigned to the II. army in the centre.
When (i6th-i7th July) the South German states decided to
throw in their lot with the rest, their three corps were allotted to
the III. army, the Guards and Saxons to the II. army, whilst
the three corps originally left behind were finally distributed
one to each army, so that up to the investment of Metz the order
of battle was as follows:
Headquarters:
(General v. Moltke, chief of staff).
(I. corps, v. Manteuffel)
VII. v. Zastrow
VIII. v. Goeben
(ist) and 3rd cavalry divisions
Total . . 85,000
Guard Pr. August of Wiirttem-
berg
(II. corps, v. Fransecky)
III. v. Alvensleben II.
The king of Prussia
I. Army:
General v. Steinmetz I
(C. of S., v. Sperling) |
II. Army:
Prince Frederick Charles -
(C. of S., v. Stiehle)
III. Army:
crown prince of Prussia" 1
(C. of S., v.^ Blumenthal)
IV. v. Alvensleben I.
IX. v. Manstein
X. v. Voigts-Rhetz
XII. (Saxons) crown prince
of Saxony
5th and 6th cavalry divisions
Total . . 210,000
V. corps, v. Kirchbach
(VI.) v. Tumpling
XI. v. Bose
I. Bavarian, v. der Tann
II. v. Hartmann
WUrttemberg div. { Werder
Baden div. ^
(2nd) and 4th cavalry divisions
Total . . 180,000
Grand Total . . 475,000
(The units within brackets were those at first retained in Germany.)
On the French side no such plan of operations was in existence
when on the night of the i$th of July Krieg mobil was telegraphed
all over Prussia. An outline scheme had indeed been positions
prepared as a basis for agreement with Austria and O fthe
Italy, but practically no details were fixed, and the French
troops were without transport and supplies. Never-
theless, since speed was the essence of the contract, the troops
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
were hurried up without waiting for their reserves, and delivered,
as Moltke had foreseen, just where the lie of the railways and
convenience of temporary supply dictated, and the Prussian
Intelligence Department was able to inform Moltke on the 22nd
of July (seventh day of mobilization) that the French stood
from right to left in the following order, on or near the frontier:
1st corps . Marshal MacMahon.dukeof Magenta, Strassburg
5th corps . General de Failly, Saargemund and Bitchc
and corps . General Frossard, St Avoid
4th corps . General de Ladmirault, Thionvillr
With, behind them:
yd corps . Marshal Bazaine, Metz
Guard . . General Bourbaki, Nancy
6th corp* . Marshal Canrobert, Chalons
rps . General Felix Douay, Bclfort
If therefore they began a forward movement on the 33rd
(eighth day) the case foreseen by Moltke had arisen, and it became
necessary to detrain the II. army upon the Rhine. Without
waiting for further confirmation of this intelligence, Moltke, with
the consent of the king, altered the arrangements accordingly,
a decision which, though foreseen, exercised the gravest influence
on the course of events. As it happened this decision was pre-
mature, for the French could not yet move. Supply trains had
to be organized by requisition from the inhabitants, and even
arms and ammunition procured for such reserves as had succeeded
in joining. Nevertheless, by almost superhuman exertions
on the part cf the railways and administrative services, all
essential deficiencies were made good, and by the 28th of July
(i3th day) the troops had received all that was absolutely indis-
pensable and might well have been led against the enemy, who,
thanks to Moltke's premature action, were for the moment at
a very serious disadvantage. But the French generals were
unequal to their responsibilities. It is now clear that, had the
great Napoleon and his marshals been in command, they would
have made light of the want of cooking pots, cholera belts, &c.,
and, by a series of rapid marches, would have concentrated
odds of at least three to one upon the heads of the Prussian
columns as they struggled through the defiles of the Hardt, and
won a victory whose political results might well have proved
decisive.
To meet this pressing danger, which came to his knowledge
during the course of the 29th, Moltke sent a confidential staff
officer. Colonel v. Verdy du Vernois, to the III. army to impress
upon the crown prince the necessity of an immediate advance to
distract the enemy's attention from the I. and II. armies; but,
like the French generals, the crown prince pleaded that he could
not move until his trains were complete. Fortunately for the
Germans, the French intelligence service not only failed to
inform the staff of this extraordinary opportunity, but it allowed
itself to be hypnotized by the most amazing rumours. In
imagination they saw armies of 100,000 men behind every forest,
and, to guard against these dangers, the French troops were
marched and counter-marched along the frontiers in the vain
hope of discovering an ideal defensive position which should
afford full scope to the power of their new weapons.
As these delays were exerting a most unfavourable effect on
public opinion not only in France but throughout Europe, the
emperor decided on the ist of August to initiate a movement
towards the Saar, chiefly as a guarantee of good faith to the
Austrian* and Italians.
On this day the French corps held the following positions from
right to left:
. Hagenau
Forbach
St Avoid
. Bouzonvillc
Bitche
Chalons
Bclfort and Colmar
. near Mctz
1st corps
2nd corps
3rd corps
4th corps
5th corps
6th corps
7th corps
Guard .
The French 2nd corps was directed to advance on the following
morning direct on SaarbrUcken, supported on the flanks by two
divisions from the $th and jrd corps. The order was duly carried
oat, and the Prussians (one battalion, two squadrons and a
battery), seeing the overwhelming numbers opposed to them,
fell back fighting and vanished to the northward, having
given a very excellent example of steadiness and dis-
cipline to their enemy. 1 The latter contented them- ^J^" '
selves by occupying SaarbrUcken and its suburb St brUckcn.
Johann, and here, as far as the troops were concerned,
the incident closed. Its effect, however, proved far-reaching.
The Prussian staff could not conceive that nothing lay behind
this display of five whole divisions, and immediately took steps
to meet the expected danger. In their excitement, although they
had announced the beginning of the action to the king's head-
quarters at Mainz, they forgot to notify the close and its results,
so that Moltke was not in possession of the facts till noon on the
3rd of August. Meanwhile, Steinmetz, left without instructions
and fearing for the safety of the II. army, the heads of whose
columns were still in the defiles of the Hardt, moved the I. army
from the neighbourhood of Merzig obliquely to his left front, so
as to strike the flank of the French army if it continued its
march towards Kaiserslautern, in which direction it appeared to
be heading.
Whilst this order was in process of execution, Moltke, aware
that the II. army was behind time in its march, issued instructions
to Steinmetz for the 4th of August which entailed
a withdrawal to the rear, the idea being that both 'p^ nc ^'
armies should, if the French advanced, fight a defensive Frederick
battle in a selected position farther back. Steinmetz Charles
obeyed, though bitterly resenting the idea of retreat. ttf "
This movement, further, drew his left across the roads
reserved for the right column of the II. army, and on receipt
of a peremptory order from Prince Frederick Charles to evacuate
the road, Steir.metz telegraphed for instructions direct to the
king, over Moltke's head. In reply he received a telegram from
Moltke, ordering him to clear the road at once, and couched
in terms which he considered as a severe reprimand. An ex-
planatory letter, meant to soften the rebuke, was delayed in
transmission and did not reach him till too late to modify the
orders he had already issued. It must be remembered that
Steinmetz at the front was in a better position to judge the
apparent situation than was Moltke at Mainz, and that all
through the day of the 5th of August he had received intelli-
gence indicating a change of attitude in the French army.
The news of the German victory at Weisscnburg on the 4th
(see below) had in fact completely paralysed the French head-
quarters, and orders were issued by them during the
course of the $th to concentrate the whole army of the
Rhine on the selected position of Cadenbronn. As a
preliminary, Frossard's corps withdrew from Saar-
brUcken and began to entrench a position on the Spicheren
heights, 3000 yds. to the southward. Steinmetz, therefore, being
quite unaware of the scheme for a great battle on the Saar about
the 1 2th of August, felt that the situation would best be met,
and the letter of his instructions strictly obeyed, by moving his
whole command forward to the line of the Saar, and orders to
this effect were issued on the evening of the sth. In pursuance
of these orders, the advance guard of the I4th division (Lieutenant
General von Kameke) reached SaarbrUcken about 9 A.M. on
the 6th, where the Germans found to their amazement that the
bridges were intact. To secure this advantage was the obvious
duty of the commander on the spot, and he at once ordered his
troops to occupy a line of low heights beyond the town to
serve as a bridge-head. As the leading troops deployed on the
heights Frossard's guns on the Spicheren Plateau opened fire,
and the advanced guard battery replied. The sound of these
guns unchained the whole fighting instinct carefully developed
by a long course of Prussian manoeuvre training. Everywhere,
generals and troops hurried towards the cannon thunder.
Kameke, even more in the dark than Steinmetz as to Moltke's
intentions and the strength of his adversaries, attacked at once,
precisely as he would have done at manoeuvres, and in half an
hour his men were committed beyond recall. As each fresh unit
reached the field it was hurried into action where its services
1 This was the celebrated " baptfmc de feu " of the prince imperial.
8
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
were most needed, and each fresh general as he arrived took a
new view of the combat and issued new orders. On the other
side, Frossard, knowing the strength of his position, called on
his neighbours for support, and determined to hold his ground.
Victory seemed certain. There were sufficient troops within
easy reach to have ensured a crushing numerical superiority.
But the other generals had not been trained to mutual support,
and thought only of their own immediate security, and their
staffs were too inexperienced to act upon even good intentions;
and, finding himself in the course of the afternoon left to his own
devices, Frossard began gradually to withdraw, even before the
pressure of the i3th German division on his left flank (about
8 P.M.) compelled his retirement. When darkness ended the
battle the Prussians were scarcely aware of their victory. Stein-
metz, who had reached the field about 6 P.M., rode back to his
headquarters without issuing any orders, while the troops
bivouacked where they stood, the units of three army corps
being mixed up in almost inextricable confusion. But whereas
out of 42,900 Prussians with 120 guns, who in the morning lay
within striking distance of the enemy, no fewer than 27,000,
with 78 guns were actually engaged; of the French, out of 64,000
with 210 guns only 24,000 with 90 guns took part in the action.
Meanwhile on the German left wing the III. army had begun
its advance. Early on the 4th of August it crossed the frontier
and fell upon a French detachment under Abel Douay,
w hich had been placed near Weissenburg, partly to
burg. cover the Pigeonnier pass, but principally to consume
the supplies accumulated in the little dismantled
fortress, as these could not easily be moved. Against this force
of under 4000 men of all arms, the Germans brought into action
successively portions of three corps, in all over 25,000 men with
90 guns. After six hours' fighting, in which the Germans lost
some 1500 men, the gallant remnant of the French withdrew
deliberately and in good order, notwithstanding the death of
their leader at the critical moment. The Germans were so elated
by their victory over the enemy, whose strength they naturally
overestimated, that they forgot to send cavalry in pursuit, and
thus entirely lost touch with the enemy.
Next day the advance was resumed, the two Bavarian corps
moving via Mattstall through the foothills of the Vosges, the
V. corps on their left towards Preuschdorf, and the XI. farther
to the left again, through the wooded plain of the Rhine valley.
The 4th cavalry division scouted in advance, and army head-
quarters moved to Sulz. About noon the advanced patrols
discovered MacMahon's corps in position on the left bank of the
Sauer (see WORTH: Battle of). As his army was dispersed over
a wide area, the crown prince determined to devote the 6th to
concentrating the troops, and, probably to avoid alarming the
enemy, ordered the cavalry to stand fast.
At night the outposts of the I. Bavarians and V. corps on the
Sauer saw the fires of the French encampment and heard the
noise of railway traffic, and rightly conjectured the approach
of reinforcements. MacMahon had in fact determined to stand
in the very formidable position he had selected, and he counted
on receiving support both from the 7th corps (two divisions of
which were being railed up fromColmar) and from the sth corps,
which lay around Bitche. It was also quite possible, and the
soundest strategy, to withdraw the bulk of the troops then
facing the German I. and II. armies to his support, and these
would reach him by the 8th. He was therefore justified in
accepting battle, though it was to his interest to delay it as long
as possible.
At dawn on the 6th of August the commander of the V. corps
outposts noticed certain movements in the French lines, and to
clear up the situation brought his guns into action.
As at Spicheren, the sound of the guns set the whole
machinery of battle in motion. The French artillery
immediately accepted the Prussian challenge. The I. Bavarians,
having been ordered to be ready to move if they heard artillery
fire, immediately advanced against the French left, encountering
presently such a stubborn resistance that parts of their line
began to give way. The Prussians of the V. corps felt that they
Bstth of
Worth.
could not abandon their allies, and von Kirchbach, calling on the
XI. corps for support, attacked with the troops at hand. When
the crown prince tried to break off the fight it was too late.
Both sides were feeding troops into the firing line, as and where
they could lay hands on them. Up to 2 P.M. the French fairly
held their own, but shortly afterwards their right yielded to the
overwhelming pressure of the XI. corps, and by 3.30 it was
in full retreat. The centre held on for another hour, but in
its turn was compelled to yield, and by 4.30 all organized
resistance was at an end. The debris of the French army was
hotly pursued by the German divisional squadrons towards
Reichshofen, where serious panic showed itself. When at this
stage, the supports sent by de Failly from Bitche came on the
ground they saw the hopelessness of intervention, and retired
whence they had come. Fortunately for the French , the German
4th cavalry division, on which the pursuit should have devolved,
had been forgotten by the German staff, and did not reach the
front before darkness fell. Out of a total of 82,000 within reach
of the battlefield, the Germans succeeded in bringing into action
77,500. The French, who might have had 50,000 on the field,
deployed only 37,000, and these suffered a collective loss of
no less than 20,100; some regiments losing up to 90% and still
retaining some semblance of discipline and order.
Under cover of darkness the remnants of the French army
escaped. When at length the 4th cavalry division had succeeded
in forcing a way through the confusion of the battlefield,
all touch with the enemy had been lost, and being without
firearms the troopers were checked by the French stragglers
in the woods and the villages, and thus failed to establish the
true line of retreat of the French. Ultimately the latter, having
gained the railway near Luneville, disappeared from the German
front altogether, and all trace of them was lost until they were
discovered, about the 26th of August, forming part of the army
of Chalons, whither they had been conveyed by rail via Paris.
This is a remarkable example of the strategical value of railways
to an army operating in its own country.
In the absence of all resistance, the III. army now proceeded
to carry out the original programme of marches laid down in
Moltke's memorandum of the 6th of May, and marching on a
broad front through a fertile district it reached the line of the
Moselle in excellent order about the i7th of August, where it
halted to await the result of the great battle of Gravelotte-
St Privat.
We return now to the I. army at Saarbrucken. Its position
on the morning of the 7th of August gave cause for the gravest
anxiety. At daylight a dense fog lay over the country,
and through the mist sounds of heavy firing came ^J* oa
from the direction of Forbach, where French stragglers the Saar.
had rallied during the night. The confusion on the
battlefield was appalling, and the troops in no condition to go
forward. Except the 3rd, 5th and 6th cavalry divisions no
closed troops were within a day's march; hence Steinmetz
decided to spend the day in reorganizing his infantry, under
cover of his available cavalry. But the German cavalry and
staff were quite new to their task. The 6th cavalry division,
which had bivouacked on the battlefield, sent on only one
brigade towards Forbach, retaining the remainder in reserve.
The sth, thinking that the 6th had already undertaken all
that was necessary, withdrew behind the Saar, and the 3rd,
also behind the Saar, reported that the country in its front was
unsuited to cavalry movements, and only sent out a few officers'
patrols. These were well led, but were too few in number, and
their reports were consequently unconvincing.
In the course of the day Stjeinmetz became very uneasy, and
ultimately he decided to concentrate his army by retiring the
VII. and VIII. corps behind the river on to the I. (which had
arrived near Saarlouis), thus clearing the Saarbriicken-Metz
road for the use of the II. army. But at this moment Prince
Frederick Charles suddenly modified his views. During the 6th
of August his scouts had reported considerable French forces
near Bitche (these were the sth, de Failly's corps), and early
in the morning of the 7th he received a telegram from Moltke
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
informing him that MacMahon's beaten army was retreating
on the same place (the troops observed were in fact those which
had marched to MacMahon's assistance). The prince forthwith
deflected the march of the Guards, IV. and X. corps, towards
Rohrbach, whilst the IX. and XII. closed up to supporting
distance behind them. Thus, as Steinmetz moved away to the
west and north, Frederick Charles was diverging to the south
and east, and a great gap was opening in the very centre of the
German front. This was closed only by the III. corps, still on
the battle-field, and by portions of the X. near SaargcmUnd, 1
whilst within striking distance lay 130,000 French troops,
prevented only by the incapacity of their chiefs from delivering
a decisive counter-stroke.
Fortunately for the Prussians, Moltke at Mainz took a different
view. Receiving absolutely no intelligence from the front
during the 7th, he telegraphed orders to the I. and II. armies
(10.25 P - M J to na ' 1 on lne 8 to > and impressed on Steinmetz
the necessity of employing his cavalry to clear up the situation.
The I. army had already begun the marches ordered by Stein-
metz. It was now led back practically to its old bivouacs
amongst the unburied dead. Prince Frederick Charles only
conformed to Moltke's order with the III. and X. corps; the
remainder executed their concentration towards the south and
east.
During the night of the 7th of August Moltke decided that
the French army must be in retreat towards the Moselle and
forthwith busied himself with the preparation of fresh tables of
march for the two armies, his object being to swing up the left
wing to outflank the enemy from the south. This work, and
the transfer of headquarters to Homburg, needed time, hence no
fresh orders were issued to either army, and neither commander
would incur the responsibility of moving without any. The
I. army therefore spent a fourth night in bivouac on the battle-
field. But Constantin von Alvensleben, commanding the III.
corps, a man of very different stamp from his colleagues, hearing
at first hand that the French had evacuated St Avoid, set his
corps in motion early in the morning of the loth August down
the St Avold-Metz road, reached St Avoid and obtained con-
clusive evidence that the French were retreating.
During the Qth the orders for the advance to the Moselle were
issued. These were based, not on an exact knowledge of where
the French army actually stood, but on the opinion
Moltke had formed as to where it ought to have been
on military grounds solely, overlooking the fact that
the French staff were not free to form military decisions
but were compelled to bow to political expediency.
Actually on the 7th of August the emperor had decided to
attack the Germans on the 8th with the whole Rhine Army,
but this decision was upset by alarmist reports from the beaten
army of MacMahon. He then decided to retreat to the Moselle,
as Moltke had foreseen, and there to draw to himself the remnants
of MacMahon's army (now near Lunevillc). At the same time
he assigned the executive command over the whole Rhine Army
to Marshal Bazaine. This retreat was begun during the course of
the 8th and 9th of August; but on the night of the gth urgent
telegrams from Paris induced the emperor to suspend the move-
ment, and during the loth the whole army took up a strong
position on the French Nied.
Meanwhile the II. German army had received its orders to
march in a line of army corps on a broad front in the general
direction of Pont-a-Mousson, well to the south of Metz. The
I. army was to follow by short marches in 6chelon on the right;
only the III. corps was directed on Falkenberg, a day's march
farther towards Metz along the St Avold-Metz road. The
movement was begun on the toth, and towards evening the
French army was located on the right front of the III. corps.
This entirely upset Moltke's hypothesis, and called for a complete
modification of his plans, as the III. corps alone could not be
expected to resist the impact of Bazaine's five corps. The III.
corps therefore received orders to stand fast for the moment,
and the remainder of the II. army was instructed to wheel to the
1 The II. corpt had not yet arrived from Germany.
right and concentrate for a great battle to the east of Metz on
the i Mli or 1 7th.
Before, however, these orders had been received the sudden
retreat of the French completely changed the situation. The
Germans therefore continued their movement towards the
Moselle. On the i si h the French took up a fresh position 5 m.
to the east of Metz, where they were located by the cavalry
and the advanced guards of the I. army.
Again Moltke ordered the I. army to observe and hold the
enemy, whilst the II. was to swing round to the north. The
cavalry was to scout beyond the Moselle and intercept
all communication with the heart of France (see WETZ). %% ,
By this time the whole German army had imbibed the Born}-.
idea that the French were in full retreat and endeavour-
ing to evade a decisive struggle. When therefore during the
morning of the i-jlli their outposts observed signs of retreat
in the French position, their impatience could no longer be
restrained; as at WOrth and Spicheren, an outpost commander
brought up his guns, and at the sound of their fire, every unit
within reach spontaneously got under arms (battle of Colombey-
Borny). In a short time, with or without orders, the I., VII.,
VIII. and IX. corps were in full march to the battle-field. But
the French too turned back to fight, and an obstinate engage-
ment ensued, at the close of which the Germans barely held
the ground and the French withdrew under cover of the Metz
forts.
Still, though the fighting had been indecisive, the conviction
of victory remained with the Germans, and the idea of a French
retreat became an obsession. To this idea Moltke gave expression
in his orders issued early on the isth, in which he laid down
that the " fruits of the victory " of the previous evening could
only be reaped by a vigorous pursuit towards the passages of the
Meuse, where it was hoped the French might yet be overtaken.
This order, however, did not allow for the hopeless inability of
the French staff to regulate the movement of congested masses
of men, horses and vehicles, such as were now accumulated in the
streets and environs of Metz. Whilst Bazaine had come to no
definite decision whether to stand and fight or continue to retreat,
and was merely drifting under the impressions of the moment,
the Prussian leaders, in particular Prince Frederick Charles,
saw in imagination the French columns in rapid orderly move-
ment towards the west, and calculated that at best they could
not be overtaken short of Verdnn.
In this order of ideas the whole of the II. army, followed on
its right rear by two-thirds of the I. army (the I. corps being
detached to observe the eastern side of the fortress), were pushed
on towards the Moselle, the cavalry far in advance towards the
Meuse, whilst only the $th cavalry division was ordered to scout
towards the Metz- Verdun road, and even that was disseminated
over far too wide an area.
Later in the day (i$th) Frederick Charles sent orders to the
III. corps, which was on the right flank of his long line of columns
and approaching the Moselle at Corny and Novant, to march
via Gorze to Mars-la-Tour on the Metz- Verdun road; to the
X. corps, strung out along the road from Thiaucourt to Pont-
a-Mousson, to move to Jarny; and for the remainder to push on
westward to seize the Meuse crossings. No definite information
as to the French army reached him in time to modify these
instructions.
Meanwhile the 5th (Rheinbaben's) cavalry division, at about
3 P.M. in the afternoon, had come into contact with the French
cavalry in the vicinity of Mars-la-Tour, and gleaned intelligence
enough to show that no French infantry had as yet reached
Rezonville. The commander of the X. corps at Thiaucourt,
informed of this, became anxious for the security of his flank
during the next day's march and decided to push out a strong
flanking detachment under von Caprivi, to support von Rhein-
baben and maintain touch with the III. corps marching on his
right rear.
Von Alvensleben, to whom the 6th cavalry division had mean-
while been assigned, seems to have received no local intelligence
whatsoever; and at daybreak on the i6th he began his march
IO
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
in two columns, the 6th division on Mars-la-Tour, the sth
towards the Rezonville-Vionville plateau. And shortly after
9.15 A.M. he suddenly discovered the truth. The entire French
Battle of armv lav on *" s right flank > and his nearest supports
vionviiie- were almost a day's march distant. In this crisis he
Mars-la- made up his mind at once to attack with every
Tour - available man, and to continue to attack, in the con-
viction that his audacity would serve to conceal his weakness.
All day long, therefore, the Brandenburgers of the III. corps,
supported ultimately by the X. corps and part of the IX.,
attacked again and again. The enemy was thrice their strength,
but very differently led, and made no adequate use of his
superiority (battle of Vionville-Mars-la Tour).
Meanwhile Prince Frederick Charles, at Pont-a-Mousson,
was still confident in the French retreat to the Meuse, and had
even issued orders for the zyth on that assumption. Firing had
been heard since 9.15 A.M., and about noon Alvensleben's first
report had reached him, but it was not till after 2 that he
realized the situation. Then, mounting his horse, he covered
the 15 m. to Flavigny over crowded and difficult roads within
the hour, and on his arrival abundantly atoned for his strategic
errors by his unconquerable determination and tactical skill.
When darkness put a stop to the fighting, he considered the
position. Cancelling all previous orders, he called all troops
within reach to the battle-field and resigned himself to wait for
them. The situation was indeed critical. The whole French
army of five corps, only half of which had been engaged, lay in
front of him. His own army lay scattered over an area of 30 m.
by 20, and only some 20,000 fresh troops of the IX. corps
could reach the field during the forenoon of the i7th.
ofAugult. He did not then know that Moltke had already inter-
vened and had ordered the VII., VIII. and II. corps 1
to his assistance. Daylight revealed the extreme exhaustion of
both men and horses. The men lay around in hopeless confusion
amongst the killed and wounded, each where sleep had over-
taken him, and thus the extent of the actual losses, heavy
enough, could not be estimated. Across the valley, bugle
sounds revealed the French already alert, and presently a long
line of skirmishers approached the Prussian position. But they
halted just beyond rifle range, and it was soon evident that they
were only intended to cover a further withdrawal. Presently
came the welcome intelligence that the reinforcements were well
on their way.
About noon the king and Moltke drove up to the ground,
and there was an animated discussion as to what the French
would do next. Aware of their withdrawal from his immediate
front, Prince Frederick Charles reverted to his previous idea
and insisted that they were in full retreat towards the north,
and that their entrenchments near Point du Jour and St Hubert
(see map in article METZ) were at most a rearguard position.
Moltke was inclined to the same view, but considered the alterna-
tive possibility of a withdrawal towards Metz, and about 2 P.M.
orders were issued to meet these divergent opinions. The
whole army was to be drawn up at 6 A.M. on the i8th in an
dchelon facing north, so as to be ready for action in either
direction. The king and Moltke then drove to Pont-a-Mousson,
and the troops bivouacked in a state of readiness. The rest
of the lyth was spent in restoring order in the shattered III.
and X. corps, and by nightfall both corps were reported fit for
action. Strangely enough, there were no organized cavalry
reconnaissances, and no intelligence of importance was collected
during the night of the lyth-iSth.
Early on the i8th the troops began to move into position in
the following order from left to right: XII. (Saxons), Guards,
IX., VIII. and VII. The X. and III. were retained in reserve.
The idea of the French retreat was still uppermost in the
prince's mind, and the whole army therefore moved north.
But between 10 and n A.M. part of the truth viz. that the
French had their backs to Metz and stood in battle order
1 Of the I. army the I. corps was retained on the east side of Metz.
The II. corps belonged to the II. army, but had not yet reached the
front.
from St Hubert northwards became evident, and the II.
army, pivoting on the I., wheeled to the right and moved
eastward. Suddenly the IX. corps fell right on the Baak ot
centre of the French line (Amanvillers), and a most aravelotte-
desperate encounter began, superior control, as before, Sato/
ceasing after the guns had opened fire. Prince Frederick Privat -
Charles, however, a little farther north, again asserted his tactical
ability, and about 7 P.M. he brought into position no less than five
army corps for the final attack. The sudden collapse of French
resistance, due to the frontal attack of the Guards (St Privat) and
the turning movement of the Saxons (Roncourt), rendered the
use of this mass unnecessary, but the resolution to use it was
there. On the German right (I. army), about Gravelotte, all
superior leading ceased quite early in the afternoon, and at
night the French still showed an unbroken front. Until midnight,
when the prince's victory was reported, the suspense at head-
quarters was terrible. The I. army was exhausted, no steps
had been taken to ensure support from the III. army, and the
IV. corps (II. army) lay inactive 30 m. away.
This seems a fitting place to discuss the much-disputed point
of Bazaine's conduct in allowing himself to be driven back into
Metz when fortune had thrown into his hands the great
opportunity of the i6th and I7th of August. He
had been appointed to command on the loth, but the
presence of the emperor, who only left the front early on the
i6th, and their dislike of Bazaine, exercised a disturbing influence
on the headquarters staff officers. During the retreat to Metz
the marshal had satisfied himself as to the inability of his corps
commanders to handle their troops, and also as to the ill-will
of the staff. In the circumstances he felt that a battle in the
open field could only end in disaster; and, since it was proved
that the Germans could outmarch him, his army was sure to be
overtaken and annihilated if he ventured beyond the shelter
of the fortress. But near Metz he could at least inflict very
severe punishment on his assailants, and in any case his presence
in Metz would neutralize a far superior force of the enemy for
weeks or months. What use the French government might
choose to make of the breathing space thus secured was their
business, not his; and subsequent events showed that, had they
not forced MacMahon's hand, the existence of the latter's
nucleus army of trained troops might have prevented the
investment of Paris. Bazaine was condemned by court-martial
after the war, but if the case were reheard to-day it is certain
that no charge of treachery could be sustained.
On the German side the victory at St Privat was at once
followed up by the headquarters. Early on the igth the invest-
ment of Bazaine's army in Metz was commenced. A new army,
the Army of the Meuse (often called the IV.), was as soon as
possible formed of all troops not required for the maintenance
of the investment, and marched off under the command of the
crown prince of Saxony to discover and destroy the remainder
of the French field army, which at this moment was known to
be at Chalons.
The operations which led to the capture of MacMahon's army
in Sedan call for little explanation. Given seven corps, each
capable of averaging ism. a day for a week in succes-
sion, opposed to four corps only, shaken by defeat
and unable as a whole to cover more than 5 m. a day,
the result could hardly be doubtful. But Moltke's method of
conducting operations left his opponent many openings which
could only be closed by excessive demands on the marching
power of the men. Trusting only to his cavalry screen to
secure information, he was always without any definite fixed
point about which to manoeuvre, for whilst the reports of the
screen and orders based thereon were being transmitted, the
enemy was free to move, and generally their movements were
dictated by political expediency, not by calculable military
motives.
Thus whilst the German army, on a front of nearly 50 m.,
was marching due west on Paris, MacMahon, under political
pressure, was moving parallel to them, but on a northerly route,
to attempt the relief of Metz.
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
ii
So unexpected was this move and so uncertain the information
which called attention to it, that Moltke did not venture to
change at once the direction of march of the whole army, but
he directed the Army of the Meuse northward on Damvillers
and ordered Prince Frederick Charles to detach two corps from
the forces investing Metz to reinforce it. For the moment,
therefore, MacMahou's move had succeeded, and the opportunity
existed for Bazainc to break out. But at the critical moment
the hopeless want of real efficiency in MacMahon's army com-
pelled the latter so to delay his advance that it became evident
to the Germans that there was no longer any necessity for the
III. army to maintain the direction towards Paris, and that
the probable point of contact between the Mcuse army and the
French lay nearer to the right wing of the III. army than to
Prince Frederick Charles's investing force before Mctz.
The detachment from the II. army was therefore counter-
manded, and the whole III. army changed front to the north,
while the Meuse army headed the French off from the east.
The latter came into contact with the head of the French columns,
during the jqth, about Nouart, and on the 3Oth at Buzancy
(battle of Beaumont); and the French, yielding to the force
of numbers combined with superior moral, were driven north-
westward upon Sedan (<J.P.), right across the front of the III.
army, which was now rapidly coming up from the south.
During the jist the retreat practically became a rout, and
the morning of the ist of September found the French crowded
around the little fortress of Sedan, with only one line of retreat
to the north-west still open. By n A.M. the XI. corps (III.
army) had already closed that line, and about noon the Saxons
(Army of the Meuse) moving round between the town and the
Belgian frontier joined hands with the XI., and the circle of
investment was complete. The battle of Sedan was closed
about 4.15 P.M. by the hoisting of the white flag. Terms were
agreed upon during the night, and the whole French army,
with the emperor, passed into captivity. (F. N. M.)
Thus in five weeks one of the French field armies was im-
prisoned in Metz, the other destroyed, and the Germans were free
to march upon Paris. This seemed easy. There could
be no organized opposition to their progress, 1 and Paris,
bn*. if not so defenceless as in 1814, was more populous.
Starvation was the best method of attacking an over-
crowded fortress, and the Parisians were not thought to be proof
against the deprivation of their accustomed luxuries. Even
Moltke hoped that by the end of October he would be " shooting
hares at Creisau," and with this confidence the German III. and
IV. armies left the vicinity of Sedan on the 4th of September.
The march called for no more than good staff arrangements, and
the two armies arrived before Paris a fortnight later and gradually
encircled the place the III. army on the south, the IV. on
the north side in the last days of September. Headquarters
were established at Versailles. Meanwhile the Third Empire
had fallen, giving place on the 4th of September to a republican
Government of National Defence, which made its appeal to,
and evoked, the spirit of 1792. Henceforward the French nation,
which had left the conduct of the war to the regular army and
had been little more than an excited spectator, took the burden
upon itself.
The regular army, indeed, still contained more than 500,000
men (chiefly recruits and reservists), and 50,000 sailors, marines,
douaniers, &c., were also available. But the Garde Mobile,
framed by Marshal Niel in 1868, doubled this figure, and the
addition of the Garde Nationale, called into existence on the 1 5th
of September, and including all able-bodied men of from 31 to
60 years of age, more than trebled it. The German staff had of
course to reckon on the Garde Mobile, and did so beforehand,
but they wholly underestimated both its effective members and
its willingness, while, possessing themselves a system in which
all the military elements of the German nation stood close behind
1 The I jth corps (Vinoy), which had followed MacMahon's army
t some distance, was not involved in the catastrophe of Sedan,
and by good luck as well as good management evaded the German
pureuit and f'umed safely to Paris.
the troops of the active army, they ignored the potentialities
of the Garde Nationale.
Meanwhile, both as a contrast to the events that centred on
Paris and because in point of time they were decided for the
most part in the weeks immediately following Sedan, we must
briefly allude to the sieges conducted by the Germans Paris
(q.v.), Metz (q.v.) and Bclfort (q.v.) excepted. Old and ruined
as many of them were, the French fortresses possessed consider-
able importance in the eyes of the Germans. Strassburg, in
particular, the key of Alsace, the standing menace to South
Germany and the most conspicuous of the spoils of Louis XIV.'s
Riiubkriege, was an obvious target. Operations were begun
on the oth of August, three days after WOrth, General v. Werder's
corps (Baden troops and Prussian Landwehr) making the siege.
The French commandant, General Uhrich, surrendered after
a stubborn resistance on the 28th of September. Of the smaller
fortresses many, being practically unarmed and without garrisons,
capitulated at once. Toul, defended by Major Huck with 2000
mobiles, resisted for forty days, and drew upon itself the efforts
of 13,000 men and too guns. Verdun, commanded by General
Gufirin de Waldersbach, held out till after the fall of Metz. Some
of the fortresses lying to the north of the Prussian line of advance
on Paris, e.g. Mezieres, resisted up to January 1871, though of
course this was very largely due to the diminution of pressure
caused by the appearance of new French field armies in October.
On the pth of September a strange incident took place at the
surrender of Laon. A powder magazine was blown up by the
soldiers in charge and 300 French and a few German soldiers were
killed by the explosion. But as the Germans advanced, their
lines of communication were thoroughly organized, and the belt
of country between Paris and the Prussian frontier subdued and
garrisoned. Most of these fortresses were small town enceintes,
dating from Vauban's time, and open, under the new conditions
of warfare, to concentric bombardment from positions formerly
out of range, upon which the besieger could place as many guns
as he chose to employ. In addition they were usually deficient
in armament and stores and garrisoned by newly-raised troops.
Belfort, where the defenders strained every nerve to keep the
besiegers out of bombarding range, and Paris formed the only
exceptions to this general rule.
The policy of the new French government was defined by
Jules Favre on the 6th of September. " It is for the king of
Prussia, who has declared that he is making war on The
the Empire and not on France, to stay his hand; we " Defense
shall not cede an inch of our territory or a stone of onr Nation-
fortresses." These proud words, so often ridiculed ale '"
as empty bombast, were the prelude of a national effort which
re-established France in the eyes of Europe as a great power, even
though provinces and fortresses were ceded in the peace that that
effort proved unable to avert. They were translated into action
by Lon Gambetta, who escaped from Paris in a balloon on the
7th of October, and established the headquarters of the defence
at Tours, where already the " Delegation " of the central govern-
ment which had decided to remain in Paris had concentrated
the machinery of government. Thenceforward Gambetta and
his principal assistant de Freycinet directed the whole war in
the open country, co-ordinating it, as best they could with the
precarious means of communication at their disposal, with
Trochu's military operations in and round the capital. His
critics Gambetta's personality was such as to ensure him
numerous enemies among the higher civil and military officials,
over whom, in the interests of La Patrie, he rode rough-shod
have acknowledged the fact, which is patent enough in any case,
that nothing but Gambetta's driving energy enabled France
in a few weeks to create and to equip twelve army corps, repre-
senting thirty-six divisions (600,000 rifles and 1400 guns), after
all her organized regular field troops had been destroyed or
neutralized. But it is claimed that by undue interference with
the generals at the front, by presuming to dictate their plans
of campaign, and by forcing them to act when the troops were
unready, Gambetta and de Frsycinet nullified the efforts of
themselves and the rest of the nation and subjected France
12
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
to a humiliating treaty of peace. We cannot here discuss the
justice or injustice of such a general condemnation, or even
whether in individual instances Gambetta trespassed too far into
the special domain of the soldier. But even the brief narrative
given below must at least suggest to the reader the existence
amongst the generals and higher officials of a dead weight of
passive resistance to the Delegation's orders, of unnecessary
distrust of the qualities of the improvised troops, and above
all of the utter fear of responsibility that twenty years of literal
obedience had bred. The closest study of the war cannot lead
to Uny other conclusion than this, that whether or not
Gambetta as a strategist took the right course in general or
in particular cases, no one else would have taken any course
whatever.
On the approach of the enemy Paris hastened its preparations
for defence to the utmost, while in the provinces, out of reach
of the German cavalry, new army corps were rapidly organized
out of the few constituted regular units not involved in the
previous catastrophes, the depot troops and the mobile national
guard. The first-fruits of these efforts were seen in Beauce,
where early in October important masses of French troops
prepared not only to bar the further progress of the invader
but actually to relieve Paris. The so-called " fog of war "
the armed inhabitants, francs-tireurs, sedentary national guard
and volunteers prevented the German cavalry from venturing
far out from the infantry camps around Paris, and behind this
screen the new isth army corps assembled on the Loire. But
an untimely demonstration of force alarmed the Germans,
all of whom, from Moltke downwards, had hitherto disbelieved
in the existence of the French new formations, and the still
unready isth corps found itself the target of an expedition of
the I. Bavarian corps, which drove the defenders out of Orleans
after a sharp struggle, while at the same time another expedition
swept the western part of Beauce, sacked Chateaudun as a
punishment for its brave defence, and returned via Chartres,
which was occupied.
After these events the French forces disappeared from German
eyes for some weeks. D'Aurelle de Paladines, the commander
of the " Army of the Loire " (isth and i6th corps), improvised
a camp of instruction at Salbris in Sologne, several marches out
of reach, and subjected his raw troops to a stern regime of drill
and discipline. At the same time an " Army of the West " began
to gather on the side of Le Mans. This army was almost
imaginary, yet rumours of its existence and numbers led the
German commanders into the gravest errors, for they soon came
to suspect that the main army lay on that side and not on the
Loire, and this mistaken impression governed the German
dispositions up to the very eve of the decisive events around
Orleans in December. Thus when at last D'Aurelle took the
offensive from Tours (whither he had transported his forces,
now 100,000 strong) against the position of the I. Bavarian corps
near Orleans, he found his task easy. The Bavarians, out-
numbered and unsupported, were defeated with heavy losses in
the battle of Coulmiers (November 9), and, had it not been for
the inexperience, want of combination, and other technical
weaknesses of the French, they would have been annihilated.
What the results of such a victory as Coulmiers might have been,
had it been won by a fully organized, smoothly working army
of the same strength, it is difficult to overestimate. As it was,
the retirement of the Bavarians rang the alarm bell all along the
line of the German positions, and that was all.
Then once again, instead of following up its success, the French
army disappeared from view. The victory had emboldened
the " fog of war " to make renewed efforts, and resistance to
the pressure of the German cavalry grew day by day. The
Bavarians were reinforced by two Prussian divisions and by all
available cavalry commands, and constituted as an " army
detachment " under the grand-duke Friedrich Franz of Mecklen-
burg-Schwerin to deal with the Army of the Loire, the strength
of which was far from being accurately known. Meantime the
capitulation of Metz on the 28th of October had set free the
veterans of Prince Frederick Charles, , the best troops in the
German army, for field operations. The latter were at first
misdirected to the upper Seine, and yet another opportunity
arose for the French to raise the siege of Paris. But D'Aurelle
utilized the time he had gained in strengthening the army and
in imparting drill and discipline to the new units which gathered
round the original nucleus of the isth and i6th corps. All this
was, however, unknown and even unsuspected at the German
headquarters, and the invaders, feeling the approaching crisis,
became more than uneasy as to their prospects of maintaining
the siege of Paris.
At this moment, in the middle of November, the general
situation was as follows: the German III. and Meuse armies,
investing Paris, had had to throw off important
detachments to protect the enterprise, which they had or/cans
undertaken on the assumption that no further field campaign.
armies of the enemy were to be encountered. The
maintenance of their communications with Germany, relatively
unimportant when the struggle took place in the circumstances
of field warfare, had become supremely necessary, now that the
army had come to a standstill and undertaken a great siege,
which required heavy guns and constant replenishment of
ammunition and stores. The rapidity of the German invasion
had left no time for the proper organization and full garrisoning
of these communications, which were now threatened, not merely
by the Army of the Loire, but by other forces assembling on the
area protected by Langres and Belfort. The latter, under
General Cambriels, were held in check and no more by the Baden
troops and reserve units (XIV. German corps) under General
Werder, and eventually without arousing attention they were
able to send 40,000 men to the Army of the Loire. This army,
still around Orleans, thus came to number perhaps 150,000
men, and opposed to it, about the I4th of November, the Ger-
mans had only the Army Detachment of about 40,000, the II.
army being still distant. It was under these conditions that the
famous Orleans campaign took place. After many vicissitudes
of fortune, and with many misunderstandings between Prince
Frederick Charles, Moltke and the grand-duke, the Germans
were ultimately victorious, thanks principally to the brilliant
fighting of the X. corps at Beaune-la-Rolande( 28th of November) ,
which was followed by the battle of Loigny-Poupry on the and
of December and the second capture of Orleans after heavy
fighting on the 4th of December.
The result of the capture of Orleans was the severance of the
two wings of the French army, henceforward commanded
respectively by Chanzy and Bourbaki. The latter fell back at
once and hastily, though not closely pursued, to Bourges.
But Chanzy, opposing the Detachment between Beaugency and
the Forest of Marchenoir, was of sterner metal, and in the five
days' general engagement around Beaugency (December 7-11)
the Germans gained little or no real advantage. Indeed their
solitary material success, the capture of Beaugency, was due
chiefly to the fact that the French there were subjected to
conflicting orders from the military and the governmental
authorities. Chanzy then abandoned little but the field of
battle, and on the grand-duke's representations Prince Frederick
Charles, leaving a mere screen to impose upon Bourbaki (who
allowed himself to be deceived and remained inactive), hurried
thither with the II. army. After that Chanzy was rapidly
driven north-westward, though always presenting a stubborn
front. The Delegation left Tours and betook itself to Bordeaux,
whence it directed the government for the rest of the war. But
all this continuous marching and fighting, and the growing
severity of the weather, compelled Prince Frederick Charles
to call a halt for a few days. About the ipth of December,
therefore, the Germans (II. army and Detachment) were closed
up in the region of Chartres, Orleans, Auxerre and Fontaine-
bleau.Chanzy along the riverSarthe about Le Mans and Bourbaki
still passive towards Bourges.
During this, as during other halts, the French government
and its generals occupied themselves with fresh plans of cam-
paign, the former with an eager desire for results, the latter
(Chanzy excepted) with many misgivings. Ultimately, and
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
fatally, it was decided that Bourbaki, whom nothing could move
towards Orleans, should depart for the south-east, with a view
to relieving Belfort and striking perpendicularly against the long
line of the Germans' communications. This movement, bold
to the point of extreme rashness judged by any theoretical rules
of strategy, seems to have been suggested by de Freycinet.
As the execution of it fell actually into incapable hands, it is
difficult to judge what would have been the result had a Chanzy
or a Faidherbe been in command of the French. At any rate
it was vicious in so far as immediate advantages were sacrificed
to hopes of ultimate success which Gambetta and de Frcycinet
did wrong to base on Bourbaki's powers of generalship. Late
in December, for good or evil, Bourbaki marched off into Franche-
Comti and ceased to be a factor in the Loire campaign. A
mere calculation of time and space sufficed to show the German
headquarters that the moment had arrived to demolish the
stubborn Chanzy.
Prince Frederick Charles resumed the interrupted offensive,
pushing westward with four corps and four cavalry divisions
, . M ._. which converged on Le Mans. There on the loth,
nth and nth of January 1871 a stubbornly contested
battle ended with the retreat of the French, who owed their
defeat solely to the misbehaviour of the Breton mobiles. These,
after deserting their post on the battlefield at a mere threat of
the enemy's infantry, fled in disorder and infected with their
terrors the men in the reserve camps of instruction, which broke
up in turn. But Chanzy, resolute as ever, drew off his field army
intact towards Laval, where a freshly raised corps joined him.
The prince's army was far too exhausted to deliver another
effective blow, and the main body of it gradually drew back into
better quarters, while the grand duke departed for the north
to aid in opposing Faidherbe. Some idea of the strain to which
the invaders had been subjected may be gathered from the fact
that army corps, originally 30,000 strong, were in some cases
reduced to 10,000 and even fewer bayonets. And at this moment
Bourbaki was at the head of 1 20,000 men! Indeed, so threaten-
ing seemed the situation on the Loire, though the French south
of that river between Gien and Blois were mere isolated brigades,
that the prince hurried back from Le Mans to Orleans to take
personal command. A fresh French corps, bearing the number
25, and being the twenty-first actually raised during the war,
appeared in the field towards Blois. Chanzy was again at the
head of 156,000 men. He was about to take the offensive
against the 40,000 Germans left near Le Mans when to his bitter
disappointment he received the news of the armistice. " We
have still France," he had said to his staff, undeterred by the
news of the capitulation of Paris, but now he had to submit,
for even if his improvised army was still cheerful, there were
many significant tokens that the people at large had sunk into
apathy and hoped to avoid worse terms of peace by discontinuing
the contest at once.
So ended the critical period of the " Defense nationale." It
may be taken to have lasted from the day of Coulmiers to the
last day of Le Mans, and its central point was the battle of
Beaune-la-Rolande. Its characteristics were, on the German
side, inadequacy of the system of strategy practised, which
became palpable as soon as the organs of reconnaissance met
with serious resistance, misjudgment of and indeed contempt
for the fighting powers of " new formations," and the rise of a
spirit of ferocity in the man in the ranks, born of his resentment
at the continuance of the war and the ceaseless sniping of the
franc-tireur's rifle and the peasant's shot-gun. On the French
side the continual efforts of the statesmen to stimulate the
generals to decisive efforts, coupled with actual suggestions as to
the plans of the campaign to be followed (in default, be it said, of
the generals themselves producing such plans), and the pro-
fessional soldiers' distrust of half-trained troops, acted and
reacted upon one another in such a way as to neutralize the
powerful, if disconnected and erratic, forces that the war and
the Republic had unchained. As for the soldiers themselves,
their most conspicuous qualities were their uncomplaining
endurance of fatigues and wet bivouacs, and in action their
capacity for a single great effort and no more. But they were
unreliable in the hands of the veteran regular general, because
they were heterogeneous in recruiting, and unequal in experience
and military qualities, and the French staff in those days was
wholly incapable of moving masses of troops with the rapidity
demanded by the enemy's methods of war, so that on the whole
it is difficult to know whether to wonder more at their missing
success or at their so nearly achieving it.
The decision, as we have said, was fought out on the Loire
and the Sarthe. Nevertheless the glorious story of the " Defense
nationale " includes two other important campaigns that of
Faidherbe in the north and that of Bourbaki in the east.
In the north the organization of the new formations was
begun by Dr Tcstelin and General Farre. Bourbaki held the
command for a short time in November before pro-
ceeding to Tours, but the active command in field f, tr ^>,
operations came into the hands of Faidherbe, a general campaign.
whose natural powers, so far from being cramped by
years of peace routine and court repression, had been developed
by a career of pioneer warfare and colonial administration.
General Farre was his capable chief of staff. Troops were raised
from fugitives from Metz and Sedan, as well as from depot troops
and the Garde Mobile, and several minor successes were won by
the national troops in the Seine valley, for here, as on the side
of the Loire, mere detachments of the investing army round
Paris were almost powerless. But the capitulation of Metz
came too soon for the full development of these sources of
military strength, and the German I. army under Manteuffel,
released from duty at Metz, marched north-eastward, capturing
the minor fortresses on its way. Before Faidherbe assumed
command, Farre had fought several severe actions near Amiens,
but, greatly outnumbered, had been defeated and forced to
retire behind the Somme. Another French general, Briand,
had also engaged the enemy without success near Rouen.
Faidherbe assumed the command on the 3rd of December, and
promptly moved forward. A general engagement on the little
river Hallue (December 23), east-north-east of Amiens, was
fought with no decisive results, but Faidherbe, feeling that his
troops were only capable of winning victories in the first rush,
drew them off on the 24th. His next effort, at Bapaume
(January 3-3, 1871), was more successful, but its effects were
counterbalanced by the surrender of the fortress of P6ronne
(January 9) and the consequent establishment of the Germans
on the line of the Somme. Meanwhile the Rouen troops had
been contained by a strong German detachment, and there was
no further chance of succouring Paris from the north. But
Faidherbe, like Chanzy, was far from despair, and in spite of the
deficiencies of his troops in equipment (30,000 pairs of shoes,
supplied by English contractors, proved to have paper soles),
he risked a third great battle at St Quentin (January 19). This
time he was severely defeated, though his loss in killed and
wounded was about equal to that of the Germans, who were
commanded by Goeben. Still the attempt of the Germans to
surround him failed and he drew off his forces with his artillery
and trains unharmed. The Germans, who had been greatly
impressed by the solidity of his army, did not pursue him far,
and Faidherbe was preparing for a fresh effort when he received
orders to suspend hostilities.
The last episode is Bourbaki's campaign in the east, with its
mournful close at Pontarlier. Before the crisis of the last week
of November, the French forces under General Cr6mer, Cambriels'
successor, had been so far successful in minor enterprises that,
as mentioned above, the right wing of the Loire army, severed
from the left by the battle of Orleans and subsequently held
inactive at Bourges and Nevers, was ordered to Franche Comt6
to take the offensive against the XIV. corps and other German
troops there, to relieve Belfort and to strike a blow across the
invaders' line of communications. But there were many delays
in execution. The staff work, which was at no time satisfactory
in the French armies of 1870, was complicated by the snow,
the bad state of the roads, and the mountainous nature of the
country, and Bourbaki, a brave general of division in action,
FRANgOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU
but irresolute and pretentious as a commander in chief, was not
the man to cope with the situation. Only the furious courage and
patient endurance of hardships of the rank and file, and the good
qualities of some of the generals, such as Clinchant, Cremer and
Billot, and junior staff officers such as Major Brugere (afterwards
generalissimo of the French army), secured what success was
attained.
Werder, the German commander, warned of the imposing
concentration of the French, evacuated Dijon and Dole just in
f hu time to avoid the blow and rapidly drew together his
campaign forces behind the Ognon above Vesoul. A furious
la the attack on one of his divisions at Villersexel (January 9)
cost him 2000 prisoners as well as his killed and
wounded, and Bourbaki, heading for Belfort, was actually nearer
to the fortress than the Germans. But at the crisis more time
was wasted, Werder (who had almost lost hope of maintaining
himself and had received both encouragement and stringent
instructions to do so) slipped in front of the French, and took up
a long weak line of defence on the river Lisaine, almost within
cannon shot of Belfort. The cumbrous French army moved up
and attacked him there with 150,000 against 60,000 (January
15-17, 1871). It was at last repulsed, thanks chiefly to Bourbaki's
inability to handle his forces, and, to the bitter disappointment
of officers and men alike, he ordered a retreat, leaving Belfort
to its fate.
Ere this, so urgent was the necessity of assisting Werder,
Manteuffel had been placed at the head of a new Army of the
South. Bringing two corps from the I. army opposing Faidherbe
and calling up a third from the armies around Paris, and a fourth
from the II. army, Manteuffel hurried southward by Langres
to the Saone. Then, hearing of Werder's victory on the Lisaine,
he deflected the march so as to cut off Bourbaki's retreat,
drawing off the left flank, guard of the latter (commanded with
much (dot and little real effect by Garibaldi) by a sharp feint
attack on Dijon. The pressure of Werder in front and Manteuffel
in flank gradually forced the now thoroughly disheartened
French forces towards the Swiss frontier, and Bourbaki, realizing
at once the ruin of his army and his own incapacity to re-establish
its efficiency, shot himself, though not fatally, on the 26th of
January. Clinchant, his successor, acted promptly enough to
remove the immediate danger, but on the 2pth he was informed
of the armistice without at the same time being told that Belfort
and the eastern theatre of war had been on Jules Favre's demand
expressly excepted from its operation. 1 Thus the French, the
leaders distracted by doubts and the worn-out soldiers fully
aware that the war was practically over, stood still, while
Manteuffel completed his preparations for hemming them in.
On the ist of February General Clinchant led his troops into
Switzerland, where they were disarmed, interned and well cared
for by the authorities of the neutral state. The rearguard fought
a last action with the advancing Germans before passing the
frontier. On the i6th, by order of the French government,
Belfort capitulated, but it was not until the nth of March that
the Germans took possession of Bitche, the little fortress on the
Vosges, where in the early days of the war de Failly had illus-
trated so signally the want of concerted action and the neglect
of opportunities which had throughout proved the bane of the
French armies.
The losses of the Germans during the whole war were 28,000
dead and 101,000 wounded and disabled, those of the French,
156,000 dead (17,000 of whom died, of sickness and wounds, as
prisoners in German hands) and 143,000 wounded and disabled.
720,000 men surrendered to the Germans or to the authorities
of neutral states, and at the close of the war there were still
250,000 troops on foot, with further resources not immediately
available to the number of 280,000 more. In this connexion,
and as evidence of the respective numerical yields 'of the German
system working normally and of the French improvised for
the emergency, we quote from Berndt (Zakl im Kriege) the
following comparative figures:
1 Jules Favre, it appears, neglected to inform Gambetta of the
exception.
End of July . . . French 250,000, Germans 384,000 under arms.
Middle of November 600,000 425,000
After the surrender
of Paris and the
disarmament of
Bourbaki's army . 534,000 835,000
The date of the armistice was the 28th of January, and that
of the ratification of the treaty of Frankfurt the 23rd of May
1871.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature of the war is ever increasing in
volume, and the following list only includes a very short selection
made amongst the most important works.
General. German official history, Der deulsch-franzosische Krieg
(Berlin, 1872-1881 ; English and French translations) ; monographs
of the German general staff (Kriegsgesch. Einzelschriften) ; Moltke,
Gesch. des deutsch-franzos. Krieges (Berlin, 1891 ; English translation)
and Gesammelte Schriften des G. F. M. Grafen v. Moltke (Berlin,
1900- }; French official history, La Guerre de 1870-1871 (Paris,
1902- ) (the fullest and most accurate account) ; P. Lehautcourt
(General Palat), Hist, de la guerre de 1870-1871 (Paris, 1901-1907) ;
v. Verdy du Vernois, Studien iiber den Krieg . . . auf Grundlage
1870-1871 (Berlin, 1892-1896); G. Cardinal von Widdern, Kritische
Tage 1870-1871 (French translation, Journees critiques). Events
preceding the war are dealt with in v. Bernhardi, Zwischen zwei
Kriegen; Baron Stoffel, Rapports militaires 1866-1870 (Paris, 1871 ;
English translation); G. Lehmann, Die Mobilmachung 1870-1871
(Berlin, 1905).
For the war in Lorraine: Prince Kraft of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen,
Briefe iiber Strategic (English translation, Letters on Strategy); F.
Foch, Conduite de la guerre, pt. ii. ; H. Bonnal, Manoeuvre de Saint
Privat (Paris, 1904-1906); Maistre, Spicheren (Paris, 1908); v.
Schell, Die Operaticnen der I. Armee unter Gen. von Steinmeiz (Berlin,
1872; English translation); F. Hoenig, Taktik der Zukunft (English
translation), and 24 Slunden Moltke' schen Strategic (Berlin, 1892;
English and French translations).
For the war in Alsace and Champagne: H. Kunz, Schlacht von
Worth (Berlin, 1891), and later works by the same author; H.
Bonnal, Froschweiler (Paris, 1899); Hahnke, Die Operationen des
III. Armee bis Sedan (Berlin, 1873; French translation).
For the war in the Provinces: v. der Goltz, Leon Gambetta und
seine Arn.een (Berlin, 1877) ; Die Operationen der II. Armee an die
Loire (Berlin, 1875); Die sieben Tage von Le Mans (Berlin, 1873);
Kunz, Die Zusammensetzung der franzos. Provinziallieeren; de
Freycinet, La Guerre en province (Paris, 1871); L. A. Hale, The
People's War (London, 1904); Hoenig, Volkskr'eg an die Loire
(Berlin, 1892); Blume, Operationen v. Sedan bis zum Ende d. Kriegs
(Berlin, 1872 ; English translation) ; v. Schell, Die Operationen der I.
Armee unter Gen. v. Goeben (Berlin, 1873; English translation);
Count Wartenslcben, Feldzug der Nordarmee unter Gen. v. Manteuffel
(Berlin, 1872), Operationen der Sudarmee (Berlin, 1872; English
translation); Faidherbe, Campagne de Varntee du nord (Paris, 1872).
For the sieges : Frobenius, Kriegsgesch. Beispiele d. Festungskriegs
aus d. deutsch.-franz. Kg. (Berlin, 1899-1900) ; Goetze, Tdtigkeit
der deutschen Ingenieuren (Berlin, 1871 ; English translation).
The most useful bibliography is that of General Palat (" P.
Lehautcourt "). (C. F. A.)
FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU, NICOLAS LOUIS, COUNT
(1750-1828), French statesman and poet, was born at Saffais
near Rozieres in Lorraine on the i7th of April 1750, the son of a
school-teacher. He studied at the Jesuit college of Neufchateau
in the Vosges, and at the age of fourteen published a volume
of poetry which obtained the approbation of Rousseau and of
Voltaire. Neufchateau conferred on him its name, and he was
elected member of some of the principal academies of France.
In 1 783 he was named procureur-gSneral to the council of Santo
Domingo. He had previously been engaged on a translation
of Ariosto, which he finished before his return to France five
years afterwards, but it perished during the shipwreck which
occurred during his voyage home. After the Revolution he
was elected deputy suppUant to the National Assembly, was
charged with the organization of the Department of the Vosges,
and was elected later to the Legislative Assembly, of which he
first became secretary and then president. In 1793 he was
imprisoned on account of the political sentiments, in reality
very innocent, of his drama Pamela ou la vertu rtcompenste
(Theatre de la Nation, ist August 1793), but was set free a few
days afterwards at the revolution of the 9th Thermidor. In
1797 he became minister of the interior, in which office he
distinguished himself by the thoroughness of his administration
in all departments. It is to him that France owes its system
of inland navigation. He inaugurated the museum of the Louvre,
FRANCONIA FRANCS-TIREURS
and was one of the promoters of the first universal exhibition
of industrial products. From 1804 to 1806 he was president
of the Senate, and in that capacity the duty devolved upon
him of soliciting Napoleon to assume the title of emperor. In
iSoS he received the dignity of count. Retiring from public
life in 1814, he occupied himself chiefly in the study of agriculture,
until his death on the loth of January 1828.
Francois de Neufch&teau had very multifarious accomplish-
ments, and interested himself in a great variety of subjects, but
his fame rests chiefly on what he did as a statesman for the
encouragement and development of the industries of France.
His maturer poetical productions did not fulfil the promise of
those of his early yean, for though some of his verses have a
superficial elegance, his poetry generally lacks force and originality.
He had considerable qualifications as a grammarian and critic,
as is witnessed by his editions of the Provinciates and Pensees
of Pascal (Paris, 1822 and 1826) and Gil Bias (Paris, 1820). His
principal poetical works are Potties diverse* (1765); Ode sur Us
parlements (IITI); Notaeaux Conies moraux (1781); Les Vosges
(1796); Fables et conks (1814); andX Tropes, ou Us figures de
mots (1817). He was also the author of a large number of
works on agriculture.
See Retufil des lettres, circulates, discours el autres actes publics
emants d* Cte. Francois pendant ses deux exercices du ministere de
Fintenettr (Paris, An. vii.-viii , 2 vols.); Notice biograpkiaue sur M.
U comte Francois de NeufckAteau (1828), by A. F. de Sillery; H.
Bonnelier, Mtmoires sur Francois de Neufch&teau (Paris, 1829);
I. Lamoureux, Notice kistorvfue et litter air t sur la vie et Us fcrits de
Franfois de Neufckateau (Pans, 1843); E. Meaume, Etude historique
et biofrapkique sur Us Lorrains revolutionnatres : Palissot, Grtgotre,
Francois de NeufchAteau (Nancy, 1882); Ch. Simian, Francois de
Neu/chateau et Us expositions (Paris, 1889).
FRANCONIA (Ger. Franken), the name of one of the stem-
duchies of medieval Germany. It stretched along the valley of
the Main from the Rhine to Bohemia, and was bounded on the
north by Saxony and Thuringia, and on the south by Swabia
and Bavaria. It also included a district around Mainz, Spires
and Worms, on the left bank of the Rhine. The word Franconia,
first used in a Latin charter of 1053, was applied like the words
France, Francia and Franken, to a portion of the land occupied
by the Franks.
About the close of the sth century this territory was conquered
by Govis, king of the Salian Franks, was afterwards incorporated
with the kingdom of Austrasia, and at a later period came under
the rule of Charlemagne. After the treaty of Verdun in 843
it became the centre of the East Prankish or German kingdom,
and in theory remained so for a long period, and was for a time
the most important of the duchies which arose on the ruins of the
Carolingian empire. The land was divided into counties, or
gaucn, which were ruled by counts, prominent among whom
were members of the families of Conradine and Babenberg, by
whose feuds it was frequently devastated. Conrad, a member
of the former family, who took the title of " duke in Franconia "
about the year goo, was chosen German king in 911 as the
representative of the foremost of the German races. Conrad
handed over the chief authority in Franconia to his brother
Eberhard, who remained on good terms with Conrad's successor
Henry I. the Fowler, but rose against the succeeding king, Otto
the Great, and was killed in battle in 939, when his territories
were divided. The influence of Franconia began to decline
under the kings of the Saxon house. It lacked political unity,
bad no opportunities for extension, and soon became divided
into Rhenish Franconia (Francia rhenensis, Ger. Rkeinfranken)
and Eastern Franconia (Francia orienlalis, Ger. Ostfranken).
The most influential family in Rhenish Franconia was that of
the g^ltanf, the head of which early in the loth century was
Conrad the Red, duke of Lorraine, and son-in-law of Otto the
Great. This Conrad, his son Otto and his grandson Conrad
are sometimes called dukes of Franconia; and in 1024 his great-
grandson Conrad, also duke of Franconia, was elected German
king as Conrad II. and founded the line of Franconian or Salian
emperors. Rhenish Franconia gradually became a land of
free town: and lesser nobles, and under the earlier Franconian
emperors sections passed to the count palatine of the Rhine,
the archbishop of Mainz, the bishops of Worms and Spires
and other clerical and lay nobles; and the name Franconia,
or Francia orienlalis as it was then called, was confined to the
eastern portion of the duchy. Clerical authority was becoming
predominant in this region. A series of charters dating from
822 to 1025 had granted considerable powers to the bishops of
WUrzburg, who, by the time of the emperor Henry II., possessed
judicial authority over the whole of eastern Franconia. The
duchy was nominally retained by the emperors in their own
hands until 1115, when the emperor Henry V., wishing to curb
the episcopal influence in this neighbourhood, appointed his
nephew Conrad of Hohenstaufen as duke of Franconia. Conrad's
son Frederick took the title of duke of Rothenburg instead of
duke of Franconia, but in 1196, on the death of Conrad of
Hohenstaufen, son of the emperor Frederick I., the title fell
into disuse. Meanwhile the bishop of WUrzburg had regained
his former power in the duchy, and this was confirmed in 1168
by the emperor Frederick I.
The title remained in abeyance until the early years of the
15th century, when it was assumed by John II., bishop of WUrz-
burg, and retained by his successors until the bishopric was
secularized in 1802. The greater part of the lands were united
with Bavaria, and the name Franconia again fell into abeyance.
It was revived in 1837, when Louis I., king of Bavaria, gave to
three northern portions of his kingdom the names of Upper,
Middle and Lower Franconia. In 1633 Bernhard, duke of Saxe-
Wdimar, hoping to create a principality for himself out of the
ecclesiastical lands, had taken the title of duke of Franconia,
but his hopes were destroyed by his defeat at Nordlingen in 1634.
When Germany was divided into circles by the emperor Maxi-
milian I. in 1500, the name Franconia was given to that circle
which included the eastern part of the old duchy. The lands
formerly comprised in the duchy of Franconia are now divided
between the kingdoms of Bavaria and WUrttemberg, the grand-
duchies of Baden and Hesse, and the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau.
See J. G. ab Eckhart, Commentarii de rebus Franciae orientalis et
episcopatus Wirceburgensis (WUrzburg, 1729); F. Stein, Geschichte
Frankens (Schweinfurt, 1885-1886); T. Henner, Die tierzogliche
Gewa.lt der Bischofe von Wiirzourg (WUrzburg, 1874).
FRANCS-ARCHERS. The institution of the francs-archers
was the first attempt at the formation of regular infantry in
France. They were created by the ordinance of Montils-les-Tours
on the 28th of August 1448, which prescribed that in each parish
an archer should be chosen from among the most apt in the use
of arms; this archer to be exempt from the tattle and certain
obligations, to practise shooting with the bow on Sundays and
feast-days, and to hold himself ready to march fully equipped
at the first signal. Under Charles VII. the francs-archers dis-
tinguished themselves in numerous battles with the English,
and assisted the king to drive them from France. During the
succeeding reigns the institution languished, and finally dis-
appeared in the middle of the i6th century. The francs-archers
were also called francs-taupins.
See Daniel, Ilistoire de la milice franc,aise (1721) ; and E. Boutaric,
Institutions militaires de la France avant Usarmees permanentes (1863).
FRANCS-TIREURS ("Free-Shooters"), irregular troops,
almost exclusively infantry, employed by the French in the war of
1870-1871. They were originally rifle clubs or unofficial military
societies formed in the east of France at the time of the Luxem-
burg crisis of 1867. The members were chiefly concerned with
the practice of rifle-shooting, and were expected in war to act
as light troops. As under the then system of conscription the
greater part of the nation's military energy was allowed to run
to waste, the francs-tireurs were not only popular, but efficient
workers in their sphere of action. As they wore no uniforms,
were armed with the best existing rifles and elected their own
officers, the government made repeated attempts to bring the
societies, which were at once a valuable asset to the armed
strength of France and a possible menace to internal order,
under military discipline. This was strenuously resisted by the
societies, to their sorrow as it turned out, for the Germans treated
i6
FRANEKER FRANKENTHAL
captured francs-tireurs as irresponsible non-combatants found
with arms in their hands and usually exacted the death penalty.
In July 1870, at tlte outbreak of the war, the societies were brought
under the control of the minister of war and organized for field
service, but it was not until the 4th of November by which
time the levee en masse was in force that they were placed under
the orders of the generals in the field. After that they were
sometimes organized in large bodies and incorporated in the mass
of the armies, but more usually they continued to work in small
bands, blowing up culverts on the invaders' lines of communica-
tion, cutting off small reconnoitring parties, surprising small
posts, &c. It is now acknowledged, even by the Germans, that
though the francs-tireurs did relatively little active mischief,
they paralysed large detachments of the enemy, contested every
step of his advance (as in the Loire campaign), and prevented
him from gaining information, and that their soldierly qualities
inproved with experience. Their most celebrated feats were the
blowing up of the Moselle railway bridge at Fontenoy on the 2 2nd
of January 1871 (see Les Chasseurs des Vosges by Lieut.-Colonel
St Etienne, Toul, 1906), and the heroic defence of Chateaudun
by Lipowski's Paris corps and the francs-tireurs of Cannes and
Nantes (October 18, 1870). It cannot be denied that the original
members of the rifle clubs were joined by many bad characters,
but the patriotism of the majority was unquestionable, for little
mercy was shown by the Germans to those francs-tireurs who fell
into their hands. The severity of the German reprisals is itself
the best testimony to the fear and anxiety inspired by the presence
of active bands of francs-tireurs on the flanks and in rear of the
invaders.
FRANEKER, a town in the province of Friesland, Holland,
5 m. E. of Harlingen on the railway and canal to Leeuwarden.
Pop. (IQOO) 7187. It was at one time a favourite residence of the
Frisian nobility, many of whom had their castles here, and it
possessed a celebrated university, founded by the Frisian estates
in 1585. This was suppressed by Napoleon I. in 1811, and the
endowments were diverted four years later to the support of an
athenaeum, and afterwards of a gymnasium, with which a
physiological cabinet and a botanical garden are connected.
Franeker also possesses a town hall (1591), which contains a
planetarium, made by one Eise Eisinga in 1774-1881. The
fine observatory was founded about 1780. The church of St
Martin (1420) contains several fine tombs of the I5th-i7th
centuries. The industries of the town include silk-weaving,
woollen-spinning, shipbuilding and pottery-making. It is also
a considerable market for agricultural produce.
FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791), a Jewish theologian, who
founded in Poland, in, the middle of the i8th century, a sect
which emanated from Judaism but ended by merging with
Christianity. The sect was the outcome of the Messianic
mysticism of Sabbetai Zebi. It was an antinomian movement
in which the authority of the Jewish law was held to be super-
seded by personal freedom. The Jewish authorities, alarmed
at the moral laxity which resulted from the emotional rites of
the Frankists, did their utmost to suppress the sect. But the
latter, posing as an anti-Talmudic protest in behalf of a spiritual
religion, won a certain amount of public sympathy. There was,
however, no deep sincerity in the tenets of the Frankists, for
though in 1759 they were baptized en masse, amid much pomp,
the Church soon became convinced that Frank was not a genuine
convert. He was imprisoned on a charge of heresy, but on his
release in 1763 the empress Maria Theresa patronized him,
regarding him as a propagandist of Christianity among the Jews.
He thenceforth lived in state as baron of Offenbach, and on his
death (1791) his daughter Eva succeeded him as head of the sect.
The Frankists gradually merged in the general Christian body, the
movement leaving no permanent trace in the synagogue. (I. A.)
FRANK-ALMOIGN (libera eleemosyna, free alms), in the English
law of real property, a species of spiritual tenure, whereby a
religious corporation, aggregate or sole, holds lands of the donor
to them and their successors for ever. It was a tenure dating
from Saxon times, held not on the ordinary feudal conditions,
but discharged of all services except the trinoda necessitas.
But " they which hold in frank-almoign are bound of right before
God to make orisons, prayers, masses and other divine services
for the souls of their grantor or feoffor, and for the souls of their
heirs which are dead, and for the prosperity and good life and
good health of their heirs which are alive. And therefore they
shall do no f<!alty to their lord, because that this divine service
is better for them before God than any doing of fealty " (Litt.
s. 135). It was the tenure by which the greater number of the
monasteries and religious houses held their lands; it was ex-
pressly exempted from the statute 12 Car.II. c.24 (1660), by which
the other ancient tenures were abolished, and it is the tenure by
which the parochial clergy and many ecclesiastical and eleemosy-
nary foundations hold their lands at the present day. As a form
of donation, however, it came to an end by the passing of the
statute Quia Emptores, for by that statute no new tenure of
frank-almoign could be created, except by the crown.
See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, where the history
of frank-alraoign is given at length.
FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS (1801-1875), Jewish theologian, one
of the founders of the Breslau school of " historical Judaism."
This school attempts to harmonize critical treatment of the docu-
ments of religion with fidelity to traditional beliefs and observ-
ances. For a time at least, the compromise succeeded in staying
the disintegrating effects of the liberal movement in Judaism.
Frankel was the author of several valuable works, among them
Septuagint Studies, an Introduction to the Mishnah (1859), and
a similar work on the Palestinian Talmud (1870). He also edited
the Monatsschrift, devoted to Jewish learning on modern lines.
But his chief claim to fame rests on his headship of the Breslau
Seminary. This was founded in 1854 for the training of rabbis
who should combine their rabbinic studies with secular courses
at the university. The whole character of the rabbinate has been
modified under the influence of this, the first seminary of the
kind. (I. A.)
FRANKENBERG, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the
kingdom of Saxony, on the Zschopau, 7 m. N.E. of Chemnitz,
on the railway Niederwiesa-Rosswein. Pop. (1905) 13,303. The
principal buildings are the large Evangelical parish church,
restored in 1874-1875, and the town-hall. Its industries include
extensive woollen, cotton and silk weaving, dyeing, the manu-
facture of brushes, furniture and cigars, iron-founding and
machine building. It is well provided with schools, including
one of weaving.
FRANKENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, on an artificial arm of the Wipper,
a tributary of the Saale, 36 m. N.N.E. of Gotha. Pop. (1905)
6534. It consists of an old and a new town, the latter mostly
rebuilt since a destructive fire in 1833, and has an old chateau
of the princes of Schwarzburg, three Protestant churches, a
seminary for teachers, a hospital and a modern town-hall.
Its industries include the manufacture of sugar, cigars and
buttons, and there are brine springs, with baths, in the vicinity.
At Frankenhausen a battle was fought on the isth of May 1525,
in which the insurgent peasants under Thomas Miinzer were
defeated by the allied princes of Saxony and Hesse.
FRANKENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, on the Pausebach, 35 m. S. by VV. of Breslau. Pop.
(1905) 7890. It is still surrounded by its medieval walls, has two
Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, among the
latter the parish church with a curious overhanging tower, and
a monastery. The industries include the manufacture of
artificial manures, bricks, beer and straw hats. There are also
mills for grinding the magnesite found in the neighbourhood.
FRANKENTHAL, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian
Palatinate, on the Isenach, connected with the Rhine by a
canal 3 m. in length, 6 m. N.W. from Mannheim, and on the
railways Neunkirchen- Worms and Frankenthal-Grosskarlbach.
Pop. (1905) 18,191. It has two Evangelical and a Roman
Catholic church, a fine medieval town-hall, two interesting old
gates, remains of its former environing walls, several public
monuments, including one to the veterans of the Napoleonic
wars, and a museum. Its industries include the manufacture
FRANKENWALD FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN
of machinery, casks, corks, soap, dolls and furniture, iron-
founding and bell-founding the famous " Kaiserglocke " of
the Cologne cathedral was cast here. Frankenthal was formerly
famous fur its porcelain factory, established here in 1755 by Paul
Anton Hannong of Strassburg, who sold it in 1762 to the elector
palatine Charles Theodore. Its fame is mainly due to the
modellers Konrad Link (1732-1802) and Johann Peter Melchior
(d. 1706) (who worked at Frankenthal between 1779 and 1793).
The best products of this factory are figures and groups repre-
senting contemporary life, or allegorical subjects in the rococo
taste of the period, and they are surpassed only by those of the
more famous factory at Meissen. In 1 795 the factory was sold
to Peter von Reccum, who removed it to GrUnstadt.
Frankenthal (Franconodal) is mentioned as a village in the
8th century. A house of Augustinian canons established here
in 1119 by Erkenbert, chamberlain of Worms, was suppressed
in 1562 by the elector palatine Frederick III., who gave its
possessions to Protestant refugees from the Netherlands. In
577 this colony received town rights from the elector John
Casimir, whose successor fortified the place. From 1623 until
1652, save for two years, it was occupied by the Spaniards, and
in 1688-1689 it was stormed and burned by the French, the
fortifications being razed. In 1607 it was reconstituted as a town,
and under the elector Charles Theodore it became the capital
of the Palatinate. From 1798 to 1814 it was incorporated in the
French department of Mont Tonnerre.
See Wille, Stadt u. Festung Frankenthal wdhrend drs dreissig-
jdhrire* Krieges (Heidelberg, 1877); Hildenbrand, Gesch. der Stadt
FrantfHthal (1893). For the porcelain see Heuser, Frankenthaler
Grupptn and Figure* (Spires, 1899).
FRANKENWALD, a mountainous district of Germany,
forming the geological connexion between the Fichtelgcbirge
and the Thuringian Forest. It is a broad well-wooded plateau,
running for about 30 m. in a north-westerly direction, descending
gently on the north and eastern sides towards the Saale, but muiv
precipitously to the Bavarian plain in the west, and attaining its
highest elevation in the Kieferle near Steinheid (2900 ft.). Along
the centre lies the watershed between the basins of the Main and
the Saale, belonging to the systems of the Rhine and Elbe
respectively. The principal tributaries of the Main from the
Frankenwald are the Rodach and Hasslach, and of the Saale,
theSelbilz.
See H. Schmid, Fuhrer durch den Frankemcald (Bamberg, 1894);
Meyer, Tkuringen und der Frankenwald (isth ed., Leipzig, 1900),
ana Gumbel. Geognostische Beschreibung des Fichtelgebirges mil dent
Frankemcald (Gotha, 1879).
FRANKFORT, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county,
Indiana, U.S.A., 40 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1890)
5919; (1900) 7100 (144 foreign-born); (1910) 8634. Frankfort
is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Lake Erie
& Western, the Vandalia, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western
railways, and by the Indianapolis & North -Western Traction
Intcrurban railway (electric). The city is a division point on
the Toledo, St Louis & Western railway, which has large shops
here. Frank/on is a trade centre for an agricultural and lumber-
ing region; among its manufactures are handles, agricultural
implements and foundry products. The first settlement in the
neighbourhood was made in 1826; in 1830 the town was founded,
and in 1875 it was chartered as a city. The city limits were
considerably extended immediately after 1900.
FRANKFORT, the capital city of Kentucky, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Franklin county, on the Kentucky river, about
55 m. E. of Louisville. Pop. (1890) 7892; (1900) 9487, of whom
3316 were negroes; (1910 census) 10,465. The city is served
by the Chesapeake & Ohio, the Louisville & Nashville, and the
Frankfort & Cincinnati railways, by the Central Kentucky
Traction Co. (electric), and by steamboat lines to Cincinnati,
Louisville and other river ports. It is built among picturesque
hills on both sides of the river, and is in the midst of the famous
Kentucky " blue grass region " and of a rich lumber-producing
region. The most prominent building is the Capitol, about 400 ft.
long and 185 ft. wide, built of granite and white limestone in the
Italian Renaissance style, with 70 large Ionic columns, and a
dome 205 ft. above the terrace line, supported by 24 other
columns. The Capitol was built in 1905-1907 at a cost of more
than $2,000,000; in it are housed the state library and the
library of the Kentucky State Historical Society. At Frankfort,
also, are the state arsenal, the state penitentiary and the state
home for feeble-minded children, and just outside the city
limits is the state coloured normal school. The old capitol (first
occupied in 1829) is still standing. In Franklin cemetery rest
the remains of Daniel Boone and of Theodore O'Hara (1820-
1867), a lawyer, soldier, journalist and poet, who served in the
U.S. army in 1846-1848 during the Mexican War, took part in
filibustering expeditions to Cuba, served in the Confederate army,
and is best known as the author of " The Bivouac of the Dead,"
a poem written for the burial in Frankfort of some soldiers
who had lost their lives at Buena Vista. Here also are the
graves of Richard M. Johnson, vice-president of the United
States in 1837-1841, and the sculptor Joel T. Hart (1810-1877).
The city has a considerable trade with the surrounding country,
in which large quantities of tobacco and hemp are produced;
its manufactures include lumber, brooms, chairs, shoes, hemp
twine, canned vegetables and glass bottles. The total value of
the city's factory product in 1905 was $1,747,338, being 31-6%
more than in 1900. Frankfort (said to have been named after
Stephen Frank, one of an early pioneer party ambushed here by
Indians) was founded in 1786 by General James Wilkinson, then
deeply interested in trade with the Spanish at New Orleans, and
in the midst of his Spanish intrigues. In 1792 the city was made
the capital of the state. In 1862, during the famous campaign in
Kentucky of General Braxton Bragg (Confederate) and General
D. C. Buell (Federal), Frankfort was occupied for a short time
by Bragg, who, just before being forced out by Buell, took part in
the inauguration of Richard J. Hawes, chosen governor by the
Confederates of the state. Hawes, however, never discharged
the duties of his office. During the bitter contest for the governor-
ship in 1900 between William Goebel (Democrat) and William S.
Taylor (Republican), each of whom claimed the election, Goebel
was assassinated at Frankfort. (See also KENTUCKY.) Frankfort
received a city charter in 1839.
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN (Ger. Frankfurt am Main), a city
of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, prin-
cipally on the right bank of the Main, 24 m. above its confluence
with the Rhine at Mainz, and 16 m. N. from Darmstadt. Always
a place of great trading importance, long the place of election
for the German kings, and until 1866, together with Hamburg,
Bremen and LUbeck, one of the four free cities of Germany, it
still retains its position as one of the leading commercial centres
of the German empire. Its situation in the broad and fertile
valley of the Main, the northern horizon formed by the soft
outlines of the Taunus range, is one of great natural beauty,
the surrounding country being richly clad with orchard and
forest.
Frankfort is one of the most interesting, as it is also one of
the wealthiest, of German cities. Apart from its commercial
importance, its position, close to the fashionable watering-places
of Homburg, Nauhcim and Wiesbaden, has rendered it " cos-
mopolitan " in the best sense of the term. The various stages in
the development of the city are clearly indicated in its general
plan and the surviving names of many of its streets. The line
of the original 1 2th century walls and moat is marked by the
streets of which the names end in -graben, from the Hirschgraben
on the W. to the Wollgraben on the E. The space enclosed by
these and by the river on the S. is known as the " old town "
(Altiladt). The so-called " new town " (Neustadt), added in 1333,
extends to the Anlagen, the beautiful gardens and promenades
laid out (1806-1812) on the site of the 1 7th century fortifications,
of which they faithfully preserve the general ground plan. Of
the medieval fortifications the picturesque Eschenheimer Tor, a
round tower 155 ft. high, dating from 1400 to 1428, the Renten-
turm (1456) on the Main and the Kuhhirtenturm (c. 1490) in
Sachsenhausen, are the sole remains. Since the demolition of
the fortifications the city has greatly expanded. Sachsenhausen
on the south bank of the river, formerly the seat of a commandery
i8
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN
of the Teutonic Order (by treaty with Austria in 1842 all pro-
perty and rights of the order in Frankfort territory were sold
to the city, except the church and house), is now a quarter of
the city. In other directions also the expansion has been rapid;
the village of Bornheim was incorporated in Frankfort in 1877,
the former Hessian town of Bockenheim in 1895, and the suburbs
of Niederrad, Oberrad and Seckbach in 1900.
The main development of the city has been to the north of the
river, which is crossed by numerous bridges and flanked by fine
quays and promenades. The Altstadt, though several broad
streets have been opened through it, still preserves many of its
narrow alleys and other medieval features. The Judengasse
(Ghetto), down to 1806 the sole Jews' quarter, has been pulled
down, with the exception of the ancestral house of the Rothschild
family No. 148 which has been restored and retains its
ancient facade. As the Altstadt is mainly occupied by artisans
and petty tradesmen, so the Neustadt is the principal business
quarter of the city, containing the chief public buildings and the
principal hotels. The main arteries of the city are the Zeil, a
broad street running from the Friedberger Anlage to the Ross-
markt and thence continued, by the Kaiserstrasse, through the
fine new quarter built after 1872, to the magnificent principal
railway station; and the Steinweg and Goethestrasse, which
lead by the Bockenheimer Tor to the Bockenheimer Landstrasse,
a broad boulevard intersecting the fashionable residential suburb
to the N.W.
Churches. The principal ecclesiastical building in Frankfort
is the cathedral (Dom). Built of red sandstone, with a massive
tower terminating in a richly ornamented cupola and 300 ft. in
height, it is the most conspicuousobject in the city. Thisbuilding,
in which the Roman emperors were formerly elected and, since
1 562, crowned, was founded in 852 by King Louis the German, and
was later known as the Salvator Kirche. After its re'construction
(1235-1239), it was dedicated to St Bartholomew. From this
period date the nave and the side aisles; the choir was completed
in 1315-1338 and the long transepts in 1346-1354. The cloisters
were rebuilt in 1348-1447, and the electoral chapel, on the south
of the choir, was completed in 1355. The tower was begun in
1415, but remained unfinished. On the i5th of August 1867
the tower and roof were destroyed by fire and considerable
damage was done to the rest of the edifice. The restoration
was immediately taken in hand, and the whole work was finished
in 1 88 1, including the completion of the tower, according to the
plans of the isth century architect, Hans von Ingelheim. In
the interior is the tomb of the German king Giinther of Schwarz-
burg, who died in Frankfort in 1349, and that of Rudolph, the
last knight of Sachsenhausen, who died in 1371. Among the
other Roman Catholic churches are the Leonhardskirche, the
Liebfrauenkirche (church of Our Lady) and the Deutschordens-
kirche (i4th century) in Sachsenhausen. The Leonhardskirche
(restored in 1882) was begun in 1219, it is said on the site of the
palace of Charlemagne. It was originally a three-aisled basilica,
but is now a five-aisled Hallenkirche; the choir was added in
1314. It has two Romanesque towers. The Liebfrauenkirche
is first mentioned in 1314 as a collegiate church; the nave was
consecrated in 1340. The choir was added in 1506-1509 and the
whole church thoroughly restored in the second half of the i8th
century, when the tower was built (1770). Of the Protestant
churches the oldest is the Nikolaikirche, which dates from the
I3th century; the fine cast-iron spire erected in 1843 had to be
taken down in 1901. The Paulskirche, the principal Evangelical
(Lutheran) church, built between 1786 and 1833, is a red sand-
stone edifice of no architectural pretensions, but interesting
as the seat of the national parliament of 1848-1849. The
Katharinenkirche, built 1678-1681 on the site of an older build-
ing, is famous in Frankfort history as the place where the first
Protestant sermon was preached in 1522. Among the more
noteworthy of the newer Protestant churches are the Peterskirche
(1892-1895) in the North German Renaissance style, with a
tower 256 ft. high, standing north from the Zeil, the Christus-
kirche (1883) and the Lutherkirche (1880-1893). An English
church, in Early English Gothic style, situated adjacent to the
Bockenheimer Landstrasse, was completed and consecrated
in 1906.
Of the five synagogues, the chief (or Hauptsynagoge) , lying
in the Bornestrasse, is an attractive building of red sandstone
in the Moorish-Byzantine style.
Public Buildings. Of the secular buildings in Frankfort, the
Romer, for almost five hundred years the Rathaus (town hall)
of the city, is of prime historical interest. It lies on the Romer-
berg, a square flanked by curious medieval houses. It is first
mentioned in 1322, was bought with the adjacent hostelry in
1405 by the city and rearranged as a town hall, and has since,
from time to time, been enlarged by the purchase of adjoining
patrician houses, forming a complex of buildings of various
styles and dates surmounted by a clock tower. The facade was
rebuilt (1896-1898) in late Gothic style. It was here, in the
Wahlzimmer (or election-chamber) that the electors or their
plenipotentiaries chose the German kings, and here in the
Kaisersaal (emperors' hall) that the coronation festival was held,
at which the new king or emperor dined with the electors after
having shown himself from the balcony to the people. The
Kaisersaal retained its antique appearance until 1843, when,
as also again in 1904, it was restored and redecorated; it is now
furnished with a series of modern paintings representing the
German kings and Roman emperors from Charlemagne to
Francis II., in all fifty- two, and a statue of the first German
emperor, William I. New municipal buildings adjoining the
" Romer " on the north side were erected in 1900-1903 in German
Renaissance style, with a handsome tower 220 ft. high; beneath
it is a public wine-cellar, and on the first storey a grand municipal
hall. The palace of the princes of Thurn and Taxis in the
Eschenheimer Gasse was built (1732-1741) from the designs of
Robert de Cotte, chief architect to Louis XIV. of France. From
1806 to 1 8 10 it was the residence of Karl von Dalberg, prince-
primate of the Confederation of the Rhine, with whose dominions
Frankfort had been incorporated by Napoleon. From 1816 to
1866 it was the seat of the German federal diet. It is now
annexed to the principal post office (built 1892-1894), which lies
close to it on the Zeil. The Saalhof. built on the site of the palace
erected by Louis the Pious in 822, overlooking the Main, has
a chapel of the i2th century, the substructure dating from
Carolingian times. This is the oldest building in Frankfort.
The facade of the Saalhof in the Saalgasse dates from 1604, the
southern wing with the two gables from 1715 to 1717. Of numer-
ous other medieval buildings may be mentioned theLeinwandhaus
(linendrapers' hall), a i5th century building reconstructed in
1892 as a municipal museum. In the Grosser Hirschgraben is
the Goethehaus, a i6th century building which came into the
possession of the Goethe family in 1733. Here Goethe lived
from his birth in 1 749 until 1 775. In 1863 the house was acquired
by the Freies deutsche Hochstift and was opened to the public. It
has been restored, from Goethe's account of it in Dichtung und
Wahrheit, as nearly as possible to its condition in the poet's day,
and is now connected with a Goethemuseum (1897), with archives
and a library of 25,000 volumes representative of the Goethe
period of German literature.
Literary and Scientific Institutions. Few cities of the same
size as Frankfort are so richly endowed with literary, scientific
and artistic institutions, or possess so many handsome buildings
appropriated to their service. The opera-house, erected near the
Bockenheimer Tor in 1873-1880, is a magnificent edifice in the
style of the Italian Renaissance and ranks among the finest
theatres in Europe. There are also a theatre (Schauspielhaus)
in modern Renaissance style (1899-1902), devoted especially
to drama, a splendid concert hall (Saalbau), opened in 1861,
and numerous minor places of theatrical entertainment. The
public picture gallery in the Saalhof possesses works by Hans
Holbein, Grunewald, Van Dyck, Teniers, Van der Neer, Hans
von Kulmbach, Lucas Cranach and other masters. The Stadel
Art Institute (Stadel'sches Kunstinstitut) in Sachsenhausen,
founded by the banker J. F. Stadel in 1816, contains a picture
gallery and a cabinet of engravings extremely rich in works of
German art. The municipal library, with 300,000 volumes,
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN
boasts among its rarer treasures a Gutenberg Bible printed at
Mainz between 1450 and 1455, another on parchment dated
146.-, the Imtitutiones Jusliniani (Main/, 1468), the Theuerdank,
with woodcuts by Hans Schaufelein, and numerous valuable
autographs. It also contains a fine collection of coins. The
Bothmann Museum owes its celebrity principally to Dannecker's
Ariadne," but it also possesses the original plaster model of
Thorwaldsrn's " Entrance of Alexander the Great into Babylon."
There may also be mentioned the Industrial An Exhibition of
the Polytechnic Association and two conservatories of music.
Among the scientific institutions the first place belongs to the
Senekenberg'sckes naturkistorische Museum, containing valuable
collections of birds and shells. Next must be mentioned the
Kunstgewerbe (museum of arts and crafts) and the Musical
Museum, with valuable MSS. and portraits. Besides the
municipal library (Stadtbibliothtk) mentioned above there are
three others of importance, the Rothschild, the Senckenberg
and the Jewish library (with a well-appointed reading-room).
There are numerous high-grade schools, musical and other learned
societies and excellent hospitals. The last include the large
municipal infirmary and the Senckenberg'sches Stift, a hospital
mod almshouses founded by a doctor, Johann C. Senckenberg
(d. 1772). The Royal Institute for experimental therapeutics
(Kinigl.Institulfur experimented Therapie), moved to Frankfort
in 1800, attracts numerous foreign students, and is especially
concerned with the study of bacteriology and serums.
Bridges. Seven bridges (of which two are railway) cross the
Main. The most interesting of these is the Alte Mainbrucke,
a red sandstone structure of fourteen arches, 815 ft. long, dating
from the Mth century. On it are a mill, a statue cf Charlemagne
and an iron crucifix surmounted by a gilded cock. The latter
commemorates, according to tradition, the fowl which was the
first living being to cross the bridge and thus fell a prey to the
devil, who in hope of a nobler victim had sold his assistance
to the architect. Antiquaries, however, assert that it probably
marks the spot where criminals were in olden times flung into
the river. Other bridges are the Obermainbrticke of five iron
arches, opened in 1878; an iron foot (suspension) bridge, the
Untermainbrucke; the Wilhelmsbrttcke, a fine structure, which
from 1849 to 1890 served as a railway bridge and was then
opened as a road bridge; and two new iron bridges at Gutleuthof
and Xiederrad (below the city), which carry the railway traffic
from the south to the north bank of the Main, where all lines
converge in a central station of the Prussian state railways.
This station, which was built in 1883-1888 and has replaced
the three stations belonging to private companies, which formerly
stood in juxtaposition on the Anlagen (or promenades) near the
Mainzer Tor, lies some half-mile to the west. The intervening
ground upon which the railway lines and buildings stood was
sold for building sites, the sum obtained being more than sufficient
to cover the cost of the majestic central terminus (the third
largest in the world), which, in addition to spacious and handsome
halls for passenger accommodation, has three glass-covered spans
of 180 ft. width each. Yet the exigencies of traffic demand
further extensions, and another large station was in 1909 in
process of construction at the east end of the city, devised to
receive the local traffic of lines running eastward, while a through
station for the north to south traffic was projected on a site
farther west of the central terminus.
Frankfort lies at the junction of lines of railway connecting
it directly with all the important cities of south and central
Germany. Here cross and unite the lines from Berlin to Basel,
from Cologne to Wiirzburg and Vienna, from Hamburg and
Cassel, and from Dresden and Leipzig to France and Switzerland.
The river Main has been dredged so as to afford heavy barge
traffic with the towns of the upper Main and with the Rhine,
and cargo boats load and unload alongside its busy quays.
A well-devised system of electric tramways provides for local
communication within the city and with the outlying suburbs.
Trade. Commerce and Industries. Frankfort has always
been more of a commercial than an industrial town, and though
of late yean it has somewhat lost its pre-eminent position as
a banking centre it has counterbalanced the loss in increased
industrial development. The suburbs of Sachsenhausen and
Bockcnhcim have particularly developed considerable industrial
activity, especially in publishing and printing, brewing and the
manufacture of quinine. Other sources of employment are the
cutting of hair for making hats, the production of fancy goods,
type, machinery, soap and perfumery, ready-made clothing,
chemicals, electro-technical apparatus, jewelry and metal wares.
Market gardening is extensively carried on in the neighbourhood
and cider largely manufactured. There are two great fairs held
in the town, the Ostermesse, or spring fair, and the Herbstmesse,
or autumn fair. The former, which was the original nucleus
of all the commercial prosperity of the ci'y, begins on the second
Wednesday before Easter; and the latter on the second Wednes-
day before the 8th of September. They last three weeks, and the
last day save one, called the Nickelchestag, is distinguished by
the influx of people from the neighbouring country. The trade in
leather is of great and growing importance. A horse fair has
been held twice a year since 1862 under the patronage of the
agricultural society; and the wool market was reinstituted
in 1872 by the German Trade Society (Deutscher Handelsverein).
Frankfort has long been famous as one of the principal banking
centres of Europe, and is now only second to Berlin, in this
respect, among German cities, and it is remarkable for the large
business that is done in government stock. In the I7lh century
the town was the seat of a great book-trade; but it has long
been distanced in this department by Leipzig. The 'Frankfurter
Journal was founded in 1615, the Postzeitung in 1616, the Neue
Frankfurter Zeilung in 1859, and the Frankfurter Presse in 1866.
Of memorial monuments the largest and most elaborate in
Frankfort is that erected in 1858 in honour of the early German
printers. It was modelled by Ed. von der Launitz and executed
by Herr von Krcis. The statues of Gutenberg, Fust and
Schb'ffer form a group on the top; an ornamented frieze presents
medallions of a number of famous printers; belorv these are
figures representing the towns cf Mainz, Strassburg, Venice
and Frankfort; and on the corners of the pedestal are allegorical
statues of theology, poetry, science and industry. The statue
of Goethe (1844) in the Goetheplatz is by Ludwig von Schwan-
thaler. The Schiller statue, erected in 1863, is the work of a
Frankfort artist, Johann Dielmann. A monument in the
Bockenheim Anlage, dated 1837, preserves the memory of
Guiollett, the burgomaster, to whom the town is mainly indebted
for the beautiful promenades which occupy the site of the old
fortifications; and similar monuments have been reared to
Senckenberg (1863), Schopenhauer, Klemens Brentano the poet
and Samuel Thomas Sdmmerring (1755-1830), the anatomist and
inventor of an electric telegraph. In the Opernplatz is an
equestrian statue of the emperor Wilhelm I. by Buscher.
Cemeteries. The new cemetery (opened in 1828) contains
the graves of Arthur Schopenhauer and Feuerbach, of Passavant
the biographer of Raphael, Ballenberger the artist, Hessemer
the architect, Sommerring, and Johann Friedrich Bohmer
the historian. The Bethmann vault attracts attention by
three bas-reliefs from the chisel of Thorwaldsen; and the
Reichenbach mausoleum is a vast pile designed by Hessemer
at the command of Wiliiam II. of Hesse, and adorned with
sculptures by Zwerger and von der Lausitz. In the Jewish
section, which is walled off from the rest of the burying-ground,
the most remarkable tombs are those of the Rothschild family.
Parks. In addition to the park in the south-western district,
Frankfort possesses two delightful "pleasure grounds, which
attract large numbers of visitors, the Palmengarten in the
west and the zoological garden in the east of the city. The
former is remarkable for the collection of palms purchased in
1868 from the deposed duke Adolph of Nassau.
Government. The present municipal constitution of the
city dates from 1867 and presents some points of difference
from the ordinary Prussian system. Bismarck was desirous of
giving the city, in view of its former freedom, a more liberal
constitution than is usual in ordinary cases. Formerly fifty-four
representatives were elected, but provision was made (in the
20
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN
constitution) for increasing the number, and they at present
number sixty-four, elected for six years. Every two years
a third of the number retire, but they are eligible for re-election.
These sixty-four representatives elect twenty town-councillors,
ten of whom receive a salary and ten do not. The chief burgo-
master (Oberburgermeister) is nominated by the emperor for
twelve years, and the second burgomaster must receive the
emperor's approval.
Since 1885 the city has been supplied with water of excellent
quality from the Stadtwald, Goldstein and Hinkelstein, and
the favourable sanitary condition of the town is seen in the low
death rate.
Population. The population of Frankfort has steadily
increased since the beginning of the ipth century; it amounted
in 1817 to 41,458; (184) 55,269; (1864) 77,372; (1871)
59,265; (1875) 103,136; (1890) 179,985; and (1905), including
the incorporated suburban districts, 334,951, of whom 175,909
were Protestants, 88,457 Roman Catholics and 21,974 Jews.
History. Excavations around the cathedral have incontest-
ably proved that Frankfort-on-Main (Trajectum ad Moenum)
was a settlement in Roman times and was probably founded
in the ist century of the Christian era. It may thus be accounted
one of the earliest German the so-called " Roman " towns.
Numerous places in the valley of the Main are mentioned in
chronicles anterior to the time that Frankfort is first noticed.
Disregarding popular tradition, which connects the origin of the
town with a legend that Charlemagne, when retreating before
the Saxons, was safely conducted across the river by a doe, it
may be asserted that the first genuine historical notice of the
town occurs in 793, when Einhard, Charlemagne's biographer,
tells us that he spent the winter in the villa Frankonovurd.
Next year there is mention more than once of a royal palace
here, and the early importance of the place is indicated by the
fact that in this year it was chosen as the seat of the ecclesiastical
council by which image- worship was condemned. The name
Frankfort is also found in several official documents of Charle-
magne's reign; and from the notices that occur in the early
chronicles and charters it would appear that the place was the
most populous at least of the numerous villages of the Main
district. During the Carolingian period it was the seat of no
fewer than 16 imperial councils or colloquies. The town was
probably at first built on an island in the river. It was originally
governed by the royal officer or actor dominicus, and down even
to the close of the Empire it remained a purely imperial or
royal town. It gradually acquired various privileges, and by
the close of the i4th century the only mark of dependence was
the payment of a yearly tax. Louis the Pious dwelt more
frequently at Frankfort than his father Charlemagne had done,
and about 823 he built himself a new palace, the basis of the later
Saalhof. In 822 and 823 two great diets were held in the palace,
and at the former there were present deputies from the eastern
Slavs, the Avars and the Normans. The place continued .to
be a favourite residence with Louis the German, who died there
in 876, and was the capital of the East Prankish kingdom.
By the rest of the Carolingian kings it was less frequently visited,
and this neglect was naturally greater during the period of the
Saxon and Salic emperors from 919 to 1137. Diets, however,
were held in the town in 951, 1015, 1069 and 1109, and councils
in 1000 and 1006. From a privilege of Henry IV., in 1074,
granting the city of Worms freedom from tax in their trade
with several royal cities, it appears that Frankfort was even
then a place of some commercial importance.
Under the Hohenstaufens many brilliant diets were held
within its walls. That of 1147 saw, also, the first election of a
German king at Frankfort, in the person of Henry, son of Conrad
III. But as the father outlived the son, it was Frederick I.,
Barbarossa, who was actually the first reigning king to be
elected here (in 1152). With the beginning of the I3th century
the municipal constitution appears to have taken definite shape.
The chief official was the royal bailiff (Schultheiss), who is first
mentioned in 1 193, and whose powers were subsequently enlarged
by the abolition, in 1219, of the office of the royal Vogt or advo-
catus. About this time a body of Schojfen (scabini, jurats),
fourteen in number, was formed to assist in the control of
municipal affairs, and with their appointment the first step was
taken towards civic representative government. Soon, however,
the activity of the Schojfen became specifically confined to the
determination of legal disputes, and in their place a new body
(Collegium) of counsellors Ratmannen also fourteen in number,
was appointed for the general administration of local matters,
in 1311, the two burgomasters, now chiefs of the municipality,
take the place of the royal Schullheiss. In the i3th century,
the Frankfort Fair, which is first mentioned in 1150, and the
origin of which must have been long anterior to that date, is
referred to as being largely frequented. No fewer than 10 new
churches were erected in the years from 1220 to 1270. It was
about the same period, probably in 1240, that the Jews first
settled in the town. In the contest which Louis the Bavarian
maintained with the papacy Frankfort sided with the emperor,
and it was consequently placed under an interdict for 20 years
from 1329 to 1349. On Louis' death it refused to accept the papal
conditions of pardon, and only yielded to Charles IV., the papal
nominee, when Giinther of Schwarzburg thought it more prudent
to abdicate in his favour. Charles granted the city a full amnesty,
and confirmed its liberties and privileges.
By the famous Golden Bull of 1356 Frankfort was declared
the seat of the imperial elections, and it still preserves an official
contemporaneous copy of the original document as the most
precious of the eight imperial bulls in its possession. From the
date of the bull to the close of the Empire Frankfort retained the
position of " Wahlstadt," and only five of the two-and-twenty
monarchs who ruled during that period were elected elsewhere.
In 1388-1389 Frankfort assisted the South German towns
in their wars with the princes and nobles (the Stadtekrieg),
and in a consequent battle with the troops of the Palatinate,
the town banner was lost and carried to Kronberg, where it was
long preserved as a trophy. On peace being concluded in 1391,
the town had to pay 12,562 florins, and this brought it into
great financial difficulties. In the course of the next 50 years
debt was contracted to the amount of 126,772 florins. The diet
at Worms in 1495 chose Frankfort as the seat of the newly
instituted imperial chamber, or " Reichskammergericht," and
it was not till 1527 that the chamber was removed to Spires.
At the Reformation Frankfort heartily joined the Protestant
party, and in consequence it was hardly treated both by the
emperor Charles V. and by the archbishop of Mainz. It refused
to subscribe the Augsburg Recess, but at the same time it was
not till 1536 that it was persuaded to join the League of Schmal-
kalden. On the failure of this confederation it opened its gates
to the imperial general Biiren on the 2gth of December 1546,
although he had passed by the city, which he considered too
strong for the forces under his command. The emperor was
merciful enough to leave it in possession of its privileges, but he
inflicted a fine of 80,000 gold gulden, and until October 1547
the citizens had to endure the presence of from 8000 to 10,000
soldiers. This resulted in a pestilence which not only lessened
the population, but threatened to give the death-blow to the great
annual fairs; and at the close of the war it was found that it
had cost the city no less than 228,931 gulden. In 1552 Frankfort
was invested for three weeks by Maurice of Saxony, who was
still in arms against the emperor Charles V., but it continued
to hold out till peace was concluded between the principal
combatants. Between 1612 and 1616 occurred the great
Fettmilch insurrection, perhaps the most remarkable episode
in the internal history of Frankfort. The magistracy had been
acquiring more and more the character of an oligarchy; all
power was practically in the hands of a few closely-related
families; and the gravest peculation and malversation took
place without hindrance. The ordinary citizens were roused to
assert their rights, and they found a leader in Vincenz Fettmilch,
who carried the contest to dangerous excesses, but lacked
ability to bring it to a successful issue. An imperial commission
was ultimately appointed, and the three principal culprits and
several of their associates were executed in 1616. It was not till
FRANKFORT-ON-ODER FRANKINCENSE
21
1801 that the last mouldering head of the Fcttmilch company
dropped unnoticed from the Rententurm, the old tower near
the bridge. In the words of Dr Kriegk, Geschichle von Frankfurt,
(1871), the insurrection completely destroyed the political
power of the gilds, gave new strength to the supremacy of
the patriciate, and brought no further advantage to the rest of
the citizens than a few improvements in the organization and
administration of the magistracy. The Jews, who had been
attacked by the popular party, were solemnly reinstated by
imperial command in all their previous privileges, and received
full compensation for their losses.
During the Thirty Years' War Frankfort did not escape.
In 1631 Gustavus Adolphus garrisoned it with 600 men, who
remained in possession till they were expelled four years later
by the imperial general Lamboy. In 1792 the citizens had to
pay 2,000,000 gulden to the French general Custine; and in
1796 Kleber exacted 8,000,000 francs. The independence of
Frankfort was brought to an end in 1806, on the formation of
the Confederation of the Rhine; and in 1810 it was made the
capital of the grand-duchy of Frankfort, which had an area of
3215 sq.m. with 302,100 inhabitants, and was divided into the
four districts of Frankfort, Aschaffenburg, Fulda and Hanau.
On the reconstitution of Germany in 1815 it again became a free
city, and in the following year it was declared the seat of the
German Confederation. In April 1833 occurred what is known
as the Frankfort Insurrection (Frankfurter Attentat), in which
a number of insurgents led by Georg Bunsen attempted to break
up the diet. The city joined the German Zollverein in 1836.
During the revolutionary period of 1848 the people of Frankfort,
where the united German parliament held its sessions, took a
chief part in political movements, and the streets of the town
were more than once the scene of conflict. In the war of 1866
they were on the Austrian side. On the i6th of July the Prussian
troops, under General Yogel von Falkenstein, entered the town,
and on the iSth of October it was formally incorporated with
the Prussian state. A fine of 6,000,000 florins was exacted.
In 1871 the treaty which concluded the Franco-German War
was signed in the Swan Hotel by Prince Bismarck and Jules
Favre, and it is consequently known as the peace of Frankfort.
AUTHORITIES. F. Rittweger, Frankfurt im Jahre 1848 (1808);
R. Jung. Dot kistorische Archn der Stadt Frankfurt (1897) ; A. Home,
Geitkuhte ton Frankfurt (4th ed., 1903); H. Grotefend, QueUen tur
Frankfurter Geschickte (Frankfort, 1884-1888); J. C. von Fichard,
Dit Entstehunf der Reichsstndt Frankfurt (Frankfort, 1819); G. L.
Kricgk. Geukukte von Frankfurt (Frankfort, 1871); J. F. Bohmer,
L'rkMndenbuck der Reithsstadt Frankfurt (new ed., 1901); B. Weber,
Zur Reformationsfesckickte der freien Reichsstadt Frankfurt (1895);
O. Speyer.Di* Frankfurter Revolution 1612-1616(1883) ; andL.Woerl,
Guide to Frankfort (Leipzig, 1898).
FRANKFORT-ON-ODER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg, 50 m. S.E. from Berlin on the main
line of railway to Breslau and at the junction of lines to CUstrin,
Posen and Grossenhain. Pop. (1905) 64,043. The town proper
lies on the left bank of the river Oder and is connected by a stone
bridge (replacing the old historical wooden structure) 900 ft.
long, with the suburb of Damm. The town is agreeably situated
and has broad and handsome streets, among them the " Linden,"
a spacious avenue. Above, on the western side, and partly lying
on the site of the old ramparts, is the residential quarter, consisting
mainly of villas and commanding a fine prospect of the Oder
valley. Between this suburb and the town lies the park, in
which is a monument to the poet Ewald Christian von Kleist,
who died here of wounds received in the battle of Kunersdorf.
Among the more important public buildings must be noticed
the Evangelical Marienkirche (Oberkirche), a handsome brick
edifice of the I3th century with five aisles, the Roman Catholic
church, the Rathhaus dating from 1607, and bearing on its
southern gable the device of a member of the Hanseatic League,
the government offices and the theatre. The university of
Frankfort, founded in 1506 by Joachim I., elector of Branden-
burg, was removed to Breslau in 1811, and the academical
buildings are now occupied by a school. To compensate it for
the low of its university, Frankfort -on-Oder was long the scat
of the court of appeal for the province, but of this it was deprived
in 1879. There are several handsome public monuments,
notably that to Duke Leopold of Brunswick, who was drowned
in the Oder while attempting to save life, on the 27th of April
1785. The town has a large garrison, consisting of nearly all
arms. Its industries are considerable, including the manufacture
of machinery, metal ware, chemicals, paper, leather and sugar.
Situated on the high road from Berlin to Silesia, and having an
extensive system of water communication by means of the Oder
and its canals to the Vistula and the Elbe, and being an important
railway centre, it has a lively export trade, which is further
fostered by its three annual fairs, held respectively at Rcminiscert
(the second Sunday in Lent), St Margaret's day and at Martin-
mas. In the neighbourhood are extensive coal fields.
Frankfort-on-the-Oder owes its origin and name to a settle-
ment of Franconian merchants here, in the I3th century, on
land conquered by the margrave of Brandenburg from the Wends.
In 1253 it was raised to the rank of a town by the margrave
John I. and borrowed from Berlin the Magdeburg civic con-
stitution. In 1379 it received from King Sigismund, then
margrave of Brandenburg, the right to free navigation of the
Oder; and from 1368 to about 1450 it belonged to the Hanseatic
League. The university, which is referred to above, was
opened by the elector Joachim I. in 1506, was removed in 1516
to Kottbus and restored again to Frankfort in 1539, at which
date the Reformation was introduced. It was dispersed during
the Thirty Years' War and again restored by the Great Elector,
but finally transferred to Breslau in 1811.
Frankfort has suffered much from the vicissitudes of war.
In the isth century it successfully withstood sieges by the
Hussites (1429 and 1432), by the Poles (1450) and by the duke
of Sagan (1477). In the Thirty Years' War it was successively
taken by Gustavus Adolphus (1631), by Wallenstein (1633), by
the elector of Brandenburg (1634), and again by the Swedes,
who held it from 1640 to 1644. During the Seven Years' War
it was taken by the Russians (1739)- In 1812 it was occupied
by the French, who- remained till March 1813, when the Russians
marched in.
See K. R. Hausen, Geschichte der Universitat und Stadt Frankfurt
(1806), and Bieder und Gurnik, Bilder aus der Geschichte der Stadt
Frankfurt-an-der-Oder (1898).
FRANKINCENSE, 1 or OUHANUM' (Gr. \tfavurot, later duos;
Lat., tus or thus; Heb., lebonah;* Ar., lubdn; 4 Turk., ghyunluk;
Hind., ganda-birosa 1 ') , a gum-resin obtained from certain species
of trees of the genus Boswellia, and natural order Burseraceae.
The members of the genus are possessed of the following
characters: Bark often papyraceous; leaves deciduous, com- 1
pound, alternate and imparipinnate, with leaflets serrate or
entire; flowers in racemes or panicles, white, green, yellowish
or pink, having a small persistent, s-dentate calyx, 5 petals,
10 stamens, a sessile 3 to s-chambered ovary, a long style, and
a 3-lobed stigma; fruit trigonal or pentagonal; and seed
compressed. Sir George Birdwood (Trans. Lin. Soc. xxvii.,
1 Stephen Skinner, M.D. (Etymologiton linguae Anglicanae, Lond.,
1 67 1 ),gjives the derivation: "Frankincense.Thus, q.d. Incensum (i.e.
Thus Libere seu Liberaliter, ut in sacris officiis par est, adolendum."
* " Sic olibanum dixere pro thure ex Graeco 6 Xlpavot "(Salmasius,
C. S. Plinianae exercitattones, t. ii. p. 926, b. F., Traj. ad Rhcn.,
1689 fol.). So also Fuchs (Op. didact. pars. ii. p. 42, 1604 fol.),
" Officims non sine risu eruditorum, Graeco articulo adjecto, Olibanus
vocatur." The term olibano was used in ecclesiastical Latin as early
as the pontificate of Benedict IX., in the nth century. (See I- mi.
Ughellus, Italia sacra, torn. i. 108, D., Yen., 1717 fol.)
'So designated from its whiteness (J. G. Stuckius, Sacror. el
sacrific. gent, descrip., p. 79, Lugd. Bat., 1695, fol.; Kitto, Cycl.
BM. Lit. ii. p. 806, 1870); cf. Laben, the Somali name for cream
(R. F. Burton, First Footsteps in E. Africa, p. 178, 1856).
4 Written Louan by Garcias da llorta (Aromat. et simpl. medica-
ment, hist., C. Clusii Atrebatis Exoticorum lib. sept., p. 157, 1605,
fol.), and stated to have been derived by the Arabs from the Greek
name, the term less commonly used by them being Conder: cf.
Sanskrit Kunda. According to Colebrookc (in Asiatick Res. ix.
P- 379. 1807), the Hindu writers on Materia Medica use for the resin
of Boswellia thurifera the designation Cunduru.
* A term applied also to the resinous exudation of Pinus longifolia
(see Dr E. J. Waring, Pharmacopoeia of India, p. 52, Lond., 1868).
22
FRANKINCENSE
1871) distinguishes five species of Boswellia: (A) B. thurifera,
Colebr. (B. glabra and B. serrata, Roxb.), indigenous to the
mountainous tracts of central India and the Coromandel coast,
and B. papyrifera (Plosslea floribunda, Endl.) of Abyssinia,
which, though both thuriferous, are not known to yield any
of the olibanum of commerce; and (B) B. Frereana (see
ELEME, vol. x. p. 259), B. Bhua-Dajiana, and B. Carterii, the
" Yegaar," " Mohr Add," and " Mohr Madow " of the Somali
country, in East Africa, the last species including a variety, the
" Maghrayt d'Sheehaz " of Hadramaut, Arabia, all of which
are sources of true frankincense or olibanum. The trees on the
Somali coast are described by Captain G. B. Kempthorne as
growing, without soil, out of polished marble rocks, to which they
are attached by a thick oval mass of substance resembling a
mixture of lime and mortar: the purer the marble the finer
appears to be the growth of the tree. The young trees, he
states, furnish the most valuable gum, the older yielding merely
a clear glutinous fluid resembling copal varnish. 1 To obtain
the frankincense a deep incision is made in the trunk of the tree,
and below it a narrow strip of bark 5 in. in length is peeled off.
When the milk-like juice (" spuma pinguis," Pliny) which
exudes has hardened by exposure to the atmosphere, the incision
is deepened. In about three months the resin has attained the
required degree of consistency. The season for gathering lasts
from May until the first rains in September. The large clear
globules are scraped off into baskets, and the inferior quality
that has run down the tree is collected separately. The coast
of south Arabia is yearly visited by parties of Somalis, who pay
the Arabs for the privilege of collecting frankincense. 2 In the
interior of the country about the plain of Dhofar, 3 during the
south-west monsoon, frankincense and other gums are gathered
by the Beni Gurrah Bedouins, and might be obtained by them
in much larger quantities; their lawlessness, however, and the
lack of a safe place of exchange or sale are obstacles to the
development of trade. (See C. Y. Ward, The Gulf of 'Aden Pilot,
p. 117, 1863.) Much as formerly in the region of Sakhalites in
Arabia (the tract between Ras Makalla and Ras Agab), 4 described
by Arrian, so now on the sea-coast of the Somali country, the
frankincense when collected is stored in heaps at various stations.
Thence, packed in sheep- and goat-skins, in quantities of 20 to
40 Ib, it is carried on camels to Berbera, for shipment either to
Aden, Makalla and other Arabian ports, or directly to Bombay. 5
At Bombay, like gum-acacia, it is assorted, and is then packed
for re-exportation to Europe, China and elsewhere. 6 Arrian re-
lates that it was an import of Barbarike on the Sinthus (Indus).
The idea held by several writers, including Niebuhr, that frank-
incense was a product of India, would seem to have originated
in a confusion of that drug with benzoin and other odoriferous
substances, and also in the sale of imported frankincense with
the native products of India. The gum resin of Boswellia
thurifera was described by Colebrooke (in Asiatick Researches,
ix. 381), and after him by Dr J. Fleming (Ib. xi. 158), as true
frankincense, or olibanum; from this, however, it differs in its
softness, and tendency to melt into a mass 7 (Birdwood, loc. cit.,
p. 146). It is sold in the village bazaars of Khandeish in India
under the name of Dup-Salai, i.e. incense of the " Salai tree";
and according to Mr F. Porter Smith, M.B. (Contrib. towards
the Mat. Med. and Nat. Hist, of China, p. 162, Shanghai, 1871),
is used as incense in China. The last authority also mentions
1 See " Appendix," vol. i. p. 419 of Sir W. C. Harris's Highland
of Aelhio/ria (2nd ed., Lond., 1844); and Trans. Bombay Ceog. Soc.
xiii. (1857), p. 136.
2 Cruttenden, Trans. Bombay Ceog. Soc. vii. (1846), p. 121; S. B.
Miles, /. Geog. Soc. (1872).
* Or Dhafar. The incense of " Dofar " is alluded to by Camoens,
Os Lusiadas, x. 201.
4 H. J. Carter, " Comparative Geog. of the South-East Coast of
Arabia," in J. Bombay Branch of R. Asiatic Soc. iii. (Jan. 1851),
p. 296; and Miiller, Geog. Graeci Minores, i. p. 278 (Paris, 1855)
J. Vaughan, Pharm. Journ. xii. (1853) pp. 227-229; and W;
op. cit. p. 97
ard,
1 Pereira, Elem. of Mai. Med. ii. pt. 2, p. 380 (4th ed., 1847).
7 " Boswellia thurifera," . . . says Waring (Pharm. of India,
52), " has been thought to yield East Indian olibanum, but there
no reliable evidence of its so doing."
olibanum as a reputed natural product of China. Bernhard
von Breydenbach, 8 Ausonius, Florus and others, arguing, it
would seem, from its Hebrew and Greek names, concluded that
olibanum came from Mount Lebanon; and Chardin (Voyage
en Perse, &c., 1711) makes the statement that the frankincense
tree grows in the mountains of Persia, particularly Caramania.
Frankincense, or olibanum, occurs in commerce in semi-
opaque, round, ovate or oblong tears or irregular lumps, which
are covered externally with a white dust, the result of their
friction against one another. It has an amorphous internal
structure, a dull fracture; is of a yellow to yellowish-brown hue,
the purer varieties being almost colourless, or possessing a greenish
tinge, and has a somewhat bitter aromatic taste, and a balsamic
odour, which is developed by heating. Immersed in alcohol
it becomes opaque, and with water it yields an emulsion. It
contains about 72% of resin soluble in alcohol (Kurbatow);
a large proportion of gum soluble in water, and apparently
identical with gum arabic; and a small quantity of a colourless
inflammable essential oil, one of the constituents of which is
the body oliben, CioHie. Frankincense burns with a bright
white flame, leaving an ash consisting mainly of calcium car-
bonate, the remainder being calcium phosphate, and the sulphate,
chloride and carbonate of potassium (Braconnot). 9 Good
frankincense, Pliny tells us, is recognized by its whiteness, size,
brittleness and ready inflammability. That which occurs in
globular drops is, he says, termed " male frankincense " ; the
most esteemed, he further remarks, is in breast-shaped drops,
formed each by the union of two tears. 10 The best frankincense,
as we learn from Arrian, 11 was formerly exported from the neigh-
bourhood of Cape Elephant in Africa (the modern Ras Fiel) ; and
A. von Kremer, in his description of the commerce of the Red
Sea (Aegyptcn, &c., p. 185, ii. Theil, Leipzig, 1863), observes
that the African frankincense, called by the Arabs " asli," is of
twice the value of the Arabian " luban." Captain S. B. Miles
(loc. cit., p. 64) states that the best kind of frankincense, known
to the Somali as " bedwi " or " sheheri," comes from the trees
" Mohr Add " and " Mohr Madow " (vide supra), and from a
taller species of Boswellia, the " Boido," and is sent to Bombay
for exportation to Europe; and that an inferior " mayeti," the
produce of the " Yegaar," is exported chiefly to Jeddah and
Yemen ports. 12 The latter may possibly be what Niebuhr alludes
to as " Indian frankincense." 13 Garcias da Horta, in asserting
the Arabian origin of the drug, remarks that the term " Indian "
is often applied by the Arabs to a dark-coloured variety. 14
According to Pliny (Nal.Hist.xiv. i; cf. Ovid, Fasti i. 337
8 " Libanus igitur est mons redplentie & summe aromaticitatis.
nam ibi herbe odorifere crescunt. ibi etiam arbores thurifere coale-
scunt quarum gummi electum olibanum a medicis nuncupatur."-
Perigrinatio, p. 53 (1502, fol.).
9 See, on the chemistry of frankincense, Braconnot, Ann. de chimie,
Ixviii. (1808) pp. 60-69; Johnston, Phil. Trans. (1839), pp. 301-305;
J. Stenhouse, Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. xxxv. (1840) p. 306;
and A. Kurbatow, Zeitsch. fur Chem. (1871), p. 201.
10 " Praecipua autem gratia est mammosp, cum haerente lacryma
pripre consecuta alia miscuit se " (Nat. Hist. xii. 32). One of the
Chinese names for frankincense, Ju-hiang, " milk-perfume," is
explained by the Pen Ts'au (xxxiv. 45), a Chinese work, as being
derived from the nipple-like form of its drops. (See E. Bretschneider,
On the Knowledge possessed by the Ancient Chinese of the Arabs, &c.,
p. 19, Lond., 1871.)
11 The Voyage of Nearchus, loc. cit.
12 Vaughan (Pharm. Journ. xii. 1853) speaks of the Arabian
Luban, commonly called Morbat or Shaharree Luban, as realizing
higher prices in the market than any of the qualities exported from
Africa. The incense of " Esher," i.e. Shihr or Shehr, is mentioned
by Marco Polo, as also by Barbosa. (See Yule, op. cit. ii. p. 377.)
J. Raymond Wellsted (Travels to the City of the Caliphs, p. 173, Lond.,
1840) distinguishes two kinds of frankincense " Meaty," selling at
$4 per cwt., and an inferior article fetching 20% less.
" " Es scheint, dass selbcr die Araber ihr eignes Rauchwerk nicht
hoch schatzen; denn die Vornehmen in Jemen brauchen gemeiniglich
indianisches Rauchwerk, ja einc grosse Menge Mastix von der Inscl
Scio " (Beschreibung von Arabien, p. 143, Kopenh., 1772).
14 " De Arabibus minus mirum, qui nigricantem colorem, quo Thus
Indicum praeditum esse vult Dioscorides [lib. i. c. 70], Indum
plerumque vocent, ut ex Myrobalano nigro quern Indum appellant,
patet " (op. sup. cit. p. 157).
FRANKING FRANKLAND
sq.), frankincense was not sacriticiolly employed in Trojan times.
It was used by the ancient Egyptians in their religious rites, but,
a* Herodotus tells us (ii. 86), not in embalming. It constituted
a fourth pan of the Jewish incense of the sanctuary (Ex. xxx.
34), and is frequently mentioned in the Pentateuch. With other
spices it was stored in a great chamber of the house of God at
Jerusalem (i Chron. is. )<), Nth. xiii. 5-9). On the sacrificial use
and import of frankincense and similar substances see INCENSE.
In the Red Sea regions frankincense is valued not only for its
sweet odour when burnt, but as a masticatory; and blazing
lumps of it are not infrequently used for illumination instead of
oil lamps. Its fumes are an excellent insectifuge. As a medicine
it was in former times in high repute. Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxv. 82)
mentions it as an antidote to hemlock. Avicenna (ed. Plempii,
lib. ii. p. 161, Lovanii, 1658, fol.) recommends it for tumours,
ulcers of the head and ears, affections of the breast, vomiting,
dysentery and fevers. In the East frankincense has been found
efficacious as an external application in carbuncles, blind boils
and gangrenous sores, and as an internal agent is given in
gonorrhoea. In China it was an old internal remedy for leprosy
and struma, and is accredited with stimulant, tonic, sedative,
astringent and vulnerary properties. It is not used in modern
medicine, being destitute of any special virtues. (See Waring,
Pkarm. of India, p. 443, &c. ; and F. Porter Smith, op. cit., p. 162.)
Common frankincense or thus, Abietis resina, is the term
applied to a resin which exudes from fissures in the bark of the
Norway spruce fir, Abies excelsa, D.C.; when melted in hot
water and strained it constitutes " Burgundy pitch," I'ix
abuiina. The concreted turpentine obtained in the United States
by making incisions in the trunk of a species of pine, Pinus
austraiis, is also so designated. It is commercially known as
" scrape," and is similar to the French " galipot " or " barras."
Common frankincense is an ingredient in some ointments and
plasters, and on account of its pleasant odour when burned
has been used in incense as a substitute for olibanum. (See
Fliickiger and Hanbury, Pkarmacographia.) The " black frankin-
cense oil " of the Turks is stated by Hanbury (Science Papers,
p. 142, 1876) to be liquid storax. (F. H. B.)
FRANKING, a term used for the right of sending letters or
postal packages free (Fr. franc) of charge. The privilege was
claimed by the House of Commons in 1660 in " a Bill for erecting
and establishing a Post Office," their demand being that all
letters addressed to or sent by members during the session should
be carried free. The clause embodying this claim was struck
out by the Lords, but with the proviso in the Act as passed
for the free carriage of all letters to and from the king and the
great officers of state, and also the single inland letters of the
members of that present parliament during that session only.
It seems, however, that the practice was tolerated until 1764,
when by an act dealing with postage it was legalized, every peer
and each member of the House of Commons being allowed to
send free ten letters a day, not exceeding an ounce in weight,
to any part of the United Kingdom, and to receive fifteen. The
act did not restrict the privilege to letters either actually written
by or to the member, and thus the right was very easily abused,
members sending and receiving letters for friends, all that was
necessary being the signature of the peer or M.P. in the corner
of the envelope. Wholesale franking grew usual, and M.l'.'s
supplied their friends with envelopes already signed to be used
at any time. In 1837 the scandal had become so great that
stricter regulations came into force. The franker had to write
the full address, to which he had to add his name, the post-town
and the day of the month; the letter had to be posted on the
day written or the following day at the latest, and in a post-town
not more than 20 m. from the place where the peer or M.P. was
then living. On the loth of January 1840 parliamentary franking
was abolished on the introduction of the uniform penny rate.
In the United States the franking privilege was first granted in
January 1776 to the soldiers engaged in the American War of
Independence. The right was gradually extended till it included
nearly all officials and members of the public service. By special
acts the privilege was bestowed on presidents and their widows.
By an act of the 3rd of March 1843, franking was limited to the
president, vice-president, members and delegates in Congress and
postmasters, other officers being required to keep quarterly
accounts of postage and pay it from their contingent funds.
In 1851 free exchange of newspapers was re-established. By an
act of the 3rd of March 1863 the privilege was granted the
president and his private secretary, the vice-president, chiefs of
executive departments, such heads of bureaus and chief clerks
as might be designated by the postmaster-general for official
letters only; senators and representatives in Congress for all
correspondence, senders of petitions to either branch of the
legislature, and to publishers of newspapers for their exchanges.
There was a limit as to weight. Members of Congress could also
frank, in matters concerning the federal department of agricul-
ture, " seeds, roots and cuttings," the weight to be fixed by the
postmaster-general. This act remained in force till the 3ist of
January 1873, when franking was abolished. Since 1875, by
sundry acts, franking for official correspondence, government
publications, seeds, &c., has been allowed to congressmen, ex-
congressmen (for 9 months after the close of their term), congress-
men-elect and other government officials. By special acts of
1881, 1886, 1902, 1909, respectively, the franking privilege was
granted to the widows of Presidents Garfield, Grant, McKinley
and Cleveland.
FRANKL, LUDWIQ AUGUST (1810-1894), Austrian poet.
He took part in the revolution of 1848, and his poems on liberty
had considerable vogue. His lyrics are among his best work.
He was secretary of the Jewish community in Vienna, and did a
lasting service to education by his visit to the Orient in 1856.
He founded the first modern Jewish school (the Von Lammel
Schule) in Jerusalem. His brilliant volumes Nach Jerusalem
describing his eastern tour have been translated into English,
as is the case with many of his poems. His collected poems
appeared in three volumes in 1880. (I. A.)
FRANKLAND, SIR EDWARD (1825-1899), English chemist,
was born at Churchtown, near Lancaster, on the i8th of January
1825. After attending the grammar school at Lancaster he spent
six years as an apprentice to a druggist in that town. In 1845
he went to London and entered Lyon Playfair's laboratory,
subsequently working under R. W. Bunsen at Marburg. In
1847 he was appointed science-master at Queenwood school,
Hampshire, where he first met J. Tyndall, and in 1851 first
professor of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester. Return-
ing to London six years later he became lecturer in chemistry
at St Bartholomew's hospital, and in 1863 professor of chemistry
at the Royal Institution. From an early age he engaged in
original research with great success.
Analytical problems, such as the isolation of certain organic
radicals, attracted his attention to begin with, but he soon
turned to synthetical studies, and he was only about twenty-five
years of age when an investigation, doubtless suggested by the
work of his master, Bunsen, on cacodyl, yielded the interesting
discovery of the organo-metallic compounds. The theoretical
deductions which he drew from the consideration of these bodies
were even more interesting and important than the bodies
themselves. Perceiving a molecular isonomy between them and
the inorganic compounds of the metals from which they may be
formed, he saw their true molecular type in the oxygen, sulphur
or chlorine compounds of those metals, from which he held
them to be derived by the substitution of an organic group for
the oxygen, sulphur, &c. In this way they enabled him to over-
throw the theory of conjugate compounds, and they further led
him in 1852 to publish the conception that the atoms of each
elementary substance have a definite saturation capacity, so
that they can only combine with a certain limited number of
the atoms of other elements. The theory of valency thus founded
has dominated the subsequent development of chemical doctrine,
and forms the groundwork upon which the fabric of modern
structural chemistry reposes.
In applied chemistry Frankland's great work was in connexion
with water-supply. Appointed a member of the second royal
commission on the pollution of rivers in 1868, he was provided
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
by the government with a completely-equipped laboratory, in
which, for a period of six years, he carried on the inquiries
necessary for the purposes of that body, and was thus the means
of bringing to light an enormous amount of valuable information
respecting the contamination of rivers by sewage, trade-refuse,
&c., and the purification of water for domestic use. In 1865,
when he succeeded A. W. von Hofmann at the School of Mines,
he undertook the duty of making monthly reports to the registrar-
general on the character of the water supplied to London, and
these he continued down to the end of his life. At one time he
was an unsparing critic of its quality, but in later years he became
strongly convinced of its general excellence and wholesomeness.
His analyses were both chemical and bacteriological, and his
dissatisfaction with the processes in vogue for the former at
the time of his appointment caused him to spend two years in
devising new and more accurate methods. In 1859 he passed a
night on the very top of Mont Blanc in company with John
Tyndall. One of the purposes of the expedition was to discover
whether the rate of combustion of a candle varies with the
density of the atmosphere in which it is burnt, a question which
was answered in the negative. Other observations made by
Frankland at the time formed the starting-point of a series of
experiments which yielded far-reaching results. He noticed
that at the summit the candle gave a very poor light, and was
thereby led to investigate the effect produced on luminous
flames by varying the pressure of the atmosphere in which they
are burning. He found that pressure increases luminosity, so
that hydrogen, for example, the flame of which in normal
circumstances gives no light, burns with a luminous flame under
a pressure of ten or twenty atmospheres, and the inference he
drew was that the presence of solid particles is not the only
factor that determines the light-giving power of a flame.
Further, he showed that the spectrum of a dense ignited gas
resembles that of an incandescent liquid or solid, and he traced a
gradual change in the spectrum of an incandescent gas under
increasing pressure, the sharp lines observable when it is ex-
tremely attenuated broadening out to nebulous bands as the
pressure rises, till they merge in the continuous spectrum as the
gas approaches a density comparable with that of the liquid
state. An application of these results to solar physics in con-
junction with Sir Norman Lockyer led to the view that at least
the external layers of the sun cannot consist of matter in the
liquid or solid forms, but must be composed of gases or vapours.
Frankland and Lockyer were also the discoverers of helium.
In 1868 they noticed in the solar spectrum a bright yellow line
which did not correspond to any substance then known, and
which they therefore attributed to the then hypothetical element,
helium.
Sir Edward Frankland, who was made a K.C.B. in 1897, died
on the gth of August 1899 while on a holiday at Golaa, Gud-
brandsdalen, Norway.
A memorial lecture delivered by Professor H. E. Armstrong before
the London Chemical Society on the 3151 of October 1901 contained
many personal details of Frankland's life, together with a full
discussion of his scientific work; and a volume of Autobiographical
Sketches was printed for private circulation in 1902. His original
papers, down to 1877, were collected and published in that year as
Experimental Researches in Pure, Applied and Physical Chemistry.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1106-1790), American diplomat,
statesman and scientist, was born on the i7th of January 1706'
in a house in Milk Street, opposite the Old South church, Boston,
Massachusetts. He was the tenth son of Josiah Franklin, and
the eighth child and youngest son of ten children borne by
Abiah Folger, his father's second wife. The elder Franklin was
born at Ecton in Northamptonshire, England, where the
strongly Protestant Franklin family may be traced back for
nearly four centuries. He had married young and had migrated
from Banbury to Boston, Massachusetts, in 1685. Benjamin
could not remember when he did not know how to read, and
when eight years old he was sent to the Boston grammar school,
being destined by his father for the church as a tithe of his sons.
He spent a year there and a year' in a school for writing and
arithmetic, and then at the age of ten he was taken from- school
to assist his father in the business of a tallow-chandler and soap-
boiler. In his thirteenth year he was apprenticed to his half-
brother James, who was establishing himself in the printing
business, and who in 1721 started the New England Courant,
one of the earliest newspapers in America.
Benjamin's tastes had at first been for the sea rather than the
pulpit; now they inclined rather to intellectual than to other
pleasures. At an early age he had made himself familiar with
The Pilgrim's Progress, with Locke, On the Human Understanding,
and with a volume of The Spectator. Thanks to his father's
excellent advice, he gave up writing doggerel verse (much of
which had been printed by his brother and- sold on the streets)
and turned to prose composition. His success in reproducing
articles he had read in The Spectator led him to write an article
for his brother's paper, which he slipped under the door of the
printing shop with no name attached, and which was printed and
attracted some attention. After repeated successes of the same
sort Benjamin threw off his disguise and contributed regularly
to the Courant. When, after various journalistic indiscretions,
James Franklin in 1722 was forbidden to publish the Courant,
it appeared with Benjamin's name as that of the publisher and
was received with much favour, chiefly because of the cleverness
of his articles signed " Dr Janus," which, like those previously
signed " Mistress Silence Dogood," gave promise of " Poor
Richard." But Benjamin's management of the paper, and
particularly his free-thinking, displeased the authorities; the
relations of the two brothers gradually grew unfriendly, possibly,
as Benjamin thought, because of his brother's jealousy of his
superior ability; and Benjamin determined to quit his brother's
employ and to leave New England. He made his way first to
New York City, and then (October 1723) to Philadelphia, where
he got employment with a printer named Samuel Keimer. 1
A rapid composer and a workman full of resource, F r anklir
was soon recognized as the master spirit of the shop. Sir William
Keith (1680-1749), governor of the province, urged him to start
in business for himself, and when Franklin had unsuccessfully
appealed to his father for the means to do so, Keith promised
to furnish him with what he needed for the equipment of a new
printing office and sent him to England to buy the materials.
Keith had repeatedly promised to send a letter of credit by the
ship on which Franklin sailed, but when the Channel was reached
and the ship's mails were examined no such letter was found.
Franklin reached London in December 1724, and found employ-
ment first at Palmer's, a famous printing house in Bartholomew
Close, and afterwards at Watts's Printing House. At Palmer's
he had set up a second edition of Wollaston's Religion of Nature
Delineated. To refute this book and to prove that there could
be no such thing as religion, he wrote and printed a small pam-
phlet, A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain,
which brought him some curious acquaintances, and of which
he soon became thoroughly ashamed. After a year and a half
in London, Franklin was persuaded by a friend named Denham,
a Quaker merchant, to return with him to America and engage-
in mercantile business; he accordingly gave up printing, but
a few days before sailing he received a tempting offer to remain
and give lessons in swimming his feats as a swimmer having
given him considerable reputation and he says that he might
have consented " had the overtures been sooner made." He
reached Philadelphia in October 1726, but a few months later
Denham died, and Franklin was induced by large wages to
return to his old employer Keimer; with Keimer he quarrelled
repeatedly, thinking himself ill used and kept only to train
apprentices until they could in some degree take his place.
1 Keimer and his sister had come the year before from London,
where he had learned his trade; both were ardent members of the
fanatic band of " French prophets." He proposed founding a new
sect with the help of Franklin, who after leaving his shop ridiculed
him for his long square beard and for keeping the seventh day.
Keimer settled m the Barbadoes about 1730; and in 1731 began
to publish at Bridgetown the semi-weekly Barbadoes Gazette. Selec-
tions from it called Caribbeana (1741) and A Brand Plucked from the
Burning, Exemplified in the Unparalleled Case of Samuel Keimer
(1718) are from his pen. He died about 1738.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
In 1728 Franklin and Hugh Meredith, a fellow-worker at
Keimer's, set up in business for themselves; the capital being
furnished by Meredith's father. In 1730 the partnership was
dissolved, and Franklin, through the financial assistance of two
friends, secured the sole management of the printing house.
In September 1729 he bought at a merely nominal price The
/VituryfaiMM Gjsettt, a weekly newspaper which Keimer had
started nine months before to defeat a similar project of
Franklin's, and which Franklin conducted until 1 765. Franklin's
superior management of the paper, his new type, " some spirited
remarks " on the controversy between the Massachusetts
assembly and Governor Burnet, brought his paper into immediate
notice, and his success both as a printer and as a journalist was
assured and complete. In 1731 he established in Philadelphia
one of the earliest circulating libraries in America (often said to
have been the earliest), and in 1732 he published the first of his
Almanacks, under the pseudonym of Richard Saunders. These
" Poor Richard's Almanacks " were issued for the next twenty-five
yean with remarkable success, the annual sale averaging 10,000
copies, and far exceeding the sale of any other publication in
the colonies.
Beginning in 1733 Franklin taught himself enough French,
Italian, Spanish and Latin to read these languages with some
ease. In 1736 he was chosen clerk of the General Assembly,
and served in this capacity until 1751. In 1737 he had been
appointed postmaster at Philadelphia, and about the same time
he organized the first police force and fire company in the colonies;
in 1749, after he had written Proposals Relating to the Education
ef Youth in Pensilvania, he and twenty-three other citizens of
Philadelphia formed themselves into an association for the
purpose of establishing an academy, which was opened in 1751,
was chartered in 1753, and eventually became the University
of Pennsylvania; in 1727 he organized a debating club, the
" Junto," in Philadelphia, and later he was one of the founders of
the American Philosophical Society (1743; incorporated 1780);
he took the lead in the organization of a militia force, and in the
paving of the city streets, improved the method of street lighting,
and assisted in the founding of a city hospital (1751); in brief,
be gave the impulse to nearly every measure or project for the
welfare and prosperity of Philadelphia undertaken in his day.
In 1751 he became a member of the General Assembly of Penn-
sylvania, in which he served for thirteen years. In 1753 he and
William Hunter were put in charge of the post service of the
colonies, which he brought in the next ten years to a high
state of efficiency and made a financial success; this position
be held until 1774. He visited nearly every post office in the
colonies and increased the mail service between New York
and Philadelphia from once to three times a week in summer,
and from twice a month to once a week in winter. When
war with France appeared imminent in 1754, Franklin was
sent to the Albany Convention, where he submitted his plan for
colonial union (see ALBANY, N.Y.). When the home govern-
ment sent over General Edward Braddock 1 with two regiments
of British troops, Franklin undertook to secure the requisite
number of horses and waggons for the march against Ft.
Duquesne, and became personally responsible for payment to
the Pennsylvanians who furnished them. Notwithstanding the
alarm occasioned by Braddock's defeat, the old quarrel between
the proprietors of Pennsylvania and the assembly prevented
any adequate preparations for defence; " with incredible
meanness " the proprietors had instructed their governors to
approve no act for levying the necessary taxes, unless the vast
estates of the proprietors were by the same act exempted. So
great was the confidence in Franklin in this emergency that early
in 1756 the governor of Pennsylvania placed him in charge of the
north-western frontier of the province, with power to raise troops,
issue commissions and erect blockhouses; and Franklin remained
in the wilderness for over a month, superintending the building
1 The meeting between Franklin, the type of the shrewd, cool
provincial, and Braddock, a blustering, blundering, drinking British
oldier, is dramatically portrayed by Thackeray in the 9th chapter
of TTu Virginians.
25
of forts and watching the Indians. In February 1757 the
assembly, " finding the proprietary obstinately persisted in
manacling their deputies with instructions inconsistent not only
with the privileges of the people, but with the service of the crown,
resolv'd to petition the king against them," and appointed
Franklin as their agent to present the petition. He arrived in
London on the 27th of July 1757, and shortly afterwards, when,
at a conference with Earl Granville, president of the council,
the latter declared that " the King is the legislator of the colonies,"
Franklin in reply declared that the laws of the colonies were to be
made by their assemblies, to be passed upon by the king, and
when once approved were no longer subject to repeal or amend-
ment by the crown. As the assemblies, said he, could not make
permanent laws without the king's consent, " neither could he
make a law for them without theirs." This opposition of views
distinctly raised the issue between the home government and the
colonies. As to the proprietors Franklin succeeded in 1760 in
securing an understanding that the assembly should pass an
act exempting from taxation the unsurveyed waste lands of the
Penn estate, the surveyed waste lands being assessed at the usual
rate for other property of that description. Thus the proprietors
finally acknowledged the right of the assembly to tax their
estates.
The success of Franklin's first foreign mission was, therefore,
substantial and satisfactory. During this sojourn of five years in
England he had made many valuable friends outside of court
and political circles, among whom Hume, Robertson and Adam
Smith were conspicuous. In. 17 59, for his literary and more
particularly his scientific attainments, he received the freedom
of the city of Edinburgh and the degree of doctor of laws from
the university of St Andrews. He had been made a Master of
Arts at Harvard and at Yale in 1753, and at the college of William
and Mary in 1756; and in 1762 he received the degree of D.C.L.
at Oxford. While in England he had made active use of his
remarkable talent for pamphleteering. In the clamour for peace
following the death of George II. (25th of October 1760), he was
for a vigorous prosecution of the war with France; he had
written what purported to be a chapter from an old book written
by a Spanish Jesuit, On the Meanes of Disposing the Enemie to
Peace, which had a great effect; and in the spring of 1760 there
had been published a more elaborate paper written by Franklin
with the assistance of Richard Jackson, agent of Massachusetts
and Connecticut in London, entitled The Interest of Great Britain
Considered with Regard to Her Colonies, and the Acquisitions of
Canada and Guadeloupe (1760). This pamphlet answered the
argument that it would be unsafe to keep Canada because of the
added strength that would thus be given to any possible move-
ment for independence in the English colonies, by urging that
so long as Canada remained French there could be no safety
for the English colonies in North America, nor any permanent
peace in Europe. Tradition reports that this pamphlet had
considerable weight in determining the ministry to retain
Canada.
Franklin sailed again for America in August 1762, hoping to be
able to settle down in quiet and devote the remainder of his life
to experiments in physics. This quiet was interrupted, however,
by the " Paxton Massacre " (Dec. 14, 1763) the slaughter of a
score of Indians (children, women and old men) at Lancaster,
Pennsylvania, by some young rowdies from the town of Paxton,
who then marched upon Philadelphia to kill a few Christian
Indians there. Franklin, appealed to by the governor, raised
a troop sufficient to frighten away the " Paxton boys," and for
the moment there seemed a possibility of an understanding
between Franklin and the proprietors. But the question of
taxing the estates of the proprietors came up in a new form,
and a petition from the assembly was drawn by Franklin,
requesting the king " to resume the government " of Penn-
sylvania. In the autumn election of 1764 the influence of the
proprietors was exerted against Franklin, and by an adverse
majority of 25 votes in 4000 he failed to be re-elected to the
assembly. The new assembly sent Franklin again to England as
its special agent to take charge of another petition for a change
26
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
of government, which, however, came to nothing. Matters
of much greater consequence soon demanded Franklin's
attention.
Early in 1764 Lord Grenville had informed the London agents
of the American colonies that he proposed to lay a portion of the
burden left by the war with France upon the shoulders of the
colonists by means of a stamp duty, unless some other tax
equally productive and less inconvenient were proposed. The
natural objection of the colonies, as voiced, for example, by the
assembly of Pennsylvania, was that it was a cruel thing to tax
colonies already taxed beyond their strength, and surrounded
by enemies and exposed to constant expenditures for defence,
and that it was an indignity that they should be taxed by a
parliament in which they were not represented ; at the same time
the Pennsylvania assembly recognized it as " their duty to
grant aid to the crown, according to their abilities, whenever
required of them in the usual manner." To prevent the intro-
duction of the Stamp Act, which he characterized as " the mother
of mischief," Franklin used every effort, but the bill was easily
passed, and it was thought that the colonists would soon be
reconciled to it. Because he, too, thought so, and because he
recommended John Hughes, a merchant of Philadelphia, for the
office of distributor of stamps, Franklin himself was denounced
he was even accused of having planned the Stamp Act and
his family in Philadelphia was in danger of being mobbed. Of
Franklin's examination, in February 1766, by the House in
Committee of the Whole, as to the effects of the Stamp Act,
Burke said that the scene reminded him of a master examined
by a parcel of schoolboys, and George Whitefield said: " Dr
Franklin has gained immortal honour by his behaviour at the
bar of the House. His answer was always found equal to the
questioner. He stood unappalled, gave pleasure to his friends
and did honour to his country." * Franklin compared the position
of the colonies to that of Scotland in the days before the union, and
in the same year (1766) audaciously urged a similar union with
the colonies before it was too late. The knowledge of colonial
affairs gained from Franklin's testimony, probably more than all
other causes combined, determined the immediate repeal of the
Stamp Act. For Franklin this was a great triumph, and the news
of it filled the colonists with delight and restored him to their
confidence and affection. Another bill (the Declaratory Act),
however, was almost immediately passed by the king's party,
asserting absolute supremacy of parliament over the colonies,
and in the succeeding parliament, by the Townshend Acts of
1767, duties were imposed on paper, paints and glass imported
by the colonists; a tax was imposed on tea also. The imposition
of these taxes was bitterly resented in the colonies, where it
quickly crystallized public opinion round the principle of " No
taxation without representation." In spite of the opposition
in the colonies to the Declaratory Act, the Townshend Acts
and the tea tax, Franklin continued to assure the British ministry
and the British public of the loyalty of the colonists. He tried
to find some middle ground of reconciliation, and kept up his
quiet work of informing England as to the opinions and conditions
of the colonies, and of moderating the attitude of the colonies
toward the home government; so that, as he said, he was accused
in America of being too much an Englishman, and in England
of being too much an American. He was agent now, not only of
Pennsylvania, but also of New Jersey, of Georgia and of Massa-
chusetts. Hillsborough, who became secretary of state for the
colonies in 1768, refused to recognize Franklin as agent of
Massachusetts, because the governor of Massachusetts had not
approved the appointment, which was by resolution of the
assembly. Franklin contended that the governor, as a mere
agent of the king, could have nothing to do with the assembly's
appointment of its agent to the king; that " the King, and not
the King, Lords, and 'Commons collectively, is their sovereign;
and that the King, with their respective Parliaments, is their only
legislator." Franklin's influence helped to oust Hillsborough,
and Dartmouth, whose name Franklin suggested, was made
1 Many questions (about 20 of the first 25) were put by his friends
to draw out what he wished to be known.
secretary in 1772 and promptly recognized Franklin as the agent
of Massachusetts.
In 1773 there appeared in the Public Advertiser one of Franklin's
cleverest hoaxes, " An Edict of the King of Prussia," proclaiming
that the island of Britain was a colony of Prussia, having been
settled by Angles and Saxons, having been protected by Prussia,
having been defended by Prussia against France in the war just
past, and never having been definitely freed from Prussia's
rule; and that, therefore, Great Britain should now submit to
certain taxes laid by Prussia the taxes being identical with
those laid upon the American colonies by Great Britain. In
the same year occurred the famous episode of the Hutchinson
Letters. These were written by Thomas Hutchinson, Governor
of Massachusetts, Andrew Oliver (1706-1774), his lieutenant-
governor, and others to William Whately, a member of Parlia-
ment, and private secretary to George Grenville, suggesting an
increase of the power of the governor at the expense of the
assembly, " an abridgement of what are called English liberties,"
and other measures more extreme than those undertaken by the
government. The correspondence was shown to Franklin by
a mysterious " member of parliament " to back up the contention
that the quartering of troops in Boston was suggested, not by
the British ministry, but by Americans and Bostonians. Upon
his promise not to publish the letters Franklin received permission
to send them to Massachusetts, where they were much passed
about and were printed, and they were soon republished in English
newspapers. The Massachusetts assembly on receiving the
letters resolved to petition the crown for the removal of both
Hutchinson and Oliver. The petition was refused and was con-
demned as scandalous, and Franklin, who took upon himself
the responsibility for the publication of the letters, in the hearing
before the privy council at the Cockpit on the 2Qth of January
1774 was insulted and was called a thief by Alexander Wedder-
burn (the solicitor-general, who appeared for Hutchinson and
Oliver), and was removed from his. position as head of the post
office in the American colonies.
Satisfied that his usefulness in England was at an end, Franklin
entrusted his agencies to the care of Arthur Lee, and on the
2ist of March 1775 again set sail for Philadelphia. During the
last years of his stay in England there had been repeated attempts
to win him (probably with an under-secretaryship) to the British
service, and in these same years he had done a great work for
the colonies by gaining friends for them among the opposition,
and by impressing France with his ability and the excellence of
his case. Upon reaching America, he heard of the fighting at
Lexington and Concord, and with the news of an actual outbreak
of hostilities his feeling toward England seems to have changed
completely. He was no longer a peacemaker, but an ardent war-
maker. On the 6th of May, the day after his arrival in Phila-
delphia, he was elected by the assembly of Pennsylvania a
delegate to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. In October
he was elected a member of the Pennsylvania assembly, but, as
members of this body were still required to take an oath of
allegiance to the crown, he refused to serve. In the Congress
he served on as many as ten committees, and upon the organiza-
tion of a continental postal system, he was made postmaster-
general, a position he held for one year, when (in 1776) he was
succeeded by his son-in-law, Richard Bache, who had been his
deputy. With Benjamin Harrison, John Dickinson, Thomas
Johnson and John Jay he was appointed in November 1775
to a committee to carry on a secret correspondence with the
friends of America " in Great Britain, Ireland and other parts of
the world." He planned an appeal to the king of France for
aid, and wrote the instructions of Silas Deane who was to convey
it. In April 1776 he went to Montreal with Charles Carroll,
Samuel Chase and John Carroll, as a member of the commission
which conferred with General Arnold, and attempted without
success to gain the co-operation of Canada. Immediately after
his re'turn from Montreal he was a member of the committee of
five appointed to draw up the Declaration of Independence,
but he took no actual part himself in drafting that instru-
ment, aside from suggesting the change or insertion of a few
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
words in Jefferson's draft. From July 16 to September 28 he
acted as president of the Constitutional Convention of Penn-
sylvania.
With John Adams and Edward Rutledge he was selected
by Congress to discuss with Admiral Howe (September 1776,
at Staten Island) the terms of peace proposed by Howe, who had
arrived in New York harbour in July 1776, and who had been
an intimate friend of Franklin; but the discussion was fruitless,
as the American commissioners refused to treat " back of this
step of independency." On the 26th of September in the same
year Franklin was chosen as commissioner to France to join
Arthur Lee, who was in London, and Silas Deane, who had
arrived in France in June 1776. He collected all the money he
could command, between 3000 and 4000, lent it to Congress
before he set sail, and arrived at Paris on the 22nd of December.
He found quarters at Passy,' then a suburb of Paris, in a house
belonging to Le Ray de Chaumont, an active friend of the
American cause, who had influential relations with the court,
and through whom he was enabled to be in the fullest communica-
tion with the French government without compromising it in the
eyes of Great Britain.
At the time of Franklin's arrival in Paris he was already one
of the most talked about men in the world. He was a member
of every important learned society in Europe; he was a member,
and one of the managers, of the Royal Society, and was one of
eight foreign members of the Royal Academy of Sciences in
Paris. Three editions of his scientific works had already appeared
in Paris, and a new edition had recently appeared in London.
To all these advantages he added a political purpose the
dismemberment of the British empire which was entirely
congenial to every citizen of France. " Franklin's reputation,"
wrote John Adams with characteristic extravagance, " was more
universal than that of Leibnitz or Newton, Frederick or
Voltaire; and his character more esteemed and beloved than
all of them. ... If a collection could be made of all the gazettes
of Europe, for the latter half of the i8th century, a greater
number of panegyrical paragraphs upon le grand Franklin
would appear, it is believed, than upon any other man that ever
lived." " Franklin's appearance in the French salons, even
before he began to negotiate," says Friedrich Christoph Schlosser,
" was an event of great importance to the whole of Europe. . . .
His dress, the simplicity of his external appearance, the friendly
meekness of the old man, and the apparent humility of the
Quaker, procured for Freedom a mass of votaries among the
coon circles who used to be alarmed at its coarseness and un-
sophisticated truths. Such was the number of portraits, 1 busts
and medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris that he
would have been recognized from them by any adult citizen
in any part of the civilized world."
Franklin's position in France was a difficult one from the
start, because of the delicacy of the task of getting French aid
at a time when France was unready openly to take sides against
Great Britain. But on the 6th of February 1778, after the
news of the defeat and surrender of Burgoyne had reached
Europe, a treaty of alliance and a treaty of amity and commerce
between France and the United States were signed at Paris by
Franklin, Deane and Lee. On the z8th of October this corn-
Billion was discharged and Franklin was appointed sole pleni-
potentiary to the French court. Lee, from the beginning of the
mission to Paris, seems to have been possessed of a mania of
jealousy toward Franklin, or of misunderstanding of his acts,
and be tried to undermine his influence with the Continental
Congress. John Adams, when he succeeded Deane (recalled
from Paris through Lee's machinations) joined in the chorus of
fault-finding against Franklin, dilated upon his social habits,
his personal slothfulncss and his complete lack of business-like
system; but Adams soon came to see that, although careless
of details. Franklin was doing what no other man could have
1 The home a familiar from the drawiiig of it by Victor Hugo.
1 Many of these portraits bore iiucnptiors, the most famous
o( which was Turgot't line, " Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque
tyrannis."
done, and he ceased his harsher criticism. Even greater than
his diplomatic difficulties were Franklin's financial straits.
Drafts were being drawn on him by all the American agents in
Europe, and by the Continental Congress at home. Acting as
American naval agent for the many successful privateers
who harried the English Channel, and for whom he skilfully
got every bit of assistance possible, open and covert, from the
French government, he was continually called upon for funds
in these ventures. Of the vessels to be sent to Paris with
American cargoes which were to be sold for the liquidation of
French loans to the colonies made through Beaumarchais, few
arrived; those that did come did not cover Beaumarchais's
advances, and hardly a vessel came from America without
word of fresh drafts on Franklin. After bold and repeated
overtures for an exchange of prisoners an important matter,
both because the American frigates had no place in which to
stow away their prisoners, and because of the maltreatment
of American captives in such prisons as Dartmoor exchanges
began at the end of March 1779, although there were annoying
delays, and immediately after November 1781 there was a long
break in the agreement; and the Americans discharged from
English prisons were constantly in need of money. 1'ranklin,
besides, was constantly called upon to meet the indebtedness
of Lee and of Ralph Izard (1742-1804), and of John Jay, who
in Madrid was being drawn on by the American Congress. In
spite of the poor condition in Europe of the credit of the strugg-
ling colonies, and of the fact that France was almost bankrupt
(and in the later years was at war), and although Necker strenu-
ously resisted the making of any loans to the colonies, France,
largely because of Franklin's appeals, expended, by loan or gift
to the colonies, or in sustenance of the French arms in America,
a sum estimated at $60,000,000.
In 1781 Franklin, with John Adams, John Jay, Jefferson,
who remained in America, and Henry Laurens, then a prisoner
in England, was appointed on a commission to make peace with
Great Britain. In the spring of 1782 Franklin had been inform-
ally negotiating with Shclburne, secretary of state for the home
department, through the medium of Richard Oswald, a Scotch
merchant, and had suggested that England should cede Canada
to the United States in return for the recognition of loyalist
claims by -the states. When the formal negotiations began
Franklin held closely to the instructions of Congress to its
commissioners, that they should maintain confidential relations
with the French ministers and that they were " to undertake
nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce without their
knowledge and concurrence," and were ultimately to be governed
by " their advice and opinion." Jay and Adams disagreed with
him on this point, believing that France intended to curtail
the territorial aspirations of the Americans for her own benefit
and for that of her ally, Spain. At last, after the British govern-
ment had authorized its agents to treat with the commissioners
as representatives of an independent power, thus recognizing
American independence before the treaty was made, Franklin
acquiesced in the policy of Jay. The preliminary treaty was
signed by the commissioners on the 3Oth of November 1782,
the final treaty on the ^rd of September 1783. Franklin had
repeatedly petitioned Congress for his recall, but his letters
were unanswered or his appeals refused until the 7th of March
1785, when Congress resolved that he be allowed to return to
America; on the loth of March Thomas Jefferson, who had
joined him in August of the year before, was appointed to his
place. Jefferson, when asked if he replaced Franklin, replied,
" No one can replace him, sir; I am only his successor." Before
Franklin left Paris on the I2th of July 1785 he had made
commercial treaties with Sweden (1783) and Prussia (1785;
signed after Franklin's departure by Jefferson and John Adams).
Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on the i3th of September,
disembarking at the same wharf as when he had first entered the
city. He was immediately elected a member of the municipal
council of Philadelphia, becoming its chairman; and was chosen
president of the Supreme Executive Council (the chief executive
officer) of Pennsylvania, and was re-elected in 1786 and 1787,
28
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
serving from October 1785 to October 1788. In May 1787 he
was elected a delegate to the Convention which drew up the
Federal Constitution, this body thus having a member upon
whom all could agree as chairman, should Washington be absent.
He opposed over-centralization of government and favoured the
Connecticut Compromise, and after the work of the Convention
was done used his influence to secure the adoption of the Con-
stitution. 1 As president of the Pennsylvania Society for
Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, Franklin signed a petition
to Congress (i2th February 1790) for immediate abolition of
slavery, and six weeks later in his most brilliant manner parodied
the attack on the petition made by James Jackson (1757-1806)
of Georgia, taking off Jackson's quotations of Scripture with
pretended texts from the Koran cited by a member of the Divan
of Algiers in opposition to a petition asking for the prohibition
of holding Christians in slavery. These were his last public
acts. His last days were marked by a fine serenity and calm;
he died in his own house in Philadelphia on the I7th of April
1 790, the immediate cause being an abscess in the lungs. He was
buried with his wife in the graveyard (Fifth and Arch Streets)
of Christ Church, Philadelphia.
Physically Franklin was large, about 5 ft. 10 in. tall, with a
well-rounded, powerful figure; he inherited an excellent con-
stitution from his parents " I never knew," says he, " either
my father or mother to have any sickness but that of which
they dy'd, he at 89, and she at 85 years of age " but injured it
somewhat by excesses; in early life he had severe attacks of
pleurisy, from one of which, in 1727, it was not expected that he
would recover, and in his later years he was the victim of stone
and gout. When he was sixteen he became a vegetarian for a
time, rather to save money for books than for any other reason,
and he always preached moderation in eating, though he was
less consistent in his practice in this particular than as regards
moderate drinking. He was always enthusiastically fond of
swimming, and was a great believer in fresh air, taking a cold
air bath regularly in the morning, when he sat naked in his
bedroom beguiling himself with a book or with writing for a
half-hour or more. He insisted that fresh, cold air was not the
cause of colds, and preached zealously the " gospel of ventila-
tion." He vtras a charming talker, with a gay humour and a
quiet sarcasm and a telling use of anecdote for argument. Henri
Martin, the French historian, speaks of him as " of a mind
altogether French in its grace and elasticity." In 1730 he
married Deborah Read, in whose father's house he had lived
when he had first come to Philadelphia, to whom he had been
engaged before his first departure from Philadelphia for London,
and who in his absence had married a ne'er-do-well, one Rogers,
who had deserted her. The marriage to Franklin is presumed
to have been a common law marriage, for there was no proof
that Miss Read's former husband was dead-, nor that, as was
suspected, a former wife, alive when Rogers married Miss Read,
was still alive, and that therefore his marriage to Deborah was
void. His " Debby," or his " dear child," as Franklin usually
addressed her in his letters, received into the family, soon after
her marriage, Franklin's illegitimate son, William Franklin
(i729-i8i3), ! with whom she afterwards quarrelled, and whose
mother, tradition says, was Barbara, a servant in the Franklin
household. Another illegitimate child became the wife of John
Foxcroft of Philadelphia. Deborah, who was " as much dispos'd
to industry and frugality as " her husband, was illiterate and
shared none of her husband's tastes for literature and science;
1 Notably in a pamphlet comparing the Jews and the Anti-
Federalists.
1 William Franklin served on the Canadian frontier with Pennsyl-
vania troops, becoming captain in 1750; was in the post-office in
1754-1756; went to England with his father in 1758; was admitted
to legal practice in 1758; in 1763, recommended by Lord Fairfax,
became governor of New Jersey; he left the Whig for the Tory
party; and in the War of Independence was a faithful loyalist,
much to the pain and regret of his father, who, however, was recon-
ciled to him in part in 1784. He was held as a prisoner from 1776
until exchanged in 1778; and lived four years in New York, and
during the remainder of his life in England with an annual pension of
800 from the crown.
her dread of an ocean voyage kept her in Philadelphia during
Franklin's missions to England, and she died in 1774, while
Franklin was in London. She bore him two children, one a son,
Francis Folger, " whom I have seldom since seen equal'd in
everything, and whom to this day [thirty-six years after the
child's death] I cannot think of without a sigh," who died (1736)
when four years old of small-pox, not having been inoculated;
the other was Sarah (1744-1808), who married Richard Bache
(1737-1811), Franklin's successor in 1776-1782 as postmaster-
general. Franklin's gallant relations with women after his wife's
death were probably innocent enough. Best known of his French
amies were Mme Helvetius, widow of the philosopher, and the
young Mme Brillon, who corrected her " Papa's " French and
tried to bring him safely into the Roman Catholic Church.
With him in France were his grandsons, William Temple
Franklin, William Franklin's natural son, who acted as private
secretary to his grandfather, and Benjamin Franklin Bache
(1760-1798), Sarah's son, whom he sent to Geneva to be educated,
for whom he later asked public office of Washington, and who
became editor of the Aurora, one of the leading journals in the
Republican attacks on Washington.
Franklin early rebelled against New England Puritanism and
spent his Sundays in reading and in study instead of attending
church. His free-thinking ran its extreme course at the time of
his publication in London of A Dissertation on Liberty and
Necessity, Pleasure and Pain (1725), which he recognized as one
of the great errata of his life. He later called himself a deist,
or theist, not discriminating between the terms. To his favourite
sister he wrote: " There are some things in your New England
doctrine and worship which I do not agree with; but I do not
therefore condemn them, or desire to shake your belief or
practice of them." Such was his general attitude. He did not
believe in the divinity of Christ, but thought " his system of
morals and his religion, as he left them to us, the best the world
ever saw, or is like to see." His intense practical-mindedness
drew him away from religion, but drove him to a morality of his
own (the " art of virtue," he called it), based on thirteen virtues
each accompanied by a short precept; the virtues were Temper-
ance, Silence, Order, Resolution, Frugality, Industry, Sincerity,
Justice, Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquility, Chastity and
Humility, the precept accompanying the last-named virtue
being " Imitate Jesus and Socrates." He made a business-like
little notebook, ruled off spaces for the thirteen virtues and the
seven days of the week, " determined to give a week's strict
attention to each of the virtues successively . . . [going] thro'
a course compleate in thirteen weeks and four courses in a year,"
marking for each day a record of his adherence to each of the
precepts. " And conceiving God to be the fountain of wisdom,"
he " thought it right and necessary to solicit His assistance for
obtaining it," and .drew up the following prayer for daily use:
" O powerful Goodness! bountiful Father I merciful Guide !
Increase in me that wisdom which discovers my truest interest.
Strengthen my resolution to perform what that wisdom dictates.
Accept my kind offices to Thy other children, as the only return
in my power for Thy continual favours to me." He was by no
means prone to overmuch introspection, his great interest
in the conduct of others being shown in the wise maxims of Poor
Richard, which were possibly too utilitarian but were wonderfully
successful in instructing American morals. His Art of Virtue
on which he worked for years was never completed or published
in any form.
" Benjamin Franklin, Printer," was Franklin's own favourite
description of himself. He was an excellent compositor and
pressman; his workmanship, clear impressions, black ink and
comparative freedom from errata did much to get him the
public printing in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and the printing
of the paper money* and other public matters in Delaware.
The first book with his imprint is The Psalms of David Imitated in
1 For the prevention of counterfeiting continental paper money
Franklin long afterwards suggested the use on the different de-
nominations of different leaves, having noted the infinite variety of
leaf venation.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
Ike Language of the New Testament and apply'd to the Christian
Slate and Worship. By I. Walls . . ., Philadelphia: Printed
by B. F. and H. U. for Thomas Godfrey, and Sold at his Shop,
1729, The first novel printed in America was Franklin's reprint
in 1744 of Pamela; and the first American translation from
the classics which was printed in America was a version by
JmA Logan (1674-1751) of Cato's Moral Distichs (1735). In
1744 he published another translation of Logan's, Cicero On Old
Age, which Franklin thought typographically the finest book
he had ever printed. In 1733 he had established a press in
Charleston, South Carolina, and soon after did the same in
Lancaster, Pa., in New Haven, Conn., in New York, in Antigua,
in Kingston, Jamaica, and in other places. Personally he had
little connexion with the Philadelphia printing office after 1748,
when David Hall became his partner and took charge of it.
But in 1753 he was eagerly engaged in having several of his
improvements incorporated in a new press, and more than
twenty years after was actively interested in John Walter's
scheme of " logography." In France he had a private press in
his house in Passy, on which he printed " bagatelles." Franklin's
work as a publisher is for the most part closely connected with
his work in issuing the Gazette and Poor Richard's Almanack
(a summary of the proverbs from which appeared in the number
for 1758, and has often been reprinted under such titles as
Father Abraham's Speech, and The Way to Wealth). 1
Of much of Franklin's work as an author something has
already been said. Judged as literature, the first place belongs
to his Autobiography, which unquestionably ranks among the
few great autobiographies ever written. His style in its sim-
plicity, facility and clearness owed something to De Foe,
something to Cotton Mather, something to Plutarch, more to
Bunyan and to his early attempts to reproduce the manner of
the third volume of the Spectator; and not the least to his own
careful study of word usage. From Xenophon's Memorabilia
he learned when a boy the Socratic method of argument. Swift
he resembled in the occasional broadness of his humour, in his
brilliantly successful use of sarcasm and irony, 1 and in his
mastery of the hoax. Balzac said of him that he " invented
the lightning-rod, the hoax (' le canard ') and. the republic."
Among his more famous hoaxes were the " Edict of the King of
Prussia" (1773), already described; the fictitious supplement
to the Boston Chronicle, printed on his private press at Passy in
1782, and containing a letter with an invoice of eight packs of
954 cured, dried, hooped and painted scalps of rebels, men,
women and children, taken by Indians in the British employ;
and another fictitious Letter from the Count de Schaumberg to the
Baron Hohendorf commanding the Hessian Troops in America
(>777) the count's only anxiety is that not enough men will
be killed to bring him in moneys he needs, and he urges his
officer in command in America " to prolong the war ... for
I have made arrangements for a grand Italian opera, and I
do not wish to be obliged to give it up." '
Closely related to Franklin's political pamphlets are his writ-
ings on economics, which, though undertaken with a political
1 " Seventy-five editions of it have been printed in English, fifty-
six in French, eleven in German and nine in Italian. It has been
translated into Spanish, Danish, Swedish, Welsh, Polish, Gaelic,
Russian, Bohemian, Dutch. Catalan, Chinese, modern Greek and
phonetic writing. It has been printed at least four hundred times,
and is to-day a* popular as ever." P. L. Ford, in The Many-Sided
Franklin (1899).
* Both Swift and Franklin made sport of the typical astrologer
almanack-maker.
'Another hoax was Franklin'* parable against religious perse-
cution thrown into Scriptural form and quoted by him as the fifty-
first chapter of Genesis. In a paper on a " Proposed New Version
o( the Bible " he paraphrased a few verses of the first chapter of Job,
making them a satiric attack on royal government ; but the version
may well rank with these hoaxes, and even modern writers have
been taken in by it, regarding it as a serious proposal for a " modern-
ized " version and decrying it as poor taste. Matthew Arnold, for
example, declared this an instance in which Franklin was lacking in
his " imperturbable common sense "; and J. B. McMaster, though
devoting several paces to its discussion, very ingenuously declares it
" beneath criticism.
29
or practical purpose and not in a purely scientific spirit, rank him
as the first American economist. He wrote in 1720 A Modest
Enquiry inlo the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency, which
argued that a plentiful currency will make rates of interest low
and will promote immigration and home manufactures, and which
did much to secure the further issue of paper money in Penn-
sylvania. After the British Act of 1750 forbidding the erection
or the operating of iron or steel mills in the colonies, Franklin
wrote Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind and the
Peopling of Countries (1751); its thesis was that manufactures
come to be common only with a high degree of social development
and with great density of population, and Unit Great Britain
need not, therefore, fear the industrial competition of the
colonies, but it is better known for the estimate (adopted by
Adam Smith) that the population of the colonies would
double every quarter-century; and for the likeness to Malthus's 4
" preventive check " of its statement: " The greater the common
fashionable expense of any rank of people the more cautious they
are of marriage." His Positions to be examined concerning
National Wealth (1769) shows that he was greatly influenced
by the French physiocrats after his visit to France in 1767.
His W ail of a Protected Manufacturer voices a protest against
protection as raising the cost of living; and he held that free
trade was based on a natural right. He knew Kames, Hume
and Adam Smith, and corresponded with Mirabeau, " the friend
of Man." Some of the more important of his economic theses,
as summarized by W. A. Wetzel, are: that money as coin may
have more than its bullion value; that natural interest is
determined by the rent of land valued at the sum of money
loaned an anticipation of Turgot; that high wages are not
inconsistent with a large foreign trade; that the value of an
article is determined by the amount of labour necessary to
produce the food consumed in making the article; that manu-
factures are advantageous but agriculture only is truly pro-
ductive; and that when practicable (as he did not think it
practicable at the end of the War of Independence) state revenue
should be raised by direct tax.
Franklin as a scientist and as an inventor has been decried
by experts as an amateur and a dabbler; but it should be
remembered that it was always his hope to retire from public
life and devote himself to science. In the American Philo-
sophical Society (founded 1743) scientific subjects were much
discussed. Franklin wrote a paper on the causes of earthquakes
for his Gazette of the i$th of December 1737; and he eagerly
collected material to uphold his theory that waterspouts and
whirlwinds resulted from the same causes. In 1743, from the
circumstance that an eclipse not visible in Philadelphia because
of a storm had been observed in Boston, where the storm although
north-easterly did not occur until an hour after the eclipse, he
surmised that storms move against the wind along the Atlantic
coast. In the year before (1742) he had planned the " Penn-
sylvania fire-place," better known as the " Franklin stove,"
which saved fuel, heated all the room, and had the same principle
as the hot-air furnace; the stove was never patented by Franklin,
but was described in his pamphlet dated 1744. He was much
engaged at the same time in remedying smoking chimneys, and
as late as 1 785 wrote to Jan Ingenhousz, physician to the emperor
of Austria, on chimneys and draughts; smoking street lamps
he remedied by a simple contrivance. The study of electricity
he took up in 1746 when he first saw a Leyden jar, in the mani-
pulation of which he became expert and which he improved by
the use of granulated lead in the place of water for the interior
armatures; he recognized that condensation is due to the
dielectric and not to the metal coatings. A note in his diary,
dated the 7th of November 1749, shows that he had then
4 Malthus quoted Franklin in his first edition, but it was not untij
the second that he introduced the theory of the " preventive check.
Franklin noted the phenomsnon with disapproval in his advocacy
of increased population; Malthus with approval in his search for
means to decrease population.
The title of philosopher as used in Franklin's lifetime referred
neither in England nor in France to him as author of moral maxims,
but to him as a scientist a " natural philosopher."
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN
conjectured that thunder and lightning were electrical mani-
festations; in the same year he planned the lightning-rod (long
known as " Franklin's rod "), which he described and recom-
mended to the public in 1753, when the Copley medal of the
Royal Society was awarded him for his discoveries. The famous
experiment with the kite, proving lightning an electrical pheno-
menon, was performed by Franklin in June 1752. He overthrew
entirely the " friction " theory of electricity and conceived the
idea of plus and minus charges (1753); he thought the sea the
source of electricity. On light Franklin wrote to David Ritten-
house in June 1784; the sum of his own conjectures was that
the corpuscular theory of Newton was wrong, and that light was
due to the vibration of an elastic aether. He studied with some
care the temperature of the Gulf Stream. In navigation he
suggested many new contrivances, such as water-tight com-
partments, floating anchors to lay a ship to in a storm, and dishes
that would not upset during a gale; and beginning in 1757
made repeated experiments with oil on stormy waters. As a
mathematician he devised various elaborate magic squares and
novel magic circles, of which he speaks apologetically, because
they are of no practical use. Always much interested in agri-
culture, he made an especial effort (like Robert R. Livingston)
to promote the use of plaster of Paris as a fertiliser. He took
a prominent part in aeronautic experiments during his stay in
France. He made an excellent clock, which because of a slight
improvement introduced by James Ferguson in 1757 was long
known as Ferguson's clock. In medicine Franklin was considered
important enough to be elected to the Royal Medical Society of
Paris in 1777, and an honorary member of the Medical Society
of London in 1787. In 1784 he was on the committee which
investigated Mesmer, and the report is a document of last-
ing scientific value. Franklin's advocacy of vegetarianism, of
sparing and simple diet, and of temperance in the use of liquors,
and of proper ventilation has already been referred to. His most
direct contribution to medicine was the invention for his own
use of bifocal eyeglasses.
A summary of so versatile a genius is impossible. His services
to America in England and France rank him as one of the heroes
of the American War of Independence and as the greatest of
American diplomats. Almost the only American scientist of
his day, he displayed remarkably deep as well as remarkably
varied abilities in science and deserved the honours enthusi-
astically given him by the savants of Europe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Franklin's works were not collected in his own
lifetime, and he made no effort to publish his writings. Experiments
and Observations on Electricity (London, 1769) was translated into
French by Barbeu Dubourg (Paris, 1773); Vaughan attempted a
more complete edition, Political, Miscellaneous and Philosophical
Pieces (London, 1779); an edition in three volumes appeared
after Franklin's death (London, 1806); what seemed the authentic
Works, as it was under the care of Temple Franklin, was published
at London (6 vols., 1817-1819; 3 vols., 1818) and with some ad-
ditional matter at Philadelphia (6 vols., 1818). Sparks's edition
(10 vols., Boston, 1836-1842; revised, Philadelphia, 1858) also
contained fresh matter; and there are further additions in the
edition of John Bieelow (Philadelphia, 1887-1888; 5th ed., 1905)
and in that by Albert Henry Smyth (10 vols., New York, 1905-1907).
There are important Frankliniana, about 13,000 papers, in the
possession of the American Philosophical Society, to which they were
conveyed by the son of Temple Franklin's executor, George Fox.
Other papers which had been left to Fox lay for years in barrels in a
stable garret; they were finally cleared out, their owner, Mary Fox,
intending to send them to a paper mill. One barrel went to the mill.
The others, it was found, contained papers belonging to Franklin,
and this important collection was bought and presented to the
university of Pennsylvania. The valuable Frankliniana collected
by Henry Stevens were purchased by Congress in 1885. These MS.
collections were first carefully gone over for the edition of the Works
by A. H. Smyth. Franklin's Autobiography was begun in 1771 as a
private chronicle for his son, Governor William Franklin ; the papers,
bringing the story of his father's life down to 1730, w'ere lost by the
governor during the War of Independence, and in 1783 came into
the possession of Abel James, who restored them to Franklin and
urged him to complete the sketch. He wrote a little in 1784, more
in 1788, when he furnished a copy to his friend le Veillard,,and a little
more in 1790. The original manuscript was long in the possession of
Temple Franklin, who spent years rearranging the matter in it and
making over into politer English his grandfather's plain-spokenness.
So long was the publication delayed that it was generally believed
that Temple Franklin had sold all the papers to the British govern-
ment; a French version, Memoires de la vie privee (Paris, 1791),
was retranslated into English twice in 1793 (London), and from one
of these versions (by Robinson) still another French version was
made (Paris, 1798). Temple Franklin, deciding to print, got from
le Veillard the copy sent to him in 1788 (sending in return the original
with autograph alterations and the final addition), and from the
copy published (London, 1817) an edition supposed to be authentic
and complete. The complete autograph pf the biography, acquired
by John Bigelow in 1867 from its French owners, upon collation
with Temple Franklin's edition showed that the latter contained
1200 emasculations and that it omitted entirely what had been
written in 1790. Bigelow published the complete Autobiography
with additions from Franklin's correspondence and other writings
in 1868; a second edition (3 vols., Philadelphia, 1888) was published
under the title, The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Written by Himself.
In addition to the Autobiography see James Parton, Life and Times
of Benjamin Franklin (2 vols., New York, 1864); John T. Morse,
Jr., Benjamin Franklin (Boston, 1889, in the American Statesmen
series); J. B. McMaster, Benjamin Franklin as a Man of Letters
(Boston, 1887, in American Men of Letters series); Paul L.
Ford, The Many-Sided Franklin (New York, 1899) and Franklin
Bibliography (Brooklyn, 1889); E. E. Hale and E. E. Hale, Jr.,
Franklin in France (2 vols., Boston, 1888) ; J. H A. Doniol, Hisloire
de la participation de la France a I ' etablissement des Elate - Unis
d'Amerique (Paris, 6 vols., 1886-1900); S. G. Fisher, The True
Benjamin Franklin (Philadelphia, 1899); E. Robins, Benjamin
Franklin (New York, 1898, in the American Men of Energy series) ;
W. A. Wetzel, " Benjamin Franklin as an Economist," No. 9,
in series 13 of Johns Hopkins Studies in Historical and Political
Science; and the prefaces and biographical matter in A. H. Smyth's
edition of the Works (New York, 10 vols., 1905-1907). (R. WE.)
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN (1786-1847), English rear-admiral
and explorer, was born at Spilsby, Lincolnshire, on the i6th of
April 1786. His family was descended from a line of free-holders
or " franklins " from whom some centuries earlier they had
derived their surname; but the small family estate was sold
by his father, who went into business. John, who was the fifth
and youngest son and ninth child, was destined for the church.
At the age of ten he was sent to school at St Ives, and soon
afterwards was transferred to Louth grammar school, which
he attended for two years. About this time his imagination
was deeply impressed by a holiday walk of 1 2 m. which he made
with a companion to look at the sea, and he determined to
be a sailor. In the hope of dispelling this fancy his father sent
him on a trial voyage to Lisbon in a merchantman; but it being
found on his return that his wishes were unchanged he was
entered as a midshipman on board the " Polyphemus," and
shortly afterwards took part in her in the hard-fought battle
of Copenhagen (2nd of April 1801). Two months later he joined'
the " Investigator," a discovery-ship commanded by his cousin
Captain Matthew Flinders, and under the training of that able
scientific officer was employed in the exploration and mapping
of the coasts of Australia, where he acquired a correctness of
astronomical observation and a skill in surveying which" proved
of eminent utility in his future career. He was on board the
" Porpoise " when that ship and the " Cato " were wrecked
(i8th of August 1803) on a coral reef off the coast of Australia,
and after this misfortune proceeded to China. Thence he obtained
a passage to England in the " Earl Camden," East Indiaman,
commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir) Nathaniel Dance, and
performed the duty of signal midshipman in the famous action
of the 1 5th of February 1804 when Captain Dance repulsed a
strong French squadron led by the redoubtable Admiral Linois.
On reaching England he joined the " Bellerophon," 74, and
was in charge of the signals on board that ship during the battle
of Trafalgar. Two years later he joined the " Bedford," attaining
the rank of lieutenant the year after, and served in her on the
Brazil station (whither the " Bedford " went as part of the convoy
which escorted the royal family of Portugal to Rio de Janeiro
in 1808), in the blockade of Flushing, and finally in the disastrous
expedition against New Orleans (1814), in which campaign he
displayed such zeal and intelligence as to merit special mention
in despatches.
On peace being established, Franklin turned his attention
once more to the scientific branch of his profession, and sedulously
extended his knowledge of surveying. In 1818 the discovery
of a North-West Passage to the Pacific became again, after a
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN
long interval, an object of national interest, and Lieutenant
Franklin was given the command of the " Trent " in the Arctic
c\[K-vlit ion, under the orders of Captain Buchan in the " Dorothea".
During a heavy storm the " Dorothea " was so much damaged
by the pack-ice that her reaching England became doubtful,
and, much to the chagrin of young Franklin, the " Trent "
was compelled to convoy her home instead of being allowed
to prosecute the voyage alone. This voyage, however, had
brought Franklin into personal intercourse with the leading
scientific men of London, and they were not slow in ascertaining
his peculiar fitness for the command of such an enterprise.
To calmness in danger, promptness and fertility of resource,
and excellent seamanship, he added an ardent desire to promote
science for its own sake, together with a love of truth that led
him to do full justice to the merits of his subordinate officers,
without wishing to claim their discoveries as a captain's right.
Furthermore, he possessed a cheerful buoyancy of mind, sustained
by deep religious principle, which was not depressed in the most
gloomy times. It was therefore with full confidence in his
ability and exertions that, in 1819, he was placed in command
of an expedition appointed to proceed overland from the Hudson
Bay to the shores of the Arctic Sea, and to determine the trendings
of that coast eastward of the Coppermine river. At this period
the northern coast of the American continent was known at
two isolated points only, this, the mouth of the Coppermine
river (which, as Franklin discovered, was erroneously placed
four degress of latitude too much to the north), and the mouth
of the Mackenzie far to the west of it. Lieutenant Franklin
and his party, consisting of Dr Richardson, Midshipmen George
Back and Richard Hood, and a few ordinary boatmen, arrived
at the depot of the Hudson's Bay Company at the end of August
1819, and making an autumnal journey of 700 m. spent the first
winter on the Saskatchewan. Owing to the supplies which
had been promised by the North-West and Hudson's Bay
Companies not being forthcoming the following year, it was not
until the summer of 1821 that the Coppermine was ascended
to its mouth, and a considerable extent of sea-coast to the
eastward surveyed. The return journey led over the region
known as the Barren Ground, and was marked by the most
terrible sufferings and privations and the tragic death of
Lieutenant Hood. The survivors of the expedition reached
York Factory in the month of June 1822, having accomplished
altogether 5550 m. of travel. While engaged on this service
Franklin was promoted to the rank of commander (ist of January
1821), and upon his return to England at the end of 1822 he
obtained the post rank of captain and was elected a fellow of
th Royal Society. The narrative of this expedition was pub-
lished in the following year and became at once a classic of travel,
and soon after he married Eleanor, the youngest daughter of
William Porden, an eminent architect.
Early in 1825 he was entrusted with the command of a second
overland expedition, and upon the earnest entreaty of his dying
wife, who encouraged him to place his duty to his country before
his love for her, he set sail without waiting to witness her end.
Accompanied as before by Dr (afterwards Sir) John Richardson
and Lieutenant (afterwards Sir) George Back, he descended the
Mackenzie river in the season of 1826 and traced the North
American coast as far as 149 37' W. long., whilst Richardson
at the bead of a separate party connected the mouths of the
Coppermine and Mackenzie rivers. Thus between the years 1819
and 1827 he had added 1200 m. of coast-line to the American
continent, or one-third of the whole distance from the Atlantic
to the Pacific. These exertions were fully appreciated at home
and abroad. He was knighted in 1829, received the honorary
degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, was awarded the
gofd medal of the Geographical Society of Paris, and was elected
corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. The
results of these expeditions are described by Franklin and Dr
Richardson in two magnificent works published in 1824-1829.
In 1828 he married his second wife, Jane, second daughter of
John Griffin. His next official employment was on the Mediter-
ranean station, in command of the " Rainbow," and his ship
soon became proverbial in the squadron for the happiness and
comfort of her officers and crew. As an acknowledgment of
I lu- essential service which he rendered off Patras in the Greek
War of Independence, he received the cross of the Redeemer of
Greece from King Otto, and after his return to England he was
created knight commander of the Guelphic order of Hanover.
In 1836 he accepted the lieutenant-governorship of Van
Dicmen's Land (now Tasmania), and held that post till the
end of 1843. His government was marked by several events
of much interest, one of his most popular measures being the
opening of the doors of the legislative council to the public.
He also founded a college, endowing it largely from his private
funds, and in 1838 established a scientific society at Hobart
Town (now called the Royal Society of Tasmania), the meetings
of which were held in Government House and its papers printed
at his expense. In his time also the colony of Victoria was
founded by settlers from Tasmania; and towards its close,
transportation to New South Wales having been abolished,
the convicts from every part of the British empire were sent to
Tasmania. On an increase of the lieutenant-governor's salary
being voted by the colonial legislature, Sir John declined to
derive any advantage from it personally, while he secured the
augmentation to his successors. He welcomed eagerly the various
expeditions for exploration and surveying which visited Hobart
Town, conspicuous among these, and of especial interest to
himself, being the French and English Antarctic expeditions
of Dumont d'Urville and Sir James C. Ross the latter com-
manding the '* Erebus" and "Terror," with which Franklin's
own name was afterwards to be so pathetically connected. A
magnetic observatory fixed at Hobart Town, as a dependency
of the central establishment under Colonel Sabine, was also
an object of deep interest up to the moment of his leaving the
colony. That his unflinching efforts for the social and political
advancement of the colony were appreciated was abundantly
proved by the affection and respect shown him by every section
of the community on his departure; and several years after-
wards the colonists showed their remembrance of his virtues
and services by sending Lady Franklin a subscription of 1 700
in aid of her efforts for the search and relief of her husband,
and later still by a unanimous vote of the legislature for the
erection of a statue in honour of him at Hobart Town.
Sir John found on reaching England that there was about to
be a renewal of polar research, and that the confidence of the
admiralty in him was undiminished, as was shown by his being
offered the command of an expedition for the discovery of a
North- West Passage to the Pacific. This offer he accepted.
The prestige of Arctic service and of his former experiences
attracted a crowd of volunteers of all classes, from whom were
selected a body of officers conspicuous for talent and energy.
Captain Crozier, who was second in command, had been three
voyages with Sir Edward Parry, and had commanded the
" Terror " in Ross's Antarctic expedition. Captain Fitzjames,
who was commander on board the " Erebus," had been five times
gazetted for brilliant conduct in the operations of the first China
war, and in a letter which he wrotefrom Greenland has bequeathed
some good-natured but masterly sketches of his brother officers
and messmates on this expedition. Thus supported, with crews
carefully chosen (some of whom had been engaged in the whaling
service), victualled for three years, and furnished 'with every
appliance then known, Franklin's expedition, consisting of the
" Erebus" and " Terror" (129 officers and men), with a transport
ship to convey additional stores as far as Pisco in Greenland,
sailed from Greenhithe on the igth of May 1845. The letters
which Franklin despatched from Greenland 1 were couched in
language of cheerful anticipation of success, while those received
from his officers expressed their glowing hope, tbeir admiration
of the seamanlike qualities of their commander, and the happi-
ness they had in serving under him. The ships were last seen
by a whaler near the entrance of Lancaster Sound, on the 26th
of July, and the deep gloom which settled down upon their
subsequent movements was not finally raised till fourteen years
later.
32
Franklin's instructions were framed in conjunction with Sir
John Barrow and upon his own suggestions. The experience
of Parry had established the navigability of Lancaster Sound
(leading westwards out of Baffin Bay), whilst Franklin's own
surveys had long before satisfied him that a navigable passage
existed along the north coast of America from the Fish river
to Bering Strait. He was therefore directed to push through
Lancaster Sound and its continuation, Barrow Strait, without
loss of time, until he reached the portion of land on which
Cape Walker is situated, or about long. 98 W., and from that
point to pursue a course southward towards the American coast.
An explicit prohibition was given against a westerly course
beyond the longitude of 98 W., but he v/as allowed the single
alternative of previously examining Wellington Channel (which
leads out of Barrow Strait) for a northward route, if the naviga-
tion here were open.
In 1847, though there was no real public anxiety as to the fate
of the expedition, preparations began to be made for the possible
necessity of sending relief. As time passed, however, and no
tidings reached England, the search began in earnest, and from
1848 onwards expedition after expedition was despatched in
quest of the missing explorers. The work of these expeditions
forms a story of achievement which has no parallel in maritime
annals, and resulted in the discovery and exploration of thousands
of miles of new land within the grim Arctic regions, the develop-
ment of the system of sledge travelling, and the discovery of a
second North-West Passage in 1850 (see POIAR REGIONS).
Here it is only necessary to mention the results so far as the
search for Franklin was concerned. In this great national under-
taking Lady Franklin's exertions were unwearied, and she
exhausted her private funds in sending out auxiliary vessels to
quarters not comprised in the public search, and by her pathetic
appeals roused the sympathy of the whole civilized world.
The first traces of the missing ships, consisting of a few scattered
articles, besides three graves, were discovered at Franklin's
winter quarters (1845-1846) on Beechey Island, by Captain
(afterwards Sir) Erasmus Ommanney of the " Assistance," in
August 1851, and were brought home by the " Prince Albert,"
which had been fitted out by Lady Franklin. No further tidings
were obtained until the spring of 1854, when Dr John Rae, then
conducting a sledging expedition of the Hudson's Bay Company
from Repulse Bay, was told by the Eskimo that (as was inferred)
in 1850 white men, to the number of about forty, had been seen
dragging a boat southward along the west shore of King William's
Island, and that later in the same season the bodies of the whole
party were found by the natives at a point a short distance to the
north-west of Back's Great Fish river, where they had perished
from the united effects of cold and famine. The latter statement
was afterwards disproved by the discovery of skeletons upon the
presumed line of route; but indisputable proof was given that
the Eskimo had communicated with members of the missing
expedition, by the various articles obtained from them and
brought home by Dr Rae. In consequence of the information
obtained by Dr Rae, a party in canoes, under Messrs Anderson
and Stewart, was sent by government down the Great Fish river
in 1855, and succeeded in obtaining from the Eskimo at the mouth
of the river a considerable number of articles which had evidently
belonged to the Franklin expedition; while others were picked
up on Montreal Island a day's march to the northward. It was
clear, therefore, that a party from the " Erebus " and " Terror "
had endeavoured to reach the settlements of the Hudson's Bay
Company by the Fish river route, and that in making a southerly
course it had been arrested within the channel into which the
Great Fish river empties itself. The admiralty now decided to
take no further steps to determine the exact fate of the expedition,
and granted to Dr Rae the reward of 10,000 which had been
offered in 1849 to whosoever should first succeed in obtaining
authentic news of the missing men. It was therefore reserved
for the latest effort of Lady Franklin to develop, not only the
fate of her husband's expedition but also the steps of its progress
up to the very verge of success, mingled indeed with almost
unprecedented disaster. With all her available means, and
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN
aided, as she had been before, by the subscriptions of sympathiz-
ing friends, she purchased and fitted out the little yacht " Fox,"
which sailed from Aberdeen in July 1857. The command was
accepted by Captain (afterwards Sir) Leopold M'Clintock, whose
high reputation had been won in three of the government ex-
peditions sent out in search of Franklin. Having been com-
pelled to pass the first winter in Baffin Bay, it was not till the
autumn of 1858 that the " Fox " passed down Prince Regent's
Inlet, and put into winter quarters at Port Kennedy at the
eastern end of Bellot Strait, between North Somerset and
Boothia -Felix. In the spring of 1859 three sledging parties went
out, Captain (afterwards Sir) Allen Young to examine Prince of
Wales Island, Lieutenant (afterwards Captain) Hobson the north
and west coasts of King William's Island, and M'Clintock the
east and south coasts of the latter, the west coast of Boothia, and
the region about the mouth of Great Fish river. This splendid
and exhaustive search added 800 m. of new coast-h'ne to the
knowledge of the Arctic regions, and brought to light the course
and fate of the expedition. From the Eskimo in Boothia many
relics were obtained, and reports as to the fate of the ships and
men; and on the west and south coast of King William's Island
were discovered skeletons and remains of articles that told a
terrible tale of disaster. Above all, in a cairn at Point Victory
a precious record was discovered by Lieutenant Hobson that
briefly told the history of the expedition up to April 25,
1848, three years after it set out full of hope. In 1845-1846
the " Erebus " and " Terror " wintered at Beechey Island on
the S.W. coast of North Devon, in lat. 74 43' 28" N., long.
91 39' 15* W., after having ascended Wellington Channel to
lat. 77 and returned by the west side of Cornwallis Island. This
statement was signed by Graham Gore, lieutenant, and Charles
F. des Voeux, mate, and bore date May 28, 1847. These
two officers and six men, it was further told, left the ships on
May 24, 1847 (no doubt for an exploring journey), at which
time all was well.
Such an amount of successful work has seldom been accom-
plished by an Arctic expedition within any one season. The
alternative course permitted Franklin by his intructions had
been attempted but not pursued, and in the autumn of 1846
he had followed that route which was specially commended
to him. But after successfully navigating Peel and Franklin
Straits on his way southward, his progress had been suddenly
and finally arrested by the obstruction of heavy (" palaeocrystic ")
ice, which presses down from the north-west through M'Clintock
Channel (not then known to exist) upon King William's Island.
It must be remembered that in the chart which Franklin carried
King William's Island was laid down as a part of the mainland
of Boothia, and he therefore could pursue his way only down its
western coast. Upon the margin of the printed admiralty form
on which this brief record was written was an addendum dated
the 25th of April 1848, which extinguished all further hopes of a
successful termination of this grand enterprise. The facts are
best conveyed in the terse and expressive words in which they
were written, and are therefore given verbatim: " April 25th,
1848. H.M. Ships 'Terror' and 'Erebus' were deserted on
22nd April, five leagues N.N.W. of this, having been beset
since I2th September 1846. The officers and crews, consisting
of 105 souls under the command of Captain F. R. M. Crozier,
landed in lat. 69 37' 42" N., long. 98 41' W. This paper was
found by Lieut. Irving . . . where it had been deposited by
the late Commander Gore in June 1847. Sir John Franklin died
on the nth June 1847; and the total loss by deaths in the
expedition has been to this date 9 officers and 15 men." The
handwriting is that of Captain Fitzjames, to whose signature is
appended that of Captain Crozier, who also adds the words of
chief importance, namely, that they would " start on to-morrow
26th April 1848 for Back's Fish river." A briefer record has
never been told of so tragic a story.
All the party had without doubt been greatly reduced through
want of sufficient food, and the injurious effects of three winters
in these regions. They had attempted to drag with them two
boats, besides heavily laden sledges, and doubtless had soon
FRANKLIN, W. B. FRANKLIN
33
ben compelled to abandon much of their burden, and leave one
boat on the shore of King William's Island, where it was found
by M'Clintock, near the middle of the west coast, containing
two skeletons. The route adopted was the shortest possible,
but their strength and supplies had failed, and at that season
of the year the snow-covered land afforded no subsistence.
An old Eskimo woman stated that these heroic men " fell down
and died as they walked," and, as Sir John Richardson has well
said, they " forged the last link of the North-West Passage with
their lives." From all that can be gathered, one of the ships
must have been crushed in the ice and sunk in deep water, and
the other, stranded on the shore of King William's Island, lay
there for years, forming a mine of wealth for the neighbouring
Eskimo.
This is all we know of the fate of Franklin and his brave men.
His memory is cherished as one of the most conspicuous of the
naval heroes of Britain, and as one of the most successful and
daring of her explorers. He is certainly entitled to the honour
of being the first discoverer of the North-West Passage ; the
point reached by the ships having brought him to within a few
miles of the known waters of America, and on the monument
erected to him by his country, in Waterloo Place, London,
this honour is justly awarded to him and his companions, a
fact which was also affirmed by the president of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, when presenting their gold medal to Lady
Franklin in 1860. On the 26th of October 1853 Franklin had
been promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. He left an only
daughter by his first marriage. Lady Franklin died in 1875
at the age of eighty-three, and a fortnight after her death a fine
monument was unveiled in Westminster Abbey, commemorating
the heroic deeds and fate of Sir John Franklin, and the insepar-
able connexion of Lady Franklin's name with the fame of her
husband. Most of the relics brought home by M'Clintock were
presented by Lady Franklin to the United Service Museum,
while those given by Dr Rae to the admiralty are deposited in
Greenwich hospital. In 1864-1869 the American explorer
Captain Hall made two journeys in endeavouring to trace the
remnant of Franklin's party, bringing back a number of addi-
tional relics and some information confirmatory of that given
by M'Clintock, and in 1878 Lieutenant F. Schwatka of the
United States army and a companion made a final land search,
but although accomplishing a remarkable record of travel
discovered nothing which threw any fresh light on the history
of the expedition.
See H. D. Traill, Life of Sir John Franklin (1896).
FRANKLIN. WILLIAM BDEL (1823-1903), Federal general
in the American Civil War, was born at York, Pennsylvania,
on the 27th of February 1823. He graduated at West Point,
at the bead of his class, in 1843, was commissioned in the Engineer
Corps, U.S.A., and served with distinction in the Mexican War,
receiving the brevet of first lieutenant for his good conduct at
Buena Vista, in which action he was on the staff of General
Taylor. After the war he was engaged in miscellaneous engineer-
ing work, becoming a first lieutenant in 1853 and a captain in
1857. Soon after the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861 he was
made colonel of a regular infantry regiment, and a few days
later brigadier-general of volunteers. He led a brigade in the
first battle of Bull Run, and on the organization by McClellan
of the Army of the Potomac he received a divisional command.
He commanded first a division and then the VI. Corps in the
operations before Richmond in 1862, earning the brevet of
brigadier-general in the U.S. Army; was promoted major-
general, U.S.V., in July 1862; commanded the VI. corps at
South Mountain and Antietam; and at Fredericksburg com-
manded the " Left Grand Division " of two corps (I. and VI.).
His part in the last battle led to charges of disobedience and
negligence being preferred against him by the commanding
general, General A. E. Burnside, on which the congressional
committee on the conduct of the war reported unfavourably
to Franklin, largely, it seems, because Burnside's orders to
Franklin were not put in evidence. Burnside had issued on the
2jrd of January 1863 an order relieving Franklin from duty,
XI. 9
i A Reply of Major-General William B. Franklin to the Report
Joint Committee of Congress on the Conduct of the War (New
and Franklin's only other service in the war was as commander
of the XIX. corps in the abortive Red River Expedition of 1864.
In this expedition he received a severe wound at the action of
Sabine Cross Roads (April 8, 1864), in consequence of which he
took no further active part in the war. He served for a time on
the retiring board, and was captured by the Confederates on
the nth of July 1864, but escaped the same night. In 1865 he
was brevetted major-general in the regular army, and in 1866
he was retired. After the war General Franklin was vice-
president of the Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company,
was president of the commission to lay out Long Island City,
N.Y. (1871-1872), of the commission on the building of the
Connecticut state house (1872-1873), and, from 1880 to 1899, of
the board of managers of the national home for disabled volunteer
soldiers; as a commissioner of the United States to the Paris
Exposition of 1889 he was made a grand officer of the Legion
of Honour; and he was for a time a director of the Panama
railway. He died at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 8th of March
1903. He wrote a pamphlet, The Catling Gun for Service Ashore
and Afloat (1874).
See
York, 1863; and ed., '1867), and Jacob L. Greene, Gen. W. B.
Franklin and the Operations of the Left Wing at Ihe Battle of Fredericks-
burg (Hartford, 1900).
FRANKLIN, an organized district of Canada, extending from
the Arctic Circle to the North Pole. It was formed by order-in-
council on the 2nd of Oct9ber 1895, and includes numerous
islands and peninsulas, such as Banks, Prince Albert, Victoria,
Wollaston, King Edward and Baffin Land, Melville, Bathurst,
Prince of Wales and Cockburn Islands. Of these, Baffin Land
alone extends south of the Arctic Circle. The area is estimated
at 500,000 sq. m., but the inhabitants consist of a few Indians,
Eskimo and fur-traders. Musk-oxen, polar bears, foxes and
other valuable fur-bearing animals are found in large numbers.
The district is named after Sir John Franklin.
FRANKLIN, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., with an area of 29 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop. (1900)
5017, of whom 1250 were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 5244;
(1910 census) 5641. The principal village, also named Franklin,
is about 27 m. S.W. of Boston, and is served by the New York,
New Haven & Hartford railway. Franklin has a public library
(housed in the Ray memorial building and containing 7700
volumes in 1910) and is the seat of Dean Academy (Universalist;
founded in 1865), a secondary school for boys and girls. Straw
goods, felt, cotton and woollen goods, pianos and printing presses
are manufactured here. The township was incorporated in
1778, previous to which it was a part of Wrentham (1673).
It was the first of the many places in the United States named
in honour of Benjamin Franklin (who later contributed books
for the public library). Horace Mann was born here.
FRANKLIN, a city of Merrimack county, New Hampshire,
U.S.A., at the confluence of the Pemigewasset and Winnepe-
saukee rivers to form the Merrimac; about 95 m. N.N.W. of
Boston. Pop. (1800) 4085; (1000) 5846 (1323 foreign-born);
(1910) 6132; area, about 14.4 sq. m. Franklin is served by
the Concord Division of the Boston & Maine railway, with a
branch to Bristol (13 m. N.W.) and another connecting at
Tilton (about 5 m. E.) with the White Mountains Division. It
contains the villages of Franklin, Franklin Falls, Webster Place
and Lake City, the last a summer resort. The rivers furnish'
good water power, which is used in the manufacture of a variety
of commodities, including foundry products, paper and pulp,
woollen goods, hosiery, saws, needles and knitting machines.
The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality.
Here, in what was then a part of the town of Salisbury, Daniel
Webster was born, and on the Webster farm is the New Hamp-
shire orphans' home, established in 1871. The town of Franklin
was formed in 1828 by the union of portions of Salisbury,
Sanbornton, Andover and Northfield. The earliest settlement
within its limits was made in 1748 in the portion taken from
Salisbury. Franklin was incorporated as a city in 1895.
34
FRANKLIN FRANKPLEDGE
FRANKLIN, a city and the county-seat of Venango county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., at the confluence of French Creek and
Allegheny river, about 55 m. S. by E. of Erie, in the N.W. part
of the state. Pop. (1800) 6221; (1000) 7317 (480 being foreign-
born) ; (1910) 9767. Franklin is served by the Erie, the Pennsyl-
vania, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, and the Franklin
& Clearfield railways. Its streets are broad and well paved and
shaded, and there are two public parks, a public library and
many handsome residences. Franklin is the centre of the chief
oil region of the state, and from it great quantities of refined oil
are shipped. Natural gas also abounds. The city's manufacture
include oil-well supplies, boilers, engines, steel castings, iron
goods, lumber, bricks, asbestos goods, manifolding paper and
flour. On the site of the present city the French built in 1754
a fortification, Fort Machault, which after the capture of Fort
Duquesne by the English was a rallying place for Indians allied
with the French. In 1 7 59 the French abandoned and completely
destroyed the fort; and in the following year the English built
in the vicinity Fort Venango, which was captured by the Indians
in 1763 during the Conspiracy of Pontiac, the whole garrison
being massacred. In 1787 the United States built Fort Franklin
(about i m. above the mouth of French Creek) as a protection
against the Indians; in 1796 the troops were removed to a
strongly built and well-fortified wooden building, known as
" Old Garrison," at the mouth of French Creek, and in 1803
they were permanently withdrawn from the neighbourhood.
Franklin was laid out as a town in 1795, was incorporated as a
borough in 1828, and was chartered as a city in 1868. Most. of
its growth dates from the discovery of oil in 1860.
FRANKLIN, a town and the county-seat of Williamson
county, Tennessee, U.S.A., in the central part of the state,
on the Harpeth river, and about 20 m. S.W. of Nashville. Pop.
(1000) 2180; (1910) 2924. Franklin is served by the Louisville
& Nashville railway. It is the seat of the Tennessee Female
College and the Battle Ground Academy, and its chief objects
of interest are the battle-ground, the Confederate cemetery and
the Confederate monument. During the Civil War Franklin
was the scene of a minor engagement on the loth of April 1863,
and of a battle, celebrated as one of the most desperately fought
of the war, which took place on the 3Oth of November 1864.
The Union general Schofield, who was slowly withdrawing to
Nashville befo.'e the advance of General J. B. Hood's army,
which he was ordered to hold in check in order to give Thomas
time to prepare for battle (see AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, 32),
was unable immediately to cross the Harpeth river and was
compelled to entrench his forces south of the town until his
wagon trains and artillery could be sent over the stream by
means of two small bridges. In the afternoon Schofield's out-
posts and advanced lines were attacked by the Confederates
in full strength, and instead of withdrawing as ordered they
made a determined stand. Thus the assailants, carrying the
advanced works by storm, rushed upon the main defences on
the heels of the broken advanced guard, and a general engage-
ment was brought on which lasted from 3-30 until nine
o'clock in the evening. Against, it is said, thirteen separate
assaults, all delivered with exceptional fury, Schofield managed
to hold his position, and shortly before midnight he withdrew
across the river in good order. The engagement was indecisive
in its results, but the Union commander's purpose, to hold Hood
momentarily in check, was gained, and Hood's effort to crush
Schofield was unavailing. The losses were very heavy; Hood's
effective forces in the engagement numbered about 27,000,
Schofield's about 28,000; the Confederate losses (excluding
cavalry) were about 6500, excluding the slightly wounded;
six general officers were killed (including Major-General P. R.
Cleburne, a brave Irishman who had been a corporal in the
British army), six wounded, and one captured; the Union losses
(excluding cavalry) were 2326. In two of the Confederate
brigades all the general and field officers were killed or wounded.
See J. D. Cox, The Battle of Franklin (New York, 1897).
FRANKLIN, a word derived from the Late Lat. francus, free,
and meaning primarily a freeman. Subsequently it was used
in England to denote a land-holder who was of free but not
of noble birth. Some of the older English writers occasionally
use it to mean a liberal host. The Latin form of the word is
franchilanus.
FRANKLINITE, a member of the spinel group of minerals,
consisting of oxides of iron, manganese and zinc in varying
proportions, (Fe, Zn, Mn)*(Fe, Mn) 2 '"O. It occurs as large
octahedral crystals often with rounded edges, and as granular
masses. The colour is iron-black and the lustre metallic;
hardness 6, specific gravity 5-2- It thus resembles magnetite
in external characters, but is readily distinguished from this by
the fact that it is only slightly magnetic. It is found in consider-
able amount, associated with zinc minerals (zincite and willemite)
in crystalline limestone, at Franklin Furnace, New Jersey,
where it is mined as an ore of zinc (containing 5 to 20% of the
metal); after the extraction of the zinc, the residue is used in
the manufacture of spiegeleisen (the mineral containing 15 to
20% of manganese oxides). Associated with franklinite at
Franklin Furnace, and found also at some other localities,
is another member of the spinel group, namely, gahnite or
zinc-spinel, which is a zinc aluminate, ZnAl 2 O4, with a little of
the zinc replaced by iron and manganese.
FRANK-MARRIAGE (liberum maritagium), in real property
law, a species of estate tail, now obsolete. When a man was
seized of land in fee simple, and gave it to a daughter on marriage,
the daughter and her husband were termed the donees in frank-
marriage, because they held the land granted to them and the
heirs of their two bodies free from all manner of service, except
fealty, to the donor or his heirs until the fourth degree of con-
sanguinity from the donor was passed. This right of a freeholder
so to give away his land at will was first recognized in the reign
of Henry II., and became up to the reign of Elizabeth the most
usual kind of settlement.
FRANKPLEDGE (Lat. francum plegium), an early English
institution, consisting (as defined by Stubbs) of an association
for mutual security whose members, according to Hallam,
" were perpetual bail for each other." The custom whereby the
inhabitants of a district were responsible for any crime or injury
committed by one of their number is old and widespread; it
prevailed in England before the Norman Conquest, and is an
outcome of the earlier principle whereby this responsibility
rested on kinship. Thus a law of Edgar (d. 975) says " and let
every man so order that he have a borh (or surety), and let the
borh then bring and hold him to every justice; and if any one
then do wrong and run away, let the borh bear that which he
ought to bear "; and a law of Canute about 1030 says " and
that every one be brought into a hundred and in borh, and let
the borh hold and lead him to every plea." About this time
these societies, each having its headman, were called frithborhs,
or peace-borhs, and the Normans translated the Anglo-Saxon
word by frankpledge. But the history of the frankpledge
proper begins not earlier than the time of the Norman Conquest.
The laws, which although called the laws of Edward the Confessor
were not drawn up until about 1130, contain a clause about
frithborhs which decrees that in every place societies of ten men
shall be formed for mutual security and reparation. And
before this date William the Conqueror had ordered that " every
one who wishes to be regarded as free must be in a pledge, and
that the pledge must hold and bring him to justice if he commits
any offence "; and the laws of Henry I. ordered every person
of substance over twelve years of age to be enrolled in a frank-
pledge. This association of ten, or as it often was at a later date
of twelve men, was also called a tithing, or decima, and in the
north of England was known as tenmanne tale.
The view of frankpledge (visas franciplegii) , or the duty of
ascertaining that the liw with regard to frankpledges was com-
plied with, was in the hands of the sheriffs, who held an itinerant
court called the " sheriff's tourn " for this and other purposes.
This court was held twice a year, but in 1217 it was ordered
that the view of frankpledge should only be taken once at
Michaelmas. Introduced at or before the time of Henry I.,
the view was regulated by the Assize of Clarendon of 1166 and
FRANKS, SIR A. W. FRANKS
35
by Magna Cart* a* reissued in 1.117. Although the former of
these lays stress upon the fact that the sheriff's supervisory
powers are universal many men did not attend his tourn. Some
lords of manors and of hundreds held a court of their own for
view of frankpledge, and in the ijth century it may be fairly
said " of all the franchises, the royal rights in private hands,
view of frankpledge is perhaps the commonest." At the end of
the same century the court for the view of frankpledge was
generally known as the court leet, and was usually a manorial
court in private hands. However, the principle of the frank-
pledge was still enforced. Thus Bracton says " every male of
the age of twelve years, be he free be he serf, ought to be in
frankpledge," but he allows for certain exceptions.
As the word frankpledge denotes, these societies were originally
concerned only with freemen; but the unfree were afterwards
admitted, and during the i.iih century the frankpledges were
composed chiefly of villains. From petitions presented to parlia-
ment in 1376 it seems that the view of frankpledge was in active
operation at this time, but it soon began to fall into disuse, and
its complete decay coincides with the new ideas of government
introduced by the Tudors. In a formal fashion courts leet for the
view of frankpledge were held in the time of the jurist Selden,
and a few of these have survived until the present day. Sir F.
Palgrave has asserted that the view of frankpledge was unknown
in that part of the country which had been included in the
kingdom of Northumbria. This statement is open to question,
but it is highly probable that the system was not so deeply
rooted in this pan of England as elsewhere. The machinery
of the frankpledge was probably used by Henry II. when he
introduced the jury of presentment; and commenting on this
connexion F. W. Maitland says " the duty of producing one's
neighbour to answer accusations (the duty of the frankpledges)
could well be convened into the duty of telling tales against him."
The system of frankpledge prevailed in some English boroughs.
Sometimes a court for view of frankpledge, called in some places
a mitkltUm, whereat the mayor or the bailiffs presided, was
held for the whole borough; in other cases the borough was
divided into wards, or into lefts, each of which had its separate
court.
See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law (1895) ; G. Waitz,
Dtutsdu VerfajsuHtiteschichle. Band i. (1880); and W. Stubbs,
C*utit*tionol History, vol. i. (1897).
FRANKS. SIR AUGUSTUS WOLLASTON (1826-1897), English
antiquary, was born on the zoth of March 1826, and was educated
at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He early showed
inclination for antiquarian pursuits, and in 1851 was appointed
Btm** 1 " in the Antiquities Department of the British Museum.
Here, and as director of the Society of Antiquaries, an
appointment he received in 1858, he made himself the first
authority in England upon medieval antiquities of all descrip-
tions, upon porcelain, glass, the manufactures of savage nations,
and in general upon all Oriental curiosities and works of art later
than the Classical period. In 1866 the British and medieval
antiquities, with the ethnographical collections, were formed into
a distinct department under his superintendence; and the Christy
collection of ethnography in Victoria Street, London, prior to its
amalgamation with the British Museum collections, was also
under his care. He became vice-president and ultimately
president of the Society of Antiquaries, and in 1878 declined the
principal librarianship of the museum. He retired on his
seventieth birthday, 1806, and died on the 2ist of May 1897.
His ample fortune was largely devoted to the collection of
ceramics and precious objects of medieval art, most of which
became the property of the nation, either by donation in his
lifetime or by bequest at his death. Although chiefly a medieval
antiquary, Franks was also an authority oh classical art, especially
Roman remains in Britain: he was also greatly interested in
book-marks and playing-cards, of both of which he formed
important collections. He edited Kemble's Horae Ferules,
and wrote numerous memoirs on archaeological subjects.
Perhaps his most important work of this class is the catalogue
of his own collection of porcelain.
PRANKS. The name Franks seems to have been given in the
4th century to a group of Germanic peoples dwelling north of
the Main and reaching as far as the shores of the North Sea;
south of the Main was the home of the Alamanni. The names of
some of these tribes have come down to us. On the Tabula
Peutingrriana appear the " Chamavi qui et Pranci," which
should doubtless read " qui et Franci "; these Chamavi
apparently dwelt between the Yssel and the Ems. Later, we
find them a little farther south, on the banks of the Rhine, in
the district called Hamalant, and it is their customs which were
brought together in the 9th century in the document known as
the Lex Francorum Chamavorum. After the Chamavi we may
mention the Attuarii or Chattuarii, who are referred to by
Ammianus Marcellinus (xx. 10, 2): " Rheno exindc transmisso,
regionem pervasit (Julianus) Francorum quos Atthuarios
vocant." Later, the pagus Alluariorum corresponds to the
district of Emmerich and Xanten. It should be noted that this
name occurs again in the middle ages in Burgundy, not far
from Dijon; in all probability a detachment of this people had
settled in that spot in the sth or 6th century. The Bructeri,
Ampsivarii and Chatti may also be classed among the Prankish
tribes. They are mentioned in a celebrated passage of Sulpicius
Alexander, which is cited by Gregory of Tours (Historia Fran-
corum, ii. 9). Sulpicius shows the general Arbogast, a barbarian
in the service of Rome, seeking to take vengeance on the Franks
(392): " Collecto exercitu, transgressus Rhenum, Bricteros ripae
proximos, pagum etiam quern Chamavi incolunt depopulatus
est, nullo unquam occursante, nisi quod pauci ex Ampsivariis
et Catthis Marcomere duce in ulterioribus collium jugis
apparuere." It is evidently this Marcomeres, the chief of these
tribes, who is regarded by later historians as the father of the
legendary Faramund (Pharamund) although in fact Marcomeres
has nothing to do with the Salian Franks.
The earliest mention in history of the name Franks is the
entry on the Tabula Peulingeriana, at least if we assume that
the term " et Franci " is not a later emendation. The earliest
occurrence of the name in any author is in the Vita Aureliani
of Vopiscus (ch. vii.). When, in 241, Aurelian, who was then
only a tribune, had just defeated some Franks in the neighbour-
hood of Mainz and was marching against the Persians, his troops
sang the following refrain :
Mille Sarmatas, millc Francos, semel et semel occidimus;
Mille Persas, quaerimus.
All these Germanic tribes, which were known from the 3rd
century onwards by the generic name of Franks, doubtless spoke
a similar dialect and were governed by customs which must
scarcely have differed from one another; but this was all they
had in common. Each tribe was politically independent; they
formed no confederations. Sometimes two or three tribes joined
forces to wage a war; but, the struggle over, the bond was broken,
and each tribe resumed its isolated life. Waitz holds with some
show of probability that the Franks represent the ancient
Istaevones of Tacitus, the Alamanni and the Saxons representing
the Herminones and the Ingaevones.
Of all these Frankish tribes one especially was to become
prominent, the tribe of the Salians. They are mentioned for the
first time in 358, by Ammianus Marcellinus (xvii. 8, 3), who says
that the Caesar Julian " petit primes omnium Francos, videlicet
cos quos consuetude Salios appellavit." As to the origin of the
name, it was long held to be derived from the river Yssel or Saal.
It is more probable, however, that it arose from the fact that
the Salians for a long period occupied the shores of the salt sea. 1
The Salians inhabited the sea-coast, whereas the Ripuarians
dwelt on the banks of the river Rhine.
The Salians, at the time when they are mentioned by
Ammianus, occupied Toxandria, i.e. the region south of the
Meuse, between that river and the Scheldt. Julian defeated them
completely, but allowed them to remain in Toxandria, not, as
of old, as conquerors, but as foederati of the Romans. They
perhaps paid tribute, and they certainly furnished Rome with
1 Their legends are connected with the sea, the name Meroveus
signifying " ea-born."
36
FRANZ
soldiers; Salii seniores and Salii junior es are mentioned in the
Noiitia dignitatem, and Salii appear among the auxilia palatina.
At the end of the 4th century and at the beginning of the sth,
when the Roman legions withdrew from the banks of the Rhine,
the Salians installed themselves in the district as an independent
people. The place-names became entirely Germanic; the
Latin language disappeared; and the Christian religion suffered
a check, for the Franks were to a man pagans. The Salians
were subdivided into a certain number of tribes, each tribe
placing at its head a king, distinguished by his long hair and
chosen from the most noble family (Historic. Francorum, ii. 9).
The most ancient of these kings, reigning over the principal
tribe, who is known to us is Chlodio. 1 According to Gregory
of Tours Chlodio dwelt at a place called Dispargum, which it is
impossible to identify. Towards 43 1 he crossed the great Roman
road from Bavay to Cologne, which was protected by numerous
forts and had long arrested the invasions of the barbarians. He
then invaded the territory of Arras, but was severely defeated at
Hesdin-le-Vieux by Aetius, the commander of the Roman army
in Gaul. Chlodio, however, soon took his revenge. He explored
the region of Cambrai, seized that town, and occupied all the
country as far as the Somme. At this time Tournai became the
capital of the Salian Franks.
After Chlodio a certain Meroveus (Merowech) was king of the
Salian Franks. We do not know if he was the son of Chlodio;
Gregory of Tours simply says that he belonged to Chlodio's stock
" de hujus stirpe quidam Merovechum regem fuisse adserunt,"
and then only gives the fact at second hand. Perhaps the
remarks of the Byzantine historian Priscus may refer to Meroveus.
A king of the Franks having died, his two sons disputed the
power. The elder journeyed into Pannonia to obtain support
from Attila; the younger betook himself to the imperial court
at Rome. "I have seen him," writes Priscus; "he was still
very young, and we all remarked his fair hair which fell upon
his shoulders." Aetius welcomed him warmly and sent him
back a friend and foederatus. In any case, eventually, Franks
fought (451) in the Roman ranks at the great battle of Mauriac
(the Catalaunian Fields), which arrested the progress of Attila
into Gaul; and in the Vita Lupi, which, though undoubtedly
of later date, is a recension of an earlier document, the name
of Meroveus appears among the combatants. Towards 457
Meroveus was succeeded by his son Childeric. At first Childeric
was a faithful foederatus of the Romans, fighting- for them
against the Visigoths and the Saxons south of the Loire; but
he soon sought to make himself independent and to extend his
conquests. He died in 481 and was succeeded by his son Clovis,
who conquered the whole of Gaul with the exception of the
kingdom of Burgundy and Provence. Clovis made his authority
recognized over the other Salian tribes (whose kings dwelt at
Cambrai and other cities), and put an end to the domination of
the Ripuarian Franks.
These Ripuarians must have comprised a certain number of
Prankish tribes, such as the Ampsivarii and the Bructeri. They
settled in the sth century in compact masses on the left bank of
the Rhine, but their progress was slow. It was not until the
Christian writer Salvian (who was born about 400) had already
reached a fairly advanced age that they were able to seize
Cologne. The town, however, was recaptured and was not
definitely in their possession until 463. The Ripuarians sub-
sequently occupied all the country from Cologne to Trier.
Aix-la-Chapelle, Bonn and Ztilpich were their principal centres,
and they even advanced southward as far as Metz, which appears
to have resisted their attacks. The Roman civilization and the
.Latin language disappeared from the countries which they
occupied; indeed it seems that the actual boundaries of the
German and French languages nearly coincide with those of
their dominion. In their southward progress the Ripuarians
1 The chronicler Fredegarius and the author of the Liber historiae
Francorum make Sunno and Marcomeres his predecessors, but in
reality they were chiefs of other Prankish tribes. The author of the
Liber also claims that Chlodio was the son of Pharamund, but this
personage is quite legendary. In the Chronicon of Fredegarius it is
already affirmed that the Franks are descended from the Trojans.
encountered the Alamanni, who, already masters of Alsace,
were endeavouring to extend their conquests in all directions.
There were numerous battles between the Ripuarians and the
Alamanni; and the memory of one fought at Zulpich has come
down to us. In this battle Sigebert, the king of the Ripuarians,
was wounded in the knee and limped during the remainder of
his life hence his surname Claudus (the Lame) . The Ripuarians
long remained allies of Clovis, Sigebert's son Chloderic fighting
under the king of the Salian Franks at Vouille in 507. Clovis,
however, persuaded Chloderic to assassinate his father, and
then posed as Sigebert's avenger, with the result that Chloderic
was himself assassinated and the Ripuarians raised Clovis on
the shield and chose him as king. Thus the Salian Franks united
under their rule all the Franks on the left bank of the Rhine.
During the reigns of Clovis's sons they again turned their eyes
on Germany, and imposed their suzerainty upon the Franks on
the right bank. This country, north of the Main and the first
residence of the Franks, then received the name of Francia
Orientalis, and became the origin of one of the duchies into
which Germany was divided in the loth century the duchy of
Franconia (Franken).
The Franks were redoubtable warriors, and were generally
of great stature. Their fair or red hair was brought forward
from the crown of the head towards the forehead, leaving the nape
of the neck uncovered; they shaved the face except the upper
lip. They wore fairly close breeches reaching to the knee and a
tunic fastened by brooches. Round the waist over the tunic
was worn a leathern girdle having a broad iron buckle damascened
with silver. From the girdle hung the single-edged missile axe
or francisca, the scramasax or short knife, a poniard and such
articles of toilet as scissors, a comb (of wood or bone), &c. The
Franks also used a weapon called the framea (an iron lance set
firmly in a wooden shaft) , and bows and arrows. They protected
themselves in battle with a large wooden or wicker shield, the
centre of which was ornamented with an iron boss (umbo).
Prankish arms and armour have been found in the cemeteries
which abound throughout northern France, the warriors being
buried fully armed.
See J. Grimm, Deutsche Rechtsalterthumer (Gottingen, 1828);
K. Miillenhoff, Deutsche Altertumskunde (Berlin, 1883-1900) ; E. von
Wietersheim, Geschichte der Volkerwanderung, 2nd ed., ed. by F.
Dahn (Leipzig, 1880-1881); G. Waitz, Deutsche Verfassungs-
geschichte, vol. i. (4th ed. revised by Zeumer); R. Schroder, " Die
Ausbreitung der salischen Franken," in Forschungen zur deutschen
Geschichte, vol. xix. ; K. Lamprecht, Frdnkische Wanderungen und
Ansiedelungen (Aix-la-Chapelle, 1882); W. Schultz, Deutsche
Geschichte von der Urzeit bis zu den Karolingern, vol. ii. (Stuttgart,
1896); Fustel de Coulanges, Histoire des institutions politiques de
I'ancienne France I'invasion germanique (Paris, 1891). Also the
articles SALIC LAW and GERMANIC LAWS, EARLY. ' (C. PF.)
FRANZ, ROBERT (1813-1892), German composer, was born
at Halle on the z8th of June 1815. One of the most gifted of
German song writers, he suffered in early life, as many musicians
have suffered, from the hostility of his parents to a musical
career. He was twenty years old when, his father's animosity
conquered, he was allowed to live in Dessau to study organ-
playing under Schneider. The two years of dry study under
that famous teacher were advantageous chiefly in making him
uncommonly intimate with the works of Bach and Handel, his
knowledge of which he showed in his editions of the MatthSus
Passion, Magnificat, ten cantatas, and of the Messiah and
L' Allegro, though some of these editions have long been a subject
of controversy among musicians. In 1843 he published his first
book of songs, which ultimately was followed by some fifty more
books, containing in all'about 250 songs. At Halle, Franz filled
various public offices, including those of organist to the city,
conductor of the Sing-akademie and of the Symphony concerts,
and he was also a royal music-director and mas.ter of the music
at the university. The first book of songs was warmly praised
by Schumann and Liszt, the latter of whom wrote a lengthy
review of it in Schumann's paper, Die neue Zeilschri/t, which
later was published separately. Deafness had begun to make
itself apparent as early as 1841, and Franz suffered also from a
nervous disorder, which in 1868 compelled him to resign his
FRANZEN FRANZ JOSEF LAND
His future was then provided for by Liszt, Dr Joachim,
Frmu Magnus and others, who gave him the receipts of a concert
tour, amounting to some 100,000 marks. Franz died on the 24th
of October 1802. On his seventieth birthday he published his
first and only pianoforte piece. It is easy to find here and there
among his songs gems that are hardly less brilliant than the best
of Schumann's. Certainly no musician was ever more thoughtful
and more painstaking. In addition to songs he wrote a setting
for double choir of the ii;th Psalm, and a four-part Kyrie;
be also edited Astorga's Stabai Mater and Durante's Magnificat.
FRANZBN. FRANS MIKAEL (1772-1847), Swedish poet, was
born at Uleiborg in Finland on the 9th of February 1772.
At thirteen he entered the university of Abo, where he attended
the lectures of H. G. Porthan (1730-1804), a pioneer in the study
of Finnish history and legend. He graduated in 1789, and
became " doquenliae doctns " in 1792. Three years later he
started on a tour through Denmark, Germany, France and
England, returning in 1706 to accept the office of university
librarian at Abo. In 1801 he became professor of history and
ethics, and in 1 808 was elected a member of the Swedish Academy.
On the cession of Finland to Russia, Franzcn removed to Sweden,
where be was successively appointed parish priest of Kumla
in the diocese of Strengnis (1810), minister of the Clara Church
in Stockholm (1824) and bishop of Hernosand (1831). He died
at Sabri parsonage on the Mth of August 1847. From the
autumn of 1793, when his Till en ung Flicka and Menniskans
anleU were inserted by Kellgren in the Stockholmspost, Franzen
grew in popular favour by means of many minor poems of
singular simplicity and truth, as Till Selma, Den gamle knektcn,
Riddar St Goran, De Sm& Mommorna, Modren vid vaggan,
ffyArtmorgonen and Stjernhimmden. His songs Coda gosse
glaset Mm, Sdrj ej den gryende dagen fdrut, Champagnevinel
and BetOringitAng were widely sung, and in 1797 he won the prize
of the Swedish Academy by his Sing ofver grefve Filip Creutz.
Henceforth his muse, touched with the academic spirit, grew
more reflective and didactic. His longer works, as Emilicller
en a/ton i Lappland, and the epics Svante Slure eller motet vid
Alftistra, Kolumbus eller Amerikas upptdckt and Guslaf Adolf i
TysUand (the last two incomplete), though rich in beauties of
detail, are far inferior to his shorter pieces.
The poetical works of Franzcn are collected under the title Skalde-
itycktn (7 vols., 1824-1861) ; new ed.,Samlade dikter, with a biography
by A. A. Grafstrdm (1867-1869); also a selection (Valda dikter)
in 3 vols. (1871). His prose wntings, Om aenska drotiningar (Abo,
1798; Orebro. 1823), Skrifler i obunden stil, vol. i. (1835), Predik-
ntitfar (5 vols., 1841-1845) and Minnesteckningar , prepared for the
Academy (3 vols., 1848-1860), are marked by faithful portraiture and
purity of ityle. See B. E. Malmstrom, in the Handlinrar of the
Swedish Academy (1853, new series 1887), vol. ii. ; S. A. Hollander,
Uinitt af F. M. Franzfn (Orebro, 1868); F. Cygnaeus, Teckningar
ur F. M. Franuns lefnad (Hclsingfors, 1872) ; and Gustaf Ljunggren,
Stentka nUerheiens kafder efler Guslaf Ill.'t dod, vol. ii. (1876).
FRANZENSBAD, or KAISKR-FRASZENSBAD, a town and
watering-place of Bohemia, Austria, 1 52 m. W.N.W. of Prague by
rail. Pop. (1900) 2330. It is situated at an altitude of about
1500 ft. between the spun of the Fichtelgebirge, the Bohmerwald
and the Erzgebirge, and lies 4 m. N.W. of Eger. It possesses
a large kunaal, several bathing establishments, a hospital for
poor patients and several parks. There are altogether 12
mineral springs with saline, alkaline and ferruginous waters,
of which the oldest and most important is the Franzensquelle.
One of the springs gives off carbonic acid gasand another contains
a considerable proportion of lithia salts. The waters, which
have an average temperature between 50-2 F. and 54-5 F.,
are used both internally and externally, and are efficacious in
cases of anaemia, nervous disorders, sexual diseases, specially
for women, and heart diseases. Franzensbad is frequently
resorted to as an after-cure by patients from Carlsbad and
Marienbad. Another important part of the cure is the so-called
moor or mud-baths, prepared from the peat of the Franzensbad
marsh, which is very rich in mineral substances, like sulphates
of iron, of soda and of potash, organic acids, salt, &c.
The first information about the springs dates from the i6th
century, and an analysis of the waters was made in 1565. They
37
were first used for bathing purposes in 1707. But the foundation
of Franzensbad as a watering-place really dates from 1793,
when Dr Adler built here the first Kurhaus, and the place
received its name after the emperor Francis I.
See Dr Loimann, Franzensbad (3rd ed., Vienna, 1900).
FRANZ JOSEF LAND, an arctic archipelago lying E. of
Spitsbergen and N. of Novaya Zemlya, extending northward
from about 80 to 82 N., and between 42 and 64 E. It is
described as a lofty glacier-covered land, reaching an extreme
elevation of about 2400 ft. The glaciers front, with a per-
pendicular ice-wall, a shore of debris on which a few low plants
are found to grow poppies, mosses and the like. The islands
are volcanic, the main geological formation being Tertiary or
Jurassic basalt, which occasionally protrudes through the
ice-cap in high isolated blocks near the shore. A connecting
island-chain between Franz Josef Land and Spitzbergen is
probable. The bear and fox are the only land mammals; insects
are rare; but the avifauna is of interest, and the Jackson
expedition distinguished several new species.
August Petermann expressed the opinion that Baffin may
have sighted the west of Franz Josef Land in 1614, but the
first actual discovery is due to Julius Payer, a lieutenant in the
Austrian army, who was associated with Weyprecht in the
second polar expedition fitted out by Count Wilczek on the
ship " Tegetthof " in 1872. On the i3th of August 1873, the
" Tegetthof " being then beset, high land was seen to the north-
west. Later in the season Payer led expeditions to Hochstetter
and Wilczek islands, and after a second winter in the ice-bound
ship, a difficult journey was made northward through Austria
Sound, which was reported to separate two large masses of land,
Wilczek Land on the east from Zichy Land on the west, to Cape
Fligely, in 82 5' N., where Rawlinson Sound branched away to
the north-east. Cape Fligely was the highest latitude attained
by Payer, and remained the highest attained in the Old World
till 1895. Payer reported that from Cape Fligely land (Rudolf
Land) stretched north-east to a cape (Cape Sherard Osborn),
and mountain ranges were visible to the north, indicating lands
beyond the 83rd parallel, to which the names King Oscar Land
and Petermann Land were given. In 1879 De Bruyne sighted
high land in the Franz Josef Land region, but otherwise it
remained untouched until Leigh Smith, in the yacht " Eira,"
explored the whole southern coast from 42 to 54 E. in 1881
and 1882, discovering many islands and sounds, and ascertaining
that the coast of Alexandra Land, in the extreme west, trended
to north-west and north.
After Leigh Smith came another pause, and no further mention
is made of Franz Josef Land till 1894. In that year Mr Alfred
Harmsworth (afterwards Lord Northcliffe) fitted out an expedi-
tion in the ship " Windward " under the leadership of Mr F.
G. Jackson, with the object of establishing a permanent base
from which systematic exploration should be carried on for
successive years and, if practicable, a journey should be made
to the Pole. Mr Jackson and his party landed at " Elmwood "
(which was named from Lord Northcliffe's scat in the Isle of
Thanet), near Cape Flora, at the western extremity of Northbrook
Island, on the 7th of September. After a preliminary reconnais-
sance to the north, which afterwards turned out to be vitally
important, the summer of 1895 was spent in exploring the coast
to the north-west by a boating expedition. This expedition
visited many of the points seen by Leigh Smith, and discovered
land, which it has been suggested may be the Gillies Land
reported by the Dutch captain Gillies in 1707. In 1896 the
Jackson-Harmsworth expedition worked northwards through
an archipelago for about 70 m. and reached Cape Richthofen,
a promontory 700 ft. high, whence an expanse of open water
was seen to the northward, which received the name of Queen
Victoria Sea. To the west, on the opposite side of a wide opening
which was called the British Channel, appeared glacier-covered
land, and an island lay to the northward. The island was
probably the King Oscar Land of Payer. To north and north-
east was the land which had been visited in the reconnaissance
of the previous year, but beyond it a water-sky appeared in the
FRANZOS FRASER, A. C.
supposed position of Petermann Land. Thus Zichy Land
itself was resolved into a group of islands, and the outlying
land sighted by Payer was found to be islands also. Meanwhile
Nansen, on his southward journey, had approached Franz
Josef Land from the north-east, finding only sea at the north
end of Wilczek Land, and seeing nothing of Payer's Rawiinson
Sound, or of the north end of Austria Sound. Nansen wintered
near Cape Norway, only a few miles from the spot reached by
Jackson in 1895. He had finally proved that a deep oceanic
basin lies to the north. On the i7th of June 1896 the dramatic
meeting of Jackson and Nansen took place, and in the same
year the "Windward" revisited " Elmwood " and brought
Nansen home, the work of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition
being continued for another year. As the non-existence of land
to the north had been proved, the attempt to penetrate north-
wards was abandoned, and the last season was devoted to a
survey and scientific examination of the archipelago, especially
to the west; this was carried out by Messrs Jackson, Armitage,
R. Koettlitz, H. Fisher and W. S. Bruce.
Further light was thrown on the relations of Franz Josef Land
and Spitsbergen during 1897 by the discoveries of Captain
Robertson of Dundee, and Wyche's Land was circumnavigated
by Mr Arnold Pike and Sir Savile Crossley. The latter voyage
was repeated in the following year by a German expedition
under Dr Th. Lerner and Captain Rudiger. In August 1898 an
expedition under Mr Walter Wellman, an American, landed at
Cape Tegetthof. Beginning a northward journey with sledges
at the end of the winter, Wellman met with an accident
which compelled him to return, but not before some exploration
had been accomplished, and the eastern extension of the archi-
pelago fairly well defined. In June 1899 H.R.H. the duke of
Abruzzi started from Christiania in his yacht, the " Stella
Polare," to make the first attempt to force a ship into the newly
discovered ocean north of Franz Josef Land. The " Stella
Polare " succeeded in making her way through the British
Channel to Crown Prince Rudolf Land, and wintered in Teplitz
Bay, in 81 33' N. lat. The ship was nearly wrecked in the
autumn, and the party had to spend most of the winter on shore,
the duke of Abruzzi suffering severely from frost-bite. In March
1900 a sledge party of thirteen, under Captain Cagni, started
northwards. They found no trace of Petermann Land, but with
great difficulty crossed the ice to 86 33' N. lat., 20 m. beyond
Nansen's farthest, and 240 m. from the Pole. The party, with
the exception of three, returned to the ship after an absence
of 104 days, and the "Stella Polare" returned to Tromso
in September 1900. In 1001-1902 the Baldwin-Ziegler expedi-
tion also attempted a northward journey from Franz Josef
Land.
See Geographical Journal, vol. xi., February 1898; F. G. Jackson,
A Thousand Days in the Arctic (1899).
FRANZOS, KARL EHIL (1848-1004), German novelist, was
born of Jewish parentage on the 25th of October 1848 in Russian
Podolia, and spent his early years at Czortk6w in Galicia. His
father, a district physician, died early, and the boy, after attend-
ing the gymnasium of Czernowitz, was obliged to teach in order
to support himself and prepare for academic study. He studied
law at the universities of Vienna and Graz, but after passing the
examination for employment in the state judicial service
abandoned this career and, becoming a journalist, travelled
extensively in south-east Europe, and visited Asia Minor and
Egypt. In 1877 he returned to Vienna, where from 1884 to
1886 he edited the Neue tilustrierte Zeitung. In 1887 he removed
to Berlin and founded the fortnightly review Deutsche Dichtung.
Franzos died on the 28th of January 1904. His earliest collec-
tions of stories and sketches, Aits Halb-Asien, Land und Leute
des dstlichen Europas (1876) and Die Juden von Barnow (1877)
depict graphically the life and manners of the races of south-
eastern Europe. Among other of his works may be mentioned
the short stories, Junge Liebe (1878), Stille Geschichten (1880),
and the novels Moschko von Parma (1880), Ein Kampf urns
Rechl (1882), Der President (1884), Judith Trachtenberg (1890),
Der Wahrheitsucher (1894).
FRASCATI, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province
of Rome, ism. S.E. of Rome by rail, and also reached by electric
tramway via Grottaf errata. Pop. (1001) 8453. The town is
situated 1056 ft. above the sea-level, on the N. slopes of the outer
crater ring of the Alban Hills, and commands a very fine view
of the Campagna of Rome. The cathedral contains a memorial
tablet to Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, whose body
for some while rested here; his brother, Henry, Cardinal York,
owned a villa at Frascati. The villas of the Roman nobility,
with their beautiful gardens and fountains, are the chief attrac-
tion of Frascati. The earliest in date is the Villa Falconieri,
planned by Cardinal Ruffini before 1550; the most important
of the rest are the Villa Torlonia (formerly Conti), Lancelotti
(formerly Piccolomini), Ruffinella (now belonging to Prince
Lancellotti), Aldobrandini, Borghese and Mondragone (now a
Jesuit school). The surrounding country, covered with remains
of ancient villas, is fertile and noted for its wine. Frascati
seems to have arisen on the site of a very large ancient villa,
which, under Domitian at any rate, belonged to the imperial
house about the 9th century, in which period we find in the
Liber Pontificalis the names of four churches in Frascata.
The medieval stronghold of the counts of Tusculum (?..),
which occupied the site of the ancient city, was dismantled by
the Romans in 1191, and the inhabitants put to the sword or
mutilated. Many of the fugitives naturally took refuge in
Frascati. The see of Tusculum had, however, always had its
cathedral church in Frascati. For the greater part of the middle
ages Frascati belonged to the papacy.
See G. Tomassetti, La Via Latino, net media evo (Rome, 1886),
170 seq.; T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iv.
(London, 1907). (T. As.)
FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819- ), Scottish
philosopher, was born at Ardchattan, Argyllshire, on the 3rd
of September 1819. He was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh,
where, from 1846 to 1856, he was professor of Logic at New
College. He edited the North British Review from 1850 to 1857,
and in 1856, having previously been a Free Church minister,
he succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of Logic and
Metaphysics at Edinburgh University. In 1859 he became
dean of the faculty of arts. He devoted himself to the study
of English philosophers, especially Berkeley, and published a
Collected Edition of the Works of Bishop Berkeley with Annota-
tions, 6*c. (1871; enlarged 1901), a Biography of Berkeley (1881),
an Annotated Edition of Locke's Essay (1894), the Philosophy of
Theism (1896) and the Biography of Thomas Reid (1898). He
contributed the article on John Locke to the Encyclopaedia
Britannica. In 1904 he published an autobiography entitled
Biographia philosophica, in which he sketched the progress of his
intellectual development. From this work and from his Gifford
lectures we learn objectively what had previously been inferred
from his critical works. After a childhood spent in an austerity
which stigmatized as unholy even the novels of Sir Walter Scott,
he began his college career at the age of fourteen at a time when
Christopher North and Dr Ritchie were lecturing on Moral
Philosophy and Logic. His first philosophical advance was
stimulated by Thomas Brown's Cause and Effect, which intro-
duced him to the problems which were to occupy his thought.
From this point he fell into the scepticism of Hume. In 1836
Sir William Hamilton was appointed to the chair of Logic and
Metaphysics, and Fraser became his pupil. He himself says,
" I owe more to Hamilton than to any other influence." It
was about this time also that he began his study of Berkeley and
Coleridge, and deserted his early phenomenalism for the con-
ception of a spiritual will as the universal cause. In the Bio-
graphia this " Theistic faith " appears in its full development
(see the concluding chapter), and is especially important as
perhaps the nearest approach to Kantian ethics made by original
English philosophy. Apart from the philosophical interest of
the Biographia, the work contains valuable pictures of the Land
of Lome and Argyllshire society in the early igth century, of
university life in Glasgow and Edinburgh, and a history of the
North British Review.
FRASER, J. FRASERBURGH
FRASER. JAMBS (1818-1885), English bishop, was born at
Prestbury, in Gloucestershire, on the iSth of August iSiS, and
was educated at Bridgnorth, Shrewsbury, and Lincoln College,
Oxford. In 1839 he was Ireland scholar, and took a first class.
In 1840 he gained an Oriel fellowship, and was for some time
tutor of the college, but did not take orders until 1846. He was
successively vicar of Cholderton, in Wiltshire, and rector of
I' I ton Nervet, in Berkshire; but his subsequent importance was
largely due to W. K. Hamilton, bishop of Salisbury, who recom-
mended him as an assistant commissioner of education. His
report on the educational condition of thirteen poor-law unions,
made in May 1859, was described by Thomas Hughes as " a
superb, almost a unique piece of work." In 1865 he was com-
missioned to report on the state of education in the United States
and Canada, and his able performance of this task brought him
an offer of the bishopric of Calcutta, which he declined, but in
January 1870 he accepted the see of Manchester. The task
before him was an arduous one, for although his predecessor,
James Prince Lee, had consecrated no fewer than 130 churches,
the enormous population was still greatly in advance of the
ecclesiastical machinery. Fraser worked with the utmost
energy, and did even more for the church by the liberality and
geniality which earned him the title of " the bishop of all de-
nominations." He was prominent in secular as well as religious
works, interesting himself in every movement that promoted
health, morality, or education; and especially serviceable as
the friendly, unofficious counsellor of all classes. His theology
was that of a liberal high-churchman, and his sympathies were
broad. In convocation he seconded a motion for the disuse of
the Athanasian Creed, and in the House of Lords he voted for
the abolition of university tests. He died suddenly on the 22nd
of October 1885.
A biography by Thomas Hughes was published in 1887, and an
account of his Lancashire life by J. W. Digglc (1880), who also edited
2 voU. of University and Parochial Sermons (1887).
FRASER. JAMES BAILUB (1783-1856), Scottish traveller
and author, was born at Reelick in the county of Inverness on
the nth of June 1783. He was the eldest of the four sons of
Edward Satchell Fraser of Reelick, all of whom found their way
to the East, and gave proof of their ability. In early life he
went to the West Indies and thence to India. In 1815 he made
a tour of exploration in the Himalayas, accompanied by his
brother William (d. 1835). When Reza Kuli Mirza and Nejeff
Kuli Mirza, the exiled Persian princes, visited England, he was
appointed to look after them during their stay, and on their
return he accompanied them as far as Constantinople. He was
afterwards sent to Persia on a diplomatic mission by Lord
( ilcnelg, and effected a most remarkable journey on horseback
through Asia Minor to Teheran. His health, however, was
impaired by the exposure. In 1823 he married a daughter
of Alexander Fraser Tytler. Lord Woodhouselee, a sister of the
historian Patrick Fraser Tytler. He died at Reelick in January
1856. Fraser is said to have displayed great skill in water-
colours, and several of his drawings have been engraved; and
the astronomical observations which he took during some of
his journeys did considerable service to the cartography of Asia.
The works by which be attained his literary reputation were
accounts of his travels and fictitious tales illustrative of Eastern
life. In both be employed a vigorous and impassioned style,
whkb was on the whole wonderfully effective in spite of minor
faults in taste and flaws in structure.
Fraser 1 earliest writings are: Journal of a Tour through Part of
Ike Himdld Mountains and to the Sources of the Jumna and the Ganges
(1820); A Narrative of a Journey into Khorasan in tkr Years 1821
and iSil, includtni some Account of Ike Countries to the North- East
of Persia (1825) ; and Travels and Adventures in the Persian Provinces
on Ike Southern Banks of the Caspian Sea (1826). His romances
include The Kuailbash, a Tale of Khorasan (1828), and its sequel,
The Persian Advtnturtr(ly>); Allee Neemroo (1843); AnA The Dark
Falcon (1844). He also wrote An Historical and Descriptive Account
ff Persia. (1834): ^ Winter's Journey (Tatar) from Constantinople
to Teheran (1838) ; Travels in Koordistan, Mesopotamia, Gfc. (1840);
Mesopotamia and Assyria (1842); and Military Memoirs of Col.
James Skinner (1851).
39
PHASER. SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS. Bart. (1836-1898), Eng-
lish politician, author and collector, was born on the loth of
February 1826, the son of Sir James John Eraser, 3rd baronet, a
colonel of the 7th Hussars, who had served on Wellington's staff
at Waterloo. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church,
Oxford, entered the ist Life Guards in 1847, but retired with a
captain's rank in 1852. He then set about entering parliament,
and the ups and downs of his political career were rather remark-
able. He was returned for Barnstaple in 1852, but the election
was declared void on account of bribery, and the constituency
was disfranchised for two years. At the election of 1857 Sir
William, who had meantime been defeated at Harwich, was
again returned at Barnstaple. He was, however, defeated in
1850, but was elected in 1863 at Ludlow. This seat he held for
only two years, when he was again defeated and did not re-enter
parliament until 1874, when he was returned for Kidderminster,
a constituency he represented for six years, when he retired. He
was a familiar figure at the Carlton Club, always ready with a
copious collection of anecdotes of Wellington, Disraeli and
Napoleon III. He died on the I7th of August 1898. He was
an assiduous collector of relics; and his library was sold for
some 20,000. His own books comprise Words on Wellington
(1889), Disraeli and his Day (1891), Hie et Ubique (1893),
Napoleon III. (1896) and the Waterloo Ball (1897).
FRASER, the chief river of British Columbia, Canada, rising
in two branches among the Rocky Mountains near 52 45' N.,
1 18 30' W. Length 740 m. It first flows N.W. for about 160 m.,
then rounds the head of the Cariboo Mountains, and flows
directly S. for over 400 m. to Hope, where it again turns abruptly
and flows W. for 80 m., falling into the Gulf of Georgia at New
Westminster. After the junction of the two forks near its
northern extremity, the first important tributary on its southern
course is the Stuart, draining Lakes Stuart, Eraser and Francois.
One hundred miles lower down the Quesnel, draining a large
lake of the same name, flows in from the east at a town also so
named. Farther on the Fraser receives from the west the
Chilcotin, and at Lytton, about 180 m. from the sea, the Thomp-
son, its largest tributary, flows in from the east, draining a series
of mountain lakes, and receiving at Kamloops the North
Thompson, which flows through deep and impassable canyons.
Below Hope the Lillooet flows in from the north. The Fraser
is a typical mountain stream, capid and impetuous through all
its length, and like most of its tributaries is in many parts not
navigable even by canoes. On its southern course between
Lytton and Yale, while bursting its way through the Coast
Range, it flows through majestic canyons, which, like those
of the Thompson, were the scene of many tragedies during the
days of the gold-rush to the Cariboo district. At Yale, about
80 m. from its mouth, it becomes navigable, though its course
is still very rapid. In the Cariboo district, comprised within the
great bend of the river, near Tfite Jaune Cache, are many valuable
gold deposits. With its tributaries the Fraser drains the whole
province from 54 to 49 N., except the extreme south-eastern
corner, which is within the basin of the Columbia and its tributary
the Kootenay.
FRASERBURGH. a police burgh and seaport, on the N. coast
of Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891), 7466; (1901), 9105.
It is situated 47 i m. by rail N. of Aberdeen, from which there
is a branch line, of which it is the terminus, of the Great North
of Scotland railway. It takes its name from Sir Alexander
Fraser, the ancestor of Lord Saltoun, whose seat, Philorth
House, lies 2 m. to the south. Sir Alexander obtained for it
in 1613 a charter as a burgh of royalty, and also in 1592 a charter
for the founding of a university. This latter project, however,
was not carried out, and all that remains of the building in-
tended for the college is a three-storeyed tower. The old castle
of the Erasers on Kinnaird Head now contains a lighthouse,
and close by is the Wine Tower, with a cave below. The
town cross is a fine structure standing upon a huge hexagon,
surmounted by a stone pillar 12 ft. high, ornamented by the
.royal and Fraser arms. The port is one of the leading stations
of the herring fishery in the north of Scotland and the head
FRASERVILLE FRATERNITIES
of a fishery district. During the herring season (June to Sep-
tember) the population is increased by upwards of 10,000 per-
sons. The fleet numbers more than 700 boats, and the annual
value of the catch exceeds 200,000. The harbour, origin-
ally constructed as a refuge for British ships of war, is one
of the best on the east coast, and has been improved by the
widening of the piers and the extension of the breakwaters.
It has an area of upwards of eight acres, is easy of access, and
affords anchorage for vessels of every size.
FRASERVILLE (formerly Riviere du Loup en Bas), a town
and watering-place in Temiscouata county, Quebec, Canada,
107 m. (by water) north-east of Quebec, on the south shore of
the St Lawrence river, and at the mouth of the Riviere du Loup,
at the junction of the Intercolonial and Temiscouata railways.
It contains a convent, boys' college, hospital, several mills,
and is a favourite summer resort on account of the angling and
shooting, and the magnificent scenery. Pop. (1901) 4569.
PRATER, PRATER HOUSE or FRATERY, a term in architec-
ture for the hall where the members of a monastery or friary
met for meals or refreshment. The word is by origin the same as
" refectory." The older forms, such as freilur, fraytor and the
like, show the word to be an adaptation of the O.Fr. fraitour,
a shortened form of refraitour, from the Med. Lat. refectorium.
The word has been confused with frater, a brother or friar,
and hence sometimes confined in meaning to the dining-hall
of a friary, while " refectory " is used of a monastery.
FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE, a class of student societies
peculiar to the colleges and universities of the United States and
Canada, with certain common characteristics, and mostly
named from two or three letters of the Greek alphabet; hence
they are frequently called " Greek Letter Societies." They are
organized on the lodge system, and each fraternity comprises
a number of affiliated lodges of which only one of any one
fraternity is connected with the same institution. The lodges,
called " chapters," in memory of the convocations of monks of
medieval times, are usually designated by Greek letters also.
They are nominally secret, with one exception (Delta Upsilon).
Each chapter admits members from the lowest or freshman
class, and of course loses its members as the students depart
from college, consequently each chapter has in it at the same
time members of all the four college classes and frequently those
pursuing postgraduate studies. Where the attendance at a
college is large the material from which fraternity members
may be drawn is correspondingly abundant, and in some of the
large colleges (e.g. at Cornell University and the University of
Michigan) there are chapters of over twenty fraternities. All
the fraternities aim to be select and to pick their members from
the mass of incoming students. Where, however, the material
to select from is not abundant and the rival fraternities are
numerous, care in selection is impossible, and the chapters at any
one college are apt to secure much the same general type of men.
Many of the fraternities have, however, on account of a persistent
selection of men of about the same tastes at different colleges,
acquired a distinct character and individuality; for instance,
Alpha Delia Phi is literary.
The first of these fraternities was the Phi Beta Kappa, founded
at the College of William and Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia,
in 1776. It was a little social club of five students: John
Heath, Richard Booker, Thomas Smith, Armistead Smith and
John Jones. Its badge was a square silver medal displaying
the Greek letters of its name and a few symbols. In 1779 it
authorized Elisha Parmelee, one of its members, to establish
" meetings " or chapters at Yale and Harvard, these chapters being
authorized to establish subordinate branches in their respective
states. In 1781 the College of William and Mary was closed, its
buildings being occupied in turn by the. British, French and
American troops, and the society ceased to exist. The two
branches, however, were established that at Yale in 1780 and
that at Harvard in 1 78 1 . Chapters were established at Dartmouth
in 1 787, at Union in 181 7, at Bowdoin in 1824 and at Brown in 1830.
This society changed its character in 1826 and became non-secret
and purely honorary in character, admitting to membership a
certain proportion of the scholars of highest standing in each
class (only in classical courses, usually and with few exceptions
only in graduating classes). More recent honorary societies
of similar character among schools of science and engineering
are Sigma Xi and Tau Beta Pi.
In 1825, at Union College, Kappa Alpha was organized,
copying in style of badge, membership restrictions and the like,
its predecessor. In 1827 two other similar societies, Sigma Phi
and Delta Phi, were founded at the same place. In 1831 Sigma
Phi placed a branch at Hamilton College and in 1832 Alpha
Delta Phi originated there. In 1833 Psi Upsilon, a fourth
society, was organized at Union. In 1835 Alpha Delta Phi
placed a chapter at Miami University, and in 1839 Beta Theta Pi
originated there, and so the system spread. These fraternities,
it will be observed, were all undergraduate societies among the
male students. In 1910 the total number of men's general
fraternities was 32, with 1068 living chapters, and owning
property worth many millions of dollars. In 1864 Theta Xi,
the first professional fraternity restricting its membership to
students intending to engage in the same profession, was organ-
ized. There were in 1910 about 50 of these organizations
with some 400 chapters. In addition there are about 100
local societies or chapters acting as independent units. Some
of the older of these, such as Kappa Kappa Kappa at Dartmouth,
IK A at Trinity, Phi Nu Theta at Wesleyan and Delta Psi at
Vermont, are permanent in character, but the majority of them
are purely temporary, designed to maintain an organization
until the society becomes a chapter of one of the general fra-
ternities. In 1870 the first women's society or " sorority,"
the Kappa Alpha Theta, was organized at De Pauw University.
There were in 1910, 17 general sororities with some 300 active
chapters.
It is no exaggeration to say that these apparently insignificant
organizations of irresponsible students have modified the college
life of America and have had a wide influence. Members join
in the impressionable years of their youth; they retain for their
organizations a peculiar loyalty and affection, and freely contri-
bute with money and influence to their advancement.
Almost universally the members of any particular chapter
(or part of them) live together in a lodge or chapter house.
The men's fraternities own hundreds of houses and rent as many
more. The fraternities form a little aristocracy within the
college community. Sometimes the line of separation is invisible,
sometimes sharply marked. Sometimes this condition militates
against the college discipline and sometimes it assists it. Con-
flicts not infrequently occur between the fraternity and non-
fraternity element in a college.
It can readily be understood how young men living together in
the intimate relationship of daily contact in the same house,
having much the same tastes, culture and aspirations would form
among themselves enduring friendships. In addition each
fraternity has a reputation to maintain, and this engenders an
esprit du corps which at times places loyalty to fraternity
interests above loyalty to college interest or the real advantage
of the individual. At commencements and upon other occasions
the former members of the chapters return to their chapter
houses and help to foster the pride and loyalty of the under-
graduates. The chapter houses are commonly owned by corpora-
tions made up of the alumni. This brings the undergraduates
into contact with men of mature age and often of national fame,
who treat their membership as a serious privilege.
The development of this collegiate aristocracy has led to
jealousy and bitter animosity among those not selected for
membership. Some of the states, notably South Carolina and
Arkansas, have by legislation, either abolished the fraternities at
state-controlled institutions or seriously limited the privileges
of their members. The constitutionality of such legislation has
never been tested. Litigation has occasionally arisen out of
attempts on the part of college authorities to prohibit the
fraternities at their several institutions. This, it has been held,
may lawfully be done at a college maintained by private endow-
ment but not at an institution supported by public funds. In
FRATICELLI
the Utter case all classes of the public are equally entitled to
the same educational privileges and members of the fraternities
may not be discriminated against.
The fraternities are admirably organized. The usual system
comprises a legislative body made up of delegates from the
different chapters and an executive or administrative body
elected by the delegates. Few of the fraternities have any
judiciary. None is needed. The financial systems are sound,
and the conventions of delegates meet in various parts of the
United States, several hundred in number, spend thousands of
dollars in travel and entertainment, and attract much public
attention. Most of the fraternities have an inspection system
by which chapters are periodically visited and kept up to a certain
level of excellence.
The leading fraternities publish journals usually from four to
eight times during the college year. The earliest of these was
the Beta Tkela Pi, first issued in 1872. All publish catalogues
of their members and the most prosperous have issued histories.
They also publish song books, music and many ephemeral and
local publications.
The alumni of the fraternities are organized into clubs or associa-
tions having headquarters at centres of population. These
organizations are somewhat loose, but nevertheless are capable
of much exertion and influence should occasion arise.
The college fraternity system has no parallel among the students
of colleges outside of America. One of the curious things about
it, however, is that while it is practically uniform throughout
the United States, at the three prominent universities of Harvard,
Yale and Princeton it differs in many respects from its character
elsewhere. At Harvard, although there are chapters of a few
of the fraternities, their influence is insignificant, their place
being taken by a group of local societies, some of them class
organizations. At Yale, the regular system of fraternities
obtains in the engineering or technical department (the Sheffield
Scientific School), but in the classical department the fraternity
chapters are called " junior " societies, because they limit their
membership to the three upper classes and allow the juniors
each year practically to control the chapter affairs. Certain
senior societies, of which the oldest is the Skull and Bones,
which are inter-fraternity societies admitting freely members of
the fraternities, are more prominent at Yale than the fraternities
themselves. Princeton has two (secret) literary and fraternal
societies, the American Whig and the Cliosophic, and various
local social clubs, with no relationship to organizations in other
colleges and not having Greek letter names.
At a few universities (for instance, Michigan, Cornell and Vir-
ginia), senior societies or other inter-fraternity societiesexert great
influence and have modified the strength of the fraternity system.
Of late years, numerous societies bearing Greek names and
imitating the externals of the college fraternities have sprung
up in the high schools and academies of the country, but have
excited the earnest and apparently united opposition of the
authorities of such schools.
See William Raimond Baird, American College Fraternities (6th
ed.. New York, 1905); Albert C. Stevens, Cyclopedia of Fraternities
(Patenon, N. ]., 1899) ; Henry D. Sheldon, Student Life and Customs
(New York, 1901); Homer L. Patterson, Pattersons College and
School Directory (Chicago, 1904); H. K. Kellogg, College Secret
Societies (Chicago, 1874); Albert P. Jacobs, Greek Letter Societies
(Detroit. 1879). (W. R. B.*)
FRATICELLI (plural diminutive of Ital. fratr, brother), the
name given during the i jth, uth and 1 5th centuries to a number
of religious groups in Italy, differing widely from each other, but
all derived more or less directly from the Franciscan movement.
Fra Salimbene says in his Chronicle (Parma ed., p. 108): " All
who wished to found a new rule borrowed something from the
Franciscan order, the sandals or the habit." As early as 1238
Gregory IX., in his bull Quoniam abundant iniquitas, condemned
and denounced as forgers (lanquam falsarios) all who begged or
preached in a habit resembling that of the mendicant orders,
and this condemnation was repeated by him or his successors.
The term Fraticelli was used contemptuously to denote, not any
particular sect, but the members of orders formed on the fringe
of the church. Thus Giovanni Villani, speaking of the heretic
Dolcino, says in his Chronicle (bk. viii. ch. 84): " He is not a
brother of an ordered rule, but a fraticello without an order."
Similarly, John XXII., in his bull Sancta Romana et Univcrsalis
Ecclesia (28th of December 1317), condemns vaguely those
" profanae multitudinis viri commonly called Fraticelli, or
Brethren of the Poor Life, or Bizocchi, or Beguines, or by all
manner of other names."
Some historians, in their zeal for rigid classification, have
regarded the Fraticelli as a distinct sect, and have attempted
to discover its dogmas and its founder. Some of the con-
temporaries of these religious groups fell into the same error,
and in this way the vague term Fraticelli has sometimes been
applied to the disciples of Armanno Pongilupo of Ferrara (d. 1 269),
who was undoubtedly a Cathar, and to the followers'of Gerard
Segarelli and Dolcino, who were always known among them-
selves as Apostolic Brethren (Apostolici). Furthermore, it seems
absurd to classify both the Dolcinists and the Spiritual Franciscans
as Fraticelli, since, as has been pointed out by Ehrle (Arch. f.
Lit. u. Kirchengesch. des Mitlelalters, ii. 107, &c.), Angelo of
Clarino, in his DC septcm tribulationibus, written to the glory of
the Spirituals, does not scruple to stigmatize the Dolcinists as
" disciples of the devil." It is equally absurd to include in the
same category the ignorant Bizocchi and Segarellists and such
learned disciples of Michael of Cesena and Louis of Bavaria as
William of Occam and Bonagratia of Bergamo, who have often
been placed under this comprehensive rubric.
The name Fraticelli may more justly be applied to the most
exalted fraction of Franciscanism. In 1322 some prisoners
declared to the inquisitor Bernard Gui at Toulouse that the
Franciscan order was divided into three sections the Con-
ventuals, who were allowed to retain their real and personal
property; the Spirituals or Beguines, who were at that time
the objects of persecution; and the Fraticelli of Sicily, whose
leader was Henry of Ceva (see Gui's Practica Inquisitionis, v.).
It is this fraction of the order which John XXII. condemned
in his bull Gloriosam Ecclesiam (23rd of January 1318), but
without calling them Fraticelli. Henry of Ceva had taken refuge
in Sicily at the time of Pope Boniface VIII.'s persecution of the
Spirituals, and thanks to the good offices of Frederick of Sicily,
a little colony of Franciscans who rejected all property had soon
established itself in the island. Under Pope Clement V., and
more especially under Pope Jojin XXII., fresh Spirituals joined
them; and this group of exalted and isolated ascetics soon
began to regard itself as the sole legitimate order of the Minorites
and then as the sole Catholic Church. After being excommuni-
cated as " schismatics and rebels, founders of a superstitious
sect, and propagators of false and pestiferous doctrines," they
proceeded to elect a general (for Michael of Cesena had disavowed
them) and then a pope called Celestine (L. Wadding, Annales,
at date 1313). The rebels continued to carry on an active
propaganda. In Tuscany particularly the Inquisition made
persistent efforts to suppress them; Florence afflicted them
with severe laws, but failed to rouse the populace against them.
The papacy dreaded their social even more than their dogmatic
influence. At first in Sicily and afterwards throughout Italy
the Ghibellines gave them a warm welcome; the rigorists and
the malcontents who had either left the church or were on the
point of leaving it, were attracted by these communities of
needy rebels; and the tribune Rienzi was at one time disposed
to join them. To overcome these ascetics it was necessary to
have recourse to other ascetics, and from the outset the reformed
Franciscans, or Franciscans of the Strict Observance, under the
direction of their first leaders, Paoluccio da Trinci (d. 1390),
Giovanni Stronconi (d. 1405), and St Bernardine of Siena, had
been at great pains to restore the Fraticelli to orthodoxy. These
early efforts, however, had little success. Alarmed by the
number of the sectaries and the extent of their influence, Pope
Martin V., who had encouraged the Observants, and particularly
Bernardine of Siena, fulminated two bulls (1418 and 1421)
against the heretics, and entrusted different legates with the task
of hunting them down. These measures failing, he decided, in
FRAUD FRAUENLOB
1426, to appoint two Observants as inquisitors without territorial
limitation to make a special crusade against the heresy of the
Fraticelli. These two inquisitors, who pursued their duties
under three popes (Martin V., Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V.)
were Giovanni da Capistrano and Giacomo della Marca. The
latter's valuable Dialogus contra Fraticettos (Baluze and Mansi,
Miscellanea, iv. 595-610) gives an account of the doctrines of
these heretics and of the activity of the two inquisitors, and shows
that the Fraticelli not only constituted a distinct church but
a distinct society. They had a pope called Rinaldo, who was
elected in 1429 and was succeeded by a brother named Gabriel.
This supreme head of their church they styled " bishop of
Philadelphia," Philadelphia being the mystic name of their
community; under him were bishops, e.g. the bishops of
Florence, Venice, &c.; and, furthermore, a member of the
community named Guglielmo Majoretto bore the title of
" Emperor of the Christians." This organization, at least in
so far as concerns the heretical church, had already been observed
among the Fraticelli in Sicily, and in 1423 the general council
of Siena affirmed with horror that at Peniscola there was an
heretical pope surrounded with a college of cardinals who made
no attempt at concealment. From 1426 to 1449 the Fraticelli
were unremittingly pursued, imprisoned and burned. The sect
gradually died out after losing the protection of the common
people, whose sympathy was now transferred to the austere
Observants and their miracle- worker Capistrano. From 1466
to 1471 there were sporadic burnings of Fraticelli, and in 1471
Tommaso di Scarlino was sent to Piombino and the littoral of
Tuscany to track out some Fraticelli who had been discovered
in those parts. After that date the name disappears from history.
See F. Ehrle, " Die Spiritualen, ihr Verhaltnis zum Franzis-
kanerorden und zu den Fraticellen " and " Zur Vorgeschichte des
Concils von Vienne," in Archiv fur Literatur- und Kirchengeschichte
des Mittelalters, vols. i., ii., iii. ; Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon,
s.v. " Fraticellen "; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition of the Middle
Ages, iii. 129-180 (London, 1888). (P. A.)
FRAUD (Lat. fraus, deceit), in its widest sense, a term which
has never been exhaustively defined by an English court of law,
and for legal purposes probably cannot usefully be defined. But
as denoting a cause of action for which damages can be recovered
in civil proceedings it now has a clear and settled meaning. In
actions in which damages are claimed for fraud, the difficulties
and obscurities which commonly arise are due rather to the
complexity of modern commerce and the ingenuity of modern
swindlers than to any uncertainty or technicality in the modern
law. To succeed in such an action, the person aggrieved must
first prove a representation of fact, made either by words, by
writing or by conduct, which is in fact untrue. Mere conceal-
ment is not actionable unless it amounts not only to suppressio
veri, but to suggcstio falsi. An expression of opinion or of
intention is not enough, unless it can be shown that the opinion
was not really held, or that the intention was not really enter-
tained, in which case it must be borne in mind, to use the phrase
of Lord Bowen, that the state of a man's mind is as much a matter
of fact as the state of his digestion. Next, it must be proved that
the representation was made without any honest belief in its
truth, that is, either with actual knowledge of its falsity or with
a reckless disregard whether it is true or false. It was finally
established, after much controversy, in the case of Deny v.
Peek in 1889, that a merely negligent misstatement is not action-
able. Further, the person aggrieved must prove that the
offender made the representation with the intention that he
should act on it, though not necessarily directly to him, and that
he did in fact act in reliance on it. Lastly, the complainant
must prove that, as the direct consequence, he has suffered
actual damage capable of pecuniary measurement.
As soon as the case of Derry v. Peek had established, as the
general rule of law, that a merely negligent misstatement is not
actionable, a statutory exception was made to the rule in the
case of directors and promoters of companies who publish
prospectuses and similar documents. By the Directors' Liability
Act 1890, such persons are liable for damage caused by untrue
statements in such documents, unless they can prove that they
had reasonable grounds for believing the statements to be true.
It is also to be observed that, though damages cannot be re-
covered in an action for a misrepresentation made with an honest
belief in its truth, still any person induced to enter into a con-
tract by a misrepresentation, whether fraudulent or innocent, is
entitled to avoid the contract and to obtain a declaration that
it is not binding upon him. This is in accordance with the rule
of equity, which since the Judicature Act prevails in all the
courts. Whether the representation is fraudulent or innocent,
the contract is not void, but voidable. The party misled must
exercise his option to avoid the contract without delay, and
before it has become impossible to restore the other party to the
position in which he stood before the contract was made. If he
is too late, he can only rely on his claim for damages, and in
order to assert this claim it is necessary to prove that the mis-
representation was fraudulent. Fraud, in its wider sense of
dishonest dealing, though not a distinct cause of action, is often
material as preventing the acquisition of a right, for which good
faith is a necessary condition. Also a combination or conspiracy
by two or more persons to defraud gives rise to liabilities not
very clearly or completely defined.
FRAUENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Prussia, on the Frische Haff, at the mouth of the Bande, 41 m.
S.W. from Konigsberg on the railway to Elbing. Pop. 2500.
The cathedral (founded 1329), with six towers, stands on a
commanding eminence adjoining the town and surrounded by
castellated wails and bastions. This is known as Dom-Frauen-
burg, and is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ermeland.
Within the cathedral is a monument to the astronomer Copernicus
bearing the inscription Aslronomo celeberrimo, cujus nomen et
gloria utrumque implevit orbem. There is a small port with
inconsiderable trade. Frauenberg was founded in 1287 and
received the rights of a town in 1310.
FRAUENFELD, the capital of the Swiss canton of Thurgau,
27 m. by rail N-.E. of Zurich or 14! m. W. of Romanshorn.
It is built on the Murg stream a little above its junction with the
Thur. It is a prosperous commercial town, being situated at
the meeting point of several routes, while it possesses several
industrial establishments, chiefly concerned with different
branches of the iron trade. In 1900 its population (including the
neighbouring villages) was 7761, mainly German-speaking,
while there were 5563 Protestants to 2188 Romanists. Frauen-
feld is the artillery dep6t for North-East Switzerland. The upper
town is the older part, and centres round the castle, of which the
tower dates from the loth century, though the rest is of a later
period. Both stood on land belonging to the abbot of Reichenau,
who, with the count of Kyburg, founded the town, which is first
mentioned in 1255. The abbot retained all manorial rights till
1803, while the political powers of the Kyburgers (who were the
" protectors " of Reichenau) passed to the Habsburgs in 1273,
and were seized by the Swiss in 1460 with the rest of the
Thurgau. In 1712 the town succeeded Baden in Aargau as the
meeting-place of the Federal Diet, and continued to be the capital
of the Confederation till its transformation in 1798. In 1799 it
was successively occupied by the Austrians and the French.
The old Capuchin convent (1591-1848) is now occupied as a
vicarage by the Romanist priest. (W. A. B. C.)
FRAUENLOB, the name by which HEINRICH VON MEISSEN,
a German poet of the i3th century, is generally known. He
seems to have acquired the sobriquet because in a famous
Liederstreit with his rival Regenbogen he defended the use of the
word Frau (i.e. frowve, = lady) instead of Weib (ivtp = woman).
Frauenlob was born about 1250 of a humble burgher family.
His youth was spent in straitened circumstances, but he gradu-
ally acquired a reputation as a singer at the various courts of
the German princes. In 1278 we find him with Rudolph I.
in the Marchfeld, in 1286 he was at Prague at the knighting of
Wenceslaus (Wenzel) II., and in 131 1 he was present at a knightly
festival celebrated by Waldemar of Brandenburg before Rostock.
After this he settled in Mainz, and there according to the popular
account, founded the first school of Meistersingers (q.v.). He
died in 1318, and was buried in the cloisters of the cathedral at
FRAUNCE FRAYSSINOUS
43
Mainz. His grave is still marked by a copy made in 1 783 of the
original tombstone of 1318; and in 1842 a monument by Schwan-
thalcr was erected in the cloisters. Frauenlob's poems make a
great display of learning; he delights in far-fetched metaphors,
and his versification abounds in tricks of form and rhyme.
Frauenlob'i poetry was edited by L. Kttmullcr in 1843 ; a selection
ill be found in K. Bartsch, Deutscke Liederdichter des 12. bis Id.
JahrktuUrrts (jrd ed.. 1893) An English translation of Frauenlob a
Cantifa cantitorum, by A. E. Kroeger, with notes, appeared in 1877
at St Louis, U.S.A. See A. Boerkel, Frauenlob (and ed., 1881).
FRAUNCE, ABRAHAM (c. 1558-1633), English poet, a native
of Shropshire, was bora between 1558 and 1560. His name was
registered as a pupil of Shrewsbury School in January 1571/2,
and he joined St John's College, Cambridge, in 1576, becoming a
fellow in 1580/81. His Latin comedy of Victoria, dedicated to
Sidney, was probably written at Cambridge, where he remained
until he had taken his M.A. degree in 1583. He was called to the
bar at Gray's Inn in 1588, and then apparently practised as a
barrister in the court of the Welsh marches. After the death of
his patron Sir Philip Sidney, Fraunce was protected by Sidney's
sister Mary, countess of Pembroke. His last work was published
in 1592, and we have no further knowledge of him until 1633,
when he is said to have written an Epithalamium in honour
of the marriage of Lady Magdalen Egerton, 7th daughter of the
earl of Bridgwater, whose service he may possibly have entered.
His works are: The Lamentations of Amintas for the death
0/PAy/w (1587), a version in English hexameters of his friend's,
Thomas Watson's, Latin Amyntas; The Lawiers Logike, exem-
plifying the praecepts of Logike by the practise of the common
Lowe (1588); Arcadian Rhetorike (1588); Abrahami Fransi
Insignium, Armorum . . . explicatio (1588); The Countess of
Pembroke's Yvyckurch (1591/2), containing a translation of
Tasso's Aminla, a reprint of his earlier version of Watson,
" The Lamentation of Corydon for the love of Alexis " (Virgil,
eclogue ii.), a short translation from Heliodorus, and, in the third
put (1593) " Aminta's Dale," a collection'of "conceited"
tales supposed to be related by the nymphs of Ivychurch;
The Countess of Pembroke's EmanueU (1591); The Third Part
of the Countess of Pembroke's Ivychurch, entiiuled Aminta's Dale
(1592). His Arcadian Rhetorike owes much to earlier critical
treatises, but has a special interest from its references to Spenser,
and Fraunce quotes from the Faerie Queene a year before the
publication of the first books. In " Colin Clout's come home
again," Spenser speaks of Fraunce as Corydon, on account of his
translations of Virgil's second eclogue. His poems are written in
clminl metres, and he was regarded by his contemporaries
as the beat exponent of Gabriel Harvey's theory. Even Thomas
N'asbe had a good word for " sweete Master France."
Tin Countess of Pembroke's EmanueU, hexameters on the nativity
and passion of Christ, with versions of some psalms, were reprinted
by Dr A. B. Groaart in the third volume of his Miscellanies of the
f utter Worthies Library (1872). Joseph Hunter in his Chorus Vatum
stated that five of Fraunce's songs were included in Sidney 'sAstrophel
and Stella, but it is probable that these should be attributed not to
Fraunce, but to Thomas Campion. See a life prefixed to the tran-
scription of a MS. Latin comedy by Fraunce, Victoria, by Professor
G. C. Moore Smith, published in Bang's Maierialien tur Kunde des
alteren englischen Dramas, vol. xiv., 1906.
FRAUNHOPER. JOSEPH VON (1787-1826), German optician
and physicist, was bora at Straubing in Bavaria on the 6th of
March 1787, the son of a glazier who died in 1708. He was
apprenticed in 1 799 to Weichselberger, a glass-polisher and looking-
glass maker. On the 2ist of July 1801 he nearly lost his life
by the fall of the house in which he lodged, and the elector of
Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, who was present at his extrication
from the ruins, gave him 18 ducats. With a portion of this sum
be obtained release from the last six months of his apprenticeship,
and with the rest he purchased a glass-polishing machine. He
now employed himself in making optical glasses, and in engraving
on metal, devoting his spare time to the perusal of works on
mathematics and optics. In 1806 he obtained the place of
optician in the mathematical institute which in 1804 had been
founded at Munich by Joseph von Utzschneider, G. Reichenbach
and J. Liebherr; and in 1807 arrangements were made by
Utzschneider for his instruction by Pierre Louis Guinand,
skilled optician, in the fabrication of flint and crown glass, in
which he soon became an adept (see R. Wolf, Gesch. der Wissensch.
in Deutsckl. bd. xvi. p. 586). With Reichenbach and Utz-
schneider, Fraunhofer established in 1809 an optical institute
at Benedictbeuern, near Munich, of which he in 1818 became
sole manager. The institute was in 1819 removed to Munich,
and on Fraunhofer's death came under the direction of G. Merz.
Amongst the earliest mechanical contrivances of Fraunhofer
was a machine for polishing mathematically uniform spherical
surfaces. He was the inventor of the stage-micrometer, and of
a form of heliometer; and in 1816 he succeeded in constructing
for the microscope achromatic glasses of long focus, consisting of
a single lens, the constituent glasses of which were in juxta-
position, but not cemented together. The great reflecting
telescope at Dorpat was manufactured by him, and so great was
the skill he attained in the making of lenses for achromatic
telescopes that, in a letter to Sir David Brewster, he expressed
his willingness to furnish an achromatic glass of 18 in. diameter.
Fraunhofer is especially known for the researches, published in
the Denkschriften der Munchener Akademie for 1814-1815, by
which he laid the foundation of solar and stellar chemistry.
The dark lines of the spectrum of sunlight, earliest noted by
Dr W. H. Wollaston (Phil. Trans., 1802, p. 378), were inde-
pendently discovered, and, by means of the telescope of a
theodolite, between which and a distant slit admitting the
light a prism was interposed, were for the first time carefully
observed by Fraunhofer, and have on that account been desig-
nated " Fraunhofer's lines." He constructed a map of as many
as 576 of these lines, the principal of which he denoted by the
letters of the alphabet from A to G; and by ascertaining their
refractive indices he determined that their relative positions are
constant, whether in spectra produced by the direct rays of the
sun, or by the reflected light of the moon and planets. The
spectra of the stars he obtained by using, outside the object-glass
of his telescope, a large prism, through which the light passed
to be brought to a focus in front of the eye-piece. He showed that
in the spectra of the fixed stars many of the dark lines were
different from those of the solar spectrum, whilst other well-
known solar lines were wanting; and he concluded that it was
not by any action of the terrestrial atmosphere upon the light
passing through it that the lines were produced. He further
expressed the belief that the dark lines D of the solar spectrum
coincide with the bright lines of the sodium flame. He was also
the inventor of the diffraction grating.
In 1823 he was appointed conservator of the physical cabinet
at Munich, and in the following year he received from the king
of Bavaria the civil order of merit. He died at Munich on the 7th
of June 1826, and was buried near Reichenbach, whose decease
had taken place eight years previously. On his tomb is the
inscription " Approximavit sidera."
See J. von Utzschneider, Kuner Umriss der Lebensgeschichte des
Herrn Dr J. von Fraunhofer (Munich, 1826) ; and G. Merz, Das Leben
tind Wirken Fraunhofers (Landshut, 1865)
FRAUSTADT (Polish, Wszowa), a town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Posen, in a flat sandy country dotted with
windmills, 50 m. S.S.W. of Posen, on the railway Lissa-Sagan.
Pop. (including a garrison) 7500. It has three Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches, a classical school and a
teachers' seminary; the manufactures include woollen and
cotton goods, hats, morocco leather and gloves, and there is a
considerable trade in corn, cattle and wool. Fraustadt was
founded by Silesians in 1348, and afterwards belonged to the
principality of Glogau. Near the town the Swedes under Charles
XII. defeated the Saxons on the I3th of February 1706.
FRAYSSINOUS. DENIS ANTOINE LUC, COMTE DE (1765-
1841), French prelate and statesman, distinguished as an orator
and as a controversial writer, was born of humble parentage
at Curieres, in the department of Aveyron, on the pth of May
1765. He owes his reputation mainly to the lectures on dog-
matic theology, known as the " conferences " of Saint Sulpice,
delivered in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris, from 1803 to
44
FRECHETTE FREDERICIA
1809, to which admiring crowds were attracted by his lucid
exposition and by his graceful oratory. The freedom of his lan-
guage in 1809, when Napoleon had arrested the pope and de-
clared the annexation of Rome to France, led to a prohibition
of his lectures; and the dispersion of the congregation of Saint
Sulpice in 1811 was followed by his temporary retirement from
the capital. He returned with the Bourbons, and resumed his
lectures in 1814; but the events of the Hundred Days again
compelled him to withdraw into private life, from which he did
not emerge until February 1816. As court preacher and almoner
to Louis XVIII., he now entered upon the period of his greatest
public activity and influence. In connexion with the con-
troversy raised by the signing of the reactionary concordat of
1817, he published in 1818 a treatise entitled Vrais Principes
de I'eglise Gallicane sur la puissance ecclesiastique, which though
unfavourably criticized by Lamennais, was received with favour
by the civil and ecclesiastical authorities. The consecration of
Frayssinous as bishop of Hermopolis " in partibus," his election
to the French Academy, and his appointment to the grand-master-
ship of the university, followed in rapid succession. In 1824,
on the accession of Charles X., he became minister of public in-
struction and of ecclesiastical affairs under the administration
of Villele; and about the same time he was created a peer of
France with the title of count. His term of office was chiefly
marked by the recall of the Jesuits. In 1825 he published his
lectures under the title Defense [du christianisme. The work
passed through 15 editions within 18 years, and was translated
into several European languages. In 1828 he, along with his
colleagues in the Villele ministry, was compelled to resign office,
and the subsequent revolution of July 1830 led to his retire-
ment to Rome. Shortly afterwards he became tutor to the duke
of Bordeaux (Comte de Chambord) at Prague, where he con-
tinued to live until 1838. He died at St Geniez on the i2th of
December 1841.
See Bertrand, Bibl. Sulpicienne (t. ii. 135 sq.; iii. 253) for biblio-
graphy, and G. A. Henrion (Paris, 2 vols., 1844) for biography.
FRECHETTE, LOUIS HONORED (1830-1908), French-Cana-
dian poet, was born at Levis, Quebec, on the i6th of November
1839, the son of a contractor. He was educated in his native
province, and called to the Canadian bar in 1864. He started
the Journal de Levis, and his revolutionary doctrines compelled
him to leave Canada for the United States. After some years
spent in journalism at Chicago, he was in 1874 elected as the
Liberal candidate to represent Levis in the Canadian parliament.
At the elections of 1878 and 1882 he was defeated, and there-
after confined himself to literature. He edited La Patrie and other
French papers in the Dominion; and in 1889 was appointed
clerk of the Quebec legislative council. He was long a warm
advocate of the political union of Canada and the United States,
but in later life became less ardent, and in 1897 accepted the
honour of C.M.G. from Queen Victoria. He was president of the
Royal Society of Canada, and of the Canadian Society of Arts,
and received numerous honorary degrees. His works include:
Mes Loisirs (1863); La Voix d'un exile (1867), a satire against
the Canadian government; PHe-mMe (1877); Les Fleurs
boreales, and Les Oiseaux de neige (1880), crowned by the French
academy; La Legende d'un peuple (1887); two historical
dramas, Pspineau (1880) and Felix P outre (1880); La Noel au
Canada (1900), and several prose works and translations. An
exponent of local French sentiment, he won the title of the
" Canadian Laureate." He died on the ist of June 1908.
FREDEGOND (Fredigundis) (d. 597), Prankish queen. Origin-
ally a serving-woman, she inspired the Prankish king, Chilperic
I., with a violent passion. At her instigation he repudiated his
first wife Audovera, and strangled his second, Galswintha,
Queen Brunhilda's sister. A few days after this murder Chilperic
married Fredegond (567). This woman exercised a most per-
nicious influence over him. She forced him into war against
Austrasia, in the course of which she procured the assassination
of the victorious king Sigebert (575); she carried on a malignant
struggle against Chilperic's sons by his first wife, Theodebert,
Merwich and Clovis, who all died tragic deaths; and she per-
sistently endeavoured to secure the throne for her own children.
Her first son Thierry, however, to whom Bishop Ragnemod of
Paris stood godfather, died soon after birth, and Fredegond
tortured a number of women whom she accused of having
bewitched the child. Her second son also died in infancy. Finally,
she gave birth to a child who afterwards became king as Clotaire
II. Shortly after the birth of this third son, Chilperic himself
perishedinmysteriouscircumstances(s84). Fredegond has been
accused of complicity in his murder, but with little show of
probability, since in her husband she lost her principal supporter.
Henceforth Fredegond did all in her power to gain the king-
dom for her child. Taking refuge at the church of Notre Dame
at Paris, she appealed to King Guntram of Burgundy, who
took Clotaire under his protection and defended him against his
other nephew, Childebert II., king of Austrasia. From that
time until her death Fredegond governed the western kingdom.
She endeavoured to prevent the alliance between King Guntram
and Childebert, which was cemented by the pact of Andelot;
and made several attempts to assassinate Childebert by sending
against him hired bravoes armed with poisoned scramasaxes
(heavy single-edged knives). After the death of Childebert
in 595 she resolved to augment the kingdom of Neustria at the
expense of Austrasia, and to this end seized some cities near
Paris and defeated Theodebert at the battle of Laffaux, near
Soissons. Her triumph, however, was short-lived, as she died
quietly in her bed in 597 soon after her victory.
See V. N. Augustin Thierry, Recits des temps merovingiens (Brussels,
1840); Ulysse Chevalier, Bio-bibliographie (2nd ed.), s.v. " Frede-
gonde." (C. PF.)
FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898), Anglo-American novelist,
was born on the igth of August 1856 at Utica, N.Y., was edu-
cated there, and took to journalism. He went to live in England
as London correspondent of the New York Times in 1884, and
was soon recognized for his ability both as a writer and as a
talker. He wrote several clever early stories, but it was not
till he published Illumination (1896), followed by Gloria Mundi
(1898), that his remarkable gifts as a novelist were fully realized.
He died in England on the igth of October 1898.
FREDERICIA (FRIEDERICIA), a seaport of Denmark, near the
S.E. corner of Jutland, on the west shore of the Little Belt
opposite the island of Fiinen. Pop. (1901) 12,714. It has
railway communication with both south and north, and a steam
ferry connects with Middelfart, a seaside resort and railway
station on Fiinen. There is a considerable shipping trade, and
the industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco, salt and
chicory, and of cotton goods and hats. A small fort was erected
on the site of Fredericia by Christian IV. of Denmark, and his
successor, Frederick III., determined about 1650 to make it a
powerful fortress. Free exercise of religion was offered to all
who should settle in the new town, which at first bore the name
of Frederiksodde, and only received its present designation in
1664. In 1657 it was taken by storm by the Swedish general
Wrangel, and in 1659, after the fortress had been dismantled,
it was occupied by Frederick William of Brandenburg. It was
not till 1709-1710 that the works were again put in a state of
defence. In 1848 no attempt was made by the Danes to
oppose the Prussians, who entered on the 2nd of May, and main-
tained their position against the Danish gunboats. During the
armistice of 1848-1849 the fortress was strengthened, and soon
afterwards it stood a siege of two months, which was brought
to a glorious close by a successful sortie on the 6th of July 1849.
In memory of the victory several monuments have been erected in
the town and its vicinity, of which the most noticeable are the
bronze statue of the Danish Land Soldier by Bissen (one of
Thorvaldsen's pupils), and the great barrow over 500 Danes in
the cemetery of the Holy Trinity Church, with a bas-relief by
the same sculptor. On the outbreak of the war of 1864, the
fortress was again strengthened by new works and an entrenched
camp; but the Danes suddenly evacuated it on the 28th of April
after a siege of six weeks. The Austro-Prussian army partly
destroyed the fortifications, and kept possession of the town
till the conclusion of peace.
FREDERICK FREDERICK I.
45
FREDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedrick; Hal. Federigo; Fr.
FriUru and Ftdtnc; M.H.G. Friderlck; O.H.G. fVu/urfA,
" king or lord of peace," from O.H.G. fridu, fi.S.frM, " peace,"
and rlk " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which see HENRY),
& Christian name borne by many European sovereigns and
princes, the more important of whom are given below in the
following order: (i) Roman emperors and German kings;
(a) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (3)
other reigning princes in the same order.
FREDERICK I. (c. 1123-1190), Roman emperor, surnamed
" Barbarossa " by the Italians, was the son of Frederick II. of
Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and Judith, daughter of Henry
IX. the Black, duke of Bavaria. The precise date and place of
his birth, together with details of his early life, are wanting; but
in 1143 be assisted his maternal uncle, Count Welf VI., in his
attempts to conquer Bavaria, and by his conduct in several local
feuds earned the reputation of a brave and skilful warrior. When
his father died in 1 147 Frederick became duke of Swabia, and im-
mediately afterwards accompanied his uncle, the German king
Conrad III., on his disastrous crusade, during which he greatly
distinguished himself and won the complete confidence of the
king. Abandoning the cause of the Welfs, he fought for Conrad
against them, and in 1152 the dying king advised the princes to
choose Frederick as his successor to the exclusion of his own
young son. Energetically pressing his candidature, he was
chosen German king at Frankfort on the 4th or 5th of March
1152, and crowned at Abt-la-Chapelle on the qth of the same
month, owing his election partly to his personal qualities, and
partly to the fact that he united in himself the blood of the rival
families of Welf and Waiblingen.
The new king was anxious to restore the Empire to the position
it had occupied under Charlemagne and Otto the Great, and saw
dearly that the restoration of order in Germany was a necessary
preliminary to the enforcement of the imperial rights in Italy.
Issuing a general order for peace, he was prodigal in his concessions
to the nobles. Count Welf was made duke of Spoleto and mar-
grave of Tuscany; Bert hold VI., duke of Zahringen, was en-
trusted with extensive rights in Burgundy; and the king's
nephew, Frederick, received the duchy of Swabia. Abroad
Frederick decided a quarrel for the Danish throne in favour of
Svend, or Peter as he is sometimes called, who did homage for
bis kingdom, and negotiations were begun with the East Roman
emperor, Manuel Comnenus. It was probably about this time
that the king obtained a divorce from his wife Adela, daughter
of Dietpold, margrave of Vohburg and Cham, on the ground
of consanguinity, and made a vain effort to obtain a bride
from the court of Constantinople. On his accession Frederick
had communicated the news of his election to Pope Eugenius
III., but neglected to ask for the papal confirmation. In spite
of this omission, however, and of some trouble arising from a
double election to the archbishopric of Magdeburg, a treaty was
concluded between king and pope at Constance in March 1153,
by which Frederick promised in return for his coronation to make
no peace with Roger I. king of Sicily, or with the rebellious
Romans, without the consent of Eugenius, and generally to help
and defend the papacy.
The journey to Italy made by the king in 1154 was the pre-
cursor of five other expeditions which engaged his main energies
for thirty years, during which the subjugation of the peninsula
was the central and abiding aim of his policy. Meeting the new
pope, Adrian IV., near Nepi, Frederick at first refused to hold
his stirrup; but after some negotiations he consented and
received the kiss of peace, which was followed by his coronation
as emperor at Rome on the i8th of June 1 155. As his slender
forces were inadequate to encounter the fierce hostility which
he aroused, he left Italy in the autumn of 1155 to prepare for a
new and more formidable campaign. Disorder was again rampant
in Germany, especially in Bavaria, but general peace was restored
by Frederick's vigorous measures. Bavaria was transferred
from Henry II. Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, to Henry the
Lion, duke of Saxony; and the former was pacified by the
erection of his margraviate into a duchy, while Frederick's
step-brother Conrad was invested with the Palatinateof the Rhine.
On the gth of June 1156 the king was married at Wttrzburg
to Beatrix, daughter and heiress of the dead count of Upper
Burgundy, Rcnaud III., when Upper Burgundy or Franche
Comic 1 , as it is sometimes called, was added to his possessions.
An expedition into Poland reduced Duke Boleslaus IV. to an
abject submission, after which Frederick received the homage of
the Burgundian nobles at a diet held at Besancon in October
1157, which was marked by a quarrel between pope and emperor.
A Swedish archbishop, returning from Rome, had been seized by
robbers, and as Frederick had not punished the offenders Adrian
sent two legates to remonstrate. The papal letter when trans-
lated referred to the imperial crown as a benefice conferred by
the pope, and its reading aroused great indignation. The
emperor had to protect the legates from the fury of the nobles;
and afterwards issued a manifesto to his subjects declaring that
he held the Empire from God alone, to which Adrian replied that
he had used the ambiguous word beneficia as meaning benefits,
and not in its feudal sense.
In June 1158 Frederick set out upon his second Italian ex-
pedition, which was signalized by the establishment of imperial
officers called podestas in the cities of northern Italy, the revolt
and capture of Milan, and the beginning of the long struggle with
pope Alexander III., who excommunicated the emperor on the
2hd of March 1160. During this visit Frederick summoned the
doctors of Bologna to the diet held near Roncaglia in November
1158, and as a result of their inquiries into the rights belonging
to the kingdom of Italy he obtained a large amount of wealth.
Returning to Germany towards the close of 1162, Frederick
prevented a conflict between Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
and a'number of neighbouring princes, and severely punished the
citizens of Mainz for their rebellion against Archbishop Arnold.
A further visit to Italy in 1163 saw his plans for the conquest
of Sicily checked by the formation of a powerful league against
him, brought together mainly by the exactions of the podestas
and the enforcement of the rights declared by the doctors of
Bologna. Frederick had supported an anti-pope Victor IV.
against Alexander, and on Victor's death in 1163 a new anti-
pope called Paschal III. was chosen to succeed him. Having
tried in vain to secure the general recognition of Victor and
Paschal in Europe, the emperor held a diet at Wtirzburg in May
1165; and by taking an oath, followed by many of the clergy
and nobles, to remain true to Paschal and his successors, brought
about a schism in the German church. A temporary alliance
with Henry II., king of England, the magnificent celebration
of the canonization of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the
restoration of peace in the Rhineland, occupied Frederick's
attention until October 1166, when he made his fourth journey
to Italy. Having captured Ancona, he marched to Rome, stormed
the Leonine city, and procured the enthronement of Paschal, and
the coronation of his wife Beatrix; but his victorious career
was stopped by the sudden outbreak of a pestilence which
destroyed the German army and drove the emperor as a fugitive
to Germany, where he remained for the ensuing six years.
Henry the Lion was again saved from a threatening combination;
conflicting claims to various bishoprics were decided; and the
imperial authority was asserted over Bohemia, Poland and
Hungary. Friendly relations were entered into with the emperor
Manuel, and attempts made to come to a better understanding
with Henry II., king of England, and Louis VII., king of France.
In 1174, when Frederick made his fifth expedition to Italy,
the Lombard league had been formed, and the fortress of Ales-
sandria raised to check his progress. The campaign was a com-
plete failure. The refusal of Henry the Lion to bring help into
Italy was followed by the defeat of the emperor at Legnano on
the 2oth of May 1176, when he was wounded and believed to be
dead. Reaching Pavia, he began negotiations for peace with
Alexander, which ripened into the treaty of Venice in August
1177, and at the same time a truce with the Lombard league
was arranged. for six years. Frederick, loosed from the papal
ban, recognized Alexander as the rightful pope, and in July 1177
knelt before him and kissed his feet. The possession of the vast
FREDERICK II.
estates left by Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, and claimed
by both pope and emperor, was to be decided by arbitration, and
in October 1178 the emperor was again in Germany. Various
small feuds were suppressed; Henry the Lion was deprived of his
duchy, which was dismembered, and sent into exile; a treaty was
made with the Lombard league at Constance in June 1183;
and most important of all, Frederick's son Henry was betrothed
in 1 184 to Constance, daughter of Roger I., king of Sicily, and aunt
and heiress of the reigning king, William II. This betrothal,
which threatened to unite Sicily with the Empire, made it difficult
for Frederick, when during his last Italian expedition in 1184
he met Pope Lucius III. at Verona, to establish friendly relations
with the papacy. Further causes of trouble arose, moreover,
and when the potentates separated the question of Matilda's
estates was undecided; and Lucius had refused to crown
Henry or to recognize the German clergy who had been ordained
during the schism. Frederick then formed an alliance with
Milan, where the citizens witnessed a great festival on the 27th
of January 1186. The emperor, who had been crowned king of
Burgundy, or Aries, at Aries on the 3Oth of July 1178, had this
ceremony repeated; while his son Henry was crowned king of
Italy and married to Constance, who was crowned queen of
Germany.
The quarrel with the papacy was continued with the new
pope Urban III., and open warfare was begun. But Frederick
was soon recalled to Germany by the news of a revolt raised by
Philip of Heinsberg, archbishop of Cologne, in alliance with the
pope. The German clergy remained loyal to the emperor, and
hostilities were checked by the death of Urban and the election of
a new pope as Gregory VIII., who adopted a more friendly policy
towards the emperor. In 1 1 88 Philip submitted, and immediately
afterwards Frederick took the cross in order to stop the victorious
career of Saladin, who had just taken Jerusalem. After extensive
preparations he left Regensburg in May 1189 at the head of a
splendid army, and having overcome the hostility of the East
Roman emperor Isaac Angelus, marched into Asia Minor. On
the icth of June 1190 Frederick was either bathing or crossing
the river Calycadnus (Geuksu), near Seleucia (Selefke) in Cilicia,
when he was carried away by the stream and drowned. The
place of his burial is unknown, and the legend which says he still
sits in a cavern in the Kyffhauser mountain in Thuringia waiting
until the need of his country shall call him, is now thought to
refer, at least in its earlier form, to his grandson, the emperor
Frederick II. He left by his wife, Beatrix, five sons, of whom
the eldest afterwards became emperor as Henry VI.
Frederick's reign, on the whole, was a happy and prosperous
time for Germany. He encouraged the growth of towns, easily
suppressed the few risings against his authority, and took
strong and successful measures to establish order. Even after
the severe reverses which he experienced in Italy, his position in
Germany was never seriously weakened; and in 1181, when,
almost without striking a blow, he deprived Henry the Lion of
his duchy, he seemed stronger than ever. This power rested upon
his earnest and commanding personality, and also upon the sup-
port which he received from the German church, the possession of
a valuable private domain, and the care with which he exacted
feudal dues from his dependents.
Frederick I. is said to have taken Charlemagne as his model;
but the contest in which he engaged was entirely different both
in character and results from that in which his great predecessor
achieved such a wonderful temporary success. Though Frederick
failed to subdue the republics, the failure can scarcely be said to
reflect either on his prudence as a statesman or his skill as a
general, for his ascendancy was finally overthrown rather by the
ravages of pestilence than by the might of human arms. In
Germany his resolute will and sagacious administration subdued
or disarmed all discontent, and he not only succeeded in welding
the various rival interests into a unity of devotion to himself
against which papal intrigues were comparatively powerless,
but won for the empire a prestige such as it had not possessed
since the time of Otto the Great. The wide contrast between his
German and Italian rule is strikingly exemplified in the fact that,
while he endeavoured to overthrow the republics in Italy, he
held in check the power of the nobles in Germany, by conferring
municipal franchises and independent rights on the principal
cities. Even in Italy, though his general course of action was
warped by wrong prepossessions, he in many instances manifested
exceptional practical sagacity in dealing with immediate diffi-
culties and emergencies. Possessing frank and open manners,
untiring and unresting energy, and a prowess which found its
native element in difficulty and danger, he seemed the embodi-
ment of the chivalrous and warlike spirit of his age, and was
the model of all the qualities which then won highest admiration.
Stern and ambitious he certainly was, but his aims can scarcely
be said to have exceeded his prerogatives as emperor; and though
he had sometimes recourse when in straits to expedients almost
diabolically ingenious in their cruelty, yet his general conduct
was marked by a clemency which in that age was exceptional.
His quarrel with the papacy was an inherited conflict, not re-
flecting at all on his religious faith, but the inevitable con-
sequence of inconsistent theories of government, which had been
created and could be dissipated only by a long series of events.
His interference in the quarrels of the republics was not only quite
justifiable from the relation in which he stood to them, but seemed
absolutely necessary. From the beginning, however, he treated
the Italians, as indeed was only natural, less as rebellious subjects
than as conquered aliens; and it must be admitted that in regard
to them the only effective portion of his procedure was, not his
energetic measures of repression nor his brilliant victories, but,
after the battle of Legnano, his quiet and cheerful acceptance of
the inevitable, and the consequent complete change in his policy,
by which if he did not obtain the great object of his ambition,
he at least did much to render innoxious for the Empire his
previous mistakes.
In appearance Frederick was a man of well-proportioned,
medium stature, with flowing yellow hair and a reddish beard.
He delighted in hunting and the reading of history, was zealous
in his attention to public business, and his private life was un-
impeachable. Carlyle's tribute to him is interesting: " No king
so furnished out with apparatus and arena, with personal faculty
to rule and scene to do it in, has appeared elsewhere. A mag-
nificent, magnanimous man; holding the reins of the world, not
quite in the imaginary sense; scourging anarchy down, and
urging noble effort up, really on a grand scale. A terror to evil-
doers and a praise to well-doers in this world, probably beyond
what was ever seen since."
The principal contemporary authority for the earlier part of the
reign of Frederick is the Gesta Friderici imperatoris, mainly the work
of Otto, bishop of Freising. This is continued from 1 156 to 1 160 by
Rahewin, a canon of Freising, and from 1160 to 1170 by an anony-
mous author. The various annals and chronicles of the period,
among which may be mentioned the Chronica regia Coloniensis
and the Annales Magdeburgenses, are also important. Other
authorities for the different periods in Frederick's reign are Tageno
of Passau, Descriptio expeditionis asiaticae Friderici I.; Burchard,
Historia Friderici imperatoris magni; Godfrey of ViterbOj Carmen
de gestis Friderici I., which are all found in the Monumenta Germaniae
historica. Scriptores (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892); Otto
Morena of Lodi, Historia rerum Laudensium, continued by his son,
Acerbus, also in the Monumenta; Ansbert, Historia de expeditione
Friderici, 1187-1196, published in the Fontes rerum Austriacarum.
Scriptores (Vienna, 1855 fol.). Many valuable documents are found
in the Monumenta Germaniae selecta, Band iv., edited by M. Doeberl
(Munich, 1880-1800).
The best modern authorities are J. Jastrow, Deutsche Geschichte
im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen (Berlin, 1893); W. von Giesebrecht,
Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit, Band iv. (Brunswick, 1877);
H. von Biinau, Leben und Thaten Friedrichs I. (Leipzig, 1872); H.
Prutz, Kaiser Friedrich I. (Dantzig, 1871-1874); C. Peters, Die
Wahl Kaiser Friedrichs I. in the Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte,
Band xx. (GSttingen, 1862-1886); W. Gundlach, Barbaras salieder
(Innsbruck, 1899). For a complete bibliography see Dahlmann-
Waitz, Quellenkunde der deutschen Geschichte (Gottingen, 1894), and
U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques du moycn age,
tome iii. (Paris, 1904).
FREDERICK II. (1194-1250), Roman emperor, king of Sicily
and Jerusalem, was the son of the emperor Henry VI. and Con-
stance, daughter of Roger I., king of Sicily, and therefore grand-
son of the emperor Frederick I. and a member of the Hohenstaufen
FREDERICK II.
47
family. Born at Jcsi near Ancona on the 26th of December
1104, he was baplued by the name of Frederick Roger, chosen
German king at Frankfort in 1106, and after his father's death
crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the lyth of May it 08.
His mother, who assumed the government, died in November
1 198, leaving Pope Innocent III. as regent of Sicily and guardian
of her son. The young king passed his early yean amid the
terrible anarchy in his island kingdom, which Innocent was
powerless to check; but his education was not neglected, and
his character and habits were formed by contact with men of
varied nationalities and interests, while the darker traits of his
nature were developed in the atmosphere of lawlessness in which
he lived. In 1208 he was declared of age, and soon afterwards
Innocent arranged a marriage, which was celebrated the following
year, between him and Constance, daughter of Alphonso II.
king of Aragon, and widow of Emerich or Imre, king of Hungary.
The dissatisfaction felt in Germany with the emperor Otto IV.
came to a climax in September 1211, when a number of influential
princes met at Nuremberg, declared Otto deposed, and invited
Frederick to come and occupy the vacant throne. In spite of
the reluctance of his wife, and the opposition of the Sicilian nobles,
be accepted the invitation; and having recognized the papal
supremacy over Sicily, and procured the coronation of his son
Henry as its king, reached Germany after an adventurous journey
in the autumn of 1212. This step was taken with the approval
of the pope, who was anxious to strike a blow at Otto IV.
Frederick was welcomed in Swabia, and the renown of the
Hohenstaufen name and a liberal distribution of promises made
his progress easy. Having arranged a treaty against Otto with
Louis, son of Philip Augustus, king of France, whom he met at
Vaucouleurs, he was chosen German king a second time at Frank-
fort on the sth of December 1212, and crowned four days later
at Mainz. Anxious to retain the support of the pope, Frederick
promulgated a bull at Eger on the I2th of July 1213, by which
he renounced all lands claimed by the pope since the death of the
emperor Henry VI. in 1197, gave up the right of spoils and all
interference in episcopal elections, and acknowledged the right
of appeal to Rome. He again affirmed the papal supremacy
over Sicily, and promised to root out heresy in Germany. The
victory of his French allies at Bou vines on the 2yth of July 1214
greatly strengthened his position, and a large part of the Rhine-
land having fallen into his power, he was crowned German king
at Aix-la- Chape Ue on the 2$thof July 121 <;. His cause continued
to prosper, fresh supporters gathered round his standard, and in
May 1218 the death of Otto freed him from his rival and left him
undisputed ruler of Germany. A further attempt to allay the
pope's apprehension lest Sicily should be united with the Empire
had been made early in 1216, when Frederick, in a letter to Inno-
cent, promised after his own coronation as emperor to recognize
his son Henry as king of Sicily, and to place him under the
suzerainty of Rome. Henry nevertheless was brought to Germany
and chosen German king at Frankfort in April 1220, though
Frederick assured the new pope, Honorius III., that this step
had been taken without his consent. The truth, however, seems
to be that he had taken great trouble to secure this election, and
for the purpose had won the support of the spiritual princes by
extensive concessions. In August 1220 Frederick set out for
Italy, and was crowned emperor at Rome on the 22nd of November
1220; after which he repeated the undertaking he had entered
into at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1 2 1 5 to go on crusade, and made lavish
promises to the Church. The clergy were freed from taxation
and from lay jurisdiction, the ban of the Empire was to follow
the ban of the Church, and heretics were to be severely punished.
Neglecting his promise to lead a crusade, Frederick was
occupied until 1225 in restoring order in Sicily. The island was
seething with disorder, but by stern and sometimes cruel
measures the emperor suppressed the anarchy of the barons,
curbed the power of the cities, and subdued the rebellious
Saracens, many of whom, transferred to the mainland and
settled at Nocera, afterwards rendered him valuable military
service. Meanwhile the crusade was postponed again and
again; until under a threat of excommunication, after the fall of
Damietta in 1221, Frederick definitely undertook by a treaty
made at San Germano in 1225 to set out in August 1227 or to
submit to this penalty. His own interests turned more strongly
to the East, when on the gth of November 1225, after having been
a widower since 1222, he married lolande (Yolande or Isabella),
daughter of John, count of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem.
John appears to have expected that this alliance would restore
him to his kingdom, but his hopes were dashed to the ground
when Frederick himself assumed the title of king of Jerusalem.
The emperor's next step was an attempt to restore the imperial
authority in northern Italy, and for the purpose a diet was called
at Cremona. But the cities, watchful and suspicious, renewed the
Lombard league and took up a hostile attitude. Frederick's
reply was to annul the treaty of Constance and place the cities
under the imperial ban; but he was forced by lack of military
strength to accept the mediation of Pope Honorius and the
maintenance of the status quo.
After these events, which occurred early in 1227, preparations
for the crusade were pressed on, and the emperor sailed from
Brindisi on the Sth of September. A pestilence, however, which
attacked his forces compelled him to land in Italy three days
later, and on the 2gth of the same month he was excommunicated
by the new pope, Gregory IX. The greater part of the succeeding
year was spent by pope and emperor in a violent quarrel.
Alarmed at the increase in his opponent's power, Gregory de-
nounced him in a public letter, to which Frederick replied in a
clever document addressed to the princes of Europe. The reading
of this manifesto, drawing attention to the absolute power
claimed by the popes, was received in Rome with such evidences
of approval that Gregory was compelled to fly to Viterbo. Having
lost his wife Isabella on the Sth of May 1228, Frederick again set
sail for Palestine, where he met with considerable success, the
result of diplomatic rather than of military skill. By a treaty
made in February 1229 he secured possession of Jerusalem,
Bethlehem, Nazareth and the surrounding neighbourhood.
Entering Jerusalem, he crowned himself king of that city on the
i Sth of March 1229. These successes had been won in spite of
the hostility of Gregory, which deprived Frederick of the assist-
ance of many members of the military orders and of the clergy
of Palestine. But although the emperor's possessions on the
Italian mainland had been attacked in his absence by the papal
troops and their allies, Gregory's efforts had failed to arouse
serious opposition in Germany and Sicily; so that when Frederick
returned unexpectedly to Italy in June 1229 he had no difficulty
in driving back his enemies, and compelling the pope to sue for
peace. The result was the treaty of San Germano, arranged in
July 1230, by which the emperor, loosed from the ban, promised
to respect the papal territory, and to allow freedom of election
and other privileges to the Sicilian clergy. Frederick was next
engaged in completing the pacification of Sicily. In 1231 a
series of laws were published at Melfi which destroyed the
ascendancy of the feudal nobles. Royal officials were appointed
for administrative purposes, large estates were recovered for the
crown, and fortresses were destroyed, while the church was
placed under -the royal jurisdiction and all gifts to it were pro-
hibited. At the same time certain privileges of self-government
were granted to the towns, representatives from which were
summoned to sit in the diet. In short, by means of a centralized
system of government, the king established an almost absolute
monarchical power.
In Germany, on the other hand, an entirely different policy was
pursued. The concessions granted by Frederick in 1220, together
with the Privilege of Worms, dated the ist of May 1231, made
the German princes virtually independent. All jurisdiction over
their lands was vested in them, no new mints or toll-centres were
to be erected on their domains, and the imperial authority was
restricted to a small and dwindling area. A fierce attack was also
made on the rights of the cities. Compelled to restore all their
lands, their jurisdiction was bounded by their city-walls; they
were forbidden to receive the dependents of the princes; all
trade gilds were declared abolished ; and all official appointments
made without the consent of the archbishop or bishop were
FREDERICK II.
annulled. A further attack on the Lombard cities at the diet of
Ravenna in 1231 was answered by a renewal of their league, and
was soon connected with unrest in Germany. About 1231 a
breach took place between Frederick and his elder son Henry,
who appears to have opposed the Privilege of Worms and to have
favoured the towns against the princes. After refusing to travel
to Italy, Henry changed his mind and submitted to his father at
Aquileia in 1232; and a temporary peace was made with the
Lombard cities in June 1233. But on his return to Germany
Henry again raised the standard of revolt, and made a league
with the Lombards in December 1234. Frederick, meanwhile,
having helped Pope Gregory against the rebellious Romans and
having secured the friendship of France and England, appeared
in Germany early in 1235 and put down this rising without
difficulty. Henry was imprisoned, but his associates were treated
leniently. In August 1235 a splendid diet was held at Mainz,
during which the marriage of the emperor with Isabella (1214-
1241), daughter of John, king of England, was celebrated. A
general peace (Landfrieden) , which became the basis of all such
peaces in the future, was sworn to; a new office, that of imperial
justiciar, was created, and a permanent judicial record was first
instituted. Otto of Brunswick, grandson of Henry the Lion,
duke of Saxony, was made duke of Brunswick-Luneburg; and
war was declared against the Lombards.
Frederick was now at the height of his power. His second son,
Conrad, was invested with the duchy of Swabia, and the claim
of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, to some lands which had
belonged to the German king Philip was bought off. The attitude
of Frederick II. (the Quarrelsome), duke of Austria, had been
considered by the emperor so suspicious that during a visit paid
by Frederick to Italy a war against him was begun. Compelled
to return by the ill-fortune which attended this campaign, the
emperor took command of his troops, seized Austria, Styria
and Carinthia, and declared these territories to be immediately
dependent on the Empire. In January 1237 he secured the
election of his son Conrad as German king at Vienna; and in
September went to Italy to prosecute the war which had broken
out with the Lombards in the preceding year. Pope Gregory
attempted to mediate, but the cities refused to accept the insult-
ing terms offered by Frederick. The emperor gained a great
victory over their forces at Cortenuova in November 1237; but
though he met with some further successes, his failure to take
Brescia in October 1238, together with the changed attitude of
Gregory, turned the fortune of war. The pope had become
alarmed when the emperor brought about a marriage between the
heiress of Sardinia, Adelasia, and his natural son Enzio, who
afterwards assumed the title of king of Sardinia. But as his
warnings had been disregarded, he issued a document after the
emperor's retreat from Brescia, teeming with complaints against
Frederick, and followed it up by an open alliance with the
Lombards, and by the excommunication of the emperor on the
aoth of March 1239. A violent war of words ensued. Frederick,
accused of heresy, blasphemy and other crimes, called upon all
kings and princes to unite against the pope, who on his side made
vigorous efforts to arouse opposition in Germany, where his
emissaries, a crowd of wandering friars, were actively preaching
rebellion. It was, however, impossible to find an anti-king.
In Italy, Spoleto and Ancona were declared part of the imperial
dominions, and Rome itself, faithful on this occasion to the
pope, was threatened. A number of ecclesiastics proceeding to a
council called by Gregory were captured by Enzio at the sea-
fight of Meloria, and the emperor was about to undertake the
siege of Rome, when the pope died (August 1241). Germany was
at this time menaced by the Mongols; but Frederick contented
himself with issuing directions for a campaign against them,
until in 1242 he was able to pay a short visit to Germany, where
he gained some support from the towns by grants of extensive
privileges.
The successor of Gregory was Pope Celestine IX. But this
pontiff died soon after his election; and after a delay of eighteen
months, during which Frederick marched against Rome on two
occasions and devastated the lands of his opponents, one of his
partisans, Sinibaldo Fiesco,was chosen pope, and took the name
of Innocent IV. Negotiations for peace were begun, but the
relations of the Lombard cities to the Empire could not be
adjusted, and when the emperor began again to ravage the
papal territories Innocent fled to Lyons. Hither he summoned a
general council, which met in June 1245; but although Frederick
sent his justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, to represent him, and
expressed his willingness to treat, sentence of excommunication
and deposition was pronounced against him. Once more an
interchange of recriminations began, charged with all the violent
hyperbole characteristic of the controversial style of the age.
Accused of violating treaties, breaking oaths, persecuting the
church and abetting heresy, Frederick replied by an open letter
rebutting these charges, and in equally unmeasured terms
denounced the arrogance and want of faith of the clergy from
the pope downwards. The source of all the evil was, he declared,
the excessive wealth of the church, which, in retaliation for the
sentence of excommunication, he threatened to confiscate. In
vain the mediation of the saintly king of France, Louis IX., was
invoked. Innocent surpassed his predecessors in the ferocity and
unscrupulousness of his attacks on the emperor (see INNOCENT
IV.). War soon became general in Germany and Italy.
Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, was chosen German
king in opposition to Frederick in May 1246, but neither he nor
his successor, William II., count of Holland, was successful in
driving the Hohenstaufen from Germany. In Italy, during the
emperor's absence, his cause had been upheld by Enzio and
by the ferocious Eccelino da Romano. In 1246 a formidable
conspiracy of the discontented Apulian barons against the
emperor's power and life, fomented by papal emissaries, was
discovered and crushed with ruthless cruelty. The emperor's
power seemed more firmly established than ever, when suddenly
the news reached him that Parma, a stronghold of the imperial
authority in the north, had been surprised, while the garrison was
off its guard, by the Guelphs. To recover the city was a matter
of prime importance, and in 1247 Frederick concentrated his
forces round it, building over against it a wooden town which,
in anticipation of the success that astrologers had predicted,
he named Vittoria. The siege, however, was protracted, and
finally, in February 1248, during the absence of the emperor on a
hunting expedition, was brought to an end by a sudden sortie of
the men of Parma, who stormed the imperial camp. The disaster
was complete. The emperor's forces were destroyed or scattered;
the treasury, with the imperial insignia, together with Frederick's
harem and some of the most trusted of his ministers, fell into the
hands of the victors. Thaddeus of Suessa was hacked to pieces by
the mob; the imperial crown was placed in mockery on the head
of a hunch-backed beggar, who was carried back in triumph into
the city.
Frederick struggled hard to retrieve his fortunes, and for a
while with success. But his old confidence had left him ; he had
grown moody and suspicious, and his temper gave a ready handle
to his enemies. Pier della Vigna, accused of treasonable designs,
was disgraced; and the once all-powerful favourite and minister,
blinded now and in rags, was dragged in the emperor's train, as a
warning to traitors, till in despair he dashed out his brains.
Then, in May 1248, came the tidings of Enzio's capture by the
Bolognese, and of his hopeless imprisonment, the captors refusing
all offers of ransom. This disaster to his favourite son broke the
emperor's spirit. He retired to southern Italy, and after a short
illness died at Fiorentino on the i3th of December 1250, after
having been loosed from the ban by the archbishop of Palermo.
He was buried in the cathedral of that city, where his splendid
tomb may still be seen. By his will he appointed his son Conrad
to succeed him in Germany and Sicily, and Henry, his son by
Isabella of England, to be king of Jerusalem or Aries, neither of
which kingdoms, however, he obtained. Frederick left several
illegitimate children: Enzio has already been referred to;
Frederick, who was made the imperial vicar in Tuscany; and
Manfred, his son by the beloved Bianca Lancia or Lanzia, who
was legitimatized just before his father's death, and was appointed
by his will prince of Tarento and regent of Sicily.
FREDERICK III.
49
The character of Frederick is one of extraordinary interest and
versatility, and contemporary opinion is expressed in the words
stupor mttndi ft immulaior mirjbilis. Licentious and luxurious in
his manners, cultured and catholic in his tastes, he united in his
person the most diverse qualities. His Sicilian court was a centre
of intellectual activity. Michael Scott, the translator of some
treatises of Aristotle and of the commentaries of Averrocs,
Leonard of Pisa, who introduced Arabic numerals and algebra to
the West, and other scholars, Jewish and Mahommedan as well as
Christian, were welcome at his court. Frederick himself had a
knowledge of six languages, was acquainted with mathematics,
philosophy and natural history, and took an interest in medicine
and architecture. In 1334 he founded the university of Naples,
and he was a liberal patron of the medical school at Salerno.
He formed a menagerie of strange animals, and wrote a treatise
on falconry (De ark vcnandi cum ambus) which is remarkable for
its accurate observation of the habits of birds. 1 It was at his
court, too, that as Dante points out Italian poetry had its
birth. Pier della Vigna there wrote the first sonnet, and Italian
lyrics by Frederick himself are preserved to us. His wives were
kept secluded in oriental fashion; a harem was maintained at
Lucent, and eunuchs were a prominent feature of his household.
His religious ideas have been the subject of much controversy.
The theory of M . Huillard-Breholles that he wished to unite to the
functions of emperor those of a spiritual pontiff, and aspired to be
the founder of a new religion, is insufficiently supported by
evidence to be credible. Although at times he persecuted
heretics with great cruelty, he tolerated Mahommedans and Jews,
and both acts appear rather to have been the outcome of political
considerations than of religious belief. His jests, which were used
by his enemies as a charge against him, seem to have originated
in religious indifference, or perhaps in a spirit of inquiry which
anticipated the ideas of a later age. Frederick's rule in Germany
and Italy was a failure, but this fact may be accounted for by the
conditions of the time and the inevitable conflict with the papacy.
In Germany the enactments of 1220 and 1231 contributed to the
disintegration of the Empire and the fall of the Hohenstaufen,
while conflicting interests made the government of Italy a problem
of exceptional difficulty. In Sicily Frederick was more successful.
He quelled disorder, and under his rule the island was prosperous
and contented. His ideas of government were those of an
absolute monarch, and he probably wished to surround himself
with some of the pomp which had encircled the older emperors of
Rome. His chief claim to fame, perhaps, is as a lawgiver. The
code of laws which he gave to Sicily in 1231 bears the impress of
his personality, and has been described as " the fullest and most
adequate body of legislation promulgated by any western ruler
since Charlemagne." Without being a great soldier, Frederick
was not unskilful in warfare, but was better acquainted with the
art of diplomacy. In person he is said to have been " red, bald
and short-sighted," but with good features and a pleasing
countenance. It was seriously believed in Germany for about a
century after his death that Frederick was still alive, and many
impostors attempted to personate him. A legend, afterwards
transferred to Frederick Barbarossa, told how he sat in a cavern
in the Kyffhausser before a stone table through which his beard
had grown, waiting for the time for him to awake and restore to
the Empire the golden age of peace.
The "contemporary documents relating to the reign of Frederick IT.
are very numerous. Among the most important are: Richard of
Son Germane, Chronica regnt Siciliae; Annales Placentini, GibtUini;
Albert of Stade, Annales; Matthew Paris, Historia major Angliae;
Bun-hard, Chronicon Urspergense. All these are in the Monumenta
Germaniae Ustoriea. Scriptorts] (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892).
The Rerum Ilalicarum scnptores, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan,
I7>3~i750. contains Annales IfedManenses; Nicholas of Jamsilla,
Historia de rtbnt resits Friderici II., and Vita Greiorii IX. pontificis.
There are also the Epiitolarum libri of Peter della Vigna, edited
by I. R. Iselin (Bawl, 1740); and Salimbene of Parma's Chronik,
published at Parma (1857). Many of the documents concerning
the history of the time are found in the Hiitoria diplomatics Friderici
II., edited by M. Huillard-Brchollcs (Paris, 1852-1861); Acla
1 First printed at Augsburg in 1596; a German edition was pub-
lished at Berlin in 1896.
imprrii seltcta, Urkunden deutscker K Unite und Kaiser, edited by
J. F Bflhmer and J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); Acta imperii inedita
seculi XIII. Urkunden und Briefe tur Geschichte des Kaiserreichs
und des Konigreichs Sicilien, edited by E. Winkelmann (Innsbruck,
1880); Epistolae saeculi XIII, selecta e regestis pontificum Romano-
rum, edited by C. Rodenberg, tome i. (Berlin, 1883); P. Pressutti,
Reeesta Honorii papae III. (Rome, 1888) ; L. Auvray, Les Registres de
Grfgoire IX (Paris, 1890).
The best modern authorities are W. yon Giescbrccht, Geschichte
der deutschen Kaiseneii, Band v. (Leipzig, 1888); J. Jastrow,
Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Hohenstaufen (Berlin, 1893) ;
F. W. Schirrmacher, Kaiser Friedrich der Zweite (Gottingen, 1859-
1865) ; " Beitrage zur Geschichte Kaiser Friedricns II." m the for-
schungen zur dcutschen Geschichte, Band xi. (Gottingen, 1862-1886),
and Die letxten Hohenstaufen (Gottingen, 1871); E. Winkelmann.
Geschichte Kaiser Friedrichs II und seiner Reiche (Berlin, 1865) and
Kaiser Friedrich II. (Leipzig, 1889); G. Blonde), l-imlr sur la
politique de I'empereur Frederic II. en Allemagne (Paris, 1892'
M. Halbe, Friedrich II. und der papstliche Stuhl (Berlin, 1888
R. Rohricht, Die Kreutfahrt des Kaisers Friedrich II. (Berlin, 1874^ .
C. Kohler, Das Verhaltnis Kaiser Friedrichs II. tu den Papsten
seiner Zeit (Breslau, 1888); J. Felten, Papst Greeor IX. (Freiburg,
1886); C. Rodenberg, Innocent IV. und das Konigreich Sicilien
(Halle, 1892); K. Lamprecht, Deutsche Geschichte, Band in. (Berlin,
1831); M. Huillard-Breholles, Vie et corresponda.nct de Pierre de la
Vigne (Paris, 1865); A. del Vecchio, La legislation* de Federico II
(Turin, 1874); and K. Hampc, Kaiser Friedrich II. (Munich,
1899). (A. W. H.)
FREDERICK III. (1415-1403), Roman emperor, as Frederick
IV., German king, and as Frederick V., archduke of Austria,
son of Ernest of Habsburg, duke of Styria and Carinthia, was born
at Innsbruck on the zist of September 1415. After his father's
death in 1424 he passed his time at the court of his uncle and
guardian, Frederick IV., count of Tiro). In 1435, together with
his brother, Albert the Prodigal, he undertook the government
of Styria and Carinthia, but the peace of these lands was disturbed
by constant feuds between the brothers, which lasted until
Albert's death in 1463. In 1439 the deaths of the German
king Albert II. and of Frederick of Tirol left Frederick the
senior member of the Habsburg family, and guardian of Sigis-
rnuml, count of Tirol. In the following year he also became
guardian of Ladislaus, the posthumous son of Albert II., and heir
to Bohemia, Hungary and Austria, but th'ese responsibilities
brought only trouble and humiliation in their train. On the 2nd
of February 1440 Frederick was chosen German king at Frankfort,
but, owing to his absence from Germany, the coronation was
delayed until the I7th of June 1442, when it took place at Aix-la-
Chapelle.
Disregarding the neutral attitude of the German electors
towards the papal schism, and acting under the influence of
Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II., Frederick
in 1445 made a secret' treaty with Pope Eugenius IV. This
developed into the Concordat of Vienna, signed in 1448 with the
succeeding pope, Nicholas V., by which the king, in return for a
sum of money and a promise of the imperial crown, pledged the
obedience of the German people to Rome, and so checked for a
time the rising tide of liberty in the German church. Taking up
the quarrel between the Habsburgs and the Swiss cantons,
Frederick invited the Armagnacs to attack his enemies, but
after meeting with a stubborn resistance at St Jacob on the 26th
of August 1444, these allies proved faithless, and the king soon
lost every vestige of authority in Switzerland. In 1451 Frederick,
disregarding the revolts in Austria and Hungary, travelled to
Rome, where, on the i6th of March 1452, his marriage with
Leonora, daughter of Edward, king of Portugal, was celebrated,
and three days later he was crowned emperor by pope Nicholas.
On his return he found Germany seething with indignation.
His capitulation to the pope was not forgotten; his refusal to
attend the diets, and his apathy in the face of Turkish aggressions,
constituted a serious danger; and plans for his deposition failed
only because the electors could not unite upon a rival king. In
1457 Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, and archduke of
Austria, died; Frederick failed to secure either kingdom, but
obtained lower Austria, from which, however, he was soon driven
by his brother Albert, who occupied Vienna. On Albert's death
in 1463 the emperor united upper and lower Austria under his
rule, but these possessions were constantly ravaged by George
FREDERICK III. FREDERICK II.
PodSbrad, king of Bohemia, and by Matthias Corvinus, king of
Hungary. A visit to Rome in 1468 to discuss measures against
the Turks with Pope Paul II. had no result, and in 1470 Frederick
began negotiations for a marriage between his son Maximilian
and Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy. The emperor met the duke at Treves in 1473, when
Frederick, disliking to bestow the title of king upon Charles, left
the city secretly, but brought about the marriage after the duke's
death in 1477. Again attacked by Matthias, the emperor was
driven from Vienna, and soon handed over the government of his
lands to Maximilian, whose election as king of the Romans he
vainly opposed in 1486. Frederick then retired to Linz, where he
passed his time in the study of botany, alchemy and astronomy,
until his death on the ipth of August 1493.
Frederick was a listless and incapable ruler, lacking alike the
qualities of the soldier and of the diplomatist, but possessing a
certain cleverness in evading difficulties. With a fine presence,
he had many excellent personal qualities, is spoken of as mild and
just, and had a real love of learning. He had a great belief in the
future greatness of his family, to which he contributed largely by
arranging the marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy,
and delighted to inscribe his books and other articles of value
with the letters A.E.I. O.U. (Austriae est imperare orbi universe;
or in German, Alles Erdreich ist Oesterreich unterthan). His
personality counts for very little in German history. One
chronicler says: "He was a useless emperor, and the nation
during his long reign forgot that she had a king." His tomb, a
magnificent work in red and white marble, is in the cathedral of
St Stephen at Vienna.
See Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, De rebus et gestis Friderici III.
(trans. Th. Ilgen, Leipzig, 1889); J. Chmel, Geschichte Kaiser
Friedrichs IV. und seines Sohnes Maximilians I. (Hamburg, 1840) ;
A. Bachmann, Deutsche Reichsgeschichte im Zeitalter Friedrichs III.
und Maximilians I. (Leipzig, 1884); A. Huber, Geschichte Oster-
reichs (Gotha, 1885-1892); and E. M. Furst von Lichnowsky,
Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg (Vienna, 1836-1844).
FREDERICK III. (c. 1286-1330), surnamed "the Fair,"
German king and duke of Austria, was the second son of the
German king, Albert I., and consequently a member of the
Habsburg family. In 1298, when his father was chosen German
king, Frederick was invested with some of the family lands, and
in 1306, when his elder brother Rudolph became king of Bohemia,
he succeeded to the duchy of Austria. In 1307 Rudolph died,
and Frederick sought to obtain the Bohemian throne; but an
expedition into that country was a failure, and his father's
murder in May 1308 deprived him of considerable support. He
was equally unsuccessful in his efforts to procure the German
crown at this time, and the relations between the new king,
Henry VII., and the Habsburgs were far from friendly. Frederick
asked not only to be confirmed in the possession of Austria, but to
be invested with Moravia, a demand to which Henry refused to
accede; but an arrangement was subsequently made by which the
duke agreed to renounce Moravia in return for a payment of
50,000 marks. Frederick then became involved in a quarrel with
his cousin Louis IV., duke of Upper Bavaria (afterwards the
emperor Louis IV.), over the guardianship of Henry II., duke
of Lower Bavaria. Hostilities broke out, and on the gth of
November 1313 he was defeated by Louis at the battle of Gam-
melsdorf and compelled to renounce his claim.
Meanwhile the emperor Henry VII. had died in Italy, and a
stubborn contest ensued for the vacant throne. After a long
delay Frederick was chosen German king at Frankfort by a
minority of the electors on the igth of October 1314, while a
majority elected Louis of Bavaria. Six days later Frederick
was crowned at Bonn by the archbishop of Cologne, and war
broke out at once between the rivals. During this contest,
which was carried on in a desultory fashion, Frederick drew his
chief strength from southern and eastern Germany, and was
supported by the full power of the Habsburgs. The defeat of
his brother Leopold by the Swiss at Morgarten in November
1315 was a heavy blow to him, but he prolonged the struggle for
seven years. On the 28th of September 1322 a decisive battle
was fought at MUhldcrf; Frederick was defeated and sent as a
prisoner to Trausnitz. Here he was retained until three years
later a series of events induced Louis to come to terms. By the
treaty of Trausnitz, signed on the I3th of March 1325, Frederick
acknowledged the kingship of Louis in return for freedom, and
promised to return to captivity unless he could induce his brother
Leopold to make a similar acknowledgment. As Leopold re-
fused to take this step, Frederick, although released from his oath
by Pope John XXII., travelled back to Bavaria, where he was
treated by Louis rather as a friend than as a prisoner. A
suggestion was then made that the kings should rule jointly, but
as this plan aroused some opposition it was agreed that Frederick
should govern Germany while Louis went to Italy for the imperial
crown. But this arrangement did not prove generally acceptable,
and the death of Leopold in 1326 deprived Frederick of a powerful
supporter. In these circumstances he returned to Austria broken
down in mind and body, and on the i3th of January 1330 he
died at Gutenstein, and was buried at Mauerbach, whence his
remains were removed in 1783 to the cathedral of St Stephen at
Vienna. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James I., king of
Aragon, and left two daughters. His voluntary return into
captivity is used by Schiller in his poem Deutsche Treue, and by
J. L. Uhland in the drama Ludwig der Bayer.
The authorities for the life of Frederick are found in the Fontes
rerum Germanicarum. Band i., edited by J. F. Bohmer (Stuttgart,
18431868), and in the Fontes rerum Austriacarum, part i. (Vienna,
1855). Modern works which may be consulted are: E. M. Furst
von Lichnowsky, Geschichte des Hauses Habsburg (Vienna, 1836-
1844); Th. Lindner, Deutsche Geschichte unter den Habsburgern
und Luxemburgern (Stuttgart, 1888-1893). R- Dobner, Die Aus-
einandersetzung zwischen Ludwig IV. dem Bayer und Friedrich dem
Schonen von Osterreich (Gottingen, 1875) ; F. Kurz, Osterreich
unter Konit Friedrich dem Schonen (Linz, 1818) ; F. Krones, Hand-
buch der Geschichte Osterreichs (Berlin, 1876-1879); H. Schrohe,
Der Kampf der Gegenkonige Ludwig und Friedrich (Berlin, 1902) ;
W. Friedensburg, Ludwig IV. der Bayer und Friedrich von Oster-
reich (Gottingen, 1877); B. Gebhardt, Handbuch der deutschen
Geschichte (Berlin, 1901).
FREDERICK II. (1534-1588), king of Denmark and Norway,
son of Christian III., was born at Hadersleben on the ist of July
1534. His mother, Dorothea of Saxe-Lauenburg, was the elder
sister of Catherine, the first wife of Gustavus Vasa and the mother
of Eric XIV. The two little cousins, born the same year, were
destined to be lifelong rivals. At the age of two Frederick was
proclaimed successor to the throne at the Rigsdag of Copenhagen
(October 3Oth, 1536), and homage was done to him at Oslo for
Norway in 1548. The choice of his governor, the patriotic
historiographer HansSvaning, was so far fortunate that it ensured
the devotion of the future king of Denmark to everything
Danish; but Svaning was a poor pedagogue, and the wild and
wayward lad suffered all his life from the defects of his early
training. Frederick's youthful, innocent attachment to the
daughter of his former tutor, Anna Hardenberg,,indisposed him
towards matrimony at the beginning of his reign (1558). After
the hands of Elizabeth of England, Mary of Scotland and Renata
of Lorraine had successively been sought for him, the council of
state grew anxious about the succession, but he finally married
his cousin, Sophia of Mecklenburg, on the 2oth of July 1572.
The reign of Frederick II. falls into two well-defined divisions:
(i) a period of war, 1559-1570; and (2) a period of peace, 1570-
1588. The period of war began with the Ditmarsh expedition,
when the. independent peasant-republic of the Ditmarshers of
West Holstein, which had stoutly maintained its independence
for centuries against the counts of Holstein and the Danish kings,
was subdued by a Dano-Holstein army of 20,000 men in 1559,
Frederick and his uncles John and Adolphus, dukes of Holstein,
dividing the land between them. Equally triumphant was
Frederick in his war with Sweden, though here the contest was
much more severe, lasting as it did for seven years; whence it is
generally described in northern history as the Scandinavian
Seven Years' War. The tension which had prevailed between
the two kingdoms during the last years of Gustavus Vasa reached
breaking point on the accession of Gustavus's eldest son Eric
XIV. There were many causes of quarrel between the two
ambitious young monarchs, but the detention at Copenhagen in
1 563 of a splendid matrimonial embassy on its way to Germany,
FREDERICK III.
to negotiate a match between Eric and Christina of Hesse, which
King Frederick for political reasons was determined to prevent,
precipitated hostilities. During the war, which was marked by
extraordinary ferocity throughout, the Danes were generally
victorious on land owing to the genius of Daniel Rantzau, but
at sea the Swedes were almost uniformly triumphant. By 1570
the strife had degenerated into a barbarous devastation of border
provinces; and in July of the same year both countries accepted
the mediation of the Emperor, and peace was finally concluded
at Stettin on Dec. 13, 1570. During the course of this
Seven Years' War Frederick II. had narrowly escaped the fate
of his deposed cousin Eric XIV. The war was very unpopular
in Denmark, and the closing of the Sound against foreign shipping,
in order to starve out Sweden, had exasperated the maritime
powers and all the Baltic states. On New Year's Day 1570
Frederick's difficulties seemed so overwhelming that he
threatened to abdicate; but the peace of Stettin came in time
to reconcile all parties, and though Frederick had now to re-
linquish his ambitious dream of re-establishing the Union of
Kalmar, he had at least succeeded in maintaining the supremacy
of Denmark in the north. After the peace Frederick's policy
became still more imperial. He aspired to the dominion of all
the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he
died he succeeded in suppressing the pirates who so long had
haunted the Baltic and the German Ocean. He also erected the
stately fortress of Kronborg, to guard the narrow channel of the
Sound. Frederick possessed the truly royal gift of discovering
and employing great men, irrespective of personal preferences
and even of personal injuries. With infinite tact and admirable
self-denial he gave free scope to ministers whose superiority
in their various departments he frankly recognized, rarely inter-
fering personally unless absolutely called upon to do so. His
influence, always great, was increased by his genial and unaffected
manners as a host. He is also remarkable as one of the few
kings of the house of Oldenburg who had no illicit liaison.
He died at Antvorskov on the 4th of April 1588. No other
Danish king was ever so beloved by his people.
See Lund (Troels), Datimarks og Norgei Historie i Slutningen af
4* XVI. Aarh. (Copenhagen, 1870); Dattmarks Rites Historie
(Copenhagen. 1897-1905), vol. 3; Robert Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia,
cap. 4 (Cambridge, 1905). (K. N. B.)
FREDERICK III. (1600-1670), king of Denmark and Norway,
son of Christian IV. and Anne Catherine of Brandenburg, was
born on the i8th of March 1609 at Hadersleben. His position
as a younger son profoundly influenced his future career. In his
youth and early manhood there was no prospect of his ascending
the Danish throne, and he consequently became the instrument of
his father's schemes of aggrandizement in Germany. While still
a lad he became successively bishop of Bremen, bishop of Verden
and coadjutor of Halberstadt, while at the age of eighteen he
was the chief commandant of the fortress of Stade. Thus
from an early age he had considerable experience as an adminis-
trator, while his general education was very careful and thorough.
He had always a pronounced liking for literary and scientific
studies. On the ist of October 1643 Frederick wedded Sophia
Amelia of Brunswick LUneburg, whose energetic, passionate
and ambitious character was profoundly to affect not only
Frederick's destiny but the destiny of Denmark. During the
disastrous Swedish War of 1643-1645 Frederick was appointed
generalissimo of the duchies by his father, but the laurels he won
were scanty, chiefly owing to his quarrels with the Earl-Marshal
Anders Bilk, who commanded the Danish forces. This was
Frederick's first collision with the Danish nobility, who ever
afterwards regarded him with extreme distrust. The death of his
elder brother Christian in June 1647 first opened to him the pros-
pect of succeeding to the Danish throne, but the question was
still unsettled when Christian IV. died on the z8th of February
1648. Not till the 6th of July in the same year did Frederick III.
receive the homage of his subjects, and only after he had signed
a Haan4faeitninf or charter, by which the already diminished
royal prerogative was still further curtailed. It had been doubt-
ful at first whether he would be allowed to inherit his ancestral
throne at all; but Frederick removed the last scruples of the
Rigsraad by unhesitatingly accepting the conditions imposed
upon him.
The new monarch was a reserved, enigmatical prince, who
seldom laughed, spoke little and wrote less a striking contrast
to Christian IV. But if he lacked the brilliant qualities of his
impulsive, jovial father, he possessed in a high degree the com-
pensating virtues of moderation, sobriety and self-control.
But with all his good qualities Frederick was not the man to take
a clear view of the political horizon, or even to recognize his own
and his country's limitations. He rightly regarded the accession
of Charles X. of Sweden (June 6th, 1654) as a source of danger to
Denmark. He felt that temperament and policy would combine
to make Charles an aggressive warrior-king: the only uncertainty
was in which direction he would turn his arms first. Charles's
invasion of Poland (July 1654) came as a distinct relief to the
Danes, though even the Polish War was full of latent peril to
Denmark. Frederick was resolved upon a rupture with Sweden
at the first convenient opportunity. The Rigsdag which
assembled on the 23rd of February 1657 willingly granted
considerable subsidies for mobilization and other military
expenses; on the isth of April Frederick III. desired, and on
the 23rd of April he received, the assent of the majority of the
Rigsraad to attack Sweden's German provinces; in the beginning
of May the still pending negotiations with that power were broken
off, and on the ist of June Frederick signed the manifesto justify-
ing a war which was never formally declared. The Swedish
king traversed all the plans of his enemies by his passage of the
frozen Belts, in January and February 1638 (see CHARLES X.
of Sweden). The effect of this unheard-of achievement on the
Danish government was crushing. Frederick III. at once sued
for peace; and, yielding to the persuasions of the English and
French ministers, Charles finally agreed to be content with
mutilating instead of annihilating the Danish monarchy (treaties
of Taastrup, February i8th, and of Roskilde, February 26th,
1658). The conclusion of peace was followed by a remarkable
episode. Frederick expressed the desire to make the personal
acquaintance of his conqueror; and Charles X. consented to be
his guest for three days (March 3-5) at the castle of Fredriksborg.
Splendid banquets lasting far into the night, private and intimate
conversations between the princes who had only just emerged
from a mortal struggle, seemed to point to nothing but peace and
friendship in the future. But Charles's insatiable lust for con-
quest, and his ineradicable suspicion of Denmark, induced him,
on the 1 7th of July, without any reasonable cause, without a
declaration of war, in defiance of all international equity, to
endeavour to despatch an inconvenient neighbour.
Terror was the first feeling produced at Copenhagen by the
landing of the main Swedish army at Korsor in Zealand. None
had anticipated thepossibilityof suchasudden and brutal attack,
and every one knew that the Danish capital was very inadequately
fortified and garrisoned. Fortunately Frederick had never been
deficient in courage. " I will die in my nest " were the memor-
able words with which he rebuked those counsellors who advised
him to seek safety in flight. On the 8th of August representatives
from every class in the capital urged the necessity of a vigorous
resistance; and the citizens of Copenhagen, headed by the great
burgomaster Hans Nansen (q.v.), protested their unshakable
loyalty to the king, and their determination to defend Copen-
hagen to the uttermost. The Danes had only three days' warning
of the approaching danger; and the vast and dilapidated line
of defence had at first but 2000 regular defenders. But the
government and the people displayed a memorable and ex-
emplary energy, under the constant supervision of the king,
the queen, and burgomaster Nansen. By the beginning of
September all the breaches were repaired, the walls bristled with
cannon, and 7000 men were under arms. So strong was the city
by this time that Charles X., abandoning his original intention
of carrying the place by assault, began a regular siege; but this
also he was forced to abandon when, on the 2gth of October, an
auxiliary Dutch fleet, after reinforcing and reprovisioning the
garrison, defeated, in conjunction with the Danish fleet, the
FREDERICK VIII. FREDERICK II.
Swedish navy of 44 liners in the Sound. Thus the Danish capital
had saved the Danish monarchy. But it was Frederick III.
who profited most by his spirited defence of the common interests
of the country and the dynasty. The traditional loyalty of the
Danish middle classes was transformed into a boundless enthusi-
asm for the king personally, and for a brief period Frederick found
himself the most popular man in his kingdom. He made use of
his popularity by realizing the dream of a lifetime and converting
an elective into an absolute monarchy by the Revolution of 1660
(see DENMARK: History). Frederick III. died on the 6th of
February 1670 at the castle of Copenhagen.
See R. Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia, caps. ix. and x. (Cambridge,
1905). (R. N. B.)
FREDERICK VIII. (1843- ), king of Denmark, eldest son
of King Christian IX., was born at Copenhagen on the 3rd of
June 1843. As crown prince of Denmark he took part in the war
of 1864 against Austria and Prussia, and subsequently assisted
his father in the duties of government, becoming king on
Christian's death in January 1906. In 1869 Frederick married
Louise (b. 1851), daughter of Charles XV., king of Sweden,
by whom he had a family of four sons and four daughters. His
eldest son Christian, crown prince of Denmark (b. 1870), was
married in 1898 to Alexandrina (b. 1879), daughter of Frederick
Francis III., grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin; and his
second son, Charles (b. 1872), who married his cousin Maud,
daughter of Edward VII. of Great Britain, became king of
Norway as Haakon VII. in 1905.
FREDERICK I. (1657-1713), king of Prussia, and (as Frederick
III.) elector of Brandenburg, was the second son of the great
elector, Frederick William, by his first marriage with Louise
Henriette, daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange. Born at
Konigsberg on the i ith of July. 1657, he was educated and greatly
influenced by Eberhard Danckelmann, and became heir to the
throne of Brandenburg through the death of his elder brother,
Charles Emil, in 1674. He appears to have taken some part in
public business before the death of his father; and the court
at Berlin was soon disturbed by quarrels between the young
prince and his stepmother, Dorothea of Holstein-Glucksburg.
In 1686 Dorothea persuaded her husband to bequeath outlying
portions of his lands to her four sons; and Frederick, fearing
he would be poisoned, left Brandenburg determined to prevent
any diminution of his inheritance. By promising to restore
Schwiebus to Silesia after his accession he won the support of the
emperor Leopold I. ; but eventually he gained his end in a peace-
able fashion. Having become elector of Brandenburg in May
1688, he came to terms with his half-brothers and their mother.
In return for a sum of money these princes renounced their rights
under their father's will, and the new elector thus secured the
whole of Frederick William's territories. After much delay and
grumbling he fulfilled his bargain with Leopold and gave up
Schwiebus in 1695. At home and abroad Frederick continued
the policy of the great elector. He helped William of Orange
to make his descent on England; added various places, including
the principality of Neuchatel, to his lands; and exercised some
influence on the course of European politics by placing his large
and efficient army at the disposal of the emperor and his allies
(see BRANDENBURG). He was present in person at the siege of
Bonn in 1689, but was not often in command of his troops. The
elector was very fond of pomp, and, striving to model his court
upon that of Louis XIV., he directed his main energies towards
obtaining for himself the title of king. In spite of the assistance
he had given to the emperor his efforts met with no success for
some years; but towards 1700 Leopold, faced with the prospect
of a new struggle with France, was inclined to view the idea more
favourably. Having insisted upon various conditions, prominent
among them being military aid for the approaching war, he gave
the imperial sanction to Frederick's request in November 1700;
whereupon the elector, hurrying at once to Konigsberg, crowned
himself with great ceremony king of Prussia on the i8th oi
January 1701. According to his promise the king sent help to
the emperor; and during the War of the Spanish Succession the
troops of Brandenburg-Prussia rendered great assistance to the
allies, fighting with distinction at Blenheim and elsewhere.
Frederick, who was deformed through an injury to his spine,
died on the 25th of February 1713. By his extravagance the king
exhausted the treasure amassed by his father, burdened his
country with heavy taxes, and reduced its finances to chaos. His
constant obligations to the emperor drained Brandenburg of
money which might have been employed more profitably at
home, and prevented her sovereign from interfering in the politics
of northern Europe. Frederick, however, was not an unpopular
ruler, and by making Prussia into a kingdom he undoubtedly
advanced it several stages towards its future greatness. He
founded the university of Halle, and the Academy of Sciences at
Berlin; welcomed and protected Protestant refugees from France
and elsewhere; and lavished money on the erection of public
buildings.
The king was married three times. His second wife, Sophie
Cttarlotte (1668-1705), sister of the English king George I., was
the friend of Leibnitz and one of the most cultured princesses of
the age ; she bore him his only son, his successor, King Frederick
William I.
See W. Hahn, Friedrich I., Konig in Preussen (Berlin, 1876);
J. G. Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik, Band iv. (Leipzig,
1872); E. Heyck, Friedrich I. und die Begriindung des preussischen
Konigtums (Bielefeld, 1901) ; C. Graf von Dohna, Memoires origi-
naux sur le regne el la cour de Frederic I" (Berlin, 1883) ; Aus dem
Briefwechsel Konig Friedrichs I. yon Preussen und seiner Familie
(Berlin, 1901) ; and T. Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, vol. i.
(London, 1872).
FREDERICK II., known as " the Great " (1712-1786), king
of Prussia, born on the 24th of January 1712, was the eldest son
of Frederick William I. He was brought up with extreme rigour,
his father devising a scheme of education which was intended
to make him a hardy soldier, and prescribing for him every
detail of his conduct. So great was Frederick William's horror
of everything which did not seem to him practical, that he
strictly excluded Latin from the list of his son's studies.
Frederick, however, had free and generous impulses which could
not be restrained by the sternest system. Encouraged by his
mother, and under the influence of his governess Madame de
Roucoulle, and of his first tutor Duhan, a French refugee, he
acquired an excellent knowledge of French and a taste for litera-
ture and music. He even received secret lessons in Latin,
which his father invested with all the charms of forbidden
fruit. As he grew up he became extremely dissatisfied with the
dull and monotonous life he was compelled to lead; and his
discontent was heartily shared by his sister, Wilhelmina, a bright
and intelligent young princess for whom Frederick had a warm
affection.
Frederick William, seeing his son apparently absorbed in
frivolous and effeminate amusements, gradually conceived for
him an intense .dislike, which had its share in causing him to
break off the negotiations for a double marriage between the
prince of Wales and Wilhelmina, and the princess Amelia,
daughter of George II., and Frederick; for Frederick had been
so indiscreet as to carry on a separate correspondence with the
English court and to vow that he would marry Ameh'a or no one.
Frederick William's hatred of his son, openly avowed, displayed
itself in violent outbursts and public insults, and so harsh was
his treatment that Frederick frequently thought of running
away and taking refuge at the English court. He at last resolved
to do so during a journey which he made with the king to south
Germany in 1730, when he was eighteen years of age. He was
helped by his two friends, Lieutenant Katte and Lieutenant
Keith; but by the imprudence of the former the secret was found
out. Frederick was placed under arrest, deprived of his rank
as crown prince, tried by court-martial, and imprisoned in the
fortress of Custrin. Warned by Frederick, Keith escaped;
but Katte delayed his flight too long, and a court-martial decided
that he should be punished with two years' fortress arrest. But
the king was determined by a terrible example to wake Frederick
once for all to a consciousness of the heavy responsibility of his
position. He changed the sentence on Katte to one of death and
ordered the execution to take place in Frederick's presence,
FREDERICK II.
53
arranging its every detail; Frederick's own fate would
depend upon the effect of this terrible object-lesson and the
response he should make to the exhortations of the chaplain sent
to refeon with him. On the morning of the 7th of November
Katte was beheaded before Frederick's window, after the crown
prince had asked his pardon and received the answer that there
was nothing to forgive. On Frederick himself lay the terror of
death, and the chaplain was able to send to the king a favourable
report of his orthodoxy and his changed disposition. Frederick
William, whose temper was by no means so ruthlessly Spartan
as tradition has painted it, was overjoyed, and commissioned the
clergyman to receive from the prince an oath of filial obedience,
and in exchange for this proof of " his intention to improve in
real earnest " his arrest was to be lightened, pending the earning
of a full pardon. " The whole town shall be his prison," wrote
the king; " I will give him employment, from morning to night,
in the departments of war, and agriculture, and of the govern-
ment. He shall work at financial matters, receive accounts,
read minutes and make extracts. . . . But if he kicks or rears
again, he shall forfeit the succession to the crown, and even,
according to circumstances, life itself."
For about fifteen months Frederick lived in Ciistrin, busy
according to the royal programme with the details of the Prussian
administrative system. He was very careful not to " kick or
rear," and his good conduct earned him a further stage in the
restoration to favour. During this period of probation he had
been deprived of his status as a soldier and refused the right to
wear uniform, while officers and soldiers were forbidden to give
him the military salute; in 1732 he was made colonel in command
of the regiment at Neuruppin. In the following year he married,
in obedience to the king's orders, the princess Elizabeth Christina,
daughter of the duke of Brunswick-Bevern. He was given the
estate of Rheinsberg in the neighbourhood of Neuruppin, and
there he lived until he succeeded to the throne. These years were
perhaps the happiest of his life. He discharged his duties with so
much spirit and so conscientiously that he ultimately gained
the esteem of Frederick William, who no longer feared that he
would leave the crown to one unworthy of wearing it. At the
same time the crown prince was able to indulge to the full his
personal tastes. He carried on a lively correspondence with
Voltaire and other French men of letters, and was a diligent
student of philosophy, history and poetry. Two of his best-
known works were written at this time Considerations sur
rtiat prtient du corps politique de I' Europe and his A nti-Macchiavcl.
In the former he calls attention to the growing strength of
Austria and France, and insists on the necessity of some third
power, by which he clearly means Prussia, counterbalancing their
excessive influence. The second treatise, which was issued by
Voltaire in Hague in 1740, contains a generous exposition of
some of the favourite ideas of the 18th-century philosophers
respecting the duties of sovereigns, which may be summed up
in the famous sentence: " the prince is not the absolute master,
but only the first servant of his people."
On the jist of May 1740 he became king. He maintained all
the forms of government established by his father, but ruled
in a far more enlightened spirit; he tolerated every form of re-
ligious opinion, abolished the use of torture, was most careful
to secure an exact and impartial administration of justice, and,
while keeping the reins of government strictly in his own hands,
allowed every one with a genuine grievance free access to his
presence. The Potsdam regiment of giants was disbanded, but
the real interests of the army were carefully studied, for Frederick
realized that the two pillars of the Prussian state were sound
finances and a strong army. On the 2oth of October 1740 the
emperor Charles VI. died. Frederick at once began to make
extensive military preparations, and it was soon clear to all the
world that he intended to enter upon some serious enterprise.
He had made up his mind to assert the ancient claim of the house
of Brandenburg to the three Silesian duchies, which the Austrian
rulers of Bohemia had ever denied, 'but the Hohenzollerns had
never abandoned. Projects for the assertion of this claim by
force of arms bad been formed by more than one of Frederick's
predecessors, and the extinction of the male line of the house of
Habsburg may well have seemed to him a unique opportunity
for realizing an ambition traditional in his family. For this
resolution he is often abused still by historians, and at the time
he had the approval of hardly any one out of Prussia. He him-
self, writing of the scheme in his Mtmoires, laid no claim to lofty
motives, but candidly confessed that "it was a means of acquiring
reputation and of increasing the power of the state." He
firmly believed, however, in the lawfulness of his claims; and
although his father had recognized the Pragmatic Sanction,
whereby.the hereditary dominions of Charles VI. were to descend
to his daughter, Maria Theresa, Frederick insisted that this
sanction could refer only to lands which rightfully belonged to the
house of Austria. He could also urge that, as Charles VI. had
not fulfilled the engagements by which Frederick William's
recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction had been secured, Prussia
was freed from her obligation.
Frederick sent an ambassador to Vienna, offering, in the event
of his rights in Silesia being conceded, to aid Maria Theresa
against her enemies. The queen of Hungary, who regarded the
proposal as that of a mere robber, haughtily declined; whereupon
Frederick immediately invaded Silesia with an army of 30,000
men. His first victory was gained at Mollwitz on the loth of
April 1741. Under the impression, in consequence of a furious
charge of Austrian cavalry, that the battle was lost, he rode
rapidly away at an early stage of the struggle a mistake
which gave rise for a time to the groundless idea that he lacked
personal courage. A second Prussian victory was gained at
Chotusitz, near Caslau, on the I7th May 1742; by this time
Frederick was master of all the fortified places of Silesia. Maria
Theresa, in the heat of her struggle with France and the elector
of Bavaria, now Charles VII., and pressed by England to rid
herself of Frederick, concluded with him, on the nth of June
1 742, the peace of Breslau, conceding to Prussia, Upper and Lower
Silesia as far as the Oppa, together with the county of Glatz.
Frederick made good use of the next two years, fortifying his new
territory, and repairing the evils inflicted upon it by the war.
By the death of the prince of East Friesland without heirs, he
also gained possession of that country (i 744). He knew well that
Maria Theresa would not, if she could help it, allow him to
remain in Silesia; accordingly, in 1744, alarmed by her victories,
he arrived at a secret understanding with France, and pledged
himself, with Hesse-Cassel and the palatinate, to maintain the
imperial rights of Charles VII., and to defend his hereditary
Bavarian lands. Frederick began the second Silesian War by
entering Bohemia in August 1744 and taking Prague. By this
brilliant but rash venture he put himself in great danger, and
soon had to retreat; but in 1745 he gained the battles of Hohen-
friedberg, Soor and Hennersdorf ; and Leopold of Dessau (" Der
alte Dessauer ") won for him the victory of Kesselsdorf in Saxony.
The latter victory was decisive, and the peace of Dresden
(December 25, 1745) assured to Frederick a second time the
possession of Silesia. (See AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE.)
Frederick had thus, at the age of thirty-three, raised himself
to a great position in Europe, and henceforth he was the most
conspicuous sovereign of his time. He was a thoroughly absolute
ruler, his so-called ministers being mere clerks whose business
was to give effect to his will. To use his own famous phrase,
however, he regarded himself as but " the first servant of the
state"; and during the next eleven years he proved that the
words expressed his inmost conviction and feeling. All kinds of
questions were submitted to him, important and unimportant;
and he is frequently censured for having troubled himself so
much with mere details. But in so far as these details related
to expenditure he was fully justified, for it was absolutely
essential for him to have a large army, and with a small state
this was impossible unless he carefully prevented unnecessary
outlay. Being a keen judge of character, he filled the public
offices with faithful, capable, energetic men, who were kept up
to a high standard of duty by the consciousness that their work
might at any time come under his strict supervision. The
Academy of Sciences, which had fallen into contempt during
54
FREDERICK II.
his father's reign, he restored, infusing into it vigorous life; and
he did more to promote elementary education than any of his
predecessors. He did much too for the economic development
of Prussia, especially for agriculture; he established colonies,
peopling them with immigrants, extended the canal system,
drained and diked the great marshes of the Oderbruch, turning
them into rich pasturage, encouraged the planting of fruit
trees and of root crops; and, though in accordance with his
ideas of discipline he maintained serfdom, he did much to lighten
the burdens of the peasants. All kinds of manufacture, too,
particularly that of silk, owed much to his encouragement.
To the army he gave unremitting attention, reviewing it at
regular intervals, and sternly punishing negligence on the part
of the officers. Its numbers were raised to 160,000 men, while
fortresses and magazines were always kept in a state of readiness
for war. The influence of the king's example was felt far beyond
the limits of his immediate circle. The nation was proud of his
genius, and displayed something of his energy in all departments
of life. Lessing, who as a youth of twenty came to Berlin in
1749, composed enthusiastic odes in his honour, and Gleim,
the Halberstadt poet, wrote of him as of a kind of demi-god.
These may be taken as fair illustrations of the popular feeling
long before the Seven Years' War.
He despised German as the language of boors, although it is
remarkable that at a later period, in a French essay on German
literature, he predicted for it a great future. He habitually
wrote and spoke French, and had a strong ambition to rank
as a distinguished French author. Nobody can now read his
verses, but his prose writings have a certain calm simplicity
and dignity, without, however, giving evidence of the splendid
mental qualities which he revealed in practical life. To this
period belong his Mmoires pour servir d I'histoire de Brandebourg
and his poem L' 'Art de la guerre. The latter, judged as literature,
is intolerably dull; but the former is valuable, throwing as it
does considerable light on his personal sympathies as well as on
the motives of important epochs in his career. He continued to
correspond with French writers, and induced a number of them
to settle in Berlin, Maupertuis being president of the Academy.
In 1752 Voltaire, who had repeatedly visited him, came at
Frederick's urgent entreaty, and received a truly royal welcome.
The famous Hirsch trial, and Voltaire's vanity and caprice,
greatly lowered him in the esteem of the king, who, on his side,
irritated his guest by often requiring him to correct bad verses,
and by making him the object of rude banter. The publication
of Doctor Akakia, which brought down upon the president of the
Academy a storm of ridicule, finally alienated Frederick; while
Voltaire's wrongs culminated in the famous arrest at Frankfort,
the most disagreeable elements of which were due to the mis-
understanding of an order by a subordinate official.
The king lived as much as possible in a retired mansion, to
which he gave the name of Sanssouci not the palace so called,
which was built after the Seven Years' War, and was never a
favourite residence. He rose regularly in summer at five, in
winter at six, devoting himself to public business till about eleven.
During part of this time, after coffee, he would aid his reflections
by playing on the flute, of which he was passionately fond,
being a really skilful performer. At eleven came parade, and an
hour afterwards, punctually, dinner, which continued till two,
or later, if conversation happened to be particularly attractive.
After dinner he glanced through and signed cabinet orders written
in accordance with his morning instructions, often adding
marginal notes and postscripts, many of which were in a caustic
tone. These disposed of, he amused himself for a couple of hours
with literary work; between six and seven he would converse
with his friends or listen to his reader (a post held for some time
by La Mettrie); at seven there was a concert; and at half-past
eight he sat down to supper, which might go on till midnight.
He liked good eating and drinking, although even here the cost
was sharply looked after, the expenses of his kitchen mounting
to no higher figure than 1800 a year. At supper he was always
surrounded by a number of his most intimate friends, mainly
Frenchmen; and he insisted on the conversation being perfectly
free. His wit, however, was often cruel, and any one who re-
sponded with too much spirit was soon made to feel that the
licence of talk was to be complete only on one side.
At Frederick's court ladies were seldom seen, a circumstance
that gave occasion to much scandal for which there seems to have
been no foundation. The queen he visited only on rare occasions.
She had been forced upon him by his father, and he had' never
loved her; but he always treated her with marked respect, and
provided her with a generous income, half of which she gave away
in charity. Although without charm, she was a woman of many
noble qualities; and, like her husband, she wrote French books,
some of which attracted a certain attention in their day. She
survived him by eleven years, dying in 1797.
Maria Theresa had never given up hope that she would recover
Silesia; and as all the neighbouring sovereigns were bitterly
jealous of Frederick, and somewhat afraid of him, she had no
difficulty in inducing several of them to form a scheme for his
ruin. Russia and Saxony entered into it heartily, and France,
laying aside her ancient enmity towards Austria, joined the
empress against the common object of dislike. Frederick,
meanwhile, had turned towards England, which saw in him a
possible ally of great importance against the French. A con-
vention between Prussia and Great Britain was signed in January
1756, and it proved of incalculable value to both countries,
leading as it did to a close alliance during the administration of
Pitt. Through the treachery of a clerk in the Saxon foreign office
Frederick was made aware of the future which was being prepared
for him. Seeing the importance of taking the initiative, and
if possible, of securing Saxony, he suddenly, on the 24th of
August 1756, crossed the frontier of that country, and shut in
the Saxon army between Pirna and Konigstein, ultimately
compelling it, after a victory gained over the Austrians at
Lobositz, to surrender. Thus began the Seven Years' War,
in which, supported by England, Brunswick and Hesse-Cassel,
he had for a long time to oppose Austria, France, Russia, Saxony
and Sweden. Virtually the whole Continent was in arms against
a small state which, a few years before, had been regarded by most
men as beneath serious notice. But it happened that this small
state was led by a man of high military genius, capable of infusing
into others his own undaunted spirit, while his subjects had
learned both from him and his predecessors habits of patience,
perseverance and discipline. In 1757, after defeating the
Austrians at Prague, he was himself defeated by them at Kolin;
and by the shameful convention of Closter-Seven, he was freely
exposed to the attack of the French. In November 1757, how-
ever, when Europe looked upon him as ruined, he rid himself of
the French by his splendid victory over them at Rossbach, and
in about a month afterwards, by the still more splendid victory
at Leuthen, he drove the Austrians from Silesia. From this time
the French were kept well employed in the west by Prince
Ferdinand of Brunswick, who defeated them at Crefeld in 1758,
and at Minden in 1 7 59. In the former year Frederick triumphed,
at a heavy cost, over the Russians at Zorndorf ; and although,
through lack of his usual foresight, he lost the battle of Hoch-
kirch, he prevented the Austrians from deriving any real
advantage from their triumph, Silesia still remaining in his
hands at the end of the year. The battle of Kunersdorf , fought
on the 1 2th of August 1759, was the most disastrous to him in
the course of the war. He had here to contend both with the
Russians and the Austrians; and although at first he had some
success, his army was in the end completely broken. " All is lost
save the royal family," he wrote to his minister Friesenstein;
" the consequences of this battle will be worse than the battle
itself. I shall not survive the ruin of the Fatherland. Adieu for
ever!" But he soon recovered from his despair, and in 1760
gained the important victories of Liegnitz and Torgau. He had
now, however, to act on the defensive, and fortunately for him,
the Russians, on the death of the empress Elizabeth, not only
withdrew in 1762 from the compact against him, but for a time
became his allies. On the igth of October of that year he gained
his last victory over the Austrians at Freiberg. Europe was by
that time sick of war, every power being more or less exhausted.
FREDERICK II.
55
The result was that, on the i~,ih of February 1763, a few days
after the conclusion of the peace of Paris, the treaty of Hubert us-
burg was signed, Austria confirming Prussia in the possession of
Silesia. (See SEVEN YEARS' WAR.)
It would be difficult to overrate the importance of the con-
tribution thus made by Frederick to the politics of Europe.
Prussia was now universally recognized as one of the great
powers of the Continent, and she definitely took her place in
Germany as the rival of Austria. From this time it was inevitable
that there should be a final struggle between the two nations
for predominance, and that the smaller German states should
group themselves around one or the other. Frederick himself
acquired both in Germany and Europe the indefinable influence
which springs from the recognition of great gifts that have been
proved by great deeds.
His first care after the war was, as far as possible, to enable
the country to recover from the terrific blows by which it had
been almost destroyed; and he was never, either before or after,
seen to better advantage than in the measures he adopted for
this end. Although his resources had been so completely
drained that he had been forced to melt the silver in his palaces
and to debase the coinage, his energy soon brought back the
national prosperity. Pomerania and Neumark were freed from
taxation for two years, Silesia for six months. Many nobles
whose lands had been wasted received corn for seed; his war
horses were within a few months to be found on farms all over
Prussia; and money was freely spent in the re-erection of houses
which had been destroyed. The coinage was gradually restored
to its proper value, and trade received a favourable impulse by
the foundation of the Bank of Berlin. All these matters were
carefully looked into by Frederick himself, who, while acting
as generously as his circumstances would allow, insisted on every-
thing being done in the most efficient manner at the least possible
cost. Unfortunately, he adopted the French ideas of excise,
and the French methods of imposing and collecting taxes a
system known as the Regie. This system secured for him a
large revenue, but it led to a vast amount of petty tyranny,
which was all the more intolerable because it was carried out by
French officials. It was continued to the end of Frederick's
reign, and nothing did so much to injure his otherwise immense
popularity. He was quite aware of the discontent the system ex-
cited, and the good-nature with which he tolerated the criticisms
directed against it and him is illustrated by a well-known incident.
Riding along the J&ger Strasse one day, he saw a crowd of people.
" See what it is," he said to the groom who was attending him.
" They have something posted up about your Majesty," said the
groom, returning. Frederick, riding forward, saw a caricature of
himself: " King in very melancholy guise," says Preuss (as
translated by Carlyle), " seated on a stool, a coffee-mill between
his knees, diligently grinding with the one hand, and with the
other picking up any bean that might have fallen. ' Hang it
lower,' said the king, beckoning his groom with a wave of the
finger; ' lower, that they may not have to hurt their necks
about it.' No sooner were the words spoken, which spread
instantly, than there rose from the whole crowd one universal
huzzah of joy. They tore the caricature into a thousand pieces,
and rolled after the king with loud ' Lebe Hock, our Frederick
for ever,' as he rode slowly away." There are scores of anecdotes
about Frederick, but not many so well authenticated as this.
There was nothing about which Frederick took so much
trouble as the proper administration of justice. He disliked the
formalities of the law, and in one instance, " the miller Arnold
case," in connexion with which he thought injustice had been
done to a poor man, he dismissed the judges, condemned them
to a year's fortress arrest, and compelled them to make good out
of their own pockets the loss sustained by their supposed victim
not a wise proceeding, but one springing from a generous motive.
He once defined himself as " 1'avocat du pauvre," and few things
gave him more pleasure than the famous answer of the miller
whose windmill stood on ground which was wanted for the king's
garden. The miller sturdily refused to sell it. " Not at any
price?" said the king's agent; "could not the king take it
from you for nothing, if he chose ? " " Have we not the
Kammergericht at Berlin ? " was the answer, which became a
popular saying in Germany. Soon after he came to the throne
Frederick began to make preparations for a new code. In 1747
appeared the Codex Friderir.ianus, by which the Prussian judicial
body was established. But a greater monument of Frederick's
interest in legal reform was the Allgemeines preussisches Land-
recht, completed by the grand chancellor Count Johann H. C.
von Carmer (1721-1801) on the basis of the Project des Carports
Juris Fridericiani, completed in the year 1740-1751 by the
eminent jurist Samuel von Cocceji (1670-1755). The Landrecht,
a work of vast labour and erudition, combines the two systems
of German and Roman law supplemented by the law of nature;
it was the first German code, but only came into force in 1794,
after Frederick's death.
Looking ahead after the Seven Years' War, Frederick saw no
means of securing himself so effectually as by cultivating the good-
will of Russia. In 1764 he accordingly concluded a treaty of
alliance with the empress Catherine for eight years. Six years
afterwards, unfortunately for his fame, he joined in the first
partition of Poland, by which he received Polish Prussia, without
Danzig and Thorn, and Great Poland as far as the river Netze.
Prussia was then for the first time made continuous with Branden-
burg and Pomerania.
The emperor Joseph II. greatly admired Frederick, and visited
him at Neisse, in Silesia, in 1 769, a visit which Frederick returned,
in Moravia, in the following year. The young emperor was frank
and cordial; Frederick was more cautious, for he detected
under the respectful manner of Joseph a keen ambition that might
one day become dangerous to Prussia. Ever after these inter-
views a portrait of the emperor hung conspicuously in the rooms
in which Frederick lived, a circumstance on which some one
remarked. " Ah yes," said Frederick, " I am obliged to keep
that young gentleman in my eye." Nothing came of these
suspicions till 1777, when, after the death of Maximilian Joseph,
elector of Bavaria, without children, the emperor took possession
of the greater part of his lands. The elector palatine, who
lawfully inherited Bavaria, came to an arrangement, which was
not admitted by his heir, Charles, duke of ZweibrUcken. Under
these circumstances the latter appealed to Frederick, who,
resolved that Austria should gain no unnecessary advantage,
took his part, and brought pressure to bear upon the emperor.
Ultimately, greatly against his will, Frederick felt compelled
to draw the sword, and in July 1778 crossed the Bohemian
frontier at the head of a powerful army. No general engagement
was fought, and after a great many delays the treaty of Teschen
was signed on the I3th of May 1779. Austria received the
circle of Burgau, and consented that the king of Prussia should
take the Franconian principalities. Frederick never abandoned
his jealousy of Austria, whose ambition he regarded as the chief
danger against which Europe had to guard. He seems to have
had no suspicion that evil days were coming in France. It was
Austria which had given trouble in his time; and if her pride
were curbed, he fancied that Prussia at least would be safe.
Hence one of the last important acts of his life was to form, in
1785, a league of princes (the " Fiirstenbund ") for the defence
of the imperial constitution, believed to be imperilled by Joseph's
restless activity. The league came to an end after Frederick's
death; but it is of considerable historical interest, as the first
open attempt of Prussia to take the lead in Germany.
Frederick's chief trust was always in his treasury and his
army. By continual economy he left in the former the immense
sum of 70 million thalers; the latter, at the time of his death,
numbered 200,000 men, disciplined with all the strictness to
which he had throughout life accustomed his troops. He died
at Sanssouci on the lyth of August 1786; his death being
hastened by exposure to a storm of rain, stoically borne, during
a military review. He passed away on the eve of tremendous
events, which for a time obscured his fame; but now that he
can be impartially estimated,- he is seen to have been in many
respects one of the greatest figures in modern history.
He was rather below the middle size, in youth inclined to
FREDERICK III.
stoutness, lean in old age, but of vigorous and active habits. An
expression of keen intelligence lighted up his features, and his
large, sparkling grey eyes darted penetrating glances at every
one who approached him. In his later years an old blue uniform
with red facings was his usual dress, and on his breast was gener-
ally some Spanish snuff, of which he consumed large quantities.
He shared many of the chief intellectual tendencies of his age,
having no feeh'ng for the highest aspirations of human nature,
but submitting all things to a searching critical analysis. Of
Christianity he always spoke in the mocking tone of the " en-
lightened " philosophers, regarding it as the invention of priests;
but it is noteworthy that after the Seven Years' War, the trials
of which steadied his character, he sought to strengthen the
church for the sake of its elevating moral influence. In his
judgments of mankind he often talked as a misanthrope. He
was once conversing with Sulzer, who was a school inspector,
about education. Sulzer expressed the opinion that education
had of late years greatly improved. " In former times, your
Majesty," he said, " the notion being that mankind were natur-
ally inclined to evil, a system of severity prevailed in schools;
but now, when we recognize that the inborn inclination of men
is rather to good than to evil, schoolmasters have adopted a
more generous procedure." " Ah, my dear Sulzer," replied the
king, " you don't know this damned race " (" Ach, mein lieber
Sulzer, er kennt nicht diese verdammte Race "). This fearful
saying unquestionably expressed a frequent mood of Frederick's;
and he sometimes acted with great harshness, and seemed to
take a malicious pleasure in tormenting his acquaintances.
Yet he was capable of genuine attachments. He was beautifully
loyal to his mother and his sister Wilhelmina; his letters to
the duchess of Gotha are full of a certain tender reverence;
the two Keiths found him a devoted friend. But the true
evidence that beneath his misanthropical moods there was an
enduring sentiment of humanity is afforded by the spirit in
which he exercised his kingly functions. Taking his reign as
a whole, it must be said that he looked upon his power rather
as a trust than as a source of personal advantage; and the trust
was faithfully discharged according to the best h'ghts of his day.
He has often been condemned for doing nothing to encourage
German literature; and it is true that he was supremely in-
different to it. Before he died a tide of intellectual life was rising
all about him; yet he failed to recognize it, declined to give
Leasing even the small post of royal librarian, and thought Gotz
von Berlichingen a vulgar imitation of vulgar English models.
But when his taste was formed, German literature did not exist;
the choice was between Racine and Voltaire on the one hand and
Gottsched and Gellert on the other. He survived into the era
of Kant, Goethe and Schiller, but he was not of it, and it would
have been unreasonable to expect that he should in old age
pass beyond the limits of his own epoch. As Germans now
generally admit, it was better that he let their literature alone,
since, left to itself, it became a thoroughly independent product.
Indirectly he powerfully promoted it by deepening the national
life from which it sprang. At a time when there was no real bond
of cohesion between the different states, he stirred among them
a common enthusiasm; and in making Prussia great he laid the
foundation of a genuinely united empire.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE. The main sources for the biography of
Frederick the Great are his own works, which, in the words of
Leopold von Ranke, " deal with the politics and wars of the period
with the greatest possible objectivity, i.e. truthfulness, and form
an imperisnable monument of his life and opinions." A magnificent
edition of Frederick's complete works was issued (1846-1857), at
the instance of Frederick William IV., under the supervision of the
historian Jphann D. E. Preuss (1785-1868). It is in thirty volumes,
of which six contain verse, seven are historical, two philosophical,
and three military, twelve being made up of correspondence. So
long as the various state archives remained largely inaccessible
historians relied upon this as their chief authority. Among works
belonging to this period may be mentioned Thomas Carlyle, History
of Frederick II. of Prussia (6 vols., London, 1858-1865); f. G.
Droysen, Friedrich der Grosse (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874-1876, forming
part V. of his Gtschichte der preussischen Politik) ; Ranke, Friedrich
//.. Konig, von Preussen (Werke, vols. li. and Hi.). A great stimulus
to the study of Frederick's history has since been given by the pub-
lication of collections of documents preserved in various archives.
Of these the most important is the great official edition of Frederick's
political correspondence (Berlin, 1879), of which the thirty-first
vol. appeared in 1906. Of later works, based on modern research,
may be mentioned R. Koser, Konig Friedrich der Grosse, Bd. 2 (Stutt-
gart, 1893 and 1903; 3rd ed., 1905); Bourdeau, Le Grand Frederic
(2 vols., Paris, 1900-1902) ; L. Paul-Dubois, Frederic le Grand, d'apres
sa correspondence politique (Paris, 1903) ; W. F. Reddaway, Frederick
the Great and the Rise of Prussia, (London, 1904). Of the numerous
special studies may be noticed E. Zeller, Friedrich der Grosse als
Philosoph (Berlin, 1886); H. Pigge, Die Staatstheorie Friedrichs des
Grossen (Munster, 1904) ; T. von Bernhardi, Friedrich der Grosse als
Feldherr (2 vols., Berlin, 1881); Ernest Lavisse, La Jeunesse du
Grand Frederic (Paris, 1891, 3rd ed., 1899; Eng. transl., London,
1891); R. Erode, Friedrich der Grosse und der Konflikt mil seintm
Voter (Leipzig, 1904) ; W. von Bremen, Friedrich der Grosse (Bd. ii.
of Erzieher des preussischen Heeres, Berlin, 1905) ; G. Winter,
Friedrich der Grosse (3 vols. in Geisteshelden series, Berlin, 1906) ;
Dreissig Jahre am Hofe Friearichs des Grossen. Ausden Tagebuchern
des Reichsgrafen Ahasuerus Heinrich von Lehndorff, Kammerherrn der
Kdnigin Elisabett Christine von Preussen (Gotha, 1907). The great
work on the wars of Frederick is that issued by the Prussian General
Staff: Die Kriege Friedrichs des Grossen (12 vols. in three parts,
Berlin, 1890-1904). For a full list of other works see Dahlmann-
Waitz, Quellenkunde (Leipzig, 1906). (J. Si.; W. A. P.)
FREDERICK III. (1831-1888), king of Prussia and German
emperor, was born at Potsdam on the i8th of October 1831,
being the eldest son of Prince William of Prussia, afterwards
first German emperor, and the princess Augusta. He was care-
fully educated, and in 1840-1850 studied at the university of
Bonn. The next years were spent in military duties and in
travels, in which he was accompanied by Moltke. In 1851 he
visited England on the occasion of the Great Exhibition, and in
1855 became engaged to Victoria, princess royal of Great Britain,
to whom he was married in London on the 25th of January 1858.
On the death of his uncle in 1861 and the accession of his father,
Prince Frederick William, as he was then always called, became
crown prince of Prussia. His education, the influence of his
mother, and perhaps still more that of his wife's father, the Prince
Consort, had made him a strong Liberal, and he was much dis-
tressed at the course of events in Prussia after the appointment
of Bismarck as minister. He was urged by the Liberals to put
himself into open opposition to the government; this he refused
to do, but he remonstrated privately with the king. In June 1863,
however, he publicly dissociated himself from the press ordinances
which had just been published. He ceased to attend meetings
of the council of state, and was much away from Berlin. The
opposition of the crown prince to the ministers was increased
during the following year, for he was a warm friend of the prince
of Augustenburg, whose claims to Schleswig-Holstein Bismarck
refused to support. During the war with Denmark he had his
first military experience, being attached to the staff of Marshal
von Wrangel; he performed valuable service in arranging the
difficulties caused by the disputes between the field marshal and
the other officers, and was eventually given a control over him.
After the war he continued to support the prince of Augustenburg
and was strongly opposed to the war with Austria. During the
campaign of 1866 he received the command of an army con-
sisting of four army corps; he was assisted by General von
Blumenthal, as chief of the staff, but took a very active part
in directing the difficult operations by which his army fought its
way through the mountains from Silesia to Bohemia, fighting
four engagements in three days, and showed that he possessed
genuine military capacity. In the decisive battle of Koniggratz
the arrival of his army on the field of battle, after a march of
nearly 20 m., secured the victory. During the negotiations
which ended the war he gave valuable assistance by persuading
the king to accept Bismarck's policy as regards peace with Austria.
From this time he was very anxious to see the king of Prussia
unite the whole of Germany, with the title of emperor, and was
impatient of the caution with which Bismarck proceeded. In 1869
he paid a visit to Italy, and in the same year was present at the
opening of the Suez Canal; on his way he visited the Holy Land.
He played a conspicuous part in the year 1870-1871, being
appointed to command the armies of the Southern States,
FREDERICK III.
57
General Blumenthal again being his chief of the staff; his troops
won the victory of Worth, took an important part in the battle
of Sedan, and later in the siege of Paris. The popularity he won
was of political service in preparing the way for the union of
North and South Germany, and he was the foremost advocate
of the imperial idea at the Prussian court. During the years that
followed, little opportunity for political activity was open to him.
He and the crown princess took a great interest in art and
industry, especially in the royal museums; and the excavations
conducted at Olympia and Pergamon with such great results
were chiedy due to him. The crown princess was a keen advocate
of the higher education of women, and it was owing to her
exertions that the Victoria Lyceum at Berlin (which was named
after her) was founded. In 1878, when the emperor was in-
capacitated by the shot of an assassin, the prince acted for some
months as regent.- His palace was the centre of all that was best
in the literary and learned society of the capital. He publicly
expressed his disapproval of the attacks on the Jews in 1878;
and the coalition of Liberal parties founded in 1884 was popularly
known as the " crown prince's party," but he scrupulously
refrained from any act that might embarrass his father's govern-
ment. For many reasons the accession of the prince was looked
forward to with great hope by a large part of the nation. Un-
fortunately he was attacked by cancer in the throat ; he spent the
winter of 1887-1888 at San Remo; in January 1888 the operation
of tracheotomy had to be performed. On the death of his father,
which took place on the gth of March, he at once journeyed to
Berlin; but his days were numbered, and he came to the throne
only to die. In these circumstances his accession could not have
the political importance which would otherwise have attached
to it, though it was disfigured by a vicious outburst of party
passion in which the names of the emperor and the empress were
constantly misused. While the Liberals hoped the emperor
would use his power for some signal declaration of policy, the
adherents of Bismarck did not scruple to make bitter attacks
on the empress. The emperor's most important act was a severe
reprimand addressed to Herr von Puttkamer, the reactionary
minister of the interior, which caused his resignation; in the
distribution of honours he chose many who belonged to classes
and panics hitherto excluded from court favour. A serious
difference of opinion with the chancellor regarding the proposal
for a marriage between Prince Alexander of Battenberg and the
princess Victoria of Prussia was arranged by the intervention
of Queen Victoria, who visited Berlin to see her dying son-in-law.
He expired at Potsdam on the 1 5th of June 1888, after a reign of
ninety-nine days.
After the emperor's death Professor Geffcken, a personal friend,
published in the Deutsche Rundschau extracts from the diary
of the crown prince containing passages which illustrated his
differences with Bismarck during the war of 1870. The object
was to injure Bismarck's icputation, and a very unseemly dispute
ensued. Bismarck at first, in a letter addressed to the new
emperor, denied the authenticity of the extracts on the ground
that they were unworthy of the crown prince. Geffcken was then
arrested and imprisoned. He had undoubtedly shown that he
was an injudicious friend, for the diary proved that the prince,
in his enthusiasm for German unity, had allowed himself to con-
sider projects which would have seriously compromised the
relations of Prussia and Bavaria. The treatment of the crown
prince's illness also gave rise to an acrimonious controversy.
It arose from the fact that as early as May 1887 the German
physicians recognized the presence of cancer in the throat, but
Sir Morell Mackenzie, the English specialist who was also con-
sulted, disputed the correctness of this diagnosis, and advised
that the operation for removal of the larynx, which they had
recommended, should not be undertaken. His advice was
followed, and the differences between the medical men were made
the occasion for a considerable display of national and political
animosity.
The empress VICTORIA, who, after the death of her husband,
was known as the empress Frederick, died on the $th of August
1901 at the castle of Friedrichskron, Cronberg, near Komburg
v. d. H., where she spent her last years. Of the emperor's
children two, Prince Sigismund (1864-1866) and Prince Waldemar
(1860-1879), died in childhood. He left two sons, William, his
successor as emperor, and Henry, who adopted a naval career.
Of his daughters, the princess Charlotte was married to Bernard,
hereditary prince of Meiningen; the princess Victoria to Prince
Adolf of Schaumburg-Lippe; the princess Sophie to the duke
of Sparta, crown prince of Greece; and the princess Margaretha
to Prince Friedrich Karl of Hesse.
AUTHORITIES. M. von Poschinger, Kaiser Friedrich (3 vols.,
Berlin, 1898-1900). Adapted into English by Sidney Whitman,
Life of the Emperor Frederick (looi). See also Bismarck, Reflections
and Reminiscences; Kenncll Rodd, Frederick, Crown Prince and
Emperor (1888); Gustav Freytag, Der Kronprinz und die deutsche
Kaiserkrone (1880; English translation, 1890); Otto Richter,
Kaiser Friedrich III. (2nd ed., Berlin, 1903). For his illness, the
official publications, published both in English and German: Die
Krankheit Kaiser Fnedrichs III. (Berlin, 1888), and Morell Mac-
kenzie, The Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble (1888). Most of the
copies of the Deutsche Rundschau containing the extracts from the
crown prince's diary were confiscated, but there is an English edition,
published in 1889. (J. W. HE.)
FREDERICK III. (1272-1337), king of Sicily, third son of
King Peter of Aragon and Sicily, and of Constance, daughter of
Manfred. Peter died in 1285, leaving Aragon to his eldest son
Alphonso, and Sicily to his second son James. When Alphonso
died in 1291 James became king of Aragon, and left his brother
Frederick as regent of Sicily. The war between the Angevins and
the Aragonese for the possession of Sicily was still in progress,
and although the Aragonese were successful in Italy James's
position in Spain became very insecure to internal troubles
and French attacks. Peace negotiations were begun with Charles
II. of Anjou, but were interrupted by the successive deaths of
two popes; at last under the auspices of Boniface VIII. James
concluded a shameful treaty, by which, in exchange for being left
undisturbed in Aragon and promised possession of Sardinia
and Corsica, he gave up Sicily to the Church, for whom it was to
be held by the Angevins (1295). The Sicilians refused to be made
over once more to the hated French whom they had expelled in
1282, and found a national leader in the regent Frederick. In
vain the pope tried to bribe him with promises and dignities;
he was determined to stand by his subjects, and was crowned
king by the nobles at Palermo in 1296. Young, brave and hand-
some, he won the love and devotion of his people, and guided
them through the long years of storm and stress -with wisdom
and ability. Although the second Frederick of Sicily, he called
himself third, being the third son of King Peter. He reformed
the administration and extended the powers of the Sicilian
parliament, which was composed of the barons, the prelates
and the representatives of the towns.
His refusal to comply with the pope's injunctions led to a
renewal of the war. Frederick landed in Calabria, where he
seized several towns, encouraged revolt in Naples, negotiated
with the Ghibellines of Tuscany and Lombardy, and assisted
the house of Colonna against Pope Boniface. In the meanwhile
James, who received many favours from the Church, married his
sister Yolanda to Robert, the third son of Charles II. Un-
fortunately for Frederick, a part of the Aragonese nobles of
Sicily favoured King James, and both John of Procida and
Ruggiero di Lauria, the heroes of the war of the Vespers, went
over to the Angevins, and the latter completely defeated the
Sicilian fleet off Cape Orlando. Charles's sons Robert and Philip
landed in Sicily, but after capturing Catania were defeated by
Frederick, Philip being taken prisoner (1299), while several
Calabrian towns were captured by the Sicilians. For two years
more the fighting continued with varying success, until Charles
of Valois, who had been sent by Boniface to invade Sicily, was
forced to sue for peace, his army being decimated by the plague,
and in August 1302 the treaty of Caltabellotta was signed, by
which Frederick was recognized king of Trinacria (the name
Sicily was not to be used) for his lifetime, and was to marry
Eleonora, the daughter of Charles II.; at his death the king-
dom was to revert to the Angevins (this clause was inserted
chiefly to save Charles's face), and his children would receive
FREDERICK I. FREDERICK II.
compensation elsewhere. Boniface tried to induce King Charles
to break the treaty, but the latter was only too anxious for
peace, and finally in May 1303 the pope ratified it, Frederick
agreeing to pay him a tribute.
For a few years Sicily enjoyed peace, and the kingdom was
reorganized. But on the descent of the emperor Henry VII.,
Frederick entered into an alliance with him, and in violation
of the pact of Caltabellotta made war on the Angevins again
(1313) and captured Reggio. He set sail for Tuscany to co-
operate with the emperor, but on the latter's death (1314) he
returned to Sicily. Robert, who had succeeded Charles II. in
1309, made several raids into the island, which suffered much
material injury. A truce was concluded in 1317, but as the
Sicilians helped the north Italian Ghibellines in the attack on
Genoa, and Frederick seized some Church revenues for military
purposes, the pope (John XXII.) excommunicated him and
placed the island under an interdict (1321) which lasted until
1335. An Angevin fleet and army, under Robert's son Charles,
was defeated at Palermo by Giovanni da Chiaramonte in 1325,
and in 1326 and 1327 there were further Angevin raids on the
island, until the descent into Italy of the emperor Louis the
Bavarian distracted their attention. The election of Pope
Benedict XII. (1334), who was friendly to Frederick, promised
a respite; but after fruitless negotiations the war broke out once
more, and Chiaramonte went over to Robert, owing to a private
feud. In 1337 Frederick died at Paternione, and in spite of the
peace of Caltabellotta his son Peter succeeded. Frederick's
great merit was that during his reign the Aragonese dynasty
became thoroughly national and helped to weld the Sicilians
into a united people.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. G. M. Mira, Bibliografia Siciliana (Palermo,
5875) ; of the contemporary authorities N. Speciale's " Historia
Sicula " (in Muratori's Script, rer. ital. x.) is the most important;
for the first years of Frederick's reign see M. Amari, La Guerra del
Vespro Siciliano (Florence, 1876), and F. Lanzani, Storia dei Comuni
italiani (Milan, 1882) ; for the latter years C. Cipolla, Storia delle
signorie italiane (Milan, 1881); also Testa, Vita di Federigo di
Stctiia. (L. V.)
FREDERICK I. (c. 1371-1440), elector of Brandenburg,
founder of the greatness of the House of Hohenzollern, was a son
of Frederick V., burgrave of Nuremberg, and first came into
prominence by saving the life of Sigismund, king of Hungary,
at the battle of Nicopolis in 1396. In 1397 he became burgrave
of Nuremberg, and after his father's death in 1398 he shared
Ansbach, Bayreuth, and the smaller possessions of the family,
with his only brother John, but became sole ruler after his
brother's death in 7420. Loyal at first to King Wenceslaus,
the king's neglect of Germany drove Frederick to take part in
his deposition in 1400, and in the election of Rupert III., count
palatine of the Rhine, whom he accompanied to Italy in the
following year. In 1401 he married Elizabeth, or Elsa, daughter
of Frederick, duke of Bavaria-Landshut (d. 1393), and after
spending some time in family and other feuds, took service again
with King Sigismund in 1409, whom he assisted in his struggle
with the Hungarian rebels. The double election to the German
throne in 1410 first brought Frederick into relation with Branden-
burg. Sigismund, anxious to obtain another vote in the electoral
college, appointed Frederick to exercise the Brandenburg vote
on his behalf, and it was largely through his efforts that Sigis-
mund was chosen German king. Frederick then passed some
time as administrator of Brandenburg, where he restored a
certain degree of order, and was formally invested with the
electorate and margraviate by Sigismund at Constance on the
i8th of April 1417 (see BRANDENBURG). He took part in the war
against the Hussites, but became estranged from Sigismund
when in 1423 the king invested Frederick of Wettin, margrave
of Meissen, with the vacant electoral duchy of Saxe- Wittenberg.
In 1427 he sold his rights as burgrave to the town of Nuremberg,
and he was a prominent member of the band of electors who
sought to impose reforms upon Sigismund. After having been
an unsuccessful candidate for the German throne in 1438,
Frederick was chosen king of Bohemia in 1440, but declined the
proffered honour. He took part in the election of Frederick III.
as German king in 1440, and died at Radolzburg on the 2ist o'f
September in the same year. In 1 902 a bronze statue was erected
to his memory at Friesack, and there is also a marble one of the
elector in the " Siegesallee " at Berlin.
See A. F. Riedel, Zehn Jahre aus der Geschichte der Ahnherren des
preussischen Konigshauses (Berlin, 1851); E. Brandenburg, Konig
Sigmund und Kurfiirst Friedrich I. von Brandenburg (Berlin, 1891);
and O. Franklin, Die deutsche Politik Friedrichs I. Kurfursten von
Brandenburg (Berlin, 1851).
FREDERICK I. (1425-1476), elector palatine of the Rhine,
surnamed " the Victorious," and called by his enemies " wicked
Fritz," second son of the elector palatine Louis III., was born
on the ist of August 1425. He inherited a part of the Palatinate
on his father's death in 1439, but soon surrendered this inherit-
ance to his elder brother, the elector Louis IV. On his brother's
death in 1449, however, he became guardian of the young elector
Philip, and ruler of the land. In 1451 he persuaded the nobles to
recognize him as elector, on condition that Philip should be his
successor, a scheme which was disliked by the emperor Frederick
III. The elector was successful in various wars with neighbouring
rulers, and was a leading member of the band of princes who
formed plans to secure a more efficient government for Germany,
and even discussed the deposition of Frederick III. Frederick
himself was mentioned as a candidate for the German throne,
but the jealousies of the princes prevented any decisive action,
and soon became so acute that in 1459 they began to fight among
themselves. In alliance with Louis IX., duke of Bavaria-
Landshut, Frederick gained several victories during the struggle,
and in 1462 won a decisive battle at Seckenheim over Ulrich V.,
count of Wiirttemberg. In 1472 the elector married Clara Tott,
or Dett, the daughter of an Augsburg citizen, and by her he had
two sons, Frederick, who died during his father's lifetime, and
Louis (d. 1524), who founded the lineof the counts of Lowenstein.
He died at Heidelberg on the I2th of December 1476, and was
succeeded, according to the compact, by his nephew Philip.
Frederick was a cultured prince, and, in spite of his warlike
career, a wise and intelligent ruler. He added largely to the
area of the Palatinate, and did not neglect to further its internal
prosperity.
See N. Feeser, Friedrich der Siegreiche, Kurfiirst von der Pfalz
(Neuburg, 1880) ; C. J. Kremer, Geschichte des Kurfursten Friedrichs
I. von der Pfalz (Leipzig, 1765); and K. Menzel, Kurfiirst Friedrich
der Siegreiche von der Pfalz (Munich, 1861).
FREDERICK II. (1482-1556), surnamed "the Wise," elector
palatine of the Rhine, fourth son of the elector Philip, was born
on the 9th of December 1482. Of an active and adventurous
temperament, he fought under the emperor Maximilian I. in 1 508,
and afterwards served the Habsburgs loyally in other ways. He
worked to secure the election of Charles, afterwards the emperor
Charles V., as the successor of Maximilian in 1519; fought in
two campaigns against the Turks; and being disappointed
in his hope of obtaining the hand of one of the emperor's sisters,
married in 1535 Dorothea (d. 1580), daughter of Christian II.,
who had been driven from the Danish throne. The Habsburgs
promised their aid in securing this crown for Frederick, but, like
many previous promises made to him, this came to nothing.
Having spent his time in various parts of Europe, and incurred
heavy debts on account of his expensive tastes, Frederick became
elector palatine by the death of his brother, Louis V., in March
1 544. With regard to the religious troubles of Germany, he took
up at first the r61e of a mediator, but in 1545 he joined the league
of Schmalkalden, and in 1546 broke definitely with the older
faith. He gave a little assistance to the league in its war with
Charles, but soon submitted to the emperor, accepted the
Interim issued from Augsburg in May 1548, and afterwards
acted in harmony with Charles. The elector died on the 26th of
February 1556, and as he left no children was succeeded by his
nephew, Otto Henry (1502-1559). He was a great benefactor
to the university of Heidelberg.
Frederick's life, Annales de vita et rebus gestis Friderici II. elector! s
palatini (Frankfort, 1624), was written by his secretary Hubert
Thomas Leodius; this has been translated into German by E. von
Biilow (Breslau, 1849). See also Rott, Friedrich II. von der Pfalz
und die Reformation (Heidelberg, 1904).
FREDERICK III. FREDERICK I.
59
FREDERICK III. (1515-1576), called " the Pious," elector
palatine of the Rhine, eldest son of John II., count palatine of
Simmern, was born at Simmern on the uth of February 1515.
In 1537 he married Maria (d. 1567), daughter of Casimir, prince
of Bayreuth, and in 1 546, mainly as a result of this union, adopted
I he reformed doctrines, which had already made considerable
progress in the Palatinate. He lived in comparative obscurity
and poverty until 1557, when he became count palatine of
Simmern by his father's death, succeeding his kinsman, Otto
Henry ( 1 502-1 559), as elect or palatine two years later. Although
inclined to the views of Calvin rather than to those of Luther,
the new elector showed great anxiety to unite the Protestants;
but when these efforts failed, and the breach between the
followers of the two reformers became wider, he definitely
adopted Calvinism. This form of faith was quickly established
in the Palatinate; in its interests the " Heidelberg Catechism "
was drawn up in 1563; and Catholics and Lutherans were
persecuted alike, while the churches were denuded of all their
ornaments. The Lutheran princes wished to root out Calvinism
in the Palatinate, but were not willing to exclude the elector from
the benefits of the religious peace of Augsburg, which were
confined to the adherents of the confession of Augsburg, and the
matter came before the diet in 1566. Boldly defending his posi-
tion, Frederick refused to give way an inch, and as the Lutherans
were unwilling to proceed to extremities the emperor Maximilian
II. could only warn him to mend his ways. The elector was an
ardent supporter of the Protestants abroad, whom, rather than
the German Lutherans, he regarded as his co-religionists. He
aided the Huguenots in France and the insurgents in the Nether-
lands with men and money; one of his sons, John Casimir
(1543-1592), took a prominent pan in the French wars of religion,
while another, Christopher, was killed in 1574 fighting for the
Dutch at Mooker Heath. In his later years Frederick failed
in his efforts to prevent the election of a member of the Habsburg
family as Roman king, to secure the abrogation of the " ecclesi-
astical reservation " clause in the peace of Augsburg, or to
obtain security for Protestants in the territories of the spiritual
princes. He was assiduous in caring for the material, moral and
educational welfare of his electorate, and was a benefactor to
the university of Heidelberg. The elector died at Heidelberg on
the 26th of October 1576, and was succeeded by his elder sur-
viving son, Louis (1530-1583), who had offended his father by
adapting Lutheranism.
See A. Kluckhohn, Friedruh der Fromme (Nbrdlingen, 1877-1879) ;
and Bnrfe Friedrieks des Frommen, edited by Kluckhohn (Bruns-
wick. 1868-1872).
FREDERICK IV. (1574-1610), elector palatine of the Rhine,
only surviving son of the elector Louis VI., was born at Amberg
oo the 5th of March 1574. His father died in October 1583,
when the young elector came under the guardianship of his
uncle John Casimir, an ardent Calvinist, who, in spite of the
wishes of the late elector, a Lutheran, had his nephew educated
in his own form of faith. In January 1 592, on the death of John
Casimir, Frederick undertook the government of the Palatinate,
and continued the policy of his uncle, hostility to the Catholic
Church and the Habsburgs, and co-operation with foreign
Protestants. He was often in communication with Henry of
Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France, and like him was
unremitting in his efforts to conclude a league among the German
Protestants, while he sought to weaken the Habsburgs by refusing
aid for the Turkish War. After many delays and disappoint-
ments the Union of Evangelical Estates was actually formed in
May 1608, under the leadership of the elector, and he took a
prominent part in directing the operations of the union until his
death, which occurred on the 1 9th of September 1 6 1 o. Frederick
was very extravagant, and liked to surround himself with pomp
and luxury. He married in 1593 Louise, daughter of William
the Silent, prince of Orange, and was succeeded by Frederick,
the elder of his two sons.
See M. Ritter. Getchifhle der deutscken Union (Schaffhausen, 1867-
1873); and L. HauMer, Gesckickte der rkeinixhen Pfalt (Heidelberg,
FREDERICK V. (1596-1632), elector palatine of the Rhine
and king of Bohemia, son of the elector Frederick IV. by his wife,
Louisa Juliana, daughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange,
was born at Amberg on the 26th of August 1596. He became
elector on his father's death in September 1610, and was under
the guardianship of his kinsman, John II., count palatine of
ZweibrUcken (d. 1635), until he was declared of age in July 1614.
Having received a good education, Frederick had married
Elizabeth, daughter of the English king James I., in February
1613, and was the recognized head of the Evangelical Union
founded by his father to protect the interests of the Protestants.
In 1619 he stepped into a larger arena. Before this date the
estates of Bohemia, Protestant in sympathy and dissatisfied with
the rule of the Habsburgs, had been in frequent communication
with the elector palatine, and in August 1619, a few months after
the death of the emperor Matthias, they declared his successor,
Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II., deposed,
and chose Frederick as their king. After some hesitation the
elector yielded to the entreaties of Christian I., prince of Anhalt
(1568-1630), and other sanguine supporters, and was crowned
king of Bohemia at Prague on the 4th of November 1619. By
this time the emperor Ferdinand was able to take the aggressive,
while Frederick, disappointed at receiving no assistance either
from England or from the Union, had few soldiers and little
money. Consequently on the 8th of November, four days after
his coronation, his forces were easily routed by the imperial army
under Tilly at the White Hill, near Prague, and his short reign in
Bohemia ended abruptly. Soon afterwards the Palatinate was
overrun by the Spaniards and Bavarians, and after a futile
attempt to dislodge them, Frederick, called in derision the
" Winter King," sought refuge in the Netherlands. Having
been placed under the imperial ban his electorate was given in
1623 to Maximilian I. of Bavaria, who also received the electoral
dignity.
The remainder of Frederick's life was spent in comparative
obscurity, although his restoration was a constant subject of
discussion among European diplomatists. He died at Mainz on
the 29th of November 1632, having had a large family, among
his children being Charles Louis (1617-1680), who regained the
Palatinate at the peace of Westphalia in 1648, and Sophia,
who married Ernest Augustus, afterwards elector of Hanover,
and was the mother of George I., king of Great Britain. His
third son was Prince Rupert, the hero of the English civil war,
and another son was Prince Maurice (1620-1652), who also
assisted his uncle Charles I. during the civil war. Having sailed
with Rupert to the West Indies, Maurice was lost at sea in
September 1652.
In addition to the numerous works which treat of the outbreak
of the Thirty Years' War see A. Gindely, Friedrich V. von der Pfalz
(Prague, 1884); J. Krebs, Die Politik der evangelischen Union im
Jahre 1618 (Breslau, 1890-1001) ; M. Ritter, " Friedrich V.," in the
Allgcmeine deutsche Biographie, Band vii. (Leipzig, 1878); and
Deutsche Lieder auf den Winterkdnig, edited by R. VVolkan (Prague',
1899).
FREDERICK I. (1360-1428), surnamed "the Warlike,"
elector and duke of Saxony, was the eldest son of Frederick
" the Stern," count of Osterland, and Catherine, daughter and
heiress of Henry VIII., count of Coburg. He was born at Alten-
burg on the 2Qth of March 1369, and was a member of the family
of Wettin. When his father died in 1381 some trouble arose
over the family possessions, and in the following year an arrange-
ment was made by which Frederick and his brothers shared
Meissen and Thuringia with their uncles Balthasar and William.
Frederick's brother George died in 1402, and his uncle William
in 1407. A further dispute then arose, but in 1410 a treaty was
made at Naumburg, when Frederick and his brother William
added the northern part of Meissen to their lands; and in
1425 the death of William left Frederick sole ruler. In the
German town war of 1388 he assisted Frederick V. of Hohen-
zollern, burgrave of Nuremberg, and in 1391 did the same for the
Teutonic Order against Ladislaus V., king of Poland and prince
of Lithuania. He supported Rupert III., elector palatine of the
Rhine, in his struggle with King Wenceslaus for the German
6o
FREDERICK II. FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I.
throne, probably because Wenceslaus refused to fulfil a promise
to give him his sister Anna in marriage. The danger to Germany
from the Hussites induced Frederick to ally himself with the
German and Bohemian king Sigismund; and he took a leading
part in the war against them, during the earlier years of which
he met with considerable success. In the prosecution of this
enterprise Frederick spent large sums of money, for which he
received various places in Bohemia and elsewhere in pledge
from Sigismund, who further rewarded him in January 1423 with
the vacant electoral duchy of Saxe- Wittenberg; and Frederick's
formal investiture followed at Ofen on the ist of August 1425.
Thus spurred to renewed efforts against the Hussites, the elector
was endeavouring to rouse the German princes to aid him in
prosecuting this war when the Saxon army was almost annihilated
at Aussig on the i6th of August 1426. Returning to Saxony,
Frederick died at Altenburg on the 4th of January 1428, and was
buried in the cathedral at Meissen. In 1402 he married Catherine
of Brunswick, by whom he left four sons and two daughters.
In 1409, in conjunction with his brother William, he founded
the university of Leipzig, for the benefit of German students who
had just left the university of Prague. Frederick's importance as
an historical figure arises from his having obtained the electorate
of Saxe-Wittenberg for the house of Wettin, and transformed
the margraviate of Meissen into the territory which afterwards
became the kingdom of Saxony. In addition to the king of
Saxony, the sovereigns of England and of the Belgians are his
direct descendants.
There is a life of Frederick by G. Spalatin in the Scriptores rerum
Germanicarum praecipue Saxonicarum, Band ii., edited by J. B.
Mencke (Leipzig, 1728-1730). See also C. W. Bottiger and Th.
Flathe, Geschichte des Kurstaates und Konigreichs Sachsen (Gotha,
1867-1873); and J. G. Horn, Lebens- und Heldengeschichte Frie-
drichs des Streitbaren (Leipzig, 1733).
FREDERICK II. (1411-1464), called " the Mild," elector and
duke of Saxony, eldest son of the elector Frederick I., was born
on the 22nd of August 1411. He succeeded his father as elector
in 1428, but shared the family lands with his three brothers,
and was at once engaged in defending Saxony against the attacks
of the Hussites. Freed from these enemies about 1432, and
turning his attention to increasing his possessions, he obtained
the burgraviate of Meissen in 1439, and some part of Lower
Lusatia after a struggle with Brandenburg about the same time.
In 1438 it was decided that Frederick, and not his rival, Bernard
IV., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, was entitled to exercise the Saxon
electoral vote at the elections for the German throne; and the
elector then aided Albert II. to secure this dignity, performing
a similar service for his own brother-in-law, Frederick, afterwards
the emperor Frederick III., two years later. Family affairs,
meanwhile, occupied Frederick's attention. One brother,
Henry, having died in 1435, and another, Sigismund (d. 1463),
having entered the church and become bishop of Wiirzburg,
Frederick and his brother William (d. 1482) were the heirs of their
childless cousin, Frederick " the Peaceful," who ruled Thuringia
and other parts of the lands of the Wettins. On his death in
1440 the brothers divided Frederick's territory, but this arrange-
ment was not satisfactory, and war broke out between them in
1446. Both combatants obtained extraneous aid, but after a
desolating struggle peace was made in January 1451, when
William received Thuringia, and Frederick Altenburg and other
districts. The remainder of the elector's reign was uneventful,
and he died at Leipzig on the 7th of September 1464. By his
wife, Margaret (d. 1486), daughter of Ernest, duke of Styria,
he left two sons and four daughters. In July 1455 occurred the
celebrated Prinzenraub, the attempt of a knight named Kunz von
Raufungen (d. 1455) to abduct Frederick's two sons, Ernest
and Albert. Having carried them off from Altenburg, Kunz was
making his way to Bohemia when the plot was accidentally
discovered and the princes restored.
See W. Schafer, Der Montag vor Kiliani (1855); J. Gersdorf,
Einige Aktenstiicke zur Geschichte des sdchsischen Prinzenraubes
(1855); and T. Carlyle, Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, vol. iv.
(London, 1899).
FREDERICK III. (1463-1525), called " the Wise," elector of
Saxony, eldest son of Ernest, elector of Saxony, and Elizabeth,
daughter of Albert, duke of Bavaria-Munich (d. 1508), was born
at,Torgau, and succeeded his father as elector in 1486. Retaining
the government of Saxony in his own hands, he shared the other
possessions of his family with his brother John, called " the
Stedfast " (1468-1532). Frederick was among the princes who
pressed the need of reform upon the German king Maximilian I.
in 1495, and in 1500 he became president of the newly-formed
council of regency (Reichsregiment) . He took a genuine interest
in learning; was a friend of Georg Spalatin; and in 1502
founded the university of Wittenberg, where he appointed Luther
and Melanchthon to professorships. In 1493 he had gone as a
pilgrim to Jerusalem, and had been made a knight of the Holy
Sepulchre; but, although he remained throughout life an
adherent of the older faith, he seems to have been drawn into
sympathy with the reformers, probably through his connexion
with the university of Wittenberg. In 1520 he refused to put
into execution the papal bull which ordered Luther's writings
to be burned and the reformer to be put under restraint or sent
to Rome; and in 1521, after Luther had been placed under the
imperial ban by the diet at Worms, the elector caused him to be
conveyed to his castle at the Wartburg, and afterwards protected
him while he attacked the enemies of the Reformation. In 1519,
Frederick, who alone among the electors refused to be bribed
by the rival candidates for the imperial throne, declined to be a
candidate for this high dignity himself, and assisted to secure
the election of Charles V. He died unmarried at Langau, near
Annaberg, on the sth of May 1525.
See G. Spalatin, Das Leben und die Zeitgeschichte Friedrichs des
Weisen, edited by C. G. Neudecker and L. Preller (Jena, 1851);
M. M. Tutzschmann, Friedrich der Weise, Kurfiirst von Sachsen
(Grimma, 1848) ; and T. Kolde, Friedrich der Weise und die Anfange
der Reformation (Erlangen, 1881).
FREDERICK, a city and the county-seat of Frederick county,
Maryland, U.S. A., on Carroll's Creek, a tributary of the Monocacy,
61 m. by rail W. by N. from Baltimore and 45 m. N.W. from
Washington. Pop. (1890) 8193; (1900) 9296, of whom 1535
were negroes; (1910 census) 10,411. It is served by the Balti-
more & Ohio and the Northern Central railways, and by two
interurban electric lines. Immediately surrounding it is the
rich farming land of the Monocacy valley, but from a distance
it appears to be completely shut in by picturesque hills and
mountains; to the E., the Linga ore Hills; to the W., Catoctin
Mountain; and to the S., Sugar Loaf Mountain. It is built
for the most part of brick and stone. Frederick is the seat of the
Maryland school for the deaf and dumb and of the Woman's
College of Frederick (1893; formerly the Frederick Female
Seminary, opened in 1843), which in 1907-1908 had 212 students,
121 of whom were in the Conservatory of Music. Francis Scott
Key and Roger Brooke Taney were buried here, and a beautiful
monument erected to the memory of Key stands at the entrance
to Mount Olivet cemetery. Frederick has a considerable
agricultural trade and is an important manufacturing centre,
its industries including the canning of fruits and vegetables, and
the manufacture of flour, bricks, brushes, leather goods and
hosiery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
$1,937,921, being 34-7% more than in 1900. The municipality
owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant.
Frederick, so named in honour of Frederick Calvert, son and
afterward successor of Charles, Lord Baltimore, was settled
by Germans in 1733, and was laid out as a town in 1745, but was
not incorporated until 1817. Here in 1755 General Braddock
prepared for his disastrous expedition against the French at
Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg). During the Civil War the city was
occupied on different occasions by Unionists and Confederates,
and was made famous by Whittier's poem " Barbara Frietchie."
FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I. (1750-1827), king of Saxony,
son of the elector Frederick Christian, was born at Dresden on
the 23rd of December 1750. He succeeded his father under the
guardianship of Prince Xavier in 1763, and was declared of age
in 1768. In the following year (January 17, 1769) he married
Princess Maria Amelia, daughter of Duke Frederick of Zwei-
brUcken, by whom he had only one child, Princess Augusta
(born June 21, 1782). One of his chief aims was the reduction
FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. FREDERICK CHARLES
61
of taxes and imposts and of the army. He was always extremely
methodical and conscientious, and a good example to all his
oflkiU L whence his surname " the Just." On account of the
claims of his mother on the inheritance of her brother, the elector
of Bavaria, he sided with Frederick the Great in the short
Bavarian succession war of 1778 against Austria. At the peace
of Teschen, which concluded the war, he received 6 million florins,
which he employed partly in regaining those parts of his kingdom
which had been lost, and partly in favour of his relatives. In
1785 he joined the league of German princes (Devtscktr Fiirsttn-
biuttf) formed by Prussia, but without prejudice to his neutrality.
Thus he remained neutral during the quarrel between Austria
and Prussia in 1700. In the following year he declined the
crown of Poland. He refused to join the league against France
(February 7, 1792), but when war was declared his duty to the
Empire necessitated his taking part in it. Even after the peace
of Basel (April 5, 1795) he continued the war. But when the
French army, during the following year, advanced into the heart
of Germany, he was compelled by General Jourdan to retreat
(August 13, 1706). He maintained his neutrality during the
war between France and Austria in 1805, but in the following
year he joined Prussia against France. After the disastrous
battle of Jena he concluded a treaty of peace with Napoleon at
Posen (December n, 1806), and, assuming the title of king,
he joined the Confederation of the Rhine. But he did not alter
the constitution and administration of his new kingdom. After
the peace of Tilsit (July 9, 1807) he was created by Napoleon
grand-duke of Warsaw, but his sovereignty of Poland was little
more than nominal. There was a kind of friendship between
Frederick Augustus and Napoleon. In 1809 Frederick Augustus
fought with him against Austria. On several occasions (1807,
1812, 1813) Napoleon was entertained at Dresden, and when,
on his return from his disastrous Russian campaign, he passed
through Saxony by Dresden (December 16, 1812), Frederick
Augustus remained true to his friend and ally. It was only during
April 1813 that he made overtures to Austria, but he soon
afterwards returned to the side of the French. He returned
to Dresden on the loth of May and was present at the terrible
battle of August 26 and 27, in which Napoleon's army and his
own were defeated. He fell into the hands of the Allies after their
entry into Leipzig on the iQth of October 1813; and, although
he regained his freedom after the congress of Vienna, he was
compelled to give up the northern part three-fifths of his
kingdom to Prussia (May 21, 1814). He entered Dresden on
the 7th of July, and was enthusiastically welcomed by his
people. The remainder of his life was spent in repairing the
damages caused by the Napoleonic wars, in developing the
agricultural, commercial and industrial resources of his kingdom,
reforming the administration of justice, establishing hospitals
and other charitable institutions, encouraging art and science
and promoting education. He had a special interest in botany,
mod originated the beautiful park at Pillnitz. His reign through-
out was characterized by justice, probity, moderation and
prudence. He died on the 5th of May 1827.
BiBLioctAfHV. The earlier lives, by C. E. Wcisse (1811), A. L.
Herrmann (1827). Politz (1830), are mere panegyrics. On the other
side see Flathc in AUfemeine detitseke Biographie, and Bottiger-
FUthe. History of Saxony (2nd ed., 1867 ff.), vols. ii. and Hi.; A.
Boonefoos, Un AUU de NafoUon, Frederic Autuste, premier roi de
Sax* . . . (Paris. looa); Fritz Friedrich, PoKtik Sacksens 1801-
1803 (1808) J P. Rdhlmann, Offenlliche ifeinune . . . 1806-1813
(1902). There are many pamphlets bearing on the Saxon question
and on Frederick Augustus during the years 1814 and 1815. (J. HN.)
FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. (1797-1854), king of Saxony,
eldest son of Prince Maximilian and of Caroline Maria Theresa
of Parma, was born on the i8th of May 1797. The unsettled
times in which his youth was passed necessitated his frequent
change of residence, but care was nevertheless taken that his
education should not be interrupted, and he also acquired,
through his journeys in foreign states (Switzerland 1818, Monte-
negro 1838, England and Scotland 1844) and his intercourse
with men of eminence, a special taste for art and for natural
science. He was himself a good landscape-painter and had a fine
collection of engravings on copper. He was twice married
in 1819 (October 7) to the duchess Caroline, fourth daughter
of the emperor Francis I. of Austria (d. May 22, 1832), and in
1833 (April 4) to Maria, daughter of Maximilian I. of Bavaria.
There were no children of either marriage. During the govern-
ment of his uncles (Frederick Augustus I. and Anthony) he
took no part in the administration of the country, though he
was the sole heir to the crown. In 1830 a rising in Dresden led
to his being named joint regent of the kingdom along with King
Anthony on the I3th of September; and in this position his
popularity and his wise and liberal reforms (for instance, in
arranging public audiences) speedily quelled all discontent.
On the 6th of June 1836 he succeeded his uncle. Though he
administered the affairs of his kingdom with enlightened liberality
Saxony did not escape the political storms which broke upon
Germany in 1848. He elected Liberal ministers, and he was at
first in favour of the programme of German unity put forward
at Frankfort, but he refused to acknowledge the democratic
constitution of the German parliament. This attitude led to
the insurrection at Dresden in May 1849, which was suppressed
by the help of Prussian troops. From that time onward his
reign was tranquil and prosperous. Later Count Beust, leader
of the Austrian and feudal party in Saxony, became his principal
minister and guided his policy on most occasions. His death
occurred accidentally through the upsetting of his carriage
near Brennbtlhel, between Imst and Wenns in Tirol (August 9,
1854). Frederick Augustus devoted his leisure hours chiefly to
the study of botany. He made botanical excursions into different
countries, and Flora Marienbadensis, oder Pflanzen und Gebirgs-
arten, gesammelt und bcschrieben, written by him, was published
at Prague by Kedler, 1837.
See Bflttiger-Flathe, History of Saxony, vol. iii. ; R. Freiherr von
Friesen, Erinnerungen (2 vols., Dresden, 1881); F. F. Graf von
Beust, Aus drei-viertel Jahrhunderten (2 vols., 1887); Flathe, in
Attg. deutsche Biogr. Q. HN.)
FREDERICK CHARLES (FRIEDRICH KARL NIKOLAUS).
PRINCE (1828-1885), Prussian general field marshal, son of Prince
Charles of Prussia and grandson of King Frederick William III.,
was born in Berlin on the 2oth of March 1828. He was educated
for the army, which he entered on his tenth birthday as second
lieutenant in the I4th Foot Guards. He became first lieutenant
in 1844, and in 1846 entered the university of Bonn, where he
stayed for two years, being accompanied throughout by Major
von Roon, afterwards the famous war minister. In 1848 he
became a company commander in his regiment, and soon after-
wards served in the Schleswig-Holstein War on the staff of Marshal
von Wrangel, being present at the battle of Schleswig (April 23,
1848). Later in 1848 he became Riltmeister in the Garde du Corps
cavalry regiment, and in 1849 major in the Guard Hussars.
In this year the prince took part in the campaign against the
Baden insurgents, and was wounded at the action of Wiesenthal
while leading a desperate charge against entrenched infantry.
After this experience the wild courage of his youth gave place
to the unshakable resolution which afterwards characterized
the prince's generalship. In 1852 he became colonel, and in
1854 major-general and commander of a cavalry brigade. In
this capacity he was brought closely in touch with General von
Reyher, the chief of the general staff, and with Moltke. He
married, in the same year, Princess Marie Anne of Anhalt. In
1857 he became commander of the ist Guard Infantry division,
but very shortly afterwards, on account of disputes concerned
with the training methods then in force, he resigned the appoint-
ment.
In 1858 he visited France, where he minutely investigated
the state of the French army, but it was not long before he
was recalled, for in 1859, in consequence of the Franco-Austrian
War, Prussia mobilized her forces, and Frederick Charles was
made a divisional commander in the II. army corps. In this
post he was given the liberty of action which had previously been
denied to him. About this time (1860) the prince gave a lecture
to the officers of his command on the French army and its
methods, the substance of which (Eine mUildrische Denkschrift
FREDERICK HENRY FREDERICK LOUIS
von P. F.K., Frankfort on Main, 1860) was circulated more widely
than the author intended, and in the French translation gave
rise to much indignation in France. In 1861 Frederick Charles
became general of cavalry. He was then commander of the III.
(Brandenburg) army corps. This post he held from 1860 to 1870,
except during the campaigns of 1864 and 1866, and in it he dis-
played his real qualities as a troop leader. His self-imposed
task was to raise the military spirit of his troops to the highest
possible level, and ten years of his continuous and thorough
training brought the III. corps to a pitch of real efficiency which
the Guard corps alone, in virtue of its special recruiting powers,
slightly surpassed. Prince Frederick Charles' work was tested
to the full when von Alvensleben and the III. corps engaged the
whole French army on the i6th of August 1870. In 1864 the
prince once more fought against the Danes under his old leader
" Papa " Wrangel. The Prussian contingent under Frederick
Charles formed a corps of the allied army, and half of it was
drawn from the III. corps. After the storming of the Duppel lines
the prince succeeded Wrangel in the supreme command, with
Lieutenant-General Freiherr von Moltke as his chief of staff.
These two great soldiers then planned and brilliantly carried out
the capture of the island of Alsen, after which the war came to an
end.
In 1866 came the Seven Weeks' War with Austria. Prince
Frederick Charles was appointed to command the I. Army,
which he led through the mountains into Bohemia, driving
before him the Austrians and Saxons to the upper Elbe, where
on the 3rd of July took place the decisive battle of Koniggratz or
Sadowa. This was brought on by "the initiative of the leader
of the I. Army, which had to bear the brunt of the fighting until
the advance of the II. Army turned the Austrian flank. After
the peace he returned to the III. army corps, which he finally
left, in July 1870, when appointed to command the II. German
Army in the war with France. In the early days of the advance
the prince's ruthless energy led to much friction between the
I. and II. Armies (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR) , while his strategical
mistakes seriously embarrassed the great headquarters staff.
The advance of the II. Army beyond the Saar to the Moselle
and from that river to the Meuse displayed more energy than
careful strategy, but herein at least the " Red Prince " (as he
was called from the colour of his favourite hussar uniform)
was in thorough sympathy with the king's headquarters on the
one hand and the feelings of the troops on the other. Then came
the discovery that the French were not in front, but to the right
rear of the II. Army (August 16). Alvensleben with the III.
corps held the French to their ground at Vionville while the prince
hurried together his scattered forces. He himself directed with
superb tactical skill the last efforts of the Germans at Vionville,
and the victory of St Privat on the i8th was due to his leadership
(see METZ), which shone all the more by contrast with the failures
of the I. Army at Gravelotte. The prince was left in command of
the forces which blockaded Bazaine in Metz, and received the
surrender of that place and of the last remaining field army of the
enemy. He was promoted at once to the rank of general field
marshal, and shortly afterwards the II. Army was despatched
to aid in crushing the newly organized army of the French
republic on the Loire. Here again he retrieved strategical errors
by energy and tactical skill, and his work was in the end crowned
by the victory of Le Mans on the izth of January 1871. Of
all the subordinate leaders on the German side none enjoyed a
greater and a better deserved reputation than the Red Prince.
He now became inspector-general of the 3rd "army inspection,"
and a little later inspector of cavalry, and in the latter post he was
largely instrumental in bringing the German cavalry to the degree
of ^perfection in manoeuvre and general training which it gradually
attained in the years after the war. He never ceased to improve
his own soldierly qualities by further study and by the conduct of
manoeuvres on a large scale. His sternness of character kept
him aloof from the court and from his own family, and he spent
his leisure months chiefly on his various country estates. In
1872 and in 1882 he travelled in the Mediterranean and the Near
East. He died on the isth of June 1885 at Klein-Glienicke
near Berlin, and was buried at the adjacent church of Nikolskoe.
His third daughter, Princess Louise Margareta, was married,
in March 1879, to the duke of Connaught.
FREDERICK HENRY (1584-1647), prince of Orange, the
youngest child of William the Silent, was born at Delft about
six months before his father's assassination on the 2oth of January
1 584. His mother, Louise de Coligny , was daughter of the famous
Huguenot leader, Admiral de Coligny, and was the fourth wife
of William the Silent. The boy was trained to arms by his elder
brother, Maurice of Nassau, one of the first generals of his age.
On the death of Maurice in 1625, Frederick Henry succeeded
him in his paternal dignities and estates, and also in the stadt-
holderates of the five provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht,
Overysel and Gelderland, and in the important posts of captain
and admiral-general of the Union. Frederick Henry proved
himself scarcely inferior to his brother as a general, and a far
more capable statesman and politician. During twenty-two
years he remained at the head of affairs in the United Provinces,
and in his time the power of the stadtholderate reached its highest
point. The " Period of Frederick Henry," as it is usually styled
by Dutch writers, is generally accounted the golden age of the
republic. It was marked by great military and naval triumphs,
by world-wide maritime and commercial expansion, and by a
wonderful outburst of activity in the domains of art and literature.
The chief military exploits of Frederick Henry were the sieges
and captures of Hertogenbosch in 1629, of Maastricht in 1632,
of Breda in 1637, of Sas van Ghent in 1644, and of Hulst in 1645.
During the greater part of his administration the alliance with
France against Spain had been the pivot of Frederick Henry's
foreign policy, but in his last years he sacrificed the French
alliance for the sake of concluding a separate peace with Spain,
by which the United Provinces obtained from that power all the
advantages for which they had for eighty years been contending.
Frederick Henry died on the i4th of March 1647, and was buried
with great pomp beside his father and brother at Delft. The
treaty of Munster, ending the long struggle between the Dutch
and the Spaniards, was not actually signed until the 3Oth of
January 1648, the illness and death of the stadtholder having
caused a delay in the negotiations. Frederick Henry was married
in 1625 to Amalia von Solms, and left one son, William II. of
Orange, and four daughters.
Frederick Henry left an account of his campaigns in his Memoires
de Frederic Henri (Amsterdam, 1743). See Cambridge Mod. Hist.
vol. iv. chap. 24, and the bibliography on p. 931.
FREDERICK LOUIS (1707-1751), prince of Wales, eldest son
of George II., was born at Hanover on the 2oth of January 1707.
After his grandfather, George I., became king of Great Britain
and Ireland in 1714, Frederick was known as duke of Gloucester *
and made a knight of the Garter, having previously been be-
trothed to Wilhelmina Sophia Dorothea (1700-1758), daughter
of Frederick William I., king of Prussia, and sister of Frederick
the Great. Although he was anxious to marry this lady, the
match was rendered impossible by the dislike of George II. and
Frederick William for each other. Soon after his father became
king in 1727 Frederick took up his residence in England and in
1729 was created prince of Wales; but the relations between
George II. and his son were very unfriendly, and there existed
between them the jealousy which Stubbs calls the " incurable
bane of royalty." The faults were not all on one side. The
prince's character was not attractive, and the king refused to
make him an adequate allowance. In 1735 Frederick wrote,
or inspired the writing of, the Histoire du prince Titi, a book
containing offensive caricatures of both king and queen; and
losing no opportunity of irritating his father, " he made," says
Lecky, " his court the special centre of opposition to the govern-
ment, and he exerted all his influence for the ruin of Walpole."
After a marriage between the prince and Lady Diana Spencer,
afterwards the wife of John, 4th duke of Bedford, had been
frustrated by Walpole, Frederick was married in April 1736 to
1 Frederick was never actually created duke of Gloucester, and
when he was raised to the peerage in 1 736 it was as duke of Edinburgh
only. See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, sub " Gloucester."
FREDERICK WILLIAM I.
Augusta (1719-1772), daughter of Frederick II., duke of Saxc
Gotha, a union which was welcomed by his parents, but which
led to further trouble between father and son. George proposec
to allow the prince 50,000 a year; but this sum was regardec
as insufficient by the latter, whose appeal to parliament was
unsuccessful. After the birth of his first child, Augusta, in 1737,
Frederick was ordered by the king to quit St James' Palace, and
the foreign ambassadors were requested to refrain from visiting
him. The relations between the two were now worse than before.
In 1745 George II. refused to allow his son to command theBritish
army against the Jacobites. On the joth of March 1751 the
prince died in London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
He left five sons and two daughters. The sons were George
(afterwards King George III.), Edward Augustus, duke of York
and Albany (1739-1767), William Henry, duke of Gloucester
and Edinburgh (1743-1805), Henry Frederick, duke of Cumber-
land (1745-1790), and Frederick William (1750-1765); the
daughters were Augusta (1737-1813), wife of Charles William
Ferdinand, dukeof Brunswick, and Caroline Matilda (175 1-17 7 5),
wife of Christian VII., king of Denmark.
See Lord Hervey of Ickworth, Memoirs of the Reign of George II.,
edited by J. W. Crolcer (London, 1884); Horace Walpole, Memoirs
of tin Reign of George II. (London, 1847); and Sir N. W. Wraxall,
Memoirs, edited by H. B. Wheatley, vol. i. (London, 1884).
FREDERICK WILLIAM I. (1688-1740), king of Prussia, son
of Frederick I. by his second marriage was born on the 151)1
of August 1688. He spent a considerable time in early youth at
the court of his grandfather, the elector Ernest Augustus of
Hanover. On his return to Berlin he was placed under General
von Dohna and Count Finkenstein, who trained him to the
energetic and regular habits which ever afterwards characterized
him. He was soon imbued with a passion for military life, and
this was deepened by acquaintance with thedukeof Marlborough
(1709), Prince Eugene, whom he visited during the siege of
Tournai, and Prince Leopold of Anhalt (the " Old Dessauer ").
In nearly every respect he was the opposite of his father, having
frugal, simple tastes, a passionate temper and a determined will.
Throughout his life he was always the protectorof thechurchand
of religion. But he detested religious quarrels and was very
tolerant towards his Catholic subjects, except the Jesuits.
His life was simple and puritanical, beingfounded on the teaching
of the Bible. He was, however, fond of hunting and somewhat
given to drinking. He intensely disliked the French, and highly
disapproved of the imitation of their manners by his father and
his court. When he came to the throne (February 25, 1713) his
first act was to dismiss from the palace every unnecessary official
and to regulate the royal household on principles of the strictest
parsimony. The greater pan of the beautiful furniture was
sold. His importance for Prussia is twofold: in internal politics
he laid down principles which continued to be followed long after
his death. This was a province peculiarly suited to his genius;
he was one of the greatest administrators who have ever worn the
Prussian crown. His foreign policy was less successful, though
under his rule the kingdom acquired some extension of territory.
Thus at the peace of Utrecht (April u, 1713), after the War
of the Spanish Succession, he acquired the greater part of the
duchy of Gelderland. By the treaty of Schwedt, concluded with
Russia on the 6th of October, he was assured of an important
influence in the solution of the Baltic question, which during
the long absence of Charles XII. had become burning; and
Swedish Poracrania, as far as the Peene, was occupied by Prussia.
But Charles XII. on his return turned against the king, though
without success, for the Pomeranian campaign of 1715 ended in
favour of Prussia (fall of Stralsund, December 22). This enabled
Frederick William I. to maintain a more independent attitude
towards the tsar; he refused, for example, to provide him with
troops for a campaign (in Schonen) against the Swedes. When
on the 28th of May 17 1 8, in view of the disturbances in Mecklen-
burg, he signed at Havelberg the alliance with Russia, he confined
himself to taking up a defensive attitude, and, on the other hand,
on the i4th of August 1719 he also entered into relations with
his former enemies, England and Hanover. And so, by the
treaty of Stockholm (February i, 1720), Frederick William
succeeded in obtaining the consent of Sweden to the cession of
that part of Pomerania which he had occupied (Usedom, Wollin,
Stettin, Hither Pomerania, east of the Peene) in return for a
payment of 2,000,000 thalurs.
While Frederick William I. succeeded in carrying his wishes
into effect in this direction, he was unable to realize another
project which he had much at heart, namely, the Prussian succes-
sion to the Lower Rhine duchies of Julich and Berg. The treaty
concluded in 1725 at Vienna between the emperor and Spain
brought the whole of this question up again, for both sides had
pledged themselves to support the Palatinate-Sulzbach succession
(in the event of the Palatinate-Neuberg line becoming extinct).
Frederick William turned for help to the western powers, England
and France, and secured it by the treaty of alliance signed at
Herrenhausen on the 3rd of September 1725 (Leagueof Hanover).
But since the western powers soon sought to use the military
strength of Prussia for their own ends, Frederick again turned
towards the east, strengthened above all his relations with Russia,
which had continued to be good, and finally, by the treaty of
Wttsterhausen (October 12,1726; ratified at Berlin, December 23,
1 728), even allied himself with his former adversary, the court of
Vienna; though this treatyonlyimperfectlysafeguarded Prussian
interests, inasmuch as Frederick William consented to renounce
his claims to Jiilich. But as in the following years the European
situation became more and more favourable to the house of
Habsburg, the latter began to try to withdraw part of the con-
cessions which it had made to Frederick William. As early as
1728 Diisseldorf, the capital, was excluded from the guarantee of
Berg. Nevertheless, in the War of the Polish Succession against
France (1734-1735), Frederick William remained faithful to the
emperor's cause, and sent an auxiliary force of 10,000 men. The
peace of Vienna, which terminated the war, led to a reconciliation
between France and Austria, and so to a further estrangement
between Frederick William and the emperor. Moreover, in 1738
the western powers,together with the -emperor, insisted in identi-
cal notes on the recognition of the emperor's right to decide the
question of the succession in the Lower Rhine duchies. A breach
with the emperor was now inevitable, and this explains why
in a last treaty (April 5, 1739) Frederick William obtained from
France a guarantee of a part, at least, of Berg (excluding
DUsseldorf).
But Frederick William's failures in foreign policy were more
than compensated for by his splendid services in the internal
administration of Prussia. He saw the necessity of rigid economy
not only in his private life but in the whole administration of the
state. During his reign Prussia obtained for the first time a
centralized and uniform financial administration. Itwastheking
himself who composed and wrote in the year 1722 the famous
instruction for the general directory (Generaldirektorium) of
war, finance and domains. When he died the income of the state
was about seven million thalers (1,050,000). The consequence
was that he paid off the debts incurred by his father, and left to
lis successor a well filled treasury. In the administration of
the domains he made three innovations: (i) the private estates
of the king were turned into domains of the crown (August 13,
1 7 l 3)i ( 2 ) the freeing of the serfs on the royal domains (March
, 1719); (3) the conversion of the hereditary lease into a
short-term lease on the basis of productiveness. His industrial
policy was inspired by the mercantile spirit. On this account he
'orbade the importation of foreign manufactures and the export
of raw materials from home, a policy which had a very good
effect on the growth of Prussian industries.
The work of internal colonization he carried on with especial
zeal. Most notable of all was his rttablissement of East Prussia, to
which he devoted six million thalers (c. 900,000) . His policy in
respect ot the towns was motived largely by fiscal considerations,
>ut at the same time he tried also to improve their municipal
administration; for example, in the matter of buildings, of the
etting of domain lands and of the collection of the excise in towns,
"rederick William had many opponentsamongthenoblcs because
ic pressed on the abolition of the old feudal rights, introduced
n East Prussia and Lithuania a general land tax (the General-
6 4
FREDERICK WILLIAM II.
hufenschoss) , and finally in 1739 attacked in a special edict the
Legen, i.e. the expropriation of the peasant proprietors. He
did nothing for the higher learning, and even banished the philo-
sopher Christian Wolff at forty-eight hours' notice " on pain of
the halter," for teaching, as he believed, fatalist doctrines.
After wards he modified his judgment in favour of Wolff, and even,
in 1739, recommended the study of his works. He established
many village schools, which he often visited in person; and after
the year 1717 (October 23) all Prussian parents were obliged to
send their children to school (Schulzwang). He was the especial
friend of the Franckische Stiftungen at Halle on the Saale.
Under him the people flourished; and although it stood in awe
of his vehement spirit it respected him for his firmness, his
honesty of purpose and his love of justice. He was devoted
also to his army, the number of which he raised from 38,000
to 83,500, so that under him Prussia became the third military
power in the world, coming next after Russia and France. There
was not a more thoroughly drilled or better appointed force.
The Potsdam guard, made up of giants collected from all parts
of Europe, sometimes kidnapped, was a sort of toy with which
he amused himself. The reviewing of his troops was his chief
pleasure. But he was also fond of meeting his friends in the
evening in what he called his Tobacco-College, where amid clouds
of tobacco smoke he not only discussed affairs of state but heard
the newest " guard-room jokes." He died on the 3ist of May
1 740, leaving behind him his widow, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover,
whom he had married on the 26th of November 1706. His son
was Frederick the Great, who was the opposite of Frederick
William. This opposition became so strong in 1730 that the
crown prince fled from the court, and was later arrested and
brought before a court-martial. A reconciliation was brought
about, at first gradually. In later years the relations between
father and son came to be of the best (see FREDERICK II., king
of Prussia).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. D. Fassmann, Leben und Thaten Friedrich
Wilhelms (2 yols., Hamburg and Breslau, 1735, 1741); F. Forster,
Friedrich Wilhelm I. (3 vols., Potsdam, 1834 and 1835); C. v.
Noorden, Historische Vortrage (Leipzig, 1884) ; O. Krauske, " Vom
Hofe Friedrich Wilhelms I.," HohenzoUernjahrbuch, v. (1902) ;
R. Koser, Friedrich der Crosse ah Kronprinz (2nd ed., Stuttgart,
1901) ; W. Oncken, " Sir Charles Hotham und Friedrich Wilhelm I.
im Jahre 1730," Forschungen zur brandenburgischen Geschichte,
vol. vii. et seq. ; J. G. Droysen in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic,
vii. (1878), and in Geschichte der preussischen Politik, section iv.,
vols. ii.-iv. (2nd ed., 1868 et seq.); L. v. Ranke, Zwolf Biicher
preussischer Geschichte (1874 et seq.); Stenzel, Geschichte des preus-
sischen Staates, iii. (1841) ; F. Holke, " Strafrechtspflege unter
Friedrich Wilhelm I.," Beitrage zur brandenburgischen Rechts-
geschichte, iii. (1894) ; V. Loewe, " Allodifikation der Leben unter
Friedrich Wilhelm I.," Forschungen zur brandenburgischen Geschichte,
xi. ; G. Schmoller, " Epochen der preuss. Finanzpolitik," Umrisse
und Unter suchungen (Leipzig, 1898), " Innere Verwaltung unter
Friedrich Wilhelm I.," Preuss. Jahrbucher, xxvi., " Stadtewesen
unter Friedrich Wilhelm I.," Ze itschrift fur preussische Geschichte, x.
et seq.; B. Reuter, " Konig Friedrich Wilhelm I. und das General-
Direktorium," ibid. xii. ; V. Loewe, " Zur Grundungsgeschichte des
General-Direktoriums," Forschungen, &c., xiii. ; R. Stadelmann,
Preussens Konige in ihrer Tatigkeit fur die Landeskultur, vol. i.
" Friedrich Wilhelm I." (1878) ; M. Beheim-ScKwarzbach, Hohen-
zollern'sche Kolonizationen (Leipzig, 1874); W. Naude, "Die
merkantilistische Wirtschaftspolitik Friedrich Wilhelms I.," His-
torische Zeitschrift, xc. ; M. Lehmann, " Werbung, &c., im Heere
Friedrich Wilhelms I.," ibid. Ixvii. ; Isaacson, " Erbpachtsystem in
der preussischen Domanenverwaltung," Zeitschrift fur preuss. Gesch.
xi. Cf. also HohenzoUernjahrbuch, vhi. (1905), for particulars of his
education and death; letters to Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau
in the Acta Borussica (1905). English readers will find a picturesque
account of him in Thomas Carlyle's Frederick the Great. (J. HN.)
FREDERICK WILLIAM II. (1744-1797), king of Prussia,
son of Augustus William, second son of King Frederick William
I. and of Louise Amalie of Brunswick, sister of the wife of
Frederick the Great, was born at Berlin on the 2 sth of September
1744, and became heir to the throne on his father's death in 1757.
The boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving disposition,
averse from sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by nature.
His marriage with Elisabeth Christine, daughter of Duke Charles
of Brunswick, contracted in 1765, was dissolved in 1769, and he
soon afterwards married Frederika Louisa, daughter of the land-
grave Louis IX. of Hesse-Darmstadt. Although he had a
numerous family by his wife, he was completely under the in-
fluence of his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke, afterwards created
Countess Lichtenau, a woman of strong intellect and much
ambition. He was a man of singularly handsome presence, not
without mental qualities of a high order; he was devoted to the
arts Beethoven and Mozart enjoyed his patronage and his
private orchestra had a European reputation. But an artistic
temperament was hardly that required of a king of Prussia on
the eve of the Revolution; and Frederick the Great, who had
employed him in various services notably in an abortive con-
fidential mission to the court of Russia in 1780 openly expressed
his misgivings as to the character of the prince and his sur-
roundings.
The misgivings were justified by the event. Frederick
William's accession to the throne (August 17, 1786) was, indeed,
followed by a series of measures for lightening the burdens of the
people, reforming the oppressive French system of tax-collecting
introduced by Frederick, and encouraging trade by the diminu-
tion of customs dues and the making of roads and canals. This
gave the new king much popularity with the mass of the people;
while the educated classes were pleased by his removal of
Frederick's ban on the German language by the admission of
German writers to the Prussian Academy, and by the active
encouragement given to schools and universities. But these
reforms were vitiated in their source. In 1 78 1 Frederick William,
then prince of Prussia, inclined, like many sensual natures, to
mysticism, had joined the Rosicrucians, and had fallen under the
influence of Johann Christof Wollner (1732-1800), and by him
the royal policy was inspired. Wollner, whom Frederick the
Great had described as a " treacherous and intriguing priest,"
had started life as a poor tutor in the family of General von
Itzenplitz, a noble of the mark of Brandenburg, had, after the
general's death and to the scandal of king and nobility, married
the general's daughter, and with his mother-in-law's assistance
settled down on a small estate. By his practical experiments and
by his writings he gained a considerable reputation as an econo-
mist; but his ambition was not content with this, and he sought
to extend his influence by joining first the Freemasons and after-
wards (1779) the Rosicrucians. Wollner, with his impressive
personality and easy if superficial eloquence, was just the man
to lead a movement of this kind. Under his influence the order
spread rapidly, and he soon found himself the supreme director
(Oberhauptdirektor) of some 26 " circles," which included in their
membership princes, officers and high officials. As a Rosicrucian
Wollner dabbled in alchemy and other mystic arts, but he also
affected to be zealous for Christian orthodoxy, imperilled by
Frederick II. 's patronage of " enlightenment," and a few months
before Frederick's death wrote to his friend the Rosicrucian
Johann Rudolph von Bischoffswerder (1741-1803) that his
highest ambition was to be placed at the head of the religious
department of the state " as an unworthy instrument in the hand
of Ormesus " (the prince of Prussia's Rosicrucian name) " for
the purpose of saving millions of souls from perdition and bringing
back the whole country to the faith of Jesus Christ."
Such was the man whom Frederick William II., immediately
after his accession, called to his counsels. On the 26th of August
1786 he was appointed privy councillor for finance (Geheimer
Oberfinanzrath) , and on the 2nd of October was ennobled.
Though not in name, in fact he was prime minister; in all in-
ternal affairs it was he who decided ; and the fiscal and economic
reforms of the new reign were the application of his theories.
Bischoffswerder, too, still a simple major, was called into the
king's counsels; by 1789 he was already an adjutant-general.
These were the two men who enmeshed the king in a web of
Rosicrucian mystery and intrigue, which hampered whatever
healthy development of his policy might have been possible,
and led ultimately to disaster. The opposition to W8llner was,
indeed, at the outset strong enough to preventhis being entrusted
with the department of religion; but this too in time was over-
come, and on the 3rd of July 1788 he was appointed active
privy councillor of state and of justice and head of the spiritual
FREDERICK WILLIAM III.
department for Lutheran and Catholic affairs. War was at
once declared on what to use a later term we may call
the " modernists." The king, so long as Wttllner was content
to condone his immorality (which Bisohoffswerder, to do him
justice, condemned), was eager to help the orthodox crusade.
On the Qth of July was issued the famous religious edict, which
forbade Evangelical ministers to teach anything not contained
in the letter of their official books, proclaimed the necessity of
protecting the Christian religion against the " enlighteners "
( A ufkJdrcr) , and placed educational establishments under the
supervision of the orthodox clergy. On the iSth of December
a new censorship law was issued, to secure the orthodoxy of all
published books; and finally, in 1791, a sort of Protestant
Inquisition was established at Berlin (Immtdiat-Examinations-
commisiion) to watch over all ecclesiastical and scholastic
appointments. In his 'zeal for orthodoxy, indeed, Frederick
William outstripped his minister; he even blamed Wollner's
idleness and vanity " for the inevitable failure of the attempt
to regulate opinion from above, and in 1 794 deprived him of one
of his secular offices in order that he might have more time
" to devote himself to the things of God "; in edict after edict
the king continued to the erid of his reign to make regulations
" in order to maintain in his states a true and active Christianity,
as the path to genuine fear of God."
The effects of this policy of blind obscurantism far outweighed
any good that resulted from the king's well-meant efforts at
economic and financial reform; and even this reform was but
spasmodic and partial. a"nrl awoke ultimately more discontent
than it allayed. But far more fateful for Prussia was the king's
attitude towards the array and foreign policy. The army was
the very foundation of the Prussian state, a truth which both
Frederick William I. and the great Frederick had fully realized;
the army had been their first care, and its efficiency had been
maintained by their constant personal supervision. Frederick
William, who had no taste for military matters, put his authority
as " War-Lord " into commission under a supreme college of
war (Obtrkriegs-CoUegium) under the duke of Brunswick and
General von Mollendorf. It was the beginning of the process
that ended in 1806 at Jena.
In the circumstances Frederick William's intervention in
European affairs was not likely to prove of benefit to Prussia.
The Dutch campaign of 1787, entered on for purely family
reasons, was indeed successful; but Prussia received not even
the cost of her intervention. An attempt to intervene in the war
of Russia and Austria against Turkey failed of its object ; Prussia
did not succeed in obtaining any concessions of territory from
the alarms of the Allies, and the dismissal of Hertzberg in
1791 marked the final abandonment of the anti- Austrian tradi-
tion of Frederick the Great. For, meanwhile, the French Revolu-
tion had entered upon alarming phases, and in August 1791
Frederick William, at the meeting at Pillnitz, arranged with the
emperor Leopold to join in supporting the cause of Louis XVI.
But neither the king's character, nor the confusion of the Prussian
finances due to his extravagance, gave promise of any effective
action. A formal alliance was indeed signed on the 7th of
February 1792, and Frederick William took part personally in
the campaigns of 1792 and 1793. He was hampered, however,
by want of funds, and his counsels were distracted by the affairs
of Poland, which promised a richer booty than was likely to be
gained by the anti-revolutionary crusade into France. A subsidy
treaty with the sea powers (April 19, 1794) filled his coffers; but
the insurrection in Poland that followed the partition of 1793,
and the threat of the isolated intervention of Russia, hurried
him into the separate treaty of Basel with the French Republic
(April 5, 1795), which was regarded by the great monarchies as
a betrayal, and left Prussia morally isolated in Europe on the
eve of the titanic struggle between the monarchical principle
and the new political creed of the Revolution/ Prussia had paid
a heavy price for the territories acquired at theexpenseof Poland
in 1793 and 1795, and when, on the i6th of November 1797,
Frederick William died, he left the state in bankruptcy and
confusion, the army decayed and the monarchy discredited.
xt. 3
Frederick William II. was twice married: (i) in 1765 to
Elizabeth of Brunswick (d. 1841), by whom he had a daughter,
Frederika, afterwards duchess of York, and from whom he was
divorced in 1769; (2) in 1769 to Frederika Louisa of Hesse-
Darmstadt, by whom he had four sons, Frederick William III.,
Louis (d. 1796), Henry and William, and two daughters, Wilhel-
mina, wife of William of Orange, afterwards William I., king of
the Netherlands, and Augusta, wife of William II., elector of
Hesse. Besides his relations with his mattresse en litre, the
countess Lichtenau, the king who was a frank polygamist
contracted two " marriages of the left hand " with Frftulcin von
Voss and the countess DSnhoff.
See article by von Hartmann in AUgem. deutscht Biog. (Leipzig,
1878); Stadelmann, Preussens Konige in ihrer Tdtigkeit fur die
Landeskultur,vo\. iii. " Fnedrich Wilhelra 1 1. "(Leipzig, i88s);Paulig f
Frifdrich Wilhelm II., sein Privatleben u. seine Regierung (Frankfurt-
an-der-Oder, 1896).
FREDERICK WILLIAM III. (1770-1840), king of Prussia,
eldest son of King Frederick William II., was born at Potsdam
on the 3rd of August 1770. His father, then prince of Prussia,
was out of favour with Frederick the Great and entirely under the
influence of his mistress; and the boy, handed over to tutors
appointed by the king, lived a solitary and repressed life which
tended to increase the innate weakness of his character. But
though his natural defects of intellect and will-power were not
improved by the pedantic tutoring to which he was submitted,
he grew up pious, honest and well-meaning; and had fate cast
him in any but the most stormy times of his country's history
he might well have left the reputation of a model king. As a
soldier he received the usual training of a Prussian prince,
obtained his lieutenancy in 1 784, became a colonel commanding
in 1700, and took part in the campaigns of 1792-94. In 1793
he married Louise, daughter of Prince Charles of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz, whom he had met and fallen in love with at Frankfort
(see LOUISE, queen of Prussia). He succeeded to the throne on
the i6th of November 1797 and at once gave earnest of his good
intentions by cutting down the expenses of the royal establish-
ment, dismissing his father's ministers, and reforming the most
oppressive abuses of the late reign. Unfortunately, however,
he had all the Hohenzollern tenacity of personal power without
the Hohenzollern genius for using it. Too distrustful to delegate
his responsibility to his ministers, he was too infirm of will to
strike out and follow a consistent course for himself.
The results of this infirmity of purpose are written large on the
history of Prussia from the treaty of Lun6ville in 1801 to the
downfall that followed the campaign of Jena in 1806. By the
treaty of Tilsit (July 9th, 1807) Frederick William had to
surrender half his dominions, and what remained to him was
exhausted by French exactions and liable at any moment to
be crushed out of existence by some new whim of Napoleon.
In the dark years that followed it was the indomitable courage
of Queen Louise that helped the weak king not to despair of the
state. She seconded the reforming efforts of Stein and the work
of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in reorganizing the army, by which
the resurrection of Prussia became a possibility. When Stein
was dismissed at the instance of Napoleon, Hardenbergsucceeded
him as chancellor (June 1810). In the following month Queen
Louise died, and the king was left alone to deal with circum-
stances of ever-increasing difficulty. He was forced to join
Napoleon in the war against Russia; and even when the
disastrous campaign of 1812 had for the time broken the French
power, it was not his own resolution, but the loyal disloyalty
of General York in concluding with Russia the convention of
Tauroggen that forced him into line with the patriotic fervour
of his people.
Once committed to the Russian alliance, however, he became
the faithful henchman of the emperor Alexander, whose fascinat-
ing personality exercised over him to the last a singular power,
and began that influence of Russia at the court of Berlin which
was to last till Frederick William IV. 's supposed Liberalism was
to shatter the cordiality of the entente. That during and after the
settlement of 1815 Frederick William played a very secondary
part in European affairs is explicable as well by his character as
66
FREDERICK WILLIAM IV.
by the absorbing character of the internal problems of Prussia.
He was one of the original co-signatories of the Holy Alliance,
though, in common with most, he signed it with reluctance;
and in the counsels of the Grand Alliance he allowed himself to
be practically subordinated to Alexander and later to Metternich.
In a ruler of his character it is not surprising that the Revolution
and its developments had produced an unconquerable suspicion
of constitutional principles and methods, which the Liberal
agitations in Germany tended to increase. At the various
congresses, from Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) to Verona (1822), there-
fore, he showed himself heartily in sympathy with the repressive
policy formulated in the Troppau Protocol. The promise of a
constitution, which in the excitement of the War of Liberation
he had made to his people, remained unfulfilled partly owing to
this mental attitude, partly, however, to the all but insuperable
difficulties in the way of its execution. But though reluctant
to play the part of a constitutional king, Frederick William
maintained to the full the traditional character of " first servant
of the state." Though he chastised Liberal professors and
turbulent students, it was in the spirit of a benevolent Landes-
vater; and he laboured assiduously at the enormous task of
administrative reconstruction necessitated by the problem of
welding the heterogeneous elements of the new Prussian kingdom
into a united whole. He was sincerely religious; but his well-
meant efforts to unite the Lutheran and Reformed Churches,
in celebration of the tercentenary of the Reformation (1817),
revealed the limits of his paternal power; eleven years passed
in vain attempts to devise common formulae; a stubborn
Lutheran minority had to be coerced by military force, the con-
fiscation of their churches and the imprisonment or exile of their
pastors; not till 1834 was outward union secured on the basis of
common worship but separate symbols, the opponents of the
measure being forbidden to form communities of their own.
With the Roman Church, too, the king came into conflict on
the vexed question of " mixed marriages," a conflict in which
the Vatican gained an easy victory (see BUNSEN, C.C.J., BARON
VON).
The revolutions of 1830 strengthened Frederick William in his
reactionary tendencies; the question of the constitution was
indefinitely shelved; and in 1831 Prussian troops concentrated
on the frontier helped the task of the Russians in reducing the
military rising in Poland. Yet, in spite of all, Frederick William
was beloved by his subjects, who valued him for the simplicity
of his manners, the goodness of his heart and the memories of
the dark days after 1806. He died on the 7th of June 1840.
In 1824 he had contracted a morganatic marriage with the
countess Auguste von Harrach, whom he created Princess von
Liegnitz. He wrote Luther in Bezug auf die Kirchenagenda
von 1822 und 1823 (Berlin, 1827), Reminiszenzen aus der
Kampagne 1792 in Frankreich, and Journal meiner Brigade in
der Kampagne am Rhein 1793.
The correspondence (Briefwechsef) of King Frederick William III.
and Queen Louise with the emperor Alexander I. has been published
(Leipzig, 1900) and also that between the king and queen (ib. 1903),
both edited by P. Bailleu. See W. Hahn', Friedrich Wilhelm III. und
Luise (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1877); M. W. Duncker, Aus der Zeit Frie-
drichs des Grossen und Friedrich Wilhelms III. (Leipzig, 1876);
Bishop R. F. Eylert, Charakterziige aus dem Leben des Konigs von
Preussen Friedrich Wilhelm III. (3 vols., Magdeburg, 1843-1846).
FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. (1795-1861), king of Prussia,
eldest son of Frederick William III., was born on the I5th of
October 1795. From his first tutor, Johann Delbriick, he imbibed
a love of culture and art, and possibly also the dash of Liberalism
which formed an element of his complex habit of mind. But after
a time Delbruck, suspected of inspiring his charge with a dislike
of the Prussian military caste and even of belonging to a political
secret society, was dismissed, his place being taken by the pastor
and historian Friedrich Ancillon, while a military governor was
also appointed. By Ancillon .he was grounded in religion, in
history and political science, his natural taste for the antique
and the picturesque making it easy for his tutor to impress upon
him his own hatred of the Revolution and its principles. This
hatred was confirmed by the sufferings of his country and family
in the terrible years after 1806, and his first experience of active
soldiering was in the campaigns that ended in the occupation of
Paris by the Allies in 1814. In action his reckless bravery had
earned him rebuke, and in Paris he was remarked for the exact
performance of his military duties, though he found time to whet
his appetite for art in the matchless collections gathered by
Napoleon as the spoil of all Europe. On his return to Berlin
he studied art under the sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and
the painter and architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841),
proving himself in the end a good draughtsman, a born architect
and an excellent landscape gardener. At the same time he was
being tutored in law by Savigny and in finance by a series of
distinguished masters. In 1823 he married the princess Elizabeth
of Bavaria, who adopted the Lutheran creed. The union,
though childless, was very happy. A long tour in Italy in 1828
was the beginning of his intimacy with Bunsen and did much to
develop his knowledge of art and love of antiquity.
On his accession to the throne in 1840 much was expected
of a prince so variously gifted and of so amiable a temper, and
his first acts did not belie popular hopes. He reversed the
unfortunate ecclesiastical policy of his father, allowing a wide
liberty of dissent, and releasing the imprisoned archbishop of
Cologne; he modified the strictness of the press censorship;
above all he undertook, in the presence of the deputations of the
provincial diets assembled to greet him on his accession, to carry
out the long-deferred project of creating a central constitution,
which he admitted to be required alike by the royal promises,
the needs of the country and the temper of the times. The
story of the evolution of the Prussian parliament belongs to the
history of Prussia. Here it must suffice to notice Frederick
William's personal share in the question, which was determined
by his general attitude of mind. He was an idealist; but his
idealism was of a type the exact reverse of that which the
Revolution in arms had sought to impose upon Europe. The
idea of the sovereignty of the people was to him utterly abhorrent,
and even any delegation of sovereign power on his own part would
have seemed a betrayal of a God-given trust. " I will never,"
he declared, " allow to come between Almighty God and this
country a blotted parchment, to rule us with paragraphs, and to
replace the ancient, sacred bond of loyalty." His vision of the
ideal state was that of a patriarchial monarchy, surrounded and
advised by the traditional estates of the realm nobles, peasants,
burghers and cemented by the bonds of evangelical religion;
but in which there should be no question of the sovereign power
being vested in any other hands than those of the king by divine
right. In Prussia, with its traditional loyalty and its old-world
caste divisions, he believed that such a conception could be
realized, and he took up an attitude half-way between those who
would have rejected the proposal for a central diet altogether as a
dangerous " thin end of the wedge," and those who would have
approximated it more to the modern conception of a parliament.
With a charter, or a representative system based on population, ,
he would have nothing to do. The united diet which was opened
on the 3rd of February 1847 was no more than a congregation
of the diets instituted by Frederick William III. in the eight
provinces of Prussia. Unrepresentative though it was for the
industrial working-classes had no share in it it at once gave
voice to the demand for a constitutional system.
This demand gained overwhelmingly in force with the revolu-
tionary outbreaks of 1848. To Frederick William these came
as a complete surprise, and, rudely awakened from his medieval
dreamings,heeven allowed himself to be carried away for a while
by the popular tide. The loyalty of the Prussian army remained
inviolate; but the king was too tender-hearted to use military
force against his " beloved Berliners," and when the victory of
the populace was thus assured his impressionable temper yielded
to the general enthusiasm. He paraded the streets of Berlin
wrapped in a scarf of the German black and gold, symbol of his
intention to be the leader of the united Germany; and he even
wrote to the indignant tsar in praise of " the glorious German
revolution." The change of sentiment was, however, apparent
rather than real. The shadow of venerable institutions, past or ,
FREDERICK WILLIAM OF BRANDENBURG
passing, still darkened his counsels. The united Germany which
be was prepared to champion was not the democratic state which
the theorists of the Frankfort national parliament were evolving
on paper with interminable debate, but the old Holy Roman
Empire, the heritage of the house of Habsburg, of which he was
prepared to constitute himself the guardian so long as its lawful
possessors should not have mastered the forces of disorder by
which they were held captive. Finally, when Austria had been
excluded from the new empire, he replied to the parliamentary
deputation that came to offer him the imperial crown that he
might have accepted it had it been freely offered to him by the
German princes, but that he would never stoop " to pick up a
crown out of the gutter."
Whatever may be thought of the manner of this refusal, or
of its immediate motives, it was in itself wise, for the German
empire would have lost immeasurably had it been the cause
rather than the result of the inevitable struggle with Austria,
and Bismarck was probably right when he said that, to weld
the heterogeneous elements of Germany into a united whole, what
wms needed was, not speeches and resolutions, but a policy of
" blood and iron." In any case Frederick William, uneasy
enough as a constitutional king, would have been impossible as
* constitutional emperor. As it was, his refusal to play this
pert gave the deathblow to the parliament and to all hope of
the immediate creation of a united Germany. For Frederick
William the position of leader of Germany now meant the employ-
ment of the military force of Prussia to crush the scattered
elements of revolution that survived the collapse of the national
movement. His establishment of the northern confederacy was
* reversion to the traditional policy of Prussia in opposition
to Austria, which, after the emperor Nicholas had crushed the
insurrection in Hungary, was once more free to assert her claims
to dominance in Germany. But Prussia was not ripe for a
struggle with Austria, even had Frederick William found it in his
conscience to turn his arms against his ancient ally, and the result
was the humiliating convention of OlmUtz (November zpth,
1850), by which Prussia agreed to surrender her separatist
plans and to restore the old constitution of the confederation.
Yet Frederick William had so far profited by the lessons of 1848
that he consented to establish (1850) a national parliament,
though with a restricted franchise and limited powers. The
House of Lords (HerrenJiaus) justified the king's insistence in
calling it into being by its support of Bismarck against the more
popular House during the next reign.
In religious matters Frederick William was also largely swayed
by bis love for the ancient and picturesque. In concert with his
friend Bunsen he laboured to bring about a rapprochement
between the Lutheran and Anglican churches, the first-fruits of
which was the establishment of the Jerusalem bishopric under
the joint patronage of Great Britain and Prussia; but the only
result of his efforts was to precipitate the secession of J. H.
Newman and his followers to the Church of Rome. In general
it may be said that Frederick William, in spite of his talents and
his wide knowledge, lived in a dream-land of hisown, out of touch
with actuality. The style of his letters reveals a mind enthusiastic
1-balanccd. In the summer of 1857 he had a stroke of
paralysis, and a second in October. From this time, with the
exception of brief intervals, his mind was completely clouded,
d the duties of government were undertaken by his brother
William (afterwards emperor), who on the ;th of October 1858
was formally recognized as regent. Frederick William died on
the 2nd of January 1861.
J?T-' ecti ?,'V > fro !" the correspondence (Briefwethsel) of Frederick
lliam IV. and Bunsen were edited by Ranke (Leipzig, 1873);
hi* proclamation*, fpeecbes. Ac., from the 6th of March 1848 to the
31* of May 1851 have been published (Berlin, 1851); also his
C 2 T V ?*"X* ."fcj 1 . Bettina von Arnim. Bettina von Arnim und
FnedruhWilkdm IV.. ungedruckte Brief t und Aklenstuche, ed. L.
(Franklort-on-Main, 1002). See L. von Ranke, Friedrich
V., Ko*n von Preussen (works 51, 52 also in Allgem.
ntuke Biog. vol. vii.). especially for the king's education and the
inner Mary of the debates leading up to the united diet of 1847;
H. von Petendorff, Kdnig Friedrich Wilhelm IV. (Stuttgart loool-
F. Rachfahl. Deutuklaud. Kdnig Friedrich Wilhelm IV. und die
67
Berliner Mdrzrevolution (Halle, 1901); H. von Poschinger (ed )
Unter Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Denkwiirdigkeiten des Ministers Otto
frhr. von Manteuffel, 1848-1858 (3 vols., Berlin, 1900-1901)- and
Preussens auswdrtige Polilik, 1850-1858 (3 vols., ib., 1902), docu-
ments selected from those left by Manteuffel; E. Fricdberg, Die
(jrundlagen der preussischen Kirchenpolitik unter Friedrich Wilhelm
IV. (Leipzig, 1882).
FREDERICK WILLIAM (1620-1688), elector of Brandenburg,
usually called the " Great Elector," was born in Berlin on the
i6th of February 1620. His father was the elector George
William, and his mother was Elizabeth Charlotte, daughter of
Frederick IV., elector palatine of the Rhine. Owing to the dis-
orders which were prevalent in Brandenburg he passed part of
his youth in the Netherlands, studying at the university of
Leiden and learning something of war and statecraft undei
Frederick Henry, prince of Orange. During his boyhood a
marriage had been suggested between him and Christina, after-
wards queen of Sweden; but although the idea was revived
during the peace negotiations between Sweden and Brandenburg,
it came to nothing, and in 1646 he married Louise Henriette
(d. 1667), daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange, a lady whose
counsel was very helpful to him and who seconded his efforts for
the welfare of his country.
Having become ruler of Brandenburg and Prussia by his father's
death in December 1640, Frederick William set to work at once
to repair the extensive damage wrought during the Thirty Years'
War, still in progress. After some difficulty he secured his
investiture as duke of Prussia from Wladislaus, king of Poland,
in October 1641, but was not equally successful in crushing the
independent tendencies of the estates of Cleves. It was in
Brandenburg, however, that he showed his supreme skill as a
diplomatist and administrator. His disorderly troops were
replaced by an efficient and disciplined force; his patience and
perseverance freed his dominions from the Swedish soldiers;
and the restoration of law and order was followed by a revival
of trade and an increase of material prosperity. After a tedious
struggle he succeeded in centralizing the administration, and
controlling and increasing the revenue, while no department of
public life escaped his sedulous care (see BRANDENBURG). The
area of his dominions was largely increased at the peace of
Westphalia in 1648, and this treaty and the treaty of Oliva in
1660 alike added to his power and prestige. By a clever but
unscrupulous use of his intermediate position between Sweden
and Poland he procured his recognition as independent duke of
Prussia from both powers, and eventually succeeded in crushing
the stubborn and lengthened opposition which was offered to his
authority by the estates of the duchy (see PRUSSIA). After two
checks he made his position respected in Cleves, and in 1666 his
title to Cleves, Julich and Ravensberg was definitely recognized.
His efforts, however, to annex the western part of the duchy
of Pomerania, which he had conquered from the Swedes, failed
owing to the insistence of Louis XIV. at the treaty of St'Germain-
en-Laye in 1679, and he was unable to obtain the Silesian duchies
of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau from the emperor Leopold I.
after they had been left without a ruler in 1675.
Frederick William played an important part in European
politics. Although found once or twice on the side of France,
he was generally loyal to the interests of the empire and the
Habsburgs, probably because his political acumen scented danger
to Brandenburg from the aggressive policy of Louis XIV.
He was a Protestant in religion, but he supported Protestant
interests abroad on political rather than on religious grounds,
and sought, but without much success, to strengthen Branden-
burg by allaying the fierce hostility between Lutherans and
Calvinists. His success in founding and organizing the army
of Brandenburg-Prussia was amply demonstrated by the great
victory which he gained over the Swedes at Fehrbcllin in June
1675, and by the eagerness with which foreign powers sought his
support. He was also the founder of the Prussian navy. The
elector assisted trade in every possible way. He made the canal
which still bears his name between the Oder and the Spree;
established a trading company; and founded colonies on the west
coast of Africa. He encouraged Flemings to settle in Brandenburg,
68
FREDERICK-LEMAITRE FREDERICKSBURG
and both before and after the revocation of the edict of
Nantes in 1685 welcomed large numbers of Huguenots, who
added greatly to the welfare of the country. Education was not
neglected ; and if in this direction some of his plans were abortive,
it was from lack of means and opportunity rather than effort
and inclination. It is difficult to overestimate the services of the
great elector to Brandenburg and Prussia. They can only be
properly appreciated by those who compare the condition of his
country in 1640 with its condition in 1688. Both actually and
relatively its importance had increased enormously; poverty
had given place to comparative wealth, and anarchy to a
system of government which afterwards made Prussia the most
centralized state in Europe. He had scant sympathy with local
privileges, and in fighting them his conduct was doubtless
despotic. His aim was to make himself an absolute ruler, as he
regarded this as the best guarantee for the internal and external
welfare of the state.
The great ejector died at Potsdam from dropsy on the pth of
May 1688, and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son,
Frederick. His personal appearance was imposing, and although
he was absolutely without scruples when working for the interests
of Brandenburg, he did not lack a sense of justice and generosity.
At all events he deserves the eulogy passed upon him by Frederick
the Great, " Messieurs; celui-ci a fait de grandes chases." His
second wife, whom he married in 1668, was Dorothea (d. 1689),
daughter of Philip, duke of Holstein-Glucksburg, and widow
of Christian Louis, duke of Brunswick-Liineburg; she bore
him four sons and three daughters. His concluding years were
troubled by differences between his wife and her step-son,
Frederick; and influenced by Dorothea he bequeathed portions
of Brandenburg to her four sons, a bequest which was annulled
under his successor.
See S. de Pufendorf, De rebus gestis Friderici Wilhelmi Magni
(Leipzig and Berlin, 1733); L. von Orlich, Friedrich Wilhelm der
grosse Kurftirst (Berlin, 1836); K. H. S. Rodenbeck, Zur Geschichte
Friedrich Wilhelms des grossen Kurfiirsten (Berlin, 1851); B.
Erdmannsdorffer, Der grosse Kurftirst (Leipzig, 1879); j. G.
Droysen, Geschichte der preussischen Politik (Berlin, 1855-1886);
M. Philippson, Der grosse Kurfiirst (Berlin, 1897-1903); E. Heyck,
Der grosse Kurfiirst (Bielefeld, 1902); Spahn, Der grosse Kurftirst
(Mainz, 1902); H. Landwehr, Die Kirchenpolitik des grossen Kur-
fiirsten (Berlin, 1894); H. Prutz, A us des grossen Kurfiirsten letzten
Jahren (Berlin, 1897). Also Urkunden undAktenstiicke zur Geschichte
des Kurfiirsten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg (Berlin, 1864-
1902) ; T. Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, vol. i. (London,
1858); and A. Waddington, Le Grand Electeur et Louis XIV (Paris,
I905)-
FRBDERICK-LEMAiTRE, ANTOINE LOUIS PROSPER (1800-
1876) French actor, the son of an architect, was born at Havre
on the 28th of July 1800. He spent two years at the Con-
servatoire, and made his first appearance at a variety performance
in one of the basement restaurants at the Palais Royal. At
the Ambigu on the 1 2th of July 1823 he played the part of Robert
Macaire in L'Auberge des Adrits. The melodrama was played
seriously on the first night and was received with little favour,
but it was changed on the second night to burlesque, and thanks
to him had a great success. All Paris came to see it, and from
that day he was famous. He created a number of parts that
added to his popularity, especially Cardillac, Cagliostro and
Cartouche. His success in the last led to an engagement at the
Porte St Martin, where in 1827 he produced Trenle ans, ou la
vie d'un joueur, in which his vivid acting made a profound
impression. Afterwards at the Odeon and other theatres he
passed from one success to another, until he put the final touch
to his reputation as an artist by creating the part of Ruy Bias
in Victor Hugo's play. On his return to the Porte St Martin he
created the title-r61e in Balzac's Vautrin, which was forbidden
a second presentation, on .account, it is said, of the resemblance
of the actor's wig to the well-known toupet worn by Louis
Philippe. His last appearance was at this theatre in 1873 as the
old Jew in Marie Tudor, and he died at Paris on the 26th of
January 1876.
FREDERICKSBUR6, a city of Spottsylvania county, Virginia,
U.S.A., on the Rappahannock river, at the head of tide-water
navigation, about 60 m. N. of*Richmond and about 55 m. S.S.W.
of Washington. Pop. (1890) 4528; (1900) 5068 (1621 negroes);
(1910) 5874. It is served by the Potomac, Fredericksburg &
Piedmont, and the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac
railways, and by several coasting steamship lines. The city is
built on a series of terraces between the river and hills of con-
siderable height. The river is here spanned by iron bridges,
and just above the city is a dam 900 ft. long and 18 ft. high.
By means of this dam and a canal good water-power is furnished,
and the city's manufactures include flour, leather, shoes, woollens,
silks, wagons, agricultural implements and excelsior (fine wood-
shavings for packing or stuffing). The water- works, gas and
electric-lighting plants are owned and operated by the munici-
pality. At Fredericksburg are Fredericksburg College (founded
in 1893; co-educational), which includes the Kenmore school
for girls and the Saunders memorial school for boys (both
preparatory); a Confederate and a National cemetery (the
latter on Marye's Heights), a monument (erected in 1906) to
General Hugh Mercer (c. 1720-1777), whose home for several
years was here and who fell in the battle of Princeton; and a
monument to the memory of Washington's mother, who died here
in 1789 and whose home is still standing. Other buildings of
interest are the old Rising Sun Hotel, a popular resort during
Washington's time, and " Kenmore," the home of Colonel
Fielding Lewis, who married a sister of Washington. The city
was named in honour of Frederick, father of George III., and
was incorporated in 1727, long after its first settlement; in 1871
it was re-chartered by act of the General Assembly of Virginia.
The battle of Fredericksburg in the American Civil War was
fought on the i3th of December 1862 between the Union forces
(Army of the Potomac) under Major-General A. E. Burnside
and the Confederates (Armyof Northern Virginia)under General
R. E. Lee. In the middle of November, Burnside, newly ap-
pointed to command the Army of the Potomac, had manoeuvred
from the neighbourhood of Warrenton with a view to beginning
an offensive move trom Fredericksburg and, as a preliminary,
to seizing a foothold beyond the Rappahannock at or near that
place. On arriving near Falmouth, however, he found that the
means of crossing that he had asked for had not been forwarded
from Washington, and he sat down to wait for them, while,
on the other side, the Confederate army gradually assembled
south of the Rappahannock in a strong position with the left
on the river above Fredericksburg and the right near Hamilton's
Crossing on the Richmond railway. On the loth of December
Burnside, having by now received his pontoons, prepared to
cross the river and to attack the Confederate entrenched position
on the heights beyond the town. The respective forces were
Union 122,000, Confederate 79,000. Major-General E. V.
Sumner, commanding the Federal right wing (II. and IX.
corps), was to cross at Fredericksburg, Major-General W. B.
Franklin with the left (I. and VI. corps) some miles below, while
the centre (III. and V. corps) under Major-General Joseph
Hooker was to connect the two attacks and to reinforce either
at need. The Union artillery took position along the heights of
the north bank to cover the crossing, and no opposition was
encountered opposite Franklin's command, which formed up on
the other side during the nth and I2th. Opposite Sumner,
however, the Confederate riflemen, hidden in the gardens and
houses of Fredericksburg, caused much trouble and considerable
losses to the Union pioneers, and a forlorn hope of volunteers
from the infantry had to be rowed across under fire before the
enemy's skirmishers could be dislodgetl. Sumner's two corps
crossed on the I2th. The battle took place next morning.
Controversy has raged round Burnside's plan of action and
in particular round his orders to Franklin, as to which it can only
be said that whatever chance of success there was in so formidable
an undertaking as attacking the well-posted enemy was thrown
away through misunderstandings,and that nothing but misunder-
standings could be expected from the vague and bewildering
orders issued by the general in command. The actual battle can
be described in a few words. Jackson held the right of Lee's
line, Longstreet the left, both entrenched. Franklin, tied by
FREDERICTON FREE BAPTISTS
69
kit instructions, attacked with one division only, which a little
later he supported by two more (I. corps, Major-General J. F.
Reynolds) out of eight or nine available. His left flank was
harassed by the Confederate horse artillery under the young and
brilliant Captain John Pelham, and after breaking the first line
of Stonewall Jackson's corps the assailants were in the end
driven back with heavy losses. On the other flank, where part
of Longs t reel's corps held the low ridge opposite Fredericksburg
called Marye's Heights, Burnside ordered in the II. corps under
Major-General D. N. Couch about n A.M., and thenceforward
division after division, on a front of little more than 800 yds.,
was sent forward to assault with the bayonet. The " Stone Wall "
along the foot of Marye's was lined with every rifle of Longstreet's
corps that could find room to fire, and above them the Confederate
guns fired heavily on the assailants, whose artillery, on the height
beyond the river, was too far off to assist them. Not a man of
the Federals retched the wall, though the bravest were killed
a few paces from it, and Sumner's and most of Hooker's brigades
were broken one after the other as often as they tried to assault.
At night the wrecks of the right wing were withdrawn. Burnside
proposed nest day to lead the IX. corps, which he had formerly
commanded, in one mass to the assault of the Stone Wall, but his
subordinates dissuaded him, and on the night of the 151)1 the
Army of the Potomac withdrew to its camps about Falmouth.
The losses of the Federals were 12,650 men, those of the Con-
federates 4200, little more than a third of which fell on Long-
Street's corps.
See F. W. Palfrey. Antietam and Frederickfburg (New York, 1881) ;
G. \V. Redway. FreJerickslnirg (London, 1906); and G. F. R.
Henderson, Fredrritksburf (London, 1889).
FREDERICTON. a city and port of entry of New Brunswick,
Canada, capital of the province, situated on the St John river,
84 m. from its mouth, and on the Canadian Pacific railway.
It stands on a plain bounded on one side by the river, which is
here \ m. broad, and on the other by a range of hills which almost
encircle the town. It is regularly built with long and straight
streets, and contains the parliament buildings, government
house, the Anglican cathedral, the provincial university and
several other educational establishments. Fredericton is the
chief commercial centre in the interior of the province, and has
also a large trade in lumber. Its industries include canneries,
tanneries and wooden ware factories. The river is navigable
for large steamers up to the city, and above it by vessels of lighter
draught. Two bridges, passenger and railway, unite the city
with the towns of St Marye's and Gibson on the east side of the
river, at its junction with the Nashwaak. The city was founded
in 1785 by Sir Guy Carleton.ancl made the capital of the province,
in spite of the jealousy of St John, on account of its superior
strategical position. Pop. (1901) 7117.
FREOONIA, a village of Chautauqua county, New York,
U.S.A., about 45 m. S.W. of Buffalo, and 3 m. from Lake Erie.
Pop. (1000) 4>*7J (1005, state census) 5148; (1910 census) 5285.
Fredonia is served by the Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg
railway, which connects at Dunkirk, 3 m. to the N., with the Erie,
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago &
St Louis, and the Pennsylvania railways; and by electric
railway to Erie, Buffalo and Dunkirk. It is the seat of a State
Normal School. The Darwin R. Barker public library contained
9700 volumes in 1908. Fredonia is situated in the grape-growing
region of western New York, is an important shipping point for
(rapes, and has large grape-vine and general nurseries. The
making of wine and of unfennented grape-juice are important
industries of the village. Among other manufactures are canned
goods, coal dealers' supplies, and patent medicines. The first
settlement here was made in 1804, and the place was called
Canandaway until 1817, when the present name was adopted.
The village was incorporated in 1829. Fredonia was one of the
first places in the United States, if not the first, to make use of
natural gas for public purposes. Within the village limits, near
creek, whose waters showed the presence of gas, a well was sunk
in 1821, and the supply of gas thus tapped was sufficient to light
the streets of the village. Another well was sunk within the
village limits in 1 858. About 1905 natural gas was again obtained
by deep drilling near Fredonia and came into general use for
heat, light and power. In the Fredonia Baptist church on the
I4th of December 1873 a Woman's Temperance Union was
organized, and from this is sometimes dated the beginning of the
Woman's Christian Temperance Union movement.
FREDRIKSHALD (FREDERIKSHALD, FRIEDRICHSHALL) , a
seaport and garrison town of Norway, in Smaalenene amt
(county), 85 m. by rail S. by E. of Christiania. Pop. (1900)
1 1 ,948. It is picturesquely situated on both banks of the Tistedal
river at its outflow to the Ide fjord, surrounded by several
rocky eminences. The chief of these is occupied by the famous
fortress Fredriksten, protected on three sides by precipices,
founded by Frederick III. (1661), and mainly showing, in its
present form, the works of Frederick V. (1766) and Christian
VII. (1808). Between it and the smaller Gyldenlove fort a
monument marks the spot where Charles XII. was shot in the
trenches while besieging the town (1718). The siege, which was
then raised, is further commemorated by a monument to the
brave defence of the brothers Peter and Hans KolbjOrnsen.
Fredrikshald is close to the Swedish frontier, and had previously
(1660) withstood invasion, after which its name was changed
from Halden to the present form in 1665 in honour of Frederick
III. The town was almost totally destroyed by fire in 1759
and 1826. The castle surrendered to the Swedish crown prince
Bernadotte in 1814, and its capture was speedily followed by the
conquest of the kingdom and its union with Sweden. Freilriks-
hald is one of the principal ports of the kingdom for the export
of timber. Marble of very fine quality and grain is extensively
quarried and exported for architectural ornamentation and for
furniture-making. Wood-pulp is also exported. The industries
embrace granite quarries, wood-pulp factories, and factories for
sugar, tobacco, curtains, travelling-bags, boots, &c. There
are railway communications with Gothenburg and all parts of
Sweden and regular coastal and steamer services.
FREDRIKSTAD (FREDERIKSTAD), a seaport and manufactur-
ing town of Norway in Smaalenene amt (county), 58 m. S. by E.
of Christiania by the Christiania-Gothenburg railway. Pop.
(IQOO) 14,553. It lies at the mouth and on the eastern shore of
Christiania fjord, occupying both banks of the great river
Glommen, which, descending from the richly-wooded district of
Osterdal, floats down vast quantities of timber. The new town
on the right bank is therefore a centre of the timber export trade,
this place being the principal port in Norway for the export of
pit-props, planed boards, and other varieties of timber. There
is also a great industry in the making of red bricks, owing to the
expansion of Christiania, Gothenburg and other towns. Granite
is quarried and exported. Besides the large number of saw and
planing mills, there are shipbuilding yards, engine and boiler
works, cotton and woollen mills, and factories for acetic acid and
naphtha. The harbour, which can be entered by vessels drawing
14 ft., is kept open in winter by an ice-breaker. In the vicinity
is the island Hankii, the most fashionable Norwegian seaside
resort. The old town on the left bank was founded by Frederick
II. in 1567. It was for a long time strongly fortified, and in
1716 Charles XII. of Sweden made a vain attempt tocaptureit.
FREE BAPTISTS, formerly called (but no longer officially)
FREEWILL BAPTISTS, an American denomination holding anti-
paedobaptist and anti-Calvinistic doctrines, and practically
identical in creed with the General Baptists of Great Britain.
Many of the early Baptist churches in Rhode Island and through-
out the South were believers in " general redemption " (hence
called " general " Baptists) ; and there was a largely attended
conference of this Arminian branch of the church at Newport in
1729. But the denomination known as " Free-willers " had its
rise in 1770-1780, when anti-Calvinists in London, Barrington
and Canterbury, New Hampshire, seceded and were organized
by Benjamin Randall (1740-1808), a native of New Hampshire.
Randall was an itinerant missionary, who had been preaching
for two years before his ordination in 1780; in the same year
he was censured for " heterodox " teaching. The work of the
church suffered a relapse after his death, and a movement to join
FREEBENCH FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND
the Freewill Baptists with the " Christians," who were led by
Elias Smith (1769-1846) and had been bitterly opposed by
Randall, was nearly successful. Between 1820 and 1830 the
denomination made considerable progress, especially in New
England and the Middle West. The Freewill Baptists were
joined in 1841 by many " open-communion Baptists ": those
in the Carolinas who did not join the larger body distinguishing
themselves by the name of Original Freewill Baptists and soon
afterwards by some of the General Baptists of NorthCarolina and
some of the Six Principle Baptists of Rhode Island (who had
added the " laying on of hands " to the Five Principles hitherto
held); and the abbreviation of the denominational name to
" Free Baptists " suggests their liberal policy indeed open
communion is the main if not the only hindrance to union with
the " regular " Baptist Church.
Colleges founded by the denomination, all co-educational, are :
Hillsdale College, opened at Spring Harbor as Michigan Central
College in 1844, and established at Hillsdale, Michigan, in 1855;
Bates College, Lewiston, Maine, 1863, now non-sectarian; Rio
Grande College, Rio Grande, Ohio, 1876; and Parker College,
Winnebago City, Minnesota, opened in 1888. At the close of
1909 there were 1294 ministers, 1303 churches, and 73,536
members of the denomination in the United States. The Morn-
ing Star of Boston, established in 1826, is the most prominent
journal published by the church. In British North America,
according to a Canadian census bulletin of 1902, there were, in
1901, 24,229 Free Baptists, of whom 15,502 were inhabitants of
New Brunswick, 8355 of Nova Scotia, 246 of Ontario, and 87
of Quebec. The United Societies of Free Baptist Young People,
an international organization founded in 1888, had in 1907 about
15,000 members. At the close of 1907 the " Original Freewill
Baptists " had 120 ministers, 167 churches, and 12,000 members,
practically all in the Carolinas.
See I. D. Stewart, History of the Free Will Baptists (Dover, N. H.,
1862) for 1780-1830, and his edition of the Minutes of the General
Conference of the Free Will Baptist Connection (Boston, 1887) ; James
B. Taylor, The Centennial Record of the Free Will Baptists (Dover,
1881); John Buzzell, Memoir of Elder Benjamin Randall (Parson-
field, Maine, 1827); and P. Richardson, " Randall and the Free
Will Baptists," in The Christian Review, vol. xxiii. (Baltimore, 1858).
FREEBENCH, in English law, the interest which a widow has
in the copyhold lands of her husband, corresponding to dower
in the case of freeholds. It depends upon the custom of the
manor, but as a general rule the widow takes a third for her life
of the lands of which her husband dies seised, but it may be an
estate greater or less than a third. If the husband surrenders
his copyhold and the surrenderee is adnlitted, or if he contracts
for a sale, it will defeat the widow's freebench. As freebench is
regarded as a continuation of the husband's estate, the widow
does not (except by special custom) require to be admitted.
FREE CHURCH FEDERATION, a voluntary association of
British Nonconformist churches for co-operation in religious,
social and civil work. It was the outcome of a unifying tendency
displayed during the latter part of the igth century. About;
1890 the proposal that there should be a Nonconformist Church
Congress analogous to the Anglican Church Congress was seriously
considered, and the first was held in Manchester on the jth of
November 1892. In the following year it was resolved that the
basis of representation should be neither personal (as in the
Anglican Church Congress) nor denominational, but territorial.
England and Wales have since been completely covered with a
network of local councils, each of wSich elects its due proportion
of representatives to the national gathering. This territorial
arrangement eliminated all sectarian distinctions, and also the
possibility of committing the different churches as such to any
particular policy. The representatives of the local councils
attend not as denominationalists but as Evangelical Free
Churchmen. The name of the organization was changed from
Congress to National Council as soon as the assembly ceased to
be a fortuitous concourse of atoms, and consisted of duly
appointed representatives from the local councils of every part
of England. The local councils consist of representatives of the
Congregational and Baptist Churches, the Methodist Churches,
the Presbyterian Church of England, the Free Episcopal Churches,
the. Society of Friends, and such other Evangelical Churches as
the National Council may at any time admit. The constitution
states the following as the objects of the National Council: (a)
To facilitate fraternal intercourse and co-operation among the
Evangelical Free Churches; (b) to assist in the organization of
local councils; (c) to encourage devotional fellowship and mutual
counsel concerning the spiritual life and religious activities of the
Churches; (d) to advocate the New Testament doctrine of the
Church, and to defend the rights of the associated Churches;
(e) to promote the application of the law of Christ in every
relation of human life. Although the objects of the Free Church
councils are thus in their nature and spirit religious rather than
political, there are occasions on which action is taken on great
national affairs. Thus a thorough-going opposition was offered
to the Education Act of 1 902 , and whole-hearted support accorded
to candidates at the general election of 1906 who pledged them-
selves to altering that measure.
A striking feature of the movement is the adoption of the
parochial system for the purpose of local work. Each of the
associated churches is requested to look after a parish, not of
course with any attempt to exclude other churches, but as having
a special responsibility for those in that area who are not already
connected with some existing church. Throughout the United
Kingdom local councils are formed into federations, some fifty
in number, which are intermediate between them and the
national council. The local councils do what is possible to prevent
overlapping and excessive competition between the churches.
They also combine the forces of the local churches for evangelistic'
and general devotional work, open-air services, efforts on behalf
of Sunday observance, and the prevention of gambling. Services
are arranged in connexion with workhouses, hospitals and other
public institutions. Social work of a varied character forms a
large part of the operations of the local councils, and the Free
Church Girls' Guild has a function similar to that of the Anglican
Girls' Friendly Society. The national council engages in mission
work on a large scale, and a considerable number of periodicals,
hymn-books for special occasions, and works of different kinds
explaining the history and ideals of the Evangelical Free
Churches have been published. The churches represented
in the National Council have 9966 ministers, 55,828 local-
preachers, 407,991 Sunday-school teachers, 3,416,377 Sunday
scholars, 2,178,221 communicants, and sitting accommodation
for 8,555,460.
A remarkable manifestation of this unprecedented reunion
was the fact that a committee of the associated churches prepared
and published a catechism expressing the positive and funda-
mental agreement of all the Evangelical Free Churches on the
essential doctrines of Christianity (see The Contemporary Review,
January-iSgg) . The catechism represents substantially the creed
of not less than 80,000,000 Protestants. It has been widely
circulated throughout Great Britain, the British Colonies and
the United States of America, and has also been translated into
Welsh, French and Italian.
The movement has spread to all parts of Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, Jamaica, the United States of America and
India. It is perhaps necessary to add that it differs essentially
from the Evangelical Alliance, inasmuch as- its unit is not an
individual, private Christian, but a: definitely organized and
visible Church. The essential doctrine of-the movement is a
particular doctrine of churchmanship" which, as explained in
the catechism, regards the Lord' Jesus- Christ as the sole and
Divine Head of every branch of-the Holy Catholic Church
throughout the world. For this reason those wfio do not accept
the deity of Christ are necessarily excluded from the national
council and its loca! constituent councils.
FREE-CHURCH OF ENGLAND, a Protestant episcopal church
" essentially one with the established church of. England, but
free-to'gb into any parish, to use a revised edition "of the Book
of Common Prayer, to associate the laity with the' clergy in the
government and work of the church, and to hold 'communion with
Christians of other denominations." -It was founded 'in 1844
FREE CHURCH "OF SCOTLAND
in opposition to the Tractariari movement, and embodies the
distinctively evangelical elements of the Reformation. It pre-
serves and maintains to the letter all that is Protestant and
evangelical in the liturgy and services of the Anglican church,
while its free constitution and revised formularies meet the needs
of members of trnt communion who resent sacerdotal and
ritualistic tendencies. There are two dioceses (northern and
southern) each with a bishop, about jo churches and ministers,
and about 1 300 members.
FREE CHURCH OP SCOTLAND. In one sense the Free
Church of Scotland dated its existence from the Disruption of
1843, in another it claimed to be the rightful representative of
the National Church of Scotland (see SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF)
as it was reformed in 1560.' In the ecclesiastical history of
Scotland the Free Churchman sees three great reforming periods.
In his view these deserve to be called reforming on many
accounts, but most especially because in them the independence
of the church, her inherent scriptural right to exercise a spiritual
jurisdiction in which she is responsible to her Divine Head alone,
was both earnestly asserted and practically maintained. The
first reformation extended from 1560, when the church freely
held her first General Assembly, and of her own authority acted
on the First Book, of Discipline, to 1592, when her Presbyterian
order was finally and fully ratified by the parliament. The second
period began in 1638, when, after 20 years of suspended anima-
tion, the Assembly once more shook off Episcopacy, and termin-
ated in 1649, when the parliament of Scotland confirmed the
church in her liberties in a larger and ampler sense than before.
The third period began in 1834, when the Assembly made use
of what the church believed to be her rights in passing the Veto
and Chapel Acts. It culminated in the Disruption of 1843.
The fact that the Church, as ied first by John Knox and after-
wards by Andrew Melville, claimed an inherent right to exercise
a spiritual jurisdiction is notorious. More apt to be overlooked
is the comparative freedom with which that right was actually
used by the church irrespective of state recognition. That recog-
nition was not given until after the queen's resignation in 1567;'
but, for several years before it came, the church had been holding
her Assemblies and settling all questions of discipline, worship,
and administration as they arose, in accordance with the first
book of polity or discipline which had been drawn up in 1560.
Further, in 1581 she, of her own motion, adopted a second book
of a similar character, in which she expressly claimed an inde-
pendent and exclusive jurisdiction or power in all matters
ecclesiastical. " which flows directly from God and the Mediator
Jesus Christ , and is spiritual, not having a temporal head on earth,
but only Christ, the only king and governor of his church ";
and this claim, though directly negatived in 1584 by the " Black
Acts," which included an Act of Supremacy over estates spiritual
and temporal, continued to be asserted by the Assemblies,
until at last it also was practically allowed in the act of 1592.'
This legislation/of .1592, however, did not long remain in force.
An act of parliament in 1606, which " reponed, restored and
reintegrated "'the estate of bishops to their ancient dignities,
prerogatives and ' privileges, was followed by several acts of
various subservient assemblies, which, culminating in that of
1618, practically amounted to a complete surrender of jurisdiction
by the church itself/ For twenty years no Assemblies whatever
were held. This interval must necessarily be regarded from the
Presbyterian point of view as having been one of very deep
depression. But a second reformation, characterized by great
1 " It is her being free, not her being established, that constitutes
the real historical and hereditary identity of the Reformed National
Church of Scotland." See Act and Declaration Jkc., of Free Assembly,
1851.
'In the act Anmt the true and holy Kirk, and of those that. are
declared not lobe of the same. This art 'was supplemented by that of
t$~Q.Anent Ike Jurisdiction of the Kirk. '
* The Second Book of Discipline was not formally recognired in
that act; but all former acts against " the jurisdiction and dis-
cipline of the true Kirk as the same i* used and exercised within the
realm " were abolished; and all " liberties, privileges, immunities
and freedom* whatsoever " previously granted were ratified and
approved.
energy nrid j vlgoliT, began in 1638. The proceedings of the
Assembly of that year, afterwards tardily and reluctantly
acquiesced in by the state, finally issued in the acts of parliament
of 164*), by which the Westminster standards were ratified,
lay-patronage was abolished, and the coronation oath itself
framed in accordance with the principles of Presbyterian church
government. Another period of intense reaction soon set in.
No Assemblies were- permitted by Cromwell after 1653; and,
soon after the Restoration, Presbytery was temporarily over-
thrown by a scries of rescissory acts. Nor was the Revolution
Settlement of 1690 so entirely favourable to the freedom of the
church as the legislation of 1649 had been. Prelacy was abolished,
and various obnoxious statutes were repealed, but the acts
rescissory were not cancelled; presbyterianism was re-estab-
lished, but the statutory recognition of the Confession of Faith
took no notice of certain qualifications under which that docu-
ment had originally been approved by the Assembly of 1647 ;*
the old rights of patrons were again discontinued, but the large
powers which had been conferred on congregations by the act of
1649 were not wholly restored. Nevertheless the great principle
of a distinct ecclesiastical jurisdiction, embodied in the Con-
fession of Faith, was accepted without reservation, and a Presby-
terian polity effectively confirmed both then and at the ratifica-
tion of the treaty of Union. This settlement, however, did not
long subsist unimpaired. In 1712 the act of Queen Anne, restor-
ing patronage to its ancient footing, was passed in spite of the
earnest remonstrances of the Scottish people. For many years
afterwards (until 1784) the Assembly continued to instruct each
succeeding commission to make application to the king and the
parliament for redress of the grievance. But meanwhile a new
phase of Scottish ecclesiastical politics commonly known as
Moderatism had been inaugurated, during the prevalence of
which the church became even more indifferent than the lay
patrons themselves to the rights of her congregations with regard
to the " calling " of ministers. From the Free Church point of
view, the period from which the secessions under Ebenezer
Erskine and Thomas Gillespie are dated was also characterized
by numerous other abuses on the Church's part which amounted
to a practical surrender of the most important and distinctive
principles of her ancient Presbyterian polity. 6 Towards the
beginning of the present century there were many circumstances,
both within and without the church, which conspired to bring
about an evangelical and popular reaction against this reign of
" Moderatism." The result was a protracted struggle, which is
commonly referred to as the Ten Years' Conflict, and which has
been aptly described as the last battle in the long war which for
nearly 300 years had been waged within the church itself, between
the friends and the foes of the doctrine of an exclusive ecclesi-
astical jurisdiction. That final struggle may be said to have
begun with the passing in 1834 of the " Veto " Act, by which it
was declared to be a fundamental law of the church that no pastor
should be intruded on a congregation contrary to the will of the
people, 6 and by which it was provided that the simple dissent
of a majority of heads of families in a parish should be enough to
warrant a presbytery in rejecting a presentee. The question of
the legality of this measure soon came to be tried in the civil
courts; and it was ultimately answered in a sense unfavourable
to the church by the decision (1838) of the court of session in
the Auchtcrarder case, to the effect that a presbytery had no right
to reject a presentee simply because the parishioners protested
against his settlement, but was bound to disregard the veto (see
CHALMERS, THOMAS). This decision elicited from the Assembly
* The most important of these had reference to the full right of a
constituted church to the enjoyment of an absolutely unrestricted
freedom in convening Assemblies. This very point on one occasion
at least threatened to 'be the cause of serious misunderstandings
rxjtween William and the people of Scotland. The difficulties were
happily smoothed,- however, by the wisdom and tact of William
Cars tares.
'See Act. and Declaration of Free Assembly, 1851.
This- principle had been asserted even by an Assembly so late as
thai of 1 736, and had been invariably presupposed in the "call,"
which had never ceased to be regarded as an indispensable pre-
requisite for the settlement of a minister.
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND
of that year a new declaration of the doctrine of the spiritual
independence of the church. The " exclusive jurisdiction of
the civil courts in regard to the civil rights and emoluments
secured by law to the church and the ministers thereof " was
acknowledged without qualification; and continued implicit
obedience to their decisions with reference to these rights and
emoluments was pledged. At the same time it was insisted on
" that, as is declared in the Confession of Faith of this National
Established Church, ' the Lord Jesus Christ, as King and Head
of the church, hath therein appointed a government in the hand
of church officers distinct from the civil magistrate '; and that
in all matters touching the doctrine, discipline and government
of the church her judicatories possess an exclusive jurisdiction,
founded on the Word of God, which power ecclesiastical " (in
the words of the Second Book of Discipline) " flows immediately
from God and the Mediator the Lord Jesus Christ, and is spiritual,
not having a temporal head on earth, but only Christ, the only
spiritual King and Governor of His Kirk." And it was resolved
to assert, and at all hazards defend, this spiritual jurisdiction,
and firmly to enforce obedience to the same upon the office-
bearers and members of the church. The decision of the court
of session having been confirmed by the House of Lords early in
1839, it was decided in the Assembly of that year that the
church, while acquiescing in the loss of the temporalities at
Auchterarder, should reaffirm the principle of non-intrusion as
an integral part of the constitution of the Reformed Church
of Scotland, and that a committee should be appointed to confer
with the government with a view to the prevention, if possible,
of any further collision between the civil and ecclesiastical
authorities. While the conference with the government had no
better result than an unsuccessful attempt at compromise by
means of Lord Aberdeen's Bill, which embodied the principle
of a dissent with reasons, still graver complications were arising
out of the Marnoch and other cases. 1 In the circumstances it
was resolved by the Assembly of 1842 to transmit to the queen,
by the hands of the lord high commissioner, a " claim, declara-
tion, and protest," complaining of the encroachments of the court
of session, 2 and also an address praying for the abolition of
patronage. The home secretary's answer (received in January
1843) gave no hope of redress. Meanwhile the position of the
1 According to the Free Church " Protest " of 1843 it was in these
cases decided (i) that the courts of the church were liable to be com-
pelled to intrude ministers on reclaiming congregations ; (2) that the
civil courts had power to interfere with and interdict the preaching of
the gospel and administration of ordinances as authorized and en-
joined by the church ; (3) that the civil courts had power to suspend
spiritual censures pronounced by the courts of the church, and to
interdict their execution as to spiritual effects, functions and privi-
leges; (4) that deposed ministers, and probationers deprived of their
licence, could be restored by the mandate of the civil courts to the
spiritual office and status of which the church courts had deprived
them; (5) that the right of membership in ecclesiastical courts
could be determined by the civil courts; (6) that the civil courts
had power to supersede the majority of a church court of the Estab-
lishment in regard to the exercise of its spiritual functions as a church
court, and to authorize the minority to exercise the said functions
in opposition to the court itself and to the superior judicatories of
the church; (7) that processes of ecclesiastical discipline could be
arrested by the civil courts; and (8) that without the sanction of the
civil courts no increased provision could be made for the spiritual care
of a parish, although such provision left all civil rights and patri-
monial interests untouched.
* The narrative and argument of this elaborate and able document
cannot be reproduced here. In substance it is a claim " as of right "
on behalf of the church and of the nation and people of Scotland that
the church shall freely possess and enjoy her liberties, government,
discipline, rights and privileges according to law, and that she shall
b protected therein from the foresaid unconstituttenal and illegal
encroachments of the said court of session, and her people secured in
their Christian and constitutional rights and liberties. This claim is
followed by the " declaration " that the Assembly cannot intrude
ministers on reclaiming congregations, or carry on the government
of Christ's church subject to the coercion of the court of session; and
by the " protest " that all acts of the parliament of Great Britain
passed without the consent of the Scottish church and nation, in
Iteration or derogation of the government, discipline, rights and
privileges of the church, as also all sentences of courts in contra-
vention of said government, discipline, rights and privileges, "are and
hmll be in themselves void and null, and of no legal force or effect."
evangelical party had been further hampered by the decision of
the court of session declaring the ministers of chapels of ease to
be unqualified to sit in any church court. A final appeal to
parliament by petition was made in March 1843, when, by a
majority of 135 (211 against 76), the House of Commons declined
to attempt any redress of the grievances of the Scottish Church.*
At the first session of the following General Assembly (i8th May
1843) the reply of the non-intrusion party was made in a protest,
signed by upwards of 200 commissioners, to the effect that since,
in their opinion, the recent decisions of the civil courts, and the
still more recent sanction of these decisions by the legislature,
had made it impossible at that time to hold a free Assembly of
the church as by law established, they therefore "protest that it
shall be lawful for us, and such other commissioners as may
concur with us, to withdraw to a separate place of meeting, for the
purpose of taking steps for ourselves and all who adhere to us
maintaining with us the Confession of Faith and standards of
the Church of Scotland as heretofore understood for separating
in an orderly way from the Establishment, and thereupon
adopting such measures as may be competent to us, in humble
dependence on God's grace and the aid of His Holy Spirit, for
the advancement of His glory, the extension of the gospel of our
Lord and Saviour, and the administration of the affairs of Christ's
house according to His holy word." The reading of this document
was followed by the withdrawal of the entire non-intrusion party
to another place of meeting, where the first Assembly of the Free
Church was constituted, with Dr Thomas Chalmers as moderator.
This Assembly sat from the i8th to the 3oth of May, and trans-
acted a large amount of important business. On Tuesday the
23rd, 396 4 ministers and professors publicly adhibited their
names to the Act of Separation and deed of demission by which
they renounced all claim to the benefices they had held in con-
nexion with the Establishment, declaring them to be vacant, and
consenting to their being dealt with as such. By this impressive .
proceeding the signatories voluntarily surrendered an annual
income amounting to fully 100,000.
The first care of the voluntarily disestablished church was to
provide incomes for her clergy and places of worship for her
people. As early as 1841 indeed the leading principle of a
" sustentation fund " for the support of the ministry had been
announced by Dr Robert Smith Candlish; and at " Convocation,"
a private unofficial meeting of the members of the evangelical
or non-intrusion party held in November 1842, Dr Chalmers
was prepared with a carefully matured scheme according to which
" each congregation should do its part in sustaining the whole,
and the whole should sustain each congregation." Between
November 1842 and May 1843, 647 associations had been
formed; and at the first Assembly it was announced that up-
wards of 17,000 bad already been contributed. At the close of
the first financial year (1843-1844) it was reported that the fund
had exceeded 61,000. It was participated in by 583 ministers;
and 470 drew the full equal dividend of 105. Each successive
year showed a steady increase in the gross amount of the fund;
but owing to an almost equally rapid increase of the number of
new ministerial charges participating in its benefits, the stipend
payable to each minister did not for many years reach the sum ,
of 150 which had been aimed at as a minimum. Thus in 1844-
1845 the fund had risen to 76,180, but the ministers had also
increased to 627, and the equal dividend therefore was only 122.
During the first ten years the annual income averaged 84,057;
during the next decade 108,643; and during the third 130,246.
The minimum of 150 was reached at last in 1868; and subse-
quently the balance remaining after that minimum had been
provided was treated as a surplus fund, and distributed among
those ministers whose congregations have contributed at
certain specified rates per member. In 1878 the total amount
received for this fund was upwards of 177,000; in this 1075
ministers participated. The full equal dividend of 157 was
paid to 766 ministers; and additional grants of 36 and 18
' The Scottish members voted with the minority in the proportion
of 25 to 12.
4 The number ultimately rose to 474.
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND
73
were paid out of the surplus fund to 632 and 129 ministers
respectively.
To provide for the erection of the buildings which, it was
foreseen, would be necessary, a general building fund, in which
all should share alike, was also organized, and local building
funds were as far as possible established in each parish, with the
result that at the first Assembly a sum of 104,776 was reported
as already available. By May 1844 a further sum of 123,060
had been collected, and 470 churches were reported as completed
or nearly so. In the following year 131,737 was raised and
60 additional churches were built. At the end of four years
considerably more than 700 churches had been provided.
During the winter session 1843-1844 the divinity students
who had joined the Free Church continued their studies under
Dr Chalmers and Dr David Welsh (1793-1845); and at the
Assembly of 1844 arrangements were made for the erection of
suitable collegiate buildings. The New College, Edinburgh,
was built in 1847 at a cost of 46,506; and divinity halls were
subsequently set up also in Glasgow and Aberdeen. In 1878
there were 13 professors of theology, with an aggregate of 230
students, the numbers at Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen
respectively being 1 29, 69 and 33.
A somewhat unforeseen result of the Disruption was the
necessity for a duplicate system of elementary schools. At
the 1843 Assembly it was for the first time announced by Dr
Welsh that " schools to a certain extent must be opened to afford
a suitable sphere of occupation for parochial and still more for
private teachers of schools, who are threatened with deprivation
of their present office on account of their opinions upon the church
question." The suggestion was taken up with very great energy,
with the result that in May 1845, 280 schools had been set up,
while in May 1847 this number had risen to 513, with an attend-
ance of upwards of 44,000 scholars. In 1869 it was stated in an
authoritative document laid before members of parliament
that at that time there were connected with and supported by
the Free Church 508 schools (including two normal schools),
with 633 teachers and 64,115 scholars. The school buildings
had been erected at a cost of 220,000, of which the committee
of privy council had contributed 35,000, while the remainder
had been raised by voluntary effort. Annual payments made
to teachers, Sic., as at 1869, amounted to 16,000. In accordance
with certain provisions of the Education Act of 1872 most of the
schools of the Free Church were voluntarily transferred, without
compensation, to the local school boards. The normal schools
are now transferred to the state.
It has been seen already that during the period of the Ten
Years' Conflict the non-intrusion party strenuously denied
that in any one respect it was departing from acknowledged
principles of the National Church. It continued to do so after the
Disruption. In 1846, however, it was found to have become
necessary, " in consequence of the late change in the outward
condition of the church," to amend the " questions and formula "
to be used at the licensing of probationers and the ordination
of office-bearers. These were amended accordingly; and at the
same time it was declared that, " while the church firmly main-
tains the same scriptural principles as to the duties of nations
and their rulers in reference to true religion and the Church of
Christ for which she has hitherto contended, she disclaims in-
tolerant or persecuting principles, and does not regard her
Confession of Faith, or any portion thereof when fairly interpreted,
as favouring intolerance or persecution, or consider that her
office-bearers by subscribing it profess any principles inconsistent
with liberty of conscience and the right of private judgment."
The main difference between the " formula " of the Free Church
and that of the Established Church (as at the year 1900) was
that the former referred to the Confession of Faith simply as
" approven by General Assemblies of this Church," while the
latter described it as " approven by the General Assemblies of this
National Church, and ratified by law in the year 1690, and fre-
quently confirmed by divers Acts of Parliament since that time."
The former inserted an additional clause, " I also approve of
the general principles respecting the jurisdiction of the church,
and her subjection to Christ as her only Head, which are con-
tained in the Claim of Right and in the Protest referred to in the
questions already put to me ", and also added the words which
are here distinguished by italics, " And I promise that through
the grace of God I shall firmly and constantly adhere to the same,
and to the utmost of my power shall in my station assert,
maintain, and defend the said doctrine, worship, discipline
and government of this church by kirk-sessions, presbyteries,
provincial synods, and general assemblies, together with the
liberty and exclusive jurisdiction thereof; and that I shall, in my
practice, conform myself to the said worship and submit to the
said discipline [and] government, and exclusive jurisdiction, and
not endeavour directly or indirectly the prejudice or subversion
of the same." In the year 1851 an act and declaration anent the
publication of the subordinate standards and other authoritative
documents of the Free Church of Scotland was passed, in which
the historical fact is recalled that the Church of Scotland had
formally consented to adopt the Confession of Faith, catechisms,
directory of public worship, and form of church government agreed
upon by the Westminster Assembly ; and it is declared that
" these several formularies, as ratified, with certain explanations,
by divers Acts of Assembly in the years 1645, 1646, and particu-
larly in 1647, this church continues till this day to acknowledge
as her subordinate standards of doctrine, worship and govern-
ment." 1
In 1858 circumstances arose which, in the opinion of many,
seemed fitted to demonstrate to the Free Church that her freedom
was an illusion, and that all her sacrifices had been made in vain.
John Macmillan, minister of Cardross, accused of immorality,
had been tried and found guilty by the Free Presbytery of
Dumbarton. Appeal having been taken to the synod, an attempt
was there made to revive one particular charge, of which he had
been finally acquitted by the presbytery; and this attempt was
successful in the General Assembly. That ultimate court of
review did not confine itself to the points appealed, but went
into the merits of the whole case as it had originally come before
the presbytery. The result was a sentence of suspension.
MacmiUan, believing that the Assembly had acted with some
irregularity, applied to the court of session for an interdict
against the execution of that sentence; and for this act he was
summoned to the bar of the Assembly to say whether or not
it was the case that he had thus appealed. Having answered
in the affirmative, he was deposed on the spot. Forthwith
he raised a new action (his previous application for an interdict
had been refused) concluding for reduction of the spiritual
sentence of deposition and for substantial damages. The
defences lodged by the Free Church were to the effect that the
civil courts had no right to review and reduce spiritual sentences,
or to decide whether the General Assembly of the Free Church
had acted irregularly or not. Judgments adverse to the defenders
were delivered on these points; and appeals were taken to the
House of Lords. But before the case could be beard there,
the lord president took an opportunity in the court of session
to point out to the pursuer that, inasmuch as the particular
General Assembly against which the action was brought had
ceased to exist, it could not therefore be made in any circum-
stances to pay damages, and that the action of reduction of the
spiritual sentence, being only auxiliary to the claim of damages,
ought therefore to be dismissed. He further pointed out that
Macmillan might obtain redress in another way, should he be
able to prove malice against individuals. Very soon after this
deliverance of the lord president, the case as it had stood against
the Free Church was withdrawn, and Macmillan gave notice of
an action of a wholly different kind. But this last was not per-
severed in. The appeals which had been taken to the House of
Lords were, in these circumstances, also departed from by
the Free Church. The case did not advance sufficiently to show
1 By this formal recognition of the qualifications to the Confession
of Faith made in 1647 the scruples of the majority of the Associate
Synod of Original Seceders were removed, and 27 ministers, alone
with a considerable number of their people, joined the Free Church
in the following year.
74
.FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND
how far the courts of law would be prepared to go in the direction
of recognizing voluntary tribunals and a kind of secondary
exclusive jurisdiction . founded on contract. 1 But, whether
recognized or not, the church for her part continued to believe
that she had an inherent spiritual jurisdiction, and remained
unmoved in her determination to act in accordance with that
resolution " notwithstanding of whatsoever trouble or persecu-
tion may arise." 2
In 1863 a motion was made and unanimously carried in the
Free Church Assembly for the appointment of a committee to
confer with a corresponding committee of the United Presby-
terian Synod, and with the representatives of such other dis-
established churches as might be willing to meet and deliberate
with a view to an incorporating union. Formal negotiations
between the representatives of these two churches were begun
shortly afterwards, which resulted in a report laid before the
following Assembly. From this document it appeared that the
committees of the two churches were not at one on the question
as to the relation of the civil magistrate to the church. While on
the part of the Free Church it was maintained that he " may
lawfully acknowledge, as being in accordance with the Word of
God, the creed and jurisdiction of the church," and that " it is
his duty, when necessary and expedient, to employ the national
resources in aid of the church, provided always that in doing so,
while reserving to himself .full control over the temporalities
which are his own gift, he abstain from all authoritative inter-
ference in the internal government of the church," it was declared
by the committee of the United Presbyterian Church that,
" inasmuch as the civil magistrate has no authority in spiritual
things, and as the employment of force in such matters is opposed
to the spirit and precepts of Christianity, it is not within his
province to legislate as to what is true in religion, to prescribe
a creed or form of worship to his subjects, or to endow the church
from national resources." In other words, while the Free Church
maintained that in certain circumstances it was lawful and even
incumbent on the magistrate to endow the church and on the
church to accept his endowment, the United Presbyterians main-
tained that in no case was this lawful either for the one party or for
the other. Thus in a very short time it had been made perfectly
evident that a union between the two bodies, if accomplished
at all, could only be brought about on the understanding that
the question as to the lawfulness of state endowments should
be an open one. The Free Church Assembly, by increasing
majorities, manifested a readiness for union, even although
unanimity had not been attained on that theoretical point.
But there was a minority which did not sympathize in this
readiness, and after ten years of fruitless effort it was in 1873
found to be expedient that the idea of union with the United
Presbyterians should for the time be abandoned. Other negotia-
tions, however, which had been entered upon with the Reformed
Presbyterian Church at a somewhat later date proved more
successful; and a majority of the ministers of that church with
their congregations were united with the Free Church in 1876.
(J. S. BL.)
In the last quarter of the igth century the Free Church con-
tinued to be the most active, theologically, of the Scottish
Churches. The College chairs were almost uniformly filled by
advanced critics or theologians, inspired more or less by Professor
A. B. Davidson. Dr A. B. Bruce, author of The Training of the
Twelve, &c., was appointed to the chair of apologetics and New
Testament exegesis in the Glasgow College in 1875; Henry
Drummond (author of Natural Law in the Spiritual World, &c.)
was made lecturer in natural science in the same college in 1877
and became professor in 1884; and Dr George Adam Smith
(author of The Twelve Prophets, &c.) was called to the Hebrew
chair in 1892. Attempts were made between 1890 and 1895 to
bring all these professors except Davidson (similar attacks
were also made on Dr Marcus Dods, afterwards principal of the
1 See Taylor Innes, Law of Creeds in Scotland, p. 258 seq.
'The language of Dr. Buchanan, for example, in 1860 was (mutatis
mutandis) the same aa that which he had employed in 1838 in moving
the Independence resolution already referred to.
New College, Edinburgh) to the bar of the Assembly for unsound
teaching or writing; but in every case these were abortive,
the Assembly never taking any step beyond warning the accused
that their primary duty was to teach and defend the church's
faith as embodied Ln the confession. In 1892 the Free Church,
following the example of the United Presbyterian Church and
the Church of Scotland (1889), passed a Declaratory Act relaxing
the stringency of subscription to the confession, with the result
that a small number of ministers and congregations, mostly in the
Highlands, severed their connexion with the church and formed
the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, on strictly and
straitly orthodox lines. In 1907 this body had twenty congrega-
tions and twelve ministers.
The Free Church always regarded herself as a National Church,
and during this period she sought actively to be true to that
character by providing church ordinances for the increasing
population of Scotland and applying herself to the new problems
of non-church-going, and of the changing habits of the people.
Her Assembly's committee on religion and morals worked
toward the same ends as the similar organization of the Estab-
lished Church, and in her, as in the other churches, the standard
of parochial and congregational activity was raised and new
methods of operation devised. She passed legislation on the
difficult problem of ridding the church of inefficient ministers.
The use of instrumental music was sanctioned in Free Churches
during this period. An association was formed in 1891 to pro-
mote the ends of edification, order and reverence in the public
services of the church, and published in 1898 A New Directory
for Public Worship which does not provide set forms of prayer,
but directions as to the matter of prayer in the various services.
The Free Church took a large share in the study of hymnology
and church music, which led to the production of The Church
Hymnary. From 1885 to 1895 much of the energy of all the Presby-
terian churches was absorbed by the disestablishment agitation.
In the former year the Free Church, having almost entirely
shed the establishment principle on which it was founded, began
to rival the United Presbyterian Church in its resolutions calling
for the disestablishment of the Church of Scotland. In spite of
the offers of the Establishment Assembly to confer with the
dissenting churches about union, the assaults upon its status
waxed in vigour, till in 1893 the Free Church hailed the result of
the general election as a verdict of the constituencies in favour
of disestablishment, and insisted upon the government of the day
taking up Sir Charles Cameron's bill.
During the last four or five years of the century the Free and
United Presbyterian churches, which after the failure of their
union negotiations in 1873 had been connected together by a
Mutual Eligibility Act enabling a congregation of one church
to call a minister from the other, devoted their energy to the
arrangement of an incorporating union. The Synod of the
United Presbyterian Church resolved in 1896 to " take steps
towards union," and in the following year the Free Assembly
responded by appointing a committee to confer with a committee
of the other church. The joint committee discovered a "remark-
able and happy agreement " between the doctrinal standards,
rules and methods of the two bodies, and with very little con-
cessions on either side a common constitution and common
" questions and formula " for the admission of ministers and
office-bearers were arranged. A minority, always growing
smaller, of the Free Church Assembly, protested against the pro-
posed union, and threatened if it were carried through to test
its legality in the courts. To meet this opposition, the suggestion
is understood to have been made that an act of parliament
should be applied for to legalize the union ; but this was not done,
and the union was carried through on the 'understanding that
the question of the lawfulness of church establishments should
be an open one.
The supreme courts of the churches met for the last time in
their respective places of meeting on the 3oth of October 1900,
and on the following day the joint meeting took place at
which the union was completed, and the United Free Church'
of, Scotland (q.v.) entered on its. career. The protesting and
FREEDMEN'S BUREAU FREEHOLD
75'
dissenting minority at once claimed to be the Free Church. They
met outside the Free Assembly Hall on the jist of October, and,
failing to gain admission to it, withdrew to another hall, where
they elected Mr Colin Bannatyne their moderator and held the
remaining sit tings of the Assembly. It was reported that between
16,000 and 1 7,000 names had been received of persons adhering to
the anti-unionist principle. At the Assembly of 1001 it was
stated that the Free Church had twenty-five ministers and at
least sixty-three congregations. The character of the church is
indicated by the fact that its office-bearers were the faithful
survivors of the decreasing minority of the Old Free Church,
which had protested against the disestablishment resolutions,
against the relaxation of subscription, against toleration -of the
teaching of the Glasgow professors, and against the use in worship
of organs or of human hymns. Her congregations were mostly
in the Gaelic-speaking districts of Scotland. She was confronted
with a very arduous undertaking; her congregations grew in
number, but were far from each other and there were not nearly
enough ministers. The Highlands were filled, by the Union,
with exasperation and dispeace which could not soon subside.
The church met with no sympathy or assistance at the hands
of the United Free Church, and her work was conducted at first
under considerable hardships, nor was her position one to appeal
to the general popular sentiment of Scotland. But the little
church continued her course with indomitable courage and
without any compromise of principle. The Declaratory Act of
1892 was repealed after a consultation of presbyteries, and the old
principles as to worship were declared. A professor was obliged
to withdraw a book he had written, in which the results of
criticism, with regard to the Synoptic Gospels, had been accepted
and applied. The desire of the Church of Scotland to obtain
relaxation of her formula was declared to make union with her
impossible. Along with this unbending attitude, signs of material
growth were not wanting. The revenue of the church increased ;
the grant from the sustentation fund was in 1001 only 75, but
from 1003 onwards it was 167.
The decision of the House of Lords in 1004 did not bring the
trials of the Free Church to an end. In the absence of any
arrangement with the United Free Church, she could only gain
possession of the property declared to belong to her by an
application in each particular case to the Court of Session, and a
series of law-suits began which were trying to all parties. In
the year 1005 the Free Church Assembly met in the historic
Free Church Assembly Hall, but it did not meet there again.
Having been left by the awards of the commission without any
station in the foreign mission field, the Free Church resolved to
start a foreign mission of her own. The urgent task confronting
the church was that of supplying ordinances to her congregations.
The latter numbered 200 in 1007, and the church had as yet only
74 ordained ministers, so that many of the manses allocated to
her by the commissioners were not yet occupied, and catechists
and elders were called to conduct services where possible. The
gallant stand this little church had made for principles which
were no longer represented by any Presbyterian church outside
the establishment attracted to her much interest and many
hopes that she might be successful in her endeavours to do some-
thing for the religious life of Scotland.
See SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF, for bibliography and statistics. (A.M. )
FREEDMEN'S BUREAU (officially the BUREAU OF FREEDMEN,
REFUGEES AND ABANDONED LANDS), a bureau created in the
United States war department by an act of Congress, 3rd of March
1865, to last one year, but continued until 1872 by later acts
passed over the president's veto. Its establishment was due
partly to the fear entertained by the North that the Southerners
if left to deal with* the blacks would attempt to re-establish
some form of slavery, partly to the necessity for extending relief
to needy negroes and whites in the lately conquered South,
and partly to the need of creating some commission or bureau
to take charge of'lands confiscated in the South. During the
Civil War a minion negroes fell into the hands of the Federals
and bad to be csfred for. Able-bodied blacks were enlisted in the
army, and the women, children and old men were settled in large
camps on confiscated Southern property, where they were cared
for alternately by the war department and by the treasury
department until the organization of the Freedmen's Bureau.
At the head of the bureau was a commissioner, General O. O.
Howard, and under him in each Southern state was an assistant
commissioner with a corps of local superintendents, agents
and inspectors. The officials had the broadest possible authority
in all matters that concerned the blacks. The work of the bureau
may be classified as follows: (i) distributing rations and medical
supplies among the blacks; (2) establishing schools for them and
aiding benevolent societies to establish schools and churches;
(3) regulating labour and contracts; (4) taking charge of con-
fiscated lands; and (5) administering justice in cases in which
blacks were concerned. For several years the ex-slaves were
under the almost absolute control of the bureau. Whether this
control had a good or bad effect is still disputed, the Southern
whites and many Northerners holding that the results of the
bureau's work were distinctly bad, while others hold that much
good resulted from its work. There is now no doubt, however,
that while most of the higher officials of the bureau were good
men, the subordinate agents were generally without character
or judgment and that their interference between the races caused
permanent discord. Much necessary relief work was done,
but demoralization was also caused by it, and later the institution
was used by its officials as a means of securing negro votes.
In educating the blacks the bureau made some progress, but the
instruction imparted by the missionary teachers resulted in
giving the ex-slaves notions of liberty and racial equality that led
to much trouble, finally resulting in the hostility of the whites to
negro education. The secession of the blacks from the white
churches was aided and encouraged by the bureau. The whole
field of labour and contracts was covered by minute regulations,
which, good in theory, were absurd in practice, and which failed
altogether, but not until labour had been disorganized for several
years. The administration of justice by the bureau agents
amounted simply to a ceaseless persecution of the whites who had
dealings with the blacks, and bloody conflicts sometimes resulted.
The law creating the bureau provided for the division of the
confiscated property among the negroes, and though carried
out only in parts of South Carolina, Florida and Georgia, it caused
the negroes to believe that they were to be cared for at the
expense of their former masters. This belief made them subject
to swindling schemes perpetrated by certain bureau agents and
others who promised to secure lands for them. When negro
suffrage was imposed by Congress upon the Southern States, the
bureau aided the Union League (q.v.) in organizing the blacks into
a political party opposed to the whites. A large majority of the
bureau officials secured office through their control of the blacks.
The failure of the bureau system and its discontinuance in the
midst of reconstruction without harm to the blacks, and the
intense hostility of the Southern whites to the institution caused
by the irritating conduct of bureau officials, are indications that
the institution was not well conceived nor wisely administered.
See P. S. Pierce, The Freedmen's Bureau (Iowa City, 1904);
Report of the Joint Committet on Reconstruction (Washington, 1866);
W. L. Fleming (ed.), Documents relating to Reconstruction (Cleveland,
O., 1906); W. L. Fleming, Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama
(New York, 1905); and James W. Garner, Reconstruction in Missis-
sippi (New York, 1901). (W. L. F.)
FREEHOLD, a town and the county-seat of Monmouth county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., in the township of Freehold, about 25 m.
E. by N. of Trenton. Pop. (1890) 2932; (1000) 2934, of whom
215 were foreign-born and 126 were negroes; (1005) 3064; (1910)
3233. Freehold is served by the Pennsylvania and the Central
of New Jersey railways. It is the trade centre of one of the most
productive agricultural districts of the state and has various
manufactures, including carriages, carpets and rugs, files, shirts,
underwear, and canned beans and peas. The town is the seat
of two boarding schools for boys: the Freehold Military School
and the New Jersey Military Academy (chartered, 1900;
founded in 1844 as the Freehold Institute). One of the resi-
dences in the town dates from 1755. A settlement was made
in the township about 1650, and the township was incorporated
FREEHOLD FREEMAN
in 1 693 . In 1 7 1 5 the town was founded and was made the county-
seat; it was long commonly known (from the county) as Mon-
mouth Court-House, but afterwards took (from the township)
the name Freehold, and in 1869 it was incorporated as the Town
of Freehold. An important battle of the War of Independence,
known as the battle of Monmouth, was fought near the court-
house on the z8th of June 1778. A short distance N.W. of the
court-house is a park in which there is a monument, unveiled
on the i3th of November 1884 in commemoration of the battle;
the base is of Quincy granite and the shaft is of Concord granite.
Surmounting the shaft is a statue representing " Liberty
Triumphant " (the height to the top of which is about 100 ft.).
The monument is adorned with five bronze reliefs, designed and
modelled by James E. Kelly (b. 1855); one of these reliefs
represents " Molly Pitcher " (d. 1832), a national heroine, who,
when her husband (John C. Hays), an artillerist, was rendered
insensible during the battle, served the gun in his place and
prevented its capture by the British. 1 Joel Parker (1816-
1888), governor of New Jersey in 1863-1866 and 1872-1875, was
long a resident of Freehold, and the erection of the monument
was largely due to his efforts. A bronze tablet on a boulder
in front of the present court-house, commemorating the old court-
house, used as a hospital in the battle of Monmouth, was unveiled
in 1907. Freehold was the birthplace and home of Dr Thomas
Henderson (1743-1824), a Whig or Patriot leader in New Jersey,
an officer in the War of Independence, and a member of the
Continental Congress in 1779-1780 and of the national House of
Representatives in 1795-1797.
\. The name Freehold was first used of a Presbyterian church
established about 1692 by Scottish exiles who came to East
Jersey in 1682-1685 and built what was called the " Old
Scots' Church " near the present railway station of Wickatunk
in Marlboro' township, Monmouth county. In this church, in
December 1706, John Boyd (d. 1709) was ordained the first
recorded Presbyterian ordination in America. The church was
the first regularly constituted Presbyterian church. No trace
of the building now remains in the burying-ground where
Boyd was interred, and where the Presbyterian Synod of New
Jersey in 1900 raised a granite monument to his memory; his
tombstone is preserved by the Presbyterian Historical Society in
Philadelphia. John Tennent (1706-1732) became pastor of the
Freehold church in 1730, when a new church was built by the
Old Scots congregation on White Hill in the present township of
Manalapan (then a part of Freehold township), near the railway
station and village called Tennent; his brother William (1705-
i777)> whose trance, in which he thought he saw the glories of
heaven, was a matter of much discussion in his time, was pastor
ia I733-I777- In i7Si-i7S3 the present " Old Tennent Church,"
then called the Freehold Church, was erected on (or near) the
same site as the building of 1730; in it Whitefield preached and
in the older building David Brainerd and his Indian converts met.
In 1859 this church (whose corporate name is " The First Presby-
terian Church of the County of Monmouth ") adopted the name
of Tennent, partly to distinguish it from the Presbyterian church
organized at Monmouth Court-House (now Freehold) in 1838.
See Frank R. Symmes, History of the Old Tennent Church (2nd
ed., Cranbury, New Jersey, 1904).
FREEHOLD, in the English law of real property, an estate in
land, not being less than an estate for We. An estate for a term
of years, no matter how long, was considered inferior in dignity
to an estate for life, and unworthy of a freeman (see ESTATE).
" Some time before the reign of Henry II., but apparently not
so early as Domesday, the expression liberum tenementum was
introduced to designate land held by a freeman by a free tenure.
Thus freehold tenure is the sum of the rights and duties which
constitute the relation of a free tenant to his lord." 1 In this
1 Her maiden name was Mary Ludwig. " Molly Pitcher " was
a nickname given to her by the soldiers in reference to her carrying
water to soldiers overcome by heat in the battle of Monmouth. She
married Hays in 1769; Hays died soon after the war, and later she
married one George McCauley. She lived for more than forty
years at Carlisle, Penn., where a monument was erected to her
memory in 1876.
* Digby's History of the Law of Real Property.
sense freehold is distinguished from copyhold, which is a tenure
having its origin in the relation of lord and villein (see COPYHOLD).
Freehold is also distinguished from leasehold, which is an estate
for a fixed number of years only. By analogy the interest of a
person who holds an office for life is sometimes said to be a freehold
interest. The term customary freeholds is applied to a kind of
copyhold tenure in the north of England, viz. tenure by copy
of court-roll, but not, as in other cases, expressed to be at the
will of the lord.
FREELAND, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., about 20 m. S. of Wilkes-Barre, in the E. part of the state.
Pop. (1890) 1730; (1900) 5254 (1339 foreign-born, many being
Slavs); (1910) 6197. Freeland is served by the Lehigh
Valley railway and by electric railway to Upper Lehigh (i m.
distant, served by the Central Railroad of New Jersey) and
to other neighbouring places. The borough is built on Broad
Mountain, nearly 2000 ft. above sea-level, and the chief industry
is the mining of coal at the numerous surrounding collieries.
Freeland is the seat of the Mining and Mechanical Institute
of the Anthracite Region, chartered in 1894, modelled after the
German Sleigerschulen, with elementary and secondary depart-
ments and a night school for workmen. The borough has
foundries and machine shops of considerable importance,
and manufactures silk, overalls, beer and names. Freeland
was first settled about 1842, was laid out in 1870, and was
incorporated in 1876.
FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892), English
historian, was born at Harborne, Staffordshire, on the 2nd of
August 1823. He lost both his parents in infancy, was brought
up by a grandmother, and was educated at private schools and
by a private tutor. He was a studious and precocious boy, more
interested in religious matters, history and foreign politics than
in boyish things. He obtained a scholarship at Trinity College,
Oxford, and a second class in the degree examination, and was
elected fellow of his college (1845). While at Oxford he was much
influenced by the High Church movement, and thought seriously
of taking orders, but abandoned the idea. He married a daughter
of his former tutor, the Rev. R. Gutch, in 1847, and entered
on a life of study. Ecclesiastical architecture attracted him
strongly. He visited many churches and began a practice,
which he pursued throughout his life, of making drawings of
buildings on the spot and afterwards tracing them over in ink.
His first book, save for his share in a volume of English verse,
was a History of Architecture (1849). Though he had not then
seen any buildings outside England, it contains a good sketch
of the development of the art. It is full of youthful enthusiasm
and is written in florid language. After some changes of residence
he bought a house called Somerleaze, near Wells, Somerset, and
settled there in 1860.
Freeman's life was one of strenuous literary work. He wrote
many books, and countless articles for reviews, newspapers and
other publications, and was a constant contributor to the
Saturday Review until 1878, when he ceased to write for it for
political reasons. His Saturday Review articles corrected many
errors and raised the level of historical knowledge among the
educated classes, but as a reviewer he was apt to forget that a
book may have blemishes and yet be praiseworthy. For some
years he was an active county magistrate. He was deeply
interested in politics, was a follower of Mr Gladstone, and
approved the Home Rule Bill of 1886, but objected to the later
proposal to retain the Irish members at Westminster. To be
returned to Parliament was one of his few ambitions, and in 1868
he unsuccessfully contested Mid-Somerset. Foreign rather than
domestic politics had the first place with him. Historical and
religious sentiment combined with his destestation of all that was
tyrannical to inspire him with hatred of the Turk and sympathy
with the smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe.
He took a prominent part in the agitation which followed
" the Bulgarian atrocities "; his speeches were intemperate,
and he was accused of uttering the words "Perish India!"
at a public meeting in 1876. This, however, was a misrepre-
sentation of his words. He was made a knight commander
FREEMAN
77
of the order of the Saviour by the king of Greece, and also
received an order from the prince of Montenegro.
Freeman advanced the study of history in England in two
special directions, by insistence on the unity of history, and by
teaching the importance and right use of original authorities.
History is not, he urges, to be divided " by a middle wall of
partition " into ancient and modern, nor broken into fragments
as though the history of each nation stood apart. It is more
than a collection of narratives; it is a science, " the science of
man in his political character." The historical student, then,
cannot afford to be indifferent to any part of the record of man's
political being; but as his abilities for study are limited, he will,
while reckoning all history to be within his range, have his own
special range within which he will master every detail (Rede
Lecture). Freeman's range included Greek, Roman and the
earlier part of English history, together with some portions of
foreign medieval history, and he had a scholarly though general
knowledge of the rest of the history of the European world.
He regarded the abiding life of Rome as " the central truth of
European history," the bond of its unity, and he undertook his
History of Sicily (1891-1804) partly because it illustrated this
unity. Further, he urges that all historical study is valueless
which does not take in a knowledge of original authorities, and
he teaches both by example and precept what authorities should
be thus described, and how they are .to be weighed and used.
He did not use manuscript authorities, and for most of his work
he had no need to do so. The authorities which he needed were
already in print, and his books would not have been better if
be had disinterred a few more facts from imprinted sources.
His reputation as a historian will chiefly rest on his History of
the Norman Conquest (1867-1876), his longest completed book.
In common with his works generally, it is distinguished by
exhaust iveness of treatment and research, critical ability,
a remarkable degree of accuracy, and a certain insight into the
past which be gained from his practical experience of men and
institutions. He is almost exclusively a political historian.
His* saying that " history is past politics and politics are present
history " is significant of this limitation of his work, which left
on one side subjects of the deepest interest in a nation's life.
In dealing with constitutional matters he sometimes attaches
too much weight to words and formal aspects. This gives certain
of his arguments an air of pedantry, and seems to lead him to
find evidences of continuity in institutions which in reality and
spirit were different from what they once had been. As a rule
his estimates of character are remarkably able. It is true that
be is sometimes swayed by prejudice, but this is the common lot
of great historians; they cannot altogether avoid sharing in
the feelings of the past, for they live in it, and Freeman did so to
an extraordinary degree. Yet if he judges too favourably the
leaders of the national party in England on the eve of the
Norman Conquest, that is a small matter to set against the insight
which he exhibits in writing of Aratus, Sulla, Nicias, William
the Conqueror, Thomas of Canterbury, Frederick the Second
and many more. In width of view, thoroughness of investiga-
tion and honesty of purpose he is unsurpassed by any historian.
He never conceals nor wilfully misrepresents anything, and he
reckoned no labour too great which might help him to draw a
truthful picture of the past. When a place had any important
connexion with his work he invariably visited it. He travelled
much, always to gain knowledge, and generally to complete his
historical equipment. His collected articles and essays on places
of historical interest are perhaps the most pleasing of his writings,
but they deal exclusively with historical associations and
architectural features. The quantity of work which he turned
out is enormous, for the fifteen large volumes which contain his
Norman Conquest, his unfinished History of Sicily, his William
Rufus (1882), and his Essays (i87-i879), and the crowd of his
smaller books, are matched in amount by his uncollected con-
tributions to periodicals. In respect of matter his historical
work is uniformly excellent. In respect of form and style the
case is different . Though his sentences themselves are not wordy,
he is extremely diffuse in treatment, habitually repeating an idea
in successive sentences of much the same import. While this
habit was doubtless aggravated by the amount of his journalistic
work, it seems originally to have sprung from what may be called
a professorial spirit, which occasionally appears in the tone of
his remarks. He was anxious to make sure that his readers would
understand his exact meaning, and to guard them against all
possible misconceptions. His lengthy explanations are the more
grievous because he insists on the same points in several of his
books. His prolixity was increased by his unwillingness, when
writing without prescribed limits, to leave out any detail,
however unimportant. His passion for details not only swelled
his volumes to a portentous size, but was fatal to artistic con-
struction. The length of his books has hindered their usefulness.
They were written for the public at large, but few save professed
students, who can admire and value his cxhaustiveness, will read
the many hundreds of pages which he devotes to a short period
of history. In some of his smaller books, however, he shows
great powers of condensation and arrangement, and writes
tersely enough. His style is correct, lucid and virile, but gener-
ally nothing more, and his endeavour to use as far as possible
only words of Teutonic origin limited his vocabulary and makes
his sentences somewhat monotonous. While Froude often
strayed away from his authorities, Freeman kept his authorities
always before his eyes, and his narrative is here and there little
more than a translation of their words. Accordingly, while it has
nothing of Froude's carelessness and inaccuracy, it has nothing
of his charm of style. Yet now and again he rises to the level
of some heroic event, and parts of his chapter on the " Campaign
of Hastings " and of his record of the wars of Syracuse and
Athens, his reflections on the visit of Basil the Second to the
church of the Virgin on the Acropolis, and some other passages
in his books, are fine pieces of eloquent writing.
The high quality of Freeman's work was acknowledged by
all competent judges. He was made D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D.
of Cambridge honoris causa, and when he visited the United
States on a lecturing tour was warmly received at various places
of learning. He served on the royal commission on ecclesiastical
courts appointed in 1881. In 1884 he was appointed regius
professor of modern history at Oxford. His lectures were thinly
attended, for he did not care to adapt them to the requirements
of the university examinations, and he was not perhaps well
fitted to teach young men. But he exercised a wholesome in-
fluence over the more earnest students of history among the
resident graduates. From 1886 he was forced by ill-health to
spend much of his time abroad, and he died of smallpox at
Alicante on the i6th of March 1892, while on a tour in Spain.
Freeman had a strongly marked personality. Though impatient
in temper and occasionally rude, he was tender-hearted and
generous. His rudeness to strangers was partly caused by shy-
ness and partly by a childlike inability to conceal his feelings.
Eminently truthful, he could not understand that some verbal
insincerities are necessary to social life. He had a peculiar
faculty for friendship, and his friends always found him sym-
pathetic and affectionate. In their society he would talk well
and showed a keen sense of humour. He considered it his duty
to expose careless and ignorant writers, and certainly enjoyed
doing so. He worked hard and methodically, often had several
pieces of work in hand, and kept a daily record of the time which
he devoted to each of them. His tastes were curiously limited.
No art interested him except architecture, which he studied
throughout his life; and he cared little for literature which was
not either historical or political. In later life he ceased to hold
the theological opinions of his youth, but remained a devout
churchman.
See W. R. W. Stephens, Life and Letters ofE. A. Freeman (London,
1895); Frederic Harrison, Tennyson, Ruskm, Mill and other Literary
Estimates (London, 1899); James Bryce, " E. A. Freeman," Eng.
Hist. Rev., July 1892. (W. Hu.)
FREEMAN, primarily one who is free, as opposed to a slave or
serf (see FEUDALISM; SLAVERY). The term is more specifically
applied to one who possesses the freedom of a city, borough or
company. Before the passing of the Municipal Corporations
FREEMASONRY
Act 1835, each English borough admitted freemen according to
its own peculiar custom and by-laws. The rights and privileges
of a freeman, though varying in different boroughs, generally
included the right to vote at a parliamentary election of the
borough, and exemption from all tolls and dues. The act of
1835 respected existing usages, and every person who was then
an admitted freeman remained one, retaining at the same time
all his former rights and privileges. The admission of freemen
is now regulated by the Municipal Corporations Act 1882. By
section 201 of that act the term " freeman " includes any person
of the class whose rights and interests were reserved by the
act of 1835 under the name either of freemen or of burgesses.
By section 202 no person can be admitted a freeman by gift or
by purchase; that is, only birth, servitude or marriage are
qualifications. The Honorary Freedom of Boroughs Act 1885,
however, makes an exception, as by that act the council of every
borough may from timeto time admit persons of distinction
to be honorary freemen of the borough. The town clerk of
every borough keeps a list, which is called " the freeman's roll,"
and when any person claims to be admitted a freeman in respect
of birth, servitude or marriage, the mayor examines the claim,
and if it is established the claimant's name is enrolled by the
town clerk.
A person may become a freeman or freewoman of one of the
London livery companies by (i) apprenticeship or servitude;
(2) patrimony; (3) redemption; (4) gift. This last is purely
honorary. The most usual form of acquiring freedom was by
serving apprenticeship to a freeman, free both of a company and
of the city of London. By an act of common council of 1836
apprenticeship was permitted to freemen of the city who had not
taken up the freedom of a company. By an act of common
council of 1889 the term of service was reduced from seven years
to four years. Freedom by patrimony is always granted to
children of a person who has been duly admitted to the freedom.
Freedom by redemption or purchase requires the payment of
certain entrance fees, which vary with the standing of the com-
pany. In the Grocers' Company freedom by redemption does
not.exist, and in such companies as still have a trade, e.g. the
Apothecaries and Stationers, it is limited to members of the trade.
SeeJkV. C. Hazlitt, The Livery Companies of the City of London
(1892).
FREEMASONRY. According to an old " Charge " delivered
to initiates, Freemasonry is declared to be an " ancient and
honourable institution: ancient no doubt it is, as having sub-
sisted from time immemorial; and honourable it must be acknow-
ledged to be,, as by a natural tendency it conduces to make those
so who are obedient to its precepts ... to so high an eminence
has its credit been advanced that in every age Monarchs them-
selves have been promoters of the art, have not thought it
derogatory from their dignity to exchange the sceptre for the
trowel, have patronised our mysteries and joined in our
Assemblies." For many years the craft has been conducted
without respect to clime, colour, caste or creed.
History. The precise origin of the society has yet to be ascer-
tained, but is not likely to be, as the early records are lost;
there is, however, ample evidence remaining to justify the claim
for its antiquity and its honourable character. Much has been
written as to its eventful past, based upon actual records, but
still more which has served only to amuse or repel inquirers, and
led not a few to believe that the fraternity has no trustworthy
history. An unfavourable opinion of the historians of the craft
generally may fairly have been held during the i8th and early
in the igth centuries, but happily since the middle of the latter
century quite a different principle has animated .those brethren
who have sought to make the facts of masonic history known
to the brotherhood, as well as worth the study of students in
general. The idea that it would require an investigator to be
a member of the " mystic tie " in order to qualify as a reader of
masonic history has been exploded. The evidences collected
concerning the institution during the last five hundred years,
or more, may now be examined and tested in the most severe
manner by literary and critical experts (whether opposed or
favourable to the body), who cannot fail to accept the claims*
made as to its great antiquity and continuity, as the lineal
descendant of those craftsmen who raised the cathedrals and other
great English buildings during the middle ages.
It is only needful to refer to the old works on freemasonry, and
to compare them with the accepted histories of the present time,
to be assured that such strictures as above are more than justified.
The premier work on the subject was published in London in 1723,
the Rev. James Anderson being the author of the historical portion,
introductory to the first " Book of Constitutions " of the original
Grand Lodge of England. Dr Anderson gravely states that " Grand
Master Moses often marshalled the Israelites into a regular and
Sjneral lodge, whilst in the wilderness. . . . King Solomon was
rand Master of the lodge at Jerusalem. 1 . . . Nebuchadnezzar became
the Grand Master Mason," &c., devoting many more pages to similar
absurdities, but dismisses the important modern innovation (1716-
1717) of a Grand Lodge with a few lines noteworthy for their brief
and indefinite character.
In 1738 a second edition was issued, dedicated to the prince of
Wales (" a Master Mason and master of a lodge "), and was the work
of the same brother (as respects the historical part), the additions
being mainly on the same lines as the former volume, only, if pos-
Rignt Worship?
being deeply engaged in wars left the craft to the care of several
successive grand masters " (duly enumerated). Such loose state-
ments may now pass unheeded, but unfortunately they do not
exhaust the objections to Dr Anderson's method of writing history.
The excerpt concerning St Alban (apparently made from Coles's
Ancient Constitutions, 1728-1729) has the unwarranted additional
title of Grand Master conferred on that saint, and the extract con-
cerning King ^Ethelstan and Prince Edwin from the " Old MS.
Charges " (given in the first edition) contains still more unauthorized
modern terms, with the year added of 926; thus misleading most
seriously those who accept the volume as trustworthy, because written
by the accredited historian of the Grand Lodge, junior Grand
Warden in 1723. These examples hardly increase our confidence
in the author's accuracy when Dr Anderson comes to treat of the
origin of the premier Grand Lodge; but he is our only informant
as to that important event, and if his version of the occurrence is
declined, we are absolutely without any information.
In considering the early history of Freemasonry, from a
purely matter-of-fact standpoint, it will be well to settle as a
necessary preliminary what the term did and does now include
or mean, and how far back the inquiry should be conducted,
as well as on what lines. If the view of the subject herein taken
be correct, it will be useless to load the investigation by devoting
considerable space to a consideration of the laws and customs
of still older societies which may have been utilized and imitated
by the fraternity, but which in no sense can be accepted as the
actual forbears of the present society of Free and Accepted
Masons. They were predecessors, or possibly prototypes, but
not near relatives or progenitors of the Freemasons. 2
The Mother Grand Lodge of the world is that of England,
which was inaugurated in the metropolis on St John Baptist's
day 1717 by four or more old lodges, three of which still flourish.
There were other lodges also in London and the country at the
time, but whether they were invited to the meeting is not now
known. Probably not, as existing records of the period preserve
a sphinx-like silence thereon. Likewise there were many scores
of lodges at work in Scotland, and undoubtedly in Ireland the
craft was widely patronized. Whatever the ceremonies may have
been which were then known as Freemasonry in Great Britain and
Ireland, they were practically alike, and the venerable Old Charges
or MS. constitutions, dating back several centuries, were rightly
held by them as the title-deeds of their masonic inheritance.
It was a bold thing to do, thus to start a governing body for
the fraternity quite different in many respects to all preceding
organizations, and to brand as irregular all lodges which declined
1 If history be no ancient Fable
Free Masons came from Tower of Babel.
("The Freemasons; an Hudibrastic poem," London, 1723.)
1 The Early History and Antiquities of Freemasonry and Medieval
Builders, by Mr G. F. Fort (U.S.A.), and the Cathedral Builders: The
Magestri Comacini, by " Leader Scott " (the late Mrs Baxter), take
rather a different view on this point and ably present their argu-
ments. The Rev. C. Kingsley in Roman and Teuton writes of
the Comacini, " Perhaps the original germ of the great society of
Freemasons."
FREEMASONRY
79
to accept such authority; but the very originality and audacity
of its promoters appears to have led to its success, and it was not
long before most of the lodges of the pre-Grand-Lodge era joined
and accepted " constitution " by warrant of the Grand Master.
Not only so, but Ireland quickly followed the lead, so early as
1725 there beinga Grand Lodge for that country which must have
been formed even still earlier, and prob-xbly by lodges started
before any were authorized in the Knglisn counties. In Scotland
the change was not made until 1736, many lodges even then
holding aloof from such an organization. Indeed, out of some
hundred lodges known to have been active then, only thirty-three
responded and agreed to fall into line, though several joined later;
some, however, kept separate down to the end of the ioth century,
while others never united. Many of these lodges have records
of the 1 7th century though not then newly formed; one in
particular, the oldest (the Lodge of Edinburgh, No. i), possesses
minutes so far back as the year 1 599.
It is important to bear in mind that ail the regular lodges
throughout the world, and likewise all the Grand Lodges, directly
or indirectly, have sprung from one or other of the three governing
bodies named; Ireland and Scotland following the example
set by their masonic mother of England in having Grand Lodges
of their own. It is not proved how the latter two became ac-
quainted with Freemasonry as a secret society, guided more or
less by the operative MS. Constitutions or Charges common to
the three bodies, not met with elsewhere; but the credit of a
Grand Lodge being established to control the lodges belongs to
England.
It may be a startling declaration, but it is well authenticated,
that there is no other Freemasonry, as the term is now understood,
than what which has been so derived. In other words, the lodges
an8 Grand Lodges in both hemispheres trace their origin and
authority back to England for working what are known as the
Three Degrees, controlled by regular Grand Lodges. That being
so, a history of modern Freemasonry, the direct offspring of the
British parents aforesaid, should first of all establish the descent
of the three Grand Lodges from the Freemasonry of earlier days ;
such continuity, of five centuries or more, being a sine qua nan
of antiquity and regularity.
It will be found that from the early part of the i8th century
back to the i6th century existing records testify to the assemblies
of lodges, mainly operative, but partly speculative, in Great
Britain, whose guiding stars and common heritage were the Old
Charges, and that when their actual minutes and transactions
cease to be traced by reason of their loss, these same MS. Con-
stitutions furnish testimony of the still o'dcr working of such
combinations of freemasons or masons, without the assistance,
countenance or authority of any other masonic body; conse-
quently such documents still preserved, of the I4th and later
centuries (numbering about seventy, mostly in form of rolls),
with the existing lodge minutes referred to of the i6th century,
down to the establishment of the premier Grand Lodge in 1717,
prove the continuity of the society. Indeed so universally has
this claim been admitted, that in popular usage the term Free-
mason is only now applied to those who belong to this particular
fraternity, that of mason being applicable to one who follows
that trade, or honourable calling, as a builder.
There is no evidence that during this long period any other
organization of any kind, religious, philosophical, mystical or
otherwise, materially or even slightly influenced the customs
of the fraternity, though they may have done so; but so far
as is known the lodges were of much the same character through-
out, and consisted really of operatives (who enjoyed practically
a monopoly for some time of the trade as masons or freemasons),
and, in part, of " spcculatives," i.e. noblemen, gentlemen and
men of other trades, who were admitted as honorary members.
Assuming then that the freemasons of the present day are the
ole inheritors of the system arranged at the so-called " Revival
of 1717," which was a development from an operative body to
one partly speculative, and that, so far back as the MS. Records
extend and furnish any light, they must have worked in Lodges
in secret throughout the period noted, a history of Freemasonry
should be mainly devoted to giving particulars, as far as possible,
of the lodges, their traditions, customs and laws, based upon
actual documents which can be tested and verified by members
and non-members alike.
It has been the rule to treat, more or less fully, of the influence
exerted on the fraternity by the Ancient Mysteries, the Essenes,
Roman Colleges, Culdees, Hcrmeticism, Fehm-Gerichte el hoc
genus omne, especially the Sleinmelzen, the Craft Gilds and the
Companionagc of France, &c.; but in view of the separate and
independent character of the freemasons, it appears to be quite
unnecessary, and the time so employed would be better devoted
to a more thorough search after additional evidences of the
activity of the craft, especially during the crucial period overlap-
ping the second decade of the i8th century, so as to discover in-
formation as to the transmitted secrets of the medieval masons,
which, after all, may simply have been what Gaspard Monge
felicitously entitles " Descriptive Geometry, or the Art and
Science of Masonic Symbolism."
The rules and regulations of the masons were embodied in
what are known as the Old Charges; the senior known copy
being the Regius MS. (British Museum Bibl. Reg. 17 A, i.),
which, however, is not so exclusively devoted to masonry as the
later copies. David Casley, in his catalogue of the MSS. in the
King's Library (1734), unfortunately styled the little gem
A Poem of Moral Duties; and owing to this misdescription its
true character was not recognized until the year 1839, and then
by a non-mason (Mr Halliwell-Phillipps), who had it reproduced
in 1840 and brought out an improved edition in 1844. Its date
has been approximately fixed at 1390 by Casley and other
authorities.
The curious legend of the craft, therein made known, deals
first of all with the number of unemployed in early days and
the necessity of finding work, " that they myght gete here lyvynge
therby." Euclid was consulted, and recommended the " onest
craft of good masonry," and the genesis of the society is found
" yn Egypte lande." By a rapid transition, but " mony erys
afterwarde," we are told that the " Craft com ynto England yn
tyme of good kynge Adelstonus (jEthelstan) day," who called
an assembly of the masons, when fifteen articles and as many more
points were agreed to for the government of the craft, each being
duly described. Each brother was instructed that
" He must love wel God, and holy Churche algate
And hys mayster also, that he ys wythe."
" The thrydde poynt must be severle.
With the prentes knowe hyt wele,
Hys mayster cownsel he kcpe and close,
And hys felows by hys goode purpose;
The prevetyse of the chamber telle he no mon,
Ny yn the logge whatsever they done,
Whatsever thou heryst, or syste hem do,
Telle hyt no mon, whersever thou go."
The rules generally, besides referring to trade regulations, are
as a whole suggestive of the Ten Commandments in an extended
form, winding up with the legend of the Ars qualuor coronatorum,
as an incentive to a faithful discharge of the numerous obligations.
A second part introduces a more lengthy account of the origin
of masonry, in which Noah's flood and the Tower of Babylon
are mentioned as well as the great skill of Euclid, who
" Through hye grace of Crist yn heven,
He commensed yn the syens seven " ;
The " seven sciences " are duly named and explained. The
compiler apparently was a priest, line 629 reading " And, when
ye gospel me rede schal," thus also accounting for the many
religious injunctions in the MS.; the last hundred lines are
evidently based upon Urbanilatis (Cott. MS. Caligula A 1 1 , fol. 88)
and Instructions for a Parish Priest (Cott. MS. Clauc ius A n,
fol. 27), instructions such as lads and even men would need who
were ignorant of the customs of polite society, correct deportment
at church and in the presence of their social superiors.
The recital of the legend of the Quatuor Coronati has been held
by Herr Findel in his History of Freemasonry (Allgemeine Ge-
schichte der Freimaurerei, 1862; English editions, 1866-1869)
to prove that British Freemasonry was derived from Germany,
8o
FREEMASONRY
but without any justification, the legend being met with in
England centuries prior to the date of the Regius MS., and long
prior to its incorporation in masonic legends on the Continent.
The next MS., in order, is known as the " Cooke " (Ad. MS.
23,198, British Museum), because Matthew Cooke published a
fair reproduction of the document in 1861; and it is deemed by
competent paleographers to date from the first part of the isth
century. There are two versions of the Old Charges in this little
book, purchased for the British Museum in 1859. The compiler
was probably a mason and familiar with several copies of these
MS. Constitutions, two of which he utilizes and comments upon;
he quotes from a MS. copy of the Policronicon the manner in
which a written account of the sciences was preserved in the two
historic stones at the time of the Flood, and generally makes
known the traditions of the society as well as the laws which
were to govern the members.
Its introduction into England through Egypt is noted (where
the Children of Israel " lernyd ye craft of Masonry "), also the
" lande of behest " (Jerusalem) and the Temple of Solomon (who
" confirmed ye chargys yt David his Fadir " had made). Then
masonry in France is interestingly described; and St Alban and
" /Ethelstane with his yongest sone " (the Edwin of the later
MSS.) became the chosen mediums subsequently, as with the
other Charges, portions of the Old Testament are often cited in
order to convey a correct idea to the neophyte, who is to hear the
document read, as to these sciences which are declared to be free
in themselves (fre in hem selfe). Of all crafts followed by man
in this world " Masonry hathe the moste notabilite," as con-
firmed by " Elders that were bi for^us of masons [who] had these
chargys wryten," and " as is write and taught in ye boke of our
charges."
Until quite recently no representative or survival of this
particular version had been traced, but in 1890 one was dis-
covered of 1687 (since known as the William Watson MS.).
Of some seventy copies of these old scrolls which have been
unearthed, by far the greater proportion have been made public
since 1860. They have all much in common, though often
curious differences are to be detected; are of English origin,
no matter where used ; and when complete, as they mostly are,
whether of the i6th or subsequent centuries, are noteworthy
for an invocation or prayer which begins the recital:
" The mighte of the ffather of heaven
And the wysedome of the glorious Sonne
through the grace and the goodnes of the holly
ghoste yt been three p'sons and one God
be with us at or beginning and give us grace
so to gou'ne us here in or lyving that wee maye
come to his blisse that nevr shall have ending. Amen."
(Grand Lodge MS. No. I, A.D. 1583.)
They are chiefly of the iyth century and nearly all located
in England; particulars may be found in Hughan's Old Charges
of the British Freemasons (1872, 1895 and supplement I9O6). 1
The chief scrolls, with some others, have been reproduced in
facsimile in six volumes of the Quatuor Coronatorum Antigrapha;
and the collection in Yorkshire has been published separately,
either in the West Yorkshire Reprints or the Ancient York
Masonic Rolls. Several have been transcribed and issued in
other works.
These scrolls give considerable information as to the tradi-
tions and customs of the craft, together with the regulations
for its government, and were required to be read to appren-
tices long after the peculiar rules ceased to be acted upon,
each lodge apparently having one or more copies kept for
the purpose. The old Lodge of Aberdeen ordered in 1670 that
the Charge was to be " read at ye entering of everie entered
prenteise "; another at Alnwick in 1701 provided
" Noe Mason shall take any apprentice [but he must]
Enter him and give him his Charge, within one whole
year after " ;
1 The service rendered by Dr W. Bcgemann (Germany) in his
" Attempt to Classify the Old Charges of the British Masons "
(vol. i Trans, of the Quatuor Coronati Lodge, London) has been very
jrreat, and the researches of the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford and G. W.
Speth have also been of the utmost consequence.
and still another at Swallwell (now No. 48 Gateshead) demanded
that " the Apprentices shall have their Charge given at the time
of Registering, or within thirty days after "; the minutes in-
serting such entries accordingly even so late as 1754, nearly
twenty years after the lodge had cast in its lot with the Grand
Lodge of England.
Their Christian character is further emphasized by the " First
Charge that you shall be true men to God and the holy Church ";
the York MS. No. 6 beseeches the brethren " at every meeting
and assembly they pray heartily for all Christians "; the Melrose
MS. No. 2 (1674) mentions " Merchants and all other Christian
men," and the Aberdeen MS. (1670) terms the invocation
" A Prayer before the Meeting." Until the Grand Lodge era,
Freemasonry was thus wholly Christian. The York MS. No. 4
of 1693 contains a singular error in the admonitory lines:
" The [n] one of the elders takeing the Booke and that
hee or shee that is to be made mason, shall lay their
hands thereon and the charge shall be given.
This particular reading was cited by Hughan in 1871, but was
considered doubtful; Findel, 2 however, confirmed it, on his
visit to York under the guidance of the celebrated masonic
student the late Rev. A. F. A. Woodford. The mistake was due
possibly to the transcriber, who had an older roll before him,
confusing " they," sometimes written " the," with " she,"
or reading that portion, which is often in Latin, as ille vel ilia,
instead of ille wl illi.
In some of the Codices, about the middle of the I7th century
and later, New Articles are inserted, such as would be suitable
for an organization similar to the Masons' Company of London,
which had one, at least, of the Old Charges in its possession ac-
cording to inventories of 1665 and 1676; and likewise in 1722,
termed The Book of the Constitutions of the Accepted Matons.
Save its mention (" Book wrote on parchment ") by Sir Francis
Palgrave in the Edinburgh Review (April 1839) as being in
existence " not long since," this valuable document has been
lost sight of for many years.
That there were signs and other secrets preserved and used
by the brethren throughout this mainly operative period may
be gathered from discreet references in these old MSS. The
Institutions in parchment (22nd of November 1696) of the
Dumfries Kilwinning Lodge (No. 53, Scotland) contain a copy
of the oath taken " when any man should be made ":
" These Charges which we now reherse to you and all others ye
secrets and misterys belonging to free masons you shall
faithfully and truly keep, together with ye Counsel! of ye
assembly or lodge, or any other lodge, or brother, or fellow."
"Then after ye oath taken and the book kissed " (i.e. the Bible)
the " precepts" are read, the first being:
" You shall be true men to God and his holy Church, and that
you do not countenance or maintaine any eror, faction,
schism or herisey, in ye church to ye best of your under-
standing." (History of No. S3, by James Smith.)
The Grand Lodge MS. No. 2 provides that " You shall keepe
secret ye obscure and intricate pts. of ye science, not disclosinge
them to any but such as study and use ye same."
The Harleian MS. No. 2054 (Brit. Mus.) is still more explicit,
termed The free Masons Orders and Constitutions, and is in the
handwriting of Randle Holme (author of the Academie of
Armory, 1688), who was a member of a lodge in Cheshire. Follow-
ing the MS. Constitutions, in the same handwriting, about 1650,
is a scrap of paper with the obligation:
" There is sevrall words and signes of a free Mason to be revailed
to yu wch as yu will answr. before God at the Great and
terrible day of judgmt. yu keep secret and not to revaile the
same to any in the heares of any p'son, but to the Mrs and
fellows of the Society of Free Masons, so helpe me God, &c."
(W. H. Rylands, Mas. Mag., 1882.)
1 Findel claims that his Treatise on the society was the cause
which " first impelled England to the study of masonic history
and ushered in the intellectual movement which resulted in the
writings of Bros. Hughan, Lyon, Gould and others." Great credit
was due to the late German author for his important work, but
before its advent the_Rev. A. F. A. Woodford, D. Murray Lyon
and others in Great Britain were diligent masonic students on similar
lines.
FREEMASONRY
Hi
It i not yet settled who were the actual designers or architects
of the grand old English cathedrals. Credit has been claimed
for church dignitaries, to the exclusion more or less of the master
masons, to whom presumably of right the distinction belonged.
In early days the title " architect " is not met with, unless the
term " Ingenator " had that meaning, which is doubtful. As to
this interesting question, and as to the subject of building
generally, an historical account of Master and Free Masons
(Discourses upon Architecture in England, by the Rev. James
Dallaway, 1833), and Notts on the Superintendents of English
Buildings in the Middle Ages (by Wyatt Papworth, 1887), should
be consulted. Both writers were non-masons. The former
observes: " The honour due to the original founders of these
edifices is almost invariably transferred to the ecclesiastics
under whose patronage they rose, rather than to the skill and
design of the master mason, or professional architect, because the
only historians were monks. . . . They were probably not so
well versed in geometrical science as the master masons, for
mathematics formed a part of monastic learning in a very limited
degree." In the Journal of Proceedings R.I.B.A. vol. iv. (1887),
a skilful critic (W.H. White) declares that Papworth, in that valu-
able collection of facts, has contrived to annihilate all the profes-
sional idols of the century, setting up in their place nothing
except the master mason. The brotherhood of Bridge-builders, 1
that travelled far and wide to build bridges, and the travelling
bodies of Freemasons, 1 he believes never existed; nor was
William of Wykeham the designer of the colleges attributed to
him. It seems well-nigh impossible to disprove the statements
made by Papworth, because they are all so well grounded on
attested facts; and the attempt to connect the Abbey of Cluny,
or men trained at Cluny, with the original or preliminary designs
of the great buildings erected during the middle ages, at least
during the 1 2th and ijth centuries, is also a failure. The whole
question is ably and fully treated in the History of Freemasonry
by Robert Freke Gould (1886-1887), particularly in chapter vi.
on " Medieval Operative Masonry," and in his Concise History
(1903)-
The lodge is often met with, either as the tabulalum domicialem
(1200, at St Alban's Abbey) or actually so named in the Fabric
Rolls of York Minster (1370), ye loge being situated close to the
fane in course of erection; it was used as a place in which the
stones were prepared in private for the structure, as well as
occupied at meal-time, &c. Each mason was required to " swere
upon ye boke yt he sail trewly ande bysyli at his power hold and
kepe holy all ye poyntesof yis forsayde ordinance" (Ordinacio
Cementanorum) .
As to the term /rre-mason, from the uth century, it is held
by some authorities that it described simply those men who
worked " freestone," but there is abundant evidence to prove
that, whatever may have been intended at first, /f re-mason soon
had a much wider signification, the prefix free being also employed
by carpenters (1666), sewers ( i $th century, tailors at Exeter) and
others, presumably to indicate they were free to follow their
trades in certain localities. On this point Mr Gould well observes :
" The class of persons from whom the Freemasons of Warrington
(1646), Staffordshire (1686), Chester, York, London and their
congeners in the iyth century derived the descriptive title,
which became the inheritance of the Grand Lodge of England,
were free men, and masons of Gilds or Companies " (History,
vol. ii. p. 1 60). Dr Brentano may also be cited: " Wherever
the Craft Guilds were legally acknowledged, we find foremost,
that the right to exercise their craft, and sell their manufactures,
depended upon the freedom of their city " (Development of
Guilds, &c., p. 65). In like manner, the privilege of working
as a mason was not conferred before candidates had been " made
free." The regular free-masons would not work with men, even
if they bad a knowledge of their trade, " if unfree," but styled
1 It is not considered necessary to refer at length to the Fratres
Poutu, or other imaginary bodies of freemasons, as such questions
may well be left to the curious and interested student.
* " No distinct trace of the general employment of large migratory
hands of masom, going from place to puce as a guild, or company,
or brotherhood " (Prof. T. Hayter-Lewis, Brit. Arch. Assoc., 1889).
them " Cowans," a course justified by the king's " Maister of
Work," William Schaw, whose Statutis and Ordinances (28th
December 1598) required that " Na maister or fellow of craft
ressaue any cowanis to wirk in his societie or companye, nor send
nane of his servants to wirk wt. cowanis, under the pane of
twentie pounds." Gradually, however, the rule was relaxed, in
time such monopoly practically ceased, and the word " cowan "
is only known in connexion with speculative Freemasonry.
Sir Walter Scott, as a member of Lodge St David (No. 36), was
familiar with the word and used it in Rob Roy. In 1707 a cowan
was described in the minutes of Mother Lodge Kilwinning,
as a mason " without the word," thus one who was not a free
mason (History of the Lodge of Edinburgh No. 1, by D. Murray
Lyon, 1900).
In the New English Dictionary (Oxford, vol. iv., 1897) under
" Freemason " it is noted that three views have been pro-
pounded: (i) " The suggestion that free-mason stands for
free-stone-mason would appear unworthy of attention, but
for the curious fact that the earliest known instances of any
similar appellation are mestre mason defranche peer (Act 25 Edjv.
III., 1350), and sculptores lapidum liberorum, alleged to occur
in a document of 1217; the coincidence, however, seems to be
merely accidental. (2) The view most generally held is that
freemasons were those who were free of the masons' guild.
Against this explanation many forcible objections have been
brought by Mr G. W. Speth, who suggests (3) that the itinerant
masons were called free because they claimed exemption from
the control of the local guilds of the towns in which they
temporarily settled. (4) Perhaps the best hypothesis is that the
term refers to the medieval practice of emancipating skilled
artisans, in order that they might be able to travel and render
their services wherever any great building was in process of
construction." The late secretary of the Quatuor Coronati
Lodge (No. 2076, London) has thus had his view sanctioned by
" the highest tribunal in the Republic of Letters so far as
Philology is concerned " (Dr W. J. Chetwode Crawley in Ars
Quatuor Coronatorum, 1898). Still it cannot be denied that
members of lodges in the i6th and following centuries exercised
the privilege of making free masons and denied the freedom
of working to cowans (also called ww-freemen) who had not been
so made free; " the Masownys of the luge " being the only ones
recognized as /reemasons. As to the prefix being derived from
the word frere, a sufficient answer is the fact that frequent
reference is made to " Brother freemasons," so that no ground for
that supposition exists (cf. articles by Mr Gould in the Freemason
for September 1898 on " Free and Freemasonry ").
There are numerous indications of masonic activity in the
British lodges of the I7th> century, especially in Scotland;
the existing records, however, of the southern part of the United
Kingdom, though few, are of importance, some only having been
made known in recent years. These concern the Masons'
Company of London, whose valuable minutes and other docu-
ments are ably described and commented upon by Edward
Conder, jr., in his Hole Crafte and Fellowship of Masons (1894),
the author then being the Master of that ancient company. It
was incorporated in 1677 by Charles II., who graciously met the
wishes of the members, but as a company the information " that
is to be found in the Corporation Records at Guildhall proves very
clearly that in 1376 tie Masons' Company existed and was
represented in the court of common council." The title then
favoured was " Masons," the entry of the term " Freemasons "
being crossed out. Herbert erroneously overlooked the correc-
tion, and stated in his History of the Twelve Great Livery Com-
panies (vol. i.) that the Freemasons returned two, and the Masons
four members, but subsequently amalgamated; whereas the
revised entry was for the " Masons " only. The Company
obtained a grant of arms in 1472 (i 2th year Hen. VIII.), one of the
first of the kind, being thus described: " A feld of Sablys A
Cheveron silver grailed thre Castellis of the same garnyssbed wt.
dores and wyndows of the feld in the Cheveron or Cumpas of
Black of Blak "; it is the authority (if any) for all later armorial
bearings having a chevron and castles, assumed by other masonic
82
FREEMASONRY
organizations. This precious document was only discovered in
1871 , having been missing for a long time, thus doubtless account-
ing- for the erroneous representations met with, not having the
correct blazon to follow. The oldest masonic motto known
is " God is our Guide " on Kerwin's tomb in St Helen's church,
Bishopgate, of 1594; that of " In the Lord is all our trust"
not being traced until the next century. Supporters consisting
of two doric columns are mentioned in 1688 by Randle Holme,
but the Grand Lodge of England in the following century used
Beavers as operative builders. Its first motto was " In the
beginning was the Word " (in Greek), exchanged a few years on-
ward for " Relief and Truth," the rival Grand Lodge (Atholl
Masons) selecting " Holiness to the Lord " (in Hebrew), and the
final selection at the " Union of December 1813 " being Audi
Vide Tace.
Mr Conder's discovery of a lodge of " Accepted Masons " being
held under the wing of the Company was a great surprise, dating
as the records do from 1620 to 1621 (the earliest of the kind yet
traced in England), when seven were made masons, all of whom
were free of the Company before, three being of the Livery;
the entry commencing " Att the making masons. " The meetings
were entitled the " Acception," and the members of the lodge
were called Accepted Masons, being those so accepted and initiated,
the term never otherwise being met with in the Records. An
additional fee had to be paid by a member of the Company to
join the " Acception," and any not belonging thereto were
mulct in twice the sum; though even then such " acceptance "
did not qualify for membership of the superior body; the fees
for the " Acception " being i and 2 respectively. In 1638-
1639, when Nicholas Stone entered the lodge (he was Master
of the Company 1632-1633) the banquet cost a considerable
sum, showing that the number of brethren present must have
been large.
Elias Ashmole (who according to his diary was " made a Free
Mason of Warrington with Colonel Henry Mainwaring," seven
brethen being named as in attendance at the lodge, i6th of
October 1646) states that he "received a summons to appear at
a Lodge to be held next day at Masons' Hall, London." Accord-
ingly on the i ith of March 1682 he attended and saw six gentle-
men " admitted into the Fellowship of Free Masons," of whom
three only belonged to the Company; the Master, however,
Mr Thomas Wise, the two wardens and six others being present
on the occasion as members in their dual capacity. Ashmole
adds: " We all dyned at the Halfe Moone Tavern in Cheapside
at a noble dinner prepaired at the charge of the new-accepted
Masons."
It is almost certain that there was not an operative mason
present at the Lodge held in 1646, and at the one which met
in 1682 there was a strong representation of the speculative
branch. Before the year 1654 the Company was known as that
of the Freemasons for some time, but after then the old title
of Masons was reverted to, the terms " Acception " and
" Accepted " belonging to the speculative Lodge, which, however,
in all probability either became independent or ceased to work
soon after 1682. It is very interesting to note that subsequently
(but never before) the longer designation is met with of " Free
and Accepted Masons," and is thus a combination of operative
and speculative usage.
Mr Conder is of opinion that in the Records " there is no
evidence of any particular ceremony attending the position of
Master Mason, possibly it consisted of administering a different
oath from the one taken by the apprentices on being entered."
There is much to favour this supposition, and it may provide
the key to the vexata quaestio as to the plurality of degrees prior
to the Grand Lodge era. The fellow-crafts were recruited from
those apprentices who had served their time and had their essay
(or sufficient trial of their skill) duly passed; they and the
Masters, by the Schaiv Statutes of 1598, being only admitted in
the presence of " sex Maisteris and tiva enterit prentcissis." As
a rule a master mason meant one who was master of his trade, i.e.
duly qualified; but it sometimes described employers as distinct
from journeymen Freemasons; being also a compliment con-
ferred on honorary members during the i7th century in
particular.
In Dr Plot's History of Staffordshire (1686) is a remarkable
account of the " Society of Freemasons," which, being by an
unfriendly critic, is all the more valuable. He states that the
custom had spread " more or less all over the nation "; persons
of the most eminent quality did not disdain to enter the Fellow-
ship; they had " a large parchment volum containing the History
and Rules of the Craft of Masonry "; St Amphibal, St Alban,
King Athelstan and Edwin are mentioned, and these " charges
and manners " were " after perusal approved by King Hen. 6
and his council, both as to Masters and Fellows of this right
Worshipfull craft." It is but fair to add that notwithstanding
the service he rendered the Society by his lengthy description,
that credulous historian remarks of its history that there is
nothing he ever " met with more false or incoherent."
The author of the Academic of Armory, previously noted,
knew better what he was writing about in that work of 1688 in
which he declares: " I cannot but Honor the Fellowship of
the Masons because of its Antiquity; and the more, as being a
member of that Society, called Free Masons " Mr Rylands states
that in Harl. MS. 5955 is a collection of the engraved plates for a
second volume of this important work, one being devoted to the
Arms of the Society, the columns, as supporters, having globes
thereon, from which possibly are derived the two pillars, with
such ornaments or additions seen in lodge rooms at a later period.
In the same year " A Tripos or Speech delivered at a commence-
ment in the University of Dublin held there July n, 1688, by
John Jones, then A.B., afterwards D.D.," contained " notable
evidence concerning Freemasonry in Dublin." The Tripos was
included in Sir Walter Scott's edition of Dean Swift's works
(1814), but as Dr Chetwode Crawley points out, though noticed
by the Rev. Dr George Oliver (the voluminous Masonic author),
he failed to realize its historical importance. The satirical and
withal amusing speech was partly translated from the Latin by
Dr Crawley for his scholarly introduction to the Masonic Re-
prints, &c., by Henry Sadler. " The point seems to be that
Ridley (reputed to have been an informer against priests under
the barbarous penal laws) was, or ought to have been, hanged;
that his carcase, anatomized and stuffed, stood in the library;
and that frath scoundrellus discovered on his remains the Free-
masons' Mark." The importance of the references to the craft in
Ireland is simply owing to the year in which they were made,
as illustrative of the influence of the Society at that time, of which
records are lacking.
It is primarily to Scotland, however, that we have to look
for such numerous particulars of the activity of the fraternity
from 1599 to the establishment of its Grand Lodge in 1736,
for an excellent account of which we are indebted to Lyon, the
Scottish masonic historian. As early as 1600 (8th of June) the
attendance of John Boswell, Esq., the laird of Auchinleck, is
entered in the minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh; he attested
the record and added his mark, as did the other members; so
it was not his first appearance. Many noblemen and other
gentlemen joined this ancient 'atelier, notably Lord Alexander,
Sir Anthony Alexander and Sir Alexander Strachan in 1634,
the king's Master of Work (Herrie Alexander) in 1638, General
Alexander Hamilton in 1640, Dr Hamilton in 1647, and many
other prominent and distinguished men later; "James Neilsone,
Master Sklaitter to His Majestie," who was " entered and past
in the Lodge of Linlithgow, being elected a joining member,"
2nd March 1654. Quarter-Master General Robert Moray (or
Murray) was initiated by members of the Lodge of Edinburgh,
at Newcastle on the 2oth of May 1641, while the Scottish army
was in occupation. On due report to their Alma Mater such
reception was allowed, the occurrence having been considered
the first of its kind in England until the ancient Records of the
Masons' Company were published.
The minute-books of a number of Scottish Lodges, which are
still on the register, go back to the 1 7th century, and abundantly
confirm the frequent admission of speculatives as members and
officers, especially those of the venerable " Mother Lodge
FREEMASONRY
Kil winning," of which the eart-of Cassillis was the deacon in 1672,
who was succeeded by Sir Alexander Cunningham, and the earl
of Eglinton. who like the first of the trio was but an apprentice.
There were three Head Lodges according to the Scottish Code of
1509, Edinburgh being " the first and principal!," Kihvinning
" the secund," and Stirling" the third ludge."
The Aberdeen Lodge (No. i Iris) has records preserved from
1670, in which year what is known as the Mark Book begins,
containing the oldest existing roll of members, numbering 49,
all of whom have their marks registered, save two, though only
ten were operatives. The names of the earls of Finlater, Enroll
and Dunfermline, Lord Forbes, several ministers and professional
men are on the list, which was written by a glazier, all of whom
had been enlightened as to the " benefit of the measson word,"
and inserted in order as they " were made fellow craft." The
Charter (Old Charges) bad to be read at the " entering of everie
prenteise," and the officers included a master and two wardens.
The lodge at Melrose (No. i bis) with records back to 1674 did
not join the Grand Lodge until 1891, and was the last of those
working (possibly centuries before that body was formed) to
accept the modern system of government. Of the many note-
worthy lodges mention should be made of that of " Canongate
Rilwinning No. 2," Edinburgh, the first of the numerous pendicles
of" Mother Lodge Kilwinning, No. o," Ayrshire, started in 1677;
and of the Journeymen No 8, formed in 1 707 , which was a secession
from the Lodge of Edinburgh ; the Fellow Crafts or Journeymen
not being satisfied with their treatment by the Freemen Masters
of the Incorporation of Masons, &c. This action led to a trial
before the Lords of Council and Session, when finally a " Decreet
Arbitral " .was subscribed to by both parties, and the junior
organization was permitted " to give the mason word as it is
called " in a separate lodge. The presbytery of Kelso 1 in 1652
sustained the action of the Rev. James Ainslie in becoming a
Freemason, declaring that " there is neither sinne nor scandale
in that word " (i.e. the " Mason Word "), which is often alluded
to but never revealed in the old records already referred to. 2
One Scottish family may be cited in illustration of the continuous
working of Freemasonry, whose membership is enshrined in
the records of the ancient Lodge of " Scoon and Perth No. 3 "
and others. A venerable document, lovingly cared for by No. 3,
bears date 1658, and recites how John Mylne came to Perth from
the " North Countrie," and was the king's Master Mason and
W.M. of the Lodge, his successor being his son, who entered
" King James the sixt as ff reman measone and fellow craft ";
his third son John was a member of Lodge No. i and Master
Mason to Charles I., 1631-1636, and his eldest son was a deacon
of No. i eleven times during thirty years. To him was
apprenticed bis nephew, who was warden in 1663-1664 and
deacon several times. William Mylne was a warden in 1695,
Thomas (eldest son) was Master in 1735, and took part in the
formation of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. Others of the family
continued to join the Lodge No. i, until Robert, the last of the
Mylnes as Freemasons, was initiated in 1754, died in 1811, and
" was buried in St Paul* cathedral, having been Surveyor to
that Edifice for fifty years," and the last of the masonic Mylnes
for five generations. The " St John's Lodge," Glasgow (No. 3
bis), has some valuable old records and a " Charter Chest "
with the words carved thereon " God save the King and Masons
Craft, 1684." Loyalty and Charity are the watchwords of the
Society.
The Craft Gilds (Corps d'tat) of France, and their progeny
the Companionage, have been fully described by Mr Gould,
and the Steinmetzen of Germany would require too detailed
notice if we were to particularize its rules, customs and general
'The Associate Synod which met at Edinburgh, March 1755,
just a century later, took quite an opposite view, deciding to depose
from office any of their brethren who would not give up their masonic
membership (Scots Uag., 1755, p. 158). Papal Bulls have also
been iwued against the craft, the first being in 1738; but neither
interdicts nor anathcmata have any influence with the fraternity,
and fall quite harmless.
* " We have the Mason Word and second sight,
Thing* for to come we can fortell aright."
(The tfusei Threnodie, by H. Adamson, Edin., 1638.)
character, from about the, i2th century onward. Much as there
was in common between the Stonemasons of Germany and the
Freemasons of Great Britain and Ireland, it must be conceded
that the two societies never united and were all through this
long period wholly separate and independent; a knowledge of
Freemasonry and authority to hold lodges in Germany being
derived from the Grand Lodge of England during the first half
of the i8th century. The theory of the derivation of the Free-
masons from the Steinmetzen was first propounded in 1779 by
the abb Grandidier, and has been maintained by more modern
writers, such as Fallou, Heideloff and Schneider, but a thorough
examination of their statements has resulted in such an origin
being generally discredited. Whether the Sleinmetzen had secret <
signs of recognition or not, is not quite clear, but that the Free-
masons had, for centuries, cannot be doubted, though precisely
what they were may be open to question, and also what portions
of the existing ceremonies are reminiscent of the craft anterior
to the Revival of 1717. Messrs Speth and Gould favour the
notion that there were two distinct and separate degrees prior to
the third decade of the i8th century (Ars Q.C., 1898 and 1903),
while other authorities have either supported the One degree
theory, or consider there is not sufficient evidence to warrant
a decision. Recent discoveries, however, tend in favour of the
first view noted, such as the Trinity College MS., Dublin (" Free
Masonry, Feb. 1711 "), and the invaluable 3 Chetwode Crawley
MS. (Grand Lodge Library, Dublin) ; the second being read in
connexion with the Haughfoot Lodge Records, beginning 1702
(Hist, of Freemasonry, by W. F. Vernon, 1893).
Two of the most remarkable lodges at work during the period
of transition (1717-1723), out of the many then existing in
England, assembled at Alnwick and at York. The origin of the
first noted is not known, but there are minutes of the meetings
from 1703, the Rules are of 1701, signed by quite a number of
members, and a transcript of the Old Charges begins the volume.
In 1708-1709 a minute provided for a masonic procession, at
which the brethren were to walk " with their aprons on and
Cotnon Square." The Lodge consisted mainly of operative
" free Brothers," and continued for many years, a code of by- ,
laws being published in 1763, but it never united with the Grand
Lodge, giving up the struggle for existence a few years further on.
The other lodge, the most noteworthy of all the English
predecessors of the Grand Lodge of England, was long held at
York, the Mecca of English Freemasons. 4 Its origin is unknown,
but there are traces of its existence at an early date, and possibly
it was a survival of the Minster Lodge of the i4th century.
Assuming that the York MS. No. 4 of 1693 was the property
of the lodge in that year (which Roll was presented by George
Walker of Wetherby in 1777), the entry which concludes that
Scroll is most suggestive, as it gives " The names of the Lodge "
(members) and the " Lodge Ward(en)." Its influence most
probably may be also noted at Scarborough, where "A private
Lodge " was held on the loth of July 1705, at which the president
" William Thompson, Esq., and several! others brethren ffree
Masons " were present, and six gentlemen (named) " were then
admitted into the said ffraternity." These particulars are en-
dorsed on the Scarborough MS. of the Old Charges, now owned
by the Grand Lodge of Canada at Toronto. " A narrow folio
manuscript Book beginning 7th March 1705-1706," which was
quoted from in 1778, has long been missing, which is much to be
regretted, as possibly it gave particulars of the lodge which
assembled at Bradford, Yorkshire, " when 18 Gentlemen of the
first families in that neighbourhood were made Masons." There
is, however, another roll of records from 1712 to 1730 happily
preserved of this " Ancient Honble. Society and Fraternity
of Free Masons," sometimes styled " Company " or " Society of
Free and Accepted Masons."
Not to be behind the London fratres, the York brethren formed
a Grand Lodge on the 27th of December 1725 (the "Grand
The Chetwode Crawley MS., bv W. J. Hughan (Ars. Q.C., 1904).
4 The York Grand Lodge, by Messrs. Hughan and Whytehead
Ars Q.C., 1900), and Masonic Sketches and Reprints (1871), by the
8 4
FREEMASONRY
Lodge of all England" was its modest t^tle), and was flourishing
for years, receiving into their company many county men of great
influence. Some twenty years later there was a brief period
of somnolence, but in 1761 a revival took place, with Francis
Drake, the historian, as Grand Master, ten lodges being chartered
in Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lancashire, 1762-1790, and a Grand
Lodge of England, south of the Trent, in 1779, at London,
which warranted two lodges. Before the century ended all these
collapsed or joined the Grand Lodge of England, so there was
not a single representative of " York Masonry " left on the advent
of the next century.
The premier Grand Lodge of England soon began to constitute
new Lodges in the metropolis, and to reconstitute old ones that
applied for recognition, one of the earliest of 1720-1721 being
still on the Roll as No. 6, thus having kept company ever since
with the three " time immemorial Lodges," Nos. 2, 4 and 12.
Applications for constitution kept coming in, the provinces
being represented from 1723 to 1724, before which time it is likely
the Grand Lodge of Ireland 1 had been started, about which the
most valuable Caemenlaria Hibernica by Dr Chetwode Crawley
may be consulted with absolute confidence. Provincial Grand
Lodges were formed to ease the authorities at headquarters,
and, as the society spread, also for the Continent, and gradually
throughout the civilized globe. Owing to the custom prevailing
before the i8th century, a few brethren were competent to form
lodges on their own initiative anywhere, and hence the registers
of the British Grand Lodges are not always indicative of the first
appearance of the craft abroad. In North America 2 lodges were
held before what is known as the first " regular " lodge was
formed at Boston, Mass., in 1733, and probably in Canada 3
likewise. The same remark applies to Denmark, France, Ger-
many, Holland, Italy, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden and other
countries. Of the many scores of military lodges, the first war-
rant was granted by Ireland in 1732. To no other body of
Freemasons has the craft been so indebted for its prosperity in
early days as to their military brethren. There were rivals to
the Grand Lodge of England during the i8th century, one of
considerable magnitude being known as the Ancients or Atholl
Masons, formed in 1751, but in December 1813 a junction was
effected, and from that time the prosperity of the United Grand
Lodge of England, with few exceptions, has been extraordinary.
Nothing but a volume to itself could possibly describe the
main features of the English Craft from 1717, when Anthony
Sayer was elected the first Grand Master of a brilliant galaxy
of rulers. The first nobleman to undertake that office was the
duke of Montagu in 1721, the natural philosopher J. T.
Desaguliers being his immediate predecessor, who has been
credited (and also the Rev. James Anderson) with the honour of
starting the premier Grand Lodge; but like the fable of Sir
Christopher Wren having been Grand Master, evidence is entirely
lacking. Irish and Scottish peers share with those of England
the distinction of presiding over the Grand Lodge, and from
1782 to 1813 their Royal Highnesses the duke of Cumberland,
the prince of Wales, or the duke of Sussex occupied the masonic
throne. From 1753 to 1813 the rival Grand Lodge had been
busy, but ultimately a desire for a united body prevailed, and
under the " ancient " Grand Master, H.R.H. the duke of Kent,
it was decided to amalgamate with the original ruling organiza-
tion, H.R.H. the duke of Sussex becoming the Grand Master of
the United Grand Lodge. On the decease of the prince in 1843
the earl of Zetland succeeded, followed by the marquess of Ripon
in 1874, on whose resignation H.R.H. the prince of Wales
became the Grand Master. Soon after succeeding to the throne,
1 The celebrated " Lady Freemason," the Hon. Mrs Aldworth
(nee Miss St Leger, daughter of Lord Doneraile), was initiated in
Ireland, but at a much earlier date than popularly supposed;
certainly not later than 1713, when the venturesome lady was
twenty. All early accounts of the occurrence must "be received with
caution, as there are no contemporary records of the event.
* History of Freemasonry, by Dr A. G. Mackey (New York, 1898),
and the History of the Fraternity Publishing Company, Boston,
Mass., give very full particulars as to the United States.
* See History of Freemasonry in Canada (Toronto, 1899), by J.
Ross Robertson.
King Edward VII. ceased to govern the English craft, and was
succeeded by H.R.H. the duke of Connaught. From 1737 to
1907 some sixteen English princes of the royal blood joined the
brotherhood.
From 1723 to 1813 the number of lodges enrolled in England
amounted to 1626, and from 1814 to the end of December 1909
as many as 3352 were warranted, making a grand total of 4978,
of which the last then granted was numbered 3185. There were
in 1909 still 2876 on the register, notwithstanding the many
vacancies created by the foundation of new Grand Lodges in the
colonies and elsewhere. 4
Distribution and Organization. The advantage of the cosmo-
politan basis of the fraternity generally (though some Grand
Lodges still preserve the original Christian foundation) has been
conspicuously manifested and appreciated in India and other
countries where the votaries of numerous religious systems
congregate; but the unalterable basis of a belief in the Great
Architect of the Universe remains, for without such a recognition
there can be no Freemasonry, and it is now, as it always has been,
entirely free from party politics. The charities of the Society in
England, Ireland and Scotland are extensive and well organized,
their united cost per day not being less than 500, and with those
of other Grand Lodges throughout the world must amount to
a very large sum, there being over two millions of Freemasons.
The vast increase of late years, both of lodges and members,
however, calls for renewed vigilance and extra care in selecting
candidates, that numbers may not be a source of weakness
instead of strength.
In its internal organization, the working of Freemasonry
involves an elaborate system of symbolic ritual, 6 as carried out
at meetings of the various lodges, uniformity as to essentials
being the rule. The members are classified in numerous degrees,
of which the first three are " Entered Apprentice," " Fellow
Craft " and " Master Mason," each class of which, after initia-
tion, can only be attained after passing a prescribed ordeal or
examination, as a test of proficiency, corresponding to the
" essays " of the operative period.
The lodges have their own by-laws for guidance, subject to
the Book of Constitutions of their Grand Lodge, and the regula-
tions of the provincial or district Grand Lodge if located in
counties or held abroad.
It is to be regretted that on the continent of Europe Free-
masonry has sometimes developed on different lines from that
of the " Mother Grand Lodge " and Anglo-Saxon Grand Lodges
generally, and through its political and anti-religious tendencies
has come into contact or conflict with the state authorities 6
or the Roman Catholic church. The " Grand Orient of France "
(but not the Supreme Council 33, and its Grand Lodge) is an
example of this retrograde movement, by its elimination of
the paragraph referring to a belief in the " Great Architect of
the Universe " from its Slatuts et reglements gtntraux. This
deplorable action has led to the withdrawal of all regular Grand
Lodges from association with that body, and such separation
must continue until a return is made to the ancient and inviolable
landmark of the society, which makes it impossible for an atheist
either to join or continue a member of the fraternity.
The Grand Lodge of England constituted its first lodge in
Paris in the year 1732, but one was formed still earlier on the
continent at Gibraltar 1728-1729. Others were also opened in
Germany 1733, Portugal 1735, Holland 1735, Switzerland 1740,
Denmark 1745, Italy 1763, Belgium 1765, Russia 1771, and
4 The Masonic Records 1717-1894, by John Lane, and the ex-
cellent Masonic Yearbook, published annually by the Grand Lodge
of England, are the two standard works on Lodge enumeration,
localization and nomenclature. For particulars of the Grand Lodges,
and especially that of England, Gould's History is most useful and
trustworthy ; and for an original contribution to the history of the
rival Grand Lodge or Atholl Masons, Sadler's Masonic Facts and
Fictions.
6 " A peculiar system of Morality, veiled in Allegory and illus-
trated by Symbols " (old definition of Freemasonry).
The British House of Commons in 1799 and 1817, in acts of
parliament, specifically recognized the laudable character of the
society and provided for its continuance on definite lines.
FREEPORT FREE PORTS
Sweden 1773. In most of these countries Grand Lodges were
subsequently created and continue to this date, save that in
Austria (not Hungary) and Russia no masonic lodges have for
some t i mi- been permitted to assemble. There is a union of Grand
Lodges of Germany, and an annual Diet is held for the transaction
of business affecting the several masonic organizations in that
country, which works well. H.R.H. Prince Frederick Leopold
was in 1009 Protector, or the " Wisest Master " (Vicarius
Salomon is). King Giutav V. was the Grand Master + of the
freemasons in Sweden, and the sovereign of the " Order of Charles
XIII.," the only one of the kind confined to members of the
fraternity.
Lodges were constituted in India from 1730 (Calcutta), 1752
(Madras), and 1758 (Bombay); in Jamaica 1742, Antigua 1738,
and St Christopher 1739; soon after which period the Grand
Lodges of England, Ireland and Scotland had representatives
at work throughout the civilized world.
In no part, however, outside Great Britain has the craft
flourished so much as in the United States of America, where the
first " regular " lodge (i.e. according to the new regime) was
opened in 1733 at Boston, Mass. Undoubtedly lodges had
been meeting still earlier, one of which was held at Philadelphia,
Penna., with records from 1731, which blossomed into a Grand
Lodge, but no authority has yet been traced for its proceedings,
save that which may be termed "time immemorial right,"
which was enjoyed by all lodges and brethren who were at work
prior to the Grand Lodge era (1716-1717) or who declined to
recognize the autocratic proceedings of the premier Grand Lodge
of England, just as the brethren did in the city of York. A
" deputation " was granted to Daniel Coxe, Esq. of New Jersey,
by the duke of Norfolk, Grand Master, 5th of June 1730, as
Prov. Grand Master of the " Provinces of New York, New Jersey
and Pensilvania," but there is no evidence that he ever constituted
any lodges or exercised any masonic authority in virtue thereof.
Henry Price as Prov. Grand Master of New England, and his
lodge, which was opened on the 3ist of August 1733, in the city
of Boston, so far as is known, began " regular " Freemasonry in
the United States, and the older and independent organization
was soon afterwards " regularized." Benjamin Franklin (an
Initiate of the lodge of Philadelphia) printed and published the
Book of Constitutions, 1723 (of London, England), in the " City
of Brotherly Love " in 1734, being the oldest masonic work in
America. English and Scottish Grand Lodges were soon after
petitioned to grant warrants to bold lodges, and by the end of
the 1 8th century several Grand Lodges were formed, the Craft
becoming very popular, partly no doubt by reason of so many
prominent men joining the fraternity, of whom the chief was
George Washington, initiated in a Scottish lodge at Fredericks-
burg, Virginia, in 1752-1753. In 1907 there were fifty Grand
Lodges assembling in the United States, with considerably over
a million members.
In Canada in 1009 there were eight Grand Lodges, having
about 64,000 members. Freemasonry in the Dominion is be-
lieved to date from 1 740. The Grand Lodges are all of com-
paratively recent organization, the oldest and largest, with
40,000 members, being for Ontario; those of Manitoba, Nova
Scotia and Quebec numbering about 5000 each. There are
some seven Grand Lodges in Australia; South Australia coming
first as a " sovereign body," followed closely by New South
Wales and Victoria (of 1884-1889 constitution), the whole of
the lodges in the Commonwealth probably having fully 50,000
members on the registers.
There are many additional degrees which may be taken or not
(being quite optional), and dependent on a favourable ballot;
the difficulty, however, of obtaining admission increases as pro-
gress is made, the numbers accepted decreasing rapidly with each
advancement. The chief of these are arranged in separate
classes and are governed either by the " Grand Chapter of the
Royal Arch," the " Mark Grand Lodge," the " Great Priory of
Knights Templars " or the " Ancient and Accepted Rite," these
being mutually complementary and intimately connected as
respects England, and more or less so in Ireland, Scotland,
North America and wherever worked on a similar basis; the
countries of the continent of Europe have also their own Hautes
Grades. (W. J. H. *)
FREEPORT, a city and the county-seat of Stephenson county,
Illinois, in the N.W. part of the state, on the Pecatonica river,
30 m. from its mouth and about too m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop.
(1890) 10,189; (1900) 13,258, of whom 2264 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 17,567. The city is served by the Chicago &
North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the
Illinois Central railways, and by the Rockford & Interurban
electric railway. The Illinois Central connects at South Free-
port, about 3 m. S. of Freeport, with the Chicago Great Western
railway. Among Freeport's manufactures are foundry and
machine shop products, carriages, hardware specialties, patent
medicines, windmills, engines, incubators, organs, beer and
shoes. The Illinois Central has large railway repair shops here.
The total value of the city's factory product in 1905 was
$3,109,302, an increase of 14-8% since 1900. In the sur-
rounding country cereals are grown, and swine and poultry are
raised. Dairying is an important industry also. The city
has a Carnegie library (1901). In the Court House Square is
a monument, 80 ft. high, in memory of the soldiers who died
in the Civil War. At the corner of Douglas Avenue and
Mechanic Street a granite boulder commemorates the famous
debate between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas,
held in Freeport on the 27th of August 1858. In that debate
Lincoln emphasized the differences between himself and the
radical anti-slavery men, and in answer to one of Lincoln's
questions Douglas declared that the people of a territory, through
" unfriendly " laws or denial of legislative protection, could
exclude slavery, and that " it matters not what way the Supreme
Court may hereafter decide on the abstract question whether
slavery may or may not go into a territory under the Constitu-
tion." This, the so-called " Freeport doctrine," greatly weakened
Douglas in the presidential election of 1860. Freeport was
settled in 1835, was laid out and named Winneshiek in 1836,
and in 1837 under its present name was made the county-seat
of Stephenson county. It was incorporated as a town in 1850
and chartered as a city in 1855.
FREE PORTS, a term, strictly speaking, given to localities
where no customs duties are levied, and where no customs super-
vision exists. In these ports (subject to payment for specific
services rendered, wharfage, storage, &c., and to the observance
of local police and sanitary regulations) ships load and unload,
cargoes are deposited and handled, industries are exercised,
manufactures are carried on, goods are bought and sold, without,
any action on the part of fiscal authorities. Ports are likewise
designated " free " where a space or zone exists within which
commercial operations are conducted without payment of import
or export duty, and without active interference on the part of
customs authorities. The French and German designations
for these two descriptions of ports are for the former La Ville
franche, Freihafen; for the latter Le Port franc, Freibezirk or
Freilager. The English phrase free port applies to both. 1 The
leading conditions under which free ports in Europe derived their
origin were as follows: (i) When public order became re-
established during the middle ages, trading centres were gradually
formed. Marts for the exchange and purchase of goods arose in
different localities. Many Italian settlements, constituting free
zones, were established in the Levant. The Hanseatic towns
arose in the I2th century. Great fairs became recognized
the Leipzig charter was granted in 1268. These localities were
free as regards customs duties, although dues of the nature of
octroi charges were often levied. (2) Until the i9th century
European states were numerous, and often of small size. Accord-
ingly uniform customs tariffs of wide application did not exist.
1 In China at the present time (1902) certain ports are designated
" free and open." This phrase means that the ports in question are
(i) open to foreign trade, and (2) that vessels engaged in oversea
voyages may freely resort there. Exemption from payment of
customs duties is not implied, which is a matter distinct from the
permission granted under treaty engagements to foreign vessels to
carry cargoes to and from the treaty ports."
86
FREE REED VIBRATOR
Uniform rates of duty were fixed in England by the Subsidy Act
of 1660. In France, before the Revolution (besides the free
ports), Alsace and the Lorraine Bishoprics were in trade matters
treated as foreign countries. The unification of the German
customs tariff began in 1834 with the Steuerverein and the
Zollverein. The Spanish fiscal system did not include the Basque
provinces until about 1850. The uniform Italian tariff dates from
1861. Thus until very recent times on the Continent free ports
were compatible with the fiscal policy and practice of different
countries. (3) Along the Mediterranean coast, up to the ipth
century, convenient shelter was needed from corsairs. In other
continental countries the prevalent colonial and mercantile
policy sought to create trans-oceanic trade. Free ports were
advantageous from all these points of view.
In following the history of these harbours in Europe, it is to be
observed that in Great Britain free ports have never existed. In
1552 it was contemplated to place Hull and Southampton on this
footing, but the design was abandoned. Subsequently the bonding
and not the free port system was adopted in the United Kingdom.
Austria-Hungary. Fiume and Trieste were respectively free ports
during the periods 1722-1893 and 1719-1893.
Belgium. The emperor Joseph II. during his visit to the Austrian
Netherlands in June 1781 endeavoured to create a direct trade
between that country and India. Ostend was made a free port,
and large bonding facilities were afforded at Bruges, Brussels, Ghent
and Louvain. In 1796, however, the revolutionary government
abolished the Ostend privileges.
Denmark. In November 1894 an area of about 150 acres at
Copenhagen was opened as a free port, and great facilities are
afforded for shipping and commercial operations in order that the
Baltic trade may centre there.
France. Marseilles was a free port in the middle ages, and so
was Dunkirk when it formed part of Flanders. In 1669 these privi-
leges were confirmed, and extended to Bayonne. In 1784 there was
a fresh confirmation, and Lorient and St Jean de Luz were included
in the ordonnance. The National Assembly in 1790 maintained
this policy, and created free ports in the French West Indies. In
1795, however, all such privileges were abolished, but large bonding
facilities were allowed at Marseilles to favour the Levant trade. The
government of Louis XVIII. in 1814 restored, and in 1871 again
revoked, the free, port privileges of Marseilles. There are now no
free ports in France or in French possessions; the bonding system
is in force.
Germany. Bremen, Hamburg and Liibeck were reconstituted
free towns and ports under the treaties of 1 8 1 4-1 815. Certain minor
ports, and several landing-stages on the Rhine and the Neckar,
were also designated free. As the Zollverein policy became accepted
throughout Germany, previous privileges were gradually lessened,
and since 1888 only Hamburg remains a free port. There an area
of about 2500 acres is exempt from customs duties and control,
and is largely used for shipping and commercial purposes. Bremer-
haven has a similar area of nearly 700 acres. Brake, Bremen, Cux-
haven, Emden, Geestemiinde, Neufahrwasser and Stettin possess
Freibezirke areas, portions of the larger port. Heligoland is outside
the Zollverein practically a foreign country.
In Italy free ports were numerous and important, and possessed
privileges which varied at different dates. They were Ancona,
during the period 1696-1868; Brindisi, 1845-1862; Leghorn (in
the l?th and l8th centuries a very important Mediterranean har-
bour), 1675-1867; Messina, 1695-1879; Senigallia, 1821-1868,
during the month of the local fair. Venice possessed warehouses,
equivalent to bonded stores, for German and Turkish trade during
the Republic, and was a free port 1851-1873. Genoa was a free port
in the time of the Republic and under the French Empire, and was
continued as such by the treaties of 1814-1815. The free port was,
however, changed into a " deposito franco " by a law passed in 1865,
and only storing privileges now remain.
Rumania. Braila, Galatz and Kustenji were free ports (for a
period of about forty years) up to 1883, when bonded warehouses
were established by the Rumanian government. Sulina remains free.
Russia. Archangel was a free port, at least for English goods,
from 1555 to 1648. During this period English products were
admitted into Russia via Archangel without any customs payment
for internal consumption, and also in transit to Persia. The tsar
Alexis revoked this grant on the execution of Charles I. Free
ports were opened in 1895 at Kola, in Russian Lapland. Dalny,
adjoining Port Arthur, was a free port during the Russian occupation ;
and Japan after the war decided to renew this privilege as soon as
practicable.
The number of free ports outside Europe has also lessened. The
administrative policy of European countries has been gradually'
adopted in other parts of the world, and customs duties have become
almost universal, conjoined with bonding and transhipment facilities.
In British colonies and possessions, under an act of parliament
passed in 1766, and repealed in 1867, two ports in Dominica and four
in Jamaica were free, Malacca, Penang and Singapore have been
free ports since 1824, Hong-Kong since 1842, and Weihaiwei since
it was leased to Great Britain in 1898. Zanzibar was a free port
during 1892-1899. Aden, Gibraltar, St Helena and St Thomas
(West Indies) are sometimes designated free ports. A few duties
are, however, levied, which are really octroi rather than customs
charges. These places are mainly stations for coaling and awaiting
orders.
Some harbours in the Netherlands East Indies were free ports
between 1829 and 1899; but these privileges were withdrawn by laws
passed in 1898-1899, in order to establish uniformity of customs
administration. Harbours where' custom houses are not maintained
will be practically closed to foreign trade, though the governor-
general may in special circumstances vary the application of the
new regulations.
Macao has been a free port since 1845. Portugal has no other
harbour of this character.
The American Republics have adopted the bonding system. In
1896 a free wharf was opened at New Orleans in imitation of the
recent European plan. Livingstone (Guatemala) was a free port
during the period 1882-1888.
The privileges enjoyed under the old free port system benefited
the towns and districts where they existed; and their aboli-
tion has been, locally, injurious. These places were, however,
" foreign " to their own country, and their inland intercourse
was restricted by the duties levied on their products, and by the
precautions adopted to prevent evasion of these charges. With
fiscal usages involving preferential and deferential treatment
of goods and places, the drawbacks thus arising did not attract
serious attention. Under the limited means of communication
within and beyond the country, in former times, these con-
veniences were not much felt. But when finance departments
became more completely organized, the free port system fell out
of favour with fiscal authorities: it afforded opportunities for
smuggling, and impeded uniformity of action and practice.
It became, in fact, out of harmony with the administrative and
financial policy of later times. Bonding and entrepot facilities,
on a scale commensurate with local needs, now satisfy trade
requirements. In countries where high customs duties are levied,
and where fiscal regulations are minute and rigid, if an extension
of foreign trade is desired, and the competition which it involves
is a national aim, special facilities must be granted for this pur-
pose. In these circumstances a free zone sufficiently large to
admit of commercial operations and transhipments on a scale
which will fulfil these conditions (watched but not interfered with
by the customs) becomes indispensable. The German govern-
ment have, as we have seen, maintained a free zone of this nature
at Hamburg. And when the free port at Copenhagen was opened ,
counter measures were adopted at Danzig and Stettin. An
agitation has arisen in France to provide at certain ports free
zones similar to those at Copenhagen and Hamburg, and to open .
free ports in French possessions. A bill to this effect was sub-
mitted to the chamber of deputies on the I2th of April 1905.
Colonial free ports, such as Hong-Kong and Singapore, do not
interfere with the uniformity of the home customs and excise
policy. These two harbours in particular have become great
shipping resorts and distributing centres. The policy which led
to their establishment as free ports has certainly promoted
British commercial interests.
See the Parliamentary Paper on " Continental Free Ports," 1904.
(C. M. K. )
FREE REED VIBRATOR (Fr. anche libre, Ger. durchschlagende
Zunge, Ital. ancia or lingua libera), in musical instruments, a
thin metal tongue fixed at one end and vibrating freely either
in surrounding space, as in the accordion and concertina, or
enclosed in a pipe or channel, as in certain reed stops of the
organ or in the harmonium. The enclosed reed, in its typical
and theoretical form, is fixed over an aperture of the same shape
but just large enough to allow it to swing freely backwards and
forwards, alternately opening and closing the aperture, when
driven by a current of compressed air. We have to deal with
air under three different conditions in considering the phenome-
non of the sound produced by free reeds, (i) The stationary
column or stratum in pipe or channel containing the reed, which
is normally at rest. (2) The wind or current of air fed from the
bellows with a variable velocity and pressure, which is broken
up into periodic air puffs as its entrance into pipe or channel is
FREESIA FREE SOIL PARTY
;.8 7
alternately checked or allowed by the .- : bra.tor. (j) Thedisturbod
condition of No. i when acted upon by the metal vibrator and
by No 2, whereby the air within the pipe is forced into alternate
pulses of condensation and rarefaction. The free reed is there-
fore nol the tone-producer but only the exciting agent,, that is
to say, the sound is not produced by the communication of
the free reed's vibrations to the surrounding air, 1 as in the case
of a vibrating string, but by the scries of air puffs punctuated by
infinitesimal pauses, which it produces by alternately opening
and almost closing the aperture. 1 A musical sound is thus
produced the pitch of which depends on the length and thick-
Best of the metal tongue; the greater the length, the slower
the vibrations and the lower the pitch, while on the contrary,
the thicker the reed near the shoulder at the fixed end, the
higher the pitch. It must be borne in mind that the periodic
vibrations of the reed determine the pitch of the sound solely
by the frequency per second they impose upon the pulses of
rarefaction and condensation within the pipe.
The most valuable characteristic of the free reed is its power
of producing all the delicate gradations of tone between forte and
piano by virtue of a law of acoustics
governing the vibration of free reeds,
whereby increased pressure of wind pro-
duces a proportional increase in the
volume of tone. The pitch of any sound
depends upon the frequency of the
sound-waves, that is, the number per
second which reach the ear; the fullness
of sound depends upon the amplitude
of the waves, or, more strictly speaking,
of the swing of the transmitting particles
of the medium greater pressure in the
air current (No. 2 above) which sets the
vibrator in motion producing amplitude
of vibration in the air within the re-
ceptacle (No. 3 above) serving as reson-
ating medium. The sound produced by
the free reed itself is weak and requires
to be reinforced by means of an ad-
ditional stationary column or stratum of
air. Free reed instruments are therefore
classified according to the nature of the
resonant medium provided: (i) Free
reeds vibrating in pipes, such as the reed
stops of church organs on the continent
Fram J B. BW. Train it
FIG. I. Grenie's
organ pipe fitted with
free-reed vibrator.
A, Tuning wire.
D. Frre reed.
R. Reed-box.
B.C. Feed pipe with
conical foot.
T, Part of resonating
pipe, the upper end
with cap and vent
hole being shown
separately at the
of Europe (in England the reed pipes are generally provided
witfc beating reeds, see REED INSTRUMENTS and CLARINET).
(2) Free reeds vibrating in reed compartments and reinforced
by air chambers of various shapes and sizes as in the har-
monium (q.t.). (3) Instruments like the accordion and con-
certina having the free reed set in vibration through a valve,
but having no reinforcing medium. .
The arrangement of the free reed in an organ pipe is simple,
and does not differ greatly from that of the beating reed shown
in fig. 2 for the purpose of comparison. The reed-box, a rect-
angular wooden pipe, is closed at the bottom and covered on one
face with a thin plate of copper having a rectangular slit over
which is fixed the thin metal vibrating tongue or reed as described
above. The reed-box, itself open at the top, is enclosed in a feed
pipe having a conical foot pierced with a small hole through
which the air current is forced by the action of the bellows.
The impact of the incoming compressed air against the reed
tongue sets it swinging through the slit, thus causing a disturb-
ance or series of pulsations within the reed-box. The air then
finds an escape through the resonating medium of a pipe fitting
over the reed-box and terminating in an inverted cone covered
with a cap in the top of which is pierced a small hole or vent.
Th quality of tone of free reeds is due to the tendency of air set
1 See H. Helmholtz. Die Lehre mm den Tonempfinduneen (Bruns-
wick, 1877), p. 166.
See also Ernst Heinrich and Wilhelm Weber, WeUenlekre
(Leipzig. 1825), where a particularly lucid explanation of the pheno-
~l is given, pp. 526-530.
V
FIG. 2. Organ pipe
fitted with beatingrecd.
AL, Beating reed.
R, Reed box.
Ff, Tuning wire.
TV, Feed pipe.
VV, Conical foot.
S, Hole through
which compressed
air is fed.
in periodic pulsations to divide'into aliquot vibrations or loops,
producing the phenomenon- known as
harmonic overtones, or upper partials,
which may, in the highly composite
clang of free reeds, be discerned as far
as. the i6th or 2oth of the series. The
more intermittent and interrupted the
air current becomes, the greater the
number of the upper partials produced.'
The power of the overtones and their
relation to the fundamental note depend
greatly upon the form of the tongue, its
position and the amount of the clearance
left as it swings through the aperture.
Free reeds not associated with reson-
ating media as in the concertina are
peculiarly rich in harmonics, but as the
higher harmonics lie very close together,
disagreeable dissonances and a harsh
tone result. The resonating pipe or
chamber when suitably accommodated
to the reed greatly modifies the tone by
reinforcing the harmonics proper to itself,
the others sinking into comparative insignificance. In order to
produce a full rich tone, a resonator should be chosen whose
deepest note coincides with the fundamental tone of the reed.
The other upper partials will also be reinforced thereby, but to
a less degree the higher the harmonics. 4
For the history of the application of the free reed to keyboard
instruments see HARMONIUM. (K. S.)
FREESIA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Iris
family (Iridaceae), and containing a single species, F. refracla,
native at the Cape of Good Hope. The plants grow from a corm
(a solid bulb, as in Gladiolus) which sends up a tuft of long
narrow leaves and a slightly branched stem bearing a few leaves
and loose one-sided spikes of fragrant narrowly funnel-shaped
flowers. Several varieties are known in cultivation, differing
in the colour of the flower, which is white, cream or yellow.
They form pretty greenhouse plants which are readily increased
from seed. They are extensively grown for the market in
Guernsey, England and America. By potting successively
throughout the autumn a supply of flowers is obtained through
winter and spring. Some very fine large-flowered varieties,
including rose-coloured ones, are now being raised by various
growers in England, and are a great improvement on the older
forms.
FREE SOIL PARTY, a political party in the United States,
which was organized in 1847-1848 to oppose the extension of
slavery into the Territories. It was a combination of the political
abolitionists many of whom had formerly been identified with
the more radical Liberty party the anti-slavery Whigs, and the
faction of the Democratic party in the state of New York, called
" Barnburners," who favoured the prohibition of slavery, in
accordance with the " Wilmot Proviso " (see WILMOT, DAVID),
in the territory acquired from Mexico. The party was prominent
in the presidential campaigns of 1848 and 1852. At the national
convention held in Buffalo, N.Y., on the gth and loth of August
1848, they secured the nomination to the presidency of ex-
President Martin Van Buren, who had failed to secure nomination
by the Democrats in 1844 because of his opposition to the annexa-
tion of Texas, and of Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts,
for the vice-presidency, taking as their "platform "a Declaration
that Congress, having " no more power to make a slave than to
make a king," was bound to restrict slavery to the slave states,
and concluding, " we inscribe on our banner 'Free Soil, Free
Speech, Free Labor and Free Man,' and under it we will fight on and
fight ever, until a triumphant victory shall reward ourexertions."
The Liberty party had previously, in November 1847, nominated
* See Helmholtz, op. cit. p. 167.
'These phenomena are clearly explained at greater length by
Sedlcy Taylor in Sound and Musv, (London, 1806), pp. 134-153 and
pp. 74-86. See also Friedrirh Zamminer, Die Musik und dte musika-
hichen Instrument, &c. (Giessen, 1855), p. 261.
88
FREE-STONEFREE TRADE
John P. Hale and Leicester Kiifg as president and vice-president
respectively, but in the spring of 1848 it withdrew its candidates
and joined the "free soil" movement. Representatives of
eighteen states, including Delaware, Maryland and Virginia,
attended the Buffalo convention. In the ensuing presidential
election Van Buren and Adams received a popular vote of
291,263, of which 120,510 were cast in New York. They re-
ceived no electoral votes, all these being divided between the
Whig candidate, Zachary Taylor, who was elected, and the
Democratic candidate, Lewis Cass. The " free soilers," however,
succeeded in sending to the thirty-first Congress two senators
and fourteen representatives, who by their ability exercised an
influence out of proportion to their number.
Between 1848 and 1852 the " Barnburners " and the " Hunkers,"
their opponents, became partially reunited, the former returning
to the Democratic ranks, and thus greatly weakening the Free
Soilers. The party held its national convention at Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, on the nth of August 1852, delegates being
present from all the free states, and from Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia and Kentucky; and John P. Hale, of New Hampshire,
and George W. Julian of Indiana, were dominated for the
presidency and the vice-presidency respectively, on a platform
which declared slavery " a sin against God and a crime against
man," denounced the Compromise Measures of 1850, the fugitive
slave law in particular, and again opposed the extension of
slavery in the Territories. These candidates, however, received
no electoral votes and a popular vote of only 156,149, of
which but 25,329 were polled in New York. By 1856 they aban-
doned their separate organization and joined the movement
which resulted in the formation of the powerful Republican
party (?..), of which the Free Soil party was the legitimate
precursor.
FREE-STONE (a translation of the O. Fr.franche pere or pierre,
i.e. stone of good quality; the modern French equivalent is
pierre de tattle, and Ital. pietra molle), stone used in architecture
for mouldings, tracery and other work required to be worked
with the chisel. The oolitic stones are generally so called,
although in some countries soft sandstones are used; in some
churches an indurated chalk called " dunch " is employed for
internal lining and for carving.
FREETOWN, capital of the British colony of Sierra Leone,
West Africa, on the south side of the Sierra Leone estuary, about
5 m. from the cape of that name, in 8 29' N., 13 10' W. Pop.
(1901) 34,463. About 500 of the inhabitants are Europeans.
Freetown is picturesquely situated on a plain, closed in behind
by a succession of wooded hills, the Sierra Leone, rising to a height
of 1 700 ft. As nearly every house is surrounded by a courtyard
or garden, the town covers an unusually large area for the number
of its inhabitants. It possesses few buildings of architectural
merit. The principal are the governor's residence and govern-
ment offices, the barracks, the cathedral, the missionary institu-
tions, the fruit market, Wilberforce Hall, courts of justice,
the railway station and the grammar school. Several of these
institutions are built on the slopes of the hills, and on the highest
point, Sugar Loaf Mountain, is a sanatorium. The botanic
gardens form a pleasant and favourite place of resort. The roads
are wide but badly kept. Horses do not live, and all wheeled
traffic is done by manual labour hammocks and sedan-chairs
are the customary means of locomotion. Notwithstanding that
Freetown possesses an abundant and pure water-supply, drawn
from the adjacent hills, it is enervating and unhealthy, and it
was particularly to the capital, often spoken of as Sierra Leone,
that the designation "White Man's Grave" applied. Since the
beginning of the 2oth century strenuous efforts have been made
to improve the sanitary condition by a new system of drainage,
a better water service, the filling up of marshes wherein the
malarial mosquito breeds, and in other directions. A light
railway 6 m. long, opened in 1904, has been built to Hill Station
(900 ft. high), where, on a healthy site, are the residences of the
government officials and of other Europeans. As a consequence
the public health has improved, the highest death-rate in the
years 1901-1007 being 29-6 per 1000. The town is governed
by a municipality (created in 1893) with a mayor and councillors,
the large majority being elective. Freetown was the first place
in British West Africa granted local self-government.
Both commercially and strategically Freetown is a place of
importance. Its harbour affords ample accommodation for the
largest fleets, it is a coaling station for the British navy, the head-
quarters of the British military forces in West Africa, the sea
terminus of the railway to the rich oil-palm regions of Mendiland,
and a port of call for all steamers serving West Africa. Its
inhabitants are noted for their skill as traders; the town itself
produces nothing in the way of exports.
In consequence of the character of the original settlement
(see SIERRA LEONE), 75% of the inhabitants are descended from
non-indigenous Negro races. As many as 150 different tribes
are represented in the Sierra Leonis of to-day. Their semi-
Europeanization is largely the result of missionary endeavour.
The only language of the lower class is pidgin-English quite
incomprehensible to the newcomer from Great Britain, but
a large proportion of the inhabitants are highly educated men
who excel as lawyers, clergymen, clerks and traders. Many
members of the upper, that is, the best-educated, class have
filled official positions of great responsibility. The most noted
citizens are Bishop Crowther and Sir Samuel Lewis, chief justice
of Sierra Leone 1882-1894. Both were full-blooded Africans.
The Kru-men form a distinct section of the community, living
in a separate quarter and preserving their tribal customs.
Since 1861-1862 there has been an independent Episcopal
Native Church; but the Church Missionary Society, which in
1804 sent out the first missionaries to Sierra Leone, still maintains
various agencies. Furah Bay College, built by the society on
the site of General Charles Turner's estate (15 m. E. of Freetown),
and opened in 1828 with six pupils, one of whom was Bishop
Crowther, was affiliated in 1876 to Durham University and has
a high-class curriculum. The Wesleyans have a high school, a
theological college, and other educative agencies. The Moslems,
who are among the most law-abiding and intelligent citizens of
Freetown, have several state-aided primary schools.
FREE TRADE, an expression which has now come to be
appropriated to the economic policy of encouraging the greatest
possible commercial intercourse, unrestricted by " protective "
duties (see PROTECTION), between any one country and its neigh-
bours. This policy was originally advocated in France, and it
has had its adherents in many countries, but Great Britain
stands alone among the great commercial nations of the world
in having adopted it systematically from 1846 onwards as the
fundamental principle of her economic policy.
In the economic literature of earlier periods, it may be noted
that the term " free trade " is employed in senses which have no
relation to modern usage. The term conveyed no suggestion
of unrestricted trade or national liberty when it first appeared
in controversial pamphlets; 1 it stood for a freedom conferred
and. maintained by authority like that of a free town. The
merchants desired to have good regulations for trade so that they
might be free from the disabilities imposed upon them by
foreign princes or unscrupulous fellow-subjects. After 1640 the
term seems to have been commonly current in a different sense.
When the practice which had been handed down from the middle
ages of organizing the trade with particular countries by means
of privileged companies, which professed to regulate the trade
according to the state of the market so as to secure its steady
development in the interest of producers and traders was
seriously called in question under the Stuarts and at the Revolu-
tion, the interlopers and opponents of the companies insisted
on the advantages of a " Free Trade "; they meant by this
that the various branches of commerce should not be confined
to particular persons or limited in amount, but should be thrown
open to be pursued by any Englishman in the way he thought
most profitable himself. 1 Again, in the latter half of the i8th
1 E. Misselden, Free Trade or the Meanes to make Trade Flourish
(1622), p. 68; G. Malynes, The Maintenance of Free Trade (1622),
p. 105.
1 H. Parker, Of a Free Trade (1648), p. 8.
FREE TRADE
89
century, till Pitt's financial reforms ' were brought into operation,
the English customs duties on wine and brandy were excessive;
and those who carried on a remunerative business by evading
these duties were known as Fair Traders or Free Traders. 1
Since 1846 the term free trade has been popularly used, in
England, to designate the policy of Cobden (</.r. ) and others who
advocated the abolition of the tax on imported corn (s^e CORN
LAWS); this is the only one of the specialized senses of the term
which is at all likely to be confused with the economic doctrine.
The Anti-Corn Law movement was, as a matter of fact, a special
application of the economic principle; but serious mistakes have
arisen from the blunder of confusing the part with the whole,
and treating the remission of one particular duty as if it were the
essential element of a policy in which it was only an incident.
\V. E. Gladstone, in discussing the effect of improvements in
locomotion on British trade, showed what a large proportion of
the stimulus to commerce during the igth century was to be
credited to what he called the " liberalizing legislation " of the
free-trade movement in the wide sense in which he used the term.
I rank the introduction of cheap postage for letters, docu-
ments, patterns and printed matter, and the abolition of all taxes
on printed matter, in the category of Free Trade Legislation.
Not only thought in general, but every communication, and every
publication, relating to matters of business, was thus set free.
These great measures, then, may well take their place beside the
abolition of prohibitions and protective duties, the simplifying
of revenue laws, and the repeal of the Navigation Act, as forming
together the great code of industrial emancipation. Under this
code, our race, restored to freedom in mind and hand, and braced
by the powerful stimulus of open competition with the world, has
upon the whole surpassed itself and every other, and has won for
itself a commercial primacy more evident, more comprehensive,
and more solid than it had at any previous time possessed." 3
In this large sense free trade may be almost interpreted as the
combination of the doctrines of the division of labour and of
laissa-fairr in regard to the world as a whole. The division of
labour between different countries of the world so that each
concentrates its energies in supplying that for the production
of which it is best fitted appears to offer the greatest possi-
bility of production; but this result cannot be secured unless
trade and industry are treated as the primary elements in the
welfare of each community, and political considerations are not
allowed to hamper them.
Stated in its simplest form, the principle which underlies the
doctrine of free trade is almost a truism; it is directly deducible
from the very notion of exchange (?..). Adam Smith and his
successors have demonstrated that in every case of voluntary
exchange each party gains something that is of greater value-in-
use to him than that with which he parts, and that consequently
in every exchange, either between individuals or between
nations, both parties are the gainers. Hence it necessarily
follows that, since both parties gain through exchanging, the more
facilities there are for exchange the greater will be the advantage
to every individual all round. 4 There is no difficulty in translat-
ing this principle into the terms of actual life, and stating the
conditions in which it holds good absolutely. If, at any given
moment, the mass of goods in the world were distributed among
the consumers with the minimum of restriction on interchange,
each competitor would obtain the largest possible share of the
things he procures in the world's market. But the argument
i less conclusive when the element of time is taken into account;
what is true of each moment separately is not necessarily true
of any period in which the conditions of production, or the
requirements of communities, may possibly change. Each
individual is likely to act with reference to his own future, but
1 (1787). 27 Geo. III. c. 13.
1 Sir Walter Scott, Guy Hannering, chapter v.
Gladstone. " Free Trade, Railways and Commerce," in Nine-
tetnik Century (Feb. 1880), vol. vii. p. 370.
4 Parker state* a similar argument in the form in which it suited
the special problem of his day. " If merchandise be good for the
commonweal, then the more common it a made, the more open it is
laid, the more good it will convey to us." Op. cit. 20.
it may often be wise for the statesman to look far ahead, beyond
the existing generation.' Owing to the neglect of this element of
time, and the allowance which must be made for it, the reasoning
as to the advantages of free trade, which is perfectly sound in
regard to the distribution of goods already in existence, may
become sophistical,' if it is put forward as affording a complete
demonstration of the benefits of free trade as a regular policy.
After all, human society is very complex, and any attempt to
deal with its problems off-hand by appealing to a simple principle
raises the suspicion that some important factor may have been
left out of account. When there is such mistaken simplification,
the reasoning may seem to have complete certainty, and yet it
fails to produce conviction, because it does not profess to deal
with the problem in all its aspects. When we concentrate atten-
tion on the phenomena of exchange, we are viewing society as a
mechanism in which each acts under known laws and is impelled
by one particular force that of self-interest; now, society is,
no doubt, in this sense a mechanism, but it is also an organism, 7
and it is only for very short periods, and in a very limited way,
that we can venture to neglect its organic character without
running the risk of falling into serious mistakes.
The doctrine of free trade maintains that in order to secure
the greatest possible mass of goods in the world as a whole, and
the greatest possibility of immediate comfort for the consumer,
it is expedient that there should be no restriction on the exchange
of goods and services either between individuals or communities.
The controversies in regard to this doctrine have not turned on
its certainty as a hypothetical principle, but on the legitimacy
of the arguments based upon it. It certainly supplies a principle
in the light of which all proposed trade regulations should be
criticized. It gives us a basis for examining and estimating the
expense at which any particular piece of trade restriction is
carried out; but thus used, the principle does not necessarily
condemn the expenditure; the game may be worth the candle
or it may not, but at least it is well that we should know how
fast the candle is being burnt. It was in this critical spirit that
Adam Smith examined the various restrictions and encourage-
ments to trade which were in vogue in his day; he proved of each
in turn that it was expensive, but he showed that he was conscious
that the final decision could not be taken from this standpoint,
since he recognized in regard to the Navigation Acts that " defence
is more than opulence." 8 In more recent times, the same sort
of attitude was taken by Henry Sidgwick,' who criticizes various
protective expedients in turn, in the light of free trade, but does
not treat it as conveying an authoritative decision on their merits.
But other exponents of the doctrine have not been content
to employ it in this fashion. They urge it in a more positive
manner, and insist that free trade pure and simple is the founda-
tion on which the economic life of the community ought to be
based. By men who advocate it in this way, free trade is set
forward as an ideal which it is a duty to realize, and those who
hold aloof fnftn it or oppose it have been held up to scorn as if
they were almost guilty of a crime. 10 The development of the
material resources of the world is undoubtedly an important
element in the welfare of mankind; it is an aim which is common
to the whole race, and may be looked upon as contributing to the
greatest happiness of the greatest number. Competition in the
open market seems to secure that each consumer shall obtain the
best possible terms; and again, sinco all men are consumers
whether they produce or not, or whatever they produce, the
greatest measure of comforts for each seems likely to be attainable
on these lines. For those who are frankly cosmopolitan, and who
regard material prosperity as at all events the prime object at
which public policy should aim, the free-trade doctrine is readily
' Schmoller, Grundriss der attgemcincn Volkswirtschaftslehre
(1904), ii. 607.
4 Byles, Sophisms of Free Trade; L. S. Amery, Fundamental
Fallacies of Free Trade, 13.
7 W. Cunningham, Rise and Decline of the Free Trade Movement,
,PP-
Wealth of Nations, book iv. chap. ii.
Principles of Political Economy, 485.
J. Morley, Life of Cobden. i. 230.
9
FREE TRADE
transformed, from a mere principle of criticism, till it comes to
be regarded as the harbinger of a possible Utopia. It was in this
fashion that it was put forward by French economists and proved'
attractive to some leading American statesmen inthe rSthcenUiry.
Turgot regarded the colonial systems of the European countries
as at once unfair to their dependencies and dangerous to the peace
of the world. " It will be a wise and happy thing for the nation
which shall be the first to modify its policy according to the new
conditions, and be content to regard its colonies as if they were
allied provinces and not subjects of the mother country." It
will be a wise and happy thing for the nation which is the first
to be convinced that the secret of " success, so far as commercial
policy is concerned, consists in employing all its land in the
manner most profitable for the proprietary, all the hands in the
manner most advantageous to the workman personally, that is
to say, in the manner in which each would employ them, if we
could let him be simply directed by his own interest, and that
all the rest of the mercantile policy is vanity and vexation of
spirit. When the entire separation of America shall have forced
the whole world to recognize this truth and purged the European
nations of commercial jealousy there will be one great cause of
war less in the world." 1 Pitt, under the influence of Adam
Smith, was prepared to admit the United States to the benefit
of trade with the West Indian Colonies; and Jefferson, accepting
the principles of his French teachers, would (in contradistinction
to Alexander Hamilton) have been willing to see his country re-
nounce the attempt to develop manufactures of her own. 2 It
seemed as if a long step might be taken towards realizing the free-
trade ideal for the Anglo-Saxon race; but British shipowners
insisted on the retention of their privileges, and the propitious
moment passed away with the failure of the negotiations of
1783.* Free trade ceased to be regarded as" a gospel, even in
France, till the ideal was revived in the writings of Bastiat,
and helped to mould the enthusiasm of Richard Cobden. 4
Through his zealous advocacy, the doctrine secured converts in
almost every part of the world; though it was only in Great
Britain that a great majority of the citizens became so far
satisfied with it that they adopted it as the foundation of the
economic policy of the country.
It is not difficult to account for the conversion of Great Britain
to this doctrine; in the special circumstances of the first half of
the i gth century it was to the interest of the most vigorous
factors in the economic life of the country to secure the greatest
possible freedom for commercial intercourse. Great Britain had,
through her shipping, access to all the markets of the world ;
she had obtained such a lead in the application of machinery to
manufactures that she had a practical monopoly in textile
manufactures and in the hardware trades; by removing every
restriction, she could push her advantage to its farthest extent,
and not only undersell native manufactures in other lands,
but secure food, and the raw materials for her manufactures, on
the cheapest possible terms. Free trade thus seemed to offer the
means of placing an increasing distance between Britain and her
rivals, and of rendering the industrial monopoly which she had
attained impregnable. The capitalist employer had superseded
the landowner as the mainstay of the resources and revenue
of the realm, and insisted that the prosperity of manufactures
was the primary interest of the community as a whole. The
expectation, that a thoroughgoing policy of free trade would not
only favour an increase of employment, but also the cheapening
of food, could only have been roused in a country which was
" Memoire," 6 April 1776, in CEuvres, viii. 460.
2 Jefferson, Notes on Virginia, 275. See also the articles on
JEFFERSON and HAMILTON, ALEXANDER.
1 One incidental effect of the failure to secure free trade was that
the African slave trade, with West Indies as a depot for supplying
the American market, ceased to be remunerative, and the opposition
to the abolition of the trade was very much weaker than it would
otherwise have been; see Hochstetter, " Die wirtschaftlichen und
politischen Motive fur die Abschaffum; des britischen Sklaven-
nandels," in Schmoller, Staats und Soziahvissenschaftliche For-
schungen, xxv. i. 37.
4 J. Welsford, Cobden's Foreign Teacher," in National Review
(December 1905).
obliged to import a considerable amount of corn. The exceptional
'weakness,, as well as the exceptional strength, of Great Britain,
among European countries, made it seem desirable to adopt the
principle of unrestricted commercial intercourse, not merely
in 'the tentative fashion in which it had been put in operation
by Huskisson, but in the thoroughgoing fashion in which
if at last commended itself to the minds of Peel and Gladstone.
The " Manchester men " saw clearly where their interest lay;
and the fashionable political economy was ready to demonstrate
that in pursuing their own- interest they were conferring the
benefit of cheap clothing on all the most poverty-stricken races
of mankind. It seemed probable, in the 'forties and early 'fifties,
that other countries would take a similar view of their own
interests and would follow the example which Great Britain had
set. 5 That they have not done so, is partly due to the fact that
none of them had such a direct, or such a widely diffused, interest
in increased commercial intercourse as existed in Great Britain;
but their reluctance has been partly the result of the criticism
to which the free-trade doctrine has been subjected. The
principles expressed in the writings of Friedrich List have taken
such firm hold, both in America and in Germany, that these
countries have preferred to follow on the lines by which Great
Britain successfully built up her industrial prosperity in the i7th
and i8th century, rather than on those by which they have seen
her striving to maintain it since 1846.
Free trade was attractive as an ideal, because it appeared
to offer the greatest production of goods to the world as a-whole,
and the largest share of material goods to each consumer; it is
cosmopolitan, an<? it treats consumption, and the interest of .the
consumer, as such, as the end to be considered. Hence it lies
open to objections which are partly political and partly economic.
As cosmopolitan, free-trade doctrine is apt to be indifferent
to national tradition and aspiration. In so far indeed as
patriotism is a mere aesthetic sentiment, it may be tolerated,
but in so far as it implies a genuine wish and intention to preserve
and defend the national habits and character to the exclusion
of alien elements, the cosmopolitan mind will condemn it as
narrow and mischievous. . In the first half of the ipth century
there were many men who believed that , national ambitions
and jealousies of every kind were essentially dynastic, and that if
monarchies were abolished there would be fewer occasions of
war, so that the expenses of the business of government would
be enormously curtailed. For Cobden and his contemporaries
it was natural to regard the national administrative institutions
as maintained for the benefit of the " classes " and without much
advantage to the " masses." But in point of fact, modern times
have shown the existence in democracies of a patriotic sentiment
which is both exclusive and aggressive; and the burden of,
armaments has steadily increased. It was by means of a civil
war that the United States attained to a consciousness of national
life; while such later symptoms as the recent interpretations
of the Monroe doctrine, or the war with Spain, have proved that
the citizens of that democratic country cannot be regarded as
destitute of self-aggrandizing national ambition.
In Germany the growth of militarism and nationalism have
gone on side by side under constitutional government, and
certainly in harmony with predominant public opinion. Neither
of these communities is willing to sink its individual conception
of progress in those of the world at large; each is jealous of the.
intrusion of alien elements which cannot be reconciled with its-
own political and social system. And a similar recrudescence
of patriotic feeling has been observable in other countries, such
as Norway and Hungary: the growth of national sentiment,
is shown, not only in the attempts to revive and popularize the
use of a national language, but -still more decidedly in the deter--
mination to have a real control over the economic life of the
country. It is here that the new patriotism comes into direct
conflict with the political principles of free trade as advocated
by Bastiat and Cobden; for them the important point was that
countries, by becoming dependent on one another, would be
prevented from engaging in hostilities. The new nations are
' Compatriot Club Lectures (1905), p. 306.
FREE TRADE
determined that they will not allow other countries to have such
control over their economic condition, as to be able to exercise
a powerful influence on their political life. Each is determined
to be the master in his own house, and each has rejected free
trade because of the cosmopolitanism which it involves.
Economically, free trade lays stress on consumption as the
chief criterion of prosperity. It is, of course, true that goods are
produced with the object of being consumed, and it is plausible
to insist on taking this lest; but it is also true that consumption
and production are mutually interdependent, and that in some
ways production is the more important of the two. Consumption
looks to the present, and the disposal of actual goods; production
looks to the future, and the conditions under which goods can
continue to be regularly provided and thus become available for
consumption in the long run. As regards the prosperity of the
community in the future it is important that goods should be
consumed in such a fashion as to secure that they shall be replaced
or increased before they are used up; it is the amount of pro-
duction rather than the amount of consumption that demands
consideration, and gives indication of growth or of decadence.
In these circumstances there is much to be said for looking at
the economic life of a country from the point of view which free-
traders have abandoned or ignore. It is not on the possibilities
of consumption in the present, but on the prospects of production
MI the future, that the continued wealth of the community depends;
and this principle is the only one which conforms to the modern
conception of the essential requirements of sociological science
in its wider aspect (see SOCIOLOGY). This is most obviously true
in regard to countries of which the lesources are very imperfectly
developed. If their policy is directed to securing the greatest
possible comfort for each consumer in the present, it is certain
that progress will be slow; the planting of industries for which
the country has an advantage may be a tedious process; and
in order to stimulate national efficiency temporary protection-
involving what is otherwise unnecessary immediate cos.t to the
consumer may seem to be abundantly justified. Such a free
trader as John Stuart Mill himself admits that a case may be
made out for treating " infant industries " as exceptions; 1
and if this exception be admitted it is likely to establish a pre-
cedent. After all, the various countries of the world are all in
different stages of development; some are old, and some are
new; and even the old countries differ greatly in the progress they
have made in distinct arts. The introduction of machinery
has everywhere changed the conditions of production, so that
some countries have lost and others have gained a special advan-
tage. Most of the countries of the world are convinced that the
.wisest economy is to attend to the husbanding of their resources
of every kind, and to direct their policy not merely with a view
to consumption in the present, but rather with regard to the
possibilities of increased production in the future.
. This deliberate rejection of the doctrine of free trade between
nations, both in its political and economic aspects, has not
interfered, however, with the steady progress of free commercial
idtercourse within the boundaries of a single though composite
political community. " Internal free trade," though the name
was not then current in this sense, was one of the burning questions
in England in the iyth century; it was perhaps as important a
factor as puritanism in the fall of Charles I. Internal free trade
was secured in France in the 1 8th century; thanks to Hamilton, 2
it was embodied in the constitution of the United States; it
was introduced into Germany by Bismarck; and was firmly
established in the Dominion of Canada and the Commonwealth
of Australia. It became in consequence, where, practicable, a
part of the modern federal idea as usually interpreted. There
are thus great areas, externally self-protecting; where free trade,
as between internal divisions, has been introduced with liitle,
if any, political difficulty, and with considerable economic
advantage. These cases are sometimes quoted as justifying
the expectation that the same principle is likely to be adopted
sooner or later in regard to external trading relations. There
M.S. Mill. Principles of Political Economy, book v. chapter x. | I .
J F. S. Oliver. Altxandrr Hamilton. 142.
is some reason, however, for raising the question whether free
trade has been- equally successful, not only in its economic, but
in its social results, in all the large political communities where
it has been introduced. In a region like the United States of
America, it -is probably seen at its best; there is an immense
variety of different products throughout that great zone of the
continent, so that the mutual co-operation of the various parts
is most beneficial, while the standard of habit and comfort is so
far uniform 5 throughout the whok region, -and the facilities for
the change of employment are so many, that there is little in-
jurious competition between different districts. In the British
empire the conditions are reversed; but though the great selfr
governing colonies have withdrawn from the circle, in the hope
of building up their own economic life in their own way, free
trade is still maintained over a very large part of the British
empire. Throughout this area, there are very varied physical
conditions; there is also an extraordinary variety of races, each
with its own habits, and own standard of comfort; and in these
circumstances it may be doubted whether the free competition,
involved in free trade, is really altogether wholesome. Within
this sphere the ideal of Bastiat and his followers is being realized.
England, as a great manufacturing country, has more than held
her own; India and Ireland are supplied with manufactured
goods by England, and in each case the population is forced to
look to the soil for its means of support, and for purchasing
power. In each case the preference for tillage, as an occupation,
has rendered it comparatively easy to keep the people on the
land; but there is some reason to believe that the law of diminish-
ing returns is already making itself felt, at all events in India,
and is forcing the people into deeper poverty. 4 It may be doubtful
in the case of Ireland how far the superiority of England in in-
dustrial pursuits has prevented the development of manufactures;
the progress in the last decades of the i8th century was too short-
lived to be conclusive; but there is at least a strong impressioi?
in many quarters that the industries of Ireland might have
flourished if they had had better opportunities allowed them, 6
In the case of India we know that the hereditary artistic skill,
which had been built up in bygone generations, has been stamped
out. It seems possible that the modern unrest in India, and the
discontent in Ireland, may be connected with the economic
conditions in these countries, on which free trade has been imposefl
without their consent. So far the population which subsists on
the .cheaper food, and has the lower standard of life, has been
the sufferer; but the mischief might operate in another fashion.
The self-governing colonies at all events feel that competition in
the same market between races with different standards of comfort
has infinite possibilities of mischief. It is easy to conjure up
conditions under which the standard of comfort of wage-earners
in England would be seriously threatened.
Sjnce-, the gth edition of the Encyclopaedic Britannica was
published it has become clear that the free-trade doctrines of
Bastiat and Cobden have not been gaining ground in the world
at large, and at the opening of the 2oth century it could hardly
be said with confidence that the question -was " finally settled "
so far as England was concerned. As to whether the interests of
Great Britain still demanded that she should continue on the
line she adopted in the exceptional conditions of the middle of the
loth century, expert opinion was conspicuously divided;' but
there remained no longer the old enthusiasm for free trade as
* The standard is, of course, lower among the negroes and mean
whites in the South than in the North and West.
*F. Beauclerk, "Free Trade in India," in Economic Review
uly 1907), xvii. 284.
1 A. E. Murray, History of the Commercial and Financial Relations
between England and Ireland, 294.
* For the tariff reform movement in English politics see the article
on CHAMBERLAIN, J. Among continental writers G. Schmoller
(Grundriss der aUgemeinen Volkswirtschaftslehre, ii. 641) and A.
Wagner (Preface to M. Schwab's Chamberlains Handelspolitik)
pronounce in ; favour of- a change, as Fuchs did by anticipation.
Schulze-Gaevernhz (Britiscker fmperialismus und englischer Frei-
hande[), Aubry (Etude critique de la politioue commerciale de I'Angle-
terre & Fegard de set colonies), and Blondel (La t>olitique Protectionmste
en Angleterre un nouteau danger pour la France) are against it.
FREGELLAE FREIBURG IM BREISGAU
the harbinger of an Utopia. The old principles of the bourgeois
manufacturers had been taken up by the proletariat and shaped
to suit themselves. Socialism, like free trade, is cosmopolitan in
its aims, and is indifferent to patriotism and hostile to militarism.
Socialism, like free trade, insists on material welfare as the
primary object to be aimed at in any policy, and, like free
trade, socialism tests welfare by reference to possibilities of con-
sumption. In one respect there is a difference; throughout
Cobden's attack on 'the governing classes there are signs of his
jealousy of the superior status of the landed gentry, but socialism
has a somewhat wider range of view and demands ''equality of
opportunity " with the capitalist as well.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Reference has already been made to the prin-
cipal works which deal critically with the free-trade policy. Pro-
fessor Fawcett's Free Trade is a good exposition of free-trade
principles; so also is Professor Bastable's Commerce of Nations.
Among authors who have restated the principles with special
reference to the revived controversy on the subject may be men-
tioned Professor W. Smart, The Return to Protection, being a Re-
statement of the Case for Free Trade (2nd ed., 1906), and A. C. Pigou,
Protective and Preferential Import Duties (1906). (W. Cu.)
FREGELLAE, an ancient town of Latium adiectum, situated
on the Via Latina, 1 1 m. W. N. W. of Aquinum, near the left branch
of the Liris. It is said to have belonged in early times to the
Opici or Oscans, and later to the Volscians. It was apparently
destroyed by the Samnites a little before 330 B.C., in which year
the people of Fabrateria Vetus (mod. Ceccano) besought the help
of Rome against them, and in 328 B.C. a Latin colony was estab-
lished there. The piace was taken in 320 B.C. by the Samnites,
but re-established by the Romans in 313 B.C. It continued hence-
forward to be faithful to Rome; by breaking the bridges over the
Liris it interposed an obstacle to the advance of Hannibal on
Rome in 212 B.C., and it was a native of Fregellae who headed the
deputation of the non-revolting colonies in 209 B.C. It appears to
have been a very important and flourishing placp owing to its
command of the crossing of the Liris, and to its position in a
fertile territory, and it was here that, after the rejection of the
proposals of M. Fulvius Flaccus for the extension of Roman
burgess-rights in 125 B.C., a revolt against Rome broke out.
It was captured by treachery in the same year and destroyed;
but its place was taken in the following year by the colony of
Fabrateria Nova, 3 m. to the S.E. on the opposite bank of the
Liris, while a post station Fregellanum (mod. Ceprano) is
mentioned in the itineraries; Fregellae itself, however, continued
to exist as a village even under the empire. The site is clearly
traceable about \ m. E. of Ceprano, but the remains of the city
are scanty.
See G. Colasanti, Fregellae, storia e topografa (1906). (T. As.)
FREIBERG, or FREYBERG, a town of Germany in the kingdom
of Saxony, on the Miinzbach, near its confluence with the Mulde,
19 m. S.W. of Dresden on the railway to Chemnitz, with a branch
to Nossen. Pop. (1905) 30,896. Its situation, on the rugged
northern slope of the Erzgebirge, is somewhat bleak and uninvit-
ing, but the town is generally well built and makes a prosperous
impression. A part of its ancient walls still remains; the other
portions have been converted into public walks and gardens.
Freiberg is the seat of the general administration of the mines
throughout the kingdom, and its celebrated mining academy
(Bergakademie), founded in 1765, is frequented by students
from all parts of the world. Connected with it are extensive
collections of minerals and models, a library of 50,000 volumes,
and laboratories for chemistry, metallurgy and assaying. Among
its distinguished scholars it reckons Abraham Gottlob Werner
(1750-1817), who was also a professor there, and Alexander von
Humboldt. Freiberg has extensive manufactures of gold and
silver lace, woollen cloths, linen and cotton goods, iron, copper
and brass wares, gunpowder and white-lead. It has also several
large breweries. In the immediate vicinity are its famous silver
and lead mines, thirty in number, and of which the principal ones
passed into the property of the state in 1886. The castle of
Freudenstein or Freistein, as rebuilt by the elector Augustus
in 1572, is situated in one of the suburbs and is now used as a
military magazine. In its grounds a monument was erected
to Werner in 1851. The cathedral, rebuilt in late Gothic style
after its destruction by fire in 1484 and restored in 1893, was
founded in the i2th century. Of the original church a magnifi-
cent German Romanesque doorway, known as the Golden Gate
(Goldene Pjorte), survives. The church contains numerous
monuments, among others one to Prince Maurice of Saxony.
Adjoining the cathedral is the mausoleum (Begrdbniskapelle) ,
built in 1594 in the Italian Renaissance style, in which are buried
the remains of Henry the Pious and his successors down to John
George I.V., who died in 1694. Of the other four Protestant
churches the most noteworthy is the Peterskirche which,
with its three towers, is a conspicuous object on the highest
point of the town. Among the other public buildings are the old
town-hall, dating from the 1 5th century, the antiquarian museum,
and the natural history museum. There are a classical and
modern, a commercial and an agricultural school, and numerous
charitable institutions.
Freiberg owes its origin to the discovery of its silver mines
(c. 1163). The town, with the castle of Freudenstein, was built
by Otto the Rich, margrave of Meissen, in 1175, and its name,
which first appears in 1221, is derived from the extensive mining
franchises granted to it about that time. In all the partitions of
the territories of the Saxon house of Wettin, from the latter part
of the i3th century onward, Freiberg always remained common
property, and it was not till 1485 (the mines not till 1537) that
it was definitively assigned to the Albertine line. The Reforma-
tion was introduced into Freiberg in 1536 by Henry the Pious,
who resided here. The town suffered severely during the Thirty
Years' War, and again during the French occupation from 1806
to 1814, during which time it had to support an army of 700,000
men and find forage for 200,000 horses.
See H. Gerlach, Kleine Chronik von Freiberg (2nd ed., Freiberg,
1898); H. Ermisch, Das Freiberger Stadtrecht (Leipzig, 1889);
Errnisch and O. Posse, Urkundenbuch der Stadt Freiberg, in Codex
diplom. Sax. reg. (3 vols., Leipzig, 1883-1891); Freibergs Berg- und
Hiittenwesen, published by the Bergmannischer Verein (Freiberg,
1883); Ledebur, Vber die Bedeutung der Freiberger Bergakademie
(ib. 1903); Steche, Bau- und Kunstdenkmaler der Amtshauptmann-
schaft Freiberg (Dresden, 1884).
FREIBURG, a town of Germany in Prussian Silesia, on the
Polsnitz, 35 m. S.W. of Breslau, on the railway to Halbstadt.
Pop. (1905) 9917. It has an Evangelical and Roman Catholic
church, and its industries include watch-making, linen-weaving
and distilling. In the neighbourhood are the old and modern
castles of the Furstenstein family, whence the town is sometimes
distinguished as Freiburg unter dem Furstenstein. At Freiburg,
on the 22nd of July 1762, the Prussians defended themselves
successfully against the superior forces of the Austrians.
FREIBURG IM BREISGAU, an archiepiscopal see and city of
Germany in the grand duchy of Baden, 12 m. E. of the Rhine,
beautifully situated on the Dreisam at the foot of the Schlossberg,
one of the heights of the Black Forest range, on the railway
between Basel and Mannheim, 40 m. N. of the former city.
Pop. (1905) 76,285. The town is for the most part well built,
having several wide and handsome streets and a number of
spacious squares. It is kept clean and cool by. the waters 6f
the river, which flow through the streets in open channels; and
its old fortifications have been replaced by public walks, and,
what is more unusual, by vineyards. It possesses a famous
university, the Ludovica Albertina, founded by Albert VI.,
archduke of Austria, in 1457, and attended by about 2000
students. The library contains upwards of 250,000 volumes and
600 MSS., and among the other auxiliary establishments are
an anatomical hall and museum and botanical gardens. The
Freiburg minster is considered one of the finest of all the Gothic
churches of Germany, being remarkable alike for the symmetry
of its proportions, for the taste of its decorations, and for the
fact that it may more correctly be said to be finished than almost
any other building of the kind. The period of its erection pro-
bably lies for the most part between 1122 and 1252; but the
choir was not built till 1513. The tower, which rises above the
western entrance, is 386 ft. in height, and it 'presents a skilful
transition from a square base into an octagonal superstructure,
which in its turn is surmounted by a pyramidal spire of the most
FREIBURG IM BREISGAU
93
exquisite open work in stone. In the interior of the church are
some beautiful stained glass windows, both ancient and modern,
the tombstones of several of the dukes of ZAhringcn, statues of
archbishops of Freiburg, and paintings by Holbein and by
Hans Baldung (c. 1470-1545), commonly called Grun. Amongthe
other noteworthy buildings of Freiburg are the palaces of the
grand duke and the archbishop, the old town-hall, the theatre,
the Kaufkaus or merchants' hall, a 16th-century building with
a handsome facade, the church of St Martin, with a graceful
spire restored 1880-1881, the new town-hall, completed 1901,
in Renaissance style, and the Protestant church, formerly the
church of the abbey of Thennenbach, removed hither in 1839.
In the centre of the fish-market square is a fountain surmounted
by a statue of Duke Berthold III. of Z&hringen; in the Franzis-
kaner Plats there is a monument to Berthold Schwarz, the
traditional discoverer here, in 1259, of gunpowder; the Rotteck
Platz takes its name from the monument of Karl VVenzeslaus
von Rotteck (1775-1840), the historian, which formerly stood
on the site of the Schwarz statue; and in Kaiser Wilhelm
Strasse a bronze statue was erected in 1876 to the memory of
Herder, who in the early part of the loth century founded in
Freiburg an institute for draughtsmen, engravers and litho-
graphers, and carried on a famous bookselling business. On the
Schlossberg above the town there are massive ruins of two
castles destroyed by the French in 1744; and about 2 m.
to the N.E. stands the castle of Zahringen, the original seat of
the famous family of the counts of that name. Situated on the
ancient road which runs by the Hollenpass between the valleys
of the Danube and the Rhine, Freiburg early acquired com-
mercial importance, and it is still the principal centre of the
trade of the Black Forest. It manufactures buttons, chemicals,
starch, leather, tobacco, silk thread, paper, and hempen goods,
as well as beer and wine.
Freiburg is of uncertain foundation. In 1120 -it became a
free town, with privileges similar to those of Cologne; but in
1219 it fell into the hands of a branch of the family of Urach.
After it had vainly attempted to throw off the yoke by force
of arms, it purchased its freedom in 1366; but, unable to
reimburse the creditors who had advanced the money, it was,
in 1308, obliged to recognize the supremacy of the house of
Hapsburg. In the i;th and i8th centuries it played a consider-
able part as a fortified town. It was captured by the Swedes
in 1632, 1634 and 1638; and in 1644 it was seized by the
Bavarians, who shortly after, under General Mercy, defeated in
the neighbourhood the French forces under Enghien and Turenne.
The French were in possession from 1677 to 1697, and again in
1713-1714 and 1744; and when they left the place in 1748, at
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, they dismantled the fortifications.
The Baden insurgents gained a victory at Freiburg in 1848, and
the revolutionary government took refuge in the town in June
1 849, but in the following July the Prussian forces took possession
and occupied it until 1851. Since 1821 Freiburg has been the
seat of an archbishop with jurisdiction over the sees of Mainz,
Rottenberg and Limburg.
See Schrriber, Gesckichle und Beschreibung des Munsters tu Frei-
burg (1820 and 1825); Geickiehte der Stadt und Untversitdt Frei-
burgt (1857-1859); Der ScUauberg bet Freiburg (1860); and Albert,
Die Gesckickisschreibung der Stadt Freiburg (1902).
Battles of Freiburg, yd, $th and loth of August 1644. During
the Thirty Years' War the neighbourhood of Freiburg was the
scene of a series of engagements between the French under
Louis de Bourbon, due d'Enghien (afterwards called the great
Condi), and Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne,
and the Bavarians and Austrians commanded by Franz, Freiherr
von Mercy.
At the close of the campaign of 1643 the French " Army of
Weimar," having been defeated and driven into Alsace by the
Bavarians, had there been reorganized under the command of
Turenne, then a young general of thirty-two and newly promoted
to the marshalate. In May 1644 he opened the campaign by
recrossing the Rhine and raiding the enemy's posts as far as
Cberlingen on the lake of Constance and Donaueschingen on
the Danube. The French then fell back with their booty and
prisoners to Breisach, a strong garrison being left in Freiburg.
The Bavarian commander, however, revenged himself by besieging
Freiburg (June 27th), and Turenne's first attempt to relieve the'
place failed. During July, as the siege progressed, the French
government sent the due d'Enghien, who was ten years younger
still than Turenne, but had just gained his great victory of
Rocroy, to take over the command. Enghien brought with him
a veteran army, called the " Army of France," Turenne remaining
in command of the Army of Weimar. The armies met at Breisach
on the 2nd of August, by which date Freiburg had surrendered.
At this point most commanders of the time would have decided
not to fight, but to manoeuvre Mercy away from Freiburg;
Enghien, however, was a fighting general, and Mercy's entrenched
lines at Freiburg seemed to him a target rather than an obstacle.
A few hours after his arrival, therefore, without waiting for the
rearmost troops of his columns, he set the combining armies in
motion for Krozingen, a village on what was then the main road
between Breisach and Freiburg. The total force immediately
available numbered only 16,000 combatants. Enghien and
Turenne had arranged that the Army of France was to move
direct upon Freiburg by Wolfenweiter, while the Army of Weimar
was to make its way by hillside tracks to Wittnau and thence
to attack the rear of Mercy's lines while Enghien assaulted
them in front. Turenne's march (August 3rd, 1644) was slow
and painful, as had been anticipated, and late in the afternoon,
on passing Wittnau, he encountered the enemy. The Weimarians
carried the outer lines of defence without much difficulty, but
as they pressed on towards Merzhausen the resistance became
more and more serious. Turenne's force was little more than
6000, and these were wearied with a long day of marching and
fighting on the steep and wooded hillsides of the Black Forest.
Thus the turning movement came to a standstill far short of
Uffingen, the village on Mercy's line of retreat that Turenne
was to have seized, nor was a flank attack possible against
Mercy's main line, from which he was separated by the crest
of the Sch6nberg. Meanwhile, Enghien's army had at the
prearranged hour (4 P.M.) attacked Mercy's position on the
Ebringen spur. A steep slope, vineyards, low stone walls and
abatis had all to be surmounted, under a galling fire from the
Bavarian musketeers, before the Army of France found itself,
breathless and in disorder, in front of the actual entrenchments
of the crest. A first attack failed, as did an attempt to find an
unguarded path round the shoulder of the Schonberg. The
situation was grave in the extreme, but Enghien resolved on
Turenne's account to renew the attack, although only a quarter
of his original force was still capable of making an effort. He
himself and all the young nobles of his staff dismounted and led
the infantry forward again, the prince threw his baton into the
enemy's lines for the soldiers to retrieve, and in the end, after
a bitter struggle, the Bavarians, whose reserves had been taken
away to oppose Turenne in the Merzhausen defile, abandoned
the entrenchments and disappeared into the woods of the
adjoining spur. Enghien hurriedly re-formed his troops, fearing
at every moment to be hurled down the hill by a counterstroke;
but none came. The French bivouacked in the rain, Turenne
making his way across the -mountain to confer with the prince,
and meanwhile Mercy quietly drew off his army in the dark to
a new set of entrenchments on the ridge on which stood the
Loretto Chapel. On the 4th of August the Army of France and
the Army of Weimar met at Merzhausen, the rearmost troops of
the Army of France came in, and the whole was arranged by
the major-generals in the plain facing the Loretto ridge. This
position was attacked on the 5th. Enghien had designed his
battle even more carefully than before, but as the result of a
series of accidents the two French armies attacked prematurely
and straight to their front, one brigade after another, and though
at one moment Enghien, sword in hand, broke the line of defence
with his last intact reserve, a brilliant counterstroke, led by
Mercy's brother Kaspar (who was killed) , drove out the assailants.
It is said that Enghien lost half his men on this day and Mercy
one-third of his, so severe was the battle. But the result could
94
FREIDANK FREILIGRATH
not be gainsaid; it was for the French a complete and costly
failure.
For three days after this the armies lay in position without
fighting, the French well supplied with provisions and comforts
from Breisach, the Bavarians suffering somewhat severely from
want of food, and especially forage, as all their supplies had to
be hauled from Villingen over the rough roads of the Black
Forest. Enghien then decided to mate use of the Glotter Tal
to interrupt altogether this already unsatisfactory line of supply,
and thus to force the Bavarians either to attack him at a serious
disadvantage, or to retreat across the hills with the loss of their
artillery and baggage and the disintegration of their army by
famine and desertion. With this object, the Army of Weimar
was drawn off on the morning of the gth of August and marched
round by Betzenhausen and Lehen to Langen Denzling. The
infantry of the Army of France, then the trains, followed, while
Enghien with his own cavalry faced Freiburg and the Loretto
position.
Before dawn on the loth the advance guard of Turenne's
army was ascending the Glotter Tal. But Mercy had divined his
Battle of
FREIBURG
EmtryWilker.K.
adversary's plan, and leaving a garrison to hold Freiburg, the
Bavarian army had made a night march on the 9/ioth to the Abbey
of St Peter, whence on the morning of the loth Mercy fell back
to Graben, his nearest magazine in the mountains. Turenne's
advanced guard appeared from the Glotter Tal only to find a
stubborn rearguard of cavalry in front of the abbey. A sharp
action began, but Mercy hearing the drums and fifes of the
French infantry in the Glotter Tal broke it off and continued his
retreat in good order. Enghien thus obtained little material
result from his manoeuvre. Only two guns and such of Mercy's
wagons that were unable to keep up fell into the hands of the
French. Enghien and Turenne did not continue the chase farther
than Graben, and Mercy fell back unmolested to Rothenburg on
the Tauber.
The moral results of this sanguinary fighting were, however,
important and perhaps justified the sacrifice of so many valuable
soldiers. Enghien's pertinacity had not achieved a decision
with the sword, but Mercy had been so severely punished that
he was unable to interfere with his opponent's new plan of cam-
paign. This, which was carried out by the united armies and by
reinforcements from France, while Turenne's cavalry screened
them by bold demonstrations on the Tauber, led to nothing less
than the conquest of the Rhine Valley from Basel to Coblenz,
a task which was achieved so rapidly that the Army of France
and its victorious young leader were free to return to France in
two months from the time of their appearance in .Turenne's
'quarters at Breisach.
FREIDANK (VRtDANc), the name by which a Middle High
German didactic poet of the early i3th century is known. It has
been disputed whether the word, which is equivalent to " free-
thought," is to be regarded as the poet's real name or only as a
pseudonym; the latter is probably the case. Little is known of
Freidank's life. He accompanied Frederick II. on his crusade
to the Holy Land, where, in the years 1228-1229, a portion at
least of his work was composed ; and it is said that on his tomb
(if indeed it was not the tomb of another Freidank) at Treviso
there was inscribed, with allusion to the character of his style,
" he always spoke and never sang." Wilhelm Grimm originated
the hypothesis that Freidank was to be identified with Walther
von der Vogelweide; but this is no longer tenable. Freidank's
work bears the name of Bescheidenheit, i.e. " practical wisdom,"
" correct judgment," and consists of a collection of proverbs,
pithy sayings, and moral and satirical reflections, arranged under
general heads. Its popularity till the end of the i6th century is
shown by the great number of MSS. extant.
Sebastian Brant published the Bescheidenheit in a modified form
in 1508. Wilhelm Grimm's edition appeared in 1834 (2nd ed. 1860),
H. F. Bezzenberger's in 1872. A later edition is by F. Sandvoss
(1877). The old Latin translation, Fridangi Discrelio, was printed
by C. Lemcke in 1868; and there are two translations into modern
German, A. Bacmeister's (1861) and K. Simrock's (1867). See also
F. Pfeiffer, Uber Freidank (Zur deutschen Literaturgeschichte, 1855),
and H. Paul, t)ber die urspriingliche Anordnung von Freidanks Be-
scheidenheit (1870).
FREIENWALDE, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Prussia, on the Oder, 28 m. N.E. of Berlin, on the Frankfort-
Angermtinde railway. Pop. (1905) 7995. It has a small palace,
built by the Great Elector, an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
church, and manufactures of furniture, machinery, &c. The
neighbouring forests and its medicinal springs make it a favourite
summer resort of the inhabitants of Berlin. A new tower com-
mands a fine view of the Oderbruch (see ODER). Freienwalde,
which must be distinguished from the smaller town of the same
name in Pomerania, first appears as a town in 1364.
FREIESLEBENITE, a rare mineral consisting of sulphanti-
monite of silver and lead, (Pb, Agj^SbiSu. The monoclinic
crystals are prismatic in habit, with deeply striated prism and
dome faces. The. colour is steel-grey, and the lustre metallic;
hardness 2j, specific gravity 6-2. It occurs with argentite,
chalybite and galena in the silver veins of the Himmelsfiirst
mine at Freiberg, Saxony, where it has been known since 1720.
The species was named after J. K. Freiesleben, who had earlier
called it Schilf-Glaserz. Other localities are Hiendelaencina
near Guadalajara in Spain, Kapnik-Banya in Hungary, and
Guanajuato in Mexico. A species separated from freieslebenite
by V. von Zepharovich in 1871, because of differences in crystal-
line form, is known as diaphorite (from dia<t>opa, " difference") ;
it is very similar to freieslebenite in appearance and has perhaps
the same chemical composition (or possibly Ag 2 PbSb 2 S6), but
is orthorhombic in crystallization. A third mineral also very
similar to freieslebenite in appearance is the orthorhombic
andorite, AgPbSb 3 S 6 , which is mined as a silver ore at Oruro in
Bolivia.
FREIGHT, (pronounced like "weight"; derived from the
Dutch vracht or wecht, in Fr. fret, the Eng. " fraught " being the
same word, and formerly used for the same thing, but now
only as an adjective= " laden "), the lading or cargo of a ship,
and the hire paid for their transport (see AFFREIGHTMENT);
from the original sense of water-transport of goods the word has
also come to be used for land-transit (particularly in America,
by railroad), and by analogy for any load or burden.
FREILIGRATH. FERDINAND (1810-1876), German poet,
was born at Detmold on the 1 7th of June 1810. He was educated
at the gymnasium of his native town, and in his sixteenth year
was sent to Soest, with a view to preparing him for a commercial
career. Here he had also time and opportunity to acquire a
taste for French and English literature. The years from 1831
to 1836 he spent in a bank at Amsterdam, and 1837 to 1839 in
a business house at Barmen. In 1838 his Gedichte appeared
and met with such extraordinary success that he gave up the
FREIND FREISCHUTZ
95'
idea of commercial life and resolved to devote himself entirely
to literature. His repudiation of the political poetry of 1841
and its revolutionary ideals attracted the attention of the king
of Prussia, Frederick William IV., who, in 1842, granted him
a pension of 300 talers a year. He married, and, to be near his
friend Emanuel Geibel, settled at St Goar. Before long, however,
Freiligra'h was himself carried away by the rising tide of liberal-
ism. In the poem Eiit Glaubtnsbekenntnis (1844) he openly
vowed his sympathy with the political movement led by his old
adversary, Georg Herwegh; the day, he declared, of his own
poetic trifling with Romantic themes was over; Romanticism
itself was dead. He laid down his pension, and, to avoid the
inevitable political persecution, took refuge in Switzerland.
As a sequel to the Glaubensbekennlnis he published fa iral (1846),
which strained still further his relations with the German
authorities. He fled to London, where he resumed the com-
mercial life he had broken off seven years before. When the
Revolution of 1848 broke out, it seemed to Freiligrath, as to all
the liberal thinkers of the time, the dawn of an era of political
freedom; and, as may be seen from the poems in his collection of
Poliliscke und satiate Gedichle (1840-1851), he welcomed it with
unbounded enthusiasm. He returned to Germany and settled
in DUsseldorf; but it was not long before he had again called
down upon himself the ill-will of the ruling powers by a poem,
Die Tolen an die Lebenden (1848). He was arrested on a charge
of lese-majesU, but the prosecution ended in his acquittal. New
difficulties arose; his association with the democratic movement
rendered him an object of constant suspicion, and in 1851 he
judged it more prudent to go back to London, where he remained
until 1868. In that year he returned to Germany, settling first in
Stuttgart and in 1875 in the neighbouring town of Cannstatt,
where he died on the iSth of March 1876.
As a poet, Freiligrath was the most gifted member of the
German revolutionary group. Coming at the very close of the
Romantic age, his own purely lyric poetry re-echoes for the most
part the familiar thoughts and imagery of his Romantic pre-
decessors; but at an early age he had been attracted by the work
of French contemporary poets, and he reinvigorated the German
lyric by grafting upon it the orientalism of Victor Hugo. In this
reconciliation of French and German romanticism lay Freiligrath's
significance for the development of the lyric in Germany. His
remarkable power of assimilating foreign literatures is also to
be seen in his translations of English and Scottish ballads, of
the poetry of Burns, Mrs Hemans, Longfellow and Tennyson
(Englische Gedichle aus neuerer Zeit, 1846; The Rose, Thistle
and Shamrock, 1853, 6th ed. 1887); he also translated Shake-
speare's Cymbeline, Winter's Tale and Venus and Adonis, as well
as Longfellow's Hiawatha (1857). Freiligrath is most original
in his revolutionary poetry. His poems of this class suffer,
it is true, under the disadvantage of all political poetry purely
temporary interest and the unavoidable admixture of much that
has no claim to be called poetry at all but the agitator Freili-
grath, when he is at his best, displays a vigour and strength, a
power of direct and cogent poetic expression, not to be found in
any other political singer of the age.
_ Freiligrath's Gedichle have passed through some fifty editions, and
his Gttammelte Dichtungen, first published in 1870, have reached a
sixth edition (1808). Nachtelassenes (including a translation of
Byron's Mateppa) was published in 1883. A selection of Freili-
grath's best-known poems in English translation was edited by his
daughter, Mrs Freiligrath-Kroeker, in 1869; also Songs of a Revolu-
tionary Epoch were translated by I. L. Joynes in 1888. Cp. E.
Schmidt-Weissenfels, P. Freiligrath, tine Biographie (1876); W.
Buchner, F. Freiligrath, tin Dichttrleben in Brtefen (2 vols., 1881);
G. Freiligrath, Ertnntrungen an F. Freiligrath (1889); P. Besson,
Freiligrath (Paris, 1899); K. Richter, Freiligrath als Cbersetzer
1*9 (J.G. R.)
PREIHD, JOHN (1675-1728), English physician, younger
brother of Robert Freind (1667-1751), headmaster of West-
minster school, was born in 1675 a ' Croton in Northamptonshire.
He made great progress in classical knowledge under Richard
Busby at Westminster, and at Christ Church, Oxford, under
Dean Aldrich. and while still very young, produced, along with
Peter Foulkes, an excellent edition of the speeches of Aeschines
!and Demosthenes on the affair of Ctesiphon: After this he began
the study of medicine, and having proved his scientific attain-
mruts by various treatises was appointed a lecturer on chemistry
at Oxford in 1704. In the following year he accompanied the
English army, under the earl of Peterborough, into Spain, and
on returning home in 1707, wrote an account of the expedition,
which attained great popularity. Two years later he published ,
his Prelectiones chimicae, which he dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton.
Shortly after his return in 1713 from Flanders, whither he had
accompanied the British troops, he took up his residence in .
London, where he soon obtained a great reputation as a physician.
In 1716 he became fellow of the college of physicians, of which
he was chosen one of the censors in 1718, and Harveian orator
in 1720. In 1722 he entered parliament as member for Launceston
in Cornwall, but, being suspected of favouring the cause of the
exiled Stuarts, he spent half of that year in the Tower. During
his imprisonment he conceived the plan of his most important
work, The History of Physic, of which the first part appeared
in 1725, and the second in the following year. In the latter year
he was appointed physician to Queen Caroline, an office which he
held till his death on the 26th of July 1728.
A complete edition of his Latin works, with a Latin translation of
the History of Physic, edited by Dr John Wigan, was published in
London in 1732.
FREINSHEIM [FREINSHEMIUS], JOHANN (1608-1660), German
classical scholar and critic, was born at Ulm on the i6th of
November 1608. After studying at the universities of Marburg,
Giessen and Strassburg, he visited France, where he remained
for three years. He returned to Strassburg in 1637, and in
1642 was appointed professor of eloquence at Upsala. In 1647
he was summoned by Queen Christina to Stockholm as court
librarian and historiographer. In 1650 he resumed his professor-
ship at Upsala, but early in the following year he was obliged
to resign on account of ill-health. In 1656 he became honorary
professor at Heidelberg, and died on the 3ist of August 1660.
Freinsheim's literary activity was chiefly devoted to the Roman
historians. He first introduced the division into chapters and
paragraphs, and by means of carefully compiled indexes illus-
trated the lexical peculiarities of each author. He is best known
for his famous supplements to Quintus Curtius and Livy, contain-
ing the missing books written by himself. He also published
critical editions of Curtius and Florus.
FREIRE, FRANCISCO JOSE (1719-1773), Portuguese historian
and philologist, was born at Lisbon on the 3rd of January
1719. He belonged to the monastic society of St Philip Neri,
and was a zealous member of the literary association known as
the Academy of Arcadians, in connexion with which he adopted
the pseudonym of Candido Lusitano. He contributed much
to the improvement of the style of Portuguese prose literature,
but his endeavour to effect a reformation in the national poetry
by a translation of Horace's Ars poUica was less successful. The
work in which he set forth his opinions regarding the vicious
taste pervading the current Portuguese prose literature is entitled
Maximal sobre a Arte Oratorio, (1745) and is preceded by a chrono-
logical table forming almost a social and physical history of.
Portugal. His best known work, however, is his Vida do.
Infante D. Henrique (1758), which has given him a place in the
first rank of Portuguese historians, and has been translated into-
French (Paris, 1781). He also wrote a poetical dictionary
(Diccionari'o poetico) and a translation of Racine's Athalie (1762),
and his Reflexions sur la langue porlugaise was published in 1842
by the Lisbon society for the promotion of useful knowledge.
He died at Mafra on the 5th of July 1773.
FREISCHUTZ, in German folklore, a marksman who by a
compact with the devil has obtained a certain number of bullets
destined to hit without fail whatever object he wishes. As the
legend is usually told, six of the Freikugeln or " free bullets "
are thus subservient to the marksman's will, but the seventh is
at the absolute disposal of the devil himself. Various methods
were adopted in order to procure possession of the marvellous
missiles. According to one the marksman, instead of swallowing
the sacramental host, kept it and fixed it on a tree, shot at it
9 6
FREISING FREMIET
and caused it to bleed great drops of blood, gathered the drops
on a piece of cloth and reduced the whole to ashes, and then with
these ashes added the requisite virtue to the lead of which his
bullets were made. Various vegetable or animal substances had
the reputation of serving the same purpose. Stories about the
Freischutz were especially common in Germany during the i4th,
i5th and i6th centuries; but the first time that the legend was
turned to literary profit is said to have been by Apel in the
Gespensterbuch or " Book of Ghosts." It formed the subject
of Weber's opera Der Freischutz (1821), the libretto of which
was written by Friedrich Kind, who had suggested Apel's story
as an excellent theme for the composer. The name by which the
Freischutz is known in French is Robin des Bois.
See Kind, Freyschutzbuch (Leipzig, 1843) ; Revue des deux mond.es
(February 1855); Grasse, Die Quette des Freischutz (Dresden, 1875).
FREISING, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the Isar, 16 m. by rail N.N.E. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 13,538.
Among its eight Roman Catholic churches the most remarkable
is the cathedral, which dates from about 1160 and is famous for
its curious crypt. Noteworthy also are the old palace of the
bishops, now a clerical seminary, the theological lyceum and the
town-hall. There are several schools in the town, and there is a
statue to the chronicler, Otto of Freising, who was bishop here
from 1138 to 1158. Freising has manufactures of agricultural
machinery and of porcelain, while printing and brewing are carried
on. Near the town is the site of the Benedictine abbey of
Weihenstephan, which existed from 725 to 1803. This is now
a model farm and brewery. Freising is a very ancient town and
is said to have been founded by the Romans. After being
destroyed by the Hungarians in 955 it was fortified by the emperor
Otto II. in 976 and by Duke Welf of Bavaria in 1082. A bishopric
was established here in 724 by St Corbinianus, whose brother
Erimbert was consecrated second bishop by St Boniface in 739.
Later on the bishops acquired considerable territorial power
and in the I7th century became princes of the Empire. In
1802 the see was secularized, the bulk of its territories being
assigned to Bavaria and the rest to Salzburg, of which Freising
had been a suffragan bishopric. In 1817 an archbishopric
was established at Freising, but in the following year it was
transferred to Munich. The occupant of the see is now called
archbishop of Munich and Freising.
See C. Meichelbeck, Historiae Frisingensis (Augsburg, 1724-1729,
new and enlarged edition 1854).
FREJUS, a town in the department of the Var in S.E. France.
Pop. (1906) 3430. It is 28J m. S.E. of Draguignan (the chief
town of the department), and 225 m. S.W. of Cannes by rail. It
is only important on account of the fine Roman remains that it
contains, for it is now a mile from the sea, its harbour having been
silted up by the deposits of the Argens river. Since the 4th
century it has been a bishop's see, which is in the ecclesiastical
province of Aix en Provence. In modern times the neighbouring
fishing village at*St Raphael (25 m. by rail S.E., and on the sea-
shore) has become a town of 4865 inhabitants (in 1901); in 1799
Napoleon disembarked there on his return from Egypt, and re-
embarked for Elba in 1814, while nowadays it is much frequented
as a health resort, as is also Valescure (2 m. N.W. on the heights
above). The cathedral church in part dates from the i2th cen-
tury, but only small portions of the old medieval episcopal palace
are now visible, as it was rebuilt about 1823. The ramparts of
the old town can still be traced for a long distance, and there
are fragments of two moles, of the theatre and of a gate. The
amphitheatre, which seated 12,000 spectators, is in a better state
of preservation. The ruins of the great aqueduct which brought
the waters of the Siagnole, an affluent of the Siagne, to the town,
can still be traced for a distance of nearly 19 m. The original
hamlet was the capital of the tribe of the Oxybii, while the town
of Forum Julii was founded on its site by Julius Caesar in order
to secure to the Romans a harbour independent of that of
Marseilles. The buildings of which ruins exist were mostly
built by Caesar or by Augustus, and show that it was an important
naval station and arsenal. But the town suffered much at the
hands of the Arabs, of Barbary pirates, and of its inhabitants,
who constructed many of their dwellings out of the ruined Roman
buildings. The ancient harbour (really but a portion of the
lagoons, which had been deepened) is now completely silted
up. Even in early times a canal had to be kept open by perpetual
digging, while about 1700 this was closed, and now a sandy
and partly cultivated waste extends between the town and the
seashore.
See J. A. Aubenas, Histoire de Frejus (Fr6jus, i88i);Ch. Lentheric,
La Provence Maritime ancienne et moderne (Paris, 1880), chap. vii.
(W. A. B. C.)
FRELINGHUYSEN, FREDERICK THEODORE (1817-1885),
American lawyer and statesman, of Dutch descent, was born at
Millstone, New Jersey, on the 4th of August 1817. His grand-
father, Frederick Frelinghuysen (1753-1804), was an eminent
lawyer, one of the framers of the first New Jersey constitution,
a soldier in the War of Independence, and a member (1778-1779
and 1782-1783) of the Continental Congress from New Jersey,
and in 1793-1796 of the United States senate; and his uncle,
Theodore (1787-1862), was attorney-general of New Jersey
from 1817 to 1829, was a United States senator from New
Jefsey in 1829-1835, was the Whig candidate for vice-president
on the Clay ticket in 1844, and was chancellor of the university
of New York in 1839-1850 and president of Rutgers College
in 1850-1862. Frederick Theodore, left an orphan at the age of
three, was adopted by his uncle, graduated at Rutgers in 1836,
and studied law in Newark with his uncle, to whose practice
he succeeded in 1839, soon after his admission to the bar. He
became attorney for the Central Railroad of New Jersey, the
Morris Canal and Banking Company, and other corporations,
and from 1861 to 1867 was attorney-general of New Jersey.
In 1861 he was a delegate to the peace congress at Washington,
and in 1866 was appointed by the governor of New Jersey, as
a Republican, to fill a vacancy in the United States senate.
In the winter of 1867 he was elected to fill the unexpired term,
but a Democratic majority in the legislature prevented his
re-election in 1869. In 1870 he was nominated by President
Grant, and confirmed by the senate, as United States minister
to England to succeed John Lothrop Motley, but declined the
mission. From 1871 101877 he wasagainamemberof the United
States senate, in which he was prominent in debate and in com-
mittee work, and was chairman of the committee on foreign
affairs during the Alabama Claims negotiations. He was a strong
opponent of the reconstruction measures of President Johnson,
for whose conviction he voted (on most of the specific charges)
in the impeachment trial. He was a member of the joint com-
mittee which drew up and reported (1877) the Electoral Com-
mission Bill, and subsequently served as a member of the com-
mission. On the 1 2th of December 1881 he was appointed
secretary of state by President Arthur to succeed James G.
Elaine, and served until the inauguration of President Cleveland
in 1885. Retiring, with his health impaired by overwork, to
his home in Newark, he died there on the 2oth of May, less than
three months after relinquishing the cares of office.
FREMANTLE, a seaport of Swan county, Western Australia,
at the mouth of the Swan river, 12 m. by rail S.W. of Perth.
It is the terminus of the Eastern railway, and is a town of
some industrial activity, shipbuilding, soap-boiling, saw-milling,
smelting, iron-founding, furniture-making, flour-milling, brewing
and tanning being its chief industries. The harbour, by the
construction of two long moles and the blasting away of the rocks
at the bar, has been rendered secure. The English, French and
German mail steamers call at the port. Fremantle became a
municipality in 1871; but there are now three separate munici-
palities Fremantle, with a population in 1001 of 14,704;
Fremantle East (2494) ; and Fremantle North (3246). At Rott-
nest Island, off the harbour, there are government salt-works
and a residence of the governor, also penal and reformatory
establishments.
FREMIET, EMMANUEL (1824- ), French sculptor, born
in Paris, was a nephew and pupil of Rude; he chiefly devoted
himself to animal sculpture and to equestrian statues in armour.
His earliest work was in scientific lithography (osteology), and
FREMONT
97
for a while he served in times of adversity in the gruesome office
of " punter to the Morgue." In 1843 he sent to the Salon a
study of a " Gazelle," and after that date was very prolific in his
works. His " Wounded Bear " and " Wounded Dog " were
produced in 1850, and the Luxembourg Museum at once secured
this striking example of his work. From 1855 to 1859 Fremiet
was engaged on a series of military statuettes for Napoleon III.
He produced his equestrian statue of " Napoleon I." in 1868,
and of " Louis d 'Or leans " in 1869 (at the Chateau de Pierrefonds)
and in 1874 the first equestrian statue of " Joan of Arc," erected
in the Place des Pyramides, Paris; this he afterwards (1889)
replaced with another and still finer version. In the meanwhile
he had exhibited his masterly " Gorilla and Woman " which won
him a medal of honour at the Salon of 1887. Of the same
character, and even more remarkable, is his " Ourang-Outangs
and Borneo Savage " of 1895, a commission from the Paris
Museum of Natural History. Fremiet also executed the statue
of " St Michael " for the summit of the spire of the Eglise
St Michel, and the equestrian statue of Velasquez for the Jardin
de I'lnfantc at the Louvre. He became a member of the
Acadimie des Beaux-Arts in 1891, and succeeded Barye as
professor of animal drawing at the Natural History Museum of
Paris.
FRfiMONT. JOHN CHARLES (1813-1890), American explorer,
soldier and political leader, was born in Savannah, Georgia, on
the list of January 1813. His father, a native of France, died
when the boy was in his sixth year, and his mother, a member of
an aristocratic Virginia family, then removed to Charleston, South
Carolina. In 1828, after a year's special preparation, young
Fremont entered the junior class of the college of Charleston,
and here displayed marked ability, especially in mathematics;
but his irregular attendance and disregard of college discipline
led to his expulsion from the institution, which, however, conferred
upon him a degree in 1836. In 1833 he was appointed teacher
of mathematics on board the sloop of war " Natchez, " and was
so engaged during a cruise along the South American coast
which was continued for about two and a half years. Soon
after returning to Charleston he was appointed professor of
mathematics in the United States navy, but he chose instead to
serve as assistant engineer of a survey undertaken chiefly for
the purpose of finding a pass through the mountains for a pro-
posed railway from Charleston to Cincinnati. In July 1838 he
was appointed second lieutenant of Topographical Engineers in
the United States army, and for the next three years he was
assistant to the French explorer, Jean Nicholas Nicollct (1786-
1843), employed by the war department to survey and map a
Urge part of the country lying between the upper waters of the
Mississippi and Missouri rivers. In 1841 Fremont surveyed, for
the government, the lower course of the Des Moines river. In
the same year he married Jessie, the daughter of Senator Thomas
H. Benton of Missouri, and it was in no small measure through
Benton's influence with the government that Fremont was
enabled to accomplish within the next few years the exploration
of much of the territory between the Mississippi Valley and the
Pacific Ocean.
When the claim of the United States to the Oregon territory
was being strengthened by occupation, Fremont was sent, at
his urgent request, to explore the frontier beyond the Missouri
river, and especially the Rocky Mountains in the vicinity of the
South Pass, through which the American immigrants travelled.
Within four months (1842) he surveyed the Pass and ascended
to the summit of the highest of the Wind River Mountains, since
known as Fremont's Peak, and the interest aroused by his
descriptions was such that in the next year he was sent on a
second expedition to complete the survey across the continent
along the line of travel from Missouri to the mouth of the Columbia
river. This time he not only carried out his instructions but,
by further explorations together with interesting descriptions,
dispelled general ignorance with respect to the main features of
the country W. of the Rocky Mountains: the Great Salt Lake,
the Great Basin, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the fertile
river basins of the Mexican province of California.
His report of this expedition upon his return to Washington,
D.C., in 1844, aroused much solicitude for California, which, it
was feared, might, in the event of^war then threatening between
the United States and Mexico, be seized by Great Britain. In
the spring of 1845 Fremont was despatched on a third expedition
for the professed purposes of further exploring the Great Basin
and the Pacific Coast, and of discovering the easiest lines of
communication between them, as well as for the secret purpose
of assisting the United States, in case of war with Mexico, to
gain possession of California. He and his party of sixty-two
arrived there in January 1 846. Owing to the number of American
immigrants who had settled in California, the Mexican
authorities there became suspicious and hostile, and ordered
Fr6mont out of the province. Instead of obeying he pitched
his camp near the summit of a mountain overlooking Monterey,
fortified his position, and raised the United States flag. A few
days later he was proceeding toward the Oregon border when
new instructions from Washington caused him to retrace his
steps and, perhaps, to consider plans for provoking war. The
extent of his responsibility for the events that ensued is not
wholly clear, and has been the subject of much controversy;
his defenders have asserted that he was not responsible for the
seizure of Sonoma or for the so-called " Bear-Flag War " ; and
that he played a creditable part throughout. (For an opposite
view see CALIFORNIA.) Commodore John D. Sloat, after seizing
Monterey, transferred his command to Commodore Robert
Field Stockton (1795-1866), who made Fr6mont major of a
battalion; and by January 1847 Stockton and Fr6mont completed
the conquest of California. In the meantime General Stephen
Watts Kearny (1794-1848) had been sent by the Government
to conquer it and to establish a government. This created a
conflict of authority between Stockton and Kearny, both of
whom were Fr6mont's superior officers. Stockton, ignoring
Kearny, commissioned Frimont military commandant and
governor. But Kearny's authority being confirmed about the
ist of April, Fremont, for repeated acts of disobedience, was
sent under arrest to Washington, where he was tried by court-
martial, found guilty (January 1847) of mutiny, disobedience
and conduct prejudicial to military discipline, and sentenced
to dismissal from the service. President Polk approved of the
verdict except as to mutiny, but remitted the penalty, whereupon
Frdmont resigned.
With the mountain-traversed region he had been exploring
acquired by the United States, Fr6mont was eager for a railway
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and in October 1848 he set out
at his own and Senator Benton's expense to find passes for such
a railway along a line westward from the headwaters of the Rio
Grande. But he had not gone far when he was led astray by a
guide, and after the loss of his entire outfit and several of his
men, and intense suffering of the survivors from cold and hunger,
he turned southward through the valley of the Rio Grande and
then westward through the valley of the Gila into southern
California. Late in the year 1853, however, he returned to the
place where the guide had led him astray, found passes through
the mountains to the westward between latitudes 37 and 38
N., and arrived in San Francisco early in May 1854. From the
conclusion of his fourth expedition until March 1855, when he
removed to New York city, he lived in California, and in December
1849 was elected one of the first two United States senators from
the new state. But as he drew the short term, he served only
from the loth of September 1850 to the 3rd of March 1851.
Although a candidate for re-election, he was defeated by the
pro-slavery party. His opposition to slavery, however, together
with his popularity won by the successes, hardships and dangers
of his exploring expeditions, and by his part in the conquest of
California led to his nomination, largely on the ground of
" availability," for the presidency in 1856 by the Republicans
(this being their first presidential campaign), and by the National
Americans or " Know-Nothings. " In the ensuing election he
was defeated by James Buchanan by 174 to 114 electoral votes.
Soon after the Civil War began, Fremont was appointed
major-general and placed in command of the western department
9 8
FREMONT FRENCH, D. C.
with headquarters at St Louis, but his lack of judgment and
of administrative ability soon became apparent, the affairs of
his department fell into disoader, and Fremont seems to have
been easily duped by dishonest contractors whom he trusted.
On the 3oth of August 1861 he issued a proclamation in which
he declared the property of Missourians in rebellion confiscated
and their slaves emancipated. For this he was applauded by
the radical Republicans, but his action was contrary to an act
of congress of the 6th of August and to the policy of the Adminis-
tration. On the nth of September President Lincoln, who
regarded the action as premature and who saw that it might
alienate Kentucky and other border states, whose adherence he
was trying to secure, annulled these declarations. Impelled by
serious charges against Fremont, the president sent Mont-
gomery Blair, the postmaster-general, and Montgomery C. Meigs,
the quartermaster-general, to investigate the department; they
reported that Fremont's management was extravagant and
inefficient; and in November he was removed. Out of con-
sideration for the " Radicals," however, Fremont was placed in
command of the Mountain Department of Virginia, Kentucky
and Tennessee. In the spring and summer of 1862 he co-operated
with General N. P. Banks against " Stonewall " Jackson in the
Shenandoah Valley, but showed little ability as a commander, was
defeated by General Ewell at Cross Keys, and when his troops
were united with those of Generals Banks and McDowell to form
the Army of Virginia, of which General John Pope was placed
in command, Fremont declined to serve under Pope, whom he
outranked, and retired from active service. On the 3ist of May
1864 he was nominated for the presidency by a radical faction
of the Republican party, opposed to President Lincoln, but
his following was so small that on the aist of September he with-
drew from the contest. From 1878 to 1881 he was governor of
the territory of Arizona, and in the last year of his life he was
appointed by act of congress a major-general and placed on the
retired list. He died in New York on the i3th of July 1890.
See J. C. Fremont, Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky
Mountains, 1841, and to Oregon and North California, 1843-1844
(Washington, 1845) ; Fremont's Memoirs of my Life (New York,
1887); and J. Bigelow, Memoirs of the Life and Public Services
of John C. Fremont (New York, 1856).
FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Dodge county,
Nebraska, U.S.A., about 37 m. N.W. of Omaha, on the N. bank
of the Platte river, which here abounds in picturesque bluffs
and wooded islands. Pop. (1890) 6747; (1900) 7241 (1303
foreign-born); (1910)8718. It is on the main line of the Union
Pacific railway, on a branch of the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy system, and on the main western line of the Chicago &
North-Western railway, several branches of which (including the
formerly independent Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley and
the Sioux City & Pacific) converge here. The city has an attrac-
tive situation and is beautifully shaded. It has a public library
and is the seat of the Fremont College, Commercial Institute
and School of Pharmacy (1875), a private institution. There is
considerable local trade with the rich farming country of the
Platte and Elkhorn valleys; and the wholesale grain interests are
especially important. Among the manufactures are flour,
carriages, saddlery, canned vegetables, furniture, incubators
and beer. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant
and water-works. Fremont was founded in 1856, and became
the county-seat in 1860. It was chartered as a city (second-class)
in 1871, and became a city of the first class in 1901.
FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Sandusky county,
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Sandusky river, 30 m. S.E. of Toledo.
Pop. (1890) 7141; (1900) 8439, of whom 1074 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 9939- Fremont is served by the Lake Shore &
Michigan Southern, the Lake Shore Electric, the Lake Erie
& Western, and the Wheeling & Lake Erie railways. The river
is navigable to this point. Spiegel Grove, the former residence of
Rutherford B. Hayes, is of interest, and the city has a public
library (1873) and parks, in large measure the gifts of his uncle,
Sardis Birchard. Fremont is situated in a good agricultural
region; oil and natural gas abound in the vicinity; and the city
has various manufactures, including boilers, electro-carbons,
cutlery, bricks, agricultural implements, stoves and ranges,
safety razors, carriage irons, sash, doors, blinds, furniture, beet
sugar, canned vegetables, malt extract, garters and suspenders.
The total factory product was valued at $2,833,385 in 1905,
an increase of 23-4% over that of 1900. Fremont is on the site
of a favourite abode of the Indians, and a trading post was at
times maintained here; but the place is best known in history as
the site of Fort Stephenson, erected during the War of 1812,
and on the 2nd of August 1813 gallantly and successfully defended
by Major George Croghan (1791-1849), with 160 men, against
about 1000 British and Indians under Brigadier-General Henry
A. Proctor. In 1906 Croghan's remains were re-interred on the
site of the old fort. Until 1849, when the present name was
adopted in honour of J. C. Fremont, the place was known as
Lower Sandusky; it was incorporated as a village in 1829
and was first chartered as a city in 1867.
FREMY, EDMOND (1814-1894), French chemist, was born
at Versailles on the 2gth of February 1814. Entering Gay-
Lussac's laboratory in 1831, he became preparateur at the Ecole
Polytechnique in 1834 and at the College de France in 1837.
His next post was that of repetUeur at the Ecole Polytechnique,
where in 1846 he was appointed professor, and in 1850 he suc-
ceeded Gay-Lussac in the chair of chemistry at the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle, of which he was director, in succession to
M. E. Chevreul, from 1879 to 1891. He died at Paris on the 3rd
of February 1894. His work included investigations of osmic
acid, of the ferrates, stannates, plumbates, &c., and of ozone,
attempts to obtain free fluorine by the electrolysis of fused
fluorides, and the discovery of anhydrous hydrofluoric acid and
of a series of acides sulphazot.es, the precise nature of which long
remained a matter of discussion. He also studied the colouring
matters of leaves and flowers, the composition of bone, cerebral
matter and other animal substances, and the processes of fer-
mentation, in regard to the nature of which he was an opponent of
Pasteur's views. Keenly alive to the importance of the technical
applications of chemistry, he devoted special attention as a
teacher to the training of industrial chemists. In this field he
contributed to our knowledge of the manufacture of iron and steel,
sulphuric acid, glass and paper, and in particular worked at the
saponification of fats with sulphuric acid and the utilization of
palmitic acid for candle-making. In the later years of his life
he applied himself to the problem of obtaining alumina in the
crystalline form, and succeeded in making rubies identical with
the natural gem not merely in chemical composition but also in
physical properties.
FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850- ), American sculptor,
was born at Exeter, New Hampshire, on the 2Oth of April 1850,
the son of Henry Flagg French, a lawyer, who for a time, was
assistant-secretary of the United States treasury. After a year
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, French spent a
month in the studio of John Q. A. Ward, then began to work on
commissions, and at the age of twenty-three received from the
town of Concord, Massachusetts, an order for his well-known
statue " The Minute Man," which was unveiled (April 19, 1875)
on the centenary of the battle of Concord. Previously French
had gone to Florence, Italy, where he spent a year with Thomas
Ball. French's best-known work is " Death Staying the Hand of
the Sculptor," a memorial for the tomb of the sculptor Martin
Milmore, in the Forest Hills cemetery, Boston ; this received a
medal of honour at Paris, in 1900. Among his other works are:
a monument to John Boyle O'Reilly, Boston; " Gen. Cass,"
National Hall of Statuary, Washington; " Dr Gallaudet and his
First Deaf-Mute Pupil," Washington; the colossal " Statue
of the Republic," for the Columbian Exposition at Chicago;
statues of Rufus Choate (Boston), John Harvard (Cambridge,
Mass.), and Thomas Starr King (San Francisco, California), a
memorial to the architect Richard M. Hunt, in Fifth Avenue,
opposite the Lenox library, New York, and a large " Alma
Mater," near the approach to Columbia University, New York.
In collaboration with Edward C. Potter he modelled the
" Washington," presented to France by the Daughters of the
American Revolution; the "General Grant" in Fairmount Park,
FRENCH, N. FRENCH CONGO
Philadelphia, and the " General Joseph Hooker " in Boston.
French became a member of the National Academy of Design
(1001), the National Sculpture Society, the Architectural League,
and the Accademia di San Luca, of Rome.
FRENCH. NICHOLAS (1604-1678), bishop of Ferns, was an
Irish political pamphleteer, who was born at Wexford. He
was educated at Louvain, and returning to Ireland became a
priest at Wexford, and before 1646 was appointed bishop of
Ferns. Having taken a prominent part in the political disturb-
ances of this period, French deemed it prudent to leave Ireland
1651, and the remainder of his life was
99
straight line until the delta of the Ogow6 is reached, where Cape
Lopez projects N.W. From this point the coast trends uniformly
S.E. without presenting any striking features, though the Bay of
M.I \u ml i.i, the roadstead of Loango, and the Pointe Noire may be
mentioned. A large proportion of the coast region is occupied by
primeval forest, with trees rising to a height of 150 and 200 ft., but
there is a considerable variety of scenery open lagoons, mangrove
swamps, scattered clusters of trees, park-like reaches, dense walls of
tangled underwood along the rivers, prairies of tall grass and patches
of cultivation. Behind the coast region is a ridge which rises from
3000 to 4500 ft., called the Crystal Mountains, then a plateau with
an elevation varying from 1500 to 2800 ft., cleft with deep river-
m
passed on the continent of Europe. He acted
as coadjutor to the archbishops of Santiago
de Compostella and Paris, and to the bishop
of Ghent, and died at Ghent on the zjrd of
August 1678. In 1676 he published his attack
on James Butler, marquess of Ormonde,
entitled " The Unkinde Deserter of Loyall
Men and True Frinds," and shortly afterwards
"The Bleeding Iphigenia." The most im-
portant of his other pamphlets is the " Narrative
of the Earl of Clarendon's Settlement and Sale
of Ireland " (Louvain, 1668).
The Historical Works of Bishop French, com-
prising the three pamphlets already mentioned
and some letters, were published by S. H. Bindon
at Dublin in 1846. See T. D. McGee, Irish
Writers of Uu 17th Century (Dublin, 1846); Sir
I. T. Gilbert. Contemporary History of Affairs in
Ireland, 1641-1652 (Dublin, 1879-1880); and T.
Carte, Life of James, Duke of Ormond (new ed.,
Oxford. 1851).
FRENCH CONGO, the general name of the
French possessions in equatorial Africa. They
have an area estimated at 700,000 sq. m., with
a population, also estimated, of 6,000,000 to
10.000,000. The whites numbered (1906) 1278,
of whom 502 were officials. French Congo,
officially renamed FRENCH EQUATORIAL AFRICA
in 1910, comprises (i) the Gabun Colony,
() the Middle Congo Colony, (3) the Ubangi-
Shari Circumscription, (4) the Chad Circum-
scription. The two last-named divisions form
the Ubangi-Shari-Chad Colony.
The present article treats of French Congo
as a unit. It is of highly irregular shape. It
is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the (Spanish) Muni
River Settlements, the German colony of Cameroon and the
Sahara, E. by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and S. by Belgian
Congo and the Portuguese territory of Kabinda. In the greater
part of its length the southern frontier is the middle course of
the Congo and the Ubangi and Mbomu, the chief northern
affluents of that stream, but in the south-west the frontier
keeps north of the Congo river, whose navigable lower course
is partitioned between Belgium and Portugal. The coast line,
some 600 m. long, extends from 5 S. to i N. The northern
frontier, starting inland from the Muni estuary, after skirting the
Spanish settlements follows a line drawn a little north of 2 N.
and extending east to 16 E. North of this line the country is
part of Cameroon, German territory extending so far inland from
the Gulf of Guinea as to approach within 130 m. of the Ubangi.
From the intersection of the lines named, at which point French
Congo is at its narrowest, the frontier runs north and then east
until the Sbari is reached in 10" 40' N. The Shari then forms the
frontier up to Lake Chad, where French Congo joins the Saharan
regions of French West Africa. The eastern frontier, separating
the colony from the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, is the water-parting
between the Nile and the Congo. The Mahommedan sultanates
of Wadai and Bagirmi occupy much of the northern part of
French Congo (see WADAI and BAGIRMI).
Pkysieal Features. The coast line, beginning in the north at
COTMCO Bay, U shortly afterwards somewhat deeply indented by
the ntuary of the Gabun, south of which the shore runs in a nearly
FRENCH WEST AFRICA^
r
^.
FRENCH CONGO
Longitude t.M 24 of Greenwich
trncry Walke
valleys, the walls of which are friable, almost vertical, and in some
places 760 ft. high.
The coast rivers flowing into the Atlantic cross four terraces.
O the higher portion of the plateau their course is over bare sand;
on the second terrace, from 1200 to 2000 ft. high, it is over wide
grassy tracts; then, for some 100 m., the rivers pass through virgin
forest, and, lastly, they cross the shore region, which is about 10 m.
broad. The rivers which fall directly into the Atlantic are generally
unnavigablc. The most important, the Ogowd (?..), is, however,
navigable from its mouth to N'lole, a distance of 235 m. Rivers to
the south of the Ogpwfi are the Nyanga, 120 m. long, and the Kwilu.
The latter, 320 m. in length, is formed by the Kiasi &nd the Luet6;
it has a very winding course, flowing by turns from north to south,
from east to west, from south to north-west and from north to south-
west. It is encumbered with rocks and eddies, and is navigable only
over 38 m., and for five months in the year. The mouth is I loo ft.
wide. The Muni river, the northernmost in the colony, is obstructed
by cataracts in its passage through the escarpment to the coast.
Nearly all the upper t>asin ofthe Shari (q.v.) as well as the right
bank of the lower river is within French Congo. The greater part
of the country belongs, however, to the drainage area of the Congo
river. In addition to the northern banks of the Mbomu and Ubangi,
330 m. of the north shore of the Congo itself are in the French pro-
tectorate as well as numerous subsidiary streams. For some loo m.
however, the right bank of the Sanga, the most important of these
subsidiary streams, is in German territory (see CONGO).
Geology. Three main divisions are recognized in the French
Congo: (i) the littoral zone, covered with alluvium and superficial
deposits and underlain by Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks; (2) the
mountain zone of the Crystal Mountains, composed of granite,
metamorphic and ancient sediments; (3) the plateau of the northern
portion of the Congo basin, occupied by Karroo sandstones. The
core of the Crystal Mountains consists of granite and schists.
IOO
FRENCH CONGO
Infolded with them, and on the flanks, are three rock systems ascribed
to the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous. These are unfossili-
ferous, but fossils of Devonian age occur on the Congo (see CONGO
FREE STATE). Granite covers wide areas north-west of the Crystal
Mountains. The plateau sandstones lie horizontally and consist
of a lower red sandstone group and an upper white sandstone group.
They have not yielded fossils. Limestones of Lower Cretaceous age ;
with Schloenbachia inflata, occur north of the Gabun and in the Ogowe
basin. Marls and limestones with fossils of an Eocene facies over-
lie the Cretaceous rocks on the Gabun. A superficial iron-cemented
sand, erroneously termed laterite, covers large areas in the littoral
zone, on the flanks of the mountains and on the high plateau.
Climate. The whole of the country being in the equatorial region,
the climate is everywhere very hot and dangerous for Europeans.
On the coast four seasons are distinguished: the dry season (i5th
of May to I5th of September), the rainy season (i5th of September
to I5th of January), then a second dry season (i5th of January to
1st of March), and a second rainy season (ist of March to I5th of
May). The rainfall at Libreville is about 96 in. a year.
flora and Fauna. The elephant, the hippopotamus, the crocodile
and several kinds of apes including the chimpanzee and the rare
gorilla are the most noteworthy larger animals; the birds are
various and beautiful grey parrots, shrikes, fly-catchers, rhinoceros
buds, weaver birds (often in large colonies on the palm-trees), ice-
buds, from the Cecyle Sharpii to the dwarfish Alcedo cristata, butter-
fly dnches, and helmet-birds (Turacus giganteus), as well as more
familiar types. Snakes are extremely common. The curious
climbing-fish, which frequents the mangroves, the Protopterus or
luun-fish, which lies in the mud in a state of lethargy during the dry
season, the strange and poisonous Tetrodon guttifer, and the herring-
liws Pcllona africana, often caught in great shoals are the more
remarkable of the fishes. Oysters are got in abundance from the
iauoons, and the huge Cardisoma armatum or heart-crab is fattened
for table. Fireflies, mosquitoes and sandflies are among the most
iamiliar forms of insect life. A kind of ant builds very striking
pent-house or umbrella-shaped nests rising on the tree trunks one
aoove the other.
g Among the more characteristic forms of vegetation are baobabs,
silk-cotton trees, screw-pines and palms especially Hyphaene
gutneensis (a fan-palm), Raphia (the wine-palm), and Elaeis guineen-
su (the oil-palm). Anonaceous plants (notably A nona senegalensis ,
and the pallabanda, an olive-myrtle-like tree, are common in the
prairies; the papyrus shoots up to a height of 20 ft. along the rivers;
the banks are fringed by the cottony Hibiscus tiliaceus, ipomaeas
ana fragrant jasmines; and the thickets are bound together in one
inextricable mass by lianas of many kinds. In the upper Shari
region and that of the Kotto tributary of the Ubangi, are species of
the coffee tree, one species attaining a heigh}; of over 60 ft. Its bean
resembles that of Abyssinian coffee of medium quality. Among the
fruit trees are the mango and the papaw, the orange and the lemon.
Negro-pepper (a variety of capsicum) and ginger grow wild.
Inhabitants and Chief Towns. A census, necessarily imperfect,
taken in 1906 showed a total population, exclusive of Wadai, of
3,6.52,000, divided in districts as follows: Gabun, 376,000; Middle
Congo, 259,000; Ubangi-Shari, 2,130,000; Chad, 885,000. The
country is peopled by diverse negro races, and, in the regions border-
ing Lake Chad and in Wadai, by Fula, Hausa, Arabs and semi-
Arab tribes. Among the best-known tribes living in French Congo
are the Fang (Fans), the Bakalai, the Batekes and the Zandeh or
Niam-Niam. Several of the tribes are cannibals and among many
of them the fetish worship characteristic of the West African negroes
prevails. Their civilization is of a low order. In the northern
regions the majority of the inhabitants are Mahommedans, and it is
only in those districts that organized and powerful states exist.
Elsewhere the authority of a chief or " king " extends, ordinarily,
little beyond the village in which he lives. (An account of the chief
tribes is given under their names.) The European inhabitants are
chiefly of French nationality, and are for the most part traders,
officials and missionaries.
The chief towns are Libreville (capital of the Gabun colony) with
3000 inhabitants; Brazzaville, on the Congo on the north side of
Stanley Pool (opposite the Belgian capital of Leopold ville), the seat
of the governor-general ; Franceville, on the upper Ogowe; Loango,
an important seaport in 4 39' S. ; N'Jole, a busy trading centre on
the lower Ogow6; Chekna, capital of Bagirmi, which forms part of
the Chad territory; Abeshr, the capital of Wadai, Bangi on the
Ubangi river, the administrative capital of the Ubangi-Shari-Chad
colony. Kiiinlc, Lame and Binder are native trading centres near
the Cameroon frontier.
Communications. The rivers are the chief means of internal
communication. Access to the greater part of the colony is ob-
tained by ocean steamers to Matadi on the lower Congo, and thence
round the falls by the Congo railway to Stanley Pool. From Brazza-
ville on Stanley Pool there is 680 m. of uninterrupted steam navi-
gation N.E. into the heart of Africa, 330 m. being on the Congo
and 350 m. on the Ubangi. The farthest point reached is Zongo,
where rapids block the river, but beyond that port there are several
navigable stretches of the Ubangi, and for small vessels access to
the Nile is possible by means of the Bahr-el-Ghazal tributaries.
The Sanga, which joins the Congo, 270 m. above Brazzaville, can be
navigated by steamers for 350 m., i.e. up to and beyond the S.E.
frontier of the German colony of Cameroon. The Shari is also
navigable for a considerable distance and by means of its affluent,
the Logone, connects with the Benue and Niger, affording a waterway
between the Gulf of Guinea and Lake Chad. Stores for government
posts in the Chad territory are forwarded by this route. There is,
however, no connecting link between the coast rivers Gabun,
Ogowe and Kwilu and the Congo system. A railway, about 500 m.
long, from the Gabun to the Sanga is projected and the surveys for
the purpose made. Another route surveyed for a railway is that
from Loango to Brazzaville. A narrow-gauge line, 75 m. long, from
Brazzaville to Mindule in the cataracts region was begun in November
1908, the first railway to be built in French Congo. The district
served by the line is rich in copper and other minerals. From Wadai
a caravan route across the Sahara leads to Bengazi on the shores of
the Mediterranean. Telegraph lines connect Loango with Brazza-
ville and Libreville, there is telegraphic communication with Europe
by submarine cable, and steamship communication between Loango
and Libreville and Marseilles, Bordeaux, Liverpool and Hamburg.
Trade and Agriculture. The chief wealth of the colony consists in
the products of its forests and in ivory. The natives, in addition to
manioc, their principal food, cultivate bananas, ground nuts and
tobacco. On plantations owned by Europeans coffee, cocoa and
vanilla are grown. European vegetables are raised easily. Gold,
iron and copper are found. Copper ores have been exported from
Mindule since 1905. The chief exports are rubber and ivory, next
in importance coming palm nuts and palm oil, ebony and other
woods, coffee, cocoa and copal. The imports are mainly cotton and
metal goods, spirits and foodstuffs. In the Gabun and in the basin
of the Ogowe the French customs tariff, with some modifications,
prevails, but in the Congo basin, that is, in the greater part of the
country, by virtue of international agreements, no discrimination
can be made between French and other merchandise, whilst customs
duties must not exceed 10% ad valorem. 1 In the Shari basin and in
Wadai the Anglo-French declaration of March 1899 accorded for
thirty years equal treatment to British and French goods. The
value of the trade rose in the ten years 1896-1905 from 360,000 to
850,000, imports and exports being nearly equal. The bulk of the
export trade is with Great Britain, which takes most of the rubber,
France coming second and Germany third. The imports are in about
equal proportions from France and foreign countries.
Land Tenure. The Concessions Regime. Land held by the
natives is governed by tribal law, but the state only recognizes native
ownership in land actually occupied by the aborigines. The greater
part of the country is considered a state domain. Land held by
Europeans is subject to the Civil Code of France except such estates
as have been registered under the terms of a decree of the 28th of
March 1899, when, registration having been effected, the title to the
land is guaranteed by the state. Nearly the whole of the colony has
been divided since 1899 into large estates held by limited liability
companies to whom has been granted the sole right of exploiting the
land leased to them. The companies holding concessions numbered
in 1904 about forty, with a combined capital of over 2,000,000,
whilst the concessions varied in size from 425 sq. m. to 54,000 sq. m.
One effect of the granting of concessions was the rapid decjine in the
business of non-concessionaire traders, of whom the most important
were Liverpool merchants established in the Gabun before the advent
of the French. As by the Act of Berlin of 1885, to which all the
European powers were signatories, equality of treatment in com-
mercial affairs was guaranteed to all nations in the Congo basin,
protests were raised against the terms of the concessions. The reply
was that the critics confused the exercise of the right of proprietor-
ship with the act of commerce, and that in no country was the
landowner who farmed his land and sold the produce regarded as a
merchant. Various decisions by the judges of the colony during
1902 and 1903 and by the French cour de cassation in 1905 con-
firmed that contention. The action of the companies was, however,
in most cases, neither beneficial to the country nor financially
successful, whilst the native cultivators resented the prohibition of
their trading direct with their former customers. The case of the
Liverpool traders was taken up by the British government and it
was agreed that the dispute should be settled by arbitration. In
September 1908 the French government issued a decree reorganizing
and rendering more stringent the control exercised by the local
authorities over the concession companies, especially in matters
concerning the rights of natives and the liberty of commerce.
History. The Gabun was visited in the isth century by the
Portuguese explorers, and it became one of the chief seats of
the slave trade. It was not, however, till well on in the igth
century that Europeans made any more permanent settlement
than was absolutely necessary for the maintenance of their
commerce. In 1839 Captain (afterwards Admiral) Boue't-
Willaumez obtained for France the right of residence on the left
bank, and in 1842 he secured better positions on the right bank.
The primary object of the French settlement was to secure a
1 Berlin Act of 1885; Brussels conference of 1890 (see AFRICA:
History).
FRENCH CONGO
101
port wherein men-of-war could revictual. The chief establish-
ment, Libreville, was founded in 1849, with negroes taken from
a slave ship. The settlement in time acquired importance as a
trading port. ' In 1867 the troops numbered about 1000, and the
civil population about 5000, while the official reports about the
same date claimed for the whole colony an area of 8000 sq. m.
and a population of 186,000. Cape Lopez had been ceded to
France in 1862, and the colony's coast-line extended, nominally,
to a length of 100 m. In consequence of the war with Germany
the colony was practically abandoned in 1871, the establishment
at Libreville being maintained as a coaling depot merely. In
1875, however, France again turned her attention to the Gabun
estuary, the hinterland of which had already been partly ex-
plored. Paul du Chaillu penetrated (1835-1859 and 1863-1865)
to the south of the Ogowe; Walker, an English merchant,
explored the Ngunye, an affluent of the Ogow, in 1866. In
1872-1873 Alfred Marche, a French naturalist, and the marquis
de Compigne l explored a portion of the Ogowe basin, but it was
not until the expedition of 1875-1878 that the country east of
the Ogowe' was reached. This expedition was led by Savorgnan
de Brazza (?.?.), who was accompanied by Dr Noel Eugene
Ballay, and, for part of the time, by Marche. De Brazza's
expedition, which was compelled to remain for many months at
several places, ascended the Ogow6 over 400 m., and beyond the
basin of that stream discovered the .Mima, which was, though the
explorers were ignorant of the fact, a tributary of the Congo.
From the Alima, de Brazza and Ballay turned north and finally
reached the Gabun in November 1878, the journey being less
fruitful in results than the time it occupied would indicate.
Returning to Europe, de Brazza learned that H. M. Stanley had
revealed the mystery of the Congo, and in his next journey,
begun December 1879, the French traveller undertook to find a
way to the Congo above the rapids via -the Ogowe. In this he
was successful, and in September 1880 reached Stanley Pool,
on the north side of which Brazzaville was subsequently founded.
Returning to the Gabun by the lower Congo, de Brazza met
Stanley. Both explorers were nominally in the service of the
International African Association (see CONGO FREE STATE),
but de Brazza in reality acted solely in the interests of
France and concluded treaties with Makoko, " king
of the Batekcs," and other chieftains, placing very large
areas under the protection of that country. The con-
flicting claims of the Association (which became the Congo Free
State) and France were adjusted by a convention signed in
February 1885.* In the meantime de Brazza and Ballay had
more fully explored the country behind the coast regions of Gabun
and Loango, the last-named seaport being occupied by France
in 1883. The conclusion of agreements with Germany (December
1885 and February-March 1894) and with Portugal (May 1886)
secured France in the possession of the western portion of the
colony as it now exists, whilst an arrangement with the Congo
Free State in 1887 settled difficulties which had arisen in the
Ubangi district.
The extensionof French influence northward towards Lake Chad
and eastward to the verge of the basin of the Nile followed , though
y,^ not without involving the country in serious disputes
mframcf with the other European powers possessing rights in
those regions. By creating the posts of Bangi (1800),
Wesso and Abiras (1891), France strengthened her
hold over the Ubangi and the Sanga. But at the same
time the Congo Free State passed the parallel of 4 N. which,
after the compromise of 1 887, France had regarded as the southern
boundary of her possessions and, occupying the sultanate of
Bangasso (north of the Ubangi river), pushed on as far as 9 N.
The dispute which ensued was only settled in 1894 and after
1 Louis Eugene Henri Dupont, marquis de Compiegne (1846-
1877), on his return from the West coast replaced Gcorg Schwein-
furth at Cairo as president of the geographical commission. Arising
out of this circumstance de Compiegne was lulled in a duel by a
German named Mayer.
* A Franco- Belgian agreement of the 23rd of Dec. 1908 defined
precisely the frontier in the lower Congo. Bantu Island in Stanley
Pool was recognized as French.
the signature of the convention between Great Britain and the
Congo State of the i2th of May of that year, against which both
the German and the French governments protested, the last
named because it erected a barrier against the extension of French
territory to the Nile valley. By a compromise of the I4th of
August the boundary was definitely drawn and, in accordance
with this pact, which put the frontier back to about 4 N.,
France from 1895 to 1897 took possession of the upper Ubangi,
with Bangasso, Rafai and Zcmio. Then began the French
encroachment on the Bahr-el-Ghazal; the Marchand expedition,
despatched to the support of Victor Liotard, the lieutenant-
governor of the upper Ubangi, reached Tambura in July 1897
and Fashoda in July 1898. A dispute with Great Britain arose,
and it was decided that the expedition should evacuate Fashoda.
The declaration of the 2ist of March 1899 finally terminated the
dispute, fixing the eastern frontier of the French colony as already
stated. Thus, after the Franco-Spanish treaty of June 1900
settling the limits of the Spanish territory on the coast, the
boundaries of the French Congo on all its frontiers were deter-
mined in broad outline. The Congo-Cameroon frontier was
precisely defined by another Franco-German agreement in
April 1908, following a detailed survey made by joint com-
missioners in 1905 and 1906. For a comprehensive description
of these international rivalries see AFRICA, 5, and for the con-
quest of the Chad regions see HACIKMI and RABAH ZOBEIR. In
the other portions of the colony French rule was accepted by the
natives, for the most part, peaceably. For the relations of France
with Wadai see that article.
Following the acquisitions for France of de Brazza, the ancient
Gabun colony was joined to the Congo territories. From 1886
to 1889 Gabun was, however, separately administered. By
decree of the nth of December 1888 the whole of the French
possessions were created one " colony " under the style of Congo
franc, ais, with various subdivisions; they were placed underacom-
missioner-general (de Brazza) having his residence at Brazzaville.
This arrangement proved detrimental to the economic develop-
ment of the Gabun settlements, which being outside the limits
of the free trade conventional basin of the Congo (see AFRICA,
5) enjoyed a separate tariff. By decree of the zgth of December
1903 (which became operative in July 1904) Congo fran<;ais was
divided into four parts as named in the opening paragraph.
The first commissioner-general under the new scheme was Emile
Gentil, the explorer of the Shari and Chad. In i9O5'de Brazza
was sent out from France to investigate charges of cruelty and
maladministration brought against officials of the colony, several
of which proved well founded. De Brazza died at Dakar when
on his way home.. The French government, after considering
the report he had drawn up, decided to retain Gentil as com-
missioner-general, making however (decree of isth of February
1906) various changes in administration with a view to protect
the natives and control the concession companies. Gentil,
who devoted the next two years to the reorganization of the
finances of the country and the development of its commerce,
resigned his post in February 1908. He was succeeded by
M. Merlin, whose title was changed (June 1908) to that of
governor-general.
Administration and Revenue. The governor-general has control
over the whole of French Congo, but docs not directly administer
any part of it, the separate colonies being under lieutenant-governors.
The Gabun colony includes the Gabun estuary and the whole of the
coast-line of French Congo, together with the basin of the Ogowe
river. The inland frontier is so drawn as to include all the hinter-
land not within the Congo free-trade zone (the Chad district ex-
cepted). The Middle Congo has for its western frontier the Gabun
colony and Cameroon, and extends inland to the easterly bend of
the Ubangi river; the two circumscriptions extend east and north
of the Middle Congo. There is a general budget for the whole of
French Congo; each colony has also a separate budget and adminis-
trative autonomy. As in other French colonies the legislative power
is in the French chambers only, but in the absence 01 specific legis-
lation presidential decrees have the force of law. A judicial service
independent of the executive exists, but the district administrators
also exercise judicial functions. Education is in the hands of the
missionaries, upwards of 50 schools being established by 1909.
The military force maintained consists of natives officered by
Europeans.
102
FRENCH GUINEA
Revenue is derived from taxes on land, rent paid by concession
companies, a capitation or hut tax on natives, and customs receipts,
supplemented by a subvention from France. In addition to defray-
ing the military expenses, about 100,000 a year, a grant of 28,000
yearly was made up to 1906 by the French chambers towards the
civil expenses. In 1907 the budget of the Congo balanced at about
250,000 without the aid of this subvention. In 1909 the chambers
sanctioned a loan for the colony of 840,000, guaranteed by France
and to be applied to the establishment of administrative stations
and public works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fernand Rouget, L'Expansion coloniale au
Congo fran$ais (Paris, 1906), a valuable monograph, with biblio-
graphy and maps; A. Chevalier, L'Afrique centralefran^aise (Paris,
1907). For special studies see Lacroix, Resultats mineralogiques et
zoologiques des recentes explorations de I'Afrique occidental franc.aise
et de la region du Tchad (Paris, 1905) ; M. Barrat, Sur la geologie du
Congo f ran c.ais (Paris, 1895), and Ann. des mines, ser. q. t. vii. (1895) ;
J. Cornet, " Les Formations post-primaires du bassin du Congo,"
Ann. soc, geol. belg. vol. xxi. (1895). The Paris Bulletin du Museum
for 1903 and 1904 contains papers on the zoology of the country.
For flora see numerous papers by A. Chevalier in Comptes rendus
de I'academie des sciences (1902-1904), and the Journal a agriculture
pratique des pays chauds (1901, &c.). For history, besides Rouget's
book, see J. Ancel, " Etude historique. La formation de la colonie
du Congo francais, 1843-1882," containing an annotated biblio-
graphy, in Bull. Com. I' Afriquejranfaise, vol. xii. (1902) ; the works
cited under BRAZZA; and L. Gentil, La Chute de I' empire de Rabah
(Paris, 1902). Of earlier books of travels the most valuable are:
Paul du Chaillu, Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa
(London, 1861); A Journey to A shonga Land (London, 1867); and
Sir R. Burton, Two Trips to Gorilla Land (London, 1876). Of
later works see Mary H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa (London,
1897) ; A. B. de Mezieres, Rapport de mission sur le Haul Oubangui,
le M'Bomou et le Bahr-el-Ghazal (Paris, 1903) ; and C. Maistre, A
travers I'Afrique centraledu Congo au Niger, 1892-1893 (Paris, 1895).
For the story of the concession companies see E. D. Morel, The
British Case in French Congo (London, 1903). (F. R. C.)
FRENCH GUINEA, a French colony in West Africa, formerly
known as Rivieres du Sud. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic,
N. by Portuguese Guinea and Senegal, E. by Upper Senegal
and the Ivory Coast, and S. by Liberia and Sierra Leone. With
a sea-board running N.N. W. and S.S.E. from 10 50' N. to 9 2' N.,
a distance, without reckoning the indentations, of 170 m., the
colony extends eastward 450 m. in a straight line and attains
a maximum width N. to S. of nearly 300 m., covering fully 100,000
sq. m., and containing a population estimated at 2,000,000 to
2,500,000.
Physical Features. Though in one or two places rocky headlands
jut into the sea, the coast is in general sandy, low, and much broken
by rivers and deep estuaries, dotted with swampy islands, giving it
the appearance of a vast delta. In about 9 30' N., off the promon-
tory of Konakry, lie the Los Islands (q.v.), forming part of the colony.
The coast plain, formed of alluvial deposits, is succeeded about 30 m.
inland by a line of cliffs, the Susu Hills, which form the first step
in the terrace-like formation of the interior, culminating in the
massif of Futa Jallon, composed chiefly of Archean and granite
rocks. While the coast lands are either densely forested or covered
with savannas or park-like country, the Futa Jallon tableland is
mainly covered with short herbage. This tableland, the hydro-
graphic centre of West Africa, is most elevated in its southern parts,
where heights of 5000 ft. are found. Near the Sierra Leone frontier
this high land is continued westward to within 20 m. of the sea,
where Mount Kakulima rises over 3300 ft. East and south of Futa
Jallon the country slopes to the basin of the upper Niger, the greater
part of which is included in French Guinea. The southern frontier
is formed by the escarpments which separate the Niger basin from
those of the coast rivers of Liberia. Besides the Niger, Gambia and
Senegal, all separately noticed, a large number of streams running
direct to the Atlantic rise in Futa Jallon. Among them are the Great
and Little Scarcies, whose lower courses are in Sierra Leone, and
the Rio Grande which enters the sea in Portuguese Guinea. Those
whose courses are entirely in French Guinea include the Cogon (or
Componi), the Rio Nunez, the Fatalla (which reaches the sea through
an estuary named Rio Pongo), the Konkure, whose estuary is
named Rio Bratnaya, the Forekaria and the Melakori. The Cogon,
Fatallah and Konkure are all large rivers which descend from the
plateaus through deep, narrow valleys in rapids and cataracts, and
are only navigable for a few miles from their mouth.
Climate. The climate of the coast district is hot, moist and un-
healthy, with a season of heavy rain lasting from May to November,
during which time variable winds, calms and tornadoes succeed one
another. The mean temperature in the dry season, when the
" harmattan " is frequent, is 62 Fahr., in the wet season 86.
Throughout the year the humidity of the air is very great. There is
much rain in the Futa Jallon highlands, but the Niger basin is some-
what drier. In that region and in the highlands the climate is fairly
healthy for Europeans and the heat somewhat less than on the coast.
Flora and Fauna. The seashore and the river banks are lined with
mangroves, but the most important tree of the coast belt is the oil-
palm. The dense forests also contain many varieties of lianas or
rubber vines, huge bombax and bamboos. Gum-producing and
kola trees are abundant, and there are many fruit trees, the orange
and citron growing well in the Susu and Futa Jallon districts. The
cotton and coffee plants are indigenous; banana plantations
surround the villages. The baobab and the karite (shea butter tree)
are found only in the Niger districts. The fauna is not so varied as
was formerly the case, large game having been to a great extent
driven out of the coast regions. The elephant is rare save in the
Niger regions. The lion is now only found in the northern parts of
Futa Jallon; panthers, leopards, hyenas and wild cats are more
common and the civet is found. Hippopotamus, otter and the wild
boar are numerous; a species of wild ox of small size with black
horns and very agile is also found. The forests contain many kinds
of monkeys, including huge chimpanzees; antelope are widespread
but rather rare. Serpents are very common, both venomous and
non-venomous; the pythons attain a great size. Fights between
these huge serpents and the crocodiles which infest all the rivers are
said to be not uncommon. Turtles are abundant along the coasts
and in the Los Islands. Oysters are found in large numbers in the
estuaries and fixed to the submerged parts of the mangroves. Fresh-
water oysters, which attain a large size, are also found in the rivers,
particularly in the Niger. Fish are abundant, one large-headed
species, in the Susu tongue called khokon, is so numerous as to have
given its name to a province, Kokunia. Birds are very numerous;
they include various eagles, several kinds of heron, the egret, the
marabout, the crane and the pelican; turacos or plantain-eaters,
are common, as are other brilliantly plumaged birds. Green and grey
parrots, ravens, swallows and magpies are also common.
Inhabitants. On the banks of the Cogon dwell the Tendas and
lolas, primitive Negro tribes allied to those of Portuguese Guinea
(q.v.). All other inhabitants of French Guinea are regarded as com-
paratively late arrivals from the interior who have displaced the
aborigines. 1 Among the earliest of the new comers are the Baga,
the Nalu, the Landuman and the Timni, regarded as typical Negroes
(q.v.). This migration southward appears to have taken place before
the 1 7th century. To-day the Baga occupy the coast land between
the Cogon and the Rio Pongo, and the Landuman the country
immediately behind that .of the Baga. The other tribes named are
but sparsely represented in French Guinea, the coast region south
of the Nunez and all the interior up to Futa Jallon being occupied
by the Susu, a tribe belonging to the great Mandingan race, which
forced its way seaward about the beginning of the l8th century
and pressed back the Timni into Sierra Leone. Futa Jallon is
peopled principally by Fula (q.v.), and the rest of the country by
Malinke and other tribes of Mandingo (q.v.). The Mandingo, the
Fula and the Susu are Mahpmmedans, though the Susu retain many
of their ancient rites and beliefs those associated with spirit worship
and fetish, still the religion of the Baga and other tribes. In the
north-west part of Futa Jallon are found remnants of the aborigines,
such as the Tiapi, Koniagui and the Bassari, all typical Negro tribes.
The white inhabitants number a few hundreds only and are mainly
French. Many of the coast peoples show, however, distinct traces of
white blood, the result chiefly of the former presence of European
slave traders. Thus at the Rio Pongo there are numerous mulattos.
South of that river the coast tribes speak largely pidgin English.
Towns. The principal towns are Konakry the capital, Boke, on
the Rio Nunez, Dubreka, on the coast, a little north of Konakry,
Benty, on the Melakori, Timbo and Labe, the chief towns of Futa
Jallon, Heremakono and Kindia, on the main road to the Niger,
Kurussa and Siguiri, on a navigable stretch of that river, and Bissan-
dugu, formerly Samory's capital, an important military station east
of the Niger. Konakry, in 9 30' N., 13 46' W., population about
20,000, is the one port of entry on the coast. It is built on the little
island of Tombo which lies off the promontory of Konakry, the town
being joined to the mainland by an iron bridge. During the adminis-
tration of Noel Ballay (1848-1902), governor of the colony 1890-
1900, Konakry was transformed from a place of small importance
to one of the chief ports on the west coast of Africa and a serious
rival to Freetown, Sierra Leone. It has since grown considerably,
and is provided with wharves and docks and a jetty 1066 ft. long.
There is an ample supply of good water, and a large public garden
in the centre of the town. In front of Government House is a statue
of M. Ballay. Konakry is a port of call for French, British and
German steamship companies, and is in telegraphic communication
with Europe. It is the starting-point of a railway to the Niger (see
below). The retail trade is in the hands of Syrians. The town is
governed by a municipality.
Products and Industry. French Guinea possesses a fertile soil,
and is rich in tropical produce. The chief products are rubber,
brought from the interior, and palm oil and palm kernels, obtained
in the coast regions. Cotton is cultivated in the Niger basin. Gum
copal, ground-nuts and sesame are largely cultivated, partly for
1 Numerous remains of a stone age have been discovered, both
on the coast and in the hinterland. See L. Desplagnes, " L'Archeo-
logie prehistorique en Guinee francaise," in Bull. Soc. Gtog. Comm.
de Bordeaux, March 1907, and the Authorities there cited.
FRENCH LANGUAGE
103
export. Among minor products are coffee, wax and ivory. Large
henU of cattle and Hocks of sheep are raised in Futa Jallon ; these are
sent in considerable numbers to Sierra Leone. Liberia and French
Congo. The trade in hides is also of considerable value. The chief
grain raised is millet, the staple food of the people. The rubber is
mainly exported to England, the palm products to Germany, and
theground-nuts to Fraiuv.
The principal imports are cotton goods, of which 80% come from
Great Britain, rice, kola nuts, chiefly from Liberia, spirits, tobacco,
building material, and arms and ammunition, chiefly " trade guns."
The average annual value of the trade for the period 1900-1907 was
about 1,250,000, the annual export of rubber alone being worth
400,000 or more. The great bulk of the trade of the colony is with
France and Great Britain, the last-named country taking about
45% of the total; Germany comes third. Since April 1905 a surtax
of 7% has been imposed on all goods of other than French origin.
Communications. The railway from Konakry to the Niger at
Kuruss.i, by the route chosen a distance of 342 m., was begun in
1900, and from iox>2 has been built directly by the colony. The
first section to Kindia, 93 m., was opened in 1904. The second
section, to near Timbo in Futa Jallon, was completed in 1907, and
the rails reached Kurussa in 1910. From Kurussa the Niger is
navigable at high water all the way to Bamako in Upper Senegal,
whence there is communication by rail and river with St Louis and
Timbuktu. Besides the railway there is an excellent road, about
390 m. long, from Konakry to Kurussa, the road in its lower part
being close to the Sierra Leone frontier, with the object of diverting
trade from that British colony. Several other main roads have
been built by the French, and there is a very complete telegraphic
system, the lines having been connected with those of Senegal in
1899.
History. This part of the Guinea coast was made known by
the Portuguese voyagers of the isth century. In consequence,
largely, of the dangers attending its navigation, it was not visited
by the European traders of the i6th-i8th centuries so frequently
as other regions north and east, but in the Rio Pongo, at Mata-
kong (a diminutive island near the mouth of the Forekaria),
and elsewhere, slave traders established themselves, and ruins of
the strongholds they built, and defended with cannon, still exist.
When driven from other parts of Guinea the slavers made this
difficult and little known coast one of their last resorts, and many
barracoons were built in the late years of the i8th century. It
was not until after the restoration of Goree to her at the close
of the Napoleonic wars that France evinced any marked interest
in this region. At that time the British, from their bases at the
Gambia and Sierra Leone, were devoting considerable attention
to these Rivieres du Sud (i.e. south of Senegal) and also to Futa
Jallon. Ren6 Caillie, who started his journey to Timbuktu from
Bok* in 1827, did much to quicken French interest in the district,
and from 1838 onward French naval officers, Bouet-Willaumez
and his successors, made detailed studies of the coast. About the
time that the British government became wearied of its efforts
to open up the interior of West Africa, General Faidherbe was
appointed governor of Senegal (1854), and under his direction
vigorous efforts were made to consolidate French influence.
Already in 1848 treaty relations had been entered into with the
Nalu, and between that date and 1865 treaties of protectorate
were signed with several of the coast tribes. During 1876-1880
new treaties were concluded with the chief tribes, and in 1881
the almany (or emir) of Futa Jallon placed his country under
French protection, the French thus effectually preventing the
junction, behind the coast lands, of the British colonies of the
Gambia and Sierra Leone. The right of France to the littoral as
far south as the basin of the Melakori was recognized by Great
Britain in 1882; Germany (which had made some attempt to
acquire a protectorate at Konakry) abandoned its claims in 1885,
while in 1886 the northern frontier was settled in agreement with
Portugal, which had ancient settlements in the same region (see
PORTUGUESE GUINEA). In 1809 the limits of the colony were
extended, on the dismemberment of the French Sudan, to include
the upper Niger districts. In 1004 the Los Islands were ceded by
Great Britain to France, in part return for the abandonment
of French fishing rights in Newfoundland waters. (See also
SENEGAL: History.)
French Guinea was made a colony independent of Senegal in
1891, but in 1805 came under the supreme authority of the newly
constituted governor-generalship of French West Africa. Guinea
hat a considerable measure of autonomy and a separate budget.
It is administered by a lieutenant-governor, assisted by a
nominated council. Revenue is raised principally from customs
and a capitation tax, which has replaced a hut tax. The local
budget for 1907 balanced at 205,000. Over the greater part
of the country the native princes retain their sovereignty under
the superintendence of French officials. The development of
agriculture and education are objects of special solicitude to the
French authorities. In general the natives are friendly towards
their white masters.
See M. Famechon, Notice svr la Guinee franfaise (Paris, 1900); J.
Chautard, Etude gepphysique etgeologique sur le Fouta-Djallon (Paris,
1905); Andiv Arcin, La Guinee franfaise (Paris, 1906), a valuable
monograph ; J. Machat, Les Rivilres du Sud et la Fouta-Diallon (Paris,
1906), another valuable work, containing exhaustive bibliographies.
Consult also F. Rougct, La Guinee (Paris, 1908), an official publi-
cation, the annual Reports on French West Africa, published by
the British Foreign Office, and the Carte de la Guinee franchise
by A. Meunier in 4 sheets on the scale 1 : 500,000 (Paris, 1902).
FRENCH LANGUAGE. I. Geography. French is the general
name of the north-north-western group of Romanic dialects,
the modern Latin of northern Gaul (carried by emigration to
some places as lower Canada out of France). In a restricted
sense it is that variety of the Parisian dialect which is spoken
by the educated, and is the general literary language of France.
The region in which the native language is termed French
consists of the northern half of France (including Lorraine)
and parts of Belgium and Switzerland; its boundaries on the
west are the Atlantic Ocean and the Celtic dialects of Brittany;
on the north-west and north, the English Channel; on the north-
east and east the Teutonic dialects of Belgium, Germany and
Switzerland. In the south-east and south the boundary is to a
great extent conventional and ill-defined, there being originally
no linguistic break between the southern French dialects and the
northern Provencal dialects of southern France, north-western
Italy and south-western Switzerland. It is formed partly by
spaces of intermediate dialects (some of whose features are
French, others Provencal), partly by spaces of mixed dialects
resulting from the invasion of the space by more northern and
more southern settlers, partly by lines where the intermediate
dialects have been suppressed by more northern (French) and
more southern (Provencal) dialects without these having mixed.
Starting in the west at the mouth of the Gironde, the boundary
runs nearly north soon after passing Bordeaux; a little north of
Angouleme it turns to the east, and runs in this direction into
Switzerland to the north of Geneva.
II. External History. (a) Political. By the Roman conquests
the language of Rome was spread over the greater part of southern
and western Europe, and gradually supplanted the native
tongues. The language introduced was at first nearly uniform
over the whole empire, Latin provincialisms and many more
or less general features of the older vulgar language being
suppressed by the preponderating influence of the educated
speech of the capital. As legions became stationary, as colonies
were formed, and as the natives adopted the language of their
conquerors, this language split up into local dialects, the dis-
tinguishing features of which are due, as far as can be ascertained
(except, to some extent, as to the vocabulary), not to speakers
of different nationalities misspeaking Latin, each with the
peculiarities of his native language, but to the fact that linguistic
changes, which are ever occurring, are not perfectly uniform
over a large area, however homogeneous the speakers. As Gaul
was not conquered by Caesar till the middle of the first century
before our era, its Latin cannot have begun to differ from that of
Rome till after that date; but the artificial retention of classical
Latin as the literary and official language after the popular
spoken language had diverged from it, often renders the chrono-
logy of the earlier periods of the Romanic knguages obscure.
It is, however, certain that the popular Latin of Gaul had become
differentiated from that of central Italy before the Teutonic
conquest of Gaul, which was not completed till the latter half
of the sth century; the invaders gradually adopted the language
of their more civilized subjects, which remained unaffected,
except in its vocabulary. Probably by this time it had diverged
104
FRENCH LANGUAGE
so widely from the artificially preserved literary language that
it could no longer be regarded merely as mispronounced Latin;
the Latin documents of the next following centuries contain
many clearly popular words and forms, and the literary and
popular languages are distinguished as latino, and romana.
The term gallica, at first denoting the native Celtic language
of Gaul, is found applied to its supplanter before the end of the
gth century, and survives in the Breton gallek, the regular term
for " French." After the Franks in Gaul had abandoned their
native Teutonic language, the term francisca, by which this
was denoted, came to be applied to the Romanic one they
adopted, and, under the form franqaise, remains its native name
to this day; but this name was confined to the Romanic of
northern Gaul, which makes it probable that this, at the time
of the adoption of the name francisca, had become distinct
from the Romanic of southern Gaul. Francisca is the Teutonic
adjective frankisk, which occurs in Old English in the form
frencise; this word, with its umlauted e from a with following
*, survives under the form French, which, though purely Teutonic
in origin and form, has long been exclusively applied to the
Romanic language and inhabitants of Gaul. The German name
franzose, with its accent on, and o in, the second syllable, comes
from franQois, a native French form older than franqais, but
later than the Early Old French franceis. The Scandinavian
settlers on the north-west coast of France early in the roth
century quickly lost their native speech, which left no trace
except in some contributions to the vocabulary of the language
they adopted. The main feature since is the growth of the
political supremacy of Paris, carrying with it that of its dialect;
in 1539 Francis I. ordered that all public documents should be
in French (of Paris), which then became the official language
of the whole kingdom, though it is still foreign to nearly half its
population.
The conquest of England in 1066 by William, duke of
Normandy, introduced into England, as the language of the rulers
and (for a time) most of the writers, the dialects spoken in
Normandy (see also ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE). Confined in
their native country to definite areas, these dialects, following
their speakers, became mixed in England, so that their forms
were used to some extent indifferently; and the constant com-
munication with Normandy maintained during several reigns
introduced also later forms of continental Norman. As the
conquerors learned the language of the conquered, and as the
more cultured of the latter learned that of the former, the Norman
of England (including that of the English-speaking Lowlands of
Scotland) became anglicized; instead of following the changes
of the Norman of France, it followed those of English. The
accession in 1154 of Henry II. of Anjou disturbed the Norman
character of Anglo-French, and the loss of Normandy under John
in 1204 gave full play to the literary importance of the French
of Paris, many of whose forms afterwards penetrated to England.
At the same time English, with a large French addition to its
vocabulary, was steadily recovering its supremacy, and is
officially employed (for the first time since the Conquest) in the
Proclamation of Henry III., 1258. The semi-artificial result of
this mixture of French of different dialects and of different periods,
more or less anglicized according to the date or education of the
speaker or writer, is generally termed " the Anglo-Norman
dialect "; but the term is misleading for a great part of its
existence, because while the French of Normandy was not a
single dialect, the later French of England came from other
French provinces besides Normandy, and being to a considerable
extent in artificial conditions, was checked in the natural develop-
ment implied by the term " dialect." The disuse of Anglo-French
as a natural language is evidenced by English being substituted
for it in legal proceedings in 1362, and in schools in 1387; but
law reports were written in it up to about 1600, and, converted
into modern literary French, it remains in official use for giving
the royal assent to bills of parliament.'
(b) Literary. Doubtless because the popular Latin of northern
Gaul changed more rapidly than that of any other part of the
empire, French was, of all the Romanic dialects, the first to be
recognized as a distinct language, and the first to be used in
literature; and though the oldest specimen now extant is prob-
ably not the first, it is considerably earlier than any existing
documents of the allied languages. In 813 the council of Tours
ordered certain homilies to be translated into Rustic Roman or
into German; and in 842 Louis the German, Charles the Bald,
and their armies confirmed their engagements by taking oaths in
both languages at Strassburg. These have been preserved to
us by the historian Nithard (who died in 853); and though, in
consequence of the only existing manuscript (at Paris) being
more than a century later than the time of the author, certain
alterations have occurred in the text of the French oaths, they
present more archaic forms (probably of North-Eastern French)
than any other document. The next memorials are a short poem,
probably North-Eastern, on St Eulalia, preserved in a manuscript
of the loth century at Valenciennes, and some autograph frag-
ments (also at Valenciennes) of a homily on the prophet Jonah,
in mixed Latin and Eastern French, of the same period. To the
same century belong a poem on Christ's Passion, apparently in
a mixed (not intermediate) language of French and Provencal,
and one, probably in South-Eastern French, on St Leger; both
are preserved, in different handwritings, in a MS. at Clermont-
Ferrand, whose scribes have introduced many Provenf al forms.
After the middle of the nth century literary remains are com-
paratively numerous; the chief early representative of the main
dialects are the following, some of them preserved in several
MSS., the earliest of which, however (the only ones here men-
tioned), are in several cases a generation or two later than the
works themselves. In Western French are a verse life of St
Alexius (Alexis), probably Norman, in an Anglo-Norman MS.
at Hildesheim; the epic poem of Roland, possibly also Norman,
in an A.-N. MS. at Oxford; a Norman verbal translation of the
Psalms, in an A.-N. MS. also at Oxford; another later one,
from a different Latin version, in an A.-N. MS. at Cambridge;
a Norman translation of the Four Books of Kings, in a probably
A.-N. MS. at Paris. The earliest work in the Parisian dialect is
probably the Travels of Charlemagne, preserved in a late Anglo-
Norman MS. with much altered forms. In Eastern French, of
rather later date, there are translations of the Dialogues of Pope
Gregory, in a MS. at Paris, containing also fragments of Gregory's
Moralities, and (still later) of some Sermons of St Bernard, in
a MS. also in Paris. From the end of the i2th century literary
and official documents, often including local charters, abound in
almost every dialect, until the growing influence of Paris caused
its language to supersede in writing the other local ones. This
influence, occasionally apparent about the end of the 1 2th century,
was overpowering in the isth, when authors, though often dis-
playing provincialisms, almost all wrote in the dialect of the
capital; the last dialect to lose its literary independence was
the North-Eastern, which, being the Romanic language of
Flanders, had a political life of its own, and (modified by Parisian)
was used in literature after 1400.
III. Internal History. Though much has been done in recent
years, in the scientific investigation of the sounds, inflexions, and
syntax of the older stages and dialects of French, much still
remains to be done, and it must suffice here to give a sketch,
mainly of the dialects which were imported into England by the
Normans in which English readers will probably take most
interest, and especially of the features which explain the forms
of English words of French origin. Dates and places are only
approximations, and many statements are liable to be modified
by further researches. The primitive Latin forms given are
often not classical Latin words, but derivatives from these; and
reference is generally made to the Middle English (Chaucerian)
pronunciation of English words, not the modern.
(a) Vocabulary. The fundamental part of the vocabulary
of French is the Latin imported into Gaul, the French words being
simply the Latin words themselves, with the natural changes
undergone by all living speech, or derivatives formed at various
dates. Comparatively few words were introduced from the Celtic
language of the native inhabitants (bee, lieue, from the Celtic
words given by Latin writers as beccus, leuca), but the number
FRENCH LANGUAGE
adopted from the language of the Teutonic conquerors of Gaul
is large (guerre wtrra; laid laidk; choisir kausjan). The
words were imported at different periods of the Teutonic supre-
macy, and consequently show chronological differences in their
sounds (*<jlr AaAjn ; fram;ais frankisk; tcrnisse krebiz;
tfkint fkinj). Small separate importations of Teutonic words
resulted from the Scandinavian settlement in France, and the
commercial intercourse with the Low German nations on the
North Sea (/ri'^r Norse kripa; ckaloupeDuich shop; / =
Old English east). In the meantime, as Latin (.with considerable
alterations in pronunciation, vocabulary, &c.) continued in
literary, official and ecclesiastical use, the popular language
borrowed from time to time various more or less altered classical
Latin words; and when the popular language came to be used
in literature, especially in that of the church, these importations
largely increased (virginilel Eulalia = virginitdiem; imagena
Alexis i mdii the popular forms would probably have been
ftrgedet, cmain). At the Renaissance they became very abundant,
and have continued since, stilling to some extent the develop-
mental power of the language. Imported words, whether
Teutonic, classical Latin or other, often receive some modifica-
tion at their importation, and always take part in all subsequent
natural phonetic changes in the language (Early Old French
adversaria, Modern French adversaire). Those French words
which appear to contradict the phonetic laws were mostly intro-
duced into the language after the taking place (in words already
existing in the language) of the changes formulated by the laws
in question; compare the late imported laique with the inherited
lai, both from Latin laicttm. In this and many other cases the
language possesses two forms of the same Latin word, one
descended from it, the other borrowed (meuble and mobile from
mdbilem). Some Oriental and other foreign words were brought
in by the crusaders (amiral from amir); in the i6th century,
wars, royal marriages and literature caused a large number
of Italian words (soldal = soUato; brave = bravo; caresser =
careuare) to be introduced, and many Spanish ones (alcove
alcoba; habler = hablar) . A few words have been furnished by
Provencal (abeille, codettas), and several have been adopted from
other dialects into the French of Paris (esquiver Norman or
Pkard for the Paris-French eschiver). German has contributed
a few (olocui = blofhus; chnucroute = surkrut); and recently a
considerable' number have been imported from England (drain,
confortable, flirter). In Old French, new words are freely
formed by derivation, and to a less extent by composition; in
Modern French, borrowing from Latin or other foreign languages
is the more usual course. Of the French words now obsolete
some have disappeared because the things they express are
obsolete; others have been replaced by words of native forma-
tion, and many have been superseded by foreign words generally
of literary origin; of those which survive, many have undergone
considerable alterations in meaning. A large number of Old
French words and meanings, now extinct in the language of
Paris, were introduced into English after the Norman Conquest ;
and though some have perished, many have survived strife
from Old French estrif (Teutonic strit); quaint from cointe
(cognitum); remember from remembrer (rememorare); chaplet
(garland) from chapelet (Modem French "chaplet of beads" );
appointment (rendezvous) from appointement (now "salary" ).
Many also survive in other French dialects.
(b) Dialects. The history of the French language from the
period of its earliest extant literary memorials is that of the
dialects composing it. But as the popular notion of a dialect
as the speech of a definite area, possessing certain peculiarities
confined to and extending throughout that area, is far from
correct, it will be advisable to drop the misleading divisions into
"Norman dialect," "Picard dialect" and the like, and take
instead each important feature in the chronological order (as
far as can be ascertained) of its development, pointing out roughly
the area in which it exists, and its present state. The local terms
used are intentionally vague, and it does not, for instance, at all
follow that because " Eastern" and " Western" are used to
denote the localities of more than one dialectal feature, the
boundary line between the two divisions is the same in each case.
It is, indeed, because dialectal differences as they arise do not
follow the same boundary lines (much less the political divisions
of provinces), but cross one another to any extent, that to speak
of the dialect of a large area as an individual whole, unless that
area is cut off by physical or alien linguistic boundaries, creates
only confusion. Thus the Central French of Paris, the ancestor
of classical Modern French, agrees with a more southern form
of Romanic (Limousin, Auvergne, Forez, Lyonnais, Dauphin6)
in having Is, not Ish, for Latin k (c) before and e;tsh, not k, for
k (c) before a; and with the whole South in having gu, not w,
for Teutonic w; while it belongs to the East in having oi for
earlier ei; and to the West in having t, not ei, for Latin a; and ',
not ei, from Latin t-\-i. It may be well to denote that Southern
French does not correspond to southern France, whose native
language is Provencal. " Modern French " means ordinary
educated Parisian French.
(c) Phonology. The history of the sounds of a language is,
to a considerable extent, that of its inflections, which, no less
than the body of a word, are composed of sounds. This fact,
and the fact that unconscious changes are much more reducible
to law than conscious ones, render the phonology of a language
by far the surest and widest foundation for its dialectology, the
importance of the sound-changes in this respect depending,
not on their prominence, but on the earliness of their date. For
several centuries after the divergence between spoken and written
Latin, the history of these changes has to be determined mainly
by reasoning, aided by a little direct evidence in the misspellings
of inscriptions the semi-popular forms in glossaries, and the
warnings of Latin grammarians against vulgarities. With the
rise of Romanic literature the materials for tracing the changes
become abundant, though as they do not give us the sounds
themselves, but only their written representations, much
difficulty, and some uncertainty, often attach to deciphering the
evidence. Fortunately, early Romanic orthography, that of
Old French included (for which see next section), was phonetic,
as Italian orthography still is; the alphabet was imperfect, as
many new sounds had to be represented which were not provided
for in the Roman alphabet from which it arose, but writers aimed
at representing the sounds they uttered, not at using a fixed
combination of letters for each word, however they pronounced it.
The characteristics of French as distinguished from the allied
languages and from Latin, and the relations of its sounds, in-
flections and syntax to those of the last-named language, belong
to the general subject of the Romanic languages. It will be well,
however, to mention here some of the features in which it agrees
with the closely related Provencal, and some in which it differs.
As to the latter, it has already been pointed out that the two
languages glide insensibly into one another, there being a belt
of dialects which possess some of the features of each. French
and Provencal of the loth century the earliest date at which
documents exist in both agree to a great extent in the treatment
of Latin final consonants and the vowels preceding them, a
matter of great importance for inflections (numerous French
examples occur in this section), (i) They reject all vowels,
except a, of Latin final (unaccented) syllables, unless preceded
by certain consonant combinations or followed by nt (here,
as elsewhere, certain exceptions cannot be noticed); (2) they do
not reject a similarly situated; (3) they reject final (unaccented)
m; (4) they retain final s. French and Northern Provencal
also agree in changing Latin u from a labio-guttural to a labio-
palatal vowel; the modern sound (German it) of the accented
vowel of French lune, Provencal luna, contrasting with that in
Italian and Spanish luna, appears to have existed before the
earliest extant documents. The final vowel laws generally apply
to the unaccented vowel preceding the accented syllable, if it is
preceded by another syllable, and followed by a single consonant
matin (mdlutinum), dorloir (dormitdrium) , with vowel dropped;
canevas (cannabaceum) , armedure, later armeure., now armure
(armaturam), with < = , as explained below.
On the other hand, French differs from Provencal: (i) in
uniformly preserving (in Early Old French) Latin final /, which
io6
FRENCH LANGUAGE
is generally rejected in Provencal French aimet (Latin amat),
Provencal ama; aimenl (amant), Prov. aman; (2) in always
rejecting, absorbing or consonantizing the vowel of the last
syllable but one, if unaccented; in such words as angele (often
spelt angle), the e after the g only serves to show its soft sound
French veinlre (now vaincre, Latin vincere), Prov. veneer, with
accent on first syllable; French esdandre (scandalum), Prov.
escandol; French olie (dissyllabic, i=y consonant, now hutte),
Prov. oli (oleum) ; (3) in changing accented a not in position into
ai before nasals and gutturals and not after a palatal, and else-
where into e (West French) or ei (East French) , which develops an
* before it when preceded by a palatal French main (Latin
manum), Prov. man; aigre (dcrem), agre; ele (alam), East
French eile, Prov. a/a; meitie (medietalem) , East French moitieit,
Prov. meitat; (4) in changing a in unaccented final syllables into
the vowel , intermediate to a and e; this vowel is written a
in one or two of the older documents, elsewhere e French aime
(Latin ama), Prov. ama; aimes (amas), Prov. amas; aimet (amat),
Prov. ama; (5) in changing original au into d French or (aurum),
Prov. aur; rober (Teutonic raubon), Prov. raubar; (6) in changing
general Romanic e, from accented e and I not in position, into ei
French veine (venam), Prov. vena; peil (pilum), Prov. pel,
As some of the dialectal differences were in existence at the
date of the earliest extant documents, and as the existing
materials, till the latter half of the nth century, are scanty and
of uncertain locality, the chronological order (here adopted)
of the earlier sound-changes is only tentative.
(i) Northern French has tsh (written c or ch) for Latin k (c) and
* before palatal vowels, where Central and Southern French have ts
(written c or z) North Norman and Picard chire (ceram), brack
(brachium), plache (plateam); Parisian, South Norman, &c., cire,
braz, place. Before the close of the Early Old French period (l2th
century) Is loses its initial consonant, and the same happened to tsh
a century or two later; with this change the old distinction is
maintained Modern Guernsey and Picard chire, Modern Picard
plache (in ordinary Modern French spelling); usual French cire,
place. English, having borrowed from North and South Norman
(and later Parisian), has instances of both tsh and s, the former
in comparatively small number chisel (Modern French ciseau =
(?) caesellum), escutcheon (ecusson, scutionem); city (cite, civitatem),
place. (2) Initial Teutonic w is retained in the north-east and along
the north coast; elsewhere, as in the other Romance languages, g
was prefixed Picard, &c., warde (Teutonic warda), werre (werra);
Parisian, &c., guarde, guerre. In the I2th century the u or w of
gu dropped, giving the Modern French garde, guerre (with gw=g);
w remains in Picard and Walloon, but in North Normandy it
becomes v Modern Guernsey vdson, Walloon wazon, Modern French
gazon (Teutonic wason). English has both forms, sometimes in
words originally the same wage and gage (Modern French gage,
Teutonic wadi); warden and guardian (gardien, warding). (3)
Latin b after accented a in the imperfect of the first conjugation,
which becomes v in Eastern French, in Western French further
changes to w, and forms the diphthong ou with the preceding vowel
Norman amowe (amabam), portout (portabat); Burgundian ameve,
portevet. -eve is still retained in some places, but generally the im-
perfect of the first conjugation is assimilated to that of the others
amoit, like avail (habebat). (4) The palatalization of every then exist-
ing k and g (hard) when followed by a, i or e, after having caused
the development of i before the e (East French ei) derived from
a not in position, is abandoned in the north, the consonants returning
to ordinary k or g, while in the centre and south they are assibilated
to tsh or dzh North Norman and Picard cachier (captiare), kier
(carum), cose (causam), eskiver (Teutonic skiuhan), wiket (Teutonic
wik+ittum), gal (gallum), gardin (from Teutonic gard); South
Norman and Parisian chacier, chier, chose, eschiver, guichet, jal,jardin.
Probably in the I4th century the initial consonant of tsh, dzh dis-
appeared, giving the modern French chasser, jardin with ch = sh
and j = zh; but tsh is retained in Walloon, and dzh in Lorraine.
The Northern forms survive Modern Guernsey cachier, gardin;
Picard cacher, gardin. English possesses numerous examples of both
forms, sometimes in related words catch and chase; wicket, eschew;
garden, jaundice (iaunisse, from galbanum). (5) For Latin accented
a not in position Western French usually has i, Eastern French ei,
both of which take an i before them when a palatal precedes
Norman and Parisian per (parent), oiez (audiatis); Lorraine peir,
oieis. In the iyth and i8th centuries close e changed to open ,
except when final or before a silent consonant amer (amarum) now
having e, aimer (amare) retaining e. English shows the Western
close (peer (Modern French pair, Old French per), chief (chef,
caput) ; Middle High German the Eastern ei lameir (Modern French
I'amer, I'aimer, la mer = Latin mare). (6) Latin accented e not in
position, when it came to be followed in Old French by i unites with
this to form i in the Western dialects, while the Eastern have the
diphthongs ei Picard, Norman and Parisian pire (pejor), piz
(pectus) ; Burgundian peire, peiz. The distinction is still preserved
Modern French pire, pis ; Modern Burgundian peire, pet. English
words show always i price (prix, pretium) spite (depit, despectum).
(7) The nasalization of vowels followed by a nasal consonant did not
take place simultaneously with all the vowels. A and e before n
(guttural n, as in sing), n (palatal n), n and m were nasal in the nth
century, such words as tant (tantum) and gent (gentem) forming in the
Alexis assonances to themselves, distinct from the assonances with
a and e before non-nasal consonants. In the Roland umbre (ombre,
umbram) and culchet (couche, cottocat) , fier (ferum) and chiens (canes),
dit (dictum) and vint (venit), ceinte (cinctam) and veie (tide, viam),
brun (Teutonic -brun) andfut(fuit) assonate freely, though o (u) before
nasals shows a tendency to separation. The nasalization of i and u
( Modern French u) did not take place till the l6th century; and
in all cases the loss of the following nasal consonant is quite modern,
the older pronunciation of tant, ombre being tant, ombra, not as now
ta, obrh. The nasalization took place whether the nasal consonant
was or was not followed by a vowel, femme (jeminam), honneur
(honorem) being pronounced with nasal vowels in the first syllable
till after the 1 6th century, as indicated by the doubling of the nasal
consonant in the spelling and by the phonetic change (in femme and
other words) next to be mentioned. English generally has au (now
often reduced too) for Old French a vaunt (vanter, vanitare), tawny
(tanne (?) Celtic). (8) The assimilation of e (nasal e) to o (nasal a)
did not begin till the middle of the nth century, and is not yet
universal, in France, though generally a century later. In the
Alexis nasal a (as in tant) is never confounded with nasal e (as in
gent) in the assonances, though the copyist (a century later) often
writes a for nasal e in unaccented syllables, as in amfant (enfant,
infantem) ; in the Roland there are several cases of mixture in the
assonances, gent, for instance, occurring in ant stanzas, tant in ent
ones. English has several words with a for j before nasals rank
(rang. Old French renc, Teutonic hringa), pansy (pensee, pensatam);
but the majority show e enter (entrer, intrare), fleam (flamme,
Old French fleme, phlebotomum). The distinction is still preserved
in the Norman of Guernsey, where an and en, though both nasal,
have different sounds lanchier (lancer, lanceare), but mentrie (Old
French menlerie, from mentin). (9) The loss of s, or rather z, before
voiced consonants began early, s being often omitted or wrongly
inserted in I2th century MSS. Earliest Old French masle (mas-
culum), sisdre (sJceram); Modern French male, cidre. In English
it has everywhere disappeared male, cider; except in two words,
where it appears, as occasionally in Old French, as d meddle (mGler,
misculare), medlar (neflier, Old French also meslier, mespilarium) .
The loss of j before voiceless consonants (except f) is about two
centuries later, and it is not universal even in Parisian Early Old
French feste (feslam), escuier (scutarium) ; Modern French fete,
ecuyer, but esperer (sperare). In the north-east i before t is still
retained Walloon chestai (ch&teau, castellum), fiess (fete). English
shows ^ regularly feast, esquire. (10) Medial dh (soft th, as in
then), and final th from Latin t or d between vowels.'do not begin
to disappear till the latter half of the nth century. In native
French MSS. dh is generally written d, and th written t; but the
German scribe of the Oaths writes adjudha (adjutant), cadhuna
(Greek katd and iinam) ; and the English one of the Alexis cuntretha
(contratam), lothet (laudatum), and that of the Cambridge Psalter
heriteth (hereditatem). Medial dh often drops even in the last-named
MSS., and soon disappears; the same is true for final th in Western
French Modern French contree, hue. But in Eastern French final
th, to which Latin t between vowels had probably been reduced
through d and dh, appears in the I2th century and later as t, rhyming
on ordinary French final / Picard and Burgundian pechiet (peccatum)
apeleit (appellatum). In Western French some final ths were
saved by being changed to / Modern French soif (sitim), m<euf
(obsolete, modum). English has one or two instances of final th, none
of medial dh faith (foi, fidem); Middle English caritep (charite,
caritatem), druS (Old French dru, Teutonic drud); generally the
consonant is lost country, charity. Middle High German shows
the Eastern French final consonant 0ra/VetV (moralite, morali-
tatem). (11) T from Latin final /, if in an Old French unaccented
syllable, begins to disappear in the Roland, where sometimes aimet
(amat), sometimes aime, is required by the metre, and soon drops in
all dialects. The Modern French / of aime-t-il and similar forms
is an analogical insertion from such forms as dort-il (dormil), where
the / has always existed. (12) The change of the diphthong ai to ei
and afterwards to ee (the doubling indicates length) had not taken
place in the earliest French documents, words with ai assonating
only on words with a; in the Roland such assonances occur, but
those of ai on d are more frequent faire (facere) assonating on
parastre (patraster) and on estes (estis) ; and the MS. (half a century
later than the poem) occasionally has ei and e for ai recleimet
(reclamat), desfere (disfacere), the latter agreeing with the Modern
French sound. Before nasals (asinlaine = lanam) andie (as in pay ( =
pacatum), ai remained a diphthong up to the I6th century, being
apparently ei, whose fate in this situation it has followed. English
shows ai regularly before nasals and when final, and in a few other
words -vain (vain, vanum), pay (payer, pdcdre), wait (guetter,
Teutonic wahten); but before most consonants it has usually ii
peace (pais, pacum),feat (fait,factum). (13) The loss or transposition
FRENCH LANGUAGE
107
at i (-y-corwonant) following the consonant ending an accented
syllable begins in the 12th century Early Old Trench glorie
(fUriam), estujir (stadium), olie (oleum); Modern French gloirt,
ttmde, httile. English sometimes show* the earlier form glory, study;
sometime* the later dcwer (douairt. Early Old French doane,
dMriurn). oil (kail*). (14) The vocalization of / preceded by a vowel
and followed by a consonant becomes frequent at the end of the izth
century; when preceded by open 4, an a developed before the /
while this was a consonant nth century salsc (salsa), beltel (belli-
tatm), solder (soltd&re); Modern French sauce, beauU, souder. In
Parisian, final el followed the fate of el before a consonant, becoming
the triphthong eau, but in Norman the vocalization did not take
place, and the / was afterwards rejected Modern French ruisseau,
Modern Guernsey rttsse (rteicellum). English words of French origin
times snow / before a consonant, but the general form is u
4 (ithaudtr, excalidOre), Walter (Cautier, Teutonic Waldhari) ;
beauty, soder. Final / is kept veal (veau, vitellum), seal
(seeau. situlum). (15) In the east and centre H changes to di, while
the older sound is retained in the north-west and west Norman
tstrtit (etroii, strictum), preie (proie, praedam), I2th century Picard,
Parisian. &c.. estroit, proie. But the earliest (loth century) specimens
of the latter group of dialects have ft pleier (player, plicare) Eulalin,
mettreiet (mettrait, miUere habibat) Jonah. Parisian di, whether from
ei or from Old French di, ft, became in the ijth century ue (spellings
with one or oe are not uncommon mirouer for miroir, miraturium),
and in the following, in certain words, e, now written ai /rancats,
connaltre, from franfois (Jranceis, frandscum), conoistre (conuistre,
cofnostere) ; where it did not undergo the latter change it is now ua
or wo rot (ret, rttem), croix (cruts, crucem). Before nasals and
palatal /, ei (now r) was kept veine (vena), veille (vigila), and it
everywhere survives unlabialized in Modern Norman Guernsey
eteUt (ttoilt, Stella) with t, ser (soir, serum) with e. English shows
generally ei (or ai) for original ei strait (estreit), prey (preie) ; but
in several words the later Parisian oi coy (cot, qciitum), loyal (loyal,
UfflUm). (i 6) The splitting of the vowel-sound from accented
Latin t or u not in position, represented in Old French by o and u
indifferently, into u, o (before nasals), and eu (the latter at first a
diphthong, now German 6), is unknown to Western French till
the 1 2th century, and is not general in the east. The sound in nth
century Norman was much nearer to u (Modern French ou) than to <>
(Modern French o), as the words borrowed by English show uu (at
first written , afterwards ou or me), never 66; but was probably
not ouite *, as Modern Norman shows the same splitting of the
sound as Parisian. Examples are Early Old French espose or
tsptae (spinsam), nom or num (nomen).flor otflur (florem); Modern
French t pause, nom, fleur; Modern Guernsey eoule (gueule, gulam),
nom.flleur. Modern Picard also shows u, which is the regular sound
before r flour; but Modern Burgundian often keeps the original
Old French 6 TO (vous, vds). English shows almost always uu
spouse, noun, flower (Early Middle English spuse, nun,flur); but
nephew with tu (neaeu, nepdtem). (17) The loss of the (or w) of qu
dates from the end of the 12th century Old French quart (qvartum),
quitter (miitare) with qu tic, Modern French quart, quitter with qu =
*. In Walloon the v is preserved couar (quart), cuitter; as is
the case in English quart, quit. The w of gw seems to have been
lost rather earlier, English having simple g gage (gage, older guage,
Teutonic wadi), guise (guise, Teutonic msa). (18) The change of
the diphthong ou to uu did not take place till after the I2th century,
such words as Anjou (Andegavum) assonating in the Roland on
fort (fortem); and did not occur in Picardy, where du became au
catu from older cous, cols (cous, collds) coinciding with caus from
colt (cHauds, calidos). English keeps du distinct from uu vault for
vaut (Modern French route, tolvilam), soder (souder, solid&re). (19)
The change of the diphthong it to simple t is specially Anglo-Norman ,
in Old French of the Continent these sounds never rhyme, in that
of England they constantly do, and English words show, with rare
exceptions, the simple vowel fierce (Old French fiers, ferus), chief
(chief, caput), with tc-ee; but pannier (panier, pan&rium). At the
beginning of the modern period, Parisian dropped the of ie when
preceded by ch or _; chef, abreger (Old French abregier, abbrevi&re) :
elsewhere (except in verbs) ie is retained ;! (ferum), pitii(pietatem).
Modern Guernsey retains <aftert A ap'rchier(approther,adpropedrc).
(20) Some of the Modern French changes have found their places
under older ones; those remaining to be noticed are so recent that
English examples of the older forms are superfluous. In the i6th
century the diphthong au changed to ao and then to 6, its present
sound, rendering, for instance, maux (Old French mats, molds)
identical with mots (muttis). The au of eau underwent the same
change, but its e was still sounded as (the e of que) ; in the next
century this was dropped, making veaux (Old French veels, vilellds)
identical with vaux (mis, vallis). (21) A more general and very
important change began much earlier than the last; this is the loss
of many final consonants. In Early Old French every consonant
was pronounced as written ; by degrees many of them disappeared
when followed by another consonant, whether in the same word (in
" case they were generally omitted in writing) or in a following
This was the state of things in the i6th century; those final
inants which are usually silent in Modern French were still
sounded, if before a vowel or at the end of a sentence or a line
of poetry, but generally not elsewhere. Thus a large number of
French words had two forms; the Old French fort appeared as/o>
(though still written fort) before a consonant, fort elsewhere. At a
later period final consonants were lost (with certain exceptions)
when the word stood at the end of a sentence or of a line of poetry ;
but they are generally kept when followed by a word beginning
with a vowel. (22) A still later change is the general loss of the
vowel (written e) of unaccented final syllables; this vowel preserved
in the l6th century the sound f, which it had in Early Old French.
In later Anglo-Norman nnal ^like every other sound) was treated
exactly as the same sound in Middle English ; that is, it came to be
omitted or retained at pleasure, and in the 151)1 century disappeared.
I n Old French the loss of final 3 is confined to a few words and forms ;
the loth century saveiet (sapebat for sapiebat) became in the nth
sateit, and ore (ad horam), ele (illam) develop the abbreviated or, el.
In the 15th century before a vowel generally disappears tnur, Old
French meur (mMurum); and in the i6th, though still written,
after an unaccented vowel, and in the syllable ent after a vowel,
does the same vraiment, Old French vraiement (verSca mente);
avoient two syllables, as now (avaient), in Old French three syllables
(as habibant). These phenomena occur much earlier in the anglicized
French of England i$th century aveynt (Old French ancient). But
the universal loss of fina| e, which has clipped a syllable from half
the French vocabulary, did not take place till the i8th century, after
the general loss of final consonants; fort and forte, distinguished
at the end of a sentence or line in the i6th century asfdrt andfdrtf,
remain distinguished, but as for and fdrt. The metre of poetry is
still constructed on the obsolete pronunciation, which is even revived
in singing; " dites, la jeune belle," actually four syllables (dit,
la zhcm bel), is considered as seven, fitted with music accordingly,
and sung to fit the music (ditt, la zhoent belf). (23) In Old French,
as in the other Romanic languages, the stress (force, accent) is on the
syllable which was accented in Latin; compare the treatment of
the accented and unaccented vowels in latro, amds, giving lire,
dime, and in latrdnem, amatis, giving Iar6n, amtz, the accented vowels
being those which rhyme or assonate. At present, stress in French
is much less marked than in English, German or Italian, and is to a
certain extent variable; which is partly the reason why most native
French scholars find no difficulty in maintaining that the stress in
living Modern French is on the same syllable as in Old French.
The fact that stress in the French of to-day is independent of length
(quantity) and pitch (tone) largely aids the confusion ; for though
the final and originally accented syllable (not counting the silent e
as a syllable) is now generally pronounced with less force, it very
often has a long vowel with raised pitch. In actual pronunciation
the chief stress is usually on the first syllable (counting according
to the sounds, not the spelling), but in many polysyllables it is on
the last but one; thus in caution the accented (strong) syllable
COM, in occasion it is ca. Poetry is still written according to the
original place of the stress; the rhyme-syllables of larron, aimez
are still ran and mez, which when set to music receive an accented
(strong) note, and are sung accordingly, though in speech the la
and at generally have the principal stress. In reading poetry, as
distinguished from singing, the modern pronunciation is used, both
as to the loss of the final and the displacement of the stress, the
result being that the theoretical metre in which the poetry is
written disappears. (IA) In certain cases accented vowels were
lengthened in Old French, as before a lost s; this was indicated in
the i6th century by a circumflex bite, Old French beste (bestiam),
ame. Old French anme (anima). The same occurred in the plural of
many nouns, where a consonant was lost before the s of the flection ;
thus singular coc with short vowel, plural cos with long. The plural
cos, though spelt cogs instead of co ( = k66), is still sometimes to be
hr;u-tl, but, like other similar ones, is generally refashioned after
the singular, becoming kbk. In present French, except where a
difference of quality has resulted, as in cote (Old French coste, costam)
with d and colte (Old French cote), with o, short and long vowels
generally run together, quantity being now variable and uncertain;
but at the beginning of this century the Early Modern distinctions
appear to have been generally preserved.
(d) Orthography. The history of French spelling is based on
that of French sounds; as already stated, the former (apart,
from a few Latinisms in the earliest documents) for several
centuries faithfully followed the latter. When the popular Latin
of Gaul was first written, its sounds were represented by the letters
of the Roman alphabet; but these were employed, not in the
values they had in the time of Caesar, but in those they had ac-
quired in consequence of the phonetic changes that had meantime
taken place. Thus, as the Latin sound had become 6 (close o)
and u had become y (French u, German u), the letter u was used
sometimes to denote the sound 6, sometimes the sound y; as
Latin k (written c) had become tsh or ts, according to dialect,
before e and *', c was used to represent those sounds as well as
that of k. The chief features of early French orthography
(apart from the specialities of individual MSS., especially the
earliest) are therefore these: c stood for k and tsh or Is; d for d
io8
FRENCH LANGUAGE
and dh (soft tk); e for e, e, and 9; g for g and dzh; h was often
written in words of Latin origin where not sounded; * (j) stood
for i, y consonant, and dzh; o for 6 (Anglo-Norman ) and d;
s for s and z; I for I and Ik; u (t>) for <5 (Anglo-Norman u), y and
t>; y (rare) for *'; z for dz and k. Some new sounds had also
to be provided for: where Isk had to be distinguished from non-
final ts, ch at first, as in Italian, denoting k before i and e (chi=
ki from qn) was used for it; palatal / was represented by ill,
which when final usually lost one /, and after i dropped iis i;
palatal n by gn, ng or ngn, to which i was often prefixed; and
the new letter w, originally uu (w), and sometimes representing
merely uv or vu, was employed for the consonant-sound still
denoted by it in English. All combinations of vowel-letters
represented diphthongs; thus ai denoted a followed by i, ou
either 6u or du, ui either 6i (Anglo-Norman ui) or yi, and similarly
with the others ei, eu, oi, iu,ie, ue (and oe), and the triphthong
ieu. Silent letters, except initial h in Latin words, are very rare;
though MSS. copied from older ones often retain letters whose
sounds, though existing in the language of the author, had dis-
appeared from that of the more modern scribe. The subsequent
changes in orthography are due mainly to changes of sound,
and find their explanation in the phonology. Thus, as Old
French progresses, s, having become silent before voiced con-
sonants, indicates only the length of the preceding vowel; e
before nasals, from the change of e (nasal e) to a (nasal a), repre-
sents a; c, from the change of ts to s, represents s; qu
and gu, from the loss of the w of kw and gw, represent
k and g (hard); ai, from the change of ai to e, represents e; ou,
from the change of du and 6u to u, represents u; ch and g, from
the change of tsh and dzh to sh and zh, represent sh and zh; eu
and ue, originally representing diphthongs, represent a (German
o) ; z, from the change of Is and dz to i and z, represents j and z.
The new values of some of these letters were applied to words
not originally spelt with them: Old French k before i and e
was replaced by qu (evesque, eveske, Latin episcopum); Old
French u and o for 6, after this sound had split into eu and u,
were replaced in the latter case by 'ou (rous, for ros or rus, Latin
russum); s was accidentally inserted to mark a long vowel
(pasle, pale, Latin pallidum); eu replaced ue and oe (neuf, nuef,
Latin novum and novem); z replaced j after 6 (nez, nes, nasum).
The use of x for final s is due to an orthographical mistake; the
MS. contraction of us being something like x was at last confused
with it (iex for ieus, oculos), and, its meaning being forgotten, u
was inserted before the x (yeux) which thus meant no more than
s, and was used for it after other vowels*(oiAf for vois, vocem).
As literature came to be extensively cultivated, traditional as
distinct from phonetic spelling began to be influential; and in the
i4th century, the close of the Old French period, this influence,
though not overpowering, was strong stronger than in England
at that time. About the same period there arose etymological as
distinct from traditional spelling. This practice, the alteration
of traditional spelling by the insertion or substitution of letters
which occurred (or were supposed to occur) in the Latin (or sup-
posed Latin) originals of the French words, became very prevalent
in the three following centuries, when such forms as debvoir
(debere) for devoir, faulx (falsum) for faus, autheur (auctorem,
supposed to be authorem) for auteur, poids (supposed to be from
pondus, really from pensum) for pois, were the rule. But besides
the etymological, there was a phonetic school of spelling (Ramus,
in 1562, for instance, writes lime, eimates with e=t, e = e, and
j=a for aimai, aimasles), which, though unsuccessful on the
whole, had some effect in correcting the excesses of the other,
so that in the iyth century most of these inserted letters began to
drop; of those which remain, some (jlegme for flemme or fleume,
Latin phlegma) have corrupted the pronunciation. Some im-
portant reforms as the dropping of silent s, and its replace-
ment by a circumflex over the vowel when this was long; the
frequent distinction of close and open e by acute and grave
accents; the restriction of fend u to the vowel sound, oij and v
to the consonant; and the introduction from Spain of the cedilla
to distinguish c = s from c = before a, u and o are due to the
i6th century. The replacement of oi, where it had assumed the
value e, by ai, did not begin till the last century, and was not the
rule till the present one. Indeed, since the i6th century the
changes in French spelling have been small, compared with the
changes of the sounds; final consonants and final e (unaccented)
are still written, though the sounds they represent have dis-
appeared.
Still, a marked effort towards the simplification of French
orthography was made in the third edition of the Dictionary of
the French Academy (1740), practically the work of the Abb6
d'Olivet. While in the first (1694) and second (1718) editions of
this dictionary words were overburdened with silent letters,
supposed to represent better the etymology, in the third edition
the spelling of about 5000 words (out of about 18,000) was
altered and made more in conformity with the pronunciation.
So, for instance, c was dropped in beinfaicteur and object, f in
sc_avoir, d in adwcat, s in accroistre, albastre, asprr, and bastard, e in
the past part, creu, deu, veu, and in such words as alleure, souil-
leure; y was replaced by i in cecy, celuy, gay, joye, &c. But those
changes were not made systematically, and many pedantic
spellings were left untouched, while many inconsistencies still
remain in the present orthography (siffler and persifler, souffler
and boursoufler, &c.). The consequence of those efforts in con-
trary directions is that French orthography is now quite as
traditional and unphonetic as English, and gives an even falser
notion than this of the actual state of the language it is supposed
to represent. Many of the features of Old French orthography,
early and late, are preserved in English orthography; to it we
owe the use of c for s (Old English ck only), oij (i) for dzh, of
v (u) for v (in Old English written/), and probably of ch for tsh.
The English w is purely French, the Old English letter being
the runic ]>. When French was introduced into England, kw had
not lost its w, and the French qu, with that value, replaced the
Old English c]> (queen for cben). In Norman, Old French 6 had
become very like u, and in England went entirely into it; o,
which was one of its French signs, thus came to be often used
for u in English (come for cume). U, having often in Old French
its Modern French value, was so used in England, and replaced
the Old English y (busy for by si, Middle English brud for bryd),
and y was often used for i (day for dai). In the I3th century,
when ou had come to represent u in France, it was borrowed by
English, and used for the long sound of that vowel (sour for sur) ;
and gu, which had come to mean simply g (hard), was occasion-
ally used to represent the sound g before * and e (guess for gesse).
Some of the Early Modern etymological spellings were imitated
in England; fleam and aulour were replaced by phlegm and
authour, the latter spelling having corrupted the pronunciation.
(e) Inflections. In the earliest Old French extant, the in-
fluence of analogy, especially in verbal forms, is very marked
when these are compared with Latin (thus the present participles
of all conjugations take ant, the ending of the first, Latin antem),
and becomes stronger as the language progresses. Such isolated
inflectional changes as saveit into savoit, which are cases of regular
phonetic changes, are not noticed here.
(i.) Verbs. (i) In the oldest French texts the Latin pluperfect
(with the sense of the perfect) occasionally occurs avret (habuerat),
roveret (rogaverat) ; it disappears before the I2th century. (2)
The u of the ending of the 1st pers. plur. mus drops in Old French,
except in the perfect, where its presence (as 3) is not yet satisfactorily
explained amoms (amamus, influenced by sumus), but amames
(amavimus)'. In Picard the atonic ending mes is extended toall tenses,
giving amomes, &c. (3) In the present indicative, 2nd person plur.,
the ending ez of the first conjugation (Latin atis) extends, even in
the earliest documents, to all verbs avez, recevez, oez (habetis,
recipltis, auditis) like amez (amatis) ; such forms as dites, faites
(dicltis, factiis) being exceptional archaisms. This levelling of the
conjugation does not appear at such an early time in the future
(formed from the infinitive and from habelis reduced to itis); in
the Roland both forms occur, portereiz (portare habetis) assonat-
ing on ret (roi, regent), and the younger porlerez on citet (cite,
ctviidtem), but about the end of the I3th century the older form
eiz, -oiz, is dropped, and -ez becomes gradually the uniform ending
for this 2nd person of the plural in the future tense. (4) In Eastern
French the 1st plur., when preceded byi, hase, not o, before the nasal,
while Western French has w (or o), as in the present; posciomes
(possedmus) in the Jonah homily makes it probable that the latter
is the older form Picard aviemes, Burgundian aviens, Norman
FRENCH LANGUAGE
109
(kabibdmus). (5) The subjunctive of the first conjugation
has at Girst in the singular no final e, in accordance with the final
vowel laws plur, plttrt, plurt (plortm, ploris, pldret). The forms are
gradually assimilated to those of the other conjugations, which,
deriving from Latin am, as, at, have r, es, *(/) ; Modern French plture,
pleura, pUurt, like perde, perdes, perde (per dam, perdds, perdat).
(6) In Old French the present subjunctive and the 1st sing. pres.
ind. generally show the influence of the or e of the Latin torn, earn,
ii, tt Old French muire or mofrge (moriat for moriatur), tiegne or
tie* M (teneal), muir or motrc (moria for morior), tieng or time (tened).
By degrees these forms arc levelled under the other present forms
Modern French meure and meurs following mrurt (morit for monlur),
ttennt and liens following tient (tenet). A few of the older forms
remain the vowel of ate (habeam) and at (kabed) contrasting with
that of a (kabel). (7) A levelling of which instances occur in the 1 1 th
century, but which is not yet complete, is that of the accented and
unaccented stem-syllables of verbs. In Old French many verb-
stems with shifting accent vary in accordance with phonetic laws
porter (paraboldre), amer (amdre) have in the present indicative
ptrol (parabola), paroles (paraboUs), paroltt (parabola!), parlums
Iparaboidmus), parle* (paraboldlis), paroCent (parabolant) ; aim
(ami), aimes (amds), aimel (amat), amums (amamus), antes (amdtis),
aiment (amant). In the first case the unaccented, in the second
the accented form has prevailed Modern French parle, parler;
aime, aimer. In several verbs, as tenir (tenire), the distinction is
retained liens, tiens, tient, tenons, tenet, tiennent. (8) In Old
French, as stated above, if instead of e from a occurs after a palatal
(which, if a consonant, often split into t with a dental); the diph-
thong thus appears in several forms of many verbs of the ist con-
jugation preier ( prei-ier, precdre), vengter Mndicdre), laissier
(lax&re), atdter (adjutdre). At the close of the Old French period,
those verbs in which the stem ends in a dental replace iV by the e
of other verbs Old French laissier, aidier, laissies (laxdtis), aidiez
(adjutdtis) ; Modern French laisser, aider, laisses, aides, by analogy
of aimer, aime*. The older forms generally remain in Picard
laissier, aidier. (9) The addition ole to the 1st sing. pres. ind.
of all verbs of the first conjugation is rare before the ijth century,
but is usual in the isth; it is probably due to the analogy of the
third person Old French chant (canto), aim (amo); Modern French
ckante, aime. (10) In the ijth century s is occasionally added to the
1st pers. sing., except those ending in e (=') and at, and to the 2nd
sing, of imperatives; at the close of the i6th century this becomes
the rule, and extends to imperfects and conditionals in oie after the
loss of their e. It appears to be due to the influence of the 2nd pers.
sing. Old French vend (vendd and vende), vendoie (vendebam), parti
(parfM), ting (tenul); Modern French vends, vendais, partis, tins;
and donne (dona) in certain cases becomes donnes. (i i) The 1st and
2nd plur. of the pres. subj., which in Old French were generally
similar to those of the indicative, gradually take an i before them,
which is the rule after the i6th century Old French perdons (per-
ddmus), perdex (perddlis); Modern French perdions, perdiez, appar-
ently by analogy of the imp. ind. (12) The loss in Late Old French
of final s, t, &c., when preceding another consonant, caused many
words to have in reality (though often concealed by orthography)
double forms of inflection one without termination, the other with.
Thus in the I6th century the 2nd sing. pres. ind. dors (dormis) and
the 3rd dart (dormit) were distinguished as dors and dort when before
a vowel, as don and dort at the end of a sentence or line of poetry,
but ran together as dor when followed by a consonant. Still later,
the loss of the final consonant when not followed by a vowel further
reduced the cases in which the forms were distinguished, so that
the actual French conjugation is considerably simpler than is shown
by the customary spellings, except when, in consequence of an im-
mediately following vowel, the old terminations occasionally appear.
Even here the antiquity is to a considerable extent artificial or
delusive, some of the insertions being due to analogy, and the popular
language often omitting the traditional consonant or inserting a
different one. (13) The subsequent general loss of e = 3 in unaccented
final syllables has still further reduced the inflections, but not the
distinctive forms perd (perdit) and perde (ptrdat) being generally
ditinguished as per and perd, and before a vowel as pert and
pird.
(ii.) Substantives. (l) In Early Old French (as in Provencal) there
are two main declensions, the masculine and the feminine; with a
few exceptions the former ditinguishes nominative and accusative
in both numbers, the latter in neither. The nom. and ace. sing,
and ace. plur. mas. correspond to those of the Latin 2nd or 3rd
declension, the nom. plur. to that of the 2nd declension. The sing.
fern, corresponds to the nom. and ace. of the Latin 1st declension,
or to the ace. of the 3rd; the plur. fern, to the ace. of the 1st declen-
sion, or to the nom. and ace. of the 3rd. Thus masc. tors (taurus),
lere (latrd); tor (taurum), laron (latronem); tor (taurl), laron (latronl
for -nei): tors (taurds), larons (latrines); but fern, only tie (dla and
dlam),flor (fiorem); eles (aids), flors (fldris nom. and ace.). About
the end of the nth century feminities not ending in e > take, by
analogy of the masculines, s in the nom. sing., thus distinguishing
nom. flors from ace. flor. A century later, masculines without s
in the nom. sing, take this consonant by analogy of the other mascu-
lines, giving Ifres as nom. similar to tors. In Anglo-Norman the
accusative forms very early begin to replace the nominative, and
soon supersede them, the language following the tendency of con-
temporaneous English. In continental French the declension-system
was preserved much longer, and did not break up till the 141(1
century, though ace. forms arc occasionally substituted for nom.
(rarely nom. for ace.) before that date. It must be noticed, however,
that in the current language the reduction of the declension to one
case (generally the accusative) per number appears much earlier
than in the language of literature proper and poetry; Froissart, for
instance, c. 1400, in his poetical works is much more careful of the
declension than in his Chronicles. In the 15th century the modern
system of one case is fully established; the form kept is almost
always the accusative (sing, without s, plural with s), but in a few
words, such as/t/i (filius), sceur (soror), pastre (pastor), and in proper
names such as Georges, Gilles, &c., often used as vocative (therefore
with the form of nom.) ; the nom. survives in the sing. Occasionally
both forms exist, in different senses-^-stre (senior) and seigneur
(senidrem), on (homo) and homme (hominem). (2) Latin neuters are
generally masculine in Old French, and inflected according to their
analogy, as dels (caelus for caelum nom.), del (caelum ace.), del (caell
for caela nom.), ciels (caelds for caela ace.); but in some cases the
form of the Latin neuter is preserved, as in cars, now corps, Lat.
corpus; tens, now temps, Lat. tempus. Many neuters lose their
singular form and treat the plural as a feminine singular, as in the
related languages merveille (mlrdbilia) , feuille (folia). But in a few
words the neuter plural termination is used, as in Italian, in its
primitive sense carre (carra, which exists as well as earn), paire
(Lat. paria); Modern French chars, paires. (3) In Old French the
inflectional s often causes phonetic changes in the stem; thus palatal
/ before s takes / after it, and becomes dental /, which afterwards
changes to u or drops -fit (ftlium and filii) with palatal /, filz (filius
and filios), afterwards fix, with z = ls (preserved in English Fitz),
and thenjfa, as now (spelt fls). Many consonants before s, as the
t of Jiz, disappear, and / is vocalized vif (vlvum), mal (malum),
nominative sing, and ace. plur. vis, maus (earlier mals). These forms
of the plural are retained in the i6th century, though often ety-
mologically spelt with the consonant of the singular, as in vifs,
pronounced vis; but in Late Modern French many of them dis-
appear, vifs, with / sounded as in the singular, being the plural
of vif, bals (formerly baux) that of bal. In many words, as chant
(cantiis) and champs (compos) with silent t and p (Old French chans
in both cases), maux (Old French mals, sing, mal), yeux (oculos,
Old French celz, sing, ail) the old change in the stem is kept. Some-
times, as in deux (caelos) and dels, the old traditional and the modern
analogical forms coexist, with different meanings. (4) The modern
loss of final s (except when kept as z before a vowel) has seriously
modified the French declension, the singulars fort (for) and forte
(fort) being generally undistinguishable from their plurals forts and
fortes. The subsequent loss of 3 in finals has not affected the relation
between sing, and plur. forms; but with the frequent recoining of
the plural forms on the singular present Modern French has very
often no distinction between sing, and plur., except before a vowel.
Such plurals as maux have always been distinct from their singular
mal; in those whose singular ends in s there never was any dis-
tinction, Old French laz (now spelt lacs) corresponding to laqveus,
laoveum, laptef and laqveos.
(iii.) Adjectives. (i) The terminations of the cases and numbers
of adjectives are the same as those of substantives, and are treated
in the preceding paragraph. The feminine generally takes no e if
the masc. has none, and if there is no distinction in Latin fern,
sing, fort (fortem), grant (grandem), fem. plur. forz (fortes), granz
(grandes), like the ace. masc. Certain adjectives of this class, and
among them all the adjectives formed with the Latin suffix -ensis,
take regularly, even in the oldest French, the feminine ending e, in
Provencal a (courtois, fem. courtoise; commun, fem. commune).
To these must not be added dous (Mod. Fr. dolz, dous), fem. douce,
which probably comes from a Low Latin dulcius, dulcia. In the
nth century some other feminities, originally without e, begin in
_Norman to take this termination grande (in a feminine assonance
in the Alexis), plur. grandes; but other dialects generally preserve
the original form till the 141(1 century. In the I6th century the e is
general in the feminine, and is now universal, except in a few ex-
pressions grand' mere (with erroneous apostrophe, grandem, matrem),
lettres royaux (literas regales), and most adverbs from adjectives in
-ant, -ent couramment (currante for -ente mente), sciemment (sciente
mente). (2) Several adjectives have in Modern French replaced the
masc. by the feminine Old French masc. roit (rigidum), fem. roide
(rigidam) ; Modern French roide for both genders. (3) In Old French
several Latin simple comparatives are preserved maiur (majorem),
nom. maire (major) ; graignur (grandidrem) , nom. graindre (grandior) ;
only a few of these now survive pire (pejor), meilleur (meliorem),
with their adverbial neuters pis (peius), mieux (melius). The few
simple superlatives found in Old French, as merme (minimum),
pesme (pessimus), proisme (proximum), haltisme (altissimum), this
last one being clearly a literary word, are now extinct, and, when
they existed, had hardly the meaning of a superlative. (4) The
modern loss of many final consonants when not before vowels, and
the subsequent loss of final , have greatly affected the distinction
between the masc. and fem. of adjectives fort and forte are still
distinguished as/dr and fort, but amer (amarum) and amere (amdram),
with their plurals amers and ameres, have run together.
no
FRENCH LITERATURE
(f) Derivation. Most of the Old French prefixes and suffixes
are descendants of Latin ones, but a few are Teutonic (ard =hard),
and some are later borrowings from Latin (arie, afterwards aire,
from drium). In Modern French many old affixes are hardly used
for forming new words; the inherited ier (arium) is yielding to
the borrowed aire, the popular conlre (contra) to the learned anti
(Greek;, and the native ee (atam) to the Italian ode. The suffixes
of many words have been assimilated to more common ones;
thus sengler (singuldrem) is now sanglier.
(g) Syntax. Old French syntax, gradually changing from
the loth to the I4th century, has a character of its own, distinct
from that of Modern French; though when compared with
Latin syntax it appears decidedly modern.
(l) The general formal distinction between nominative and
accusative is the chief feature which causes French syntax to re-
semble that of Latin and differ from that of the modern language;
and as the distinction had to be replaced by a comparatively fixed
word-order, a serious loss of freedom ensued. If the forms are
modernized while the word-order is kept, the Old French I'archevesque
ne puet flechir li reis Henris (Latin archiepiscopum non potest flectere
rex Henrieus) assumes a totally different meaning I'archeveque ne
peut flechir le roi Henri. (2) The replacement of the nominative form
of nouns by the accusative is itself a syntactical feature, though
treated above under inflection. A more modern instance is exhibited
by the personal pronouns, which, when not immediately the subject
of a verb, occasionally take even in Old French, and regularly in
the i6th century, the accusative form; the Old French je qui sui
(ego qm sum) becomes moi qui suis, though the older usage survives
in the legal phrase je, soussigne. ... (3) The definite article is now
required in many cases where Old French dispenses with it jo
cunquis Engleterre, suffrir mart (as Modern French avoir faim);
Modern French V Angleterre, la mart. (4) Old French had distinct pro-
nouns for " this " and " that " cest (ecce istum) and eel (ecce ilium),
with their cases. Both exist in the i6th century, but the present
language employs cet as adjective, eel as substantive, in both mean-
ings, marking the old distinction by affixing the adverbs ci and Id.
cet homme-ci, cet homme-ld ; celui-ci, celui-ld,. (5) In Old French,
the verbal terminations being clear, the subject pronoun is usually
not expressed si ferai (sic Jacere habeo), est durs (durus est), que
feras (quidfacere habes)? In the l6th century the use of the pronoun
is general, and is now universal, except in one or two impersonal
Slirases, as n'importe, peu s'en faut. (6) The present participle in
Id French in its uninflected form coincided with the gerund (amant
=amantem and amando), and in the modern language has been re-
placed by the latter, except where it has become adjectival; the
Old French complaingnans leur dolours (Latin plangentes) is now
plaignant leurs douleurs (Latin plangendo). The now extinct use of
estre with the participle present for the simple verb is not uncommon
in Old French down to the l6th century sont disanz (sunt dicentes) =
Modern French Us disent (as English they are saying). (7) In present
Modern French the preterite participle when used with avoir to form
verb-tenses is invariable, except when the object precedes (an
exception now vanishing in the conversational language); j'ai
icrit les lettres, les lettres que j'ai Sorites. In Old French down to the
I6th century, formal concord was more common (though by no
means necessary), partly because the object preceded the parti-
ciple much oftener than now ad la culur muee (habet colorem muta-
tam), ad faite sa venjance, les turs ad rendues. (8) The sentences
just quoted will serve as specimens of the freedom of Old French
word-order the object standing either before verb and participle,
between them, or after both. The predicative adjective can stand
before or after the verb halt sunt h pui (Latin podia), e tenebrus e
grant. (9) In Old French ne (Early Old French nen, Latin non)
suffices for the negation without pas (passum), point (punctum) or
mie (niicam, now obsolete), though these are frequently used jo
ne sui Us sire (je ne suis pas ton seigneur), autre feme nen ara (it
n'aura pas autre femme). In principal sentences Modern French uses
ne by itself only in certain cases je ne puis marcher, je n'at rien.
The slight weight as a negation usually attached to ne has caused
several originally positive words to take a negative meaning rien
(Latin rem) now meaning " nothing " as well as " something. (10)
In Old French interrogation was expressed with substantives as with
pronouns by putting them after the verb est Saul entre les pro-
phetesf In Modern French the pronominal inversion (the sub-
stantive being prefixed) or a verbal periphrasis must be used Saul
esl-il ? or est-ce que Saul est ?
(h) Summary. Looking at the internal history of the French
language as a whole, there is no such strongly marked division as
exists between Old and Middle English, or even between Middle
and Modern English. Some of the most important changes are
quite modern, and are concealed by the traditional orthography;
but, even making allowance for this, the difference between French
of the nth century and that of the 2Oth is less than that between
English of the same dates. The most important change in itself
ami for its effects is probably that which is usually made the division
between Old and Modern French, the loss of the formal distinction
between nominative and accusative; next to this are perhaps the
gradual loss of many final consonants, the still recent loss of the
vowel of unaccented final syllables, and the extension of analogy in
conjugation and declension. In its construction Old French is dis-
tinguished by a freedom strongly contrasting with the strictness of
the modern language, and bears, as might be expected, a much
stronger resemblance than the latter to the other Romanic dialects.
In many features, indeed, both positive and negative, Modern
French forms a class by itself, distinct in character from the other
modern representatives of Latin.
IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY. The few works which treat of French philo-
logy as a whole are now in many respects antiquated, and the
important discoveries of recent years, which have revolutionized
pur ideas of Old French phonology and dialectology, are scattered
in various editions, periodicals, and separate treatises. For many
things Diez's Grammatik der romanischen Spraclien (4th edition a
reprint of the 3rd Bonn, 1876-1877; French translation, Paris,
1872-1875) is still very valuable; Burguy's Grammaire de la Langue
d'O'il (2nd edition a reprint of the 1st Berlin, 1869-1870) is useful
only as a collection of examples. Schwan's Grammatik des Alt-
franzosischen, as revised by Behrens in the 3rd edition (Leipzig, 1898 ;
French translation, Leipzig and Paris, 1900), is by far the best old
French grammar we possess. For the history of French language in
general see F. Brunot, Histoire de la langue franfaise des origines i
1900 (Paris, 1905, 1906, &c.). For the history of spelling, A. F.
Didot, Observations sur I'orthographe ou ortografie franfaise suivies
d'une histoire de la reforme orthographique depuis le XV' siecle jusqti' a
nos jours (2nd ed., Paris, 1868). For the history of French sounds:
Ch. Thurot, De la prononciation franfaise depuis le commencement
du XVI' siecle, d'aprks les temoignages des grammairiens (2 vols.,
Paris, 1881-1883). For the history of syntax, apart from various
grammatical works of a general character, much is to be gathered
from Ad. Tobler's Vermischle Beitrdge zur franzosischen Grammatik
(3 parts, 1886, 1894, 1899, parts i. and ii. in second editions, 1902,
s!9o6). G. Paris's edition of La Vie de S. Alexis (Paris, 1872) was
the pioneer of, and retains an important place among, the recent
original works on Old French. Darmesteter and Hatzfeld's Le
Seizieme Siecle (Paris, 1878) contains the first good account of Early
Modern French. Littr^'s Diclionnaire de la langue franfaise (4 vols.,
Paris, 1863-1869, and a Supplement, 1877); and Hatzfeld, Darmes-
teter and Thomas, Diet, general de la langue franfaise, more con-
densed (2 vols., Paris, 1888-1900), contain much useful and often
original information about the etymology and history of French
words. For the etymology of many French (and also Provencal)
words, reference must be made to Ant. Thomas's Essais de philologie
franchise (Paris, 1897) and Nouveaux essais de philologie franfaise
(Paris, 1904). But there is no French dictionary properly historical.
A Dicticnnaire historique de la langue franfaise was begun by the
Acade'mie francaise (4 vols., 1859-1894), but it was, from the first,
antiquated. It contains only one letter (A) and has not been
continued. The leading periodicals now in existence are the Romania
(Paris), founded (in 1872) and edited by P. Meyer and G. Paris (with
Ant. Thomas since the death of G. Paris in 1903), and the Zeit-
schrift fur romanische Philologie (Halle), founded (in 1877) and
edited by G. Grober. To these reference should be made for infor-
mation as to the very numerous articles, treatises and editions
by the many and often distinguished scholars who, especially in
France and Germany, now prosecute the scientific study of the
language. It may be well to mention that, Old French phonology
especially being complicated, and as yet incompletely investigated,
these publications, the views in which are of various degrees of
value, require not mere acquiescent reading, but critical study. The
dialects of France in their present state (patois) are now being
scientifically investigated. The special works on the subject (dic-
tionaries, grammars, &c.) cannot be fully indicated here; we must
limit ourselves to the mention of Behren's Bibliographie des patois
gallo-romans (2nd ed., revised Berlin, 1893), and of GillieYon and
Edmont's Atlas linguistiqw de la France (1902 et seq.), a huge
publication planned to contain about 1800 maps. (H. N. ; P.M.)
FRENCH LITERATURE. Origins. The history of French
literature in the proper sense of the term can hardly be said to
extend farther back than the nth century. The actual manu-
scripts which we possess are seldom of older date than the century
subsequent to this. But there is no doubt that by the end at
least of the nth century the French language, as a completely
organized medium of literary expression, was in full, varied and
constant use. For many centuries previous to this, literature
had been composed in France, or by natives of that country,
using the term France in its full modern acceptation; but until
the gth century, if not later, the written language of France, so
far as we know, was Latin; and despite the practice of not a few
literary historians, it does not seem reasonable to notice Latin
writings in a history of French literature. Such a history
properly busies itself only with the monuments of French itself
from the time when the so-caJled Lingua Romana Rustica
CHANSONS DE GESTE]
FRENCH LITERATURE
in
assumed a sufficiently independent form to deserve to be called
a new language. This time it is indeed impossible exactly to
determine, and the period at which literary compositions, as
distinguished from mere conversation, began to employ the new
tongue is entirely unknown. As early as the ;th century the
Lingua Romana, as distinguished from Latin and from Teutonic
dialects, is mentioned, and this Lingua Komana would be of
necessity used for purposes of clerical admonition, especially in
the country districts, though we need not suppose that such
addresses had a very literary character. On the other hand,
the mention, at early dates, of certain cantilena* or songs com-
posed in the vulgar language has served for basis to a super-
structure of much ingenious argument with regard to the highly
interesting problem of the origin of the Chansons de Geste, the
earliest and one of the greatest literary developments of northern
French. It is sufficient in this article, where speculation would
be out of place, to mention that only two such caniUenae actually
exist, and that neither is French. One of the 9th century, the
" Lay of Saucourt," is in a Teutonic dialect; the other, the " Song
of St Faron," is of the 7th century, but exists only in Latin
prose, the construction and style of which present traces of trans-
lation from a poetical and vernacular original. As far
as facts go, the most ancient monuments of the written
men". French language consist of a few documents of very
various character, ranging in date from the gth to the
nth century. The oldest gives us the oaths interchanged at
Strassburg in 842 between Charles the Bald and Louis the German.
The next probably in date and the first in literary merit is a short
song celebrating the martyrdom of St Eulalia, which may be
as old as the end of the 9th century, and is certainly not younger
than the beginning of the loth. Another, the Life of St Leger, in
240 octosyllabic lines, is dated by conjecture about 975. The
discussion indeed of these short and fragmentary pieces is of
more philological than literary interest, and belongs rather to
the head of French language. They are, however, evidence of
the progress which, continuing for at least four centuries, built up
a literary instrument out of the decomposed and reconstructed
Latin of the Roman conquerors, blended with a certain limited
amount of contributions from the Celtic and Iberian dialects of
the original inhabitants, the Teutonic speech of the Franks, and
the Oriental tongue of the Moors who pressed upwards from Spain.
But all these foreign elements bear a very small proportion to the
element of Latin; and as Latin furnished the greater part of the
vocabulary and the grammar, so did it also furnish the principal
models and helps to literary composition. The earliest French
versification is evidently inherited from that of the Latin hymns
of the church, and for a certain time Latin originals were followed
in the choice of literary forms. But by the nth century it is
tolerably certain that dramatic attempts were already being
made in the vernacular, that lyric poetry was largely cultivated,
that laws, charters, and such-like documents were written, and
that commentators and translators busied themselves with re-
ligious subjects and texts. The most important of the extant
documents, outside of the epics presently to be noticed, has of
late been held to be the Life of Saint Alexis, a poem
of 625 decasyllabic lines, arranged in five-line stanzas,
each of one assonance or vowel-rhyme, which may be
as early as 1050. But the most important development of the
nth century, and the one of which we are most certain, is that
of which we have evidence remaining in the famous Chanson de
Roland, discovered in a manuscript at Oxford and first published
in 1837. This poem represents the first and greatest development
of French literature, the chansons de geste (this form is now
preferred to that with the plural geites). The origin of these
poems has been hotly debated, and it is only recently that the
importance which they really possess has been accorded to them,
a fact the less remarkable in that, until about 1820, the epics
of ancient France were unknown, or known only through late
and disfigured prose versions. Whether they originated in the
north or the south is a question on which there have been more
than one or two revolutions of opinion, and will probably be
others still, but which need not be dealt with here. We possess
in round numbers a hundred of these chansons. Three only of
i IK-HI are in Provencal. Two of these, Ferabras and Belonnet
d'Hanstonne, arc obviously adaptations of French originals.
The third, Girarts de Rossilho (Gerard de Roussillon), is un-
doubtedly Provencal, and is a work of great merit and originality,
but its dialect is strongly tinged with the characteristics of the
Langue d'Oll, and its author seems to have been a native of the
debatable land between the two districts. To suppose under
these circumstances that the Provencal originals of the hundred
others have perished seems gratuitous. It is sufficient to say
that the chanson de gestc, as it is now extant, is the almost
exclusive property of northern France. Nor is there much
authority for a supposition that the early French poets merely
versified with amplifications the stories of chroniclers. On the
contrary, chroniclers draw largely from the chansons, and the
question of priority between Roland and the pseudo-Turpin,
though a hard one to determine, seems to resolve itself in favour
of the former. At most we may suppose, with much probability,
that personal and family tradition gave a nucleus for at least
the earliest.
Chansons de Geste. Early French narrative poetry was
divided by one of its own writers, Jean Bodel, under three heads
poems relating to French history, poems relating to
ancient history, and poems of the Arthurian cycle
(Matieres de France, de Bretagne, et de Rome). To the
first only is the term chansons de geste in strictness applicable.
The definition of it goes partly by form and partly by matter.
A chanson de geste must be written in verses either of ten or
twelve syllables, the former being the earlier. These verses have
a regular caesura, which, like the end of a line, carries with it
the licence of a mute e. The lines are arranged, not in couplets
or in stanzas of equal length, but in laisses or tirades, consisting
of any number of lines from half a dozen to some hundreds.
These are, in the earlier examples assonanced, that is to say,
the vowel sound of the last syllables is identical, but the con-
sonants need not agree. Thus, for instance, the final words of a
tirade of Amis et Amiles (11. 199-206) are erbe, nouvelle, selles,
nouvelles, traversent, arreslent, guerre, cortege. Sometimes the
tirade is completed by a shorter line, and the later chansons are
regularly rhymed. As to the subject, a chanson de geste must be
concerned with some event which is, or is supposed to be,
historical and French. The tendency of the trouveres was con-
stantly to affiliate their heroes on a particular gate or family.
The three chief gesles are those of Charlemagne himself, of Doon
de Mayence, and of Garin de Monglane; but there are not a
few chansons, notably those concerning the Lorrainers, and the
remarkable series sometimes called the Chevalier au Cygne, and
dealing with the crusades, which lie outside these groups. By
this joint definition of form and subject the chansons de geste
are separated from the romances of antiquity, from the romances
of the Round Table, which are written in octosyllabic couplets,
and from the romans d'aiienlures or later fictitious tales, some of
which, such as Brun de la Montaigne, are written in pure chanson
form.
Not the least remarkable point about the chansons de geste
is their vast extent. Their number, according to the strictest
definition, exceeds 100, and the length of each chanson volume
varies from 1000 lines, or thereabouts, to 20,000 or ana
even 30,000. The entire mass, including, it may
supposed, the various versions and extensions of each
chanson, is said to amount to between two and three million
lines; and when, under the second empire, the publication of the
whole Carolingian cycle was projected, it was estimated, taking
the earliest versions alone, at over 300,000. The successive
developments of the chansons de geste may be illustrated by the
fortunes of Huon de Bordeaux, one of the most lively, varied
and romantic of the older epics, and one which is interesting
from the use made of it by Shakespeare, Wieland and Weber.
In the oldest form now extant, though even this is probably not
the original, Huon consists of over 10,000 lines. A subsequent
version contains 4000 more; and lastly, in the I4th century,
a later poet has amplified the legend to the extent of 30,000 lines.
112
FRENCH LITERATURE
[ARTHURIAN ROMANCES
When this point had been reached, Huon began to be turned into
prose, was with many of his fellows published and republished
during the isth and subsequent centuries, and retains, in the
form of a roughly printed chap-book, the favour of the country
districts of France to the present day. It is not, however, in the
later versions that the special characteristics of the chansons
de geste are to be looked for. Of those which we possess, one and
one only, the Chanson de Roland, belongs in its present form
to the nth century. Their date of production extends, speaking
roughly, from the i ith to the i4th century, their palmy days were
the nth and the I2th. After this latter period the Arthurian
romances, with more complex attractions, became their rivals,
and induced their authors to make great changes in their style
and subject. But for a time they reigned supreme, and no better
instance of their popularity can be given than the fact that
manuscripts of them exist, not merely in every French dialect,
but in many cases in a strange macaronic jargon of mingled
French and Italian. Two classes of persons were concerned in
them. There was the Irouvere who composed them, and the
jongleur who carried them about in manuscript or in his memory
from castle to castle amd sang them, intermixing frequent appeals
to his auditory for silence, declarations of the novelty and the
strict copyright character of the chanson, revilings of rival
minstrels, and frequently requests for money in plain words.
Not a few of the manuscripts which we now possess appear to
have been actually used by the jongleur. But the names of the
authors, the trouveres who actually composed them, are in very
few cases known, those of copyists, continuators, and mere
possessors of manuscripts having been often mistaken for them.
The moral and poetical peculiarities of the older and more
authentic of these chansons are strongly marked, though perhaps
not quite so strongly as some of their encomiasts have contended,
and as may appear to a reader of the most famous of them, the
Chanson de Roland, alone. In that poem, indeed, war and
religion are the sole motives employed, and its motto might
be two lines from another of the finest chansons (AHscans,
161-162):
" Dist a Bertran : ' N'avons mais nul losir,
Tant ke vivons alons paiens ferir.' "
In Roland there is no love-making whatever, and the hero's
betrothed " la belle Aude " appears only in a casual gibe of her
brother Oliver, and in the incident of her sudden death at the
news of Roland's fall. M. Leon Gautier and others have drawn
the conclusion that this stern and masculine character was a
feature of all the older chansons, and that imitation of the
Arthurian romance is the cause of its disappearance. This
seems rather a hasty inference. In Amis et Amiles, admittedly
a poem of old date, the parts of Bellicent and Lubias are
prominent, and the former is demonstrative enough. In Aliscans
the part of the Countess Guibourc is both prominent and heroic,
and is seconded by that of Queen Blancheflor and her daughter
Aelis. We might also mention Oriabel in Jourdans de Blaivies
and others. But it may be admitted that the sex which fights and
counsels plays the principal part, that love adventures are not
introduced at any great length, and that the lady usually spares
her knight the trouble and possible indignities of a long wooing.
The characters of a chanson of the older style are somewhat
uniform. There is the hero who is unjustly suspected of guilt or
sore beset by Saracens, the heroine who falls in love with him,
the traitor who accuses him or delays help, who is almost always
of the lineage of Ganelon, and whose ways form a very curious
study. There are friendly paladins and subordinate traitors;
there is Charlemagne (who bears throughout the marks of the
epic king common to Arthur and Agamemnon, but is not in the
earlier chanson the incapable and venal dotard which he becomes
in the later), and with Charlemagne generally the duke Naimes
of Bavaria, the cne figure who is invariably wise, brave, loyal
and generous. In a few chansons there is to be added to these a
very interesting class of personages who, though of low birth or
condition, yet rescue the high-born knights from their enemies.
Such are Rainoart in Aliscans, Gautier in Gaydon, Robastre in
Gaufrey, Varocher in Macaire. These subjects, uniform rather
than monotonous, are handled with great uniformity if not
monotony of style. There are constant repetitions, and it some-
times seems, and may sometimes be the case, that the text is a
mere cento of different and repeated versions. But the verse is
generally harmonious and often stately. The recurrent asson-
ances of the endless tirade soon impress the ear with a grateful
music, and occasionally, and far more frequently than might be
thought, passages of high poetry, such as the magnificent Granz
doel par la mart de Reliant, appear to diversify the course of the
story. The most remarkable of the chansons are Roland,
Aliscans, Gerard de Roussillon, Amiset Amiles, Raoul de Cambrai,
Garin le Loherain and its sequel Les quatre Fils Aymon, Les Saisnes
(recounting the war of Charlemagne with Witekind), and lastly,
Le Chevalier au Cygne, which is not a single poem but a series,
dealing with the earlier crusades. The most remarkable group is
that centring round William of Orange, the historical or half-
historical defender of the south of France against Mahommedan
invasion. Almost all the chansons of this group, from the long-
known Aliscans to the recently printed Chanson de Willame,
are distinguished by an unwonted personality of interest, as well
as by an intensified dose of the rugged and martial poetry which
pervades the whole class. It is noteworthy that one chanson
and one only, Floovant, deals with Merovingian times. But the
chronology, geography, and historic facts of nearly all are, it is
hardly necessary to say, mainly arbitrary.
Arthurian Romances. The second class of early French epics
consists of the Arthurian cycle, the Matiere de Bretagne, the
earliest known compositions of which are at least a century
junior to the earliest chanson de geste, but which soon succeeded
the chansons in popular favour, and obtained a vogue both wider
and far more enduring. It is not easy to conceive a greater
contrast in form, style, subject and sentiment than is presented
by the two classes. In both the religious sentiment is prominent,
but the religion of the chansons is of the simplest, not to say of the
most savage character. To pray to God and to kill his enemies
constitutes the whole duty of man. In the romances the mystical
element becomes on the contrary prominent, and furnishes, in
the Holy Grail, one of the most important features. In the Carlo-
vingian knight the courtesy and clemency which we have learnt
to associate with chivalry are almost entirely absent. The
gentix her contradicts, jeers at, and execrates his sovereign and
his fellows with the utmost freedom. He thinks nothing of strik-
ing his cortoise moullier so that the blood runs down her cler vis.
If a servant or even an equal offends him, he will throw the
offender into the fire, knock his brains out, or set his whiskers
ablaze. The Arthurian knight is far more of the modern model
in these respects. But his chief difference from his predecessor
is undoubtedly in his amorous devotion to his beloved, who,
if not morally superior to Bellicent, Floripas, Esclairmonde, and
the other Carlovingian heroines, is somewhat less forward. Even
in minute details the difference is strongly marked. The romances
are in octosyllabic couplets or in prose, and their language is
different from that of the chansons, and contains much fewer of
the usual epic repetitions and stock phrases. A voluminous con-
troversy has been held respecting the origin of these differences,
and of the story or stories which were destined to receive such
remarkable attention. Reference must be made to the article
ARTHURIAN LEGEND for the history of this controversy and for
an account of its present state. This state, however, and all
subsequent states, are likely to be rather dependent upon opinion
than upon actual knowledge. From the point of view of the
general historian of literature it may not be improper here to give
a caution against the frequent use of the word " proven " in such
matters. Very little in regard to early literature, except the
literary value of the texts, is ever susceptible of proof; although
things may be made more or less probable. What we are at present
concerned with, however, is a body of verse and prose composed
in the latter part of the izth century and later. The earliest
romances, the Saint Graal, the Quete du Saint Graal, Joseph
d'Arimathie and Merlin bear the names of Walter Map and
Robert de Borron. Artus and part at least of Lancelot du Lac
(the whole of which has been by turns attributed and denied to
ROMANS D'AVENTURES]
FRENCH LITERATURE
Walter Map) appear to be due to unknown authors. Tristan
came later, and has a stronger mixture of Celtic tradition. At
the same time as Walter Map, or a little later, Chretien (or
Chrestien) de Troyes threw the legends of the Round Table
into octosyllabic verse of a singularly spirited and picturesque
character. The chief poems attributed to him are the Chevalier
an Lyon (Sir Ewain of Wales), the Chevalier a la Ckarette (one
of the episodes of Lancelot), Eric et Enide, Tristan and Percivale.
These poems, independently of their merit, which is great, had
an extensive literary influence. They were translated by the
German minnesingers, Wolfram von Eschenbach, Gottfried of
Strassburg, and others. With the romances already referred
to, which are mostly in prose, and which by recent authorities
have been put later than the verse tales which used to be post-
poned to them, Chretien's poems complete the early forms of
the Arthurian story, and supply the matter of it as it is best
known to English readers in Malory's book. Nor does that book,
though far later than the original forms, convey a very false
impression of the characteristics of the older romances. Indeed,
the Arthurian knight, his character and adventures, are so much
better known than the heroes of the Carlovingian chanson that
there is less need to dwell upon them. They had, however, as has
been already pointed out, great influence upon their rivals, and
their comparative fertility of invention, the much larger number
of their dramoiis personae, and the greater variety of interests to
which they appealed, sufficiently explain their increased popu-
larity. The ordinary attractions of poetry are also more largely
present in them than in the chansons; there is more description,
more life, and less of the mere chronicle. They have been accused
of relaxing morality, and there is perhaps some truth in the
charge. But the change is after all one rather of manners than
of morals, and what is lost in simplicity is gained in refinement.
Doon de Mayence is a late chanson, and Lancelot du Lac is an early
romance. But the two beautiful scenes, in the former between
Doon and Nicolcttc. in the latter between Lancelot, Galahault,
Guinevere, and the Lady of Malehaut, may be compared as
instances of the attitude of the two classes of poets towards the
same subject.
Romances of Antiquity. There is yet a third class of early
narrative poems, differing from the two former in subject, but
agreeing, sometimes with one sometimes with the other in form.
These are the classical romances the Maiiere de Rome which
are not much later than those of Charlemagne and Arthur.
The chief subjects with which their authors busied themselves
were the conquests of Alexander and the siege of Troy, though
other classical stories come in. The most remarkable of all is the
romance of Alixandre by Lambert the Short and Alexander of
Bernay. It has been said that the excellence of the twelve-
syllabled verse used in this romance was the origin of the term
alexandrine. The Trojan romances, on the other hand, are
chiefly in octosyllabic verse, and the principal poem which
treats of them is the Roman de Troie of Benoit de Sainte More.
Both this poem and Alitandre are attributed to the last quarter
of the 1 2th century. The authorities consulted for these poems
were, as may be supposed, none of the best. Dares Phrygius,
Dictys Cretensis, the pseudo-Callisthenes supplied most of them.
But the inexhaustible invention of the trouvercs themselves was
the chief authority consulted. The adventures of Medea, the
wanderings of Alexander, the Trojan horse, the story of Thebes,
were quite sufficient to spur on to exertion the minds which had
been accustomed to spin a chanson of some 10,000 lines out of a
casual allusion in some preceding poem. It is needless to say
that anachronisms did not disturb them. From first to last the
writers of the chansons had not in the least troubled themselves
with attention to any such matters. Charlemagne himself had
his life and exploits accommodated to the need of every poet
who treats of him, and the same is the case with the heroes of
antiquity. Indeed, Alexander is made in many respects a proto-
type of Charlemagne. He is regularly knighted, he has twelve
peers, he holds tournaments, he has relations with Arthur, and
comes in contact with fairies, he takes flights in the air, dives in
the sea and so forth. There is perhaps more avowed imagination
in these classical stories than in cither of the other divisions of
French epic poetry. Some of their authors even confess to the
practice of fiction, while the trouveres of the chansons invariably
assert the historical character of their facts and personages, and
the authors of the Arthurian romances at least start from facts
vouched for, partly by national tradition, partly by the
authority of religion and the church. The classical romances,
however, are important in two different ways. In the first place,
they connect the early literature of France, however loosely, and
with links of however dubious authenticity, with the great history
and literature of the past. They show a certain amount of scholar-
ship in their authors, and in their hearers they show a capacity
of taking an interest in subjects which are not merely those
directly connected with the village or the tribe. The chansons
de geste had shown the creative power and independent character
of French literature. There is, at least about the earlier ones,
nothing borrowed, traditional or scholarly. They smack of the
soil, and they rank France among the very few countries which, in
this matter of indigenous growth, have yielded more than folk-
songs and fireside tales. The Arthurian romances, less inde-
pendent in origin, exhibit a wider range of view, a greater
knowledge of human nature, and a more extensive command
of the sources of poetical and romantic interest. The classical
epics superadd the only ingredient necessary to an accomplished
literature that is to say, the knowledge of what has been done
by other peoples and other literatures already, and the readiness
to take advantage of the materials thus supplied.
Romans d'Aventures. These are the three earliest develop-
ments of French literature on the great scale. They led, however,
to a fourth, which, though later in date than all except their
latest forms and far more loosely associated as a group, is so
closely connected with them by literary and social considera-
tions that it had best be mentioned here. This is the roman
d'aventures, a title given to those almost avowedly fictitious
poems which connect themselves, mainly and centrally, neither
with French history, with the Round Table, nor with the heroes
of antiquity. These began to be written in the I3th century, and
continued until the prose form of fiction became generally pre-
ferred. The later forms of the chansons de geste and the Arthurian
poems might indeed be well called romans d'aventures them-
selves. Hugues Capet, for instance, a chanson in form and class of
subject, is certainly one of this latter kind in treatment; and
there is a larger class of semi-Arthurian romance, which so to
speak branches off from the main trunk. But for convenience
sake the definition we have given is preferable. The style and
subject of these romans d'aventures are naturally extremely
various. Guillaume de Palerme deals with the adventures of a
Sicilian prince who is befriended by a were-wolf; Le Roman de
I'escoufle, with a heroine whose ring is carried off by a sparrow-
hawk (escoufle), like Prince Camaralzaman's talisman; Guy of
Warwick, with one of the most famous of imaginary heroes;
Meraugis de Portleguez is a sort of branch or offshoot of the
romances of the Round Table; CUomades, the work of the
trouve're Adenes le Roi, who also rehandled the old chanson
subjects of Ogicr and Berte aux grans pies, connects itself once
more with the Arabian Nights as well as with Chaucer forwards
in the introduction of a flying mechanical horse. There is, in
short, no possibility of classifying their subjects. The habit of
writing in gestes, or of necessarily connecting the new work with
an older one, had ceased to be binding, and the instinct of fiction
writing was free; yet those romans d'aventures do not rank quite
as high in literary importance as the classes which preceded them.
This under-valuation arises rather from a lack of originality and
distinctness of savour than from any shortcomings in treatment.
Their versification, usually octosyllabic, is pleasant enough; but
there is not much distinctness of character about them, and their
incidents often strike the reader with something of the sameness,
but seldom with much of the na!vet6, of those of the older poems.
Nevertheless some of them attained to a very high popularity,
such, for instance, as the Partenopex de Blois of Denis Pyramus,
which has a motive drawn from the story of Cupid and Psyche
and the charming Floire et Blanchefleur, giving the woes of a
FRENCH LITERATURE
[FABLIAUX
Christian prince and a Saracen slave-girl. With them may be
connected a certain number of early romances and fictions of
various dates in prose, none of which can vie in charm with
Aucassin et Nicolette (i3th century), an exquisite literary pre-
sentment of medieval sentiment in its most delightful form.
In these classes may be said to be summed up the literature of
feudal chivalry in France. They were all, except perhaps the last,
aeaeni composed by one class of persons, the trouveres, and
character- performed by another, the jongleurs. The latter,
tstics at indeed, sometimes presumed to compose for himself,
early Or an( ^ was denounced as a troveor batard by the indignant
members of the superior caste. They were all originally
intended to be performed in the palais marberin of the ba.on to
an audience of knights and ladies, and, when reading became
more common, to be read by such persons. They dealt therefore
chiefly, if not exclusively, with the class to" whom they were
addressed. The bourgeois and the villain, personages of political
nonentity at the time of their early composition, come in for
far slighter notice, although occasionally in the few curious
instances we have mentioned, and others, persons of a class
inferior to the seigneur play an important part. The habit of
private wars and of insurrection against the sovereign supply
the motives of the chanson de geste, the love of gallantry,
adventure and foreign travel those of the romances Arthurian
and miscellaneous. None of these motives much affected the
lower classes, who were, with the early developed temper of the
middle- and lower-class Frenchman, already apt to think and
speak cynically enough of tournaments, courts, crusades and
the other occupations of the nobility. The communal system
was springing up, the towns were receiving royal encouragement
as a counterpoise to the authority of the nobles. The corruptions
and maladministration of the church attracted the satire rather
of the citizens and peasantry who suffered by them, than of the
nobles who had less to fear and even something to gain.
< - >n tne otner hand, the gradual spread of learning,
taste. inaccurate and ill-digested perhaps, but still learning,
not only opened up new classes of subjects, but opened
them to new classes of persons. The thousands of students who
flocked to the schools of Paris were not all princes or nobles.
Hence there arose two new classes of literature, the first consisting
of the embodiment of learning of one kind or other in the vulgar
tongue. The other, one of the most remarkable developments of
sportive literature which the world has seen, produced the second
indigenous literary growth of which France can boast, namely,
the fabliaux, and the almost more remarkable work which is an
immense conglomerate of fabliaux, the great beast-epic of the
Roman de Renart.
Fabliaux. There are few literary products which have more
originality and at the same time more diversity than the fabliau.
The epic and the drama, even when they are independently
produced, are similar in their main characteristics all the world
over. But there is nothing in previous literature which exactly
corresponds to the fabliau. It comes nearest to the Aesopic fable
and its eastern origins or parallels. But differs from these
in being less allegorical, less obviously moral (though a moral
of some sort is usually if not always enforced), and in having
a much more direct personal interest. It is in many degrees
further removed from the parable, and many degrees nearer to
the novel. The story is the first thing, the moral the second,
and the latter is never suffered to interfere with the former.
These observations apply only to the fabliaux, properly so called,
but the term has been used with considerable looseness. The
collectors of those interesting pieces, Barbazan, Meon, Le Grand
d'Aussy, have included in their collections large numbers of
miscellaneous pieces such as dits (rhymed descriptions of various
objects, the most famous known author of which was Baudouin
de Cond6, I3th century), and debuts (discussions between two
persons or contrasts of the attributes of two things), sometimes
even short romances, farces and mystery plays. Not that the
fable proper the prose classical beast-story of " Aesop "-
was neglected. Marie de France the poetess to be mentioned
again for her more strictly poetical work is the most literary
of not a few writers who composed what were often, after the
mysterious original poet, named Ysopets. Aesop, Phaedrus,
Babrius were translated and imitated in Latin and in the verna-
cular by this class of writer, and some of the best known of
" fablers " date from this time. The fabliau, on the other
hand, according to the best definition of it yet achieved, is
" the recital, generally comic, of a real or possible incident
occurring in ordinary human life." The comedy, it may be added,
is usually of a satiric kind, and occupies itself with every class
and rank of men, from the king to the villain. There is no limit
to the variety of these lively verse-tales, which are invariably
written in eight-syllabled couplets. Now the subject is the mis-
adventure of two Englishmen, whose ignorance of the French
language makes them confuse donkey and lamb; now it is the
fortunes of an exceedingly foolish knight, who has an amiable
and ingenious mother-in-law; now the deserved sufferings of
an avaricious or ill-behaved priest; now the bringing of an
ungrateful son to a better mind by the wisdom of babes and
sucklings. Not a few of the Canterbury Tales are taken directly
from fabliaux; indeed, Chaucer, with the possible exception of
Prior, is our nearest approach to a fabliau-writer. At the other
end of Europe the prose novels of Boccaccio and other Italian
tale-tellers are largely based upon fabliaux. But their influence
in their own country was the greatest. They were the first
expression of the spirit which has since animated the most
national and popular developments of French literature. Simple
and unpretending as they are in form, the fabliaux announce
not merely the Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles and the Heptameron,
L'Avocat Patelin, and Pantagruel, but also L'Aiiare and the
Roman comique, Gil Bias and Candide. They indeed do more
than merely prophesy the spirit of these great performances
they directly lead to them. The prose-tale and the farce are
the direct outcomes of the fabliau, and the prose-tale and the
farce once given, the novel and the comedy inevitably follow.
The special period of fabliau composition appears to have been
the 1 2th and i3th centuries. It signifies on the one side the
growth of a lighter and more sportive spirit than had social
yet prevailed, on another the rise in importance of itnport-
other and lower orders of men than the priest and the *""* of
noble, on yet another the consciousness on the part *" Uaux '
of these lower orders of the defects of the two privileged classes,
and of the shortcomings of the system of polity under which
these privileged classes enjoyed their privileges. There is, how-
ever, in the fabliau proper not so very much of direct satire, this
being indeed excluded by the definition given above, and by the
thoroughly artistic spirit in which that definition is observed.
The fabliaux are so numerous and so various that it is difficult
to select any as specially representative. We may, however,
mention, both as good examples and as interesting from their
subsequent history, Le Vair Palfroi, treated in English by Leigh
Hunt and by Peacock; Le Vilain Mire, the original consciously
or unconsciously followed in Le Medecin tnalgre Itii; Le Roi
d'Angleterre et le jongleur d'li; La houoe partie; Le Sot Chevalier,
an indecorous but extremely amusing story; Les deux bordeors
ribaus, a dialogue between two jongleurs of great literary interest,
containing allusions to the chansons de geste and romances most
in vogue; and Le itilain qui conquist paradis par plait, one of the
numerous instances of what has unnecessarily puzzled moderns,
the association in medieval times of sincere and unfeigned faith
with extremely free handling of its objects. This lighthearted-
ness in other subjects sometimes bubbled over into the fatrasie,
an almost pure nonsense-piece, parent of the later amphigouri.
Roman de Renart. If the fabliaux are not remarkable for
direct satire, that element is supplied in more than compensat-
ing quantity by an extraordinary composition which is closely
related to them. Le Roman de Renart, or History of Reynard the
Fox, is a poem, or rather series of poems, which, from the end of
the 1 2th to the middle of the i4th century, served the citizen
poets of northern France, not merely as an outlet for literary
expression, but also as a vehicle of satirical comment, now on
the general vices and weaknesses of humanity, now on the usual
corruptions in church and state, now on the various historical
EARLY LYRIC]
FRENCH LITERATURE
events which occupied public attention from time to time. The
enormous popularity of the subject is shown by the long vogue
which it had, and by the empire which it exercised over genera-
tions of writers who differed from each other widely in style and
temper. Nothing can be farther from the allegorical erudition,
the political diatribes and the sermonizing moralities of the
authors of Retort It Contre-fait than the sly naivete of the writers
of the earlier branches. Yet these and a long and unknown
series of intermediate bards the fox-king pressed into his service,
and it is scarcely too much to say that, during the two centuries
of his reign, there was hardly a thought in the popular mind
which, as it rose to the surface, did not find expression in an
addition to the huge cycle of Renart.
We shall not deal with the controversies which have been
raised as to the origin of the poem and its central idea. The
latter may have been a travestie of real persons and actual
events, or it may (and much more probably) have been an
expression of thoughts and experiences which recur in every
generation. France, the Netherlands and Germany have
contended for the honour of producing Renart; French, Flemish,
German and Latin for the honour of first describing him. It is
sufficient to say that the spirit of the work seems to be more
that of the borderland between France and Flanders than of any
other district, and that, wherever the idea may have originally
arisen, it was incomparably more fruitful in France than in
any other country. The French poems which we possess on the
subject amount in all to nearly 100,000 lines, independently
of mere variations, but including the different versions of Renart
le Contre-fait. This vast total is divided into four different
poems. The most ancient and remarkable is that edited by
Meon under the title of Roman du Renart, and containing, with
some additions made by M. Chabaille, 37 branches and about
32,000 lines. It must not, however, be supposed that this total
forms a continuous poem like the Aeneid or Paradise Lost. Part
was pretty certainly written by Pierre de Saint-Cloud, but he
was not the author of the whole. On the contrary, the separate
branches are the work of different authors, haidly any of whom
are known, and, but for their community of subject and to some
extent of treatment, might be regarded as separate poems.
The history of Renart, his victories over Iscngrim, the wolf,
Bruin, the bear, and his other unfortunate rivals, his family
affection, his outwittings of King Noble the Lion and all the
rest, are too well known to need fresh description here. It is
perhaps in the subsequent poems, though they are far less known
and much less amusing, that the hold which the idea of Renart
had obtained on the mind of northern France, and the ingenious
uses to which it was put, are best shown. The first of these
is Le Ctntronnement Renart, a poem of between 3000 and 4000
lines, attributed, on no grounds whatever, to the poetess Marie
de France, and describing how the hero by his ingenuity got
himself crowned king. This poem already shows signs of direct
moral application and generalizing. These are still more apparent
in Renart If Ntnael, a composition of some 8000 lines, finished
in the year 1 288 by the Fleming Jacquemart Git-lee. Here the
personification, of which, in noticing the Roman de la rose, we
shall soon have to give extended mention, becomes evident.
Instead of or at least beside the lively personal Renart who
used to steal sausages, set Isengrim fishing with his tail, or make
use of Chanticleer's comb for a purpose for which it was certainly
never intended, we have Renardie, an abstraction of guile and
hypocrisy, triumphantly prevailing over other and better
qualities. Lastly, as the Raman de la rose of William of Lorris
is paralleled by Renart If Noiael, so its continuation by Jean de
Meung is paralleled by the great miscellany of Renart le Contre-
fail, which, even in its existing versions, extends to fully 50,000
lines. Here we have, besides floods of miscellaneous erudition
and discourse, political argument of the most direct and im-
portant kind. The wrongs of the lower orders are bitterly urged.
They are almost openly incited to revolt; and it is scarcely too
much to say, as M. Lenient has said, that the closely following
Jacquerie is but a practical carrying out of the doctrines of the
anonymous satirists of Renart le Contre-fait, one of whom (if
indeed there wns more than one) appears to have been a clerk
of Troyes.
Early Lyric Poetry. Side by side with these two forms of
literature, the epics and romances of the higher classes, and the
fabliau, which, at least in its original, represented rather the
feelings of the lower, there grew up a third kind, consisting of
purely lyrical poetry. The song literature of medieval France
is extremely abundant and beautiful. From the 1 2th to the
I5th century it received constant accessions, some signed, some
anonymous, some purely popular in their character, some the
work of more learned writers, others again produced by members
of the aristocracy. Of the latter class it may fairly be said that
the catalogue of royal and noble authors boasts few if any names
superior to those of Thibaut de Champagne, king of Navarre
at the beginning of the i3th century, and Charles d'Orleans, the
father of Louis XII., at the beginning of the isth. Although
much of this lyric poetry is anonymous, the more popular part
of it almost entirely so, yet M. Paulin Paris was able to enumerate
some hundreds of French chansonniers between the nth and the
1 3th century. The earliest song literature, chiefly known in the
delightful collection of Bartsch (Altfranzosische Romanzen und
Pastourellen) , is mainly sentimental in character. The collector
divides it under the two heads of romances and pastourelles,
the former being usually the celebration of the loves of a noble
knight and maiden, and recounting how Belle Doette or Eglantine
or Oriour sat at her windows or in the tourney gallery, or em-
broidering silk and samite in her chamber, with her thoughts
on Gerard or Guy or Henry, the latter somewhat monotonous
but naive and often picturesque recitals, very often in the first
person, of the meeting of an errant knight or minstrel with a
shepherdess, and his cavalier but not always successful wooing.
With these, some of which date from the izth century, may be
contrasted, at the other end of the medieval period, the more
varied and popular collection dating in their present form from
the isth century, and published in 1875 by 'M. Gaston Paris.
In both alike, making allowance for the difference of their age
and the state of the language, may be noticed a charming lyrical
faculty and great skill in the elaboration of light and suitable
metres. Especially remarkable is the abundance of refrains of
an admirably melodious kind. It is said that more than 500 of
these exist. Among the lyric writers of these four centuries
whose names are known may be mentioned Audefroi le Bastard
( 1 2th century), the author of the charming song of Belle
Idoine, and others no way inferior.Quesnes de Bethune,
the ancestor of Sully, whose song-writing inclines
to a satirical cast in many instances, the Vidame de Chartres,
Charles d'Anjou, King John of Brienne, the chatelain de Coucy,
Gace Brusle, Colin Muset, while not a few writers mentioned
elsewhere Guyot de Provins, Adam de la Halle, Jean Bodel
and others were also lyrists. But none of them, except perhaps
Audefroi, can compare with Thibaut IV. (1201-1253),
who united by his possessions and ancestry a connexion J*r* "*
with the north and the south, and who employed the pagae.
methods of both districts but used the language of the
north only. Thibaut was supposed to be the lover of Blanche
of Castile, the mother of St Louis, and a great deal of his verse
is concerned with his love for her. But while knights and nobles
were thus employing lyric poetry in courtly and sentimental
verse, lyric forms were being freely employed by others, both of
high and low birth, for more general purposes. Blanche and
Thibaut themselves came in for contemporary lampoons, and both
at this time and in the times immediately following, a cloud of
writers composed light verse, sometimes of a lyric sometimes of a
narrative kind, and sometimes in a mixture of both. By far the
most remarkable of these is Ruteboeuf (a name which Kutetcai f
is perhaps a nickname), the first of a long series of
French poets to whom in recent days the title Bohemian has
been applied, who passed their lives between gaiety and misery,
and celebrated their Jot in both conditions with copious verse.
Ruteboeuf is among the earliest French writers who tell us their
personal history and make personal appeals. But he does not
confine himself to these. He discusses the history of his times,
n6
FRENCH LITERATURE [SATIRIC AND DIDACTIC WORKS
upbraids the nobles for their desertion of the Latin empire of
Constantinople, considers the expediency of crusading, inveighs
against the religious orders, and takes part in the disputes
between the pope and the king. He composes pious poetry too,
and in at least one poem takes care to distinguish between the
church which he venerates and the corrupt churchmen whom
he lampoons. Besides Ruteboeuf the most characteristic figure
of his class and time (about the middle of the i3th century) is
Adam a Adam ^ e ^ a Halle, commonly called the Hunchback
la Halle" ^ Arras. The earlier poems of Adam are of a senti-
mental character, the later ones satirical and somewhat
ill-tempered. Such, for instance, is his invective against his
native city. But his chief importance consists in his jeux, the
Jeu de lafeuillie, the Jeu de Robin et Marion, dramatic composi-
tions which led the way to the regular dramatic form. Indeed
the general tendency of the i3th century is to satire, fable and
farce, even more than to serious or sentimental poetry. We
s should perhaps except the lais, the chief of which
are known under the name of Marie de France. These
lays are exclusively Breton in origin, though not in application,
and the term seems originally to have had reference rather to
the music to which they were sung than to the manner or matter
of the pieces. Some resemblance to these lays may perhaps be
traced in the genuine Breton songs published by M. Luzel. The
subjects of the lais are indifferently taken from the Arthurian
cycle, from ancient story, and from popular tradition, and, at
any rate in Marie's hands, they give occasion for some passionate,
and in the modern sense really romantic, poetry. The most
famous of all is the Lay of the Honeysuckle, traditionally assigned
to Sir Tristram.
Satiric and Didactic Works. Among the direct satirists of
the middle ages, one of the earliest and foremost is Guyot de
Provins, a monk of Clairvaux and Cluny, whose Bible, as he calls
it, contains an elaborate satire on the time (the beginning of the
I3th century), and who was imitated by others, especially
Hugues de Bregy. The same spirit soon betrayed itself in curious
travesties of the romances of chivalry, and sometimes invades
the later specimens of these romances themselves. One of the
earliest examples of this travesty is the remarkable composition
entitled Audigier. This poem, half fabliau and half romance, is
not so much an instance of the heroi-comic poems which after-
wards found so much favour in Italy and elsewhere, as a direct
and ferocious parody of the Carlovingian epic. The hero Audigier
is a model of cowardice and disloyalty; His father and mother,
Turgibus and Rainberge, are deformed and repulsive. The
exploits of the hero himself are coarse and hideous failures, and
the whole poem can only be taken as a counterblast to the spirit
of chivalry. Elsewhere a trouvere, prophetic of Rabelais,
describes a vast battle between all the nations of the world,
the quarrel being suddenly atoned by the arrival of a holy man
bearing a huge flagon of wine. Again, we have the history of a
solemn crusade undertaken by the citizens of a country town
against the neighbouring castle. As erudition and the fancy for
allegory gained ground, satire naturally availed itself of the
opportunity thus afforded it; the disputes of Philippe le Bel
with the pope and the Templars had an immense literary
influence, partly in the concluding portions of the Renart, partly
in the Roman de la rose, still to be mentioned, and partly in other
satiric allegories of which the chief is the romance of Fauvel,
attributed to Francois de Rues. The hero of this is an allegorical
personage, half man and half horse, signifying the union of bestial
degradation with human ingenuity and cunning. Fauvel (the
name, it may be worth while to recall, occurs in Langland) is
a divinity in his way. All the personages of state, from kings and
popes to mendicant friars, pay their court to him.
But this serious and discontented spirit betrays itself also
in compositions which are not parodies or travesties in form.
One of the latest, if not absolutely the latest (for
Baudouia Cuvelier's still later Chronique de Du Guesdin is only a
Seboun. most interesting imitation of the chanson form adapted
to recent events), of the chansons de geste is Baudouin
de Sebourc, one of the members of the great romance or cycle of
romances dealing with the crusades, and entitled Le Chevalier au
Cygne. Baudouin de Sebourc dates from the early years of the
1 4th century. It is strictly a chanson de geste in form, and also
in the general run of its incidents. The hero is dispossessed of
his inheritance by the agency of traitors, fights his battle with
the world and its injustice, and at last prevails over his enemy
Gaufrois, who has succeeded in obtaining the kingdom of Fries-
land and almost that of France. Gaufrois has as his assistants
two personages who were very popular in the poetry of the
time, viz., the Devil, and Money. These two sinister figures
pervade the fabliaux, tales and fantastic literature generally
of the time. M. Lenient, the historian of French satire, has well
remarked that a romance as long as the Renart might be spun out
of the separate short poems of this period which have the Devil
for hero, and many of which form a very interesting transition
between the fabliau and the mystery.' But the Devil is in one
respect a far inferior hero to Renart. He has an adversary in the
Virgin, who constantly upsets his best-laid schemes, and who
does not always treat him quite fairly. The abuse of usury at
the time, and the exactions of the Jews and Lombards, were
severely felt, and Money itself, as personified, figures largely in
the popular literature of the time.
Roman de la Rose. A work of very different importance from
all of these, though with seeming touches of the same spirit,
a work which deserves to take rank among the most
important of the middle ages, is the Roman de la rose,
one of the few really remarkable books which is
the work of two authors, and that not in collaboration but in
continuation one of the other. The author of the earlier part was
Guillaume de Lorris, who lived in the first half of the i3th century;
the author of the later part was Jean de Meung, who was born
about the middle of that century, and whose part in the Roman
dates at least from its extreme end. This great poem exhibits in
its two parts very different characteristics, which yet go to make
up a not inharmonious whole. It is a love poem, and yet it is
satire. But both gallantry and raillery are treated in an entirely
allegorical spirit; and this allegory, while it makes the poem
tedious to hasty appetites of to-day, was exactly what gave it
its charm in the eyes of the middle ages. It might be described
as an Ars amoris crossed with a Quodlibeta. This mixture
exactly hit the taste of the time, and continued to hit it for two
centuries and a half. When its obvious and gallant meaning was
attacked by moralists and theologians, it was easy to quote the
example of the Canticles, and to furnish esoteric explanations of
the allegory. The writers of the i6th century were never tired
of quoting and explaining it. Antojne de Baif, indeed, gave the
simple and obvious meaning, and declared that " La rose c'est
d'amours le guerdon gracieux "; but Marot, on the other hand,
gives us the choice of four mystical interpretations, the rose
being either the state of wisdom, the state of grace, the state of
eternal happiness or the Virgin herself. We cannot here analyse
this celebrated poem. It is sufficient to say that the lover meets
all sorts of obstacles in his pursuit of the rose, though he has for
a guide the metaphorical personage Bel-Accueil. The early part,
which belongs to William of Lorris, is remarkable for its gracious
and fanciful descriptions. Forty years after Lorris's
death, Jean de Meung completed it in an entirely
different spirit. He keeps the allegorical form, and
indeed introduces two new personages of importance, Nature and
Faux-semblant. In the mouths of these personages and of
another, Raison, he puts the most extraordinary mixture of
erudition and satire. At one time we have the history of classical
heroes, at another theories against the hoarding of money, about
astronomy, about the duty of mankind to increase and multiply.
Accounts of the origin of loyalty, which would have cost the poet
his head at some periods of history, and even communistic ideas,
are also to be found here. In Faux-semblant we have a real
creation of the theatrical hypocrite. All this miscellaneous
and apparently incongruous material in fact explains the success
of the poem. It has the one characteristic which has at all times
secured the popularity of great works of literature. It holds
the mirror up firmly and fully to its age. As we find in Rabelais
EARLY DRAMA]
FRENCH LITERATURE
117
the characteristics of the Renaissance, in Montaigne those of
the sceptical reaction from Renaissance and reform alike, in
Molicrc those of the society of France after Richelieu had tamed
and levelled it, in Voltaire and Rousseau respectively the two
aspects of the great revolt, so there are to be found in the Roman
4 la rote the characteristics of the later middle age, its gallantry,
its mysticism, its economical and social troubles and problems,
its scholastic methods of thought, its naive acceptance as science
of everything that is written, and at the same time its shrewd
and indiscriminate criticism of much that the age of criticism
has accepted without doubt or question. The Roman de la rose,
as might be supposed, set the example of an immense literature of
allegorical poetry, which flourished more and more until the
Renaissance. Some of these poems we have already mentioned,
some will have to br considered under the head of the i$th
century. But, as usually happens in such cases and was certain
to happen in this case, the allegory which has seemed tedious to
many, even in the original, became almost intolerable in the
majority of the imitations.
We have observed that, at least in the later section of the
Roman de la rose, there is observable a tendency to import into
the poem indiscriminate erudition. This tendency is
now remote from our poetical habits; but in its own
day it was only the natural result of the use of poetry
for all literary purposes. It was many centuries
before prose became recognized as the proper vehicle for instruc-
tion, and at a very early date verse was used as well for educa-
tional and moral as for recreative and artistic purposes. French
verse was the first born of all literary mediums in modern Euro-
pean speech, and the resources of ancient learning were certainly
not less accessible in France than in any other country. Dante,
in his De vulgari eloquio, acknowledges the excellence of the
didactic writers of the Langue d'Oil. We have already alluded
to the Bestiary of Philippe de Thaun, a Norman trouvere who
lived and wrote in England during the reign of Henry Beauclerc.
Besides the Bestiary, which from its dedication to Queen Adela
has been conjectured to belong to the third decade of the izth
century, Philippe wrote also in French a Liber de creaiuris, both
works being translated from the Latin. These works of mystical
and apocryphal physics and zoology became extremely popular
in the succeeding centuries, and were frequently imitated.
A moralizing turn was also given to them, which was much
helped by the importation of several miscellanies of Oriental
origin, partly tales, partly didactic in character, the most cele-
brated of which is the Roman des sept sages, which, under that
title and the variant of Dolopatkos, received repeated treatment
from French writers both in prose and verse. The odd notion
of an Ofide moralist used to be ascribed to Philippe de Vitry,
bishop of Meaux (i29i?-i39i?), a person complimented by
Petrarch, but is now assigned to a certain Chretien Legonais.
Art, too, soon demanded exposition in verse, as well as science.
The favourite pastime of the chase was repeatedly dealt with,
notably in the Roi Modus (1325), mixed prose and verse; the
Deduits de la chasse (1387), of Gaston de Foix, prose; and the
Tresor de Venerie of Hardouin (1394), verse. Very soon didactic
verse extended itself to all the arts and sciences. Vegetius and
his military precepts had found a home in French octosyllables
as early as the I2th century; the end of the same age saw the
ceremonies of knighthood solemnly versified, and napes (maps)
du monde also soon appeared. At last, in 1245, Gautier of Metz
translated from various Latin works into French verse a sort
of encyclopaedia, while another, incongruous but known as
L'Image du monde, exists from the same century. Profane
knowledge was not the only subject which exercised didactic
poets at this time. Religious handbooks and commentaries on
the scriptures were common in the I3th and following centuries,
and, under the title of Castoiements, Enseignemenls and Doctri-
naux, moral treatises became common. The most famous of
these, the Castoiemenl fun pert A son fits, falls under the class,
already mentioned, of works due to oriental influence, being
derived from the Indian Panckatanlra. In the i4th century the
influence of the Roman de la rose helped to render moral verse
frequent and popular. The same century, moreover, which
witnessed these developments of well-intentioned if not always
judicious erudition witnessed also a considerable change
in lyrical poetry. Hitherto such poetry had chiefly Minaa
been composed in the melodious but unconstrained verse,
forms of the romance and the pastourelle. In the
I4th century the writers of northern France subjected themselves
to severer rules. In this age arose the forms which for so long
a time were to occupy French singers, the ballade, the rondeau,
the rondel, the triolet, the chant royal and others. These
received considerable alterations as time went on. We possess
not a few Aries poeticae, such as that of Eustache Deschamps
at the end of the I4th century, that formerly ascribed to Henri
de Croy and now to Molinet at the end of the isth, and that
of Thomas Sibilet in the i6th, giving particulars of them, and
these particulars show considerable changes. Thus the term
rondeau, which since Villon has been chiefly limited to a poem of
1 5 lines, where the 9th and i $th repeat the first words of the first,
was originally applied both to the rondel, a poem of 13 or 14
lines, where the first two are twice repeated integrally, and to the
triolet, one of 8 only, where the first line occurs three times
and the second twice. The last is an especially popular metre,
and is found where we should least expect it, in the dialogue
of the early farces, the speakers making up triolets between them.
As these three forms are closely connected, so are the ballade
and the chant royal, the latter being an extended and more
stately and difficult version of the former, and the characteristic
of both being the identity of rhyme and refrain in the several
stanzas. It is quite uncertain at what time these fashions were
first cultivated, but the earliest poets who appear to have prac-
tised them extensively were born at the close of the I3th and the
beginning of the i4th centuries. Of these Guillaume de Machault
(c. 1300-1380) is the oldest. He has left us 80,000 verses,
never yet completely printed. Eustache Deschamps (c. 1340-
c. 1410) was nearly as prolific, but more fortunate as more
meritorious, the Soci6t6 des anciens Textes having at last provided
a complete edition of him. Froissart the historian (1333-1410)
was also an agreeable and prolific poet. Deschamps, the most
famous as a poet of the three, has left us nearly 1200 ballades
and nearly 200 rondeaux, besides much other verse all manifest-
ing very considerable poetical powers. Less known but not less
noteworthy, and perhaps the earliest of all , is Jehannot de Lescurel,
whose personality is obscure, and most of whose works are lost,
but whose remains are full of grace. Froissart appears to have
had many countrymen in Hainault and Brabant who devoted
themselves to the art of versification; and the Livre des cent
ballades of the Marshal Boucicault (1366-1421) and his friends
c. 1390 shows that the French gentleman of the I4th century
was as apt at the ballade as his Elizabethan peer in England
was at the sonnet.
Early Drama. Before passing to the prose writers of the
middle ages, we have to take some notice of the dramatic
productions of those times productions of an ex-
tremely interesting character, but, like the immense Mysteries
majority of medieval literature, poetic in form. The 'miracle*.
origin or the revival of dramatic composition in France
has been hotly debated, and it has been sometimes contended
that the tradition of Latin comedy was never entirely lost, but
was handed on chiefly in the convents by adaptations of the
Terentian plays, such as those of the nun Hroswitha. There
is no doubt that the mysteries (subjects taken from the sacred
writings) and miracle plays (subjects taken from the legends of
the saints and the Virgin) are of very early date. The mystery
of the Foolish Virgins (partly French, partly Latin), that of
Adam and perhaps that of Daniel, are of the i2th century,
though due to unknown authors. Jean Bodel and Ruteboeuf,
already mentioned, gave, the one that of Saint Nicolas at the
confines of the I2th and I3th, the other that of Thtophile later
in the I3th itself. But the later moralities, soties, and farces
seem to be also in part a very probable development of the
simpler and earlier forms of the fabliau and of the tenson or jeu-
parti, a poem in simple dialogue much used by both troubadours
n8
FRENCH LITERATURE
[PROSE HISTORY
and trouveres. The fabliau has been sufficiently dealt with
already. It chiefly supplied the subject; and some miracle-
plays and farces are little more than fabliaux thrown into
dialogue. Of the jeux-partis there are many examples, varying
from very simple questions and answers to something like regular
dramatic dialogue; even short romances, such as Aucassin el
Nicolette, were easily susceptible of dramatization. But the
Jeu de la feuillie (or feuillee) of Adam de la Halle seems to be
the earliest piece, profane in subject, containing something more
than mere dialogue. The poet has not indeed gone far for his
subject, for he brings in his own wife, father and friends, the
interest being complicated by the introduction of stock characters
(the doctor, the monk, the fool), and of certainfairies personages
already popular from the later romances of chivalry. Another
piece of Adam's, Le Jeu de Robin et Marion, also already alluded
to, is little more than a simple throwing into action of an ordinary
pastourelle with a considerable number of songs to music. Never-
theless later criticism has seen, and not unreasonably, in these
two pieces the origin in the one case of farce, and thus indirectly
of comedy proper, in the other of comic opera.
For a long time, however, the mystery and miracle-plays
remained the staple of theatrical performance, and until the
i3th century actors as well as performers were more or less taken
from the clergy. It has, indeed, been well pointed out that the
offices of the church were themselves dramatic performances,
and required little more than development at the hands of the
mystery writers. The occasional festive outbursts, such as the
Feast of Fools, that of the Boy Bishop and the rest, helped on
the development. The variety of mysteries and miracles was
very great. A single manuscript contains forty miracles of the
Virgin, averaging from 1200 to 1500 lines each, written in octo-
syllabic couplets, and at least as old as the i4th century, most
of them perhaps much earlier. The mysteries proper, or plays
taken from the scriptures, are older still. Many of these are
exceedingly long. There is a Mystere de I'Anden Testament,
which extends to many volumes, and must have taken weeks
to act in its entirety. The Myslere de la Passion, though not
quite so long, took several days, and recounts the whole history
of the gospels. The best apparently of the authors of these
pieces, which are mostly anonymous, were two brothers, Arnoul
and Simon Greban (authors of the Actes des apolres, and in the
first case of the Passion), c. 1450, while a certain Jean Michel
(d. 1493) is credited with having continued the Passion from
30,000 lines to 50,000. But these performances, though they
held their ground until the middle of the i6th century and
extended their range of subject from sacred to profane history
legendary as in the Destruction de Troie, contemporary as in the
Stige d'Orlfansvteie soon rivalled by the more profane
performances of the moralities, the farces and the
soties. The palmy time of all these three kinds is
the isth century, while the Confr6rie de la Passion itself, the
special performers of the sacred drama, only obtained the licence
constituting it by an ordinance of Charles VI. in 1402. In order,
however, to take in the whole of the medieval theatre at a glance,
we may anticipate a little. The Confraternity was not itself
the author or performer of the profaner kind of dramatic perform-
ance. This latter was due to two other bodies, the clerks of the
Bazoche and the Enfans sans Souci. As the Confraternity was
chiefly composed of tradesmen and persons very similar to Peter
Quince and his associates, so the clerks of the Bazoche were
members of the legal profession of Paris, and the Enfans sans
Souci were mostly young men of family. The morality was the
special property of the first, the sotie of the second. But as the
moralities were sometimes decidedly tedious plays, though by
no means brief, they were varied by the introduction of farces,
of which the jeux already mentioned were the early germ, and of
which L'Avocat Patelin, dated by some about 1465 and certainly
about 200 years subsequent to Adam de la Halle, is the most
famous example.
The morality was the natural result on the stage of the immense
literary popularity of allegory in the Roman de la rose and its
imitations. There is hardly an abstraction, a virtue, a vice, a
disease, or anything else of the kind, which does not figure in
these compositions. There is Bien Advise and Mai Advise, the
good boy and the bad boy of nursery stories, who fall
in respectively with Faith, Reason and Humility, and
with Rashness, Luxury and Folly. There is the hero Mange-
Tout, who is invited to dinner by Banquet, and meets after
dinner very unpleasant company in Colique, Goutte and Hydro-
pisie. Honte-de-dire-ses-P6ches might seem an anticipation of
Puritan nomenclature to an English reader who did not re-
member the contemporary or even earlier personae of Langland's
poem. Some of these moralities possess distinct dramatic merit;
among these is mentioned Les Blasphemateurs, an early and re-
markable presentation of the Don Juan story. But their general
character appears to be gravity, not to say dullness. The Enfans
sans Souci, on the other hand, were definitely satirical, and
nothing if not amusing. The chief of the society was entitled
Prince des Sots, and his crown was a hood decorated
with asses' ears. The sotie was directly satirical, and
only assumed the guise of folly as a stalking-horse for shooting
wit. It was more Aristophanic than any other modern form of
comedy, and like its predecessor, it perished as a result of its
political application. Encouraged for a moment as a political
engine at the beginning of the i6th century, it was soon absolutely
forbidden and put down, and had to give place in one direction
to the lampoon and the prose pamphlet, in another to forms of
comic satire more general and vague in their scope. The farce,
on the other hand, having neither moral purpose nor political
intention, was a purer work of art, enjoyed a wider range of sub-
ject, and was in no danger of any permanent extinction. Farcical
interludes were interpolated in the mysteries themselves; short
farces introduced and rendered palatable the moralities, while
the sotie was itself but a variety of farce, and all the kinds were
sometimes combined in a sort of tetralogy. It was a short
composition, 500 verses being considered sufficient, while the
morality might run to at least 1000 verses, the miracle-play to
nearly double that number, and the mystery to some 40,000 or
50,000, or indeed to any length that the author could find in his
heart to bestow upon the audience, or the audience in their
patience to suffer from the author. The number of persons and
societies who acted these performances grew to be very large,
being estimated at more than 5000 towards the end of the isth
century. Many fantastic personages came to join the Prince des
Sots, such as the Empereur de Galilee, the Princes de 1'Etrille,
and des Nouveaux Maries, the Roi de 1'Epinette, the Recteur
des Fous. Of the pieces which these societies represented one
only, that of Matlre Patelin, is now much known; but many
are almost equally amusing. Patelin itself has an immense
number of versions and editions. Other farces are too numerous
to attempt to classify; they bear, however, in their subjects,
as in their manner, a remarkable resemblance to the fabliaux,
their source. Conjugal disagreements, the unpleasantness of
mothers-in-law, the shifty or, in the earlier stages, clumsy valet
and chambermaid, the mishaps of too loosely given ecclesiastics,
the abuses of relics and pardons, the extortion, violence, and
sometimes cowardice of the seigneur and the soldiery, the cor-
ruption of justice, its delays and its pompous apparatus, supply
the subjects. The treatment is rather narrative than dramatic
in most cases, as might be expected, but makes up by the liveli-
ness of the dialogue for the deficiency of elaborately planned
action and interest. All these forms, it will be observed, are
directly or indirectly comic. Tragedy in the middle ages is
represented only by the religious drama, except for a brief period
towards the decline of that form, when the " profane " mysteries
referred to above came to be represented. These were, however,
rather " histories," in the Elizabethan sense, than tragedies
proper.
Prose History. In France, as in all other countries of whose
literary developments we have any record, literature in prose
is considerably later than literature in verse. We have
certain glosses or vocabularies possibly dating as far
back as the 8th or even the ;th century; we have the
Strassburg oaths, already described, of the pth, and a commentary
15THCENTIRY]
FRENCH LITERATURE
119
on the prophet Jonas which is probably as early. In the loth
century there are some charters and muniments in the verna-
cular; of the nth the laws of William the Conqueror are the
most important document; while the Assists de Jerusalem of
Godfrey of Bouillon date, t hough not in the form in which we now
possess them, from the same age. The nth century gives us
certain translations of the Scriptures,, and the remarkable
Arthurian romances already alluded to; and thenceforward
French prose, though long less favoured than verse, begins to
grow in importance. History, as is natural, was the first subject
which gave it a really satisfactory opportunity of developing its
powers. For a time the French chroniclers contented themselves
with Latin prose or with French verse, after the fashion of Wace
and the Belgian, Philippe Mouskes (1215-1283). These, after a
fashion universal in medieval times, began from fabulous or
merely literary origins, and just as Wyntoun later carries back
the history of Scotland to the terrestrial paradise, so does
Mouskes stan that of France from the rape of Helen. But soon
prose chronicles, first translated, then original, became common;
the earliest of all is said to have been that of the pseudo-Turpin,
which thus recovered in prose the language which had originally
clothed it in verse, and which, to gain a false appearance of
authenticity, it had exchanged still earlier for Latin. Then came
French selections and versions from the great series of historical
compositions undertaken by the monks of St Denys, the so-called
Grandes Ckroniques de France from the date of 1274, when they
first took form in the hands of a monk styled Primal , to the reign
of Charles V., when they assumed the title just given. But the
first really remarkable author who used French prose as a vehicle
of historical expression is Geoffroi de Villehardouin, marshal of
Champagne, who was born rather after the middle of the I2th
century, and died in Greece in 1 21 2. Under the title of Conquete
de Constanlinoble Villehardouin has left us a history
of the fourth crusade, which has been accepted by all
competent judges as the best picture extant of feudal
chivalry in its prime. The Conquete de Constantinoble has been
well called a chanson de geste in prose, and indeed in the sur-
prising nature of the feats it celebrates, in the abundance of detail,
and in the vivid and picturesque poetry of the narration, it
equals the very best of the chansons. Even the repetition of
the same phrases which is characteristic of epic poetry repeats
itself in this epic prose; and as in the chansons so in Villehardouin,
few motives appear but religious fervour and the love of fighting,
though neither of these excludes a lively appetite for booty and
a constant tendency to disunion and disorder. Villehardouin
was continued by Henri de Valenciennes, whose work is less
remarkable, and has more the appearance of a rhymed chronicle
thrown into prose, a process which is known to have been
actually applied in some cases. Nor is the transition from
Villehardouin to Jean de Join ville (considerable in point of time,
for Joinville was not born till ten years after Villehardouin 's
death) in point of literary history immediate. The rhymed
chronicles of Philippe Mouskes and Guillaume Guiart belong to
this interval; and in prose the most remarkable works are the
Ckroniqut de Reims, a well-written history, having the interesting
characteristics of taking the lay and popular side, and the great
compilation edited (in the modern sense) by Baudouin d'Avcsncs
^j m ^ (1213-1289). Joinville (? 1224-1317), whose special
subject is the Life of St Louis, is far more modern than
even the half-century which separates him from Villehardouin
would lead us to suppose. There is nothing of the knight-
errant about him personally, notwithstanding his devotion to his
hero. Our Lady of the Broken Lances is far from being his
favourite saint. He is an admirable writer, but far less simple
than Villehardouin; the good King Louis tries in vain to make
him share his own rather high-flown devotion. Joinville is shrewd,
practical, there is even a touch of the Voltairean about him;
but he, unlike his predecessor, has political ideas and antiquarian
curiosity, and his descriptions are often very creditable pieces of
deliberate literature.
It is very remarkable that each of the three last centuries
of feudalism should have had one specially and extraordinarily
gifted chronicler to describe it. What Villehardouin is to the
1 2th and Joinville to the i.<th century, that Jean Froissart
(1337-1410) is to the I4th. His picture is the most
famous as it is the most varied of the three, but it has
special drawbacks as well as special merits. French critics have
indeed been scarcely fair to Froissart, because of his early
partiality to our own nation in the great quarrel of the time,
forgetting that there was really no reason why he as a Hainaulter
should take the French side. But there is no doubt that if the
duty of an historian is to take in all the political problems of
his time, Froissart certainly comes short of it. Although the
feudal state in which knights and churchmen were alone of
estimation was at the point of death, and though new orders of
society were becoming important, though the distress and
confusion of a transition state were evident to all, Froissart
takes no notice of them. Society is still to him all knights and
ladies, tournaments, skirmishes and feasts. He depicts these,
not like Joinville, still less like Villehardouin, as a sharer in them,
but with the facile and picturesque pen of a sympathizing literary
onlooker. As the comparison of the Conqutle de Constanlinoble
with a chanson da geste is inevitable, so is that of Froissart's
Chronique with a roman d'aventures.
For Provencal Literature see the separate article under that
heading.
151)1 Century. The isth century holds a peculiar and some-
what disputed position in the history of French literature, as,
indeed, it does in the history of the literature of all Europe,
except Italy. It has sometimes been regarded as the final stage
of the medieval period, sometimes as the earliest of the modern,
the influence of the Renaissance in Italy already filtering through.
Others again have taken the easy step of marking it as an age
of transition. There is as usual truth in all these views.
Feudality died with Froissart and Eustache Deschamps. The
modern spirit can hardly be said to arise before Rabelais and
Ronsard. Yet the isth century, from the point of view of
French literature, is much more remarkable than its historians
have been wont to confess. It has not the strongly marked and
compact originality of some periods, and it furnishes only one
name of the highest order of literary interest; but it abounds
in names of the second rank, and the very difference which
exists between their styles and characters testifies to the existence
of a large number of separate forces working in their different
manners on different persons. Its theatre we have already
treated by anticipation, and to it we shall afterwards recur. It
was the palmy time of the early French stage, and all the dramatic
styles which we have enumerated then came to perfection. Of
no other kind of literature can the same be said. The century
which witnessed the invention of printing naturally devoted
itself at first more to the spreading of old literature than to the
production of new. Yet as it perfected the early drama, so it-
produced the prose tale. Nor, as regards individual and single
names, can the century of Charles d'Orleans, of Alain Chartier, of
Christine de Pisan, of Coquillart, of Comines, and, above all, of
Villon, be said to lack illustrations.
First among the poets of the period falls to be mentioned the
shadowy personality of Olivier Basselin. Modern criticism
has attacked the identity of the jovial miller, who
was once supposed to have written and perhaps
invented the songs called vaux de vire, and to have
also carried on a patriotic warfare against the English. But
though Jean le Houx may have written the poems published
under Basselin's name two centuries later, it is taken as certain
that an actual Olivier wrote actual vaux de vire at the beginning
of the isth century. About Christine de Pisan (1363-1430) and
Alain Chartier (1392-6. 1430) there is no such doubt. Christine
was the daughter of an Italian astrologer who was patronized by
Charles V. She was born in Italy but brought up in France, and
she enriched the literature of her adopted country
with much learning, good sense and patriotism. She
wrote history, devotional works and poetry; and
though her literary merit is not of the highest, it is very far from
despicable. Alain Chartier, best known to modern readers by
120
FRENCH LITERATURE
[ISTH CENTURY
the story of Margaret of Scotland's Kiss, was a writer of a some-
what similar character. In both Christine and Chartier there is
a great deal of rather heavy moralizing, and a great deal of rather
pedantic erudition. But it is only fair to remember that the
intolerable political and social evils of the day called for a good
deal of moralizing, and that it was the function of the writers
of this time to fill up as well as they could the scantily filled
vessels of medieval science and learning. A very different
person is Charles d'Orleans (1391-1465), one of the
d^Ortiaas. greatest of grands seigneurs, for he was the father
of a king of France, and heir to the duchies of Orleans
and Milan. Charles, indeed, if not a Roland or a Bayard, was an
admirable poet. He is the best-known and perhaps the best
writer of the graceful poems in which an artificial versification
is strictly observed, and helps by its recurrent lines and modulated
rhymes to give to poetry something of a musical accompaniment
even without the addition of music properly so called. His ballades
are certainly inferior to those of Villon, but his rondels are un-
equalled. For fully a century and a half these forms engrossed
the attention of French lyrical poets. Exercises in them were
produced in enormous numbers, and of an excellence which has
only recently obtained full recognition even in France. Charles
d'Orleans is himself sufficient proof of what can be done in them
in the way of elegance, sweetness, and grace which some have
unjustly called effeminacy. But that this effeminacy was no
natural or inevitable fault of the ballades and the rondeaux
was fully proved by the most remarkable literary figure of the
15th century in France. To Francois Villon (1431-1463 ?),
yj a a as to other great single writers, no attempt can be
made to do justice in this place. His remarkable
life and character especially lie outside our subject. But he is
universally recognized as the most important single figure of
French literature before the Renaissance. His work is very
strange in form, the undoubtedly genuine part of it consisting
merely of two compositions, known as the great and little
Testament, written in stanzas of eight lines of eight syllables
each, with lyrical compositions in ballade and rondeau form
interspersed. Nothing in old French literature can compare
with the best of these, such as the " Ballade des dames du
temps jadis," the " Ballade pour sa mere," " La Grosse Margot,"
" Les Regrets de la belle Heaulmiere," and others; while the
whole composition is full of poetical traits of the most extra-
ordinary vigour, picturesqueness and pathos. Towards the end
of the century the poetical production of the time became very
large. The artificial measures already alluded to, and others
far more artificial and infinitely less beautiful, were largely
practised. The typical poet of the end of the isth century is
Guillaume Cretin (d. 1525), who distinguished himself by writing
verses with punning rhymes, verses ending with double or treble
repetitionsof thesamesound, andmany other tasteless absurdities,
in which, as Pasquier remarks, " il perdit toute la grace et la
Cretin liberte de la composition." The other favourite
direction of the poetry of the time was a vein of
allegorical moralizing drawn from the Roman de la rose through
the medium of Chartier and Christine, which produced " Castles
of Love," " Temples of Honour,"and such like. The combination
of these drifts in verse-writing produced a school known in
literary history, from a happy phrase of the satirist Coquillart
(.in/.),asthe "GrandsRhetoriqueurs." Thechiefof thesebesides
Cretin were Jean Molinet (d. 1507); Jean Meschinot (c. 1420-
1491), author of the Lunettes des princes; Florimond Robertet
(d. 1522); Georges Chastellain (1404-1475), to be mentioned
again; and Octavien de Saint-Gelais (1466-1502), father of a
better poet than himself. Yet some of the minor poets of the
time are not to be despised. Such are Henri Baude (1430-1490), a
less pedantic writer than most, Martial d'Auvergne (1440-1508),
whose principal work is L'Amant rendu cordelier au service de
I'amour, and others, many of whom formed part of the poetical
court which Charles d'Orldans kept up at Blois after his release.
While the serious poetry of the age took this turn, there was
no lack of lighter and satirical verse. Villon, indeed, were it
not for the depth and pathos of his poetical sentiment, might
be claimed as a poet of the lighter order, and the patriotic
diatribes against the English to which we have alluded easily
passed into satire. The political quarrels of the latter part of
the century also provoked much satirical composition. The
disputes of the Bien Public and those between Louis XI. and
Charles of Burgundy employed many pens. The most remark-
able piece of the light literature of the first is " Les Anes Volants,"
a ballad on some of the early favourites of Louis. The battles
of France and Burgundy were waged on paper between Gilles
des Ormes and the above-named Georges Chastelain, typical
representatives of the two styles of isth-century poetry already
alluded to Des Ormes being the lighter and more graceful
writer, Chastelain a pompous and learned allegorist. The most
remarkable representative of purely light poetry outside the
theatre is Guillaume Coquillart (1421-1510), a lawyer
of Champagne, who resided for the greater part of his ^"
life in Reims. This city, like others, suffered from the
pitiless tyranny of Louis XI. The beginnings of the standing
army which Charles VII. had started were extremely unpopular,
and the use to which his son put them by no means removed
this unpopularity. Coquillart described the military man of the
period in his Monologue du gendarme casse. Again, when the
king entertained the idea of unifying the taxes and laws of the
different provinces, Coquillart, who was named commissioner for
this purpose, wrote on the occasion a satire called Les Droits
nouveaux. A certain kind of satire, much less good-tempered
than the earlier forms, became indeed common at this epoch.
M. Lenient has well pointed out that a new satirical personifica-
tion dominates this literature. It is no longer Renart with his
cynical gaiety, or the curiously travestied and almost amiable
Devil of the Middle Ages. Now it is Death as an incident ever
present to the imagination, celebrated in the thousand repetitions
of the Danse Macabre, sculptured all over the buildings of the
time, even frequently performed on holidays and in public. With
the usual tendency to follow pattern, the idea of the " dance "
seems to have been extended, and we have a Danse aux aveugles
(1464) from Pierre Michaut, where the teachers are fortune,
love and death, all blind. All through the century, too, anony-
mous verse of the lighter kind was written, some of it of great
merit. The folk-songs already alluded to, published by Gaston
Paris, show one side of this composition, and many of the pieces
contained in M. de Montaiglon's extensive Recueil des anciennes
poesies franc. aises exhibit others.
The i sth century was perhaps more remarkable for its achieve-
ments in prose than in poetry. It produced, indeed, no prose
writer of great distinction, except Comines; but it witnessed
serious, if not extremely successful, efforts at prose composition.
The invention of printing finally substituted the reader for the
listener, and when this substitution has been effected, the main
inducement to treat unsuitable subjects in verse is gone. The
study of the classics at first hand contributed to the same end.
As early as 1458 the university of Paris had a Greek professor.
But long before this time translations in prose had been made.
Pierre Bercheure (Bersuire) (1290-1352) had already translated
Livy. Nicholas Oresme (c. 1334-1382), the tutor of Charles V.,
gave a version of certain Aristotelian works, which enriched
the language with a large number of terms, then strange enough,
now familiar. Raoul de Presles (1316-1383) turned into French
the De civitate Dei of St Augustine. These writers or others
composed Le Songe du vergier, an elaborate discussion of the
power of the pope. The famous chancellor, Jean Charlier or
Gerson (1363-1429), to whom the Imitation has among so many
others been attributed, spoke constantly and wrote often in the
vulgar tongue, though he attacked the most famous and popular
work in that tongue, the Roman de la rose. Christine de Pisan
and Alain Chartier were at least as much prose writers as poets;
and the latter, while he, like Gerson, dealt much with the reform
of the church, used in his Quadriloge inveclif really forcible
language for the purpose of spurring on the nobles of France
to put an end to her sufferings and evils. These moral and
didactic treatises were but continuations of others, which for
convenience sake we have hitherto left unnoticed. Though
i6TH CENTURY]
FRENCH LITERATURE
121
verse was in the centuries prior to the isth the favourite medium
for literary composition, it was by no means the only one; and
moral and educational treatises some referred toabove already
existed in pedestrian phrase. Certain household books (Litres de
raiso*) have been preserved, some of which date as far back
as the 13th century. These contain not merely accounts, but
family chronicles, receipts and the like. Accounts of travel,
especially to the Holy Land, culminated in the famous Voyage
of Mandeville which, though it has never been of so much import-
ance in French as in English, perhaps first took vernacular
form in the French tongue. Of the Mth century, we have a
Ueimgier de Paris, intended for the instruction of a young wife,
and a large number of miscellaneous treatises of art, science
and morality, while private letters, mostly as yet unpublished,
exist in considerable numbers, and are generally of the moralizing
character; books of devotion, too, are naturally frequent.
But the most important divisions of medieval energy in prose
composition are the spoken exercises of the pulpit and the bar.
The beginnings of French sermons have been much
discussed, especially the question whether St Bernard,
whose discourses we possess in ancient, but doubtfully
contemporary French, pronounced them in that
language or in Latin. Towards the end of the 12th century,
however, the sermons of Maurice de Sully (1160-1196) present
the first undoubted examples of homiletics in the vernacular,
and they are followed by many others so many indeed that the
ijth century alone counts 261 sermon-writers, besides a large
body of anonymous work. These sermons were, as might indeed
be expected, chiefly cast in a somewhat scholastic form theme,
exordium, development, example and 1 peroration following
in regular order. The 14th-century sermons, on the other hand,
have as yet been little investigated. It must, however, be
remembered that this age was the most famous of all for its
scholastic illustrations, and for the early vigour of the Dominican
and Franciscan orders. With the end of the century and the
beginning of the ijth, the importance of the pulpit begins to
revive. The early years of the new age have Gerson for their
representative, while the end of the century sees the still more
famous names of Michel Menot (1450-1518), Olivier Maillard
(c. 1430-1502), and Jean Rauhn (1443-1514), all remarkable
for the practice of a vigorous and homely style of oratory, recoil-
ing before no aid of what we should nowadays style buffoonery,
and manifesting a creditable indifference to the indignation of
principalities and powers. Louis XI. is said to have threatened
to throw Maillard into the Seine, and many instances of the bold-
ness of these preachers and the rough vigour of their oratory
have been preserved. Froissart had been followed as a chronicler
by Enguerrand de Monstrelet (c. 1300-1453) and by the historio-
graphers of the Burgundian court, Chastelain, already mentioned,
whole interesting Chronique de Jacques de Lalaing is much the
most attractive part of his work, and Olivier de la Marche. The
memoir and chronicle writers, who were to be of so much import-
ance in French literature, also begin to be numerous at this
period. Juvenal des Ursins (1388-1473), an anonymous bourgeois
de Paris (two such indeed), and the author of the Chronique
scondaieuse, may be mentioned as presenting the character of
minute observation and record which has distinguished the
class ever since. Jean le maire de (not des) Beiges (i 473-*;. 1525)
was historiographer to Louis XII. and wrote Illustrations des
Guides. But Comines (1445-1509) is no imitator of Froissart
Com/net or f an Y one e ' se - The last of the quartette of great
French medieval historians, he does not yield to any
of his three predecessors in originality or merit, but he is very
different from them. He fully represents the mania of the time
for statecraft, and his book has long ranked with that of Machia-
velli as a manual of the art, though he has not the absolutely
non-moral character of the Italian. His memoirs, considered
merely as literature, show a style well suited to their purport,
not, indeed, brilliant or picturesque, but clear, terse and
thoroughly well suited to the expression of the acuteness, observa-
tion and common sense of their author.
But prose was not content with the domain of serious literature.
It had already long possessed a respectable position as a vehicle
of romance, and the end of the 141(1 and the beginning of the
1 5th centuries were pre-eminently the time when
the epics of chivalry were re-edited and extended in e Ceat
prose. Few, however, of these extensions offer much
literary interest. On the other hand, the best prose of
the century, and almost 'the earliest which deserves the title of
a satisfactory literary medium, was employed for the telling
of romances in miniature. The Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles is
undoubtedly the first work of prose belles-lettres in French,
and the first, moreover, of a long and most remarkable class
of literary work in which French writers may challenge all
comers with the certainty of victory the short prose tale
of a comic character. This remarkable work has usually been
attributed, like the somewhat similar but later Heptameron,
to a knot of literary courtiers gathered round a royal personage,
in this case the dauphin Louis, afterwards Louis XI. Some
evidence has recently been produced which seems to show that
this tradition, which attributed some of the tales to Louis
himself, is erroneous, but the question is still undecided. The
subjects of the Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles are by no means new.
They are simply the old themes of the fabliaux treated in the
old way. The novelty is in the application of prose to such a
purpose, and in the crispness, the fluency and the elegance of
the prose used. The fortunate author or editor to whom these
admirable tales have of late been attributed is Antoine de la
Salle (1398-1461), who, if this attribution and certain
others be correct, must be allowed to be one of the
most original and fertile authors of early French litera-
ture. La Salle's one acknowledged work is the story
of Petit Jehan de Saintre, a short romance exhibiting great com-
mand of character and abundance of delicate draughtsmanship.
To this not only the authorship, part-authorship or editorship
of the Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles has been added; but the still
more famous and important work of L'Avocat Patelin has been
assigned by respectable, though of course conjecturing, authority
to the same paternity. The generosity of critics towards La
Salle has not even stopped here. A fourth masterpiece of the
period, Les Quinze Joies de manage, has also been assigned
to him. This last work, like the other three, is satirical in subject,
and shows for the time a wonderful mastery of the language.
Of the fifteen joys of marriage, or, in other words, the fifteen
miseries of husbands, each has a chapter assigned to it, and each
is treated with the peculiar mixture of gravity and ridicule which
it requires. All who have read the book confess its infinite wit
and the grace of its style. It is true that it has been reproached
with cruelty and with a lack of the moral sentiment. But
humanity and morality were not the strong point of the 15th
century. There is, it must be admitted, about most of its
productions a lack of poetry and a lack of imagination, produced,
it may be, partly by political and other conditions outside litera-
ture, but very observable in it. The old forms of literature
itself had lost their interest, and new ones possessing /fl/7ueoee
strength to last and power to develop themselves ofihc
had not yet appeared. It was impossible, even if the Kenaii-
taste for it had survived, to spin out the old themes * aace -
any longer. But the new forces required some time to set to
work, and to avail themselves of the tremendous weapon which
the press had put into their hands. When these things had
adjusted themselves, literature of a varied and vigorous kind
became once more possible and indeed necessary, nor did it
take long to make its appearance.
i6th Century. In no country was the literary result of the
Renaissance more striking and more manifold than in France.
The double effect of the study of antiquity and the reb'gious
movement produced an outburst of literary developments of the
most diverse kinds, which even the fierce and sanguinary civil
dissensions of the Reformation did not succeed in checking.
While the Renaissance in Italy had mainly exhausted its effects
by the middle of the i6th century, while in Germany those effects
only paved the way for a national literature, and did not them-
selves greatly contribute thereto, while in England it was not
122
FRENCH LITERATURE
[16TH-CENTURY POETRY
till the extreme end of the period that a great literature was
forthcoming in France almost the whole century was marked
by the production of capital works in every branch of literary
effort. Not even the i;th century, and certainly not the i8th,
can show such a group of prose writers and poets as is formed
by Calvin, St Francis de Sales, Montaigne, du Vair, Bodin,
d'Aubigne, the authors of the Satire Menippee, Monluc,
Brantome, Pasquier, Rabelais, des Periers, Herberay des Essarts,
Amyot, Gamier, Marot, Ronsard and the rest of the " Pleiade,"
and finally Regnier. These great writers are not merely remark-
able for the vigour and originality of their thoughts, the freshness,
variety and grace of their fancy, the abundance of their learning
and the solidity of their arguments in the cases where argument
is required. Their great merit is the creation of a language and
a style able to give expression to these good gifts. The foregoing
account of the medieval literature of France will have shown
sufficiently that it is not lawful to despise the literary capacities
and achievements of the older French. But the old language,
with all its merits, was ill-suited to be a vehicle for any but
the simpler forms of literary composition. Pleasant or affecting
tales could be told in it with interest and pathos. Songs of charm-
ing naivete and grace could be sung; the requirements of the
epic and the chronicle were suitably furnished. But it was barren
of the terms of art and science; it did not readily lend itself to
sustained eloquence, to impassioned poetry or to logical discus-
sion. It had been too long accustomed to leave these things to
Latin as their natural and legitimate exponent, and it bore
marks of its original character as a lingua rustica, a tongue suited
for homely conversation, for folk-lore and for ballads, rather than
for the business of the forum and the court, the speculations of
the study, and the declamation of the theatre. Efforts had indeed
been made, culminating in the heavy and tasteless erudition of
the schools of Chartier and Cretin, to supply the defect; but
it was reserved for the i6th century completely to efface it.
The series of prose writers from Calvin to Montaigne, of poets
from Marot to Regnier, elaborated a language yielding to no
modern tongue in beauty, richness, flexibility and strength,
a language which the reactionary purism of succeeding genera-
tions defaced rather than improved, and the merits of which have
in still later days been triumphantly vindicated by the confession
and the practice of all the greatest writers of modern France.
i6th-Century Poetry. The first few years of the i6th century
were naturally occupied rather with the last developments of
the medieval forms than with the production of the new model.
The clerks of the Bazoche and the Confraternity of the Passion
still produced and acted mysteries, moralities and farces. The
poets of the " Grands Rhetoriqueurs " school still wrote elaborate
allegorical poetry. Chansons de geste, rhymed romances and
fabliaux had long ceased to be written. But the press was
multiplying the contents of the former in the prose form which
they had finally assumed, and in the Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles
there already existed admirable specimens of the short prose tale.
There even were signs, as in some writers already mentioned and
in Roger de Collerye, a lackpenny but light-hearted singer of
the early part of the century, of definite enfranchisement in
verse. But the first note of the new literature was sounded by
Clement Marot (1496/7-1544). The son of an elder
poet, Jehan des Mares called Marot (1463-1523),
Clement at first wrote, like his father's contemporaries, allegorical
and mythological poetry, afterwards collected in a volume with
a charming title, L' Adolescence Clementine. It was not till he was
nearly thirty years old that his work became really remarkable.
From that time forward till his death, about twenty years after-
wards, he was much involved in the troubles and persecutions
of the Huguenot party to which he belonged; nor was the pro-
tection of Marguerite d'Angoulfeme, the chief patroness of
Huguenots and men of letters, always efficient. But his troubles,
so far from harming, helped his literary faculties; and his epistles,
epigrams, blazons (descendants of the medieval dils), and coq-d-
I'&ne became remarkable for their easy and polished style, their
light and graceful wit, and a certain elegance which had not as
yet been even attempted in any modern tongue, though the
Marot.
Italian humanists had not been far from it in some of their
Latin compositions. Around Marot arose a whole school of
disciples and imitators, such as Victor Brodeau (i47<D?-i54o),
the great authority on rondeaux, Maurice Sceve, a fertile author
of blasons, Salel, Marguerite herself (1492-1549), of whom more
hereafter, and Mellin de Saint Gelais (1491-1558). The last,
son of the bishop named above, is a courtly writer of occasional
pieces, who sustained as well as he could the style marotique
against Ronsard, and who has the credit of introducing the
regular sonnet into French. But the inventive vigour of the age
was so great that one school had hardly become popular before
another pushed it from its stool, and even of the Marotists
just mentioned Sceve and Salel are often regarded as chief and
member respectively of a Lyonnese coterie, intermediate between
the schools of Marot and of Ronsard, containing other members
of repute such as Antoine Heroet and Charles Fontaine and
claiming Louise Labe (. inf.) herself. Pierre de Koasard
Ronsard (1524-1585) was the chief of this latter. At
first a courtier and a diplomatist, physical disqualification made
him change his career. He began to study the classics under
Jean Daurat (1508-1588), and with his master and five other
writers, fitienne Jodelle (1532-1573), Remy Belleau (1528-1577),
Joachim du Bellay (1525-1560), Jean Antoine de Baif (1532-
1589), and Pontus de Tyard (d. 1605, bishop of Chalons-sur-
Sa6ne), composed the famous " Pleiade." The object of this
band was to bring the French language, in vocabulary,
constructions and application, on a level with the
classical tongues by borrowings from the latter. They
would have imported the Greek licence of compound words,
though the genius of the French language is but little adapted
thereto; and they wished to reproduce in French the regular
tragedy, the Pindaric and Horatian ode, the Virgilian epic, &c.
But it is an error (though one which until recently was very
common, and which perhaps requires pretty thorough study of
their work completely to extirpate it) to suppose that they
advocated or practised indiscriminate borrowing. On the con-
trary both in du Bellay's famous manifesto, the Defense et illustra-
tion de la langue franqaise, and in Ronsard's own work, caution
and attention to the genius and the tradition of French are
insisted upon. Being all men of the highest talent, and not a
few of them men of great genius, they achieved much that they
designed, and even where they failed exactly to achieve it, they
very often indirectly produced results as important and more
beneficial than those which they intended. Their ideal of a
separate poetical language distinct from that intended for prose
use was indeed a doubtful if not a dangerous one. But it is
certain that Marot, while setting an example of elegance and
grace not easily to be imitated, set also an example of trivial and,
so to speak, pedestrian language which was only too imitable.
If France was ever to possess a literature containing something
besides fabliaux and farces, the tongue must be enriched and
strengthened. This accession of wealth and vigour it received
from Ronsard and the Ronsardists. Doubtless they went too far
and provoked to some extent the reaction which Malherbe led.
Their importations were sometimes unnecessary. It is almost
impossible to read the Franciade of Ronsard, and not too easy
to read the tragedies of Jodelle and Gamier, fine as the latter are
in parts. But the best of Ronsard's sonnets and odes, the finest
of du Bellay's Antiquitls de Rome (translated into English by
Spenser), the exquisite Vanneur of the same author, and the
Avril of Belleau, even the finer passages of d'Aubigne and du
Bartas, are not only admirable in themselves, and of a kind not
previously found in French literature, but are also such things
as could not have been previously found, for the simple reason
that the medium of expression was wanting. They constructed
that medium for themselves, and no force of the reaction which
they provoked was able to undo their work. Adverse criticism
and the natural course of time rejected much that they had added.
The charming diminutives they loved so much went out of
fashion; their compounds (sometimes it must be confessed,
justly) had their letters of naturalization promptly cancelled;
many a gorgeous adjective, including some which could trace
16TH-CENTURY DRAMA!
FRENCH LITERATURE
123
their pedigree to the earliest ages of French literature, but
which bore an unfortunate likeness to the new-comers, was
proscribed. But for all that no language has ever had its destiny
influenced more powerfully and more beneficially by a small
literary clique than the language of France was influenced by the
example and disciples of that Ronsard whom for two centuries
it was the fashion to deride and decry.
In a sketch such as the present it is impossible to give a
separate account of individual writers, the more important of
whom will be found treated under their own names.
The effort of the " Pl&ade " proper was continued and
shared by a considerable number of minor poets,
some of them, as has been already noted, belonging to different
groups and schools. Olivier de Magny (d. 1560) and Louise
Labe (b. 1526) were poets and lovers, the lady deserving far the
higher rank in literature. There is more depth of passion in the
writings of " La Belle Cordiere," as this Lyonnese poetess
was called, than in almost any of her contemporaries. Jacques
Tahureau (1527-1555) scarcely deserves to be called a minor poet.
There is less than the usual hyperbole in the contemporary
comparison of him to Catullus, and he reminds an Englishman
of the school represented nearly a century later by Carew,
Randolph and Suckling. The title of a part of his poem
Uignardises amoureuses de I'admirte is characteristic both of
the style and of the time. Jean Doublet (c. 1528-^1580), Amadis
Jamyn (c. 1530-1585), and Jean de la Taille (1540-1608) deserve
mention at least as poets, but two other writers require a longer
allusion. Guillaume de Salluste, seigneur du Bartas ( 1 544-1 590),
whom Sylvester's translation, Milton's imitation, and
the copious citations of Southey's Doctor, have
made known if not familiar in England, was partly a disciple
and partly a rival of Ronsard. His poem of Judith was eclipsed
by his better-known La Divine Sepmaineorepicol the Creation.
Du Bartas was a great user and abuser of the double compounds
alluded to above, but his style possesses much stateliness, and has
a peculiar solemn eloquence which he shared with the other
French Calvinists, and which was derived from the study partly
of Calvin and partly of the Bible. Theodore Agrippa d'Aubign
(1552-1630), like du Bartas, was a Calvinist. His
genius was of a more varied character. He wrote sonnets
and odes as became a Ronsardist, but his chief poetical
work is the satirical poem of Les Tragiques, in which the author
brands the factions, corruptions and persecutions of the time,
and in which there are to be found alexandrines of a strength,
vigour and original cadence hardly to be discovered elsewhere,
save in Corneille and Victor Hugo. Towards the end of the
century, Philippe Desportes (1546-1606) and Jean Bertaut
(1552-1611), with much enfeebled strength, but with a certain
grace, continue the Ronsardizing tradition. Among their con-
temporaries must be noticed Jean Passerat (1534-1602), a writer
of much wit and vigour and rather resembling Marot than
Ronsard, and Vauquelin de la Fresnaye (1536-1607), the author
of a valuable Art poetica and of the first French satires which
actually bear that title. Jean le Houx (fl. c. 1600) continued,
rewrote or invented the vaux de vire, commonly known as the
work of Olivier Basselin, and already alluded to, while a still
lighter and more eccentric verse style was cultivated by Etienne
Tabourot des Accords (1540-1500), whose epigrams and other
pieces were collected under odd titles, Les Bigarrures, Les Touches,
&c. A curious pair are Guy du Faur de Pibrac (1520-1584) and
Pierre Mathieu (b. 1563), authors of moral quatrains, which were
learnt by heart in the schools of the time, replacing the distichs
of the grammarian Cato, which, translated into French, had
served the same purpose in the middle ages.
The nephew of Desportes, Mathurin Regnier (1573-1613),
marks the end, and at the same time perhaps the climax, of the
poetry of the century. A descendant at once of the
older Gallic spirit of Villon and Marot, in virtue of his
consummate acuteness, terseness and wit , of the school of Ronsard
by his erudition, his command of language, and his scholarship,
Regnier is perhaps the best representative of French poetry at
the critical time when it had got together all its materials, had
lost none of its native vigour and force, and had not yet sub-
mitted to the cramping and numbing rules and restrictions which
the next century introduced. The satirical poems of Regnier, and
especially the admirable epistle to Rapin, in which he denounces
and rebuts the critical dogmas of Malherbe, are models of nervous
strength, while some of the elegies and odes contain expression
not easily to be surpassed of the softer feelings of affection and
regret. No poet has had more influence on the revival of French
poetry in the last century than Regnier, and he had imitators
in his own time, the chief of whom was Courval-Sonnet (Thomas
Sonnet, sieur de Courval) (1577-1635), author of satires of some
value for the history of manners.
i6th-Century Drama. The change which dramatic poetry-
underwent during the i6th century was at least as remarkable
as that undergone by poetry proper. The first half of the period
saw the end of the religious mysteries, the licence of which had
irritated both the parliament and the clergy. Louis XII., at
the beginning of the century, was far from discouraging the dis-
orderly but popular and powerful theatre in which the Confra-
ternity of the Passion, the clerks of the Bazoche, and the Enfans
sans souci enacted mysteries, moralities, soties and farces.
He made them, indeed, an instrument in his quarrel with the
papacy, just as Philippe le Bel had made use of the allegorical
poems of Jehan de Meung and his fellows. Under his patronage
were produced the chief works of Gringore or Gringoire (c. 1480-
1547), by far the most remarkable writer of this class of composi-
tion. His Prince des sots and his Mysttre de Si Louis are among
the best of their kind. An enormous volume of composition of
this class was produced between 1500 and 1550. One morality
by itself, L'Homme juste et I'homme mondain, contains some
36,000 lines. But in 1548, when the Confraternity was formally
established at the HAtel de Bourgogne, leave to play sacred
subjects was expressly refused it. Moralities and soties dragged
on under difficulties till the end of the century, and the farce,
which is immortal, continually affected comedy. But the effect
of the Renaissance was to sweep away all other vestiges of the
medieval drama, at least in the capital. An entirely new class
of subjects, entirely new modes of treatment, and a different
kind of performers were introduced. The change naturally
came from Italy. In the close relationship with that country
which France had during the early years of the century, Italian
translations of the classical masterpieces were easily imported.
Soon French translations were made afresh of the Electro., the
Hecuba, the Iphigenia in Aulis, and the French humanists
hastened to compose original tragedies on the classical model,
especially as exhibited in the Latin tragedian Seneca. It was
impossible that the " P16iade " should not eagerly seize such an
opportunity of carrying out its principles, and one of its members,
Jodelle (1532-1573), devoting himself mainly to dramatic
composition, fashioned at once the first tragedy, R lfr
Cleopatre, and the first comedy, Eugene, thus setting tragedy
the example of the style of composition which for two "<*
centuries and a half Frenchmen were to regard as the "*'
highest effort of literary ambition. The amateur performance
of these dramas by Jodelle and his friends was followed by a
Bacchic procession after the manner of the ancients, which caused
a great deal of scandal, and was represented by both Catholics
and Protestants as a pagan orgy. The Cleopdtre is remarkable
as being the first French tragedy, nor is it destitute of merit.
It is curious that in this first instance the curt antithetic
ffTixoftvOia, which was so long characteristic of French plays and
plays imitated from them, and which Butler ridicules in his
Dialogue of Cat and Puss, already appears. There appears also
the grandiose and smooth but stilted declamation which came
rather from the imitation of Seneca than of Sophocles, and the
tradition of which was never to be lost. Clfopdtre was followed
by Didon, which, unlike its predecessor, is entirely in alexandrines,
and observes the regular alternation of masculine and feminine
rhymes. Jodelle was followed by Jacques Gr6vin (1540 7-1570)
with a Mart de Cesar, which shows an improvement in tragic art,
and two still better comedies, Les Ebahis and La Trisoriereby
Jean de la Taille (1540-1608), who made still further progress
FRENCH LITERATURE
[16TH-CENTURY FICTION
towards the accepted French dramatic pattern in his Saul
furieux and his Corrivaux, Jacques, his brother (1541-1562), and
Jean de la Peruse (1529-1554), who wrote a Medee. A very
Garn/er different poet from all these is Robert Garnier (1545-
1601). Garnier is the first tragedian who deserves a
place not too far below Rotrou, Corneille, Racine, Voltaire and
Hugo, and who may be placed in the same class with them. He
chose his subjects indifferently from classical, sacred and medieval
literature. Sedecie, a play dealing with the capture of Jerusalem
by Nebuchadnezzar, is held to be his masterpiece, and Bradamante
deserves notice because it is the first tragi-comedy of merit in
French, and because the famous confidant here makes his first
appearance. Garnier's successor, Antoine de Monchretien or
Montchrestien (c. 1576-1621), set the example of dramatizing
contemporary subjects. His masterpiece is L'cossaise, the
first of many dramas on the fate of Mary, queen of Scots. While
tragedy thus clings closely to antique models, comedy, as might
be expected in the country of the fabliaux, is more independent.
Italy had already, a comic school of some originality, and the
French farce was too vigorous and lively a production to permit
of its being entirely overlooked. The first comic writer of great
Larive mer it was Pierre Larivey (c. isso-c. 1612), an Italian
y ' by descent. Most if not all of his plays are founded
on Italian originals, but the translations or adaptations are made
with the greatest freedom, and almost deserve the title of original
works. The style is admirable, and the skilful management
of the action contrasts strongly with the languor, the awkward
adjustment, and the lack of dramatic interest found in con-
temporary tragedians. Even Moliere found something to use in
Larivey.
i6th-Century Prose Fiction. Great as is the importance of
the 1 6th century in the history of French poetry, its import-
ance in the history of French prose is greater still. In poetry
the middle ages could fairly hold their own with any of the ages
that have succeeded them. The epics of chivalry, whether of the
cycles of Charlemagne, Arthur, or the classic heroes, not to
mention the miscellaneous romans d'aventures, have indeed
more than held their own. Both relatively and absolutely the
Franciode of the i6th century, the Pucelle of the I7th, the
Henriade of the i8th, cut a very poor figure beside Roland and
Percivale, Gerard de Roussillon, and Parthenopex de Blois. The
romances, ballads and pastourelles, signed and unsigned, of
medieval France were not merely the origin, but in some respects
the superiors, of the lyric poetry which succeeded them. Thibaut
de Champagne, Charles d'Orleans and Villon need not veil
their crests in any society of bards. The charming forms of the
rondel, the rondeau and the ballade have won admiration from
every competent poet and critic who has known them. The
fabliaux give something more than promise of La Fontaine,
and the two great compositions of the Roman du Renart and
the Roman de la rose, despite their faults and their alloy, will
always command the admiration of all persons of taste and
judgment who take the trouble to study them. But while
poetry had in the middle ages no reason to blush for her French
representatives, prose (always the younger and less forward
sister) had far less to boast of. With the exception of chronicles
and prose romances, no prose works of any real importance can
be quoted before the end of the isth century, and even then the
chief if not the only place of importance must be assigned to the
Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles, a work of admirable prose, but neces-
sarily light in character, and not yet demonstrating the efficacy
of the French language as a medium of expression for serious and
weighty thought. Up to the time of the Renaissance and the
consequent reformation, Latin had, as we have already remarked,
been considered the sufficient and natural organ for this expres-
sion. In France as in other countries the disturbance in religious
thought may undoubtedly claim the glory of having repaired
this disgrace of the vulgar tongue, and of having fitted and
taught it to express whatever thoughts the theologian, the
historian, the philosopher, the politician and the savant had
occasion to utter. But the use of prose as a vehicle for lighter
themes was more continuous with the literature that preceded.
and serves as a natural transition from poetry and the drama
to history and science. Among the prose writers, therefore,
of the 1 6th century we shall give the first place to the novelists
and romantic writers.
Among these there can be no doubt of the precedence, in
every sense of the word, of Francois Rabelais (c. 1490-1553),
the one French writer (or with Moliere one of the two)
whom critics the least inclined to appreciate the
characteristics of French literature have agreed to place among
the few greatest of the world. With an immense erudition
representing almost the whole of the knowledge of his time,
with an untiring faculty of invention, with the judgment of a
philosopher, and the common sense of a man of the world, with
an observation that let no characteristic of the time pass un-
observed, and with a tenfold portion of the special Gallic gift
of good-humoured satire, Rabelais united a height of speculation
and depth of insight and a vein of poetical imagination rarely
found in any writer, but altogether portentous when taken in
conjunction with his other characteristics. His great work has
been taken for an exercise of transcendental philosophy, for a
concealed theological polemic, for an allegorical history of this
and that personage of his time, for a merely literary utterance,
for an attempt to tickle the popular ear and taste. It is all of
these, and it is none all of them in parts, none of them in
deliberate and exclusive intention. It may perhaps be called
the exposition and commentary of all the thoughts, feelings,
aspirations and knowledge of a particular time and nation put
forth in attractive literary form by a man who for once combined
the practical and the literary spirit, the power of knowledge and
the power of expression. The work of Rabelais is the mirror
of the 1 6th century in France, reflecting at once its comeliness
and its uncomeliness, its high aspirations, its voluptuous tastes,
its political and religious dissensions, its keen criticism, its
eager appetite and hasty digestion of learning, its gleams of poetry,
and its ferocity of manners. In Rabelais we can divine the
" Pleiade " and Marot, the Cymbalum mundi and Montaigne,
Amyot and the Amadis, even Calvin and Duperron.
It was inevitable that such extraordinary works as Gargantua
and Pantagruel should attract special imitators in the direction
of their outward form. It was also inevitable that this imitation
should frequently fix upon these Rabelaisian characteristics
which are least deserving of imitation, and most likely to be
depraved in the hands of imitators. It fell within the plan of
the master to indulge in what has been called fatrasie, the
huddling together, that is to say, of a medley of language and
images which is best known to English readers in the not always
successful following of Sterne. It pleased him also to disguise
his naturally terse, strong and nervous style in a burlesque
envelope of redundant language, partly ironical, partly the result
of superfluous erudition, and partly that of a certain childish
wantonness and exuberance, which is one of his raciest and
pleasantest characteristics. In both these points he was some-
what corruptly followed. But fortunately the romancical
writers of the i6th century had not Rabelais for their sole model,
but were also influenced by the simple and straightforward
style of the Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles. The joint influence gives
us some admirable work. Nicholas of Troyes, a saddler of
Champagne, came too early (his Grand Parangon des nouvelles
nouvelles appeared in 1536) to copy Rabelais. But Noel du
Fail (d. c. 1585?), a judge at Rennes, shows the double influence
in his Propos rustiques and Contes d'Eulrapel, both of which,
especially the former, are lively and well-written pictures of
contemporary life and thought, as the country magistrate
actually saw and dealt with them. In 1558, however, appeared
two works of far higher literary and social interest. These are
the Heptamtron of the queen of Navarre, and the Contes et
joyeux devis of Bonaventure des Periers (c. 1 500-1 544). ^^
Des Periers, who was a courtier of Marguerite's, has Pcrien.
sometimes been thought to have had a good deal
to do with the first-named work as well as with the second,
and was also the author of a curious Lucianic satire, strongly
sceptical in cast, the Cymbalum mundi. Indeed, not merely
16TH-CENTURY HISTORIANS)
FRENCH LITERATURE
125
the queen's prose works, but also the poems gracefully entitled
Let Marguerites d* la Marguerite, are often attributed to the
literary men whom the sister of Francis I. gathered round
her. However this may be, some single influence of power
enough to give unity and distinctness of savour evidently
presided over the composition of the Heptamtron.
Composed as it is on the model of Boccaccio, its tone
and character are entirely different, and few works
have a more individual charm. The Talcs of des Periers are
shorter, simpler and more homely; there is more wit in them
and less refinement. But both works breathe, more powerfully
perhaps than any others, the peculiar mixture of cultivated
and poetical voluptuousness with a certain religiosity and a
vigorous spirit of action which characterizes the French Renais-
sance. Later in time, but too closely connected with Rabelais
in form and spirit to be here omitted, came the Mcyen de paroenir
of Beroalde de Verville (iss8?-i6i2?),asingular/a/ra', uniting
wit, wisdom, learning and indecency, and crammed with anec-
dotes which are always amusing though rarely decorous.
At the same time a fresh vogue was given to the chivalric
romance by Herberay's translation of A mad is de Gaula. French
writers have supposed a French original for the
A madis in some lost roman d'aventures. It is of course
impossible to say that this is not the case, but there
is not one tittle of evidence to show that it is. At any rate
the adventures of Amadis were prolonged in Spanish through
generation after generation of his descendants. This vast work
Herberay des Essarts in 1540 undertook to translate or re-
translate, but it was not without the assistance of several followers
that the task was completed. Southey has charged Herberay
with corrupting the simplicity of the original, a charge which
does not concern us here. It is sufficient to say that the French
Amadis is an excellent piece of literary work, and that'Herberay
deserves no mean place among the fathers of French prose.
His book had an immense popularity; it was translated into
many foreign languages, and for some time it served as a favourite
reading book for foreigners studying French. Nor is it to be
doubted that the romancers of the Scudery and Calprenede
type in the next century were much more influenced both for
good and harm by these Amadis romances than by any of the
earlier tales of chivalry.
i6th-Century Historians. As in the case of the tale-tellers,
so in that of the historians, the writers of the i6th century had
traditions to continue. It is doubtful indeed whether many of
them can risk comparison as artists with the great names cf
Villehardouin and Joinville, Froissart and Comines. The i6th
century, however, set the example of dividing the functions
of the chronicler, setting those of the historian proper on one
side, and of the anecdote-monger and biographer on the other.
The efforts at regular history made in this century were not of
the highest value. But on the other hand the practice of memoir-
writing, in which the French were to excel every nation in the
world, and of literary correspondence, in which they were to
excel even their memoirs, was solidly founded.
One of the earliest historical writers of the century was Claude
de Seyssel (1450-1520), whose history of Louis XII. aims not
unsuccessfully at style. De Thou (1553-1617) wrote in Latin,
but Bernard de Girard, sieur du Haitian (1537-1610), composed
a HisUrire de France on Thucydidean principles as transmitted
through the successive mediums of Polybius, Guicciardini and
Paulus Aemilius. The instance invariably quoted, after Thierry,
of du Haillan's method is his introduction, with appropriate
speeches, of two Merovingian statesmen who argue out the
relative merits of monarchy and oligarchy on the occasion of
the election of Pharamond. Besides du Haitian, la Popeliniere
(c. 1540-1608), who less ambitiously attempted a history of
Europe during his own time, and expended immense labour
on the collection of information and materials, deserves mention.
There is no such poverty of writers of memoirs. Robert
de la Mark, du Bellay, Marguerite de Valois (the youngest or
third Marguerite, first wife of Henri IV., 1553-1615), Villars,
Tavannes, La Tour d'Auvergne, and many others composed
commentaries and autobiographies. The well-known and very
agreeable Histoire du gentil seigneur de Bayart (1524) is by
an anonymous " Loyal Serviteur." Vincent Carloix (fl. 1550),
the secretary of the marshal de Vielleville, composed some
memoirs abounding in detail and incident. The Letlres of
Cardinal d'Ossat (1536-1604) and the Nigociations of Pierre
Jeannin (1540-1622) have always had a high place among
documents of their kind. But there are four collections of
memoirs concerning this time which far exceed all others in
interest and importance. The turbulent dispositions of the time,
the loose dependence of the nobles and even the smaller gentry
on any single or central authority, the rapid changes of political
situations, and the singularly active appetite, both for pleasure
and for business, for learning and for war, which distinguished
the French gentleman of the i6th century, place the memoirs
of Francois de Lanoue (1531-1591), Blaise de Mon[t]Iuc (1503-
IS77), Agrippa d'Aubign6 and Pierre de Bourdeille[s] Brant6me
(1540-1614) almost at the head of the literature of their class.
The name of Brant6me is known to all who have the least
tincture of French literature, and the works of the others are not
inferior in interest, and perhaps superior in spirit and conception,
to the Dames Galanles, the Grands Capitaines and the Homines
tilustres. The commentaries of Montluc, which Henri Quatre is
said to have called the soldier's Bible, are exclusively military
and deal with affairs only. Montluc was governor in Guienne,
where he repressed the savage Huguenots of the south with a
savagery worse than their own. He was, however, a partisan
of order, not of Catholicism. He hung and shot both parties
with perfect impartiality, and refused to have anything to do
with the massacre of St Bartholomew. Though he was a man
of no learning, his style is excellent, being vivid, flexible and
straightforward. Lanoue, who was a moderate in politics, has
left his principles reflected in his memoirs. D'Aubign6, so often
to be mentioned, gives the extreme Huguenot side as opposed
to the royalist partisanship of Montluc and the via media of
Lanoue. Brantome, on the other hand, is quite free Bnatdme
from any political or religious prepossessions, and,
indeed, troubles himself very little about any such matters.
He is the shrewd and somewhat cynical observer, moving
through the crowd and taking note of its ways, its outward
appearance, its heroisms and its follies. It is really difficult
to say whether the recital of a noble deed of arms or the telling
of a scandalous story about a court lady gave him the most
pleasure, and impossible to say which he did best. Certainly
he had ample material for both exercises in the history of his
time.
The branches of literature of which we have just given an
account may be fairly connected, from the historical point of
view, with work of the same kind that went before *as well as
with work of the same kind that followed them. It was not so
with the literature of theology, law, politics and erudition, which
the i6th century also produced, and with which it for the first
time enlarged the range of composition in the vulgar tongue.
Not only had Latin been invariably adopted as the language
of composition on such subjects, but the style of the treatises
dealing with such matters had been traditional rather than
original. In speculative philosophy or metaphysics proper even
this century did not witness a great development; perhaps,
indeed, such a development was not to be expected until the
minds of men had in some degree settled down from their agitation
on more practical matters. It is not without significance that
Calvin (1500-1564) is the great figure in serious French prose
in the first half of the century, Montaigne the corresponding
figure in the second half. . After Calvin and Montaigne we expect
Descartes.
i6lh-Century Theologians. In France, as in all other countries,
the Reformation was an essentially popular movement, though
from special causes, such as the absence of political Cfivia.
homogeneity, the nobles took a more active part both
with pen and sword in it than was the case in England. But the
great textbook of the French Reformation was not the work
of any noble. Jean Calvin's Institution of the Christian Religion
126
FRENCH LITERATURE
[MORALISTS AND
is a book equally remarkable in matter and in form, in circum-
stances and in result. It is the first really great composition
in argumentative French prose. Its severe logic and careful
arrangement had as much influence on the manner of future
thought, both in France and the other regions whither its wide-
spread popularity carried it, as its style had on the expression
of such thought. It was the work of a man of only seven-and-
twenty, and it is impossible to exaggerate the originality of its
manner when we remember that hardly any models of French
prose then existed except tales and chronicles, which required
and exhibited totally different qualities of style. It is indeed
probable that had not the Institution been first written by its
author in Latin, and afterwards translated by him, it might have
had less dignity and vigour; but it must at the same time be
remembered that this process of composition was at least equally
likely, in the hands of any but a great genius, to produce a heavy
and pedantic style neither French nor Latin in character. Some-
thing like this result was actually produced in some of Calvin's
minor works, and still more in the works of many of his followers,
whose lumbering language gained for itself, in allusion to their
exile from France, the title of " style refugie." Nevertheless,
the use of the vulgar tongue on the Protestant side, and the
possession of a work of such importance written therein, gave
the Reformers an immense advantage which their adversaries
were some time in neutralizing. Even before the Institution,
Lefevre d'Etaples (1455-1537) and Guillaume Farel (1489-1565)
saw and utilized the importance of the vernacular. Calvin
(1500-1564) was much helped by Pierre Viret (1511-1571), who
wrote a large number of small theological and moral dialogues,
and of satirical pamphlets, destined to captivate as well as to
instruct the lower people. The more famous Beza (Theodore de
Beze) (1519-1605) wrote chiefly in Latin, but he composed in
French an ecclesiastical history of the Reformed churches and
some translations of the Psalms. Marnix de Saiiite Aldegonde
(1530-1 593), a gentleman of Brabant, followed Viret as a satirical
pamphleteer on the Protestant side. On the other hand, the
Catholic champions at first affected to disdain the use of the
vulgar tongue, and their pamphleteers, when they did attempt
it, were unequal to the task. Towards the end of the century
a more decent war was waged with Philippe du Plessis Mornay
(1549-1623) on the Protestant side, whose work is at least as
much directed against freethinkers and enemies of Christianity
in general as against the dogmas and discipline of Rome. His
adversary, the redoubtable Cardinal du Perron (1556-1618),
who, originally a Calvinist, went over to the other side, employed
French most vigorously in controversial works, chiefly with
reference to the eucharist. Du Perron was celebrated as the first
controversialist of the time, and obtained dialectical victories
over all earners. At the same time the bishop of Geneva, St
Francis of Sales (1567-1622), supported the Catholic side, partly
by controversial works, but still more by his devotional writings.
The Introduction to a Devout Life, which, though actually
published early in the next century, had been written some time
previously, shares with Calvin's Institution the position of the
most important theological work of the period, and is in remark-
able contrast with it in style and sentiment as well as in principles
and plan. It has indeed been accused of a certain effeminacy,
the appearance of which is in all probability mainly due to this
very contrast. The i6th century does not, like the i7th, dis-
tinguish itself by literary exercises in the pulpit. The furious
preachers of the League, and their equally violent opponents,
have no literary value.
z6th-Century Moralists and Political Writers. The religious
dissensions and political disturbances of the time could not fail
to exert an influence on ethical and philosophical
thought. Yet, as we have said, the century was
not prolific of pure philosophical speculation. The
scholastic tradition, though long sterile, still survived, and with
it the habit of composing in Latin all works in any way connected
with philosophy. The Logic of Ramus in 1555 is cited as the
first departure from this rule. Other philosophical works are
few, and chiefly express the doubt and the freethinking which
were characteristic of the time. This doubt assumes the form
of positive religious scepticism only in the Cymbalum mundi of
Bonaventure des Periers, a remarkable series of dialogues which
excited a great storm, and ultimately drove the author to commit
suicide. The Cymbalum mundi is a curious anticipation of the
1 8th century. The literature of doubt, however, was to receive
its principal accession in the famous essays of Michel Eyguem,
seigneur de Montaigne (1533-1592). It would be a mistake to
imagine the existence of any sceptical propaganda in this charm-
ing and popular book. Its principle is not scepticism but egotism ;
and as the author was profoundly sceptical, this quality necessarily
rather than intentionallyappears. Wehavehere to deal only very
superficially with this as with other famous books, but it cannot
be doubted that it expresses the mental attitude of the latter
part of the century as completely as Rabelais expresses the mental
attitude of the early part. There is considerably less vigour and
life in this attitude. Inquiry and protest have given way to a
placid conviction that there is not much to be found out, and
that it does not much matter; the erudition though abundant
is less indiscriminate, and is taken in and given out with less
gusto; exuberant drollery has given way to quiet irony; and
though neither business nor pleasure is decried, both are regarded
rather as useful pastimes incident to the life of man than with
the eager appetite of the Renaissance. From the purely literary
point of view, the style is remarkable from its absence of pedantry
in construction, and yet for its rich vocabulary and picturesque
brilliancy. The follower and imitator of Montaigne, Pierre
Charron (1541-1603), carried his master's scepticism to a some-
what more positive degree. His principal book, De la sagesse,
scarcely deserves the comparative praise which Pope has given
it. On the other hand Guillaume du Vair (1556-1621), a lawyer
and orator, takes the positive rather than the negative side in
morality, and regards the vicissitudes in human affairs from the
religious and theological point of view in a series of works
characterized by the special merit of the style of great orators.
The revolutionary and innovating instinct which showed itself
in the i6th century with reference to church government and
doctrine spread naturally enough to political matters. The
intolerable disorder of the religious wars naturally set the
thinkers of the age speculating on the doctrines of government
in general. The favourite and general study of antiquity helped
this tendency, and the great accession of royal power in all the
monarchies of Europe invited a speculative if not a practical re-
action. The persecutions of the Protestants naturally provoked
a republican spirit among them, and the violent antipathy
of the League to the houses of Valois and Bourbon made its
partisans adopt almost openly the principles of democracy and
tyrannicide.
The greatest political writer of the age is Jean Bodin (1530-
1596), whose Republique is founded partly on speculative con-
siderations like the political theories of the ancients, Bodla
and partly on an extended historical inquiry. Bodin,
like most lawyers who have taken the royalist side, is for unlimited
monarchy, but notwithstanding this, he condemns religious
persecution and discourages slavery. In his speculations on the
connexion between forms of government and natural causes,
he serves as a link between Aristotle and Montesquieu. On the
other hand, the causes which we have mentioned made a large
number of writers adopt opposite conclusions. Etienne de la
Boetie (1530-1563), the friend of Montaigne's youth, composed
the Contre un or Discours de la servitude volontaire, a protest
against the monarchical theory. The boldness of the protest
and the affectionate admiration of Montaigne have given
la Boetie a much higher reputation than any extant work of his
actually deserves. The Contre un is a kind of prize essay, full of
empty declamation borrowed from the ancients, and showing no
grasp of the practical conditions of politics. Not much more
historically based, but far more vigorous and original, is the
Franco-Gallia of Francois Hotmann (1524-1590), a work which
appeared both in Latin and French, which extols the authority
of the states-general, represents them as direct successors of the
political institutions of Gauls and Franks, and maintains the
POLITICAL WRITERS]
FRENCH LITERATURE
127
right of insurrection. In the last quarter of the century political
animosity knew no bounds. The Protestants beheld a divine
instrument in Poltrot <ic Mere 1 , the Catholics in Jacques Cle'mcnt.
The Latin treatises of Hubert Languet (1518-1581) and Buchanan
formally vindicated the first, like Hotmann, the right of re-
bellion based on an original contract between prince and people,
the second the right of tyrannicide. Indeed, as Montaigne
confesses, divine authorization for political violence was claimed
and denied by both parties according as the possession or the
expectancy of power belonged to each, and the excesses of the
preachers and pamphleteers knew no bounds.
Every one, however, was not carried away. The literary
merits of the chancellor Michel de I'Mopital (i 507-1 573) are not
very great, but his efforts to promote peace and moderation were
unceasing. On the other side Lanoue, with far greater literary
gifts, pursued the same ends, and pointed out the ruinous
consequences of continued dissension. Du Plessis Mornay took
a part in political discussion even more important than that
which he bore in religious polemics, and was of the utmost service
to Henri Quatre in defending his cause against the League, as
was also Hurault, another author of state papers. Du Vair,
already mentioned, powerfully assisted the same cause by his
successful defence of the Salic law, the disregard of which by the
Leaguer states-general was intended to lead to the admission of
the Spanish claim to the crown. But the foremost work against
the League was the famous Satire Minippte (1504),
in a literary point of view one of the most remarkable
of political books. The Minippte was the work of no
single author, but was due, it is said, to the collaboration of five,
Pierre Leroi, who has the credit of the idea, Jacques Gillot,
Florent Chretien, Nicolas Rapin (1541-1596) and Pierre Pithou
(1539-1596), with some assistance in verse from Passerat and
Gilles Durand. The book is a kind of burlesque report of the
meeting of the states-general, called for the purpose of supporting
the views of the League in 1593. It gives an account of the
procession of opening, and then we have the supposed speeches
of the principal characters the due de Mayenne, the papal
legate, the rector of the university (a ferocious Leaguer) and
others. But by far the most remarkable is that attributed to
Claude d'Aubray, the leader of the Tiers lal, and said to be
written by Pithou. in which all the evils of the time and the
malpractices of the leaders of the League are exposed and
branded. The satire is extraordinarily bitter and yet perfectly
good-humoured. It resembles in character rather that of
Butler, who unquestionably imitated it, than any other. The
style is perfectly suited to the purpose, having got rid of almost
all vestiges of the cumbrousncss of the older tongue without
losing its picturesque quaintness. It is no wonder that, as we are
told by contemporaries, it did more for Henri Quatre than all
other writings in his cause. In connexion with politics some
mention of legal orators and writers may be necessary. In 1 539
the ordinance of Villers-Cotterets enjoined the exclusive use of
the French language in legal procedure. The bar and bench of
France during the century produced, however, besides those
names already mentioned in other connexions, only one deserving
of special notice, that of Etienne Pasquier (1520-1615), author
of a celebrated speech against the right of the Jesuits to take
part in public teaching. This he inserted in his great work,
Reckerckes de la France, a work dealing with almost every
aspect of French history whether political, antiquarian or
literary.
i6th-Century Savants. One more division, and only one,
that of scientific and learned writers pure and simple, remains.
Much of the work of this kind during the period was naturally
done in Latin, the vulgar tongue of the learned. But in France,
as in other countries, the study of the classics led to a vast
number of translations, and it so happened that one of the
translators deserves as a prose writer a rank among the highest.
Many of the authors already mentioned contributed to the
literature of translation. Des Periers translated the Platonic
dialogue Lysis, la Boetie some works of Xenophon and Plutarch,
du Vair the De corona, the In Cteiiphonlem and the Pro MUone.
Salel attempted the Iliad, Belleau the false Anacreon, Baif some
plays of Plautus and Terence. Besides these Lefevre d'Etaples
gave a version of the Bible, Saliat one of Herodotus, and Louis
Leroi (1510-1577), not to be confounded with the part author
of the Mtnippte, many works of Plato, Aristotle and other Greek
writers. But while most if not all of these translators owed the
merits of their work to their originals, and deserved, much more
deserve, to be read only by those to whom those originals are
scaled, JacquesAmyot (1513-1593), bishop of Auxerre, Am o(
takes rank as a French .classic by his translations
of Plutarch, Longus and Hcliodorus. The admiration which
Amyot excited in his own time was immense. Montaigne
declares that it was thanks to him that his contemporaries
knew how to speak and to write, and the Academy in the next
age, though not too much inclined to honour its predecessors,
ranked him as a model. His Plutarch, which had an enormous
influence at the time, and coloured perhaps more than any
classic the thoughts and writings of the i6th century, both in
French and English, was then considered his masterpiece. Now-
adays perhaps, and from the purely literary standpoint, that
position would be assigned to his exquisite version of the ex-
quisite story of Daphnis and Chloe. It is needless to say
that absolute fidelity and exact scholarship are not the pre-
eminent merits of these versions. They are not philological
exercises, but works of art.
On the other hand, Claude Fauchet (1530-1601) in two anti-
quarian works, Antiquitts gauloises etfrattfoises and L'Origine de
la langue el de la poesie franfaise, displays a remarkable critical
faculty in sweeping away the fables which had encumbered
history. Fauchet had the (for his time) wonderful habit of
consulting manuscripts, and we owe to him literary notices of
many of the trouveres. At the same time Francois Grudd, sieur
de la Croix du Maine (1552-1592), and Antoine Duverdier
(1544-1600) founded the study of bibliography in France.
Pasquier's Recherches, already alluded to, carries out the prin-
ciples of Fauchet independently, and besides treating the history
of the past in a true critical spirit, supplies us with voluminous
and invaluable information on contemporary politics and litera-
ture. He has, moreover, the merit which Fauchet had not, of
being an excellent writer. Henri Estienne [Stephanus] (1528-
1598) also deserves notice in this place, both for certain treatises
on the French language, full of critical crotchets, and also for
his curious Apologie pour Herodole, a remarkable book not
particularly easy to class. It consists partly of a defence of its
nominal subject, partly of satirical polemics on the Protestant
side, and is filled almost equally with erudition and with the
buffoonery and falrasie of the time. The book, indeed, was
much too Rabelaisian to suit the tastes of those in whose defence
it was composed.
The i6th century is somewhat too early for us to speak of
science, and such science as was then composed falls for the
most part outside French literature. The famous potter,
Bernard Palissy (1510-1590), however, was not much less
skilful as a fashioner of words than as a fashioner of pots, and
his description of the difficulties of his experiments in enamelling,
which lasted sixteen years, is well known. The great surgeon
Ambrose Par6 (c. 1510-1500) was also a writer, and his descrip-
tions of his military experiences at Turin, Metz and elsewhere
have all the charm of the 16th-century memoir. The only other
writers who require special mention are Olivier de Serres (1539-
1619), who composed, under the title of Tht&lre d' agriculture, a
complete treatise on the various operations of rural economy,
and Jacques du Fouilloux (1521-1580), who wrote on hunting
(La Vtnerie). Both became extremely popular and were fre-
quently reprinted.
iflfi-Cenlury Poetry. It is not always easy or possible to make
the end or the beginning of a literary epoch synchronize exactly
with historical dates! It happens, however, that for Malllertte
once the beginning of the I7th century coincides
almost exactly with an entire revolution in French literature.
The change of direction and of critical standard given by Francois
de Malherbe (1556-1628) to poetry was to last for two whole
128
FRENCH LITERATURE
[17TH-CENTURY POETRY
centuries, and to determine, not merely the language and com-
plexion, but also the form of French verse during the whole of that
time. Accidentally, or as a matter of logical consequence (it
would not be proper here to attempt to decide the question),
poetry became almost synonymous with drama. It is true,
as we shall have to point out, that there were, in the early part
of the 1 7th century at least, poets, properly so called, of no con-
temptible merit. But their merit, in itself respectable, sank in
comparison with the far greater merit of their dramatic rivals.
Theophile de Viau and Rac'an, Voiture and Saint-Amant cannot
for a moment be mentioned in the same rank with Corneille.
It is certainly curious, if it is not something more than curious,
that this decline in poetry proper should have.coincided with the
so-called reforms of Malherbe. The tradition of respect for this
elder and more gifted Boileau was at one time all-powerful in
France, and, notwithstanding the Romantic movement, is still
strong. In rejecting a large number of the importations of the
Ronsardists, he certainly did good service. But it is difficult to
avoid ascribing in great measure to his influence the origin of
the chief faults of modern French poetry, and modern French
in general, as compared with the older language. He pronounced
against " poetic diction " as such, forbade the overlapping
(enjambement) of verse, insisted that the middle pause should be
of sense as well as sound, and that rhyme must satisfy eye as
well as-ear. Like Pope, he sacrificed everything to "correctness,"
and, unluckily for French, the sacrifice was made at a time when
no writer of an absolutely supreme order had yet appeared in the
language. With Shakespeare and Milton, not to mention scores
of writers only inferior to them, safely garnered, Pope and his
followers could do us little harm. Corneille and Moliere unfortun-
ately came after Malherbe. Yet it would be unfair to this writer,
however badly we may think of his influence, to deny him talent,
and even a certain amount of poetical inspiration. He had not
felt his own influence, and the very influences which he despised
and proscribed produced in him much tolerable and some admir-
able verse, though he is not to be named as a poet with Regnier,
who had the courage, the sense and the good taste to oppose
and ridicule his innovations. Of Malherbe's school, Honorat de
Bueil, marquis de Racan (1580-1670), and Francois de Maynard
(1582-1646) were the most remarkable. The former was a true
poet, though not a very strong one. Like his master, he is best
when he follows the models whom that master contemned.
Perhaps more than any other poet, he set the example of the
classical alexandrine, the smooth and melodious but monotonous
and rather effeminate measure which Racine was to bring to the
highest perfection, and which his successors, while they could not
improve its smoothness, were to make more and more monotonous
until the genius of Victor Hugo once more broke up its facile
polish, supplied its stiff uniformity, and introduced vigour,
variety, colour and distinctness in the place of its feeble sameness
and its pale indecision. But the vigour, not to say the licence,
of the 1 6th century could not thus die all at once. In Theophile
de Viau (1591-1626) the early years of the I7th century had their
Villon. The later poet was almost as unfortunate as the earlier,
and almost as disreputable, but he had a great share of poetical
and not a small one of critical power. The floile enragee under
which he complains that he was born was at least kind to him
in this respect; and his readers, after he had been forgotten for
two centuries, have once more done him justice. Racan and
Theophile were followed in the second quarter of the century
by two schools which sufficiently well represented the tendencies
of each. The first was that of Vincent Voiture (1598-1648),
Isaac de Benserade (1612-1691), and other poets such as Claude
de Maleville (1597-1647), author of La Belle Matineuse, who were
connected more or less with the famous literary coterie of the
Hotel de Rambouillet. Thfiophile was less worthily succeeded by
a class, it can hardly be called a school of poets, some of whom,
like GeYard Saint-Amant (1594-1660), wrote drinking songs
of merit and other light pieces; others, like Paul Scarron (1610-
1660) and Sarrasin (1603? 4? s?-i654), devoted themselves
rather to burlesque of serious verse. Most of the great dramatic
authors of the time also wrote miscellaneous poetry, and there
was even an epic school of the most singular kind, in ridiculing
and discrediting which Boileau for once did undoubtedly good
service. The Pucelle of Jean Chapelain (1595-1674), the unfor-
tunate author who was deliberately trained and educated for a
poet, who enjoyed for some time a sort of dictatorship in French
literature on the strength of his forthcoming work, and at whom
from the day of its publication every critic of French literature
has agreed to laugh, was the most famous and perhaps the worst
of these. But Georges de Scudery (1601-1667) wrote an Alaric,
the Pere le Moyne (1602-1671) a Saint Louis, Jean Desmarets
de Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676), a dramatist and critic of some note,
a Clovis, and Saint-Amant a Moise, which were not much better,
though Theophile Gautier in his Grotesques has valiantly defended
these and other contemporary versifiers. And indeed it cannot
be denied that even the epics, especially Saint Louis, contain
flashes of finer poetry than France was to produce for more than
a century outside of the drama. Some of the lighter poets and
classes of poetry just alluded to also produced some remarkable
verse. The Precieuses of the Hotel Rambouillet, with all their
absurdities, encouraged if they did not produce good literary
work. In their society there is no doubt that a great reformation
of manners took place, if not of morals, and that the tendency
to literature elegant and polished, yet not destitute of vigour,
which marks the I7th century, was largely developed side by
side with much scandal-mongering and anecdotage. Many of the
authors whom these influences inspired, such as Voiture, Saint-
Evremond and others, have been or will be noticed. But even
such poets and wits as Antoine Baudouin de Senece (1643-1737),
Jean de Segrais (1624-1701), Charles Faulure de Ris, sieur de
Charleval (1612-1693), Antoine Godeau (1605-1672), Jean Ogier
de Gombaud (1590-1666), are not without interest in the history
of literature; while if Charles Cotin (1604-1682) sinks below this
level and deserves Moliere's caricature of him as Trissotin in
Les Femmes saiiantes, Gilles de Menage (1630-1692) certainly
rises above it, notwithstanding the companion satire of Vadius.
Menage's name naturally suggests the Ana which arose at this
time and were long fashionable, stores of endless gossip, some-
times providing instruction and often amusement. The Guir-
lande de Julie, in which most of the poets of the time celebrated
Julie d'Angennes, daughter of the marquise de Rambouillet, is
perhaps the best of all such albums, and Voiture, the typical poet
of the coterie, was certainly the best writer of vers de societe
who is known to us. The poetical war which arose between the
Uranistes, the followers of Voiture, and the Jobistes, those of
Benserade, produced reams of sonnets, epigrams and similar
verses. This habit of occasional versification continued long.
It led as a less important consequence to the rhymed Gazettes of
Jean Loret (d. 1665), which recount in octosyllabic verse of a
light and lively kind the festivals and court events of the early
years of Louis XIV. It led also to perhaps the most remarkable
non-dramatic poetry of the century, the Contes and Fables of
Jean de la Fontaine (1621-1695). No French writer is better
known than la Fontaine, and there is no need to dilate on his
merits. It has been well said that he completes Moliere, and that
the two together give something to French literature which no
other literature possesses. Yet la Fontaine is after all only a
writer of fabliaux, in the language and with the manners of his
own century.
All the writers we have mentioned belong more or] less to the
first half of the century, and so do Valentin Conrart (1603-1675),
Antoine Furetiere (1626-1688), Chapelle (Claude Emmanuel)
1'Huillier (1626-1686), and others not worth special mention.
The latter half of the century is far less productive, and the
poetical quality of its production is even lower than the quantity.
In it Boileau (1636-1711) is the chief poetical figure. Next to
him can only be mentioned Madame Deshoulieres (1638-1694),
Guillaume de Brcbeuf (1618-1661), the translator of Lucan,
Philippe Quinault (1635-1688), the composer of opera libretti.
Boileau's satire, where it has much merit, is usually borrowed
direct from Horace. He had a certain faculty as a critic of the
slashing order, and might have profitably used it if he had written
in prose. But of his poetry it must be said, not so much that it is
17TH-CENTURY DRAMA)
FRENCH LITERATURE
129
bad, as that it is not, in strictness, poetry at all. and the same
is generally true of all those who followed him.
ifth-Cenlury Drama. We have already seen how the medieval
theatre was formed, and how in the second half of the i6th century
it met with a formidable rival in the classical drama of Jodelle
and Gamier. In 1588 mysteries had been prohibited, and with
the prohibition of the mysteries the Confraternity of the Passion
lost the principal part of its reason for existence. The other
bodies and societies of amateur actors had already perished, and
at length the HAtel de Bourgogne itself, the home of the con-
fraternity, had been handed over to a regular troop of actors,
while companies of strollers, whose life has been vividly depicted
in the Roman comique of Scarron and the Capitaine Fracasse
of Theophile Gautier, wandered all about the provinces. The old
farce was for a time maintained or revived by Tabarin, a remark-
able figure in dramatic history, of whom but little is known.
The great dramatic author of the first quarter of the i yth century
was Alexandra Hardy (1560-1631), who surpassed even Heywood
in fecundity, and very nearly approached the por-
tentous productiveness of Lope de Vega. Seven
hundred is put down as the modest total of Hardy's pieces, but
not much more than a twentieth of these exist in print. From
these latter we can judge Hardy. They are hardly up to the
level of the worst specimens of the contemporary Elizabethan
theatre, to which, however, they bear a certain resemblance.
Marston's Insatiate Countess and the worst parts of Chapman's
Busty d'Ambms may give English readers some notion of them.
Yet Hardy was not totally devoid of merit. He imitated and
adapted Spanish literature, which was at this time to France
what Italian was in the century before and English in the century
after, in the most indiscriminate manner. But he had a consider-
able command of grandiloquent and melodramatic expression,
a sound theory if not a sound practice of tragic writing, and that
peculiar knowledge of theatrical art and of the taste of the
theatrical public which since his time has been the special posses-
sion of the French playwright. It is instructive to compare the
influence of his irregular and faulty genius with that of the regular
and precise Malherbe. From Hardy to Rotrou is, in point of
literary interest, a great step, and from Rotrou to Corneille a
greater. Yet the theory of Hardy only wanted the genius of
Rotrou and Corneille to produce the latter. Jean de Rotrou
(1610-1650) has been called the French Marlowe, and there is
a curious likeness and yet a curious contrast between
the two poets. The best parts of Rotrou's two best
plays, Venceslas and SI Gtnesl, are quite beyond comparison
in respect of anything that preceded them, and the central
speech of the last-named play will rank with anything in
French dramatic poetry. Contemporary with Rotrou were
other dramatic writers of considerable dramatic importance,
most of them distinguished by the faults of the Spanish
school, its declamatory rodomontade, its conceits, and its
occasionally preposterous action. Jean de Schclandre (d.
1635) has left us a remarkable work in Tyr et Sidon, which
exemplifies in practice, as its almost more remarkable preface by
Francois Ogier defends in principle, the English-Spanish model.
Theophile de Viau in Pyrame el Thisbt and in Pasiphat produced
a singular mixture of the classicism of Gamier and the extra-
vagancies of Hardy. Scudery in L' Amour tyrannique and other
plays achieved a considerable success. The Marianne of Tristan
(1601-1655) and 'he Sophonisbe of Jean de Mairet (1604-1686)
are the chief pieces of their authors. Mairet resembles Marston
in something more than his choice of subject. Another dramatic
writer of some eminence is Pierre du Ryer (1606-1648). But
the fertility of France at this moment in dramatic authors
was immense; nearly 100 arc enumerated in the first quarter
^^ u of ln e century. The early plays of Pierre Corneille
(1606-1684) showed all the faults of his contemporaries
combined with merits to which none of them except Rotrou,
and Rotrou himself only in part, could lay claim. His first play
was Uttite, a comedy, and in Clitandre, a tragedy, he soon pro-
duced what may perhaps be not inconveniently taken as the
typical piece of the school of Hardy. A full account of Corneille
XI. 5
may be found elsewhere. It is sufficient to say here that his
importance in French literature is quite as great in the way of
influence and example as in the way of intellectual excellence.
The Cid and the Menteur are respectively the first examples of
French tragedy and comedy which can be called modern. But
this influence and example did not at first find many imitators.
Corneille was a member of Richelieu's band of five poets. Of
the other four Rotrou alone deserves the title; the remaining
three, the prolific abb6 de Boisrobert, Guillaume Colletet (whose
most valuable work, a MS. Lives of Poets, was never printed, and
burnt by the Communards in 1871), and Claude de Lestoile
(1597-1651), are as dramatists worthy of no notice, nor were they
soon followed by others more worthy. Yet before many years
had passed the examples which Corneille had set in tragedy and
in comedy were followed up by unquestionably the greatest comic
writer, and by one who long held the position of the greatest
tragic writer of France. Beginning with mere farces of the
Italian type, and passing from these to comedies still of an Italian
character, it was in Les Prtcieuses ridicules, acted in 1659, that
Moliere (1622-1673), ln the words of a spectator, hit ^
at last on " la bonne comedie." The next fifteen years
comprise the whole of his best known work, the finest expression
beyond doubt of a certain class of comedy that any literature
has produced. The tragic masterpieces of Racine
(1639-1699) were not far from coinciding with the
comic masterpieces of Moliere, for, with the exception of the
remarkable aftergrowth of Esther and Athalie, they were produced
chiefly between 1667 and 1677. Both Racine and Moliere fall
into the class of writers who require separate mention. Here
we can only remark that both to a certain extent committed
and encouraged a fault which distinguished much subsequent
French dramatic literature. This was the too great individualiz-
ing of one point in a character, and the making the man or woman
nothing but a blunderer, a lover, a coxcomb, a tyrant and the
like. The very titles of French plays show this influence they
are Le Grandeur, Le Joueur, &c. The complexity of human
character is ignored. This fault distinguishes both Molie're and
Racine from writers of the very highest order; and in especial
it distinguishes the comedy of Moliere and the tragedy of Racine
from the comedy and tragedy of Shakespeare. In all probability
this and other defects of the French drama (which are not wholly
apparent in the work of Moliere and Corneille, are shown in
their most favourable light in those of Racine, and appear in all
their deformity in the successors of the latter) arise from the
rigid adoption of the Aristotelian theory of the drama with its
unities and other restrictions, especially as transmitted by Horace
through Boileau. This adoption was very much due to the in-
fluence of the French Academy, which was founded unofficially
by Conrart in 1629, which received official standing six years later,
and which continued the tradition of Malherbe in
attempting constantly to school and correct, as the Academy
phrase went, the somewhat disorderly instincts of
the early French stage. Even the Cid was formally censured
for irregularity by it. But it is fair to say that Francois He'de'lin,
abb6 d'Aubignac (1604-1676), whose Pratique du Mdtre is the
most wooden of the critical treatises of the time, was not an
academician. It is difficult to say whether the subordination
of all other classes of composition to the drama, which has ever
since been characteristic of French literature, was or was not
due to the predilection of Richelieu, the main protector if not
exactly the founder of the Academy, for the theatre. Among
the immediate successors and later contemporaries of the three
great dramatists we do not find any who deserve high rank as
tragedians, though there are some whose comedies are more than
respectable. It is at least significant that the restrictions im-
posed by the academic theory on the comic drama were far less
severe than those which tragedy had to undergo. The latter was
practically confined, in respect of sources of attraction, to the
dexterous manipulation of the unities; the interest of a plot
attenuated as much as possible, and intended to produce, instead
of pity a mild sympathy, and instead of terror a mild alarm
(for the purists decided against Corneillethat "admiration was not
130
FRENCH LITERATURE
[17TH-CENTURY FICTION
a tragic passion ") ; and lastly the composition of long tirades
of smooth but monotonous verses, arranged in couplets tipped
with delicately careful rhymes. Only Thomas Corneille (1625-
1709), the inheritor of an older tradition and of a great name,
deserves to be excepted from the condemnation to be passed on
the lesser tragedians of this period. He was unfortunate in
possessing his brother's name, and in being, like him, too volumin-
ous in his compositions; but Comma, Ariane, Le Comle d'Essex,
are not tragedies to be despised. On the other hand, the names of
Jean de Campistron (1656-1723) and Nicolas Pradon (1632-1698)
mainly serve to point injurious comparisons; Joseph Francois
Duche (1668-1704) and Antoine La Fosse (1653-1708) are of still
less importance, and Quinault's tragedies are chiefly remarkable
because he had the good sense to give up writing them and to
take to opera. The general excellence of French comedy, on the
other hand, was sufficiently vindicated. Besides the splendid
sum of Moliere's work, the two great tragedians had each, in
Le Menteur and Les Plaideurs, set a capital example to their
successors, which was fairly followed. David Augustin de
Brueys (1640-1723) and Jean Palaprat (1650-1721) brought out
once more the ever new Advocat Patelin besides the capital
Grandeur already referred to. Quinault and Campistron wrote
fair comedies. Florent Carton Dancourt (1661-1726), Charles
Riviere Dufresny (c. 1654-1 724), Edmond Boursault (1638-1701),
were all comic writers of considerable merit. But the chief comic
dramatist of the latter period of the I7th century was Jean
Francois Regnard (1655-1709), whose Joueur and Legataire
are comedies almost of the first rank.
ifth-Century Fiction. In the department of literature which
comes between poetry and prose, that of romance-writing,
the 1 7th century, excepting one remarkable develop-
Romance ment i was not very fertile. It devoted itself to so
many new or changed forms of literature that it had no
time to anticipate the modern novel. Yet at the beginning
of the century one very curious form of romance-writing was
diligently cultivated, and its popularity, for the time immense,
prevented the introduction of any stronger style. It is remark-
able that, as the first quarter of the i7th century was pre-
eminently the epoch of Spanish influence in France, the distinctive
satire of Cervantes should have been less imitated than the
models which Cervantes satirized. However this may be, the
romances of 1600 to 1650 form a class of literature vast, isolated,
and, perhaps, of all such classes of literature most utterly
obsolete and extinct. Taste, affectation or antiquarian diligence
have, at one time or another, restored to a just, and sometimes
a more than just, measure of reputation most of the literary
relics of the past. Romances of chivalry, fabliaux, early drama,
Provencal poetry, prose chronicles, have all had, and deservedly,
their rebabilitators. But Polexandre and Cleop&tre, CUlie and
the Grand Cyrus, have been too heavy for all the industry and
energy of literary antiquarians. As we have already hinted,
the nearest ancestry which can be found for them is the romances
of the Amadis type. But the Amadis, and in a less degree its
followers, although long, are long in virtue of incident. The
romances of the CUlie type are long in virtue of interminable
discourse, moralizing and description. Their manner is not
unlike that of the Arcadia and the Euphues which preceded them
in England; and they express in point of style the tendency
which simultaneously manifested itself all over Europe at this
period, and whose chief exponents were Gongora in Spain,
Marini in Italy, and Lyly in England. Everybody knows the
Carle de Tendre which originally appeared in Clelie, while most
people have heard of the shepherds and shepherdesses who
figure in the Astrte of Honor6 D'Urfe 1 (1568-1625), on the borders
of the Lignon; but here general knowledge ends, and there is
perhaps no reason why it should go much further. It is suffi-
cient to say that Madeleine de Scud6ry (1607-1701) principally
devotes herself in the books above mentioned to laborious
gallantry and heroism, La Calpr6ne'de (1610-1663) in Cassandre
et Cllopdtre to something which might have been the historical
novel if it had been constructed on a less preposterous scale,
and Marin le Roy de Gomberville (1600-1647) in Polexandre
to moralizings and theological discussions on Jansenist principles,
while Pierre Camus, bishop of Belley (1582-1652), in Palombe
and others, approached still nearer to the strictly religious story.
In the latter part of the century, the example of La Fontaine,
though he himself wrote in poetry, helped to recall the tale-
tellers of France to an occupation more worthy of them, more
suitable to the genius of the literature, and more likely to last.
The reaction against the Clelie school produced first Madame de
Villedieu (Catherine Desjardins) (1632-1692), a fluent and
facile novelist, who enjoyed great but not enduring popularity.
The form which the prose tale took at this period was that of
the fairy story. Perrault (1628-1703) and Madame d'Aulnoy
(d. i7O5)composed specimens of this kind which have never ceased
to be popular since. Hamilton (1646-1720), the author of the
well-known Memoires du comte de Gramont, wrote similar stories
of extraordinary merit in style and ingenuity. There is yet a
third class of prose writing which deserves to be mentioned. It
also may probably be traced to Spanish influence, that is to say,
to the picaresque romances which the i6th and i7th centuries
produced in Spain in large numbers. The most remarkable
example of this is the Roman comique of the burlesque writer
Scarron. The Roman bourgeois of Antoine Furetiere (1619-1688)
also deserves mention as a collection of pictures of the life of the
time, arranged in the most desultory manner, but drawn with
great vividness, observation and skill. A remarkable writer who
had great influence on Moliere has also to be mentioned in this
connexion rather than in any other. This is Cyrano de Bergerac
(1619-1655), who, besides composing doubtful comedies and
tragedies, writing political pamphlets, and exercising the task
of literary criticism in objecting to Scarron's burlesques, produced
in his Histoires comiques des etats et empires de la lune et du soleil,
half romantic and half satirical compositions, in which some
have seen the original of Gulliver's Travels, in which others have
discovered only a not very successful imitation of Rabelais,
and which, without attempting to decide these questions, may
fairly be ranked in the same class of fiction with the masterpieces
of Swift and Rabelais, though of course at an immense distance
below them. One other work, and in literary influence perhaps
the most remarkable of its kind in the century, remains. Madame
de Lafayette, Marie de la Vergne (1634-1692), the friend of La
Rochefoucauld and of Madame de Sevigne, though she did not
exactly anticipate the modern novel, showed the way to it in
her stories, the principal of which are Zaide and still more La
Princesse de Cleves. The latter, though a long way from Manon
Lescaut, Clarissa, or Tom Jones, is a longer way still from Polex-
andre or the Arcadia. The novel becomes in it no longer a more
or less fictitious chronicle, but an attempt at least at the display
of character. La Princesse de Cleves has never been one of the
works widely popular out of their own country, nor perhaps
does it deserve such popularity, for it has more grace than
strength; but as an original effort in an important direction
its historical value is considerable. But with this exception,
the art of fictitious prose composition, except on a small scale,
is certainly not one in which the century exceDed, nor are any
of the masterpieces which it produced to be ranked in this class.
Ijth-Cenlury Prose. If, however, this was the case, it cannot
be said that French prose as a whole was unproductive at this
time. On the contrary, it was now, and only now, j Q rfe
that it attained the strength and perfection for which Balzac ana
it has been so long renowned, and which has perhaps, moatra
by a curious process of compensation, somewhat r>rett '
deteriorated since the restoration of poetry proper
in France. The prose Malherbe of French literature was Jean
Guez de Balzac (1594-1654). The writers of the i7th century
had practically created the literary language of prose, but they
had not created a prose style. The charm of Rabelais, of Amyot,
of Montaigne, and of the numerous writers of tales and memoirs
whom we have noticed, was a charm of exuberance, of na!vet6,
of picturesque effect in short, of a mixture of poetry and prose,
rather than of prose proper. Sixteenth-century French prose
is a delightful instrument in the hands of men and women of
genius, but in the hands of those who have not genius it is full
17TH-CENTURY HISTORY]
FRENCH LITERATURE
of defects, and indeed is nearly unreadable. Now, prose is
essentially an instrument of all work. The poet who has not
genius had better not write at all; the prose writer often may
and sometimes must dispense with this qualification. He has
need, therefore, of a suitable machine to help him to perform
his task, and this machine it is the glory of Balzac to have done
more than any other person to create. He produced himself
no great work, his principal writings being letters, a few discourses
and dissertations, and a work entitled Le Socrate ckrttien, a
sort of treatise on political theology. But if the matter of his
work is not of the first importance, its manner isof a very different
value. Instead of theendlessdiffusenessof theprecedingcentury,
its ill-formed or rather unformed sentences, and its haphazard
periods, we find clauses, sentences and paragraphs distinctly
planned, shaped and balanced, a cadence introduced which is
rhythmical but not metrical, and, in short, prose which is written
knowingly instead of the prose which is unwittingly talked.
It has been well said of him that he " tcrit pour tcrire "; and
such a man, it is evident, if he does nothing else, sets a valuable
example to those who write because they have something to say.
Voiture seconded Balzac without much intending to do so.
His prose style, also chiefly contained in letters, is lighter than
that of his contemporary, and helped to gain for French prose
the tradition of vivacity and sparkle which it has always
gxmcincfl. as well as that of correctness and grace.
J7tk-Century History. In historical composition, especially
in the department of memoirs, this period was exceedingly rich.
At last there was written, in French, an entire history of France.
The author was Francois Eudes de Mezeray (1610-1683), whose
work, though not exhibiting the perfection of style at which some
of his contemporaries had already arrived, and though still more
or less uncritical, yet deserves the title of history. The example
was followed by a large number of writers, some of extended
works, some of histories in pan. Mezeray himself is said to
have had a considerable share in the Histoire du roi Henri le
fraud by the archbishop Perefixe (1605-1670) ; Louis Maimbourg
(1610-1686) wrote histories of the Crusades and of the League;
Paul PeUisson (1624-1693) gave a history of Louis XIV. and a
more valuable Memoir e in defence of the superintendent Fouquet.
Still later in the century, or at the beginning of the next, the
Pere d'Orleans (1644-1608) wrote a history of the revolutions
of England, the Pere Daniel (1649-1728), like d'Orleans a
Jesuit, composed a lengthy history of France and a shorter one
on the French military forces. Finally, at the end of the period,
comes the great ecclesiastical history of Claude Fleury (1640-
1723), a work which perhaps belongs more to the section of
erudition than to that of history proper. Three small treatises,
however, composed by different authors towards the middle
part of the century, supply remarkable instances of prose style
in its application to history. These are the Conjurations du
comte de Fiesque, written by the famous Cardinal de Retz
(1613-1679), the Conspiralion de Walstein of Sarrasin, and the
Conjuration des Espagnols centre Venise, composed in 1672
by the abM de Saint-Real (1630-1692), the author of various
historical and critical works deserving less notice. These three
works, whose similarity of subject and successive composition
at short intervals leave little doubt that a certain amount of
intentional rivalry animated the two later authors, are among
the earliest and best examples of the monographs for which
French, in point of grace of style and lucidity of exposition,
has long been the most successful vehicle of expression among
European languages. Among other writers of history, as
distinguished from memoirs, need only be noticed Agrippa
d'Aubigne, whose Hisloire unnertelle closed his long and varied
list of works, and Varillas (1624-1606), a historian chiefly
remarkable for his extreme untrustworthiness. In point of
memoirs and correspondence the period is hardly less fruitful
than that which preceded it. The Rtgistra-Journaux of Pierre
de 1'Etoile (1540-161 1) consist of a diary something of the Pepys
character, kept for nearly forty yean by a person in high official
employment. The memoirs of Sully (1560-1641), published
under a curious title too long to quote, date also from this time.
Henri IV. himself has left a considerable correspondence,
which is not destitute of literary merit, though not equal to the
memoirs of his wife. What are commonly called Richelieu's
Memoirs were probably written to his order; his Testament
politique may be his own. Henri de Rohan (1579-1638) has not
memoirs of the first value. Both this and earlier times found
chronicle in the singular Historiettes of Ged6on Tallemant des
R6aux (1619-1690), a collection of anecdotes, frequently scandal-
ous, reaching from the times of Henri IV. to those of Louis XIV.,
to which may be joined the letters of Guy Patin (1602-1676).
The early years of the latter monarch and the period of the
Fronde had the cardinal de Retz himself, than whom no one
was certainly better qualified for historian, not to mention a
crowd of others, of whom we may mention Madame de Motte-
ville (1621-1689), Jean Heiault de Gourville (1625-1703),
Mademoiselle de Montpensier (" La Grande Mademoiselle ")
(1627-1693), Conrart, Turenne and Mathieu Mol6 (1584-1663),
Francois du Val, marquis de Fontenay-Mareuil (1594-1655),
Arnauld d'Andilly (1588-1670). From this time memoirs and
memoir writers were ever multiplying. The queen of them
all is Madame de Sevign6 (1626-1696), on whom, as on most of
the great and better-known writers whom we have had and shall
have to mention, it is impossible here to dwell at length. The
last half of the century produced crowds of similar but inferior
writers. The memoirs of Roger de Bussy-Rabutin (1618-1693)
(author of a kind of scandalous chronicle called Histoire amott-
reuse des Gaules) and of Madame de Maintenon (1635-1719)
perhaps deserve notice above the others. But this was in truth
the style of composition in which the age most excelled. Memoir-
writing became the occupation not so much of persons who
made history, as was the case from Comines to Retz, as of those
who, having culture, leisure and opportunity of observation,
devoted themselves to the task of recording the deeds of others,
and still more of regarding the incidents of the busy, splendid
and cultivated if somewhat frivolous world of the court, in which,
from the time of Louis XIV.'s majority, the political life of the
nation and almost its whole history were centred. Many, if not
most, of these writers were women, who thus founded the cele-
brity of the French lady for managing her mother-tongue,
and justified by results the taste and tendencies of the blue-
stockings and pr6cieuses of the H6tel Rambouillet and similar
coteries. The life which these writers saw before them furnished
them with a subject to be handled with the minuteness and care
to which they had been accustomed in the ponderous romances
of the Clflie type, but also with the wit and terseness hereditary
in France, and only temporarily absent in those ponderous
compositions. The efforts of Balzac and the Academy supplied
a suitable language and style, and the increasing tendency
towards epigrammatic moralizing, which reached its acme
in La Rochefoucauld (1663-1680) and La Bruyere (1639-1696),
added in most cases point and attractiveness to their writings.
I7th-Cenlury Philosophers and Theologians. To these moralists
we might, perhaps, not inappropriately pass at once. But it
seems better to consider first the philosophical and _
theological developments of the age, which must share
with its historical experiences and studies the credit of producing
these writers. Philosophy proper, as we have already had
occasion to remark, had hitherto made no use of the vulgar
tongue. The i6th century had contributed a few vernacular
treatises on logic, a considerable body of political and ethical
writing, and a good deal of sceptical speculation of a more or
less vague character, continued into our present epoch by such
writers as Francois de la Mothe le Vayer (1588-1672), the last
representative of the orthodox doubt of Montaigne and Charron.
But in metaphysics proper it had not dabbled. The 1 7th century,
on the contrary, was to produce in Ren Descartes (i 596-1650), at
once a master of prose style, the greatest of French philosophers,
and one of the greatest metaphysicians, not merely of France
and of the tyth century, but of all countries and times. Even
before Descartes there had been considerable and important
developments of metaphysical speculation in France. The first
eminent philosopher of French birth was Pierre Gassendi (1592-
132
FRENCH LITERATURE [PHILOSOPHERS & THEOLOGIANS
1655). Gassendi devoted himself to the maintenance of a
modernized form of the Epicurean doctrines, but he wrote mainly,
if not entirely, in Latin. Another sceptical philosopher of a less
scientific character was the physicist Gabriel Naude (1600-1653),
who, like many others of the philosophers of the time, was
accused of atheism. But as none of these could approach
Descartes in philosophical power and originality, so also none
has even a fraction of his importance in the history of French
literature. Descartes stands with Plato, and possibly Berkeley
and Malebranche, at the head of all philosophers in respect of
style; and in his case the excellence is far more remarkable
than in others, inasmuch as he had absolutely no models, and
was forced in a great degree to create the language which he
used. The Discours de la methode is not only one of the epoch-
making books of philosophy, it is also one of the epoch-making
books of French style. The tradition of his clear and perfect
expression was taken up, not merely by his philosophical disciples,
but also by Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) and the school of
Port Royal, who will be noticed presently. The very genius
of the Cartesian philosophy was intimately connected with
this clearness, distinctness and severity of style; and there is
something more than a fanciful contrast between these literary
characteristics of Descartes, on the one hand, and the elaborate
splendour of Bacon, the knotty and crabbed strength of Hobbes,
and the commonplace and almost vulgar slovenliness of Locke.
Of the followers of Descartes, putting aside the Port Royalists,
by far the most distinguished, both in philosophy and in literature,
is Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715). His Recherche
ae ' a v ^ r ^> admirable as it is for its subtlety and its
consecutiveness of thought, is equally admirable for
its elegance of style. Malebranche cannot indeed, like his great
master, claim absolute originality. But his excellence as a
writer is as great as, if not greater than, that of Descartes, and the
Recherche remains to this day' the one philosophical treatise of
great length and abstruseness which, merely as a book, is delight-
ful to read not like the works of Plato and Berkeley, because
of the adventitious graces of dialogue or description, but from
the purity and grace of the language, and its admirable adjust-
ment to the purposes of the argument. Yet, for all this, philo-
sophy hardly flourished in France. It was too intimately
connected with theological and ecclesiastical questions, and
especially with Jansenism, to escape suspicion and persecution.
Descartes himself was for much of his life an exile in Holland
and Sweden; and though the unquestionable orthodoxy of
Malebranche, the strongly religious cast of his works, and the
remoteness of the abstruse region in which he sojourned from
that of the controversies of the day, protected him, other followers
of Descartes were not so fortunate. Holland, indeed, became
a kind of city of refuge for students of philosophy, though even
in Holland itself they were by no means entirely safe from
persecution. By far the most remarkable of French philosophical
Ba le sojourners- in the Netherlands was Pierre Bayle
(1647-1706), a name not perhaps of the first rank in
respect of literary value, but certainly of the first as regards
literary influence. Bayle, after oscillating between the two
confessions, nominally remained a Protestant in religion. In
philosophy he in the same manner oscillated between Descartes
and Gassendi, finally resting in an equally nominal Cartesianism.
Bayle was, in fact, both in philosophy and in religion, merely
a sceptic, with a scepticism at once like and unlike that of
Montaigne, and differenced both by temperament and by circum-
stance the scepticism of the mere student, exercised more or
less in all histories, sciences and philosophies, and intellectually
unable or unwilling to take a side. His style is hardly to be called
good, being diffuse and often inelegant. But his great dictionary,
though one of the most heterogeneous and unmethodical of
compositions, exercised an enormous influence. It may be
called the Bible of the i8th century, and contains in the germ
all the desultory philosophy, the ill-ordered scepticism, and the
critical but negatively critical acuteness of the Aufklarung.
We have said that the philosophical, theological and moral
tendencies of the century, which produced, with the exception
Jan-
seaists.
of its dramatic triumphs, all its greatest literary works, are almost
inextricably intermingled. Its earliest years, however, bear
in theological matters rather the complexion of the
previous century. Du Perron and St Francis of Sales
survived until nearly the end of its first quarter, and the
most remarkable works of the latter bear the dates of 1608 and
later. It was not, however, till some years had passed, till the
counter-Reformation had reconverted the largest and most
powerful portion of the Huguenot party, and till the influence of
Jansenius and Descartes had time to work, that the extraordinary
outburst of Gallican theology, both in pulpit and in press, took
place. The Jansenist controversy may perhaps be awarded the
merit of provoking this, as far as writing was concerned. The
astonishing eloquence of contemporary pulpit oratory may be set
down partly to the zeal for conversion of which du Perron and
de Sales had given the example, partly to the same taste of the
time which encouraged dramatic performances, for the sermon
and the tirade have much in common. Jansenius himself, though
a Dutchman by birth, passed much time in France, and it was
in France that he found most disciples. These disciples consisted
in the first place of the members of the society of Port Royal
des Champs, a coterie after the fashion of the time, but one which
devoted itself not to sonnets or madrigals but to devotional
exercises, study and the teaching of youth. This coterie early
adopted the Cartesian philosophy, and the Port Royal
Logic was the most remarkable popular hand-book RW*I.
of that school. In theology they adopted Jansenism,
and were in consequence soon at daggers drawn with the Jesuits,
according to the polemical habits of the time. The most dis-
tinguished champions on the Jansenist side were Jean Duvergier
de Hauranne, abbe de St Cyran(i58i-i643), and Antoine Arnauld
(1560-1619), but by far the most important literary results of the
quarrel were the famous Provinciates of Pascal, or, to give them
their proper title, Lettres ecrites a un provincial.
Their literary importance consists, not merely in their
grace of style, but in the application to serious discussion of the
peculiarly polished and quiet irony of which Pascal is the greatest
master the world has ever seen. Up to this time controversy had
usually been conducted either in the mere bludgeon fashion of
the Scaligers and Saumaises of which in the vernacular the
Jesuit Francois Garasse (1585-1631) had already contributed
remarkable examples to literary and moral controversy or else
in a dull and legal style, or lastly under an envelope of Rabelaisian
buffoonery such as survives to a considerable extent in the
Satire Menippee. Pascal set the example of combining the use
of the most terribly effective weapons with good humour, good
breeding and a polished style. The example was largely
followed, and the manner of Voltaire and his followers in the i8th
century owes at least as much to Pascal as their method and
matter do to Bayle. The Jansenists, attacked and persecuted by
the civil power, which the Jesuits had contrived to interest,
were finally suppressed. But the Provinciates had given them
an unapproachable superiority in matter of argument and
literature. Their other literary works were inferior, though still
remarkable. Antoine Arnauld (the younger, often called " the
great") (1612-1694) and Pierre Nicole (1625-1695) managed
their native language with vigour if not exactly with grace.
They maintained their orthodoxy by writings, not merely against
the Jesuits, but also against the Protestants such as the Per-
petuM de la foi due to both, and the Apologie des Catholiques
written by Arnauld alone. The latter, besides being responsible
for a good deal of the Logic (L'Art de penser) to which we have
alluded, wrote also much of a Grammaire generate composed
by the Port Royalists for the use of their pupils; but his principal
devotion was t theology and theological polemics. To the latter
Nicole also contributed Les Visionnaires, Les Imaginaires and
other works. The studious recluses of Port Royal also produced
a large quantity of miscellaneous literary work, to which full
justice has been done in Sainte-Beuve's well-known volumes.
I7th-Cenlury Preachers. When we think of Gallican theology
during the I7th century, it is always with the famous pulpit
orators of the period that thought is most busied. Nor is this
17TH-CENTURY MORALISTS]
FRENCH LITERATURE
133
unjust, for though the most prominent of them all, Jacques
Benigne Bossuet (1627-1704) was remarkable as a writer of
matter intended to be read, not merely as a speaker of matter
intended to be heard, this double character is not possessed
by most of the orthodox theologians of the time; and even
Bocsuct, great as is his genius, is more of a rhetorician than of a
philosopher or a theologian. In no quarter was the advance of
culture more remarkable in France than in the pulpit. We have
already had occasion to notice the characteristics of French pulpit
eloquence in the 1 5th and i6th centuries. Though this was very
far from destitute of vigour and imagination, the political frenzy
of the preachers, and the habit of introducing anecdotic buf-
foonery, spoilt the eloquence of Maillard and of Raulin, of
Boucher and of Rose. The powerful use which the Reformed
ministers made of the pulpit stirred up their rivals; the advance
in science and classical study added weight and dignity to the
matter of their discourses. The improvement of prose style and
language provided them with a suitable instiument, and the
growth of taste and refinement purged their sermons of grossness
and buffoonery, of personal allusions, and even, as the monarchy
became more absolute, of direct political purpose. The earliest
examples of this improved style were given by St Francis de
Sales and by Fenouillct, bishop of Marseilles (d. 1652); but it
was not till the latter half of the century, when the troubles of
the Fronde had completely subsided, and the church was estab-
lished in the favour of Louis XIV., that the full efflorescence of
theological eloquence took place. There were at the time pulpit
orators of considerable excellence in England, and perhaps
Jeremy Taylor, assisted by the genius of the language, has
wrought a vein more precious than any which the somewhat
academic methods and limitations of the French teachers
allowed them to reach. But no country has ever been able
to show a more magnificent concourse of orators, sacred or
profane, than that formed by Bossuet, Ffnelon (1651-1715),
Esprit Flechier (1632-1710), Jules Mascaron (1634-1703),
Louis Bourdaloue (1632-1704), and Jean Baptiste Massillon
(1663-1742), to whom may be justly added the Protestant
divines, Jean Claude (1610-1687) and Jacques Saurin (1677-1 730).
-^^ The characteristics of all these were different. Bossuet,
the earliest and certainly the greatest, was also the most
universal. He was not merely a preacher; he was, as we have
said, a controversialist, indeed somewhat too much of a con-
troversialist, as his battle with K-nclon proved. He was a
philosophical or at least a theological historian, and his Discours
fur I'kistoire universdle is equally remarkable from the point of
view of theology, philosophy, history and literature. Turning
to theological politics, he wrote his Polilique tirie de t'ecrilure
sainie, to theology proper his Mtditalions sur Us fvangiles
and his functions sur Us mysleres. But his principal work, after
all, is his Oraisons funebrcs. The funeral sermon was the special
oratorical exercise of the time. Its subject and character in-
vited the gorgeous if somewhat theatrical commonplaces, the
display of historical knowledge and parallel, and the moralizing
analogies, in which the age specially rejoiced. It must also be
noticed, to the credit of the preachers, that such occasions gave
them an opportunity, rarely neglected, of correcting the adulation
which was but too frequently characteristic of the period. The
spirit of these compositions is fairly reflected in the most famous
and often quoted of their phrases, the opening " Mes freres, Dieu
seul est grand " of Massillon 's funeral discourse on Louis XIV.;
and though panegyric is necessarily by no means absent, it is
rarely carried beyond bounds. While Bossuet made himself
chiefly remarkable in his sermons and in his writings by an
almost Hebraic grandeur and rudeness, the more special character-
istics of Christianity, largely alloyed with a Greek and Platonic
Pf mltm spirit, displayed themselves in Ffnelon. In pure
literature he is not less remarkable than in theology,
politics and morals. His practice in matters of style was admir-
able, as the universally known TtUmaque sufficiently shows to
those who know nothing else of his writing. But bis taste, both
in its correctness and its audacity, is perhaps more admirable
still. Despite of Malherbe. Balzac, Boileau and the traditions
of nearly a century, he dared to speak favourably of Ronsard,
and plainly expressed his opinion that the practice of his own
contemporaries and predecessors had cramped and impoverished
the French language quite as much as they had polished or puri-
fied it. The other doctors whom we have mentioned were more
purely theological than the accomplished archbishop of Cambray.
Fllchier is somewhat more archaic in style than Bossuet or
F6nelon, and he is also more definitely a rhetorician than either.
Mascaron has the older fault of prodigal and somewhat indis-
criminate erudition. But the two latest of the series, Bourdaloue
and Massillon, had far the greatest repute in their own time
purely as orators, and perhaps deserved this preference. The differ-
ence between the two repeated that between du Perron and de
Sales. Bourdaloue's great forte was vigorous argument and
unsparing denunciation, but he is said to have been lacking in
the power of influencing and affecting his hearers. His attraction
was purely intellectual, and it is reflected in his style, which is
clear and forcible, but destitute of warmth and colour. Massillon,
on the ether hand, was remarkable for his pathos, and for his
power of enlisting and influencing the sympathies of his hearers.
Of minor preachers on the same side, Charles de la Rue, a Jesuit
(1643-1725), and the Pere Chcminais (1652-1680), according to a
somewhat idle form of nomenclature, " the Racine of the pulpit,"
may be mentioned. The two Protestant ministers whom we
have mentioned, though inferior to their rivals, yet deserve
honourable mention among the ecclesiastical writers of the
period. Claude engaged in a controversy with Bossuet, in
which victory is claimed for the invincible eagle of Meaux.
Saurin, by far the greater preacher of the two, long continued to
occupy, and indeed still occupies, in the libraries of French
Protestants, the position given to Bossuet and Massillon on the
other side.
ijth-Cenlury Moralists. It is not surprising that the works
of Montaigne and Charron, with the immense popularity of the
former, should have inclined the more thoughtful minds in France
to moral reflection, especially as many other influences, both
direct and indirect, contributed to produce the same result.
The constant tendency of the refinements in French prose was
towards clearness, succinctness and precision, the qualities
most necessary in the moralist. The characteristics of the
prevailing philosophy, that of Descartes, pointed in the same
direction. It so happened, too, that the times were more favour-
able to the thinker and writer on ethical subjects than to the
speculator in philosophy proper, in theology or in politics.
Both the former subjects exposed their cultivators, as we have
seen, to the suspicion of unorthodoxy; and to political specula-
tion of any kind the rule of Richelieu, and still more that of
Louis XIV., were in the highest degree unfavourable. No
successors to Bod in and du Vair appeared; and even in the
domain of legal writings, which comes nearest to that of politics,
but few names of eminence are to be found.
Only the name of Omer-Talon (1595-1652) really illustrates
the legal annals of France at this period on the bench, and that
of Olivier Patru (1604-1681) at the bar. Thus it
happened that the interests of many different classes
of persons were concentrated upon moralizings, which writing.
took indeed very different forms in the hands of Pascal
and other grave and serious thinkers of the Jansenist complexion
in theology, and in those of literary courtiers like Saint-Evremond
(1613-1703) and La Rochefoucauld, whose chief object was to
depict the motives and characters prominent in the brilliant
and not altogether frivolous society in which they moved. Both
classes, however, were more or less tempted by the cast of their
thoughts and the genius of the language to adopt the tersest
and most epigrammatic form of expression possible, and thus
to originate the " penste " in which, as its greatest later writer,
Joubert, has said, " the ambition of the author is to put a
book into a page, a page into a phrase, and a phrase into a word."
The great genius and admirable style of Pascal are certainly
not less shown in his Penstes than in his Provinciates, though
perhaps the literary form of the former is less strikingly supreme
than that of the latter. The author is more dominated by his
134
FRENCH LITERATURE
[18TH-CENTURY
subject and dominates it less. Nicole, a far inferior writer as
well as thinker, has also left a considerable number of Pensees,
which have about them something more of the essay and less
of the aphorism. They are, however, though not comparable
to Pascal, excellent in matter and style, and go far to justify
Bayle in calling their author " 1'une des plus belles plumes de
1'Europe." In sharp contrast with these thinkers, who are
invariably not merely respecters of religion but ardently and
avowedly religious, who treat morality from the point of view
of the Bible and the church, there arose side by side with them,
or only a little later, a very different group of moralists, whose
writings have been as widely read, and who have had as great
a practical and literary influence as perhaps any other class
of authors. The earliest to be born and the last to die of these
was Charles de Saint-Denis, seigneur de saint-Evremond (1613-
1703). Saint-Evremond was long known rather as a
conversational wit, some of whose good things were
handed about in manuscript, or surreptitiously printed
in foreign lands, than as a writer, and this is still to a certain
extent his reputation. He was at least as cynical as his still
better known contemporary La Rochefoucauld, if not more so,
and he had less intellectual force and less nobility of character.
But his wit was very great, and he set the example of the brilliant
societies of the next century. Many of Saint-Evremond's
printed works are nominally works of literary criticism, but
the moralizing spirit pervades all of them. No writer had a
greater influence on Voltaire, and through Voltaire on the
whole course of French literature after him. In direct literary
value, however, no comparison can be made between Saint-
Evremond and the author of the Sentences et maximes morales.
Francois, due de la Rochefoucauld (1613-1680), has other literary
claims besides those of this famous book. His Memoires
*touciuiU.' were verv favourably judged by his contemporaries,
and they are still held to deserve no little praise even
ataong the numerous and excellent works of the kind which that
age of memoir-writers produced. But while the Memoires thus
invite comparison, the Maximes et sentences stand alone. Even
allowing that the mere publication of detached reflections in
terse language was not absolutely new, it had never been carried,
perhaps has never since been carried, to such a perfection.
Beside La Rochefoucauld all other writers are diffuse, vacillating,
unfinished, rough. Not only is there in him never a word too
much, but there is never a word too little. The thought is always
fully expressed, not compressed. Frequently as the metaphor
of minting or stamping coin has been applied to the art of manag-
ing words, it has never been applied so appropriately as to the
maxims of La Rochefoucauld. The form of them is almost
beyond praise, and its excellencies, combined with their immense
and enduring popularity, have had a very considerable share in
influencing the character of subsequent French literature. Of
hardly less importance in this respect, though of considerably
less intellectual and literary individuality, was the translator
of Theophrastus and the author of the Caracteres, La Bruyere.
Jean de la Bruyere (1645-1696), though frequently
epigrammatic, did not aim at the same incredible
terseness as the author of the Maximes. His plan did
not, indeed, render it necessary. Both in England and in France
there had been during the whole of the century a mania for
character writing, both of the general and Theophrastic kind, and
of the historical and personal order. The latter, of which our
own Clarendon is perhaps the greatest master, abound in the
French memoirs of the period. The former, of which the naive
sketches of Earle and Overbury are English examples, culminated
in those of La Bruyere, which are not only light and easy in
manner and matter, but also in style essentially amusing, though
instructive as well. Both he and La Rochefoucauld had an
enduring effect on the literature which followed them an effect
perhaps superior to that exercised by any other single work in
French, except the Roman de la rose and the Essais of Montaigne.
i^th-Century Savants. Of the literature of the i?th century
there only remains to be dealt with the section of those writers
who devoted themselves to scientific pursuits or to antiquarian
erudition of one form or another. It was in this century that
literary criticism of French and in French first began to be largely
composed, and after this time we shall give it a separate heading.
It was very far, however, from attaining the excellence or
observing the form which it afterwards assumed. The institution
of the Academy led to various linguistic works. One of the
earliest of these was the Remarques of the Savoyard Claude
Favre de Vaugelas (1595-1650), afterwards re-edited by Thomas
Corneille. Pellisson wrote a history of the Academy itself when
it had as yet but a brief one. The famous Examen du Cid was
an instance of the literary criticism of the time which was
afterwards represented by Ren6 Rapin (1621-1687), Dominique
Bouhours (1628-1702) and Ren6 de Bossu (1631-1680), while
Adrien Baillet (1649-1706) has collected the largest thesaurus
of the subject in his Jugemens des savants. Boileau set the
example of treating such subjects in verse, and in the latter part
of the century Reflexions, Discourses, Observations, and the like,
on particular styles, literary forms and authors, became exceed-
ingly numerous. In earlier years France possessed a numerous
band of classical scholars of the first rank, such as Scaliger and
Casaubon, who did not lack followers. But all or almost all this
sort of work was done in Latin, so that it contributed little to
French literature properly so-called, though the translations from
the classics of Nicolas Perrot d'Ablancourt (1606-1664) have
always taken rank among the models of French style. On the
other hand, mathematical studies were pursued by persons of
far other and far greater genius, and, taking from this time
forward a considerable position in education and literature in
France, had much influence on both. The mathematical dis-
coveries of Pascal and Descartes are well known. Of science
proper, apart from mathematics, France did not produce many
distinguished cultivators in this century. The philosophy of
Descartes was not on the whole favourable to such investigations,
which were in the next century to be pursued with ardour. Its
tendencies found more congenial vent and are more thoroughly
exemplified in the famous quarrel between the Ancients Contro .
and the Moderns. This, of Italian origin, was mainly versy
started in France by Charles Perrault (1628-1703), between
who thereby rendered much less service to literature
than by his charming fairy tales. The opposite side
was taken by Boileau, and the fight was afterwards
revived by Antoine Houdar[d, t] de la Motte (1672-1731), a
writer of little learning but much talent in various ways, and
by the celebrated Madame Dacier, Anne Lefevre (1654-1720).
The discussion was conducted, as is well known, without very
much knowledge or judgment among the disputants on the one
side or on the other. But at this very time there were in France
students and scholars of the most profound erudition. We
have already mentioned Fleury and his ecclesiastical history.
But Fleury is only the last and the most popular of a race of
omnivorous and untiring scholars, whose labours have ever since,
until the modern fashion of first-hand investigations came in,
furnished the bulk of historical and scholarly references and
quotations. To this century belong le Nain de Tillemont (1637-
1698), whose enormous Histoire des empereurs and Memoires
pour sereir a I'histoire ecclesiastique served Gibbon and a
hundred others as quarry; Charles Dufresne, seigneur de
Ducange (1614-1688), whose well-known glossary was only one
of numerous productions; Jean Mabillon (1632-1707), one
of the most voluminous of the voluminous Benedictines; and
Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-1741), chief of all authorities of
the dry-as-dust kind on classical archaeology and art.
Opening of the i8th Century. The beginning of the i8th
century is among the dead seasons of French literature. All
the greatest men whose names had illustrated the early reign of
Louis XIV. in profane literature passed away long before him,
and the last if the least of them, Boileau and Thomas Corneille,
only survived into the very earliest years of the new age. The
political and military disasters of the last years of the reign were-
accompanied by a state of things in society unfavourable to
literary development. The devotion to pure literature and philo-
sophy proper which Descartes and Corneille had inspired had
POETRY AND DRAMA,
FRENCH LITERATURE
135
J. B.
died out, and the devotion to physical science, to sociology,
and to a kind of free-thinking optimism which was to inspire
Voltaire and the Encyclopedists had not yet become fashionable.
Ftoelon and Malebranche still survived, but they were emphatic-
ally men of the last age, as was Massillon, though he lived till
nearly the middle of the century. The characteristic literary
figures of the opening years of the period are d'Aguesseau,
Fontenelle, Saint-Simon, personages in many ways interesting
and remarkable, but purely transitional in their characteristics.
Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle (1657-1757) is, indeed, perhaps
the most typical figure of the time. He was a dramatist, a
moralist, a philosopher, physical and metaphysical, a critic, an
historian, a poet and a satirist. The manner of his works is
always easy and graceful, and their matter rarely contemptible.
iStk-Century Pottry. The dispiriting signs shown during the
1 7th century by French poetry proper received entire fulfilment
in the following age. The two poets who were most prominent
at the opening of the period were the abbe 1 de Chaulieu (1630-
1720) and the marquis de la Fare (1644-1712), poetical or rather
versifying twins who are always quoted together. They were
both men who lived to a great age, yet their characteristics are
rather those of their later than of their earlier contemporaries.
They derive on the one hand from the somewhat trifling school
of Voiture, on the other from the Bacchic sect of Saint- Amant;
and they succeed in uniting the inferior qualities of both with
the cramped and impoverished though elegant style of which
Ftnelon had complained. Their compositions are as a rule
lyrical, as lyrical poetry was understood after the days of Mal-
herbe that is to say, quatrains of the kind ridiculed by Molie're,
and Pindaric odes, which have been justly described as made
up of alexandrines after the manner of Boileau cut up into shorter
or longer lengths. They were followed, however, by the one
poet who succeeded in producing something resembling poetry
in this artificial style, J. B. Rousseau (1671-1741).
Rousseau, who in some respects was nothing so little
asa religious poet, was nevertheless strongly influenced,
as Marot had been, by the Psalms of David. His Odes and his
Cantatft are perhaps less destitute of that spirit than the work
of any other poet of the century excepting Andr Chenier.
Rousseau was also an extremely successful epigrammatist,
having in this respect, too, resemblances to Marot. Le Franc
de Pompignan (1700-1784), to whom Voltaire's well-known
sarcasms are not altogether just, and Louis Racine (1692-1763),
who wrote pious and altogether forgotten poems, belonged to
the same poetical school; though both the style and matter of
Racine are strongly tinctured by his Port Royalist sympathies
and education. Lighter verse was represented in the iSth
century by the long-lived Saint-Aulaire (1643-1742), by Gentil
Bernard (1710-1775), by the abb6 (afterwards cardinal) de Bernis
(1715-1794), by Claude Joseph Dorat (1734-1780), by Antoine
Benin (1752-1700) and by Evariste de Parny (1753-1814), the
last the most vigorous, but all somewhat deserving the term
applied to Dorat of ver tutsan! du Parnasse. The jovial traditions
of Saint-Amant begat a similar school of anacreontic songsters,
which, represented in turn by Charles Francois Panard (1674-
1765), Charles Collfc (1700-1783), Armand Gouffe (1775-1845),
and Marc- An t oine- M adeleinc Desaugiers (1772-1827), led directly
to the best of all such writers, Beranger. To this class Rouget
de Lisle (1760-1836) perhaps also belongs; though his most
famous composition, the Marseillaise, is of a different stamp.
Nor is the account of the light verse of the iSth century complete
without reference to a long succession of fable writers, who, in an
unbroken chain, connect La Fontaine in the i7th century with
Viennet in the igth. None of the links, however, of this chain,
with the exception of Jean Pierre Florian (1750-1704) deserve
much attention. The universal faculty of Voltaire
(1694-1778) showed itself in his poetical productions
no less than in his other works, and it is perhaps not
least remarkable in verse. It is impossible nowadays to regard
the Henriadc as anything but a highly successful prize poem,
but the burlesque epic of La Pucelle, discreditable as it may be
from the moral point of view, is remarkable enough as literature.
The epistles and satires are among the best of their kind, the
verse tales arc in the same way admirable, and the epigrams,
impromptus, and short miscellaneous poems generally -are the
ne plus ultra of verse which is not poetry. The Anglomania
of the century extended into poetry, and the Seasons of Thomson
set the example of a whole library of tedious descriptive verse,
which in its turn revenged France upon England by producing
or helping to produce English poems of the Darwin school.
The first of these descriptive performances was the Saisons
of Jean Francois de Saint-Lambert (1716-1803), identical in
title with its model, but of infinitely inferior value. Saint-
Lambert was followed by Jacques Dclille (1738-1813) in Les
Jardins, Antoine Marin le Mierre (1723-1793) in Les Pastes,
and Jean Antoine Roucher (1745-1794) in Les Mois, Indeed,
everything that could be described was seized upon by these
describers. Delille also translated the Georgics, and for a time
was the greatest living poet of France, the title being only dis-
puted by Escouchard le Brun (1729-1807), a lyrist and ode
writer of the school of J. B. Rousseau, but not destitute of energy.
The only other poets until Ch6nier who deserve notice are
Nicolas Gilbert (1751-1780) the French Chatterton, or per-
haps rather the French Oldham, who died in a workhouse at
twenty-nine after producing some vigorous satires and, at the
point of death, an elegy of great beauty; Jacques Charles Louis
Clinchaut de Malfilatre (1732-1767), another short-lived poet
whose " Ode to the Sun " has a certain stateliness; and Jean
Baptiste Cresset (1709-1 777), the author of Ver-Vertand of other
poems of the lighter order, which are not far, if at all, below the
level of Voltaire. Andrfi Ch6nier (1762-1794) stands ~ ,
far apart from the art of his century, though the strong
chain of custom, and his early death by the guillotine, prevented
him from breaking finally through the restraints of its language
and its versification. Ch6nier, half a Greek by blood, was wholly
one in spirit and sentiment. The manner of his verses, the very
air which surrounds them and which they diffuse, are different
from those of the iSth century; and his poetry is probably the
utmost that its language and versification could produce. To
do more, the revolution which followed a generation after his
death was required.
iSlh-Cenlury Drama. Theresultsof thecultivation of dramatic
poetry at this time were even less individually remarkable than
those of the. attention paid to poetry proper. Here again the
astonishing power and literary aptitude of Voltaire gave value to
his attempts in a style which, notwithstanding that it counts
Racine among its practitioners, was none the less predestined
to failure. Voltaire's own efforts in this kind are indisputably as
successful as they could be. Foreigners usually prefer Mahomet
and Zaire to Bajazet and Milhridate, though there is no doubt
that no work of Voltaire's comes up to Polyeucte and Rodogune,
as certainly no single passage in any of his plays can approach
the best passages of Cinna. and Les Horaces. But the remaining
tragic writers of the century, with the single exception of Cr6billon
pert, are scarcely third-rate. C. Jolyot de Cr6billon (1674-1762)
himself had genius, and there are to be found in his work evidences
of a spirit which had seemed to die away with Sainl-Genest, and
was hardly to revive until Hcrnani. Of the imitators of Racine
and Voltaire, La Motte in Inlsde Castro WAS not wholly unsuccess-
ful. Francois Joseph de la Grange-Chancel (1677-1758) copied
chiefly the worst side of the author of Briiannicus, and Bernard
Joseph Saurin (1706-1781) and Pierre-Laurent de Bclloy (1727-
1775) performed the same service for Voltaire. Le Mierre and La
Harpe, mentioned and to be mentioned, were tragedians; but
the Iphigtnie en Tauride of Guimond de la Touche (1725-1760)
deserves more special mention than anything of theirs. There
was an infinity of tragic writers and tragic plays in this century,
but hardly any others of them even deserve mention. The muse
of comedy was decidedly more happy in her devotees. Molie're
was a far safer if a more difficult model than Racine, and the
inexorable fashion which had bound down tragedy to a feeble
imitation of Euripides did not similarly prescribe an undeviating
adherence to Terence. Tragedy had never been, has scarcely
been since, anything but an exotic in France; comedy was of the
136
FRENCH LITERATURE
[FICTION
soil and native. Very early in the century Alain Rene le Sage
(1668-1747), in the admirable comedy of Turcaret, produced a
work not unworthy to stand by the side of all but his master's
best. Philippe Destouches (1680-1 7 54) was also a fertile comedy
writer in the early years of the century, and in Le Glorieux and
Le Phttosophe marie achieved considerable success. As the age
went on, comedy, always apt to lay hold of passing events,
devoted itself to the great struggle between the Philosophes and
their opponents. Curiously enough, the party which engrossed
almost all the wit of France had the worst of it in this dramatic
portion of the contest, if in no other. The Mechant of Cresset and
the Melromanie of Alexis Piron (1689-1773) were far superior
to anything produced on the other side, and the Philosophes of
Charles Palissot de Montenoy (1730-1814), though scurrilous
and broadly farcical, had a great success. On the other hand, it
was to a Philosophe that the invention of a new dramatic style
was due, and still more the promulgation of certain ideas on
dramatic criticism and construction, which, after being filtered
through the German mind, were to return to France and to
exercise the most powerful influence on its dramatic productions.
This was Denis Diderot (1713-1784), the most fertile
(plays). genius of the century, but also the least productive
in finished and perfect work. His chief dramas, the
Fits naturcl and the Pere de famille, are certainly not great
successes; the shorter plays, Est-il ban? est-il mediant? and
La Piice et le prologue, are better. But it was his follower
Michel Jean Sedaine (1719-1797) who, in Le Philosophe sans le
savoir and other pieces, produced the best examples of the bour-
geois as opposed to the heroic drama. Diderot is sometimes
credited or discredited with the invention of the Come'die Larmoy-
anie, a title which indeed his own plays do not altogether refuse,
but this special variety seems to be, in its invention, rather the
property of Pierre Claude Nivelle de la Chaussee (1692-1754).
Comedy sustained itself, and even gained ground towards the end
of the century; the Jeune Indienne of Nicolas Chamfort (1741-
1794), if not quite worthy of its author's brilliant talent in other
paths, is noteworthy, and so is the Billet perdu of Joseph Francois
Edouard de Corsembleu Desmahis (1722-1761), while at the
extreme limit of our present period there appears the remark-
able figure of Pierre Caron de Beaumarchais (1732-1799). The
Manage de Figaro and the Barbier de Seville are well known as
having had attributed to them no mean place among the literary
causes and forerunners of the Revolution. Their dramatic and
literary value would itself have sufficed to obtain attention for
them at any time, though there can be no doubt that their
popularity was mainly due to their political appositeness. The
most remarkable point about them, as about the school of
comedy of which Congreve was the chief master in England at
the beginning of the century, was the abuse and superfluity of
wit in the dialogue, indiscriminately allotted to all characters
alike. It is difficult to give particulars, but would be improper
to omit all mention, of such dramatic or quasi-dramatic work
as the libretti of operas, farces for performance at fairs and the
like. French authors of the time from Le Sage downwards
usually managed these with remarkable skill.
i8th-Century Fiction. With prose fiction the case was alto-
gether different. We have seen how the short tale of a few
pages had already in the i6th century attained high if not the
highest excellence; how at three different periods the fancy for
long-winded prose narration developed itself in the prose re-
handlings of the chivalric poems, in the Amadis romances,
and in the portentous recitals of Gomberville and La Calprenede;
how burlesques of these romances were produced from Rabelais
to Scarron; and how at last Madame de Lafayette showed the
way to something like the novel of the day. If we add the fairy
story, of which Perrault and Madame d'Aulnoy were the chief
practitioners, and a small class of miniature romances, of which
Aucassin et Nicolelte in the I3th, and the delightful Jehan de
Paris (of the i $th or i6th, in which a king of England is patriotic-
ally sacrificed) are good representatives, we shall have exhausted
the list. The i8th century was quick to develop the system
of the author of the Princesse de Cleves, but it did not abandon
the cultivation of the romance, that is to say, fiction dealing
with incident and with the simpler passions, in devoting itself
to the novel, that is to say, fiction dealing with the analysis
of sentiment and character. Le Sage, its first great novelist, in
his Diable boiteux and Gil Bias, went to Spain not merely for
his subject but also for his inspiration and manner, following
the lead of the picaroon romance of Rojas and Scarron. Like
Fielding, however, whom he much resembles, Le Sage mingled
with the romance of incident the most careful attention to char-
acter and the most lively portrayal of it, while his style and
language are such as to make his work one of the classics of
French literature. The novel of character was really founded
in France by the abbe Prevost d'Exilles (1697-1763), the author
of Cleveland and of the incomparable Manon Lescaul. The
popularity of this style was much helped by the immense vogue
in France of the works of Richardson. Side by side with it,
however, and for a time enjoying still greater popularity, there
flourished a very different school of fiction, of which Voltaire,
whose name occupies the first or all but the first place in every
branch of literature of his time, was the most brilliant cultivator.
This was a direct development of the earlier conte, and consisted
usually of the treatment, in a humorous, satirical^ and not
always over-decent fashion, of contemporary foibles, beliefs,
philosophies and occupations. These tales are of every rank
of excellence and merit both literary and moral, and range from
the astonishing wit, grace and humour of Candide and Zadig
to the book which is Diderot's one hardly pardonable sin, and
the similar but more lively efforts of Crebillon^j (1707-1777).
These latter deeps led in their turn to the still lower depths
of La Clos and Louvet. A third class of iSth-century fiction
consists of attempts to return to the humorous fatrasie of the
1 6th century, attempts which were as much influenced by Sterne
as the sentimental novel was by Richardson. The Homme
aux quarante ecus of Voltaire has something of this character,
but the most characteristic works of the style are the Jacques
le fataliste of Diderot, which shows it nearly at its best, and
the Compere Mathieu, sometimes attributed to Pigault-Lebrun
(1753-1835), but no doubt in reality due to Jacques du Laurens
(1710-1797), which shows it at perhaps its worst. Another
remarkable story-teller was Cazotte (1719-1792), whose Diable
amoureux displays much fantastic power, and connects itself
with a singular fancy of the time for occult studies and diablerie,
manifested later by the patronage shown to Cagliostro, Mesmer,
St Germain and others. In this connexion, too, may perhaps
also be mentioned most appropriately Bestif de la Bretonne,
a remarkably original and voluminous writer, who was little
noticed by his contemporaries and successors for the best part
of a century. Restif, who was nicknamed the " Rousseau of
the gutter," Rousseau du ruisseau, presents to an English
imagination many of the characteristics of a non-moral Defoe.
While these various schools busied themselves more or less with
real life seriously depicted or purposely travestied, the great
vogue and success of Telemaque produced a certain number of
didactic works, in which moral or historical information was
sought to be conveyed under a more or less thin guise of fiction.
Such was the Voyage du jeune Anacharsis of Jean Jacques
Barthelemy (1716-1795); such the Numa Pompilius and
Gonsalve de Cordoue of Florian (1755-1794), who also deserves
notice as a writer of pastorals, fables and short prose tales;
such the Btlisaire and Les Incas of Jean Francois Marmontel
(1723-1799). Between this class and that of the novel of senti-
ment may perhaps be placed Paul et Virginie and La Chaumiere
indienne; though Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737-1814) should
more properly be noticed after Rousseau and as a moralist.
Diderot's fiction-writing has already been referred to more than
once, but his Religieuse deserves citation here as a powerful
specimen of the novel both of analysis and polemic; while his
undoubted masterpiece, the Neveu de Rameau, though very
difficult to class, comes under this head as well as under any
other. There are, however, two of the novelists of this age, and
of the most remarkable, who have yet to be noticed, and these
are the author of Marianne and the author of Julie. We do
HISTORY)
FRENCH LITERATURE
137
not mention Pierre de Marivaux (1688-1763) in this connexion
as the equal of Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), but merely
as being in his way almost equally original and equally remote
from any suspicion of school influence. He began with burlesque
writing, and was also the author of several comedies, of which
Let Faiuses Conjidentes is the principal. But it is in prose fiction
that he really excels. He may claim to have, at least in the
opinion of his contemporaries, invented a style, though perhaps
the teVm marivaudiige, which was applied to it, has a not alto-
gether complimentary connotation. He may claim also to have
invented the novel without a purpose, which aims simply at
amusement, and at the same time does not seek to attain that
end by buffoonery or by satire. Gray's definition of happiness,
" to lie on a sofa and read endless novels by Marivaux " (it is
true that he added Crebillon), is well known, and the production
of mere pastime by means more or less harmless has since become
so well-recognized a function of the novelist that Marivaux, as
one of the earliest to discharge it, deserves notice. The name,
however, of Jean Jacques Rousseau is of far different
fl^m OB. importance. His two great works, the Novvelle
Htioise and mile, are as far as possible from being
perfect as novels. But no novels in the world have ever had
such influence as these. To a great extent this influence was
due mainly to their attractions as novels, imperfect though they
may be in this character, but it was beyond dispute also owing
to the doctrines which they contained, and which were exhibited
in novel form.
Such are the principal developments of fiction during the
century; but it is remarkable that, varied as they were, and
excellent as was some of the work to which they gave rise, none
of these schools was directly very fertile in results or successors.
The period with which we shall next have to deal, that from
1 the outbreak of the Revolution to the death of Louis XVIII., is
curiously barren of fiction of any merit. It was not till English
influence began again to assert itself in the later days of
the Restoration that the prose romance began once more to be
written.
l&tk-Centttry History. It is not, however, in any of the
departments of belles-lettres that the real eminence of the i8th
century as a time of literary production in France consists.
In all serious branches of study its accomplishments were, from
a literary point of view, remarkable, uniting as it did an extra-
ordinary power of popular and literary expression with an ardent
spirit of inquiry, a great speculative ability, and even a far more
considerable amount of laborious erudition than is generally
supposed. The historical studies and results of 18th-century
speculation in France are of especial and peculiar importance.
There is no doubt that what is called the science of history
dates from this time, and though the beginning of it is usually
assigned to the Italian Vico, its complete indication may perhaps
with equal or greater justice be claimed by the Frenchman
Turgot. Before Turgot, however, there were great names in
French historical writing, and perhaps the greatest of all is that
of Charles Secondat de Montesquieu (1680-1755). The three
principal works of this great writer are all historical and at the
same time political in character. In the Letlres persanes he
handled, with wit inferior to the wit of no other writer even in
that witty age, the corruptions and dangers of contemporary
morals and politics. The literary charm of this book the
plan ofjwhich was suggested by a work, the Amusements strieux
et comtques, of Duf resny ( 1 648- 1 7 24), a comic writ er not destitute
of merit is very great, and its plan was so popular as to lead
to a thousand imitations, of which all, except those of Voltaire
and Goldsmith, only bring out the immense superiority of the
original. Few things could be more different from this lively
and popular book than Montesquieu's next work, the Grandeur
et dtcadente des Remains, in which the same acuteness and
knowledge of human nature are united with considerable erudi-
tion, and with a weighty though perhaps somewhat grandiloquent
and rhetorical style. His third and greatest work, the Esprit
des Ms, is again different both in style and character, and such
defects as it has are as nothing when compared with the merits
of its fertility in ideas, its splendid breadth of view, and the
felicity with which the author, in a manner unknown before,
recognizes the laws underlying complicated assemblages of fact.
The style of this great work is equal to its substance; less light
than that of the Letlres, less rhetorical than that of the Grandeur
des Remains, it is still a marvellous union of dignity and wit .
Around Montesquieu, partly before and partly after him, is
a group of philosophical or at least systematic historians, of
whom the chief are Jean Baptiste Dubos (1670-1742), and G.
Bonnot de Mably (1700-1785). Dubos, whose chief work is not
historical but aesthetic (Reflexions sur la potsie et la peinlure),
wrote a so-called Histoire critique de I'ltablissement de la monarchic
franchise, which is as far as possible from being in the modern
sense critical, inasmuch as, in the teeth of history, and in order
to exalt the Tiers flat, it pretends an amicable coalition of Franks
and Gauls, and not an irruption by the former. Mably (Observa-
tions sur I'histoire de la France) had a much greater influence
than either of these writers, and a decidedly mischievous one,
especially at the period of the Revolution. He, more than any
one else, is responsible for the ignorant and childish extolling
of Greek and Raman institutions, and the still more ignorant
depreciation of the middle ages, which was for a time character-
istic of French politicians. Montesquieu was, as we have said,
followed by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (1727-1781), whose
writings are few in number, and not remarkable for style, but
full of original thought. Turgot in his turn was followed by
Condorcet (1743-1794), whose tendency is somewhat more
sociological than directly historical. Towards the end of the
period, too, a considerable number of philosophical histories
were written, the usual object of which was, under cover of a kind
of allegory, to satirize and attack the existing institutions and
government of France. The most famous of these was the
Histoire des Indcs, nominally written by the Abb6 Guillaume
Thomas Francois Raynal (1713-1796), but really the joint work
of many members of the Philosophe pa.rty, especially Diderot.
Side by side with this really or nominally philosophical school
of history there existed another and less ambitious school, which
contented itself with the older and simpler view of the science.
The Abbe Ren6 de Vertot (1655-1735) belongs almost as much
to the 17th as to the i8th century; but his principal works,
especially the famous Hisloire des Chevaliers de Malle, date from
the later period, as do also the Revolutions romaines. Vertot
is above all things a literary historian, and the well-known
" Mon si6ge est fait," whether true or not, certainly expresses
his system: Of the same school, though far more comprehensive,
was the laborious Charles Rollin (1661-1741), whose works in
the original, or translated and continued in the case of the
Histoire romaine by Jean Baptiste Louis CreVier (1693-1765),
were long the chief historical manuals of Europe. The president
Charles Jean Francois H6nault (1685-1770), and Louis Pierre
Anquetil (1723-1806) were praiseworthy writers, the first of
French history, the second of that and much else. In the same
class, too, far superior as is his literary power, must be ranked
the historical works of Voltaire, Charles XII, Pierre le Grand,
&c. A very perfect example of the historian who is literary
first of all is supplied by Claude Carloman de Rulhiere (1735-
1791), whose Revolution en Russie en 1762 is one of the little
masterpieces of history, while his larger and posthumous work on
the last days of the Polish kingdom exhibits perhaps some of
the defects of this class of historians. Lastly must be mentioned
the memoirs and correspondence of the period, the materials
of history if not history itself. The century opened with the most
famous of all these, the memoirs of the due de Saint-Simon
(1675-1755), an extraordinary series of pictures of the court
of Louis XIV. and the Regency, written in an unequal and
incorrect style, but with something of the irregular excellence
of the great 1 6t h-ren t ury writers, and most striking in the sombre
bitterness of its tone. The subsequent and less remarkable
memoirs of the century are so numerous that it is almost impos-
sible to select a few for reference, and altogether impossible to
mention all. Of those bearing on public history the memoirs
of Madame de Stae"! (Mile Delaunay) (1684-1750), of Pierre
i 3 8
FRENCH LITERATURE [PHILOSOPHY AND THEOLOGY
Louis de Voyer, marquis d'Argenson (1694-1757). of Charles
Pinot Duclos (1704-1772), of Stephanie Felicite de Saint-Aubin,
Madame de Genlis (1746-1830), of Pierre Victor de Besenval
(i 722-1791), of Madame Campan (1752-1822) and of the cardinal
de Bernis (1715-1794), may perhaps be selected for mention;
of those bearing on literary and private history, the memoirs
of Madame d'Epinay (1726-1783), those of Mathieu Marais
(1664-1737) the so-called Memoires secrets of Louis Petit de
Bachaumont (1690-1770), and the innumerable writings having
reference to Voltaire and to the Philosophe party generally.
Here, too, may be mentioned a remarkable class of literature,
consisting of purely private and almost confidential letters,
which were written at this time with very remarkable literary
excellence. As specimens may be selected those of Mademoiselle
Aisse (1694-1757), which are models of easy and unaffected
tenderness, and those of Mademoiselle de Lespinasse (1732-1776)
the companion of Madame du Deffand and afterwards of
d'Alembert. These latter, in their extraordinary fervour and
passion, not merely contrast strongly with the generally languid
and frivolous gallantry of the age, but also constitute one of its
most remarkable literary monuments. It has been said of them
that they " burn the paper," and the expression is not exagger-
ated. Madame du Deffand's (1697-1780) own letters, many of
which were written to Horace Walpole, are noteworthy in a very
different way. Of lighter letters the charming correspondence
of Diderot with Mademoiselle Voland deserves special mention.
But the correspondence, like the memoirs of this century, defies
justice to be done to it in any cursory or limited mention. In
this connexion, however, it may be well to mention some of the
most remarkable works of the time, the Confessions, Reveries,
and Promenades d'un solitaire of Rousseau. In these works,
especially in the Confessions, there is not merely exhibited
passion as fervid though perhaps less unaffected than that of
Mademoiselle de Lespinasse there appear in them two literary
characteristics which, if_not entirely novel, were for the first time
brought out deliberately by powers of the first order, were for the
first time made the mainspring of literary interest, and thereby
set an example which for more than a century has been persist-
ently followed, and which has produced some of the finest
results of modern literature. The first of these was the elaborate
and unsparing analysis and display of the motives, the weaknesses
and the failings of individual character. This process, which
Rousseau unflinchingly performed on himself, has been followed
usually in respect to fictitious characters by his successors. The
other novelty was the feeling for natural beauty and the elaborate
description of it, the credit of which latter must, it has been
agreed by all impartial critics, be assigned rather to Rousseau
than to any other writer. His influence in this direction was,
however, soon taken up and continued by Bernardin de Saint-
Pierre, the connecting link between Rousseau and Chateaubriand,
some of whose works have been already alluded to. In particular
the author of Paul et Virginie set himself to develop the example
of description which Rousseau had set, and his word-paintings,
though less powerful than those of his model, are more abundant,
more elaborate, and animated by a more amiable spirit.
i8lh-Cenlury Philosophy. The Anglomania which distin-
guished the time was nowhere more stongly shown than in the
cast and direction of its philosophical speculations. As Montes-
quieu and Voltaire had imported into France a vivid theoretical
admiration for the British constitution and for British theories
in politics, so Voltaire, Diderot and a crowd of others popularized
and continued in France the philosophical ideas of Hobbes and
Locke and even Berkeley, the theological ideas of Bolingbroke,
Shaftesbury and the English deists, and the physical discoveries
of Newton. Descartes, Frenchman and genius as he was, and
though his principles in physics and philosophy were long clung
to in the schools, was completely abandoned by the more adven-
turous and progressive spirits. At no time indeed, owing to the
confusion of thought and purpose to which we have already
alluded, was the word philosophy used with greater looseness
than at this time. Using it, as we have hitherto used it, in the
sense of metaphysics, the majority of the Philosophes have very
little claim to their title. There were some who manifested,
however, an aptitude for purely philosophical argument, and one
who confined himself strictly thereto. Among these the most
remarkable are Julien Offroy de la Mettrie (1700-1751) and
Denis Diderot. La Mettrie in his works L'Homme machine,
L'Homme plante, &c., applied a lively and vigorous imagination,
a considerable familiarity with physics and medicine, and a
brilliant but unequal style, to the task of advocating materialistic
ideas on the constitution of man. Diderot, in a series of early
works, Lettre suf les aveugles, Promenade d'un sceptique, Pensees
philosophiques, &c., exhibited a good acquaintance with philo-
sophical history and opinion, and gave sign in this direction,
as in so many others, of a far-reaching intellect. As in almost all
his works, however, the value of the thought is extremely unequal,
while the different pieces, always written in the hottest haste,
and never duly matured or corrected, present but few
specimens of finished and polished writing. 'Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793), a Swiss of Geneva, wrote a large number of works,
many of which are purely scientific. Others, however, are more
psychological, and these, though advocating the materialistic
philosophy generally in vogue, were remarkable for uniting
materialism with an honest adherence to Christianity. The
half mystical writer, Louis Claude de Saint-Martin (1743-1803)
also deserves notice. But the French metaphysician of the
century is undoubtedly Etienne Bonnot, abbe de
Condillac (1714-1780), almost the only writer of the '
time in France who succeeded in keeping strictly to philosophy
without attempting to pursue his system to its results in ethics,
politics and theology. In the Traiti des sensations, the Essai
sur I'origine des connaissances humaines and other works
Condillac elaborated and continued the imperfect sensationalism
of Locke. As his philosophical view, though perhaps more re-
stricted, was far more direct, consecutive and uncompromising
than that of the Englishman, so his style greatly exceeded
Locke's in clearness and elegance and as a good medium of
philosophical expression.
i8th-Century Theology. To devote a section to the history of
the theological literature of the i8th century in France may
seem something of a contradiction; for, indeed, all or most of
such literature was anti-theological. The magnificent list of
names which the church had been able to claim on her side in
the 1 7th century was exhausted before the end of the second
quarter of the i8th with Massillon, and none came to fill their
place. Very rarely has orthodoxy been so badly defended as at
this time. The literary championship of the church was entirely
in the hands of the Jesuits, and of a few disreputable literary free-
lances like Elie Fr6ron (1710-1776) and Pierre Francois Guyot,
abbfi Desfontaines (1685-1 745) . The Jesuits were learned enough,
and their principal journal, that of Trevoux, was conducted with
much vigour and a great deal of erudition. But they were in the
first place discredited by the moral taint which has always hung
over Jesuitism, and in the second place by the persecutions of the
Jansenists and the Protestants, which were attributed to their
influence. But one single work on the orthodox side has pre-
served the least reputation; while, on the other hand, the names
of PereNonotte (171 1-1793) and several f his fellows have been
enshrined unenviably in the imperishable ridicule of Voltaire,
one only of whose adversaries, the abb6 Antoine Guen6e (1717-
1803), was able to meet him in the Lettres de quelqv.es Jttifs with
something like his own weapons. It has never been at all accur-
ately decided how far what may be called the scoffing
school of Voltaire represents a direct revolt against (theology).
Christianity, and how far it was merely a kind of
guerilla warfare against the clergy. It is positively certain that
Voltaire was not an atheist, and that he did not approve of
atheism. But his Dictionnaire philosophique, which is typical of
a vast amount of contemporary and subsequent literature, con-
sists of a heterogeneous assemblage of articles directed against
various points of dogma and ritual and various characteristics
of the sacred records. From the literary point of view, it is one
of the most characteristic of all Voltaire's works, though it is
perhaps not entirely his. The desultory arrangement, the light
MORALISTS AND POLITICIANS] FRENCH LITERATURE
139
and lively style, the extensive but not always too accurate
erudition, and the somewhat captious and quibbling objections,
are intensely Voltairian. But there is little seriousness about it,
and certainly no kind of rancorous or deep-seated hostility.
With many, however, of Voltaire's pupils and younger contem-
poraries the case was altered. They were distinctively atheists
and anti-supernaturalists. The atheism of Diderot, unquestion-
ably the greatest of them all, has been keenly debated; but in
the case of Etienne Damilaville (1723-1768), Jacques Andr
Naigeon (1738-1810), Paul Henri Dietrich, baron d'Holbach,
and others there is no room for doubt. By these persons a
great mass of atheistic and anti-Christian literature was composed
and set afloat. The characteristic work of this school, its last
word indeed, is the famous Systtme de la nature,
attributed to Holbach (1723-1789), but known to be,
if '<ftm* " in P*rt at least, the work of Diderot. In this remark-
able work, which caps the climax of the metaphysical
materialism or rather nihilism of the century, the atheistic
position is dearly put. It made an immense sensation ; and it so
fluttered not merely the orthodox but the more moderate free-
thinkers, that Frederick of Prussia and Voltaire, perhaps the
most singular pair of defenders that orthodoxy ever had, actually
set themselves to refute it. Its style and argument are very
unequal, as books written in collaboration are apt to be, and
especially books in which Diderot, the paragon of inequality,
had a hand. But there is an almost entire absence of the hetero-
geneous assemblage of anecdotes, jokes good and bad, scraps of
accurate or inaccurate physical science, and other incongruous
matter with which the Philosophes were wont to stuff their
works; and lastly, there is in the best passages a kind of sombre
grandeur which recalls the manner as well as the matter of
Lucretius. It is perhaps well to repeat, in the case of so notorious
a book, that this criticism is of a purely literary and formal
character; but there is little doubt that the literary merits of
the work considerably assisted its didactic influence. As the
Revolution approached, and the victory of the Philosophe
party was declared, there appeared for a brief space a group of
cynical and accomplished phrase-makers presenting some simi-
larity to that of which, a hundred years before, Saint-Evremond
was the most prominent figure. The chief of this group were
Nicolas Chamfort (1747-1794) on the republican side,
andAntoineRivarol(i753-i8oi)onthatof the royalists.
Like the older writer to whom we have compared them,
neither can be said to have produced any one work of eminence,
and in this they stand distinguished from moralists like
La Rochefoucauld. The floating sayings, however, which are
attributed to them, or which occur here and there in their
miscellaneous work, yield in no respect to those of the most
famous of their predecessors in wit and a certain kind of wisdom,
though they are frequently more personal than aphoristic.
iSlk-Century Moralists and Politicians. Not the least part,
however, of the energy of the period in thought and writing was
devoted to questions of a directly moral and political kind. With
regard to morality proper the favourite doctrine of the century
was what is commonly called the selfish theory, the only one
indeed which was suitable to the sensationalism of Condillac
and the materialism of Holbach. The pattern book of this
tuititlmt doctnn* w the De ["esprit of Claude Adrien Helv6tius
(1715-1771), the most amusing book perhaps which
ever pretended to the title of a solemn philosophical treatise.
There is some analogy between the principles of this work and
those of the Systeme de la nature. With the inconsistency
some would say with the questionable honesty which dis-
tinguished the more famous members of the Philosophe party
when their disciples spoke with what they considered imprudent
outspokenness, Voltaire and even Diderot attacked Helve'tius
as the former afterwards attacked Holbach. But whatever may
be the general value of De FesprU, it is full of acuteness, though
n^mtf. tnat acuteness is as desultory and disjointed as its
tyle. As Helvitius may be taken as the represent-
itive author of the cynical school, so perhaps Alexandre Gerard
Thomas (1732-1785) may be taken as representative of the
votaries of noble sentiment to whom we have also alluded.
The works of Thomas chiefly took the form of academic tlogts
or formal panegyrics, and they have all the defects, both in
manner and substance, which are associated with that style.
Of yet a third school, corresponding in form to La Rochefoucauld
and La Bruyere, and possessed of some of the antique vigour
of preceding centuries, was Luc de Clapiers, marquis de
Vauvenargues (1715-1747). This writer, who died
very young, has produced maxims and reflections
of considerable mental force and literary finish. From
Voltaire downwards it has been usual to compare him with
Pascal, from whom he is chiefly distinguished by a striking but
somewhat empty stoicism. Between the moralists, of whom we
have taken these three as examples, and the politicians may
be placed Rousseau, who in his novels and miscellaneous works
is of the first class, in his famous Central social of the second.
All his theories, whatever their originality and whatever their
value, were made novel and influential by the force of their
statement and the literary beauties of its form. Of direct and
avowed political writings there were few during the century, and
none of anything like the importance of the Control social,
theoretical acceptance of the established French constitution
being a point of necessity with all Frenchmen. Nevertheless
it may be said that almost the whole of the voluminous writings
of the Philosophes, even of those who, like Voltaire, were sincerely
aristocratic and monarchic in predilection, were of more or less
veiled political significance. There was one branch of political
writing, moreover, which could be indulged in without much fear.
Political economy and administrative theories received much
attention. The earliest writer of eminence on these subjects
was the great engineer Si-bastion le Prestre, marquis de Vauban
(1633-1707), whose Oisivetfi and Dime royale exhibit both great
ability and extensive observation. A more Utopian economist
of the same time was Charles Irn6e Castel, abb6 de Saint-Pierre
(1658-1743), not to be confounded with the author of Paid el
Virginie. Soon political economy in the hands of Francois
Quesnay(i694~i 774)took a regular form, and towards the middle
of the century a great number of works on questions connected
with it, especially that of free trade in corn, on which Ferdinand
Galiani (1728-1787), Andrd Morellet (1727-1819), both abb6s,
and above all Turgot, distinguished themselves. Of writers on
legal subjects and of the legal profession, the century, though not
less fertile than in other directions, produced few or none of any
great importance from the literary point of view. The chief
name which in this connexion is known is that of Chancellor
Henri Francois d'Aguesseau (1668-1751), at the beginning of the
century, an estimable writer of the Port Royal school, who took
the orthodox side in the great disputes of the time, but failed
to display any great ability therein. He was, as became his
profession, more remarkable as an orator than a writer, and his
works contain valuable testimonies to the especially perturbed
and unquiet condition of his century a disquiet which is perhaps
also its chief literary note. There were other French magistrates,
such as Montesquieu, H6nault (1685-1770), de Brosses (1706-
1773) and others, who made considerable mark in literature;
but it was usually (except in the case of Montesquieu) in subjects
not even indirectly connected with their profession. The Esprit
des lois stands alone; but as an example of work barristerial
in kind, famous partly for political reasons but of some real
literary merit, we may mention the Mtmoire for Calas written by
J. B. J. Elie de Beaumont (1732-1786).
i8th-Cenlury Criticism and Periodical Literature. Wehavesaid
that literary criticism assumes in this century a sufficient im-
portance to be treated under a separate heading. Contributions
were made to it of many different kinds and from many different
points of view. Periodical literature, the chief stimulus to its
production, began more and more to come into favour. Even
in the i ;th century the Journal des savants, the Jesuit Journal
de Trtvoux, and other publications had set the exampleof different
kinds of it. Just before the Revolution the Gazette de France was
in the hands of J. B. A. Suard (1734-1817), a man who was
nothing if not a literary critic. Perhaps, however, the most
140
FRENCH LITERATURE
[SAVANTS
remarkable contribution of the century to criticism of the
periodical kind was the Feuilles de Grimm, a circular sent for
many years to the German courts by Frederic Melchior Grimm
(1723-1807), the comrade of Diderot and Rousseau, and con-
taining a compte rendu of the ways and works of Paris, literary
and artistic as well as social. These Leaves not only include
much excellent literary criticism by Diderot, but also gave
occasion to the incomparable salons or accounts of the exhibition
of pictures from the same hand, essays which founded the art
of picture criticism, and which have hardly been surpassed since.
The prize competitions of the Academy were also a considerable
stimulus to literary criticism, though the prevailing taste in
such compositions rather inclined to elegant themes than to
careful studies of analyses. The most characteristic critic of
the mid-century was the abbe Charles Batteux (1713-1780)
who illustrated a tendency of the time by beginning with a treatise
on Les Beaux Arts rduitsd un meme principe (1746); reduced it
and others into Principes de la literature (1764) and added in
1771 LesQuatres Poetiques (Aristotle, Horace, Vida and Boileau).
Batteux is a very ingenious critic and his attempt to con-
ciliate " taste " and " the rules," though inadequate, is interest-
ing. Works on the arts in general or on special divisions of them
were not wanting, as, for instance, that of Dubos before alluded
to, the Essai sur la peinture of Diderot and others. Critically
annotated editions of the great French writers also came into
fashion, and were no longer written by mere pedants. Of these
Voltaire's edition of Corneille was the most remarkable, and his
annotations, united separately under the title of Commentaire
sur Corneille, form not the least important portion of his works.
Even older writers, looked down upon though they were by the
general taste of the day, received a share of this critical interest.
In the earlier portion of the century Nicolas Lenglet-Dufresnoy
(1674-1755) and Bernard de la Monnoye (1641-1728) devoted
their attention to Rabelais, Regnier, Villon, Marot and others.
fitienne Barbazan (1696-1770) and P. J. B. Le Grand d'Aussy
(1737-1800) gathered and brought into notice the long scattered
and unknown rather than neglected fabliaux of the middle ages.
Even the chansons de geste attracted the notice of the Comte
de Caylus (1692-1765) and the Comte de Tressan (1705-1783).
The latter, in his Bibliotheque des romans, worked up a large
number of the old epics into a form suited to the taste of the
century. In his hands they became lively tales of the kind
suited to readers of Voltaire and Crebillon. But in this travestied
form they had considerable influence both in France and abroad.
By these publications attention was at least called to early
French literature, and when it had been once called, a more
serious and appreciative study became merely a matter of time.
The method of much of the literary criticism of the close of this
period was indeed deplorable enough. Jean Francois de la
Harpe (1730-1803), who though a little later in time as to most
of his critical productions is perhaps its most representative
figure, shows criticism in one of its worst forms. The critic
specially abhorred by Sterne, who looked only at the stop-watch,
was a kind of prophecy of La Harpe, who lays it down distinctly
that a beauty, however beautiful, produced in spite of rules is
a "monstrous beauty" and cannot be allowed. But such a
writer is a natural enough expression of an expiring principle.
The year after the death of La Harpe Sainte-Beuve was born.
i8th-Cenlury Savants. In science and general erudition the
1 8th century in France was at first much occupied with the
mathematical studies for which the French genius is so peculiarly
adapted, which the great discoveries of Descartes had made
possible and popular, and which those of his supplanter Newton
only made more popular still. Voltaire took to himself the credit,
which he fairly deserves, of first introducing the Newtonian
system into France, and it was soon widely popular even ladies
devoting themselves to the exposition of mathematical subjects,
as in the case of Gabrielle de Breteuil, marquise du Chatelet
(1706-1749) Voltaire's " divine Ernilie." Indeed ladies played
a great part in the literary and scientific activity of the century,
by actual contribution sometimes, but still more by continuing
and extending the tradition of " salons." The duchesse du
Maine, Mesdames de Lambert, de Tencin, Geoffrin, du Deffand,
Necker, and above all, the baronne d' Holbach (whose husband,
however, was here the principal personage) presided over coteries
which became more and more " philosophical." Many of the
greatest mathematicians of the age, such as de Moivre and
Laplace, were French by birth, while others like Euler belonged
to French-speaking races, and wrote in French. The physical
sciences were also ardently cultivated, the impulse to them
being given partly by the generally materialistic tendency of
the age, partly by the Newtonian system, and partly also by the
extended knowledge of the world provided by the circumnavi-
gatory voyage of Louis Antoine de Bougainville (1729-1811), and
other travels. P. L. de Moreau Maupertuis (1698-1759) and
C. M. de la Condamine (1701-1774) made long journeys for
scientific purposes and duly recorded their experiences. The
former, a mathematician and physicist of some ability but more
oddity, is chiefly known to literature by the ridicule of Voltaire
in the Diatribe du Docteur Akakia. Jean le Rond, called
d'Alembert (1717-1783), a great mathematician and a writer of
considerable though rather academic excellence, is principally
known from his connexion with and introduction to the Encyclo-
pedic, of which more presently. Chemistry was also assiduously
cultivated, the baron d' Holbach, among others, being a devotee
thereof, and helping to advance the science to the point where,
at the conclusion of the century, it was illustrated by Berthollet
and Lavoisier. During all this devotion to science in its modern
acceptation, the older and more literary forms of erudition were
not neglected, especially by the illustrious Benedictines of the
abbey of St Maur. Dom Augustin Calmet (1672-1757) the
author of the well-known Dictionary of the Bible, belonged to
this order, and to them also (in particular to Dom Rivet) was
due the beginning of the immense Histoire litteraire He la France,
a work interrupted by the Revolution and long suspended,
but diligently continued since the middle of the igth century.
Of less orthodox names distinguished for erudition, Nicolas
Freret (1688-1749), secretary of the Academy, is perhaps the
most remarkable. But in the consideration of the science and
learning in the i8th century from a literary point of view, there
is one name and one book which require particular and, in the
case of the book, somewhat extended mention. The man is
Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon (1717-1788), the book
the Encyclopedic. The immense Natural History of Buffon,
though not entirely his own, is a remarkable monument Button
of the union of scientific tastes with literary ability.
As has happened in many similar instances, there is in parts
more literature than science to be found in it; and from the
point of view of the latter, Buffon was far too careless in observa-
tion and far too solicitous of perfection of style and grandiosity
of view. The style of Buffon has sometimes been made the
subject of the highest eulogy, and it is at its best admirable;
but one still feels in it the fault of all serious French prose in this
century before Rousseau the presence, that is to say, of an
artificial spirit rather than of natural variety and power. The
Encyclopedic, unquestionably on the whole the most
important French literary production of the century,
if we except the works of Rousseau and Voltaire, was
conducted for a time by Diderot and d'Alembert, afterwards
by Diderot alone. It numbered among its contributors almost
every Frenchman of eminence in letters. It is often spoken of as if,
under the guise of an encyclopaedia, it had been merely a plaidoyer
against religion, but this is entirely erroneous. Whatever anti-
ecclesiastical bent some of the articles may have, the book as a
whole is simply what it professes to be, a dictionary that is to
say, not merely an historical and critical lexicon, like those of
Bayle and Moreri (indeed history and biography were nominally
excluded), but a dictionary of arts, sciences, trades and technical
terms. Diderot himself had perhaps the greatest faculty of any
man that ever lived for the literary treatment in a workman-like
manner of the most heterogeneous and in some cases rebellious
subjects; and his untiring labour, not merely in writing'original
articles, but in editihg the contributions of others, determined
the character of the whole work. There is no doubt that it had,
FRENCH LITERATURE
141
quite iodepcndently of any theological or political influence,
ue share in diffusing and gratifying the taste for general
information
ijSf-tSjo Gcnerat Sketch. The period which elapsed
between the outbreak of the Revolution and the accession of
Charles X. has often been considered a sterile one in point of
literature. As far as mere productiveness goes, this judgment
is hardly correct. No class of literature was altogether neglected
during these stirring nve-and-thirty years, the political events
01 which have so engrossed the attention of posterity that it
has sometimes been necessary for historians to remind us that
during Che height of the Terror and the final disasters of the
empire the theatres were open and the booksellers' shops pat-
ronized. Journalism, parliamentary eloquence and scientific
writing were especially cultivated, and the former in its modern
sense may almost be said to have been created. But of the higher
products of literature the period may justly be considered to
have been somewhat barren. During the earlier part of it there
is, with the exception of Andre Chcnii-r, not a single name of the
first or even second order of excellence. Towards the midst
those of Chateaubriand (1768-1848) and Madame de Stael
(1766-1817)' stand almost alone; and at the close those of
Courier, Beranger and Lamartine are not seconded by any
others to tell of the magnificent literary burst which was to
follow the publication of Cromwell. Of all departments of
literature, poetry proper was worst represented during this
period. Andre 1 Chenier was silenced at its opening by the
guillotine. Le Brun and Delille, favoured by an extraordinary
longevity, continued to be admired and followed. It was the
palmy time of descriptive poetry. Louis, marquis de Fontanes
(1757-1821, who deserves rather more special notice as a critic
and an official patron of literature), Castel, Boisjolin, Esmenard,
Berchoux, Ricard, Martin, Gudin, Cournaud, are names which
chiefly survive as those of the authors of scattered attempts to
turn the Encyclopaedia into verse. Charles Julien de Ctu'nedolk'
(1760-1833) owes his reputation rather to amiability, and to his
association with men eminent in different ways, such as Rivarol
and Joubert, than to any real power. He has been regarded as
a precursor of Lamartine; but the resemblance is chiefly on
Lamartine 's weakest side; and the stress laid on him recently,
as on Lamartine himself and even on Chenier, is part of a passing
reaction against the school of Hugo. Even more ambitiously,
Luce de Lancival, Campenon, Dumcsnil and Parseval de Grand-
Maison endeavoured to write epics, and succeeded rather worse
than the Chapelains and Desmarets of the I7th century. The
characteristic of all this poetry was the description of everything
in metaphor and paraphrase, and the careful avoidance of any-
thing like directness of expression; and the historians of the
Romantic movement have collected many instances of this
absurdity. Lamartine will be more properly noticed in the next
division. But about the same time as Lamartine, and towards
the end of the present period, there appeared a poet who may
be regarded as the last important echo of Malherbe. This was
Casimir Delavigne (1793-1843), the author of Les Messlniennes,
a writer of very great talent, and, according to the measure
of J. B. Rousseau and Lebrun, no mean poet. It is usual to
reckon Delavigne as transitionary between the two schools, but
in strictness he must be counted with the classicists. Dramatic
poetry exhibited somewhat similar characteristics. The system
of tragedy writing had become purely mechanical, and every
act, almost every scene and situation, had its regular and appro-
priate business and language, the former of which the poet was
not supposed to alter at all, and the latter only very slightly.
Poinsinet , La Harpe, M . J. Chlnier, Raynouard, dejouy, Briffaut,
Baour-Lormian, all wrote in this style. Of these Chenier (1764-
1811) bad some of the vigour of his brother Andre, from whom
he was distinguished by more popular political principles and
better fortune. On the other hand, Jean Francois Ducis (1733-
1816), who passes with Englishmen as a feeble reducer of Shake-
speare to classical rules, passed with his contemporaries as an
introducer into French poetry of strange and revolutionary
novelties. Comedy, on the other hand, fared better, as indeed
it had always fared. Fabre d'Eglantine (1755-1794) (the
companion in death of Danton), Collin d'Harleville(i755-i8o6),
Francois G. J. S. Andrieux (1759-1833), Picard, Alexandre
Duval, and Nepomucene Lemercier (1771-1840) (the most
vigorous of all as a poet and a critic of mark) were the comic
authors of the period, and their works have not suffered the
complete eclipse of the contemporary tragedies which in part
they also wrote. If not exactly worthy successors of Moliere,
they are at any rate not unworthy children of Beaumarchais.
In romance writing there is again, until we come to Madame de
StaBl, a great want of originality and even of excellence in
workmanship. The works of Madame de Genlis (1746-1830)
exhibit the tendencies of the i8th century to platitude and
noble sentiment at their worst. Madame Cottin (1770-1807),
Madame de Souza (1761-1836), and Madame de Krudener,
exhibited some of the qualities of Madame de Lafayette and
moreof thoseof Madame de Genlis. Joseph Fidve'e (1767-1839),
in Le Dot de Suzette and other works, showed some power over the
domestic story; but perhaps the most remarkable work in
point of originality of the time was Xavier de Maistre's (1763-
1852) Voyage autour de ma chambre, an attempt in quite a
new style, which has been happily followed up by other writers.
Turning to history we find comparatively little written at this
period. Indeed, until quite its close, men were too much occupied
in making history to have time to write it. There is, however,
a considerable body of memoir writers, especially in the earlier
years of the period, and some great names appear even in history
proper. Many of Sismondi's (1773-1842) best works were
produced during the empire. A. G. P. Brugiere, baron de
Barante (1782-1866), though his best-known works date much
later, belongs partially to this time. On the other hand, the
production of philosophical writing, especially in what we may
call applied philosophy, was considerable. The sensationalist
views of Condillac were first continued as by Destutt de Tracy
(1754-1836) and Laromiguiere (1756-1837) and subsequently
opposed, in consequence partly of a religious and spiritualist
revival, partly of the influence of foreign schools of thought,
especially the German and the Scotch. The chief philosophical
writers from this latter point of view were Pierre Paul Royer
Collard (1763-1845), F. P. G. Maine de Biran (1776-1824),
and Thdodore Simon Jouffroy (1796-1842). Their influence on
literature, however, was altogether inferior to that of the re-
actionist school, of whom Louis Gabriel, vicomte de Bonald
(1754-1840), and Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) were the great
leaders. These latter were strongly political in their tendencies,
and political philosophy received, as was natural, a large share
of the attention of the time. In continuation of the work of
the Philosophes, the most remarkable writer was Constantin
Francois Chasseboeuf, comte de Volney (1757-1820), whose
Ruines are generally known. On the other hand, others belong-
ing to that school, such as Necker and Morellet, wrote from the
moderate point of view against revolutionary excesses. Of
the reactionists Bonald is extremely royalist, and carries out in
his Legislations primitives somewhat the same patriarchal and
absolutist theories as our own Filmer, but with infinitely greater
genius. As Bonald is royalist and aristocratic, so
Maistre is the 'advocate of a theocracy pure and
simple, with the pope for its earthly head, and a vigorous despot-
ism for its system of government. Pierre Simon Ballanche
(1776-1847), often mentioned in the literary memoirs of his
time, wrote among other things Essais de palingtne'sie sociale,
good in style but vague in substance. Of theology proper there
is almost necessarily little or nothing, the clergy being in the
earlier period proscribed, in the latter part kept in a strict and
somewhat discreditable subjection by the Empire. In moralizing
literature there is one work of the very highest excellence, which,
though not published till long afterwards, belongs in point of
composition to this period. This is the Penstes of Joseph
Joubert (1754-1824), the most illustrious successor j-^.
of Pascal and Vauvenargues, and to be ranked perhaps
above both in the literary finish of his maxims, and certainly
above Vauvenargues in the breadth and depth of thought which
142
FRENCH LITERATURE
[1789-1830
they exhibit. In pure literary criticism more particularly,
Joubert, though exhibiting some inconsistencies due to his time,
is astonishingly penetrating an,d suggestive. Of science and
erudition the time was fruitful. At an early period of it appeared
the remarkable work of Pierre Cabanis(i757-i8o8),the Rapports
du physique et du morale de I'homme, a work in which physiology
is treated from the extreme materialist point of view but with
all the liveliness and literary excellence of the Philosophe move-
ment at its best. Another physiological work of great merit
at this period was the Traite de la vie et de la mart of Bichat,
and the example set by these works was widely followed; while
in other branches of science Laplace, Lagrange,Hauy,Berthollet,
&c., produced contributions of the highest value. From the
literary point of view, however, the chief interest of this time
is centred in two individual names, those of Chateaubriand and
Madame de Stael, and in three literary developments of a more
or less novel character, which were all of the highest importance
in shaping the course which French literature has taken since
1824. One of these developments was the reactionary movement
of Maistre and Bonald, which in its turn largely influenced
Chateaubriand, then Lamennais and Montalembert, and was
later represented in French literature in different guises, chiefly
by Louis Veuillot (1815-1883) and Mgr Dupanloup(i8o2-i878).
The second and third, closely connected, were the immense
advances made by parliamentary eloquence and by political
writing, the latter of which, by the hand of Paul Louis Courier
(i773-i825),contributed for the first time an undoubted master-
piece to French literature. The influence of the two combined
s has since raised journalism to even a greater pitch of power in
France than in any other country. It is in the development of
these new openings for literature, and in the cast and complexion
which they gave to its matter, that the real literary importance
of the Revolutionary period consists; just as it is in the new
elements which they supplied for the treatment of such subjects
that the literary value of the authors of Rene and De I' Allemagne
mainly lies. We have already alluded to some of the beginnings
of periodical and journalistic letters in France. For some time,
in the hands of Bayle, Basnage, Des Maizeaux, Jurieu, Leclerc,
periodical literature consisted mainly of a series, more or less
disconnected, of pamphlets, with occasional extracts from
forthcoming works, critical adversaria and the like. Of a more
regular kind were the often-mentioned Journal de Trevoux and
Mercure de France, and later the Annee litleraire of Frdron and
the like. The Correspondance of Grimm also, as we have pointed
out, bore considerable resemblance to a modern monthly review,
though it was addressed to a very few persons. Of political
news there was, under a despotism, naturally very little. 1789,
however, saw a vast change in this respect. An enormous
efflorescence of periodical literature at once took place, and a
few of the numerous journals founded in that year or soon after-
wards survived for a considerable time. A whole class of authors
arose who pretended to be nothing more than journalists, while
many writers distinguished for more solid contributions to litera-
ture took part in the movement, and not a few active politicians
contributed. Thus to the original staff of the Moniteur, or, as
it was at first called, La Gazette Nationale, La Harpe, Lacretelle,
Andrieux, Dominique Joseph Garat (1740-1833) and Pierre
Ginguen6 (1748-1826) were attached. Among the writers of
the Journal de Paris Andr6 Ch6nier had been ranked. Fontanes
contributed to many royalist and moderate journals. Guizot
and Morellet, representatives respectively of the igth and the
1 8th century, shared in the Nouvelles politiques, while Bertin,
Fieve'e and J. L. Geoffrey (1743-1814), a critic of peculiar
acerbity, contributed to the Journal de I' empire, afterwards
turned into the still existing Journal des dtbats. With Geoffroy,
Francois Benoit Hoffman (1760-1828), Jean F. J. Dussault
(1769-1824) and Charles F. Dorimond, abb6 de F61etz (1765-
1850), constituted a quartet of critics sometimes spoken of as
" the Dtbats four," though they were by no means all friends.
Of active politicians JAa.T&t(L'Amidupeuple),Mira.bea.u(Courrier
de Provence), Barere (Journal des dtbats et des dtcrets), Brissot
(Patriolefranqais), Hubert (Pere Duchesne), Robespierre (Dtfen-
seur de la constitution), and Tallien (La Sentinelle) were the most
remarkable who had an intimate connexion with journalism.
On the other hand, the type of the journalist pure and simple
is Camille Desmoulins(i75o-i794), one of the most brilliant, in a
literary point of view, of the short-lived celebrities of the time.
Of the same class were Pelletier, Durozoir, Loustalot, Royou.
As the immediate daily interest in politics drooped, there were
formed periodicals of a partly political and partly literary
character. Such had been the decade philosophique, which
counted Cabanis,Chenier, and De Tracy among its contributors,
and this was followed by the Revue franc_aise at a later period,
which was in its turn succeeded by the Revue des deux mondes.
On the other hand, parliamentary eloquence was even more
important than journalism during the early period of the Revolu-
tion. Mirabeau naturally stands at the head of orators of this
class, and next to him may be ranked the well-known names of
Malouet and Meunier among constitutionalists; of Robespierre,
Marat and Danton, the triumvirs of the Mountain; of Maury,
Cazales and the vicomte de Mirabeau, among the royalists;
and above all of the Girondist speakers Barnave, Vergniaud,
and Lanjuinais. The last named survived to take part in the
revival of parliamentary discussion after the Restoration. But
the permanent contributions to French literature of this period
of voluminous eloquence are, as frequently happens in such cases,
by no means large. The union of the journalist and the parlia-
mentary spirit produced, however, in Paul Louis Courier a
master of style. Courier spent the greater part of _
his life, tragically cut short, in translating the classics
and studying the older writers of France, in which study he
learnt thoroughly to despise the pseudo-classicism of the i8th
century. It was not till he was past forty that he took to political
writing, and the style of his pamphlets, and their wonderful
irony and vigour, at once placed them on the level of the very
best things of the kind. Along with Courier should be mentioned
Benjamin Constant (1767-1830), who, though partly a romance
writer and partly a philosophical author, was mainly a politician
. and an orator, besides being fertile in articles and pamphlets.
Lamennais, like Lamartine, will best be dealt with later, and the
same may be said of Beranger; but Chateaubriand and Madame
de Stael must be noticed here. The former represents, in the
influence which changed the literature of the i8th century into
the literature of the igth, the vague spirit of unrest and " Welt-
schmerz," the affection for the picturesque qualities of nature,
the religious spirit occasionally turning into mysticism, and the
respect, sure to become more and more definite and appreciative,
for antiquity. He gives in short the romantic and conservative
element. Madame de Stael (1766-1817) on the other
hand, as became a daughter of Necker, retained a
greatdeal of the Philosophe characterandthetraditions
of the i8th century, especially its liberalism, its sensibililt, and
its thirst for general information; to which, however, she
added a cosmopolitan spirit, and a readiness to introduce into
France the literary and social, as well as the political and philo-
sophical, peculiaritiesof other countries to which the i8th century,
in France at least,had been a stranger, and which Chateaubriand
himself, notwithstanding his excursions into English literature,
had been very far from feeling. She therefore contributed to
the positive and liberal side of the future movement. The
absolute literary importance of the two was very different.
Madame de Stael's early writings were of the critical kind,
half aesthetic half ethical, of which the i8th century had been
fond, and which their titles, Lettres sur J.J.Rousseau, Del' influ-
ence des passions, De la litltrature considerte dans ses rapports
avec les institutions sociales, sufficiently show. Her romances,
Delphine and Corinne, had immense literary influence at the time.
Still more was this the case with De I' Allemagne, which practically
opened up to the rising generationin France the till then unknown
treasures of literature and philosophy, which during
the most glorious half century of her literary history
Germany had, sometimes on hints taken from France
herself, been accumulating. The literary importance of Chateau-
briand (1768-1848) is far greater, while his literary influence
AFTER 1830)
FRENCH LITERATURE
can hardly be exaggerated. Chateaubriand's literary father was
kouiscau, and his voyage to America helped to develop the seeds
which Rousseau had sown. In Rent and other works of the
same kind, the naturalism of Rousseau received a still further
development. But it was not in mere naturalism that Chateau-
briand was to find his most fertile and most successful theme.
It was, on the contrary, in the rehabilitation of Christianity as
an inspiring force in literature. The iSth century had used
against religion the method of ridicule; Chateaubriand, by
genius rather than by reasoning, set up against this method that
of poetry and romance. " Christianity," says he, almost in
so many words, " is the most poetical of all religions, the most
attractive, the most fertile in literary, artistic and social results."
This theme he develops with the most splendid language, and
with every conceivable advantage of style, in the Genie du
Ckristijnisme and the Martyrs. The splendour of imagination,
the summonings of history and literature to supply effective and
touching illustrations, analogies and incidents, the rich colouring
so different from the peculiarly monotonous and grey tones of
the masters of the iSth century, and the fervid admiration for
nature which were Chateaubriand's main attractions and char-
acteristics, could not fail to have an enormous literary influence.
Indeed he has been acclaimed, with more reason than is usually
found in such acclamations, as the founder of comparative and
imaginative literary criticism in France if not in Europe. The
Romantic school acknowledged, and with justice, its direct
indebtedness to him.
Literature since 1830. In dealing with the last period of the
history of French literature and that which was introduced by
the literary revolution of 1830 and has continued, in phases of
only partial change, to the present day, a slight alteration of
treatment is requisite. The subdivisions of literature have lately
become so numerous, and the contributions to each have reached
such an immense volume, that it is impossible to give more than
cursory notice, or indeed allusion, to most of them. It so
happens, however, that the purely literary characteristics of this
period, though of the most striking and remarkable, are confined
to a few branches of literature. The character of the igth
century in France has hitherto been at least as strongly marked
as that of any previous period. In the middle ages men of letters
followed each other in the cultivation of certain literary forms
for long centuries. The chanson de geste, the Arthurian legend,
the roman d' aventure, the fabliau, the allegorical poem, the
rough dramatic jeu, mystery and farce, served successively as
moulds into which the thought and writing impulse of genera-
tions of authors were successively cast, often with little attention
to the suitability of form and subject. The end of the isth
century, and still more the i6th, owing to the vast extension
of thought and knowledge then introduced, finally broke up the
old forms, and introduced the practice of treating each subject
in a manner more or less appropriate to it, and whether appro-
priate or not, freely selected by the author. At the same time
a vast but somewhat indiscriminate addition was made to the
actual vocabulary of the language. The i;th and iSth centuries
witnessed a process of restriction once more to certain forms
and strict imitation of predecessors, combined with attention
to purely arbitrary rules, the cramping and impoverishing effect
of this (in Fenelon's words) being counterbalanced partly by
the efforts of individual genius, and still more by the constant
and steady enlargement of the range of thought, the choice of
subjects, and the familiarity with other literature, both of the
ancient and modern world. The literary work of the ipth
century and of the great Romantic movement which began in its
second quarter was to repeat on a far larger scale the work of the
1 6th, to break up and discard such literary forms as had become
useless or hopelessly stiff, to give strength, suppleness and
variety to such as were retained, to invent new ones where
necessary, to enrich the language by importations, inventions
and revi\-als, and, above all, to bring into prominence the principle
of individualism. Authors and even books, rather than groups
and kinds, demand principal attention.
The result of this revolution is naturally most remarkable in
the belles-lettres and the kindred department of history. Poetry,
not dramatic, has been revived; prose romance and literary
criticism have been brought to a perfection previously unknown;
and history has produced works more various, if not more remark-
able, than at any previous stage of the language. Of all these
branches we shall therefore endeavour to give some detailed
account. But the services done to the language were not limited
to the strictly literary branches of literature. Modern French,
if it lacks, as it probably docs lack, the statuesque precision and
elegance of prose style to which between 1650 and 1800 all else
was sacrificed, has become a much more suitable instrument
for the accurate and copious treatment of positive and concrete
subjects. These subjects have accordingly been treated in an
abundance corresponding to that manifested in other countries,
though the literary importance of the treatment has perhaps
proportionately declined. We cannot even attempt to indicate
the innumerable directions of scientific study which this copious
industry has taken, and must confine ourselves to those which
come more immediately under the headings previously adopted.
In philosophy proper France, like other nations, has been more
remarkable for attention to the historical side of the matter
than for the production of new systems; and the principal
excep tion among her philosophical writers,AugusteComte(i 793-
1857), besides inclining, as far as his matter went to the political
and scientific rather than to the purely philosophical side (which
indeed he regarded as antiquated), was not very remarkable
merely as a man of letters. Victor Cousin (1792-1867), on the
other hand, almost a brilliant man of letters and for a time
regarded as something of a philosophical apostle preaching
" eclecticism," betook himself latterly to biographical and other
miscellaneous writing, especially on the famous French ladies of
the 1 7th century, and is likely to be remembered chiefly in this
department, though not to be forgotten in that of philosophical
history and criticism. The same curious declension was observ-
able in the much younger Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893),
who, beginning with philosophical studies, and always maintain-
ing a strong tincture of philosophical determinism, applied himself
later, first to literary history and criticism in his famous Histoire
de la litttrature anglaise (1864), and then to history proper in
his still more famous and far more solidly based Origines de la
France ctmlemporaine (1876). To him, however, we must recur
under the head of literary criticism. And not dissimilar
phenomena, not so much of inconstancy to philosophy as of a
tendency towards the applied rather than the pure branches of
the subject, are noticeable in Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), in
Charles de R6musat (1797-1875), and in Ernest Renan (1823-
1892), the first of whom began by translating Herder while the
second and third devoted themselves early to scholastic philo-
sophy, de Remusat dealing with Abelard (1845) and Anselm
(1856), Renan with Averroes (1852). More single-minded
devotion to at least the historical side was shown by Jean
Philibert Damiron (1794-1862), who published in 1842 a Cours
de philosophic and many minor works at different times; but
the inconstancy recurs in Jules Simon (1814-1896), who, in the
earlier part of his life a professor of philosophy and a writer of
authority on the Greek philosophers (especially in Histoire de
/' tcole d' Alexandrie, 1844-1845), began before long to take an
active and, towards the close of his life-work, all but a foremost
part in politics. In theology the chief name of great literary
eminence in the earlier part of the century is that of Lamennais,
of whom more presently, in the later, that of Renan again.
But Charles Forbes de Montalembert (1810-1870), an historian
with a strong theological tendency, deserves notice; and among
ecclesiastics who have been orators and writers the pere Jean
Baptiste Henri Lacordaire (1802-1861), a pupil of Lamennais
who returned to orthodoxy but always kept to the Liberal side;
the pere C61estin Joseph F61ix (1810-1891), a Jesuit teacher and
preacher of eminence; and the pre Didon (1840-1900), a very
popular preacher and writer who, though thoroughly orthodox,
did not escape collision with his superiors. On the Protestant
side Athanase Coquerel (1820-1875) ' s the most remarkable
name. Recently Paul Sabatier (b. 1858) has displayed, especially
FRENCH LITERATURE
[ROMANTIC MOVEMENT
in dealing with Saint Francis of Assisi, much power of literary
and religious sympathy and a style somewhat modelled on that
of Renan, but less unctuous and effeminate. There are strong
philosophical tendencies, and at least a revolt against the re-
ligious as well as philosophical ideas of the Encyclopedists, in
the Pensles of Joubert, while the hybrid position characteristic
of the i gth century is particularly noticeable in Etienne Pi vert de
Senancour (1770-1846), whose principal work, Obermann (1804),
had an extraordinary influence on its own and the next generation
in the direction of melancholy moralizing. This tone wasnotably
taken up towards the other end of the century by Amiel (q.v.),
who, however, does not strictly belong to French literature:
while in Ximenes Doudon (1800-1872), author of Melanges el
lettres posthumously published, we find more of a return to the
attitude of Jcubert literary criticism occupying a very large
part of his reflections. Political philosophy and its kindred
sciences have naturally received a large share of attention.
Towards the middle of the century there was a great develop-
ment of socialist and fanciful theorizing on politics, with which
the names of Claude Henri, comte de Saint-Simon (1760-1825),
Charles Fourier (1772-1837), Etienne Cabet (1788-1856), and
others are connected. As political economists Frederic Bastiat
(1801-1850), L. G. L. Guilhaud de Lavergne (1809-1880), Louis
Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881), and Michel Chevalier(i8o6-i879)
may be noticed. In Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) France
produced a political observer of a remarkably acute, moderate
and reflective character, and Armand Carrel (1800-1836), whose
life was cut short in a duel, was a real man of letters, as well as
a brilliant journalist and an honest if rather violent party
politician. The name of Jean Louis Eugene Lerminier (1803-
1857) is of wide repute for legal and constitutional writings, and
thatof Henri, baron de Jomini (1779-1869) is still more celebrated
as a military historian; while that of Francois Lenormant (1837-
1883) holds a not dissimilar position in archaeology. With the
publications devoted to physical science proper we do not attempt
to meddle. Philology, however, demands a brief notice. In
classical studies France has till recently hardly maintained the
position which might be expected of the country of Scaliger
and Casaubon. She has, however, produced some considerable
Orientalists, such as Champollion the younger, Burnouf , Silvestre
de Sacy and Stanislas Julien. The foundation of Romance philo-
logy was due, indeed, to the foreigners Wolf and Diez. But
early in the century the curiosity as to the older literature of
France created by Barbazan, Tressan and others continued to
extend. Dominique Martin Meon (1748-1829) published many
unprinted fabliaux, gave the whole of the French Renart cycle,
with the exception of Renart le contrefail, and edited the Roman
de la rose. Charles Claude Fauriel (1772-1844) and Francois
Raynouard (1761-1836) dealt elaborately with Provencal
poetry as well as partially with that of the trouveres; and the
latter produced his comprehensive Lexique romane. These
examples were followed by many other writers, who edited
manuscript works and commented on them, always with zeal
and sometimes with discretion. Foremost among these must
be mentioned Paulin Paris (1800-1881) who for fifty years served
the cause of old French literature with untiring energy, great
literary taste, and a pleasant and facile pen. His selections from
manuscripts, his Romancero franfais, his editions of Garin le
Loherain and Berte aus grans pits, and his Romans de la table
ronde may especially be mentioned. Soon, too, the Benedictine
Histoire litUraire, so long interrupted, was resumed under M.
Paris's general management, and has proceeded nearly to the
end of the I4th century. Among its contents M. Paris's dis-
sertations on the later chansons de gesles and the early song
writers, M. Victor le Clerc's on the fabliaux, and M. Littr6's
on the romans d'avenlures may be specially noticed. For some
time indeed the work of French editors was chargeable with a
certain lack of critical and philological accuracy. This reproach,
however, was wiped off by the efforts of a band of younger
scholars, chiefly pupils of the Ecole des Charles, with MM.Gaston
Paris (1830-1903) and Paul Meyer at their head. Of M. Paris
in particular it may be said that no scholar in the subject has ever
combined literary and linguistic competence more admirably.
TheSociete desAnciensTextesFrancais was formed for the purpose
of publishing scholarly editions of inedited works, and a lexicon
of the older tongue by M. Godefroy at last supplemented, though
not quite with equal accomplishment, the admirable dictionary
in which Emile Littre (1801-1881), at the cost of a life's labour,
embodied the whole vocabulary of the classical French language.
Meanwhile the period between the middle ages proper and the
1 7th century has not lacked its share of this revival of attention.
To the literature between Villon and Regnier especial attention
was paid by the early Romantics, and Sainte-Beuve's Tableau
hislorique et critique de la poesie el du theatre au seiziemc siecle
was one of the manifestoes of the school. Since the appearance
of that work in 1828 editions with critical comments of the
literature of this period have constantly multiplied, aided by the
great fancy for tastefully produced works which exists among
the richer classes in France; and there are probably now few
countries in which works of old authors, whether in cheap reprints
or in editions de luxe can be more readily procured.
The Romantic Movement. It is time, however, to return to the
literary revolution itself, and its more purely literary results.
At the accession of Charles X. France possessed three ^
writers, and perhaps only three, of already remarkable
eminence, if we except Chateaubriand, who was already of a
past generation. These three were Pierre Jean de B6ranger
(1780-1857), Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869), and Hugues
Felicite Robert Lamennais (1782-1854). The first belongs
definitely in manner, despite his striking originality of nuance,
to the past. He has remnants of the old periphrases, the cum-
brous mythological allusions, the poetical " properties " of French
verse. He has also the older and somewhat narrow limitations
of a French poet; foreigners are for him mere barbarians. At
the same time his extraordinary lyrical faculty, his excellent wit,
which makes him a descendant of Rabelais and La Fontaine,
and his occasional touches of pathos made him deserve and
obtain something more than successes of occasion. Beranger,
moreover, was very far from being the mere improvisatore
which those who cling to the inspirationist theory of poetry
would fain see in him. His studies in style and composition were
persistent, and it was long before he attained the firm and brilliant
manner which distinguishes him. Beranger's talent, however,
was still too much a matter of individual genius to have great
literary influence, and he formed no school. It was different
with Lamartine, who was, nevertheless, like Beranger,
a typical Frenchman. The Meditations and the am."
Harmonies exhibit a remarkable transition between
the old school and the new. In going direct to nature, in borrow-
ing from her striking outlines, vivid and contrasted tints,
harmony and variety of sound, the new poet showed himself
an innovator of the best class. In using romantic and religious
associations, and expressing them in affecting language, he was
the Chateaubriand of verse. But with all this he retained some
of the vices of the classical school. His versification , harmonious
as it is, is monotonous, and he does not venture into the bold
lyrical forms which true poetry loves. He has still the horror of
the mot propre; he is always spiritualizing and idealizing, and
his style and thought have a double portion of the feminine
and almost flaccid softness which had come to pass for grace in
French. The last of the trio, Lamennais, represents an altogether
bolder and rougher genius. Strongly influenced by
the Catholic reaction, Lamennais also shows the
strongest possible influence of the revolutionary spirit.
His earliest work, the Essai sur I'indi/frence en matiere de
religion (1817 and 1818) was a defence of the church on curiously
unecclesiastical lines. It was written in an ardent style, full of
illustrations, and extremely ambitious in character. The plan
was partly critical and partly constructive. The first part dis-
posed of the i8th century; the second, adopting the theory of
papal absolutism which Joseph de Maistre had already advocated,
proceeded to base it on a supposed universal consent. The after
history of Lamennais was perhaps not an unnatural recoil from
this; but it is sufficient here to point out that in his prose.
DRAMA AND POETRY]
FRENCH LITERATURE
especially a* afterwards developed in the apocalyptic Paroles
fun crvyant (1639) are to be discerned many of the tendencies
of the Romantic school, particularly its haidy and picturesque
choice of language, and the disdain of established and accepted
methods which it professed. The signs of the revolution itself
were, as was natural, first given in periodical literature. The
feudalist affectations of Chateaubriand and the legitimists
excited a sort of aesthetic affection for Gothicism, and Walter
Scott became one of the most favourite authors in France.
Soon was started the periodical La Muse franchise, in which the
names of Hugo, Vigny, Deschamps and Madame de Girardin
appear. Almost all the writers in this periodical were eager
royalists, and for some time the battle was still fought on poli-
tical grounds. There could, however, be no special connexion
between classical drama and liberalism; and the liberal journal,
the Globe, with no less a person than Sainte-Beuve among its
contributors, declared definite war against classicism in the
drama. The chief " r|aiml " organs were the Constitutional,
the Journal des dfbats, and after a time and not exclusively,
the Revue des deux mondes. Soon the question became purely
literary, and the Romantic school proper was born in the famous
ttmade or clique in which Hugo was chief poet, Sainte-Beuve
chief critic, and Gautier, Gerard de Nerval, the brothers mile
(1791-1871) and Antony (1800-1869), Deschamps, Petrus Borel
(1800-1859) and others were officers. Alfred de Vigny and
Alfred de Mussel stand somewhat apart, and so does Charles
Nodier (1780-1844), a versatile and voluminous writer, the very
variety and number of whose works have somewhat prevented
the individual excellence of any of them from having justice
done to it. The objects of the school, which was at first violently
opposed, so much so that certain academicians actually petitioned
the king to forbid the admission of any Romantic piece at the
Theatre Francois, were, briefly stated, the burning of everything
which had been adored, and the adoring of everything which
bad been burnt. They would have no unities, no arbitrary
selection of subjects, no restraints on variety of versification, no
academically limited vocabulary, no considerations of artificial
beauty, and, above all, no periphrastic expression. The mot
propre, the calling of a spade a spade, was the great command-
ment of Romanticism; but it must be allowed that what was
taken away in pcriphrase was made up in adjectives. Mussel,
who was very much of a free-lance in the contest, maintained
indeed that the differentia of the Romantic was the copious use
of this part of speech. All sorts of epithets were invented to
distinguish the two parties, of which flamboyant and grisdlre
are perhaps the most accurate and expressive pair the former
serving to denote the gorgeous tints and bold attempts of the
new school, the latter the grey colour and monotonous outlines
of the old. The representation of Hernani in 1830 was the cul-
mination of the struggle, and during great part of the reign of
Louis Philippe almost all the younger men of letters in France
were Romantics. The representation of the Lucrecc of Francois
Ponsard (1814-1867) in 1846 is often quoted as the herald or sign
of a classical reaction. But this was only apparent, and signified,
if it signified anything, merely that the more juvenile excesses
of the Romantics were out of date. All the greatest men of
letters of France since 1830 have been on the innovating side,
and all without exception, whether intentionally or not, have had
their work coloured by the results of the movement, and of those
which have succeeded it as developments rather than reactions.
Drama and Poetry since 1830. Although the immediate
subject on which the battles of Classics and Romantics arose
was dramatic poetry, the dramatic results of the movement
have not been those of greatest value or most permanent char-
acter. The principal effect in the long run has been the intro-
duction of a species of play called drame, as opposed to regular
comedy and tragedy, admitting of much freer treatment than
either of these two as previously understood in French, and
lending itself in some measure to the lengthy and disjointed
action, the multiplicity of personages, and the absence of stock
characters which characterized the English stage in its palmy
days. AD Victor Hugo's dramatic works are of this class, and
each, as it was produced or published (Cromwell, Hernani.
Marion de I'Orme, Le Roi s'amuse, Lucrece Borgia, Marie Tudor,
Ruy Bias and Les Bur grates), was a literary event, and excited
the most violent discussion the author's usual plan being to
prefix a prose preface of a very militant character to his work.
A still more melodramatic variety of drame was that chiefly
represented by Alexandrc Dumas (1802-1870), whose Henri III
and Antony, to which may be added later La Tour de Nesle
and Mademoiselle de Belleisle, were almost as much rallying
points for the early Romantics as the dramas of Hugo, despite
their inferior literary value. At the same time Alexandre Soumet
(1788-1845), in Norma, Une Fete de Ntron, &c., and Casimir
Dclavigne in Marino Faliero, Louis XI, &c., maintained a
somewhat closer adherence to the older models. The classical
or semi-classical reaction of the last years of Louis Philippe was
represented in tragedy by Ponsard (Lucrece, Agnes de M frame,
Charlotte Corday, Ulysse, and several comedies) , and on the comic
side, to a certain extent, by mile Augier (1820-1889) in
L' Aventuriere, Le Gendre de M. Poirier, Le Fils de Giboyer, &c.
During almost the whole period Eugene Scribe (1791-1861)
poured forth innumerable comedies of the vaudeville order,
which, without possessing much literary value, attained immense
popularity. For the last half-century the realist development
of Romanticism has had the upper hand in dramatic composition,
its principal representatives being on the one side Victorien
Sardou (1831-1909), who in Nos Intimes, La Famille Benetton,
Rabagas, Dora, &c., chiefly devoted himself to the satirical
treatment of manners, and Alexandre Dumas fits (1824-1895),
author in 1852 of the famous Dame aux camilias, who in such
pieces as Les Idies de Madame Aubray and L'trangere rather
busied himself with morals and " problems," while his Dame
aux camilias (1852) is sometimes ranked as the first of such things
in " modern " style. Certain isolated authors also deserve
notice, such as Joseph Autran (1813-1877), a poet and acade-
mician having some resemblance to Lamartine, whose Fillc
d'jEschyle created for him a dramatic reputation which he did
not attempt to follow up, and Gabriel Legouv6 (b. 1807), whose
Adrienne Lecouvreur was assisted to popularity by the admirable
talent of Rachel. A special variety of drama of the first literary
importance has also been cultivated in this century under the
title of scenes or proverbes, slight dramatic sketches in which the
dialogue and style are of even more importance than the action.
The best of all of these are those of Alfred de Musset (1810-1857),
whose // faut qu'une porte soil ouverte ou fermie, On ne badine
pas avec I'amour, &c., are models of grace and wit. Among his
followers may be mentioned especially Octave Feuillet (1821
1890). Few social dramas of the kind in modern times have
attained a greater success than Le Monde ou Von s'ennuie (1868)
of fidouard Pailleron (1834-1899). (See also DRAMA.)
In poetry proper, as in drama, Victor Hugo showed the way.
In him all the Romantic characteristics were expressed and
embodied disregard of arbitrary critical rules, free
choice of subject, variety and vigour of metre, splendour Hugo.
and sonorousness of diction, abundant " local colour,"
and that irrepressible individualism which is one of the chief,
though not perhaps the chief, of the symptoms. If the careful
attention to form which is also characteristic of the movement is
less apparent in him than in some of his followers, it is not
because it is absent, but because the enthusiastic conviction
with which he attacked every subject somewhat diverts attention
from it. As with the merits so with the defects. A deficient
sense of the ludicrous which characterized many of the Romantics
was strongly apparent in their leader, as was also an equally
representative grandiosity, and a fondness for the introduction
of foreign and unfamiliar words, especially proper names,
which occasionally produces an effect of burlesque. Victor
Hugo's earliest poetical works, his chiefly royalist and political
Odes, were cast in the older and accepted forms, but already
displayed astonishing poetical qualities. But it was in the
Ballades (for instance, the splendid Pas d'armes du rot Jean,
written in verses of three syllables) and the Orientalcs ( of which
may be taken for a sample the sixth section of Navarin, a perfect
146
FRENCH LITERATURE
[DRAMA AND POETRY
torrent of outlandish terms poured forth in the most admirable
verse, or Les Djinns, where some of the stanzas have lines of
two syllables each) that the grand provocation was thrown
to the believers in alexandrines, careful caesuras and strictly
separated couplets. Les Feuilles d'automne, Les Chants du
crepuscule, Les Voix inlerieures, Les Rayons et les ombres, the
productions of the next twenty years, were quieter in style and
tone, but no less full of poetical spirit. The Revolution of 1848,
the establishment of the empire and the poet's exile brought
about a fresh determination of his genius to lyrical subjects.
Les Chdtiments and La Legende des siecles, the one political, the
other historical, reach perhaps the high-water mark of French
verse; and they were followed by the philosophical Contempla-
tions, the lighter Chansons des rues et des bois, the Annee
terrible, the second Legende des siecles, and the later work to be
found noticed sub nom. We have been thus particular here
because the literary productiveness of Victor Hugo himself has
been the measure and sample of the whole literary productiveness
of France on the poetical side. At five-and-twenty he was
acknowledged as a master, at seventy-five he was a master still.
His poetical influence has been represented in three different
schools, from which very few of the poetical writers of the
century can be excluded. These few we may notice first. Alfred
m t t de Mussel, a writer of great genius, felt part of the
Romantic inspiration very strongly, but was on the
whole unfortunately influenced by Byron, and partly out of
wilfulness, partly from a natural want of persevering industry
and vigour, allowed himself to be careless and even slovenly
in composition. Notwithstanding this, many of his lyrics are
among the finest poems in the language, and his verse, careless
as it is, has extraordinary natural grace. Auguste Barbier
(1805-1882) whose lambes shows an extraordinary command of
nervous and masculine versification, also comes in here; and the
Breton poet, Auguste Brizeux (1803-1858), much admired by
some, together with Hegesippe Moreau, an unequal writer
possessing some talent, Pierre Dupout (1821-1870), one of much
greater gifts, and Gustave Nadaud (1820-1893), a follower of
Beranger, also deserve mention. Of the school of Lamartine
rather than of Hugo are Alfred de Vigny (1790-1865) and
Victor de Laprade (1812-1887), the former a writer of little
bulk and somewhat over-fastidious, but possessing one of the
most correct and elegant styles to be found in French, with a
curious restrained passion and a complicated originality, the
latter a meditative and philosophical poet, like Vigny an admir-
able writer, but somewhat deficient in pith and substance, as
well as in warmth and colour. Madame Ackermann (1813-1890)
is the chief philosophical poetess of France, and this style has
recently been very popular; but for actual poetical powers,
Marceline Desbordes-Valmore (1786-1859) perhaps excelled her,
though in a looser and more sentimental fashion. The poetical
schools which more directly derive from the Romantic movement
as represented by Hugo are three in number, corresponding in
point of time with the first outburst of the movement, with the
period of reaction already alluded to, and with the closing years
of the second empire. Of the first by far the most distinguished
member was Th6ophile Gautier (1811-1872), the most perfect
Oauthr P oet ' n P omt f ^ orm tnat France has produced. When
quite a boy he devoted himself to the study of 16th-
century masters, and though he acknowledged the supremacy
of Hugo, his own talent was of an individual order, and developed
itself more or less independently. Alberlus alone of his poems
has much of the extravagant and grotesque character which
distinguished early romantic literature. The Comldie de la
mart, the Poesies diverse!, and still more the maux et camees,
display a distinctly classical tendency classical, that is to say,
not in the party and perverted sense, but in its true acceptation.
The tendency to the fantastic and horrible may be taken as best
shown by Petrus Borel (1800-1859), a writer of singular power
almost entirely wasted. Gerard Labrunie or de Nerval (1808-
1855) adopted a manner also fantastic but more idealistic than
Borel's, and distinguished himself by his Oriental travels and
studies, and by his attention to popular ballads and traditions,
while his style has an exquisite but unaffected strangeness
hardly inferior to Gautier's. This peculiar and somewhat
quintessenced style is also remarkable in the Caspard de la nuit
of Louis Bertrand (1807-1841), a work of rhythmical prose
almost unique in its character. One famous sonnet preserves
the name of Felix Arvers (1806-1850). The two Deschamps
were chiefly remarkable as translators. The next generation
produced three remarkable poets, to whom may perhaps be
added a fourth. Theodore de Banville (1823-1891), adopting
the principles of Gautier, and combining with them a considerable
satiric faculty, composed a large amount of verse, faultless in
form, delicate and exquisite in shades and colours, but so entirely
neutral in moral and political tone that it has found fewer
admirers than it deserved. Charles Marie Rene Leconte de Lisle
(1818-1894), carrying out the principle of ransacking foreign
literature for subjects, went to Celtic, classical or even Oriental
sources for his inspiration, and despite a science in verse not much
inferior to Banville's, and a far wider range and choice of
subject, diffused an air of erudition, not to say pedantry, over
his work which disgusted some readers, and a pessimism which
displeased others, but has left poetry only inferior to that of
the greatest of his countrymen. Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867),
by his choice of unpopular subjects and the terrible truth of his
analysis, revolted not a few of those who, in the words of an
English critic, cannot take pleasure in the representation if they
do not take pleasure in the tljing represented, and who thus
miss his extraordinary command of the poetical appeal in
sound, in imagery and in suggestion generally. Thus, by a
strange coincidence, each of the three representatives of the
second Romantic generation was for a time disappointed of
his due fame. A fourth poet of this time, Josephin Soulary
(1815-1891), produced sonnets of rare beauty and excellence.
A fifth, Louis Bouilhet (1822-1869), an intimate friend of Flau-
bert, pushed even farther the fancy for strange subjects, but
showed powers in Melanis and other things. In 1866 a collection
of poems, entitled after an old French fashion Le Parnasse
contemporain, appeared. It included contributions by many
of the poets just mentioned, but the mass of the contributors
were hitherto unknown to fame. A similar collection appeared
in 1869, and was interrupted by the German war, but continued
after it, and a third in 1876.
The first Parnasse had been projected by MM. Xavier de
Ricard(b. i843)andCatulleMendes(i84i-i909) as a sort of mani-
festo of a school of young poets: but its contents were largely
coloured by the inclusion among them of work by representatives
of older generations Gautier, Laprade, Leconte de Lisle,
Banville, Baudelaire and others. The continuation, however,
of the title in the later issues, rather than anything else, led to
the formation and promulgation of the idea of a " Parnassien "
or an " Impassible " school which was supposed to adopt as its
watchword the motto of " Art for Art's sake," to pay especial
attention to form, and also to aim at a certain objectivity. As
a matter of fact the greater poets and the greater poems of the
Parnasse admit of no such restrictive labelling, which can only
be regarded as mischievous, though (or very mainly because)
it has been continued. Another school, arising mainly in the
later 'eighties and calling itself that of " Symbolism," has been
supposed to indicate a reaction against Parnassianism and even
against the main or Hugonic Romantic tradition generally ;
with a throwing back to Lamartine and perhaps Chenier. This
idea of successive schools (" Decadents," " Naturists," " Sim-
plists," &c.) has even been reduced to such an absurdum as
the statement that " France sees a new school of poetry every
fifteen years." Those who have studied literature sufficiently
widely, and from a sufficient elevation, know that these syste-
matisings are always more or less delusive. Parnassianism,
symbolism and the other things are merely phases of the
Romantic movement itself as may be proved to demonstration
by the simple process of taking, say, Hugo and Verlaine on the
one hand, Delilleor Escouchard Lebrun on the other, and com-
paring the two first mentioned with each other and with the
older poet. The differences in the first case will be found to be
PROSE FICTION]
FRENCH LITERATURE
'47
differences at most of individuality: in the other of kind. We
ball not, therefore, further refer to these dubious classifications:
but specify briefly the most remarkable poets whom they concern,
and all the older of whom, it may be observed, were represented
in the Parnasse itself. Of these the most remarkable were Sully
Prudhomme (1830-1907), Francois Coppee (1842-1908) and Paul
Verlaine (1844-1896). The first (Statues el poemes, 1865, Vaines
Ttudresses, 1875, Bonhewr, 1888, &c.) is a philosophical and
rather pessimistic poet who has very strongly rallied the suffrages
of the rather large present public who care for the embodiment
of these tendencies in verse; the second (La Grift des for gerons,
1860, Let Humbles, 1872, Contes el vers, 1881-1887, &c.) a
dealer with more generally popular subjects in a more sentimental
manner; and the third (Sagesse, 1881, ParaUelement, 1889,
Potmes satumiens, including early work, 1867-1800), by far the
most original and remarkable poet of the three, starting with
Baudelaire and pushing farther the fancy for forbidden subjects,
but treating both these and others with wonderful command of
sound and image-suggestion. Verlaine in fact (he was actually
well acquainted with English) endeavoured, and to a small
extent succeeded in the endeavour, to communicate to French
the vague suggestion of visual and audible appeal which has
characterized English poetry from Blake through Coleridge.
Others of the original Parnassiens who deserve mention are
Albert Glatigny (1830-1873), a Bohemian poet of great talent
who died young; Stiphane Mallarm (1842-1898), afterwards
chief of the Symbolists, also a true poet in his way, but somewhat
barren, and the victim of pose and trick; Jose Maria de Heredia
(1842-1905), a very exquisite practitioner of the sonnet but with
perhaps more art than matter in him; Henri Cazalis (1840-1009),
who long afterwards, under his name of Jean Labor, appeared
as a Symbolist pessimist; A. Villiers de 1'Isle-Adam, another
eccentric but with a spark of genius; Emmanuel des Essarts;
Auguste de Chatillon (1810-1882); Leon Dierx (b. 1838) who,
after producing even less than Mallarme, succeeded him as
Symbolist chief; Jean Aicard (b. 1848), a southern bard of merit;
and lastly Catulle Mendes himself, who has been a brilliant
writer in verse and prose ever since, and whose Afouiemenl
pottique fratnais de 1867 A lyoo (1003), an official report largely
amplified so that it is in fact a history and dictionary of French
poetry during the century, forms an almost unique work of
reference on the subject. Among the later recruits the most
specially noticeable was Armand Silvestre (1837-1001), whose
verse (La Chanson des keures, 1878, Ailes d'or, 1880, La Chanson
des ttoiles, 1885), of an ethereal beauty, was contrasted with
prose admirably written and sometimes most amusing, but
" Pantagruelist," and more, in manners and morals. This
declension from poetry to prose fiction was also noticeable in
Guy de Maupassant, Andr6 Theuriet, Anatole France and even
Alphonse Daudet.
Yet another flight of poets may be grouped as those specially
representing the last quarter of the century and (whether Par-
nassian, Symbolist or what not) the latest development of French
poetry. Verlaine and Mallarme already mentioned were in a
manner the leaders of these. Perhaps something of the influence
of Whitman may be detected in the irregular verses of Gustave
Kahn (b. 1859), Francis Viele Griffin, actually an American by
birth (b. 1864), Stuart Merrill, of like origin, and Paul Fort
(b. 1872). But the whole tendency of the period has been to
relax the stringency of French prosody. Albert Samain (1850-
1900), a musical versifier enough; Jean Moreas (1856-1910) who
began with a volume called Les Syrtes in 1884) ; Laurent Tailhade
(b. 1854) and others are more or less Symbolist, and contributed
to the Symbolist periodical (one of many such since the beginning
of the Romantic movement which would almost require an
article to themselves), the M enure de France. An older man
than many of these, M. Jean Richepin (b. 1849), made for
a time considerable noise with poetical work of a colour older
even than his age, and harking back somewhat to the Jeune-
France and " Bousingot " type of early Romanticism La
Chanson des fuevx, Les Blasphemes, &c. Other writers of note
are M. Paul Deroule'de (b. 1846). a violently nationalist poet;
M. Maurice Bouchor (b. 1864), who started his serious and
respectable work with Les Symboles in 1888; while M. Henri de
Regnier, born in the same year, has received very high praise
for work from Lendemains in 1886 and other volumes up to
Les Jeux rustiques el divins (1897) and Les Mtdailles d'argiic
(1900). The truth, however, perhaps is that this extraordinary
abundance of verse (for we have not mentioned a quarter of the
names which present themselves, or a twentieth part of those
who figure in M. MendeVs catalogue for the last half-century)
reminds the literary historian somewhat too much of similar
phenomena in other times. There is undoubtedly a great diffu-
sion of poetical dexterity, and not perhaps a small one of poetical
spirit, but it requires the settling, clarifying and distinguishing
effects of time to separate the poet from the minor poet. Still
more perhaps must we look to time to decide whether the vers
libre as it is called that is to say, the verse freed from the minute
traditions of the elder prosody, admitting hiatus, neglecting to
a greater or less extent caesura, and sometimes relying upon mere
rhythm to the neglect of strict metre altogether can hold its
ground. It has as yet been practised by no poet at all approach-
ing the first class, except Verlaine, and not by him in its extremer
forms. And the whole history of prosody and poetry teaches us
that though similar changes often come in as it were unperceived,
they scarcely ever take root in the language unless a great poet
adopts them. Or rather it should perhaps be said that when
they are going to take root in the language a great poet always
does adopt them before very long.
Prose Fiction since 1830. Even more remarkable, because
more absolutely novel, was the outburst of prose fiction which
followed 1830. Madame de Lafayette, Le Sage, Marivaux,
Voltaire, the Abbe 1 Pr6vost, Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Bernardin
de Saint-Pierre and Five had all of them produced work
excellent in its way, and comprising in a more or less rudimentary
condition most varieties of the novel. But none of them had,
in the French phrase, made a school, and at no time had prose
fiction been composed in any considerable quantities. The im-
mense influence which Walter Scott exercised was perhaps the
direct cause of the attention paid to prose fiction; the facility,
too, with which all the fancies, tastes and beliefs of the
time could be embodied in such work may have had con-
siderable importance. But it is difficult on any theory of cause
and effect to account for the appearance in less than ten years of
such a group of novelists as Hugo, Gautier, Dumas, M6rime,
Balzac, George Sand, Jules Sandeau and Charles de Bernard,
names to which might be added others scarcely inferior. There is
hardly anything else resembling it in literature, except the great
duster of English dramatists in the beginning of the 1 7th century,
and of English poets at the beginning of the n;th; and it is
remarkable that the excellence of the first group was maintained
by a fresh generation Murger, About, Feuillet, Flaubert,
Erckmann-Chatrian, Droz, Daudet, Cherbuliez and Gaboriau,
forming a company of diadochi not far inferior to their pre-
decessors, and being themselves not unworthily succeeded almost
up to the present day. The romance-writing of France during
the period has taken two different directions the first that of
the novel of incident, the second that of analysis and character.
The first, now mainly deserted, was that which, as was natural
when Scott was the model, was formerly most trodden; the
second required the genius of George Sand and of Balzac and the
more problematical talent of Beyle to attract students to it.
The novels of Victor Hugo are novels of incident, with a strong
infusion of purpose, and considerable but rather ideal character
drawing. They are in fact lengthy prose drames rather than
romances proper, and they have found no imitators. They
display, however, the powers of the master at their fullest.
On the other hand, Alexandre Dumas originally com- n alam i
posed his novels in. close imitation of Scott, and they
are much less dramatic than narrative in character, so that they
lend themselves to almost indefinite continuation, and there is
often no particular reason why they should terminate even at
the end of the score or so of volumes to which they sometimes
actually extend. Of this purely narrative kind, which hardly
148
FRENCH LITERATURE
[PROSE FICTION
even attempts anything but the boldest character drawing,
the best of them, such as Les Trois Mousquetaires, Vingl ans
apres, La Reine Margot, are probably the best specimens extant.
Dumas possesses, almost alone among novelists, the secret of
writing interminable dialogue .without being tedious, and of
telling the story by it. Of something the same kind, but of a far
lower stamp, are the novels of Eugene Sue (1804-1857). Dumas
and Sue were accompanied and followed by a vast crowd of com-
panions, independent or imitative. Alfred de Vigny had already
attempted the historical novel in Cinq-Mars. Henri deLa Touche
(1785-1851) (Fragolelta), an excellent critic who formed George
Sand, but a mediocre novelist, may be mentioned: and perhaps
also Roger de Beauvoir, whose real name was Eugene Auguste
Roger de Bully (1806-1866) (Le Chronique de Saint Georges),
ind Frederic Soulie (Les M&moires du diable) (1800-1847).
Paul Feval (La Fee des greves) (1817-1877) and Amedee Achard
(Belle-Rose) (1814-1875) are of the same school, and some of the
attempts of Jules Janin (1804-1874), more celebrated as a critic,
may also be connected with it. By degrees, however, the taste
for the novel of incident, at least of an historical kind, died out
till it was revived in another form, and with an admixture of
domestic interest, by MM. Erckmann-Chatrian. The last and
one of the most splendid instances of the old style was Le Capi-
taine Fracasse, which Theophile Gautier began early and finished
late as a kind of tour deforce. The last-named writer in his earlier
days had modified the incident novel in many short tales, a kind
of writing for which French has always been famous, and in
which Gautier's sketches are masterpieces. His only other long
novel, Mademoiselle de Maupin, belongs rather to the class of
analysis. With Gautier, as a writer whose literary characteristics
even excel his purely tale-telling powers, may be classed Prosper
Mfirimee (1803-1870), one of the most exquisite 19th-century
masters of the language. Already, however, in 1830 the tide
was setting strongly in favour of novels of contemporary life
and manners. These were of course susceptible of extremely
various treatment. For many years Paul de Kock (1793-1871),
a writer who did not trouble himself about Classics or Romantics
or any such matter, continued the tradition of Marivaux,
Crebillon fits, and Pigault Lebrun (1753-1835) in a series of not
very moral or polished but lively and amusing sketches of life,
principally of the bourgeois type. Later Charles de Bernard
(1804-1850) (Gerfaut) with infinitely greater wit, elegance,
propriety and literary skill, did the same thing for the higher
classes of French society. But the two great masters of the
novel of character and manners as opposed to that of history
and incident are Honore de Balzac (1799-1850) and Aurore
Dudevant, commonly called George Sand (1804-1876). Their
influence affected the entire body of novelists who succeeded
them, with very few exceptions. At the head of these exceptions
may be placed Jules Sandeau (1811-1883), who, after writing
a certain number of novels in a less individual style, at last made
for himself a special subject in a certain kind of domestic novel,
where the passions set in motion are less boisterous than those
usually preferred by the French novelist, and reliance is mainly
placed on minute character drawing and shades of colour sober
in hue but very carefully adjusted (Catherine, Mademoiselle de
Penanan, Mademoiselle de la Seigliere). In the same class of
the more quiet and purely domestic novelists may be placed
X. B. Saintine (1798-1865) (Picciola), Madame C. Reybaud
(1802-1871) (Clementine, Le Cadet de Colobrieres) , J. T. de Saint-
Germain (Pour en tpingle, La Feuille de coudrier), Madame Craven
(1808-1891) (Recit d'une saeur, Fleurange). Henri Beyle (1798-
1865), who wrote under the nom de plume of Stendhal and belongs
to an older generation than most of these, also stands by himself.
His chief book in the line of fiction is La Chartreuse de Parme, an
exceedingly powerful novel of the analytical kind, and he also
composed a considerable number of critical and miscellaneous
works. Of little influence at first (though he had great power
over Mdrimee) and never master of a perfect style, he has exer-
cised ever increasing authority as a master of pessimist analysis.
Indeed much of his work was never published till towards the
close of the century. Last among the independents must be
mentioned Henry Murger (1822-1861), the painter of what is
called Bohemian life, that is to say, the struggles, difficulties and
amusements of students, youthful artists, and men of letters.
In this peculiar style, which may perhaps be regarded as an
irregular descendant of the picaroon romance, Murger has no
rival; and he is also, though on no extensive scale, a poet of great
pathos. But with these exceptions, the influences of the two
writers we have mentioned, sometimes combined, more often
separate, may be traced throughout the whole of later novel
literature. George Sand began with books strongly tinged with
the spirit of revolt against moral and social arrangements,
and she sometimes diverged into very curious paths of pseudo-
philosophy, such as was popular in the second quarter of the
century. At times, too, as in Lucrezia Floriani and some other
works, she did not hesitate to draw largely on her own personal
adventures and experiences. But latterly she devoted herself
rather to sketches of country life and manners, and to novels
involving bold if not very careful sketches of character and more
or less dramatic situations. She was one of the most fertile
of novelists, continuing to the end of her long life to pour forth
fiction at the rate of many volumes a year. Of her different
styles may be mentioned as fairly characteristic, Lelia, Lucrezia
Floriani, Consuelo, La Mare au diable, La Petite Fadette, Francois
le champi, Mademoiselle de la Quinlinie. Considering the shorter
length of his life the productiveness of Balzac was
almost more astonishing, especially if we consider that youager
some of his early work was never reprinted, and that
he left great stores of fragments and unfinished sketches. He is,
moreover, the most remarkable example in literature of untiring
work and determination to achieve success despite the greatest
discouragements. His early work was worse than unsuccessful,
it was positively bad. After more than a score of unsuccessful
attempts, Les Chouans at last made its mark, and for twenty
years from that time the astonishing productions composing the
so-called Comedie humaine were poured forth successively.
The sub-titles which Balzac imposed upon the different batches,
Scenes de la vie parisienne, de la vie de province, de la vie
intime, &c., show, like the general title, a deliberate intention
on the author's part to cover the whole ground of human, at
least of French life. Such an attempt could not succeed wholly;
yet the amount of success attained is astonishing. Balzac has,
however, with some justice been accused of creating the world
which he described, and his personages, wonderful as is the
accuracy and force with which many of the characteristics of
humanity are exemplified in them, are somehow not altogether
human. Since these two great novelists, many others have
arisen, partly to tread in their steps, partly to strike out inde-
pendent paths. Octave Feuillet (1821-1890), beginning his
career by apprenticeship to Alexandre Dumas and the historical
novel, soon found his way in a very different style of composition,
the roman intime of fashionable life, in which, notwithstanding
some grave defects, he attained much popularity and showed
remarkable skill in keeping abreast of his time. The so-called
realist side of Balzac was developed (but, as he himself acknow-
ledged, with a double dose of intermixed if somewhat trans-
formed Romanticism) by Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880), who
showed culture, scholarship and a literary power over the language
inferior to that of no writer of the century. No novelist of his
generation has attained a higher literary rank than Flaubert.
Madame Bovary and L' Education sentimentale are studies of con-
temporary life; in Salammbd and La Tentation de Saint Antoine
erudition and antiquarian knowledge furnish the subjects for
the display of the highest literary skill. Of about the same date
Edmond About (1828-1885), before he abandoned novel-writing,
devoted himself chiefly to sketches of abundant but not always
refined wit (L'Homme a I'orettle cassie, Le Nez d'un notaire),
and sometimes to foreign scenes (Tolla, Le Roi des montagnes).
Champfleury (Henri Husson, 1820-1889), a prolific critic,
deserves notice for stories of the extravaganza kind. During the
whole of the Second Empire one of the most popular writers was
Ernest Feydeau (1821-1873), a writer of great ability, but morbid
and affected in the choice and treatment of his subjects (Fanny,
PROSE FICTION]
FRENCH LITERATURE
149
Syttte, Catherine d'Otermeire). Emile Gaboriau (1833-1873),
taking up that side of Balzac's talent which devoted itself to
inextricable mysteries, criminal trials, and the like, produced
If. Le Cq, Le Crime d'Ordvol, La Degringolade, &c.; and
Adolphe Belot (b. 1829) for a time endeavoured to out-
Fcydcau Feydeau in La Femme deft* and other works. Eugene
Fromentin (1820-1876), best known as a painter, wrote a novel,
Dominique, which was highly appreciated by good judges.
During the last decade of the Second Empire there arose,
continuing for varying lengths of time till nearly the end of the
century, another remarkable group of novelists, most of whom
are dealt with under separate headings, but who must receive
combined treatment here; with the warning that even more
danger than in the case of the poets is incurred by classing
them in "schools." Undoubtedly, however, the "Naturalist"
tendency, starting from Balzac and continued through Flaubert,
but taking quite a new direction under some of those to be
mentioned, is in a manner dominant. Flaubert himself and
Feuillet (an exact observer of manners but an anti-Naturalist)
have already been mentioned. Victor Cherbuliez (1820-1899),
constant writer in the Revue des deux mondts on politics and
other subjects, also accomplished a long series of novels from
Le Comte Koitia (1863) onwards, of which the most remarkable
are that just named, Le Roman d'une honnete femme (1866),
and Ueta Holdenis (1873). With something of Balzac and
more of Feuillet, Cherbuliez mixed with his observation of
society a dose of sentimental and popular romance which offended
the younger critics of his day, but he had solid merits. Gustave
Droz (b. 1832) devoted himself chiefly to short stories sufficiently
" free " in subject (Monsieur, madame et btbt, Enlre nans, &c.)
but full of fancy, excellently written, and of a delicate wit in one
sense if not in all. Andre Theuriet (1833-1007) began with poetry
but diverged to novels, in which the scenery of France and
especially of its great forests is used with much skill; Le Fils
ilaugars (1879) may be mentioned out of many as a specimen.
Leon Cladel (1835-1892), whose most remarkable work was
Les Va-nu-pieds (1874), had, as this title of itself shows, Naturalist
*; but with a quaint Romantic tendency in prose and
The Naturalists proper chiefly developed or seemed to develop
one side of Balzac, but almost entirely abandoned his Romantic
element. They aimed first at exact and almost photographic
delineation of the accidents of modern life, and secondly at
still more uncompromising non-suppression of the essential
features and functions of that life which are usually suppressed.
This school may be represented in chief by four novelists (really
Utree. as two of them were brothers who wrote together till the
rather early death of one of them), Emile Zola (1840-1003),
Alphonse Daudet (1840-1897), and Edmond (1822-1897) and
Jules (1830-1870) de Goncourt. The first, of Italian extraction
and Marseillais birth, began by work of undecided kinds and
was always a critic as well as a novelist. Of this first stage
Conlti 4 Ninon (1864) and Therese Raquin (1867) deserve to be
specified. But after 1870 Zola entered upon a huge scheme
(suggested no doubt by the Comtdie humaine) of tracing the
fortunes in every branch, legitimate and illegitimate, and in
every rank of society of a family, Les Rougon-Macquart, and
carried it out in a full score of novels during more than as many
years. He followed this with a shorter series on places, Paris,
Rome, Lourdet, and lastly by another of strangely apocalyptic
tone, Ptcondiif. Travail, Vtritt, the last a story of the Dreyfus
case, retrospective and, as it proved, prophetic. The extreme
repulsivcness of much of his work, and the overdone detail of
almost the whole of it, caused great prejudice against him, and
wiD probably always prevent his being ranked among the greatest
novelists; but his power is indubitable, and in passages, if not
in whole books, does itself justice.
MM. de Goncourt, besides their work in Naturalist (they
would have preferred to call it " Impressionist ") fiction, devoted
themselves especially to study and collection in the fine arts,
and produced many volumes on the historical side of these,
i distinguished by accurate and careful research. This
quality they carried, and the elder of them after his brother's
death continued to carry, into novel-writing (Rente Mauperin,
Germinie Lacerteux, Chtrie, &c.) with the addition of an extra-
ordinary care for peculiar and, as they called it, " personal "
diction. On the other hand, Alphonse Daudet (who with the
other three, Flaubert to some extent, and the Russian novelist
Turgenieff, formed a sort of ctnacle or literary club) mixed with
some Naturalism a far greater amount of fancy and wit than his
companions allowed themselves or could perhaps attain; and
in the Tartarin series (dealing with the extravagances of his
fellow- Provencaux) added not a little to the gaiety of Europe.
His other novels (Fromont jeune el Risler atnt, Jack, Le Nabob,
&c.), also very popular, have been variously judged, there
being something strangely like plagiarism in some of them, and
in others, in fact in most, an excessive use of that privilege of
the novelist which consists in introducing real persons under
more or less disguise. It should be observed in speaking of this
group that the Goncourts, or rather the survivor of them, left an
elaborate Journal disfigured by spite and bad taste, but of much
importance for the appreciation of the personal side of French
literature during the last half of the century.
In 1880 Zola, who had by this time formed a regular school of
disciples, issued with certain of them a collection of short stories,
Les Soirees de Mldan, which contains one of his own best things,
L'Atlaque du moulin, and also the capital story, Boule de suif,
by Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893), who in the same year
published poems, Des vers, of very remarkable if not strictly
poetical quality. Maupassant developed during his short
literary career perhaps the greatest powers shown by any French
novelist since Flaubert (his sponsor in both senses) in a series
of longer novels (Une Vie, Bel Ami, Pierre et Jean, Fort comme
la mart) and shorter stories (Monsieur Parent, Les Sieurs
Rondoli, Le Horla), but they were distorted by the Naturalist
pessimism and grime, and perhaps also by the brain-disease
of which their author died. M. J. K. Huysmans (b. 1848), also
a contributor to Les Soirfes de Mldan, who had begun a little
earlier with Marthe (1876) and other books, gave his most
characteristic work in 1884 with Au rebours and in 1891 with
Ld-bas, stories of exaggerated and "satanic" pose, decorated
with perhaps the extremest achievements of the school in mere
ugliness and nastiness. Afterwards, by an obvious reaction,
he returned to Catholicism. Of about the same date as these
two are two other novelists of note, Julien Viaud (" Pierre Loti,"
b. 1850), a naval officer who embodied his experiences of foreign
service with a faint dose of story and character interest, and a
far larger one of elaborate description, in a series of books
(Aziyade, Le Manage de Loti, Madame Chrysantheme, &c.), and
M. Paul Bourget (b. 1852), an important critic as well as novelist
who deflected the Naturalist current into a " psychological "
channel, connecting itself higher with Stendhal, and composed
in its books very popular in their way Cruelle nigme (1885),
Le Disciple, Terre promise, Cosmopolis. As a contrast or comple-
ment to Bourget's "psychological" novel may be taken the
"ethical" novel of Edouard Rod (1857-1909) La Vie privle
de Michel Tessier (1893), Le Sens de la vie, Les Trois Caws.
Contemporary with these as a novelist though a much older man,
and occupied at different times of his life with verse and with
criticism, came Anatole France (b. 1844), who in Le Crime de
Silveslre Bonnard, La Rdlisserie de la reine Pfdauque, Le Lys
rouge, and others, has made a kind of novel as different from
the ordinary styles as Pierre Loti's, but of far higher appeal
in its wit, its subtle fancy, and its perfect French. Ferdinand
Fabre (1830-1898) and Rene Bazin (b. 1853) represent the union,
not too common in the French novel, of orthodoxy in morals and
religion with literary ability. Further must be mentioned Paul
Hervieu (b. 1857), a dramatist rather than a novelist; the
brothers Margueritte (Paul. b. 1860, Victor, b. 1866), especially
strong in short stories and passages; another pair of brothers
of Belgian origin writing under the name of " J. H. Rosny"
Zolaists partly converted not to religion but to science and a
sort of non-Christian virtue; the ingenious and amusing, if not
exactly moral, brilliancy of Marcel PreVost (b. 1862); the
FRENCH LITERATURE
[PERIODICAL LITERATURE
contorted but rather attractive style and the perverse sentiment
of Maurice Barres (b. 1862); and, above all, the audacious and
inimitable dialogue pieces of " Gyp " (Madame de Martel, b.
1850), worthy of the best times of French literature for gaiety,
satire, acuteness and style, and perhaps likely, with the work
of Maupassant, Pierre Loti and Anatole France, to represent the
capital achievement of their particular generation to posterity.
Periodical Literature since 1830. Criticism. One of the causes
which led to this extensive composition of novels was the great
spread of periodical literature in France, and the custom of
including in almost all periodicals, daily, weekly or monthly,
afeuilleton or instalment of fiction. Of the contributors of these
periodicals who were strictly journalists and almost political
journalists only, the most remarkable after Carrel were his
opponent in the fatal duel, Emile de Girardin, Lucien A.
Pr6vost-Paradol (1829-1870), Jean Hippolyte Cartier, called
de Villemessant (1812-1879), and, above all, Louis Veuillot
(1815-1883), the most violent and unscrupulous but by no means
the least gifted of his class. The same spread of periodical
literature, together with the increasing interest in the literature
of the past, led also to a very great development of criticism.
Almost all French authors of any eminence during nearly the
last century have devoted themselves more or less to criticism
of literature, of the theatre, or of art. And sometimes, as in the
case of Janin and Gautiei*, the comparatively lucrative nature of
journalism, and the smaller demands which it made for labour and
intellectual concentration, have diverted to feuilleton-writing
abilities which might perhaps have been better employed.
At the same time it must be remembered that from this devotion
of men of the best talents to critical work has arisen an immense
elevation of the standard of such work. Before the romantic
movement in France Diderot in that country, Lessing and some
of his successors in Germany, Hazlitt, Coleridge and Lamb in
England, had been admirable critics and reviewers. But the
theory of criticism, though these men's principles and practice
had set it aside, still remained more or less what it had been for
centuries. The critic was merely the administrator of certain
hard and fast rules. There were certain recognized kinds of
literary composition; every new book was bound to class itself
under one or other of these. There were certain recognized rules
for each class; and the goodness or badness of a book consisted
simply in its obedience or disobedience to these rules. Even the
kinds of admissible subjects and the modes of admissible treat-
ment were strictly noted and numbered. This was especially the
case in France and with regard to French belles-lettres, so that, as
we have seen, certain classes of composition had been reduced to
unimportant variations of a registered pattern. The Romantic
protest against this absurdity was specially loud and completely
victorious. It is said that a publisher advised the youthful
Lamartine to try "to be like somebody else" if he wished to
succeed. The Romantic standard of success was, on the contrary,
to be as individual as possible. Victor Hugo himself composed
a good deal of criticism, and in the preface to his Orientates he
states the critical principles of the new school dearly. The critic,
he says, has nothing to do with the subject chosen, the colours
employed, the materials used. Is the work, judged by itself and
with regard only to the ideal which the worker had in his mind,
good or bad ? It will be seen that as a legitimate corollary of
this theorem the critic becomes even more of an interpreter than
of a judge. He can no longer satisfy himself or his readers by
comparing the work before him with some abstract and accepted
standard, and marking off its shortcomings. He has to recon-
struct, more or less conjecturally, the special ideal at which each
of his authors aimed, and to do this he has to study their idiosyn-
crasies with the utmost care, and set them before his readers
in as full and attractive a fashion as he can manage. The first
writer who thoroughly grasped this necessity and successfully
dealt with it was Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve
(1804-1869), who has indeed identified his name with
the method of criticism just described. Sainte-Beuve's
first remarkable work (his poems and novels we may leave out
of consideration) was the sketch of 16th-century literature
already alluded to, which he contributed to the Globe. But it
was not till later that his style of criticism became fully developed
and accentuated. During the first decade of Louis Philippe's
reign his critical papers, united under the title of Critiques et
portraits liMraires, show a gradual advance. During the next
ten years he was mainly occupied with his studies of the writers
of the Port Royal school. But it was during the last twenty
years of his life, when the famous Causeries du lundi appeared
weekly in the columns of the Constitulionnel and the Moniteur,
that his most remarkable productions came out. Sainte-Beuve's
style of criticism (which is the key to so much of French literature
of the last half-century that it is necessary to dwell on it at some
length), excellent and valuable as it is, lent itself to two corrup-
tions. There is, in the first place, in making the careful investiga-
tions into the character and circumstances of each writer which
it demands, a danger of paying too much attention to the man
and too little to his work, and of substituting for a critical study
a mere collection of personal anecdotes and traits, especially if
the author dealt with belongs to a foreign country or a past age.
The other danger is that of connecting the genius and character
of particular authors too much with their conditions and circum-
stances, so as to regard them as merely so many products of the
age. These faults, and especially the latter, have been very
noticeable in many of Sainte-Beuve's successors, particularly in,
perhaps, Hippolyte Taine, who, however, besides his work on
English literature, did much of importance on French, and has
been regarded as the first critic who did thorough honour to
Balzac in his own country. A large number of other critics
during the period deserve notice because, though acting more
or less on the newer system of criticism, they have manifested
considerable originality in its application. As far as merely
critical faculty goes, and still more in the power of giving literary
expression to criticism, Theophile Gautier yields to no one.
His Les Grotesques, an early work dealing with Villon, the earlier
" Theophile " de Viau, and other enfants lerribles of French
literature, has served as a model to many subsequent writers,
such as Charles Monselet (1825-1888), and Charles Asselineau
(1820-1874), the affectionate historian, in his Bibliographic
romanlique (1872-1874), of the less famous promoters of the
Romantic movement. On the other hand, Gautier's picture
criticisms, and his short reviews of books, obituary notices,
and other things of the kind contributed to daily papers, are in
point of style among the finest of all such fugitive compositions.
Jules Janin (1804-1874), chiefly a theatrical critic, excelled in
light and easy journalism, but his work has neither weight of
substance nor careful elaboration of manner sufficient to give it
permanent value. This sort of light critical comment has become
almost a speciality of the French press, and among its numerous
practitioners the names of Armand de Pontmartin (1811-1890)
(an imitator and assailant of Sainte-Beuve), Arsene Houssaye,
Pierangelo Fiorentino (1806-1864) > may be mentioned. Edmond
Scherer (1815-1889) and Paul de Saint-Victor (1827-1881)
represent different sides of Sainte-Beuve's style in literary
criticism, Scherer combining with it a martinet and somewhat
prudish precision, while Saint-Victor, with great powers of
appreciation, is the most flowery and " prose-poetical " of French
critics. In theatrical censure Francisque Sarcey (1827-1899),
an acute but somewhat severe and limited judge, succeeded to
the good-natured sovereignty of Janin. The criticism of the
Revue des deux mond.es has played a sufficiently important part
in French literature to deserve separate notice in passing.
Founded in 1829, the Revue, after some vicissitudes, soon attained,
under the direction of the Swiss Buloz, the character of being
one of the first of European critical periodicals. Its style of
criticism has, on the whole, inclined rather to the classical side
that is, to classicism as modified by, and possible after, the
Romantic movement. Besides some of the authors already
named, its principal critical contributors were Gustave Planche
(1808-1857), an acute but somewhat truculent critic, Saint-
Rene Taillandier (1817-1879), and Emile Mont6gut (1825-1895),
a man of letters whom greater leisure would have made greater,
but who actually combined much and varied critical power with
HISTORY]
FRENCH LITERATURE
an agreeable style. Lastly we must notice the important section
of professorial or university critics, whose critical work has taken
the form either of regular treatises or of courses of republished
lectures, books somewhat academic and rhetorical in character,
but often representing an amount of influence which has served
largely to stir up attention to literature. The most prominent
name among these is that of Abel Villemain (1700-1867), who
was one of the earliest critics of the literature of his own country
to obtain a hearing out of it. Desire Nisard (1806-1888) was
perhaps more fortunate in his dealings with Latin than with
French, and in his History of the latter literature represents
too much the cla^'nO tradition, but be had dignity, erudition
and an excellent style. Alexandre Vinet (1797-1847), a Swiss
critic of considerable eminence, Saint-Marc-Girardin (1801-1873),
whose Court de litttratiire dramatique is his chief work, and
Eugene Geruzez (1709-1865), the author not only of an extremely
useful and well- writ ten handbook to French literature before the
Revolution, but also of other works dealing with separate portions
of the subject, must also be mentioned. One remarkable critic,
Ernest Hello (1818-1885), attracted during his life little attention
even in France, and hardly any out of it, his work being strongly
tinctured with the unpopular flavour and colour of uncom-
promising " clericalism," and his extremely bad health keeping
him out of the ordinary fraternities of literary society. It was,
however, as full of idiosyncrasy as of partisanship, and is exceed-
ingly interesting to those who regard criticism as mainly valuable
because it gives different aspects of the same thing.
Perhaps in no branch of belles-lettres did the last quarter of the
century maintain the level at which predecessors had arrived'
better than in criticism; though whether this fact is connected
with something of decadence in the creative branches, is a question
which may be better posed than resolved here. A remarkable
writer whose talent, approaching genius, was spoilt by eccen-
tricity and pose, and who belonged to a more modern generation,
Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly (1808-1889), poet, novelist and critic,
produced much of his last critical work, and corrected more, in
these later days. Not only did the critical work in various ways
of Ream, Taine, Scherer, Sarcey and others continue during
parts of it, but a new generation, hardly in this case inferior to
the old, appeared. The three chiefs of this were the already
mentioned Anatole France, Emile Faguet(b. 1847), and Ferdinand
Brunetiere (1840-1006), to whom some would add Jules Lemaitre
(b. 1853). The last, however, though a brilliant writer, was but
an " interim " critic, beginning with poetry and other matters,
and after a time turning to yet others, while, brilliant as he was,
his criticism was often ill-informed. So too Anatole France,
after compiling four volumes of La Vie lilteraire in his own
inimitable style and with singular felicity of appreciation, also
turned away. The phenomenon in both cases may be associated,
though it must not be too intimately connected in the relation
of cause and effect, with the fact that both were champions
and practitioners of " impressionist criticism " of the doctrine
(unquestionably sound if not exaggerated) that the first duty of
the critic is to reproduce the effect produced on his own mind
by the author. Brunetiere and Faguet, on the other hand, are
partisans of the older academic style of criticism by kind and on
principle. Faguet, besides regular volumes on each of the four
great centuries of French literature, has produced much other
work all of it somewhat " classical " in tendency and frequently
exhibiting something of a want of comprehension of the Romantic
side. Brunetiere was still more prolific on the same side but with
still greater effort after system and " science." In the books
definitely called L' Evolution det genrei, in his Manuel of French
literature, and in a large number of other volumes of collected
essays he enforced with great learning and power of argument,
if with a somewhat narrow purview and with some prejudice
against writers whom he disliked, a new form of the old doctrine
that the " kind " not the individual author or book ought to be
the main subject of the critic's attention. He did not escape
the consequential danger of taking authors and books not as
they are but as in relation to the kinds which they in fact con-
stitute and to his general views. But he was undoubtedly at
his death the first critic of France and a worthy successor of
her best.
Of others older and younger must be mentioned Paul Stapfer
(b. 1 840) , professor of literature, and the author of divers excellent
works from Shakespeare et I'antiquitt to volumes of the first value
on Montaigne and Rabelais; Paul Bourget and Edouard Rod.
already noticed; Augustin Filon (b. 1841), author of much good
work on English literature and an excellent book on Merime'e;
Alexandre Beljame (1843-1906), another eminent student of
English literature, in which subject J. A. Jusserand (b. 1855),
Legouis, K. A. J. Angellier (b. 1848), and others have recently
distinguished themselves; Gustave Larroumet, especially an
authority on Marivaux; Eugene Lintilhac (b. 1854); Georges
Pellissier; Gustave Lanson, author of a compact history of
French literature in French; Marcel Schwob, who had done
excellent work on Villon and other subjects before his early
death; Ren6 Doumic, a frequent writer in the Revue des deux
mondes, who collected four volumes of tudes sur la lilltrature
franchise between 1895 and 1000; and the Vicomte Melchior de
Vogu6 (b. 1848), whose interests have been more political-
philosophical than strictly literary, but who has done much to
familiarize the French public with that Russian literature to
which Me'rime'e had been the first to introduce them. But the
body of recent critical literature in France is perhaps larger
in actual proportion and of greater value when considered in
relation to other kinds of literature than has been the case at
any previous period.
History since 1830. The remarkable development of historical
studies which we have noticed as taking place under the Restora-
tion was accelerated and intensified in the reigns of Charles X.
and Louis Philippe. Both the scope and the method of the
historian underwent a sensible alteration. For something like
150 years historians had been divided into two classes, those who
produced elegant literary works pleasant to read, and those who
produced works of laborious erudition, but not even intended for
general perusal. The Vertots and Voltaires were on one side,
the Mabillons and Tillemonts on another. Now, although the
duty of a French historian to produce works of literary merit
was not forgotten, it was recognized as part of that duty to
consult original documents and impart original observation. At
the same time, to the merely political events which had formerly
been recognized as forming the historian's province were added
the social and literary phenomena which had long been more or
less neglected. Old chronicles and histories were re-read and
re-edited; innumerable monographs on special subjects and
periods were produced, and these latter were of immense service
to romance writers at the time of the popularity of the historical
novel. Not a few of the works, for instance, which were signed
by Alexandre Dumas consist mainly of extracts or condensations
from old chronicles, or modern monographs, ingeniously united
by dialogue and varnished with a little description. History,
however, had not to wait for this second-hand popularity, and
its cultivators had fully sufficient literary talent to maintain its
dignity. Sismondi, whom we have already noticed, continued
during this period his great Histoire des Franc.ait, and produced
his even better-known Histoire des rlpubliques italiennes au
moyen Age. The brothers Thierry devoted themselves to early
French history,Am6d6e Thierry ( 1 797-1873) producing a Histoire
des Gaulois and other works concerning the Roman period, and
Augustin Thierry (1795-1856) the well-known history of the
Norman Conquest, the equally attractive Rtcits des temps
Mtrovingiens and other excellent works. Philippe de Segur
( 1 780-1 873) gave a history of the Russian campaign of Napoleon,
and some other works chiefly dealing with Russian history.
The voluminous Histoire de France of Henri Martin (1810-1883)
is perhaps the best and most impartial work dealing in detail
with the whole subject. A. G. P. Brugiere, baron de Barante
(1782-1866), after beginning with literary criticism, turned to
history, and in his Histoire des dues de Bourgogne produced a
work of capital importance. As was to be expected, many of the
most brilliant results of this devotion to historical subjects
consisted of works dealing with the French Revolution. No
FRENCH LITERATURE
[SUMMARY
series of historical events has ever perhaps received treatment
at the same time from so many different points of view, and by
writers of such varied literary excellence, among whom it must,
however, be said that the purely royalist side is hardly at all
represented. One of the earliest of these histories is that of
Francois Mignet (1796-1884), a sober and judicious historian of
the older school, also well known for bis Histoire de Marie Stuart.
About the same time was begun the brilliant if not extremely
trustworthy work of Adolphe Thiers (1797-1877) on the Revolu-
tion, which established the literary reputation of the future
president of the French republic, and was at a later period com-
pleted by the Histoire du consulat et de I'cmpire. The downfall
of the July monarchy and the early years of the empire witnessed
the publication of several works of the first importance on this
subject. Barante contributed histories of the Convention and
the Directory, but the three books of greatest note were those
of Lamartine, Jules Michelet (1798-1874), and Louis Blanc
(1811-1882). Lamartine's Histoire des Girondins is written
from the constitutional-republican point of view, and is sometimes
considered to have had much influence in producing the events
of 1848. It is, perhaps, rather the work of an orator and poet
than of an historian. The work of Michelet is of a more original
character. Besides his history of the Revolution, Michelet wrote
an extended history of France, and a very large number of smaller
works on historical, political and social subjects. His imaginative
powers are of the highest order, and his style stands alone in
French for its strangely broken and picturesque character, its
turbid abundance of striking images, and its somewhat sombre
magnificence, qualities which, as may easily be supposed, found
full occupation in a history of the Revolution. The work of
Louis Blanc was that of a sincere but ardent republican, and is
useful from this point of view, but possesses no extraordinary
literary merit. The principal contributions to the history of the
Revolution of the third quarter of the century were those of
Quinet, Lanfrey and Taine. Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), like
Louis Blanc a devotee of the republic and an exile for its sake,
brought to this one of his latest works a mind and pen long
trained to literary and historical studies; but La Revolution is
not considered his best work. P. Lanfrey devoted himself with
extraordinary patience and acuteness to the destruction of the
Napoleonic legend, and the setting of the character of Napoleon I.
in a new, authentic and very far from favourable light. And
Taine, after distinguishing himself, as we have mentioned,
in literary criticism (Histoire de la litterature anglaise) , and attain-
ing less success in philosophy (De I' intelligence), turned in
Les Origines de la France moderne to an elaborate discussion of
the Revolution, its causes, character and consequences, which
excited some commotion among the more ardent devotees of the
principles of '89. To return from this group, we must notice
J. F. Michaud (1767-1839), the historian of the crusades,
and Francois Pierre Guillaume Guizot (1787-1874), who, like
his rival Thiers, devoted himself much to historical study. His
earliest works were literary and linguistic, but he soon turned
to political history, and for the last half-century of his long life
his contributions to historical literature were almost incessant
and of the most various character. The most important are
the histories Des Origines du gouiiernemenl repr&sentatif, De la
revolution d' Angleterre, De la civilisation en France, and latterly
a Histoire de France, which he was writing at the time of his
death. Among minor historians of the earlier century may
be mentioned Prosper Duvergier de Hauranne (1798-1881)
(Gouvernemenl parlementaire en France) ,]. J . Ampere (1800-1864)
(Histoire romaine a Rome), Auguste Arthur Beugnot (1797-
1865) (Destruction du paganisms ^Occident), J. O. B. de Cleron,
comte d'Haussonville (La Reunion de la Lorraine a la France),
Achille Tendelle de Vaulabelle (1790-1870) (Les Deux Restaura-
tions). In the last quarter of the century, under the department
of history, the most remarkable names were still those of Taine
and Renan, the former being distinguished for thought and
matter, the latter for style. Indeed it may be here proper to
remark that Renan, in the kind of elaborated semi-poetic style
which has most characterized the prose of the I9th century in
all countries of Europe, takes pre-eminence among French
writers even in the estimation of critics who are not enamoured
of his substance and tone. But, under the influence of Taine to
some extent and of a general European tendency still more,
France during this period attained or recovered a considerable
place for what is called " scientific " history the history which
while, in some cases, though not in all, not neglecting the develop-
ment of style attaches itself particularly to " the document,"
on the one hand, and to philosophical arrangement on the other.
The chief representative of the school was probably Albert Sorel
(1842-1906), whose various handlings of the Revolutionary period
(including an excursion into partly literary criticism in the shape
of an admirable monograph on Madame de Stael) have established
themselves once for all. In a wider sweep Ernest Lavisse (b.
1842), who has dealt mainly with the i8th century, may hold
a similar position. Of others, older and younger, the due de
Broglie (1821-1901), who devoted himself also to the i8th century
and especially to its secret diplomacy; Gaston Boissier (b. 1823),
a classical scholar rather than an historian proper, and one of the
latest masters of the older French academic style; Thureau-
Dangin (b. 1837), a student of mid igth-century history; Henri
Houssaye (b. 1848), one of the Napoleonic period; Gabriel
Hanotaux (b. 1853), an historian of Richelieu and other subjects,
and a practical politician, may be mentioned. A large accession
has also been made to the publication of older memoirs that
important branch of French literature from almost the whole of
its existence since the invention of prose.
Summary and Conclusion. We have in these last pages given
such an outline of the 19th-century literature of France as seemed
convenient for the completion of what has gone before. It has
been already remarked that the nearer approach is made to our
own time the less is it possible to give exhaustive accounts of
the individual cultivators of the different branches of literature.
It may be added, perhaps, that such exhaust iveness becomes,
as we advance, less and less necessary, as well as less and less
possible. The individual poet of to-day may and does produce
work that is in itself of greater literary value than that of the
individual trouvere. As a matter of literary history his con-
tribution is less remarkable because of the examples he has
before him and the circumstances which he has around him.
Yet we have endeavoured to draw such a sketch of French
literature from the Chanson de Roland onwards that no important
development and hardly any important partaker in such develop-
ment should be left out. A few lines may, perhaps, be now
profitably given to summing up the aspects of the whole,
remembering always that, as in no case is generalization easier
than in the case of the literary aspects and tendencies of periods
and nations, so in no case is it apt to be more delusive unless
corrected and supported by ample information of fact and detail.
At the close of the nth century and at the beginning of the
1 2th we find the vulgar tongue in France not merely in fully
organized use for literary purposes, but already employed in
most of the forms of poetical writing. An immense outburst of
epic and narrative verse has taken place, and lyrical poetry,
not limited as in the case of the epics to. the north of France, but
extending from Roussillon to the Pas de Calais, completes this.
The 1 2th century adds to these earliest forms the important
development of the mystery, extends the subjects and varies
the manner of epic verse, and begins the compositions of literary
prose with the chronicles of St Denis and of Villehardouin, and
the prose romances of the Arthurian cycle. All this literaure
is so far connected purely with the knightly and priestly orders,
though it is largely composed and still more largely dealt in by
classes of men, trouveres and jongleurs, who are not necessarily
either knights or priests, and in the case of the jongleurs are
certainly neither. With a possible ancestry of Romance and
Teutonic cantUenae, Breton lais, and vernacular legends, the
new literature has a certain pattern and model in Latin and for
the most part ecclesiastical compositions. It has the sacred books
and the legends of the saints for examples of narrative, the
rhythm of the hymns for a guide to metre, and the ceremonies ol
the church for a stimulant to dramatic performance. By degrees
SUMMARY!
FRENCH LITERATURE
'S3
, in this 1 3th century, forms of literature which busy them-
selves with the unprivileged classes begin to be born. The
fabliau takes every phase of life for its subject; the folk-song
acquires elegance and does not lose raciness and truth. In the
next century, the ijth, medieval literature in France arrives at
its prime a prime which lasts until the first quarter of the i-jth.
Thcear'yepics lose something of their savage charms, the polished
literature of Provence quickly perishes. But in the provinces
which speak the more prevailing tongue nothing is wanting to
literary development. The language itself has shaken off all
its youthful incapacities, and, though not yet well adapted
for the requirements of modern life and study, is in every way
equal to the demands made upon it by its own time. The
dramatic germ contained in the fabliau and quickened by the
mystery produces the profane drama. Ambitious works of merit
in the most various kinds are published; Aucassin et Nicoklte
stands side by side with the Vie de Saint Louis, the Jeu de la
fettiUie with Le Miracle de TUophile, the Roman de la rose
with the Roman du Renart. The earliest notes of ballads and
rondeau are heard; endeavours are made with zeal, and not
always without understanding, to naturalize the wisdom of the
ancients in France, and in the graceful tongue that France
possesses. Romance in prose and verse, drama, history, songs,
satire, oratory and even erudition, arc all represented and
represented worthily. Meanwhile all nations of western Europe
have come to France for their literary models and subjects,
and the greatest writers in English, German, Italian, content
themselves with adaptations of Chretien de Troyes, of Benoit
de Sainte More, and of a hundred other known and unknown
trouvcres and fabulists. But this age does not last long. The
language has been put to all the uses of which it is as yet capable;
those uses in their sameness begin to pall upon reader and hearer;
and the enormous evils of the civil and religious state reflect them-
selves inevitably in literature. The old forms die out or are
prolonged only in half-lifeless travesties. The brilliant colouring
of Froissart, and the graceful science of ballade and rondeau
writers like Lescurel and Deschamps, alone maintain the literary
reputation of the time. Towards the end of the I4th century
the translators and political writers import many terms of art,
and strain the language to uses for which it is as yet unhandy,
though at the beginning of the next age Charles d'Orleans by
his natural grace and the virtue of the forms he used emerges
from the mass of writers. Throughout the isth century the
process of enriching or at least increasing the vocabulary goes on,
but as yet no organizing hand appears to direct the process.
Villon stands alone in merit as in peculiarity. But in this time
dramatic literature and the literature of the floating popular
broadsheet acquire an immense extension all or almost all the
vigour of spirit being concentrated in the rough farce and rougher
lampoon, while all the literary skill is engrossed by insipid
rhetor iq ururs and pedants. Then comes the grand upheaval
of the Renaissance and the Reformation. An immense influx
of science, of thought to make the science living, of new terms
to express the thought, takes place, and a band of literary
workers appear of power enough to master and get into shape
the turbid mass. Rabelais, Amyot, Calvin and Herberay
fashion French prose; Marot, Ronsard and Regnier refashion
French verse. The Pleiade introduces the drama as it is to be
and the language that is to help the drama to express itself.
Montaigne for the first time throws invention and originality
into some other form than verse or than prose fiction. But by the
end of the century the tide has receded. The work of arrange-
ment has been but half done, and there arc no master spirits
left to complete it. At this period Malherbe and Balzac make
their appearance. Unable to deal with the whole problem, they
determine to deal with part of it, and to reject a portion of the
riches of which they feel themselves unfit to be stewards. Balzac
and bis successors make of French prose an instrument faultless
and admirable in precision, unequalled for the work for which
it is fit, but unfit for certain portions of the work which it was
once able to perform. Malherbe, seconded by Boileau, makes
of French verse an instrument suited only for the purposes of the
drama of Euripides, or rather of Seneca, with or without its
chorus, and for a certain weakened echo of those choruses,
under the name of lyrics. No French verse of the first merit
other than dramatic is written for two whole centuries. The
drama soon comes to its acme, and during the succeeding time
usually maintains itself at a fairly high level until the death of
Voltaire. But prose lends itself to almost everything that is
required of it, and becomes constantly a more and more perfect
instrument. To the highest efforts of pathos and sublimity
its vocabulary and its arrangement likewise arc still unsuited,
though the great preachers of the lyth century do their utmost
with it. But for clear exposition, smooth and agreeable narrative,
sententious and pointed brevity, witty repartee, it soon proves
itself to have no superior and scarcely an equal in Europe.
In these directions practitioners of the highest skill apply it
during the lyth century, while during the i8th its powers are
shown to the utmost of their variety by Voltaire, and receive
a new development at the hands of Rousseau. Yet, on the whole,
it loses during this century. It becomes more and more unfit
for any but trivial uses, and at last it is employed for those uses
only. Then occurs the Revolution, repeating the mighty stir
in men's minds which the Renaissance had given, but at first
experiencing more difficulty in breaking up the ground and once
more rendering it fertile. The faulty and incomplete genius
of Chateaubriand and Madame de Stae'l gives the first evidence
of a new growth, and after many years the Romantic movement
completes the work. Whether the force of that movement is
now, after three-quarters of a century, spent or not, its results
remain. The poetical power of French has been once more
triumphantly proved, and its productiveness in all branches of
literature has been renewed, while in that of prose fiction there has
been almost created a new class of composition. In the process
of reform, however, not a little of the finish of French prose
style has been lost, and the language itself has been affected in
something the same way as it was affected by the less judicious
innovations of the Ronsardists. The pedantry of the Pleiade
led to the preposterous compounds of Du Bartas; the passion
of the Romantics for foreign tongues and for the mot propre
has loaded French with foreign terms on the one hand and with
argot on the other, while it is questionable whether the ver s libre
is really suited to the French genius. There is, therefore, room
for new Malherbes and Balzacs, if the days for Balzacs and Mal-
herbes had not to all appearance passed. Should they be once
more forthcoming, they have the failure as well as the success
of their predecessors to guide them.
Finally, we may sum up even this summary. For volume
and merit taken together the product of these eight centuries of
literature excels that of any European nation, though for in-
dividual works of the supremest excellence they may perhaps be
asked in vain. No French writer is lifted by the suffrages of
other nations the only criterion when sufficient time has elapsed
to the level of Homer, of Shakespeare, or of Dante, who reign
alone. Of those of the authors of, France who are indeed of the
thirty but attain not to the first three Rabelais and Moliere
alone unite the general suffrage, and this fact roughly but surely
points to the real excellence of the literature which these men are
chosen to represent. It is great in all ways, but it is greatest on
the lighter side. The house of mirth is more suited to it than the
house of mourning. To the latter, indeed, the language of the
unknown marvel who told Roland's death, of him who gave
utterance to Camilla's wrath and despair, and of Victor Hugo,
who sings how the mountain wind makes mad the lover who can-
not forget, has amply made good its title of entrance. But for
one Frenchman who can write admirably in this strain there are
a hundred who can tell the most admirable story, formulate the
most pregnant reflection, point the acutest jest. There is thus
no really great epic in French, few great tragedies, and those
imperfect and in a faulty kind, little prose like Milton's or like
Jeremy Taylor's, little verse (though more than is generally
thought) like Shelley's or like Spenser's. But there are the most
delightful short tales, both in prose and in verse, that the world
has ever seen, the most polished jewelry of reflection that has
154
FRENCH POLISH FRENCH REVOLUTION
ever been wrought, songs of incomparable grace, comedies that
must make men laugh as long as they are laughing animals, and
above all such a body of narrative fiction, old and new, prose and
verse, as no other nation can show for art and for originality, for
grace of workmanship in him who fashions, and for certainty of
delight to him who reads.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most elaborate book on French literature
as a whole is that edited by Petit de Julleville, and composed of
chapters by different authors, Histoire de la langue et de la litterature
franfaises (8 vols., Paris, 1896-1899). Unfortunately these chapters,
some of which are of the highest excellence, are of very unequal
value: they require connexions which are not supplied, and there
is throughout a neglect of minor authors. The bibliographical in-
dications are, however, most valuable. For a survey in a single
volume Lanson's Histoire has superseded the older but admirable
manuals of Demogeot and Geruzez, which, however, are still worth
consulting. Brunetiere's Manuel (translated into English) is very
valuable with the cajitions above given; and the large Histoire de
la langue franchise depuis le seizieme siecle of Godefroy supplies copious
and well-chosen extracts with much biographical information. In
English there is an extensive History by H. van Laun (3 vols., 1874,
&c.); a Short History by Saintsbury (1882; 6th ed. continued to
the end of the century, 1901); and a History by Professor Dowden
(1895)- N
To pass to special periods the fountain-head of the literature
of the middle ages is the ponderous Histoire litteraire already re-
ferred to, which, notwithstanding that it extended to 27 quarto
volumes in 1906, and had occupied, with interruptions, 150 years in
publication, had only reached the I4th century. Many of the
monographs which it contains are the best authorities on their
subjects, such as that of P. Paris on the early chansonniers, of V.
Leclerc on the fabliaux, and of Littre on the romans d'aventures.
For the history of literature before the nth century, the period
mainly Latin, J. J. Ampere's Histoire litteraire de la France avant
Charlemagne, sous Charlemagne, etjusqu'au onzieme siecle is the chief
authority. Leon Gautier's Epopees franfaises (5 vols., 1878-1897)
contains almost everything known concerning the chansons de geste.
P. Paris's Romans de la table ronde was long the main authority for
this subject, but very much has been written recently in France
and elsewhere. The most important of the French contributions,
especially those by Gaston Paris (whose Histoire poetique de Charle-
magne has been reprinted since his death), wil! be found in the
periodical Romania, which for more than thirty years has been the
chief receptacle of studies on old French literature. On the cycle
of Reynard the standard work is Rothe, Les Remans de Renart.
All parts of the lighter literature of old France are excellently
treated by Lenient, Le Satire au moyen Age. The early theatre has
been frequently treated by the brothers Parfaict (Histoire du theatre
franfais), by Fabre (Les Clercs de la Bazoche), by Leroy (ILtude sur
les mysteres), by Aubertin (Histoire de la langue et de la literature
franfaise au moyen &ge). This latter book will be found a useful
summary of the whole medieval period. The historical, dramatic
and oratorical sections are especially full. On a smaller scale but
of unsurpassed authority is G. Paris's Litterature du moyen age
translated into English.
On the i6th century an excellent handbook is that by Darmesteter
and Hatzfeld ; and the recent Literature of the French Renaissance
of A. Tilley (2 vols., 1904) is of high value. Sainte-Beuve's Tableau
has been more than once referred to. Ebert (Entwicklungsgeschichte
der franzosischen Tragodie vornehmlich im i6' en Jahrhundert) is
the chief authority for dramatic matters. Essays and volumes on
periods and sub-periods since 1600 are innumerable; but those who
desire thorough acquaintance with the literature of these three
hundred years should read as widely as possible in all the critical
work of Sainte-Beuve, of Scherer, of Faguet and Brunetiere which
may be supplemented ad libitum from that of other critics mentioned
above. The series of volumes entitled Les grands ecrivains franfais,
now pretty extensive, is generally very good, and Catulle Mendes's
invaluable book on 19th-century poetry has been cited above. As
a companion to the study of poetry E. Crepet's Poetes franfais
(4 vols., 1861), an anthology with introductions by Sainte-Beuve
and all the best critics of the day, cannot be surpassed, but to it
may be added the later Anthologie des poetes franfais du XIX*
siecle (1877-1879). (G. SA.)
FRENCH POLISH, a liquid for polishing wood, made by
dissolving shellac in methylated spirit. There are four different
tints, brown, white, garnet and red, but the first named is that
most extensively used. All the tints are made in the same
manner, with the exception of the red, which is a mixture of the
brown polish and methylated spirit with either Saunders wood
or Bismarck brown, according to the strength of colour required.
Some woods, and especially mahogany, need to be stained before
they are polished. To stain mahogany mix some bichromate
of potash in hot water according to the depth of colour required.
After staining the wood the most approved method of filling the
grain is to rub in fine plaster of Paris (wet), wiping off before it
' sets." After this is dry it should be oiled with linseed oil and
thoroughly wiped off. The wood is then ready for the polish,
which is put on with a rubber made of wadding covered with
linen rag and well wetted with polish. The polishing process has
to be repeated gradually, and after the work has hardened,
the surface is smoothed down with fine glass-paper, a few drops
of linseed oil being added until the surface is sufficiently smooth.
After a day or two the surface can be cleared by using a fresh
rubber with a double layer of linen, removing the top layer when
it is getting hard and finishing off with the bottom layer.
FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE. Among the many revolutions
which from time to time have given a new direction to the
political development of nations the French Revolution stands
out as at once the most dramatic in its incidents and the most
momentous in its results. This exceptional character is, indeed,
implied in the name by which it is known; for France has ex-
perienced many revolutions both before and since that of 1789,
but the name " French Revolution," or simply " the Revolution,"
without qualification, is applied to this one alone. The causes
which led to it: the gradual decay of the institutions which
France had inherited from the feudal system, the decline of the
centralized monarchy, and the immediate financial necessities
that compelled the assembling of the long neglected states-
general in 1789, are dealt with in the article on FRANCE: History.
The successive constitutions, and the other legal changes which
resulted from it, are also discussed in their general relation to
the growth of the modern French polity in the article FRANCE
(Law and Institutions). The present article deals with the
progress of the Revolution itself from the convocation of the
states-general to the coup d'etat of the i8th Brumaire which
placed Napoleon Bonaparte in power.
The elections to the states-general of 1789 were held in un-
favourable circumstances. The failure of the harvest of 1788
and a severe winter had caused widespread distress, opening
The government was weak and despised, and its agents of the
were afraid or unwilling to quell outbreaks of disorder. States-
At the same time the longing for radical reform and Oenem '-
the belief that it would be easy were almost universal. The
cahiers or written instructions given to the deputies covered
well-nigh every subject of political, social or economic interest,
and demanded an amazing number of changes. Amid this com-
motion the king and his ministers remained passive. They did
not even determine the question whether the estates should act
as separate bodies or deliberate collectively. On the 5th of May
the states-general were opened by Louis in the Salle des Menus
Plaisirs at Versailles. Barentin, the keeper of the seals, informed
them that they were free to determine whether they would vote
by orders or vote by head. Necker, as director-general of the
finances, set forth the condition of the treasury and proposed
some small reforms. The Tiers Etat (Third Estate) was dis-
satisfied that the question of joint or separate deliberation should
have been left open. It was aware that some of the nobles
and many of the inferior clergy agreed with it as to the need
for comprehensive reform. Joint deliberation would ensure a
majority to the reformers and therefore the abolition of privileges
and the extinction of feudal rights of property. Separate de-
liberation would enable the majority among the nobles and the
superior clergy to limit reform. Hence it became the first object
of the Tiers Etat to effect the amalgamation of the three estates.
The conflict between those who desired and those who resisted
amalgamation took the form of a conflict over the verification
of the powers of the deputies. The Tiers Etat insisted conflict
that the deputies of all three estates should have their between
powers verified in common as the first step towards '* Three
making them all members of one House. It resolved B * tmte -
to hold its meetings in the Salle des Menus Plaisirs, whereas the
nobles and the clergy met in smaller apartments set aside for their
exclusive use. It refrained from taking any step which might
have implied that it was an organized assembly, and persevered
in regarding itself as a mere crowd of individual members
incapable of transacting business. Meanwhile the clergy and
FRENCH REVOLUTION
155
the nobles began a separate verification of their powers. But
a few of the.nobles and a great many of the clergy voted against
this procedure. On the 7th the Tiers Etat sent deputations to
exhort the other estates to union, while the clergy sent a deputa-
tion to it with the proposal that each estate should name com-
missioners to discuss the best method of verifying powers.
The Tiers Etat accepted the proposal and conferences were held,
but without result. It then made another appeal to the clergy
which was almost successful. The king interposed with a com-
mand for the renewal of the conferences. They were resumed
under the presidency of Barentin, but again to no purpose.
On the loth of June Sieyes moved that the Tiers Etat should
for the last time invite the First and Second Estates to join in the
verification of powers and announce that, whether they did or
not, the work of verifying would begin forthwith. The motion
was carried by an immense majority. As there was no response,
the Tiers Etat on the I2th named Bailly provisional president
and commenced verification. Next day three cures of Poitou
came to have their powers verified. Other clergymen followed
later. When the work of verification was over, a title had to be
found for the body thus created, which would no longer accept
the style of the Tiers Etat. On the isth Sieyes proposed that
they should entitle themselves the Assembly of the known and
verified representatives of the French nation. Mirabeau, Mounier
and others proposed various appellations. But success was
reserved for Legrand, an obscure deputy who proposed the
simple name of National Assembly. Withdrawing his own
motion, Sieyes adopted Legrand's suggestion, which was carried
by 401 votes to go. The Assembly went on to declare that it
placed the debts of the crown under the safeguard of the national
honour and that all existing taxes, although illegal as having
been imposed without the consent of the people, should
continue to be paid until the day of dissolution.
By these proceedings the Tiers Etat and a few of the clergy
declared themselves the national legislature. Then and there-
after the National Assembly assumed full sovereign
and constituent powers. Nobles and clergy might
come in if they pleased, but it could do without them.
The king's assent to its measures would be convenient,
but not necessary. This boldness was rewarded, for on the igth
the clergy decided by a majority of one in favour of joint verifica-
tion. On the same day the nobles voted an address to the king
condemning the action of the Tiers Etat. Left to himself, Louis
might have been too inert for resistance. But the queen and
his brother, the count of Artois, with some of the ministers and
courtiers, urged him to make a stand. A Seance Royale was
notified for the 22nd and workmen were sent to prepare the Salic
des Menus Plaisirs for the ceremony. On the 2oth Bailly and the
deputies proceeded to the hall and found it barred against their
entrance. Thereupon they adjourned to a neighbouring tennis
court, where Mounier proposed that they should swear
? > Ttami* not to ^P* 1 ^ 16 unt *J tne y na< * established the constitu-
C imt lion. With a solitary exception they swore and the
Oath of the Tennis Court became an era in French
history. As the ministers could not agree on the policy which the
king should announce in the Seance Royale, it was postponed
to the 2.jrd. The Assembly found shelter in the church of St
Louis, where it was joined by the main body of the clergy and by
the first of the nobles.
At the Seance Royale Louis made known his will that the
Estates should deliberate apart, and declared that if they should
refuse to help him he would do by his sole authority what was
necessary for the happiness of his people. When he quitted the
hall, some of the clergy and most of the nobles retired to their
separate chambers. But the rest, together with the Tiers Etat,
remained, and Mirabeau declared that, as they had come by the
will of the nation, force only should make them withdraw.
" Gentlemen," said Sieyes, " you are to-day what you were
yesterday." With one voice the Assembly proclaimed its
adhesion to its former decrees and the inviolability of its members.
In Versailles and in Paris popular feeling was clamorous for the
Assembly and against the court. During the next few days
many of the clergy and nobles, including the archbishop of Paris
and the duke of Orleans, joined the Assembly. Louis tamely
accepted his defeat. He recalled Necker, who had resigned
after the Stance Royale. On the 2yth he wrote to those clerical
and noble deputies who still held out, urging submission. By
the 2nd of July the joint verification of powers was completed.
The last trace of the historic States-General disappeared and the
National Assembly was perfect. On the same day it claimed an
absolute discretion by a decree that the mandates of the electors
were not binding on its members.
Having failed in their first attempt on the Assembly, the Court
party resolved to try what force could do. A large number of
troops.chiefly foreign regiments in the service of France,
were concentrated near Paris under the command of the *Necii.*r.
marshal de Broglie. OnMirabeau's motion t In- Assembly
voted an address to the king asking for their withdrawal. The
king replied that the troops were not meant to act against the
Assembly, but intimated his purpose of transferring the session
to some provincial town. On the same day he dismissed Necker
and ordered him to quit Versailles. These acts led to the first
insurrection of Paris. The capital had long been in a dangerous
condition. Bread was dear and employment was scarce. The
measures taken to relieve distress had allured a multitude of needy
and desperate men from the surrounding country. Among the
middle class there already existed a party, consisting of men like
Danton or Camille Desmoulins, which was prepared to go much
further than any of the leaders of the Assembly. The rich citizens
were generally fund-holders, who regarded the Assembly as the
one bulwark against a public bankruptcy. The duke of Orleans,
a weak and dissolute but ambitious man, had conceived the hope
of supplanting his cousin on the throne. He strained his wealth
and influence to recruit followers and to make mischief. The
gardens of his residence, the Palais Royal, became the centre of
political agitation. Ever since the elections virtual freedom of
the press and freedom of speech had prevailed in Paris. Clubs
were multiplied and pamphlets came forth every hour. The
municipal officers who were named by the Crown had little
influence with the citizens. The police were a mere handful. Of
the two line regiments quartered in the capital, one was Swiss and
therefore trusty; but the other, the Gardes Franjaises, shared
all the feelings of the populace.
On the 1 2th of July Camille Desmoulins announced the dis-
missal of Necker to the crowd in the Palais Royal. Warmed by
his eloquence, they sallied into the street. Part of Rioting
Broglie's troops occupied the Champs Elyse'es and the to P*rt*-
Place Louis Quinze. After one or two petty encounters
with the mob they were withdrawn, either because their temper
was uncertain or because their commanders shunned responsi-
bility. Paris was thus left to the rioters, who seized arms
wherever they could find them, broke open the jails, burnt the
octroi barriers and soon had every man's life and goods at their
discretion. Citizens with anything to lose were driven to act
for themselves. For the purpose of choosing its representatives
in the states-general the Third Estate of Paris had named 300
electors. Their function once discharged, these men had no
public character, but they resolved that they would hold together
in order to watch over the interests of the city. After the Se'ance
Royale the municipal authority, conscious of its own weakness,
allowed them to meet at the Hotel de Ville, where they proceeded
to consider the formation of a civic guard. On the I3th, when
all was anarchy in Paris, they were joined by Flesselles, Provost
of the Merchants, and other municipal officers. The project of a
civic guard was then adopted. The insurrection, however, ran
its course unchecked. Crowds of deserters from the regular
troops swelled the ranks of the insurgents. They attacked the
H6tel des Invalides and carried off all the arms Ptnof( i, t
which were stored there. With the same object they Battiltt.
assailed the Bastille. The garrison was small and /"'.'*.
disheartened, provisions were short, and after some l789 '
hours' fighting De Launay the governor surrendered on
promise of quarter. He and several of his men were, notwith-
standing, butchered by the mob before they could be brought to
i 5 6
FRENCH REVOLUTION
National
Guard.
the H6tel de Ville. As all Paris was in the hands of the insurgents,
the king saw the necessity of submission. On the morning of the
1 5th he entered the hall of the Assembly to announce that the
troops would be withdrawn. Immediately afterwards he dis-
missed his new ministers and recalled Necker. Thereupon the
princes and courtiers most hostile to the National Assembly,
the count of Artois, the prince of Conde, the duke of Bourbon
and many others, feeling themselves no longer safe, quitted
France. Their departure is known as the first emigration.
The capture of the Bastille was hailed throughout Europe as
symbolizing the fall of absolute monarchy, and the victory of the
insurgents had momentous consequences. Recognizing
'muni- the 3 electors as a temporary municipal government,
dpaUty of the Assembly sent a deputation to confer with them at
Paris and th e H6tel de Ville, and on a sudden impulse one of these
deputies, Bailly, lately president of the Assembly, was
chosen to be mayor of Paris. The marquis Lafayette,
doubly popular as a veteran of the American War and as one of
the nobles who heartily upheld the cause of the Assembly, was
chosen commandant of the new civic force, thenceforwards
known as the National Guard. On the 1 7th Louis himself visited
Paris and gave his sanction to the new authorities. In the course
of the following weeks the example of Paris was copied throughout
France. All the cities and towns set up new elective authorities
and organized a National Guard. At the same time the revolution
spread to the country districts. In most of the pro-
vi* 1065 tne peasants rose and stormed and burnt the
provinces, houses of the seigneurs, taking peculiar care to destroy
their title-deeds. Some of the seigneurs were murdered
and the rest were driven into the towns or across the frontier.
Amid the universal confusion the old administrative system
vanished. The intendants and sub-delegates quitted or were
driven from their posts. The old courts of justice, whether
royal or feudal, ceased to act. In many districts there was no
more police, public works were suspended and the collection of
taxes became almost impossible. The insurrection of July really
ended the ancien regime.
Disorder in the provinces led directly to the proceedings on
the famous night of the 4th of August. While the Assembly was
considering a declaration which might calm revolt, the
August. Ol vicomte de Noailles and the due d'Aiguillon moved
that it should proclaim equality of. taxation and the
suppression of feudal burdens. Other deputies rose to demand
the repeal of the game laws, the enfranchisement of such serfs
as were still te be found in France, and the abolition of tithes and
of feudal courts and to renounce all privileges, whether of classes,
of cities, or of provinces. Amid indescribable enthusiasm the
Assembly passed resolution after resolution embodying these
changes. The resolutions were followed by decrees sometimes
hastily and unskilfully drawn. In vain Sieyes remarked that in
extinguishing tithes the Assembly was making a present to every
landed proprietor. In vain the king, while approving most of
the decrees, tendered some cautious criticisms of the rest. The
majority did not, indeed, design to confiscate property wholesale.
They drew a distinction between feudal claims which did and
did not carry a moral claim to compensation. But they were
embarrassed by the wording of their own decrees and forestalled
by the violence of the people. The proceedings of the 4th of
August issued in a wholesale transfer of property from one class
to another without any indemnity for the losers.
The work of drafting a constitution for France had already
been begun. Parties in the Assembly were numerous and ill-
defined. The Extreme Right, who desired to keep
?*?** the government as it stood, were a mere handful.
Assembly. The Right who wanted to revive, as they said, the
ancient constitution, in other words, to limit the king's
power by periodic States-General of the old-fashioned sort, were
more numerous and had able chiefs in Cazales and Maury, bufr
strove in vain against the spirit of the time. The Right Centre,
sometimes called the Monarchiens,were a large body and included
several men of talent, notably Mounier and Malouet, as well as
many men of rank and wealth. They desired a constitution like
that of England which should reserve a large executive power
to the king, while entrusting the taxing and legislative powers to a
modern parliament. The Left or Constitutionals, known after-
wards as the Feuillants, among whom Barnave and Charles and
Alexander Lameth were conspicuous, also wished to preserve
monarchy but disdained English precedent. They were possessed
with feelings then widespread, weariness of arbitrary govern-
ment, hatred of ministers and courtiers, and distrust not so much
of Louis as of those who surrounded him and influenced his
judgment. Republicans without knowing it, they grudged every
remnant of power to the Crown. The Extreme Left, still more
republican in spirit, of whom Robespierre was the most note-
worthy, were few and had little power. Mirabeau's independence
of judgment forbids us to place him in any party.
The first Constitutional Committee, elected on the i4th of July,
had Mounier for its reporter. It was instructed to begin with
drafting a Declaration of the Rights of Man. Six o^/g^.
weeks were spent by the Assembly in discussing this tioaoftht
document. The Committee then presented a report Bigots of
which embodied the principle of two Chambers. This Maa '
principle contradicted the extreme democratic theories so much
in fashion. It also offended the self-love of most of the nobles
and the clergy who were loath that a few of their number should
be erected into a House of Lords. The Assembly rejected the
principle of two Chambers by nearly 10 to i. The question
whether the king should have a veto on legislation was next
raised. Mounier contended that he should have an
absolute veto, and was supported by Mirabeau, who
had already described the unlimited power of a single
Chamber as worse than the tyranny of Constantinople. The Left
maintained that the king, as depositary of the executive, should
be wholly excluded from the legislative power. Lafayette, who
imagined himself to be copying the American constitution,
proposed that the king should have a suspensive veto. Thinking
that it would be politic to claim no more, Necker persuaded
the king to intimate that he was satisfied with Lafayette's
proposal. The suspensive veto was therefore adopted. As the
king had no power of dissolution, it was an idle form. Mounier
and his friends having resigned their places in the Constitutional
Committee, it came to an end and the Assembly elected a new
Committee which represented the opinions of the Left.
Soon afterwards a fresh revolt in Paris caused the king and the
Assembly to migrate thither. The old causes of disorder were
still working in that city. The scarcity of bread was set down
to conspirators against the Revolution. Riots were frequent
and persons supposed hostile to the Assembly and the nation
were murdered with impunity. The king still had counsellors
who wished for his departure as a means to regaining freedom
of action. At the end of September the Flanders regiment came
to Versailles to reinforce the Gardes du Corps. The officers of
the Gardes du Corps entertained the officers of the Flanders
regiment and of the Versailles National Guard at dinner in the
palace. The king, queen and dauphin visited the company.
There followed a vehement outbreak of loyalty. Rumour
enlarged the incident into a military plot against freedom.
Those who wanted a more thorough revolution wrought up the
crowd and even respectable citizens wished to have the Removal
king among them and amenable to their opinion. On /< v
the sth of October a mob which had gathered to royal
assault the H6tel de Ville was diverted into a march on family and
Versailles. Lafayette was slow to follow it and, when psri*.
he arrived, took insufficient precautions. At daybreak
on the 6th some of the rioters made their way into the palace
and stormed the apartment of the queen who escaped with
difficulty. At length the National Guards arrived and the mob
was quieted by the announcement that the king had resolved
to go to Paris. The Assembly declared itself inseparable from
the king's person. Louis and his family reached Paris on the
same evening and took up their abode in the Tuileries. A
little later the Assembly established itself in the riding school
of the palace. Thenceforward the king and queen were to all
intents prisoners. The Assembly itself was subject to constant
FRENCH REVOLUTION
157
intimidation. Many members of the Right gave up the struggle
and rniisr.it o.l, or at least withdrew, from attendance, so that the
Left became supreme.
Mirabeau had already taken alarm at the growing violence of
the Revolution. In September he had foretold that it would
not stop short of the death of both king and queen.
lne insurrection of October he sought to com-
municate with them through his friend the comte de
la Marck. In a remarkable correspondence he sketched
a policy for the king. The abolition of privilege and the estab-
lishment of a parliamentary system were, he wrote, unalterable
facts whkh it would be madness to dispute. But a strong
executive authority was essential, and a king who frankly adopted
the Revolution might still be powerful. In order to rally the
sound pan of the nation Louis should leave Paris, and, if neces-
sary, he should prepare for a civil war; but he should never
appeal to foreign powers. Neither the king nor the queen could
grasp the wisdom of this advice. They distrusted Mirabeau as
an unscrupulous adventurer, and were confirmed in this feeling
by his demands for money. His correspondence with the court,
although secret, was suspected. The politicians who envied
his talents and believed him a rascal raised the cry of treason.
In the Assembly Mirabeau, though sometimes successful on
particular questions, never had a chance of giving effect to his
policy as a whole. Whether even he could have controlled the
Revolution is highly doubtful; but his letters and minutes drawn
up for the king form the most striking monument of his genius
(ace MIRABEAU and MOSTMORIN DE SAINT- HREM).
Early in the year 1700 a dispute with England concerning
the frontier in North America induced the Spanish government
n> to claim the help of France under the Family Compact.
iiiialQ This demand led the Assembly to consider in what
mm4 < hands the power of concluding alliances and of making
n '*' tr peace and war should be placed. Mirabeau tried to
keep the initiative for the king, subject to confirmation
by the Chamber. On Bamave's motion the Assembly decreed that
the legislature should have the power of war and peace and the
king a merely advisory power. Mirabeau was defeated on another
point of the highest consequence, the inclusion of ministers
in the National Assembly. His colleagues generally adhered to
the principle that the legislative and executive powers should be
totally separate. The Left assumed that, if deputies could hold
office, the king would have the means of corrupting the ablest
and most influential. It was decreed that no deputy should
be minister while sitting in the House or for two years after.
Ministers excluded from the House being necessarily objects
of suspicion, the Assembly was careful to allow them the least
possible power. The old provinces were abolished, and France
was divided anew into eighty departments. Each department
was subdivided into districts, cantons and communes.
The main business of administration, even the levying
of taxes, was entrusted to the elective local authorities.
The judicature was likewise made elective. The army
and the navy were so organized as to leave the king but a small
share in appointing officers and to leave the officers but scanty
means of maintaining discipline. Even the cases in which the
sovereign might be deposed were foreseen and expressly stated.
Monarchy was retained, but the monarch was regarded as a pos-
sible traitor and every precaution was taken to render him harm-
ICM even at the cost of having no effective national government.
The distrust which the Assembly felt for the actual ministers
led it to undertake the business of government as well as the
*atf* business of reform. There were committees for all
MM*- the chief departments of state, a committee for the
*'5J^ nny, a committee for the navy, another for diplomacy,
another for finance. These committees sometimes
asked the ministers for information, but rarely took their advice.
Even Necker found the Assembly heedless of his counsels. The
condition of the treasury became worse day by day. The yield
of the indirect taxes fell off through the interruption of business,
and the direct taxes were in large measure withheld, for want of
an authority to enforce payment. With some trouble Necker
induced the Assembly to sanction first a loan of 30,000,000
livrcs and then a loan of 80,000,000 livres. The public having
shown no eagerness to subscribe, Necker proposed that every
im\n should be invited to make a patriotic contribution of one-
'fourth of his income. This expedient also failed. On the loth
of October 1789 Talleyrand, bishop of Autun, proposed coalite*-
that the Assembly should take possession of the lands tk>a oi
of the church. In November the Assembly enacted c * u/v ' 1
that they should be at the disposal of the nation, which pnp * *'
would provide for the maintenance of the clergy. Since the
church lands were supposed to occupy one-fifth of France, the
Assembly thought that it had found an inexhaustible source
of public wealth. On the security of the church lands it based
a paper currency (the famous assignats) . In December it ordered
an issue to the amount of 400,000,000 livres. As the revenue
still declined and the reforms enacted by the Assembly involved
a heavy outlay, it recurred again and again to this expedient.
Before its dissolution the Assembly had authorized
the creation of 1,800,000,000 livres of assignats and tgtigattt
the depreciation of its paper had begun. Finding that
he had lost all credit with the Assembly, Necker resigned office
and left France in September 1 700.
Even the committees of the Assembly had far less power
than the new municipal authorities throughout France. They
really governed so far as there was any government. '
Often full of public spirit, they lacked experience and ttumuni-
in a time of peculiar difficulty had no guide save their dp*uut*
own discretion. They opened letters, arrested suspects, * ad
controlled the trade in corn, and sent their National 22.
Guards on such errands as they thought proper.
The political clubs which sprang up all over the country often
presumed to act as though they were public authorities (see
JACOBINS). The revolutionary journalists, Desmoulins in his
Revolutions de France et de Brabant, Louslallot in his Revolu-
tions de Paris, Marat in his Ami du peuple, continued to feed the
fire of discord. Amid this anarchy it became a practice for the
National Guards of different districts to form federations, that
is, to meet and swear loyalty to each other and obedience to the
laws made by the National Assembly. At the suggestion of the
municipality of Paris the Assembly decreed a general federation
of all France, to be held on the anniversary of the fall of the
Bastille. The ceremony took place in the Champ de Mars (July
14, 1790) in presence of the king, the queen, the Assembly,
and an enormous concourse of spectators. It was attended by
deputations from the National Guards in every part of the
kingdom, from the regular regiments, and from the crews of the
fleet. Talleyrand celebrated Mass, and Lafayette was the first
to swear fidelity to the Assembly and the nation. In this gather-
ing the provincial deputations caught the revolutionary fever
of Paris. Still graver was the effect upon the regular army.
It had been disaffected since the outbreak of the Revolution.
The rank and file complained of their food, their lodging and
their pay. The non-commissioned officers, often intelligent
and hard-working, were embittered by the refusal >/.,.
of promotion. The officers, almost all nobles, rarely affection
showed much concern for their men, and were often
mere courtiers and triflers. After he festival of the
federation the soldiers were drawn into the political clubs, and
named regimental committees to dafend their interests. Not
content with asking for redress .of grievances, they sometimes
seized the regimental chest .or imprisoned their officers. In
August a formidable outbreak at Nancy was only quelled with
much loss of life. Desertion became more frequent than ever, and
the officers, finding their position unbearable, began to emigrate.
Similar causes produced an even worse effect upon the navy.
By its rough handling of the church the Assembly brought
fresh trouble upon France. The suppression of tithe and the
confiscation of church lands had reduced the clergy to CMI con-
live on whatever stipend the legislature might think fit ftUutioa
to give them. A law of February 1 790 suppressed the ^ lhc
religious orders not engaged in education or in works of
charity, and forbade the introduction of new ones. Monastic vows
i 5 8
FRENCH REVOLUTION
foreign
power*.
were deprived of legal force and a pension was granted to the
religious who were cast upon the world. These measures aroused
no serious discontent; but the so-called civil constitution of
the clergy went much further. Old ecclesiastical divisions were
set aside. Henceforth the diocese was to be conterminous with
the department, and the parish with the commune. The electors
of the commune were to choose the cure, the electors of the depart-
ment the bishop. Every cure was to receive at least 1 200 h'vres
(about 50) a year. Relatively modest stipends were assigned
to bishops and archbishops. French citizens were forbidden to
--acknowledge any ecclesiastical jurisdiction outside the kingdom.
The Assembly not only adopted this constitution but decreed
that all beneficed ecclesiastics should swear to its observance.
As the constitution implicitly abrogated the papal authority and
entrusted the choice of bishops and cures to electors who often
were not Catholics, most of the clergy declined to swear and lost
their preferments. Their places were filled by election. Thence-
forwards the clergy were divided into hostile factions, the Consti-
tutionals and the Nonjurors. As the generality of Frenchmen
at that time were orthodox although not zealous Catholics,
the Nonjurors carried with them a large part of the laity. The
Assembly was misled by its Jansenist, Protestant and Free-
thinking members, natural enemies of an established church
which had persecuted them to the best of its power.
In colonial affairs the Assembly acted with the same im-
prudence. Eager to set an example of suppressing slavery, it
took measures which prepared a terrible negro insurrec-
sembiy'tbe t ' on ' n St Domingo. With regard to foreign relations
colonies, the Assembly showed itself well-meaning but indiscreet.
aad It protested in good faith that it desired no conquests
and aimed only at peace. Yet it laid down maxims
which involved the utmost danger of war. It held
that no treaty could be binding without the national consent.
As this consent had not been given to any existing treaty, they
were all liable to be revised by the French government without
consulting the other parties. Thus the Assembly treated the
Family Compact as null and void. Similarly, when it abolished
feudal tenures in France, it ignored the fact that the rights of
certain German princes over lands in Alsace were guaranteed by
the treaties of Westphalia. It offered them compensation in
money, and when this was declined, took no heed of their pro-
tests. Again, in the papal territory of Avignon a large number of
the inhabitants declared for union with France. The Assembly
could hardly be restrained by Mirabeau from acting upon their
vote and annexing Avignon. Some time after his death it was
annexed. The other states of Europe did not admit the doctrines
of the Assembly, but peace was not broken. Foreign statesmen
who flattered themselves that France was sinking into anarchy
and therefore into decay were content to follow their respective
ambitions without the dread of French interference.
Deprived of authority and in fact a prisoner, Louis had for
many months acquiesced in the decrees of the Assembly however
Attempt of distasteful. But the civil constitution of the clergy
Louis xvi. wounded him in his conscience as well as in his pride.
to escape From the autumn of 1790 onwards he began to scheme
frt f for his liberation. Himself incapable of strenuous
effort, he was spurred on by Marie Antoinette, who
keenly felt her own degradation and the curtailment of that
royal prerogative which her son would one day inherit. The king
and queen failed to measure the forces which had caused the
Revolution. They ascribed all their misfortunes to the work of
a malignant faction, and believed that, if they could escape from
Paris, a display of force by friendly powers would enable them
to restore the supremacy of the crown. But no foreign ruler,
not even the emperor Leopold II., gave the king or queen any
encouragement. Whatever secrecy they might observe, the
adherents of the Revolution divined their wish to escape. When
Louis tried to leave the Tuileries for St Cloud at Easter. 1791,
in order to enjoy the ministrations of a nonjuring priest, the
National Guards of Paris would not let him budge. Mirabeau,
who had always dissuaded the king from seeking foreign help,
died on the and of April. Finally the king and queen resolved to
fly to the army of the East, which the marquis de Bouille had in
some measure kept under discipline. Sheltered by him they could
await foreign succour or a reaction at home. On the evening
of the 20th of June they escaped from the Tuileries. Louis left
behind him a declaration complaining of the treatment which he
had received and revoking his assent to all measures which had
been laid before him while under restraint. On the following
day the royal party was captured at Varennes and sent back to
Paris. The king's eldest brother, the count of Provence, who had
laid his plans much better, made his escape to Brussels and joined
the Emigres.
It was no longer possible to pretend that the Revolution had
been made with the free consent of the king. Some Republicans
called for his deposition. Afraid to take a course which involved
danger both at home and abroad, the Assembly decreed that
Louis should be suspended from his office. The club of the
Cordeliers (q.v.) , led by Danton, demanded not only his deposition
but his trial. A petition to that effect having been exposed for
signature on the altar in the Champ de Mars, a disturbance ensued
and the National Guard fired on the crowd, killing a few and
wounding many. This incident afterwards became known as
the massacre of the Champ de Mars. On the other hand, the
leaders of the Left, Barnave and the Lameths, felt that they had
weakened the executive power too much. They would gladly
have come to an understanding with the king and revised the
constitution so as to strengthen his prerogative. They failed in
both objects. Louis and still more Marie Antoinette regarded
them with incurable distrust. The Constitutional Act with-
out any material change was voted on the $rd of September.
On the I4th Louis swore to the Constitution, thus regaining his
nominal sovereignty. The National Assembly was dissolved
on the 30th. Upon Robespierre's motion it had decreed that
none of its members should be capable of sitting in the next
legislature.
If we view the work of the National Assembly as a whole, we
are struck by the immense demolition which it effected. No
other legislature has ever destroyed so much in the Kevlew of
same time. The old form of government, the old the work
territorial divisions, the old fiscal system, the old of the
judicature, the old army and navy, the old relations Natlonal
of Church and State, the old law relating to property *
in land, all were shattered. Such a destruction could not have
been effected without the support of popular opinion. Most of
what the Assembly did had been suggested in the cahiers, and
many of its decrees were anticipated by actual revolt. In its
constructive work many sound maxims were embodied. It
asserted the principles of civil equality and freedom of conscience,
it reformed the criminal law, and laid down a just scheme of
taxation. Not intelligence and public spirit but political wisdom
was lacking to the National Assembly. Its members did not
suspect how limited is the usefulness of general propositions in
practical life. Nor did they perceive that new ideas can be
applied only by degrees in an old world. The Constitution of
1791 was impracticable and did not last a year. The civil con-
stitution of the clergy was wholly mischievous. In the attempt
to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an
empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, a people
debauched by safe and successful riot.
At the elections of 1791 the party which desired to carry the
Revolution further had a success out of all keeping with its
numbers. This was due partly to a weariness of politics
which had come over the majority of French citizens, ^ J/aWve
partly to downright intimidation exercised by the Assembly.
Jacobin Club and by its affiliated societies throughout
the kingdom. The Legislative Assembly met on the ist of
October. It consisted of 745 members. Few were nobles, very few
were clergymen, and the great body was drawn from the middle
class. The members were generally young, and, since none had
sat in the previous Assembly, they were wholly without ex-
perience. The Right consisted of the Feuillants (q.v.). They
numbered about 160, and among them were some able men, such
as Matthieu Dumas and Bigot de Pr6amenau, but they were
FRENCH REVOLUTION
'59
guided chiefly by persons outside the House, because incapable
of re-election, Barnavc, Duport and the Lameths. The Left con-
sisted of the Jacobins, a term which still included the party
afterwards known as the Girondins or Girondists (g.v.) so
termed because several of their leaders came from the region of
the Gironde in southern France. They numbered about 330.
Among the extreme Left sat Cambon, Couthon, Merlin de
Thionville. The Girondins could claim the most brilliant orators,
Vergniaud, Guadet, Isnard. Inferior to these men in talent,
Brissot de Warville, a restless pamphleteer, exerted more influence
over the party which has sometimes gone by his name. The Left
as a whole was republican, although it did not care to say so.
Strong in numbers, it was reinforced by the disorderly elements
in Paris and throughout France. The remainder of the House,
about 150 deputies, scarcely belonged to any definite party,
but voted oftenest with the Left, as the Left was the most
powerful.
The Left had three objects of enmity: first, the king, the queen
and the royal family; secondly, the tmigrts; and thirdly, the
^ clergy. The king could not like the new constitution,
JjJJJJJ** although, if left to himself, indolence and good nature
fm ^rt*. might have rendered him passive. The queen through-
out had only one thought, to shake off the impotence
and humiliation of the crown; and for this end she still clung
to the hope of foreign succour and corresponded with Vienna.
Those tmigrts who had assembled in arms on the territories of
the electors of Mainz and Treves (Trier) and in the Austrian
Netherlands had put themselves in the position of public enemies.
Their chiefs were the king's brothers, who affected to consider
Louis as a captive and his acts as therefore invalid. The count
of Provence gave himself the airs of a regent and surrounded
himself with a ministry. The tmigrts were not, however,
dangerous. They were only a few thousand strong; they had no
competent leader and no money; they were unwelcome to the
rulers whose hospitality they abused. The nonjuring clergy,
although harassed by the local authorities, kept the respect and
confidence of most Catholics. No acts of disloyalty were proved
against them, and commissioners of the National Assembly
reported to its successor that their flocks only desired to be let
alone. But the anti-clerical bias of the Legislative Assembly
was too strong for such a policy.
The king's ministers, named by him and excluded from the
Assembly, were mostly persons of little mark. Mont morin gave
up the portfolio of foreign affairs on the 3ist of October and was
succeeded by De Lessart. Cahier de Gerville was minister of
the interior; Tarbl, minister of finance; and Bertrand de Molle-
ville, minister of marine. But the only minister who influenced
the course of affairs was the comte de Narbonne, minister of
war.
On the otb of November the Assembly decreed that the tmigrts
assembled on the frontiers should be liable to the penalties of
death and confiscation unless they returned to France
by the ist of January following. Louis did not love
his brothers, and he detested their policy, which
without rendering him any service made his liberty
and even his life precarious; yet, loath to condemn them to death,
he vetoed the decree. On the apth of November the Assembly
decreed that every nonjuring clergyman must take within eight
days the civic oath, substantially the same as the oath previously
administered, on pain of losing his pension and, if any troubles
broke out, of being deponed. This decree Louis vetoed as a
matter of conscience. In either case his resistance only served
to give a weapon to his enemies in the Assembly. But foreign
affairs were at this time the most critical. The armed bodies of
tmigrts on the territory of the Empire afforded matter of com-
plaint to France. The persistence of the French in refusing more
than a money compensation to the German princes who had
claims in Alsace afforded matter of complaint to the Empire.
Foreign statesmen noticed with alarm the effect of the French
Revolution upon opinion in their own countries, and they
resented the endeavours of French revolutionists to make
convert* there. Of these statesmen, the emperor Leopold was
the most intelligent. He had skilfully extricated himself from
the embarrassments at home and abroad left by his predecessor
Joseph. He was bound by family ties to Louis, and he was
obliged, as chief of the Holy Roman Empire, to protect the border
princes. On the other hand, he understood the weakness of the
Habsburg monarchy. He knew that the Austrian Netherlands,
where he had with difficulty restored his authority, were full of
friends of the Revolution and that a French army would be wel-
comed by many Belgians. He despised the weakness and the
folly of the tmigrts and excluded them from his councils. He
earnestly desired to avoid a war which might endanger his sister
or her husband. In August 1791 he had met Frederick William
II. of Prussia at Pillnitz near Dresden, and the two
monarchs had joined in a declaration that they con-
sidered the restoration of order and of monarchy in
France an object of interest to all sovereigns. They
further declared that they would be ready to act for this purpose
in concert with the other powers. This declaration appears to
have been drawn from Leopold by pressure of circumstances.
He well knew that concerted action of the powers was impossible,
as the English government had firmly resolved not to meddle with
French affairs. After Louis had accepted the constitution,
Leopold virtually withdrew his declaration. Nevertheless it
was a grave error of judgment and contributed to the approach-
ing war.
In France many persons desired war for various reasons.
Narbonne trusted to find in it the means of restoring a certain
authority to the crown and limiting the Revolution. He con-
templated a war with Austria only. The Girondins desired war
in the hope that it would enable them to abolish monarchy
altogether. They desired a general war because they believed
that it would carry the Revolution into other countries and make
it secure in France by making it universal. The extreme Left
had the same objects, but it held that a war for those objects could
not safely be entrusted to the king and his ministers. Victory
would revive the power of the crown; defeat would be the un-
doing of the Revolution. Hence Robespierre and those who
thought with him desired peace. The French nation generally
had never approved of the Austrian alliance, and regarded the
Habsburgs as traditional enemies. The king and queen, however,
who looked for help from abroad and especially from Leopold,
dreaded a war with Austria and had no faith in the schemes of
Narbonne. Nor was France in a condition to wage a serious war.
The constitution was unworkable and the governing authorities
were mutually hostile. The finances remained in disorder, and
assignats of the face value of 900,000,000 livres were issued by
the Legislative Assembly in less than a year. The army had been
thinned by desertion and was enervated by long indiscipline.
The fortresses were in bad condition and short of supplies.
In October Leopold ordered the dispersion of the tmigrts who
had mustered in arms in the Austrian Netherlands. His example
was followed by the electors of Treves and Mainz. At the same
time they implored the emperor's protection, and the Austrian
chancellor Kaunitz informed Noailles the French ambassador
that this protection would be given if necessary. Narbonne
demanded a credit of 20,000,000 livres, which the Assembly
granted. He made a tour of inspection in the north of France
and reported untruly to the Assembly that all was in readiness
for war. On the I4th of January 1792 the diplomatic committee
reported to the Assembly that the emperor should be required to
give satisfactory assurances before the loth of February. The
Assembly put off the term to the ist of March. In February
Leopold concluded a defensive treaty with Frederick William.
But there was no mutual confidence between the sovereigns, who
were at that very time pursuing opposite policies with regard to
Poland. Leopold still hesitated and still hoped to avoid war. He
died on the ist of March, and the imperial dignity became vacant.
The hereditary dominions of Austria passed to his son Francis,
afterwards the emperor Francis II., a youth of small abilities and
no experience. The real conduct of affairs fell, therefore, to the
aged Kaunitz. In France Narbonne failed to carry the king or
his colleagues along with him. The king took courage to dismiss
i6o
FRENCH REVOLUTION
him on the gth of March, whereupon the assembly testified its
confidence in Narbonne. De Lessart having incurred its anger
by the lameness of his replies to Austrian dictation, the Assembly
voted his impeachment.
The king, seeing no other course open, formed a new ministry
which was chiefly Girondin. Roland became minister of the
War interior, Claviere of finance, De Grave of war, and
declared Lacoste of marine. Far abler and more resolute than
against anv o f these men was Dumouriez, the new minister
AuMtrla ' for foreign affairs. A soldier by profession, he had
been employed in the secret diplomacy of Louis XV. and had thus
gained a wide knowledge of international politics. He stood
aloof from parties and had no rigid principles, but held views
closely resembling those of Narbonne. He wished for a war with
Austria which should restore some influence to the crown and
make himself the arbiter of France. The king bent to necessity,
and on the 2oth of April came to the Assembly with the proposal
that war should be declared against Austria. It was carried by
acclamation. Dumouriez intended to begin with an invasion
of the Austrian Netherlands. As this would awaken English
jealousy, he sent Talleyrand to London with assurances that,
if victorious, the French would annex no territory.
It was designed that the French should invade the Netherlands
at three points simultaneously. Lafayette was to march against
Namur, Biron against Mons, and Dillon against Tournay. But
the first movement disclosed the miserable state of the army.
Smitten with panic, Dillon's force fled at sight of the enemy, and
Dillon, after receiving a wound from one of his own soldiers,
was murdered by the mob of Lille. Biron was easily routed
before Mons. On hearing of these disasters Lafayette found it
necessary to retreat. This shameful discomfiture quickened all
the suspicion and jealousy fermenting in France. De Grave had
to resign and was succeeded by Servan. The Austrian forces in
the Netherlands were, however, so weak that they could not take
the offensive. Austria demanded help from Prussia under the
recent alliance, and the claim was admitted. Prussia declared
war against France, and the duke of Brunswick was chosen to
command the allied forces, but various causes delayed action.
Austrian and Prussian interests clashed in Poland. The Austrian
government wished to preserve a harmless neighbour. The
Prussian government desired another partition and a large tract
of Polish territory. Only after long discussion was it agreed that
Prussia should be free to act in Poland, while Austria might find
compensation in provinces conquered from France.
A respite was thus given and something was done to improve
the army. Meantime the Assembly passed three decrees: one
for the deportation of nonjuring priests, another to suppress the
king's Constitutional Guard, and a third for the establishment
of a camp of jediris near Paris. Louis consented to sacrifice
his guard, but vetoed the other decrees. Roland having addressed
to him an arrogant letter of remonstrance, the king with the
support of Dumouriez dismissed Roland, Servan and Claviere.
Dumouriez then took the ministry of war, and the other places
were filled with such men as could be had. Dumouriez, who
cared only for the successful prosecution of the war, urged the
king to accept the decrees. As Louis was obstinate, he felt that
he could do no more, resigned office on the isth of June and
femeutc of wenl to join the army of the north. Lafayette, who
th 20th remained faithful to the constitution of 1791, ventured
of June on a letter of remonstrance to the Assembly. It paid
no attention, for Lafayette could no longer sway the
people. The Jacob! ns tried to frighten the king into accepting the
decrees and recalling his ministers. On the 2oth of June the
armed populace invaded the hall of the Assembly and the royal
apartments in the Tuileries. For some hours the king and queen
were in the utmost peril. With passive courage Louis refrained
from making any promise to the insurgents.
The failure of the insurrection encouraged a movement in
favour of the king. Some twenty thousand Parisians signed a
petition expressing sympathy with Louis. Addresses of like
tenour poured in from the departments and the provincial cities.
Lafayette himself came to Paris in the hope of rallying the
constitutional party, but the king and queen eluded his offers of
assistance. They had always disliked and distrusted Lafayette
and the Feuillants, and preferred to rest their hopes of deliverance
on the foreigner. Lafayette returned to his troops without having
effected anything. The Girondins made a last advance to Louis,
offering to save the monarchy if he would accept them as
ministers. His refusal united all the Jacobins in the project of
overturning the monarchy by force. The ruling spirit of this new
revolution was Danton, a barrister only thirty-two years of age,
who had not sat in either Assembly, although he had been the
leader of the Cordeliers, an advanced republican dub, and had
a strong hold on the common people of Paris. Danton and his
friends were assisted in their work by the fear of invasion, for
the allied army was at length mustering on the frontier. The
Assembly declared the country in danger. All the regular troops
in or near Paris were sent to the front. Volunteers and fedfres
were constantly arriving in Paris, and, although most went on to
join the army, the Jacobins enlisted those who were suitable for
their purpose, especially some 500 whom Barbaroux, a Girondin,
had summoned from Marseilles. At the same time the National
Guard was opened to the lowest class. Brunswick's famous
declaration of the 2 5th of July, announcing that the allies would
enter France to restore the royal authority and would visit the
Assembly and the city of Paris with military execution if any
further outrage were offered to the king, heated the republican
spirit to fury. It was resolved to strike the decisive blow on the
loth of August.
On the night of the gth a new revolutionary Commune took
possession of the h6tel de ville, and early on the morning of the
loth the insurgents assailed the Tuileries. As the
preparations of the Jacobins had been notorious, some
measures of defence had been taken. Beside a few August.
gentlemen in arms and a number of National Guards
the palace was garrisoned by the Swiss Guard, about 950 strong.
The disparity of force was not so great as to make resistance
altogether hopeless. But Louis let himself be persuaded into
betraying his own cause and retiring with his family under the
shelter of the Assembly. The National Guards either dispersed
or fraternized with the assailants. The Swiss Guard stood firm,
and, possibly by accident, a fusillade began. The enemy were
gaining ground when the Swiss received an order from the king to
cease firing and withdraw. They were mostly shot down as they
were retiring, and of those who surrendered many were murdered
in cold blood next day. The king and queen spent long hours in
a reporter's box while the Assembly discussed their fate and the
fate of the French monarchy. Little more than a third of the
deputies were present and they were almost all Jacobins. They
decreed that Louis should be suspended from his office and that
a convention should be summoned to give France a new con-
stitution. An executive council was formed by recalling Roland,
Claviere and Servan to office and joining with them Danton as
minister of justice, Lebrun as minister of foreign affairs, and
Monge as minister of marine.
When Lafayette heard of the insurrection in Paris he tried
to rally his troops in defence of the constitution, but they refused
to follow him. He was driven to cross the frontier ji, erevo .
and surrender himself to the Austrians. Dumouriez lutionary
was named his successor. But the new government was Commune
still beset with danger. It had no root in law and little *
hold on public opinion. It could not lean on the Assembly, a
mere shrunken remnant, whose days were numbered. It re-
mained dependent on the power which had set it up, the revolu-
tionary Commune of Paris. The Commune could therefore extort
what concessions it pleased. It got the custody of the king and
his family who were imprisoned in the Temple. Having obtained
an indefinite power of arrest, it soon filled the prisons of Paris.
As the elections to the Convention were close at hand, the Com-
mune resolved to strike the public with terror by the slaughter
of its prisoners. It found its opportunity in the progress of
invasion. On the ipth Brunswick crossed the frontier. On the
22nd Longwy surrendered. Verdun was invested and seemed
likely to fall. On the ist of September the Commune decreed
FRENCH REVOLUTION
161
,., r
/<*
that on the following day the tocsin should be rung, all able-
bodied citizens convened in the Champs de Mars, and 60,000
volunteers enrolled for the defence of the country.
While this assembly was in progress gangs of assassins
were sent to the prisons and began a butchery which
lasted four days and consumed 1400 victims. The Com-
mune addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France
in vit ing them to follow the example. A number of state prisoners
awaiting trial at Orleans were ordered to Paris and on the way
were murdered at Versailles. The Assembly offered a feeble
resistance to these crimes. Danton can hardly be acquitted of
connivance at them. Roland hinted disapproval, but did not
venture more. He with many other Girondins had been marked
for slaughter in the original project.
The elections to the Convention were by almost universal
suffrage, but indifference or intimidation reduced the voters to a
small number. Many who had sat in the National,
and many more who had sat in the Legislative
Assembly were returned. The Convention met on the
20th of September. Like the previous assemblies,
it did not fall into well-defined parties. The success of the
Jacobins in overthrowing the monarchy had ended their union.
Thenceforwards the name of Jacobin was confined to the smaller
and more fanatical group, while the rest came to be known as
the Girondins. The Jacobins, about 100 strong, formed the Left
of the Convention, afterwards known from the raised benches on
which they sat as the Mountain (q.v.). The Girondins, numbering
perhaps 180, formed the Right. The rest of the House, nearly
500 members, voted now on one side now on the other, until in
the course of the Terror they fell under the Jacobin domination.
This neutral mass is often termed the Plain, in allusion to its
seats on the floor of the House. The Convention as a whole was
Republican, if not on principle, from the feeling that no other
form of government could be established. It decreed
the abolition of monarchy on the zist of September.
A committee was named to draft a new constitution,
which was presented and decreed in the following June,
but never took effect and was superseded by a third constitution
in 1795. The actual government of France was by committees
of the Convention, but some months passed before it could be
fully organized.
The inner history of the Convention was strange and terrible.
It turned on the successive schisms in the ruling minority.
Whichever side prevailed destroyed its adversaries
only to divide afresh and renew the strife until the
victors were at length so reduced that their yoke was
shaken off and the mass of the Convention, hitherto
benumbed by fear, resumed its freedom and the government of
France. The first and most memorable of these contests was
the quarrel between Jacobin and Girondin. Both parties were
republican and democratic; both wished to complete the Revolu-
tion; both were determined to maintain the integrity of France.
But they differed in circumstances and temperament. Although
the leaders on both sides were of the middle class, the Girondins
represented the bourgeoisie, the Jacobins represented the populace .
The Girondins desired a speedy return to law and order; the
Jacobins thought that they could keep power only by violence.
The Jacobins leant on the revolutionary commune and the mob
of Paris; the Girondins leant on the thriving burghers of the
provincial cities. Despite their smaller number the Jacobins were
victors. They were the more resolute and unscrupulous. The
Girondins numbered many orators, but not one man of action.
The Jacobins controlled the parent club with its affiliated societies
and the whole machinery of terror. The Girondins had no
organized force at their disposal. The Jacobins perpetuated in
a new form the old centralization of power to which France was
accustomed. The Girondins addressed themselves to provincials
who had lost the power of initiative. They were termed federal-
ists by their enemies and accused, unjustly enough, of wishing
to dissolve the national unity.
Even in the first days of the Convention the feud broke out.
The Girondins condemned the September massacres and dreaded
XT. 6
the Parisian populace. Barbaroux accused Robespierre of aiming
at a dictatorship, and Buzot demanded a guard recruited in the
departments to protect the Convention. In October Louvet
reiterated the charge against Robespierre, and Barbaroux called
for the dissolution of the Commune of Paris. But the Girondins
gained no tangible result from this wordy warfare. For a time
the question how to dispose of the king diverted the thoughts of
all parties. It was approached in a political, not in a judicial
spirit. The Jacobins desired the death of Louis, partly because
they hated kings and deemed him a traitor, partly because they
wished to envenom the Revolution, defy Europe and compromise
their more temperate colleagues. The Girondins wished to spare
Louis, but were afraid of incurring the reproach of royalism.
At this critical moment the discovery of the famous iron chest,
containing papers which showed that many public men had
intrigued with the court, was disastrous for Louis. Members of
the Convention were anxious to be thought severe lest they should
be thought corrupt. Robespierre frankly demanded that Louis
as a public enemy should be put to death without form of trial.
The majority shrank from such open injustice and decreed on
the 3rd of December that Louis should be tried by the Convention.
A committee of twenty-one was chosen to frame the indictment
against Louis, and on the nth of December he was brought to
the bar for the first time to hear the charges read, rrtalaad
The most essential might be summed up in the state- execution
ment that he had plotted against the Constitution and "/
against the safety of the kingdom. On the 26th Louis Xvl '
appeared at the bar a second time, and the trial began. The
advocates of Louis could plead that all his actions down to the
dissolution of the National Assembly came within the amnesty
then granted, and that the Constitution had proclaimed his
person inviolable, while enacting for certain offences the penalty
of deposition which he had already undergone. Such argu-
ments were not likely to weigh with such a tribunal. The
Mountain called for immediate sentence of death; the Girondins
desired an appeal to the people of France. The galleries of the
Convention were packed with adherents of the Jacobins, whose
fury, not confined to words, struck terror into all who might
incline towards mercy. In Paris unmistakable signs announced
a new insurrection, to be followed perhaps by new massacres.
On the question whether Louis was guilty none ventured to give
a negative vote. The motion for an appeal to the people was
rejected by 424 votes to 283. The penalty of death was adopted
by 361 votes against 360 in favour of other penalties or of post-
poning at least the execution of the 'sentence. On the 2ist of
January 1793 Louis was beheaded in the Place de la Revolution,
now the Place de la Concorde.
Between the deposition and the death of Louis the war had
run a surprising course. Accompanied by King Frederick
William, Brunswick had entered France with 80,000
men, of whom more than half were Prussians, the
best soldiers in Europe. The disorder of France was
such that many expected a triumphal march to Paris. But the
Allies had opened the campaign late; they moved slowly;
the weather broke, and sickness began to waste their ranks.
Dumouriez succeeded in rousing the spirit of the French; he
occupied the defiles of the forest of Argonne, thus causing the
enemy to lose many valuable days, and when at last they turned
his position, he retreated without loss. At Valmy on the 2oth
of September the two armies came in contact. The affair was
only a cannonade, but the French stood firm and the advance of
the Allies was stayed. Brunswick had no heart for his work;
the king was ill satisfied with the Austrians, and both were alarmed
by the ravages of disease among the soldiers. Within ten days
after the affair of Valmy they began their retreat. Dumouriez,
who still hoped to detach Prussia from Austria, left them un-
molested. When the enemy had quitted France, he invaded
Hainaut and defeated the Austrians at Jemappes on the 6th of
November. In Belgium a large party regarded the French as
deliverers. Dumouriez entered Brussels without further re-
sistance, and was soon master of the whole country. Elsewhere
the French were equally successful. With a slight force Custine
162
FRENCH REVOLUTION
assailed the electorate of Mainz. The common people were
friendly, and he had no trouble in occupying the country as far
as the Rhine. The king of Sardinia having shown a hostile
temper, Montesquiou made an easy conquest of Savoy. At the
close of 1792 the relative position of France and her enemies
had been reversed. It was seen that the French were still able
to wage war, and that the revolutionary spirit had permeated
the adjoining countries, while the old governments of Europe,
jealous of one another and uncertain of the loyalty of their
subjects, were ill qualified for resistance.
Intoxicated with these victories, the Convention abandoned
itself to the fervour of propaganda and conquest. The river
Scheldt had been closed to commerce by various treaties to which
England and Holland, neutral powers, were parties. Without a
pretence of negotiation the French government declared on the
i6th of November that the Scheldt was thenceforwards open.
On the i gth a decree of the Convention offered the aid of France
to all nations which were striving after freedom in other words,
to the rrtalcontents in every neighbouring state. Not long
afterwards the Convention annexed Savoy, with the consent,
it should be added, of many Savoyards. On the isth of
December the Convention decreed that all peoples freed by its
assistance should carry out a revolution like that which had
been made in France on pain of being treated as enemies.
Towards Great Britain the executive council and the Convention
behaved with singular folly. There, in spite of a growing anti-
pathy to the Revolution, Pitt earnestly desired to maintain peace.
The conquest of the Netherlands and the symptoms of a wish to
annex that country made his task most difficult. But the French
The first government underrated the strength of Great Britain,
coalition imagining that all Englishmen who desired parlia-
against mentary reform desired revolution, and that a few
France. democratic societies represented the nation. When
Monge announced the intention of attacking Great Britain on
behalf of the English republicans, the British government and
nation were thoroughly alarmed and roused; and when the
news of the execution of Louis XVI. was received, Chauvelin,
the French envoy, was ordered to quit England. France declared
war against England and Holland on the ist of February and
soon afterwards against Spain. In the course of the year 1793
the Empire, the kings of Portugal and Naples and the grand-
duke of Tuscany declared war against France. Thus was formed
the first coalition.
France was not prepared to encounter so many enemies.
Administrative confusion had been heightened by the triumph of
the Jacobins. Servan was succeeded as minister of war by Pache
who was incapable and dishonest. The army of Dumouriez was
left in such want that it dwindled rapidly. The commissioners
of the Convention plundered the Netherlands with so little
remorse that the people became bitterly hostile. The attempt to
enforce a revolution of the French sort on the Catholic and con-
servative Belgians drove them to fury. By every unfair means
the commissioners extorted the semblance of a popular vote in
favour of incorporation, and France annexed the Netherlands.
This was the last outrage. When a new Austrian army under the
prince of Coburg entered the country, Dumouriez, who had
invaded Holland, was unable to defend Belgium. On the i8th
of March he was defeated at Neerwinden, and a few days later he
was driven back to the frontier. Alike on public and personal
grounds Dumouriez was the enemy of the government. Trusting
in his influence over the army he resolved to lead it against the
Convention, and, in order to secure his rear, he negotiated with
the enemy. But he could make no impression on his soldiers, and
deserted to the Austrians. Events followed a similar course in
the Rhine valley. There also the French wore out the goodwill
at first shown to them. They summoned a convention and
obtained a vote for incorporation with France. But they were
unable to hold their ground on the approach of a Prussian army.
By April they had lost the country with the exception of Mainz,
which was invested. France thus lay open to invasion from the
east and the north. The Convention decreed a levy of 300,000
men.
About the same time began the first formidable uprising
against the Revolution, the War of La Vendee, the region lying
to the south of the lower Loire and facing the Atlantic.
Its inhabitants differed in many ways from the mass
of the nation. Living far from large towns and busy vendee.
routes of commerce, they remained primitive in all their
thoughts and ways. The peasants had always been on friendly
terms with the gentry, and the agrarian changes made by the
Revolution had not been appreciated so highly as elsewhere.
The people were ardent Catholics, who venerated the nonjuring
clergy and resented the measures taken against them. But
they remained passive until the enforcement of the decree for
the levy of 300,000 men. Caring little for the Convention and
knowing nothing of events on the northern or eastern frontier,
the peasants were determined not to serve and preferred to fight
the Republic at home. When once they had taken up arms
they found gentlemen to lead and priests to exhort, and their
rebellion became Royalist and Catholic. The chiefs were drawn
from widely different classes. If Bonchamps and La Roche-
jacquelin were nobles, Stofflet was a gamekeeper and Cathelineau
a mason. As the country was favourable to guerilla warfare, and
the government could not spare regular troops from the frontiers,
the rebels were usually successful, and by the end of May had
almost expelled the Republicans from La Vendee.
Danger without and within prompted the Convention to
strengthen the executive authority. That the executive and
legislative powers ought to be absolutely separate j^ e
had been an axiom throughout the Revolution. Committee
Ministers had always been excluded from a seat in the ' Puhllc
legislature. But the Assemblies were suspicious of
the executive and bent on absorbing the government. They
had nominated committees of their own members to control
every branch of public affairs. These committees, while reducing
the ministers to impotence, were themselves clumsy and in-
effectual. It may be said that since the first meeting of the
states-general the executive authority had been paralysed in
France. The Convention in theory maintained the separation
of powers. Even Danton had been forced to resign office when
he was elected a member. But unity of government was restored
by the formation of a central committee. In January the first
Committee of General Defence was formed of members of the
committees for the several departments of state. Too large and
too much divided for strenuous labour, it was reduced in April to
nine members and re-named the Committee of Public Safety.
It deliberated in secret and had authority over the ministers;
it was entrusted with the whole of the national defence and em-
powered to use all the resources of the state, and it quickly
became the supreme power in the republic. Under it the ministers
were no more than head clerks. About the same time were
instituted the deputies on mission in the provinces, who could
overrule any local authority, and who corresponded regularly
with the Committee. France thus returned under new forms to
its traditional government: a despotic authority in Paris with
all-powerful agents in the provinces. Against disaffection the
government was armed with formidable weapons: the Com-
mittee of General Security and the Revolutionary Tribunal.
The Committee of General Security, first established in October
1792, was several times remodelled. In September 1793 the
Convention decreed that its members should be nominated by
the Committee of Public Safety. The Committee of General
Security had unlimited powers for the prevention or discovery
of crime against the state. The Revolutionary Tribunal was
decreed on the loth of March. It was an extraordinary court,
destined to try all offences against the Revolution without appeal.
The jury, which received wages, voted openly, so that con-
demnation was almost certain. The director of the jury or public
prosecutor was Fouquier Tinville. The first condemnation took
place on the nth of April.
Enmity between Girondin and Jacobin grew fiercer as the
perils of the Republic increased. Danton strove to unite all
partisans of the Revolution in defence of the country; but
the Girondins, detesting his character and fearing his ambition,
FRENCH REVOLUTION
163
rejected all advances. The Commune of Paris and the journalists
who were its mouthpieces, H6bert and Marat, aimed frankly
at destroying the Girondins. In April the Girondins
S^l^y carried a decree that Marat should be sent before the
Revolutionary Tribunal for incendiary writings, but
his acquittal showed that a Jacobin leader was above the law.
In May they proposed that the Commune of Paris should be
dissolved, and that the suppliants, the persons elected to fill
vacancies occurring in the Convention, should assemble at
Bourges, where they would be safe from that violence which
might be applied to the Convention itself. Barere, who was
rising into notice by the skill with which he trimmed between
parties, opposed this motion, and carried a decree appointing a
Committee of Twelve to watch over the safety of the Convention.
Then the Commune named as commandant of the National
Guard, Hanriot, a man concerned in the September massacres.
It raised an insurrection on the 3ist of May. On Barere's pro-
posal the Convention stooped to dissolving the Committee of
Twelve. The Commune, which had hoped for the arrest of the
Girondin leaders, was not satisfied. It undertook a new and
more formidable outbreak on the 2nd of June. Enclosed by
Hanriot 's troops and thoroughly cowed, the Convention decreed
the arrest of the Committee of Twelve and of twenty-two
principal Girondins. They were put under confinement in their
own bouses. Thus the Jacobins became all-powerful.
A tremor of revolt ran through the cities of the south which
chafed under the despotism of the Parisian mob. These cities
had their own grievances. The Jacobin clubs menaced
the lives and properties of all who were guilty of wealth
or of moderate opinions, while the representatives on
mission deposed the municipal authorities and placed
their own creatures in power. At the end of April the citizens of
Marseilles dosed the Jacobin dub, put its chiefs on their trial
and drove out the representatives on mission. In May Lyons
rose. The Jacobin municipality was overturned, and Challier,
their fiercest demagogue, was arrested. In June the citizens of
Bordeaux declared that they would not acknowledge the
authority of the Convention until the imprisoned deputies
were set free. In July Toulon rebelled. But in the north
the appeals of such Girondins as escaped from Paris were of no
avail. Even the southern uprising proved far less dangerous
than might have been expected. The peasants, who had
gained more by the Revolution than any other class, held
aloof from the citizens. The citizens lacked the qualities
necessary for the successful conduct of civil war. Bordeaux
surrendered almost without waiting to be summoned. Marseilles
was taken in August and treated with great cruelty. Lyons,
where the Royalists were strong, defended itself with courage,
for the trial and execution of Challier made the townsmen
hopeless of pardon. Toulon, also largely Royalist, invited the
English and Spanish admirals, Hood and Langara, who occupied
the port and garrisoned the town. At the same time the Vendean
War continued formidable. In June the insurgents took the im-
portant town of Saumur, although they failed in an attempt upon
Nantes. At the end of July the Republicans were still unable
to make any impression upon the revolted territory.
Thus in the summer of 1793 France seemed to be falling to
pieces.
otlt*
It was laved by the imbecility and disunion of the
hostile powers. In the north the French army after
the treason of Dumouriez could only attempt to cover
the frontier. The Austrians were joined by British,
Dutch and Prussian forces. Had the Allies pushed
straight upon Paris, they might have ended the war. But the
desire of each ally to make conquests on his own account led
them to spend time and strength in sieges. When Conde and
Valenciennes bad been taken, the British went off to assail
Dunkirk and the Prussians retired into Luxemburg. In the east
the Prussians and Austrians took Mainz at the end of July,
allowing the garrison to depart on condition of not serving
against the Allies for a year. Then they invaded Alsace, but their
mutual jealousy prevented them from going farther. Thus the
summer passed away without any decisive achievement of the
coalition. Meanwhile the Committee of Public Safety, inspired
by Danton, strove to rebuild the French administrative system.
In July the Committee was renewed and Danton fell out; but
soon afterwards it was reinforced by two officers, Carnot, who
undertook the organization of the army, and Prieur of the
C6te d'Or, who undertook its equipment. Administrators of the
first rank, these men renovated the warlike power of France, and
enabled her to deal those crushing blows which broke up the
coalition.
The Royalist and Girondin insurrections and the critical
aspect of the war favoured the establishment of what is known
as the reign of terror. Terrorism had prevailed more
or less since the beginning of the Revolution, but it was
the work of those who desired to rule, not of the
nominal rulers. It had been lawless and rebellious. It ended by
becoming legal and official. While Danton kept power Terrorism
remained imperfect, for Danton, although unscrupulous, did not
love cruelty and kept in view a return to normal government.
But soon after Danton had ceased to be a member of the Com-
mittee of Public Safety Robespierre was elected, and now became
the most powerful man in France. Robespierre was an acrid
fanatic, and unlike Danton, who only cared to secure the practical
results of the Revolution, he had a moral and religious ideal
which he intended to force on the nation. All who rejected his
ideal were corrupt; all who resented his ascendancy were
traitors. The death of Marat, who was stabbed by Charlotte
Corday (q.v.) to avenge the Girondins, gave yet another pretext
for terrible measures of repression. In Paris the armed ruffians
who had long preyed upon respectable citizens were organized
as a revolutionary army, and other revolutionary armies were
established in the provinces. Two new laws placed almost
everybody at the mercy of the government. The Law of the
Maximum, passed on the lyth of September, fixed the price of
food and made it capital to ask for more. The Law of Suspects,
passed at the same time, declared suspect every person who was
of noble birth, or had held office before the Revolution, or had any
connexion with an migr(, or could not produce a card of civismc
granted by the local authority, which had full discretion to refuse.
Any suspect might be arrested and imprisoned until the peace
or sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal. An earlier law had
established in every commune an elective committee of surveil-
lance. These bodies, better known as revolutionary committees,
were charged with the enforcement of the Law of Suspects.
On the loth of October the new constitution was suspended
and the government declared revolutionary until the peace.
The spirit of those in power was shown by the massacres
which followed on the surrender of Lyons in that month. In
Paris the slaughter of distinguished victims began with
the trial of Marie Antoinette, who was guillotined on
the 1 6th. Twenty-one Girondin deputies were next queen.
brought to the bar and, with the exception of Valaz6
who stabbed himself, were beheaded on the last day of October,
Madame Roland and other Girondins of note suffered later. In
November the duke of Orleans, who had styled himself Philippe
Egalit6, had sat in the Convention, and had voted for the king's
death, went to the scaffold. Bailly, Barnave and many others of
note followed before the end of the year. As the bloody work
went on the pretence of trial became more and more hollow,
the chance of acquittal fainter and fainter. The Revolutionary
Tribunal was a mere instrument of state. Knowing the slight
foundation of its power the government deliberately sought to
destroy all whose birth, political connexions or past career
might mark them out as leaders of opposition. At the same time
it took care to show that none was so obscure or so impotent as to
be safe when its policy was to destroy.
The disastrous effects of the Terror were heightened by the
financial mismanagement of the Jacobins. Assignats were issued
with such reckless profusion that the total for the three years of
the Convention has been estimated at 7250 millions of francs.
Enormous depreciation ensued and, although penalties rising
to death itself were denounced against all who should refuse
to take them at par, they fell to little more than i % of their
164
FRENCH REVOLUTION
nominal value. What were known as revolutionary taxes were
imposed at discretion by the representatives on mission and the
local authorities. A forced loan of i ooo millions was exacted from
those citizens who were reputed to be prosperous. Immense
supplies of all kinds were requisitioned for the armies, and were
sometimes allowed to rot unused. Anarchy and state interference
having combined to check the trade in necessaries, the govern-
ment undertook to feed the people, and spent huge sums,
especially on bread for the starving inhabitants of Paris. As
no regular budget was attempted, as accounts were not kept,
and as audit was unknown, the opportunities for fraud and
embezzlement were endless. Even when due allowance has been
made for the financial disorder which the Convention inherited
from previous assemblies, and for the war which it had to wage
against a formidable alliance, it cannot be acquitted of reckless
and wasteful maladministration.
Notwithstanding the disorder of the time, the mass of new
laws produced by the Convention was extraordinary. A new
system of weights and measures, a new currency, a
new chronological era (that of the Republic) , and a new
legist*- calendar were introduced (see the section Republican
Calendar below). A new and elaborate system of
education was decreed. Two drafts of a complete
civil code were made and, although neither was enacted,
particular changes of great moment were decreed. Many of the
new laws were stamped with the passions of the time. Such
were the laws which suppressed all the remaining bodies cor-
porate, even the academies, and which extinguished all manorial
rights without any indemnity to the owners. Such too were the
laws which took away the power of testation, placed natural
children upon an absolute equality with legitimate, and gave a
boundless freedom of divorce. It would be absurd, however, to
dismiss all the legislative work of the Convention as merely
partisan or eccentric. Much of it was enlightened and skilful,
the product of the best minds in the assembly. To compete for
power or even to express an opinion on public affairs was danger-
ous, and wholly to refrain from attendance might be construed
as disaffection. Able men who wished to be useful without
hazarding their lives took refuge in the committees where new
laws were drafted and discussed. The result of their labours
was often decreed as a matter of course. Whether the decree
would be carried into effect was always uncertain.
The ruling faction was still divided against itself. The
Commune of Paris, which had overthrown the Girondins, was
jealous of the Committee of Public Safety, which meant to be
supreme. Robespierre, the leading member of the committee,
abhorred the chiefs of the Commune, not merely because they
conflicted with his ambition but from difference of character.
He was orderly and temperate, they were gross and debauched;
he was a deist, they were atheists. In November the Commune
fitted up Notre Dame as a temple of Reason, selected an opera
girl to impersonate the goddess, and with profane ceremony
installed her in the choir. All the churches in Paris were closed.
Danton, when he felt power slipping from his hands, had retired
from public business to his native town of Arcis-sur-Aube. When
he became aware of the feud between Robespierre and the
Commune, he conceived the hope of limiting the Terror and
guiding the Revolution into a sane course. He returned to
Paris and joined with Robespierre in carrying the law of 14
Frimaire (December 4), which gave the Committee of Public
Safety absolute control over all municipal authorities. He be-
came the advocate of mercy, and his friend Camille Desmoulins
pleaded for the same cause in the Vieux Cordelier. Then the
oppressed nation took courage and began to demand
Pardon for the innocent and even justice upon
PaH* murderers. A sharp contest ensued between the
Commune. Dantonists and the Commune, Robespierre inclining
now to tn * s s '^ e> now to tnat> ^ or ne was rea l'y a lr i en d
to neither. His friend St Just, a younger and fiercer
man, resolved to destroy both. Hubert and his
followers in despair planned a new insurrection, but they were
deserted by Hanriot, their military chief. Their doom was thus
n W
fixed. Twenty leaders of the Commune were arrested on the
1 7th of March 1794 and guillotined a week later. It was then
Danton's turn. He had several warnings, but either through
over-confidence or weariness of life he scorned to fly. On the
30th he was arrested along with his friends Desmoulins, Dela-
croix, Philippeaux and Westermann. St Just read to the
Convention a report on their case pre-eminent even in that day
for its shameless disregard of truth, nay, of plausibility. Before
the Revolutionary Tribunal Danton defended himself with such
energy that St Just took means to have him silenced. Danton
and his friends were executed on the 5th of April.
For a moment the conflict of parties seemed at an end. None
could presume to challenge the authority of the Committee of
Public Safety, and in the committee none disputed the Supnta-
leadership of Robespierre. Robespierre was at last my ot
free to establish the republic of virtue. On the 7th *>*-
of May he persuaded the Convention to decree that the p em '
French people acknowledged the existence of a Supreme Being
and the immortality of the soul. On the 4th of June he was
elected president of the Convention, and from that time forward
he appeared to be dictator of France. On the 8th the festival
of the Supreme Being was solemnized, Robespierre acting as
pontiff amid the outward deference and secret jeers of his col-
leagues. But Robespierre knew what a gulf parted him from
almost all his countrymen. He knew that he could be safe only
by keeping power and powerful only by making the Terror more
stringent. Two days after the festival his friend Couthon
presented the crowning law of the Terror, known as the Law
of 22 Prairial. As the Revolutionary Tribunal was said to be
paralysed by forms and delays, this law abolished the defence of
prisoners by counsel and the examination of witnesses. Thence-
forward the impressions of judges and jurors were to decide the
fate of the accused. For all offences the penalty was to be death.
The leave of the Convention was no longer required for the arrest
of a member. In spite of some murmurs even this law was
adopted. Its effect was fearful. The Revolutionary Tribunal
had hitherto pronounced 1200 death sentences. In the next
six weeks it pronounced 1400. With Robespierre's approval
St Just sketched at this time the plan of an ideal society in which
every man should have just enough land to maintain him; in
which domestic life should be regulated by law and all children
over seven years should be educated by the state. Pending
this regeneration of society St Just advised the rule of a dictator.
The growing ferocity of the Terror appeared more hideous as the
dangers threatening the government receded. The surrender of
Toulon in December 1 793 closed the south of France to
foreign enemies. The war in La Vendee turned against
the insurgents from the time when the veteran garrison aiy War.
of Mainz came to reinforce the Republican army. Repubii-
After a severe defeat at Cholet on the i6th of October
the Royalists determined to cross the Loire and raise
Brittany and Anjou, where the Chouans, or Royalist partisans,
were already stirring. They failed in an attempt on the little
seaport of Granville and in another upon Angers. In December
they were defeated with immense loss at Le Mans and at Savenay.
The rebellion would probably have died out but for the measures
of the new Republican general Turreau, who wasted La Vend6e so
horribly with his " infernal columns " that he drove the peasants
to take up arms once more. Yet Turreau's crimes were almost
surpassed by Carrier, the representative on mission at Nantes,
who, finding the guillotine too slow in the destruction of his
prisoners, adopted the plan of drowning them wholesale. In
the autumn of 1793 the war against the coalition took a turn
favourable to France. The energy of Danton, the organizing
skill of Carnot, and the high spirit of the French nation, resolute
at all costs to avoid dismemberment, had well employed the
respite given by the sluggishness of the Allies. In Flanders
the English were defeated at Hondschoote (September 8) and
the Austrians at Wattignies (October 15). In the east Hoche
routed the Austrians at Weissenburg and forced them to recross
the Rhine before the end of 1793. The summer-of 1794 saw France
victorious on all her frontiers. Jourdan won the battle of Fleurus
can suc-
cesses.
FRENCH REVOLUTION
165
Fmtlfl
(June a 5), which decided the fate of the Belgian provinces.
The Prussians were driven out of the eastern departments.
Against the Spaniards and the Sardinians the French were also
successful.
Under these circumstances government by terror could not
endure. Robespierre was not a man of action; he knew not
bow to form or lead a party; he lived not with his fellows but
with his own thoughts and ambitions. He was hated and feared
by most of the oligarchy. They laughed at his religion, resented
his puritanism, and felt themselves in daily peril. His only
loyal friends in the Committee of Public Safety, Couthon and St
Just, were themselves unpopular. Robespierre professed con-
sideration for the deputies of the Plain, who were glad to buy
safety by conforming to his will; but he could not reckon on
their help in time of danger. By degrees a coalition against
Robespierre was formed in the Mountain. It included old
followers of Danton like Tallien, independent Jacobins like
Cambon, some of the worst Terrorists like Fouche, and such a
consummate time-server as- Barere. In the course of July its
influence began to be felt. When St Just proposed Robespierre
to the committees as dictator, he found no response. On the
8th Thermidor (26th of July) Robespierre addressed the Conven-
tion, deploring the invectives against himself and the Revolu-
tionary Tribunal and demanding the purification of the com-
mittees and the punishment of traitors. His enemies took the
speech as a declaration of war and thwarted a proposal that it
should be circulated in the departments. Robespierre felt his
ascendancy totter. He repeated his speech with more success to
the Jacobin Club. His friends determined to strike, and Hanriot
ordered the National Guards to hold themselves in readiness.
Robespierre's enemies called on the Committee of Public Safety
to arrest the traitors, but the committee was divided.
On the morning of the gth Thermidor St Just was begin-
ning to speak in the Convention when Tallien cut him
** short. Robespierre and all .who tried to speak in his
r * behalf were shouted down. The Plain was deaf to Robes-
pierre's appeal. Finally the Convention decreed the arrest of
Robespierre, of his brother Augustin, of Couthon and of St Just.
But the Commune and the Jacobin Club were on the alert. They
sounded the tocsin, mustered their partisans, and released the
prisoners. The Convention outlawed Robespierre and his friends
and sent out commissioners to rally the citizens. It named Barras,
a deputy who had served in the royal army, to lead its forces.
Had Robespierre possessed Danton's energy, the result might
have been doubtful. He did nothing himself and benumbed
his followers. Without an effort Barras captured the H6tel de
Ville. Robespierre, whose jaw had been shattered by a pistol
shot, was left in agony for the night. On the next morning he
was beheaded along with his brother, Couthon, St Just, Hanriot
and seventeen more of his adherents. On the day after seventy-
one members of the Commune followed them to the scaffold.
Such was the revolution of the gth Thermidor (27th of July
1794) which ended the Reign of Terror.
In a period of fifteen months, it has been calculated, about
17,000 persons had been executed in France under form of law.
The number of those who were shot, drowned or otherwise
massacred without the pretence of a trial can never be accurately
known, but must be reckoned far greater. The number of persons
arrested and imprisoned reached hundreds of thousands, of whom
many died in their, crowded and filthy jails. The names on the
list of fmigrfs at the close of the Terror were about 150,000.
Of these a small proportion had borne arms against their country.
The rest were either harmless fugitives from destruction or had
never quitted France and had been placed on the list simply in
order that they might incur the penalties of emigration. Every
one of this multitude was liable to instant death if found in
French territory. Their relatives were subjected to various
pains and penalties. All the property of those condemned to
death and of tmigrts was confiscated. The carnage of the Terror
spread far beyond the clergy and the nobility, beyond even the
middle class, for peasants and artisans were among the victims.
It spread far beyond those who could conspire or rebel, for
bedridden old men and women and young boys and girls were
often sacrificed. It made most havoc in the flower of the nation,
since every kind of eminence marked men for death. By imbuing
Frenchmen with such a mutual hatred as nothing but the arm
of despotic power could control the Reign of Terror rendered
political liberty impossible for many years. The rule of the
Terrorists made inevitable the reign of Napoleon.
The fall of Robespierre had consequences unforeseen by his
destroyers. Long kept mute by fear, the mass of the nation
found a voice and demanded a total change of govern-
ment. When once the reaction against Jacobin ^J^Jj"
tyranny had begun, it was impossible tc halt. Great Terror.
numbers of prisoners were set at liberty. The Com-
mune of Paris was abolished and the office of commandant
of the National Guard was suppressed. The Revolutionary
Tribunal was reorganized, and thenceforwards condemnations
were rare. The Committees of Public Safety and General
Security were remodelled, in virtue of a law that one-fourth
of their number should retire at the end of every month and not
be re-eligible until another month had elapsed. Somewhat
later the Convention declared itself to be the only centre of
authority, and executive business was parcelled out among
sixteen committees. Most of the representatives on mission
were recalled, and many office-holders were displaced. The
trial of 130 prisoners sent up from Nantes led to so many terrible
disclosures that public feeling turned still more fiercely against
the Jacobins; Carrier himself was condemned and executed;
and in November the Jacobin Club was closed. In December
73 members of the Convention who had been imprisoned for
protesting against the violence done to the Girondins on the
2nd of June 1793 were allowed to resume their seats, and gave
a decisive majority to the anti-Jacobins. Soon afterwards
the law of the Maximum was repealed. A decree was passed
in February 1795 severing the connexion of church and state
and allowing general freedom of worship. At the beginning of
March those Girondin deputies who survived came back to their
places in the Convention.
But the return to normal life after the Jacobin domination
was not destined to be smooth or continuous. Beside the
remnant of Terrorists, such as Billaud Varennes and p trtltt to
Collot d'Herbois, who had joined in the revolt against the A*-
Robespierre, there were in the Convention at that time ttably I
three principal factions. The so-called Independents, ^* r
such as Barras and Merlin of Douai, who were all
Jacobins, but had stood aloof from the internal conflicts of the
party, hated Royalism as much as ever and desired the continu-
ance of the war which was essential to their power. The Thermi-
dorians, the immediate agents in Robespierre's overthrow, such as
Tallien, had loudly professed Jacobinism, but wanted to make
their peace with the nation. They sought for an understand-
ing with the Girondins and Feuillants, and some went so far as
to correspond with the exiled princes. Lastly, those members
who had never been Jacobins wanted a speedy return to legal
government at home and therefore wished for peace abroad.
While bent on .preserving the civil equality introduced by the
Revolution, many of these men were indifferent as between
constitutional monarchy and a republic. The government,
mainly Thermidorian, trimmed between Moderates and Inde-
pendents, and for this reason its actions were often inconsistent.
The Jacobins were strong enough to carry a decree for keeping
the anniversary of the execution of Louis XVI. as a national
festival. They could count on the populace, because
work was still scarce, food was still dear, and a multi-
tude of Parisians knew not where to find bread. A reaction.
committee having recommended the indictment of
Collot d'Herbois and three other Terrorists, there ensued the
rising of the I2th Germinal (April i). The mob forced their way
into the hall of the Convention and remained there until the
National Guards of the wealthy quarters drove them out. By
a decree of the Convention the four accused persons were deported
to Cayenne, a new mode of dealing with political offenders
almost as effective as the guillotine, while less apt to excite
i66
FRENCH REVOLUTION
compassion. The National Guard was reorganized so as to
exclude the lowest class. The property of persons executed
since the loth of March 1793 was restored to their families.
The signs of reaction daily became more unmistakable. Wor-
shippers crowded to the churches; the emigres returned by
thousands; and Anti-Jacobin outbreaks, followed by massacre,
took place in the south. The despair of the Jacobins produced
a second rising in Paris on the ist Prairial (May 20). Again
the mob invaded the Convention, murdered a deputy named
Feraud who attempted to shield the president, and set his head
on a pike. The ultra-Jacobin members took possession and
embodied their wishes in decrees. Again the hall was cleared
by the National Guards, but order was restored in Paris only by
employing regular troops, a new precedent in the history of the
Revolution. Paris was disarmed, and several leaders of the
insurrection were sentenced to death. The Revolutionary
Tribunal was suppressed. Toleration was proclaimed for all
priests who would declare their obedience to the laws of the state.
Royalists began to count upon the restoration of young Louis
the Dauphin, otherwise Louis XVII.; but his health had been
ruined by persevering cruelty, and he died on the loth of June.
The Thermidorian government also endeavoured to pacify
the rebels of the west. Its best adviser, Hoche, recommended
an amnesty and the assurance of religious freedom.
n tnese terms peace was made with the Vendeans
at La Jaunaie in February and with the Chouans at
La Mabilais in April. Some of the Vendean leaders persevered
in resistance until May, and even after their submission the peace
was ill observed, for the Royalists hearkened to the solicitations
of the princes and their advisers. In the hope of rekindling the
civil war a body of emigres sailed under cover of the British
fleet and landed on the peninsula of Quiberon. They were
presently hemmed in by Hoche, and all who could not make
their escape to the ships were forced to surrender at discretion
(July 20). Nearly 700 were executed by court-martial. Yet
the spirit of revolt lingered in the west and broke out time after
time. Against the coalition the Republic was gloriously success-
ful. (See FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.) In the summer of 1 794
the French invaded Spain at both ends of the Pyrenees, and at
the close of the year they made good their footing in Catalonia
and Navarre. By the beginning of 1795 the Rhine frontier had
been won. Against the king of Sardinia alone they accom-
plished little. At sea the French had sustained a severe defeat
from Lord Howe, and several of their colonies had been taken
by the British. But Great Britain, when the Netherlands were
lost, could do little for her allies. Even before the close of 1794
the king of Prussia retired from any active part in the war, and
on the 5th of April 1795 he concluded with France the treaty
of Basel, which recognized her occupation of the left bank of the
Rhine. The new democratic government which the French
had established in Holland purchased peace by surrendering
Dutch territory to the south of that river. A treaty of peace
between France and Spain followed in July. The grand duke
of Tuscany had been admitted to terms in February. The
coalition thus fell into ruin and France occupied a more com-
manding position than in the proudest days of Louis XIV.
But this greatness was unsure so long as France remained
without a stable government. A constitutional committee was
CoosUtu- narne d m April. It resolved that the constitution
lion of the of 1793 was impracticable and proceeded to frame
year III. a new one. The draft was submitted to the Convention
in June. I nits final shape the constitution established
a parliamentary system of two houses: a Council of
Five Hundred and a Council of Ancients, 250 in number.
Members of the Five Hundred were to be at least thirty years
of age, members of the Ancients at least forty. The system of
indirect election was maintained but universal suffrage was
abandoned. A moderate qualification was required for electors
in the first degree, a higher one for electors in the second degree.
When the 750 persons necessary had been elected they were
to choose the Ancients out of their own body. A legislature was
to last for three years, and one-third of the members were to be
renewed every year. The Ancients had a suspensory veto, but
no initiative in legislation. The executive was to consist of five
directors chosen by the Ancients out of a list elected by the
Five Hundred. One director was to retire every year. The
directors were aided by ministers for the various departments
of State. These ministers did not form a council and had no
general powers of government. Provision was made for the
stringent control of all local authorities by the central govern-
ment. Since the separation of powers was still deemed axiomatic,
the directors had no voice in legislation or taxation, nor could
directors or ministers sit in either house. Freedom of religion,
freedom of the press, and freedom of labour were guaranteed.
Armed assemblies and even public meetings of political societies
were forbidden. Petitions were to be tendered only by individuals
or through the public authorities. The constitution was not,
however, allowed free play from the beginning. The Convention
was so unpopular that, if its members had retired into private life,
they would not have .been safe and their work might have been
undone. It was therefore decreed that two-thirds of the first
legislature must be chosen out of the Convention.
When the constitution was submitted to the primary
assemblies, most electors held aloof, i ,050,000 voting for and only
5,000 voting against it. On the 23rd of September it i nsumc .
was declared to be law. Then all the parties which tion ofis
resented the limit upon freedom of election combined vtnM-
to rise in Paris. The government entrusted its defence mlaln -
to Barras; but its true man of action was young General
Bonaparte, who could dispose of a few thousand regular troops
and a powerful artillery. The Parisians were ill-equipped and
ill-led, and on the i3th of Vendemiaire (October 5) their insur-
rection was quelled almost without loss to the victors. No
further resistance was possible. The Convention dissolved itself
on the 26th of October.
The feeling of the nation was clearly shown in the elections.
Among those who had sat in the Convention the anti- Jacobins
were generally preferred. A leader of the old Right Balaace of
was sometimes chosen by many departments at once, parties in
Owing to this circumstance, 104 places reserved to the new
members of the Convention were left unfilled. When /e * s/a -
the persons elected met they had no choice but to co- '
opt the 104 from the Left of the Convention. The new one-third
were, as a rule, enemies of the Jacobins, but not of the Revolution.
Many had been members of the Constituent or of the Legislative
Assembly. When the new legislature was complete, the Jacobins
had a majority, although a weak one. After the Council of the
Ancients had been chosen by lot, it remained to name the
directors. For its own security the Left resolved that all five
must be old members of the Convention and regicides. The per-
sons chosen were Rewbell, Barras, La Revelliere Lepeaux, Carnot
and Letourneur. Rewbell was an able, although unsfrupulous,
man of action, Barras a dissolute and shameless adventurer,
La Revelliere Lepeaux the chief of a new sect, the Theophilan-
thropists, and therefore a bitter foe to other religions, especially
the Catholic. Severe integrity and memorable public services
raised Carnot far above his colleagues, but he was not a states-
man and was hampered by his past. Letourneur, a harmless
insignificant person, was his admirer and follower. The division
in the legislature was reproduced in the Directory. Rewbell,
Barras and La Revelliere L6peauxhad a full measure of the Jacobin
spirit; Carnot and Letourneur favoured a moi^e temperate policy.
With the establishment of the Directory the Revolution might
seem closed. The nation only desired rest and the healing of its
many wounds. Those who wished to restore Louis
XVIII. and the ancien regime and those who would f* < "* rfer
have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant Directory.
in number. The possibility of foreign interference
had vanished with the failure of the coalition. Nevertheless the
four years of the Directory were a time of arbitrary government
and chronic disquiet. The late atrocities had made confidence
or goodwill between parties impossible. The same instinct of
self-preservation which had led the members of the Convention
to claim so large a part in the new legislature and the whole of
FRENCH REVOLUTION
167
the Directory impelled them to keep their predominance. As
the majority of Frenchmen wanted to be rid of them, they could
achieve their purpose only by extraordinary means. They
habitually disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, when
the elections went against them, appealed to the sword. They
resolved to prolong the war as the best expedient for prolonging
their power. They were thus driven to rely upon the armies,
which also desired war and were becoming less and less civic in
temper. Other reasons influenced them in this direction. The
finances had been so thoroughly ruined that the government
could not have met its expenses without the plunder and the
tribute of foreign countries. If peace were made, the armies
would return home and the directors would have to face the
exasperation of the rank and file who had lost their livelihood,
as well as the ambition of generals who could in a moment brush
them aside. Bams and Rewbell were notoriously corrupt
themselves and screened corruption in others. The patronage
of the directors was ill bestowed, and the general maladministra-
tion heightened their unpopularity.
The contitutional party in the legislature desired a toleration
of the nonjuring clergy, the repeal of the laws against the relatives
of the tmigrts, and some merciful discrimination toward
the tmigrts themselves. The directors baffled all such
endeavours. On the other hand, the socialist con-
spiracy of Babeuf was easily quelled (see BABEUF,
FRANCOIS N.). Little was done to improve the
finances, and the assignais continued to fall in value. But the
Directory was sustained by the military successes of the year
1 796. Hoche again pacified La Vendee. Bonaparte's victories in
Italy more than compensated for the reverses of Jourdan and
Moreau in Germany. The king of Sardinia made peace in May,
ceding Nice and Savoy to the Republic and consenting to receive
French garrisons in his Piedmontese fortresses. By the treaty
of San Ildefonso, concluded in August, Spain became the ally of
France. In October Naples made peace. In 1797 Bonaparte
finished the conquest of northern Italy and forced Austria to
make the treaty of Campo Formio (October), whereby the
emperor ceded Lombardy and the Austrian Netherlands to the
Republic in exchange for Venice and undertook to urge upon the
Diet the surrender of the lands beyond the Rhine. Notwith-
standing the victory of Cape St Vincent, England was brought
into such extreme peril by the mutinies in the fleet that she
offered to acknowledge the French conquest of the Netherlands
and to restore the French colonies. The selfishness of the three
directors threw away this golden opportunity. In March and
April the election of a new third of the Councils had been held.
It gave a majority to the constitutional party. Among the
directors the lot fell on Letourneur to retire, and he was succeeded
by BartheJemy, an eminent diplomatist, who allied himself with
Camot. The political disabilities imposed upon the relatives
of tmigrts were repealed. Priests who would declare their
submission to the Republic were restored to their rights as
citizens. It seemed likely that peace would be made and that
moderate men would gain power.
Barras, Rewbell and La Revelliere-Lepeaux then sought help
from the armies. Although Royalists formed but a petty
fraction of the majority, they raised the alarm that
* l was See '" n 8 to retort monarchy and undo the work
of the Revolution. Hoche, then in command of the
army of the Sambre and Meuse, visited Paris and sent
Bonaparte sent General Augereau, who executed the
coup fttat of the i8th Fructidor (September 4). The councils
were purged, the elections in forty-nine departments were can-
celled, and many deputies and other men of note were arrested.
Some of them, including Barthelemy, were deported to Cayenne.
Carnot made good his escape. The two vacant places in the
Directory were filled by Merlin of Douai and Francois of Neuf-
chateau. Then the government frankly returned to Jacobin
ft hods The law against the relatives of tmigrts was re-
enacted, and military tribunals were established to condemn
tmigrts who should return to France. The nonjuring priests were
again persecuted. Many hundreds were either sent to Cayenne
troops.
or imprisoned in the hulks of R6 andOlcron. La R6vellifire Lpeaux
seized the opportunity to propagate his religion. Many churches
were turned into Theophilanthropic temples. The government
strained its power to secure the recognition of the dtcadi as the
day of public worship and the non-observance of Sunday.
Liberty of the press ceased. Newspapers were confiscated and
journalists were deported wholesale. It was proposed to banish
from France all members of the old noblesse. Although the
proposal was dropped, they were all declared to be foreigners
and were forced to obtain naturalization if they would enjoy
the rights of other citizens. A formal bankruptcy of the state, the
cancelling of two-thirds, of the interest on the public debt,
crowned the misgovernmcnt of this disastrous time.
In the spring of 1798 not only a new third of the legislature had
to be chosen, but the places of the members expelled by the revolu-
tion of Fructidor had to be filled. The constitutional party had
been rendered helpless, and the mass of the electors were in-
different. But among the Jacobins themselves there had arisen
an extreme party hostile to the directors. With the support of
many who were not Jacobins but detested the government, it
bade fair to gain a majority. Before the new deputies could
take their seats the directors forced through the councils the
law of the zznd Floreal (May n), annulling or perverting the
elections in thirty departments and excluding forty-eight deputies
by name. Even this coup d'tlat did not secure harmony between
the executive and the legislature. In the councils the directors
were loudly charged with corruption and misgovernment.
The retirement of Francois of Neufchateau and the choice of
Treilhard as his successor made no difference in the position
of the Directory.
While France was thus inwardly convulsed, its rulers were
doubly bound to husband the national strength and practise
moderation towards other states. Since December 1797 a con-
gress had been sitting at Rastadt to regulate the future of
Germany. That it should be brought to a successful conclusion
was of the utmost import for France. But the directors were
driven by self-interest to new adventures abroad. Bonaparte
was resolved not to sink into obscurity, and the directors were
anxious to keep him as far as possible from Paris; they therefore
sanctioned the expedition to Egypt which deprived the Republic
of its best army and most renowned captain. Coveting the
treasures of Bern, they sent Brune to invade Switzerland and
remodel its constitution; in revenge for the murder of General
Duphot, they sent Berthier to invade the papal states and erect
the Roman Republic; they occupied and virtually annexed
Piedmont. In all these countries they organized such an effective
pillage that the French became 'universally hateful. As the
armies were far below the strength required by the policy of un-
bounded conquest and rapine, the first permanent law of conscrip-
tion was passed in the summer of 1798. The attempt to enforce
it caused a revolt of the peasants in the Belgian departments.
The priests were made responsible and some eight thousand were
condemned in a mass to deportation, although much the greater
part escaped by the goodwill of the people. Few soldiers were
obtained by the conscription, for the government was as weak
as it was tyrannical.
Under these circumstances Nelson's victory of Aboukir (ist
of August), which gave the British full command of the Mediter-
ranean and secluded Bonaparte in Egypt, was the signal
for a second coalition. Naples, Austria, Russia and ^, ad
Turkey joined Great Britain against France. Ferdinand coalition.
of Naples, rashly taking the offensive before his allies
were ready, was defeated and forced to seek a refuge in Sicily.
In January 1799 the French occupied Naples and set up the
Parthenopean republic. But the consequent dispersion of their
weak forces only exposed them to greater peril. At home the
Directory was in a most critical position. In the elections of
April 1709 a large number of Jacobins gained seats. A little
later Rewbell retired. It was imperative to fill his place with a
man of ability and influence. The choice fell upon Sit-yes, who
had kept aloof from office and retained not only his immeasur-
able self-conceit but the respect of the public. Sieyes felt that
i68
FRENCH REVOLUTION
tory dis-
credited.
the Directory was bankrupt of reputation, and he intended to be
far more than a mere member of a board. He hoped to concen-
trate power in his own hands, to bridle the Jacobins,and to remodel
the constitution. With the help of Barras he proceeded to rid
himself of the other directors. An irregularity having been
discovered in Treilhard's election, he retired, and his place was
taken by Gohier. Merlin of Douai and La Revelliere Lepeaux
were driven to resign in June. They were succeeded by Moulin
and Ducos. The three new directors were so insignificant that
they could give no trouble, but for the same reason they were of
little service.
Such a government was ill fitted to cope with the dangers then
gathering round France. The directors having resolved on the
Preach offensive in Germany, the French crossed the Rhine
reverses, early in March, but were defeated by the archduke
The Direc- Charles at Stockach on the 2 sth. The congress at Ras-
tadt, which had sat for fifteen months without doing
anything, broke up in April and the French envoys
were murdered by Austrian hussars. In Italy the allies took the
offensive with an army partly Austrian, partly Russian under the
command of Suvarov. After defeating Moreau at Cassano on
the ayth of April, he occupied Milan and Turin. The republics
established by the French in Italy were overthrown, and the
French army retreating from Naples was defeated by Suvarov
on the Trebbia. Thus threatened with invasion on her German
and Italian frontiers, France was disabled by anarchy within.
The finances were in the last distress; the anti-religious policy
of the government kept many departments on the verge of revolt;
and commerce was almost suspended by the decay of roads and
the increase of bandits. There was no real political freedom,
yet none of the ease or security which enlightened despotism
can bestow. The Terrorists lifted their heads in the Council of
Five Hundred. A Law of Hostages, which was really a new Law
of Suspects, and a progressive income tax showed the temper of
the majority. The Jacobin Club was reopened and became
once more the focus of disorder. The Jacobin press renewed the
licence of Hebert and Marat. Never since the outbreak of
the Revolution had the public temper been so gloomy and
desponding.
In this extremity Sieyes chose as minister of police the old
Terrorist Fouche, who best understood how to deal with his
brethren. Fouche closed the Jacobin Club and deported a
number of journalists. But like his predecessors Sieyes felt
that for the revolution which he meditated he must have the
help of a soldier. As his man of action he chose General Joubert,
one of the most distinguished among French officers. Joubert
was sent to restore the fortune of the war in Italy. At Novi on
the i $th of August he encountered Suvarov. He was killed
at the outset of the battle and his men were defeated. After
this disaster the French held scarcely anything south of the Alps
save Genoa. The Russian and Austrian governments then
agreed to drive the enemy out of Switzerland and to invade
France from the east. At the same time Holland was assailed
by the joint forces of Great Britain and Russia. But the second
coalition, like the first, was doomed to failure by the narrow
views and conflicting interests of its members. The invasion
of Switzerland was baffled by want of concert between Austrians
and Russians and by Massena's victory at Zurich on the 25th
and 26th of September. In October the British and the Russians
were forced to evacuate Holland. All immediate danger to
France was ended, but the issue of the war was still in suspense.
The directors had been forced to recall Bonaparte from Egypt.
He anticipated their order and on the pth of October landed at
Fr6jus.
Dazzled by his victories in the East the public forgot that the
Egyptian expedition was ending in calamity. It received him
with an ardour which convinced Sieyes that he was
Coup d'etat tn e indispensable soldier. Bonaparte was ready to act,
BramaJre* but at n ' s own ilme an( ^ * OT n ' s own en( ^ s - Since the
close of the Convention affairs at home and abroad
had been tending more and more surely to the establishment
of a military dictatorship. Feeling his powers equal to such an
office he only hesitated about the means of attainment. At first
he thought of becoming a director; finally he decided upon a
partnership with Sieyes. They resolved to end the actual govern-
ment by a fresh coup d'ttat. Means were to be taken for removing
the councils from Paris to St Cloud, where pressure could more
easily be applied. Then the councils would be induced to
decree a provisional government by three consuls and the
appointment of a commission to revise the constitution. The
pretext for this irregular proceeding was to be a vast Jacobin
conspiracy. Perhaps the gravest obstacles were to be expected
from the army. Of the generals, some, like Jourdan, were honest
republicans; others, like Bernadotte, believed themselves
capable of governing France. With perfect subtlety Bonaparte
worked on the feelings of all and kept his own intentions
secret.
On the morning of the i Sth Brumaire (November 9) the Ancients,
to whom that power belonged, decreed the transference of the
councils to St Cloud. Of the directors, Sieyes and his friend
Ducos had arranged to resign; Barras was cajoled and bribed
into resigning; Gohier and Moulins, who were intractable, found
themselves imprisoned in the Luxemburg palace and helpless.
So far all had gone well. But when the councils met at St Cloud
on the following day, the majority of the Five Hundred showed
themselves bent on resistance, and even the Ancients gave
signs of wavering. When Bonaparte addressed the Ancients,
he lost his self-possession and made a deplorable figure. When
he appeared among the Five Hundred, they fell upon him with
such fury that he was hardly rescued by his officers. A motion
to outlaw him was only baffled by the audacity of the president,
his brother Lucien. At length driven to undisguised violence, he
sent in his grenadiers, who turned out the deputies. Then the
Ancients passed a decree which adjourned the Councils for three
months, appointed Bonaparte, Sieyes and Ducos provisional
consuls, and named the Legislative Commission. Some tractable
members of the Five Hundred were afterwards swept up and
served to give these measures the confirmation of their House.
Thus the Directory and the Councils came to their unlamented
end. A shabby compound of brute force and imposture, the i8th
Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, nay applauded, by the
French nation. Weary of revolution, men sought no more than
to be wisely and firmly governed.
Although the French Revolution seemed to contemporaries
a total break in the history of France, it was really far otherwise.
Its results were momentous and durable in proportion Q eaen i
as they were the outcome of causes which had been estimate oi
working long. In France there had been no historic the Revol-
preparation for political freedom. The desire for such uUoa -
freedom was in the main confined to the upper classes. During
the Revolution it was constantly baffled. No Assembly after
the states-general was freely elected and none deliberated in
freedom. After the Revolution Bonaparte established a mon-
archy even more absolute than the monarchy of Louis XIV. But
the desire for uniformity, for equality and for what may be
termed civil liberty was the growth of ages, had been in many
respects nurtured by the action of the crown and its ministers,
and had become intense and general. Accordingly it determined
the principal results of the Revolution. Uniformity of laws
and institutions was enforced throughout France. The legal
privileges formerly distinguishing different classes were sup-
pressed. An obsolete and burthensome agrarian system was
abolished. A number of large estates belonging to the crown, the
clergy and the nobles were broken up and sold at nominal
prices to men of the middle or lower class. The new jurisprudence
encouraged the multiplication of small properties. The new
fiscal system taxed men according to their means and raised
no obstacle to commerce within the national boundaries. Every
calling and profession was made free to all French citizens, and
in the public service the principle of an open career for talent
was adopted. Religious disabilities vanished, and there was
well-nigh complete liberty of thought. It was because Napoleon
gave a practical form to these achievements of the Revolution
and ensured the public order necessary to their continuance that
FRENCH REVOLUTION
169
tke majority of Frenchmen endured so long the fearful sacrifices
which his policy exacted.
That a revolution largely inspired by generous and humane
feeling should have issued in such havoc and such crimes is a
paradox which astounded spectators and still perplexes the
historian. Something in the cruelty of the French Revolution
may be ascribed to national character. From the time when
Burgundians and Armagnacs strove for dominion down to the
last insurrection of Paris, civil discord in France has always been
cruel. More, however, was due to the total dissolution of society
which followed the meeting of the states-general. In the course
of the Revolution we can discover no well-organized party, no
governing mind. Mirabeau had the stuff of a great statesman,
and Danton was capable of statesmanship. But these men were
not followed or obeyed save by accident or for a moment. Those
who seemed to govern were usually the sport of chance, often
the victims of their colleagues. Neither Royalists nor Feuillants
nor Girondins had the instinct of government. In the chaotic
state of France all ferocious and destructive passions found ample
scope. The same conditions explain the triumph of the Jacobins.
Devoid of wisdom and virtue in the highest sense, they at least
understood how power might be seized and kept. The Reign
of Terror was the expedient of a party which knew its weakness
and unpopularity. It was not necessary either to secure the
lasting benefits of the Revolution or to save France from dis-
memberment; for nine Frenchmen out of ten were agreed on
both of these points and were ready to lay down their lives for
the national cause.
In the history of the French Revolution the influence which
it exerted upon the surrounding countries demands peculiar
attention. The French professed to act upon principles of
universal authority, and from an early date they began to seek
converts outside their own limits. The effect was slight upon
England, which had already secured most of the reforms desired
by the French, and upon Spain, where the bulk of the people
were entirely submissive to church and king. But in the Nether-
lands, in western Germany and in northern Italy, countries which
had attained a degree of civilization resembling that of France,
where the middle and lower classes had grievances and aspirations
not very different from those of the French, the effect was pro-
found. Fear of revolution at home was one of the motives
which led continental sovereigns to attack revolution in France.
Their incoherent efforts only confirmed the Jacobin supremacy.
Wherever the victorious French extended their dominion, they
remodelled institutions in the French manner. Their sway
proved so oppressive that the very classes which had welcomed
them with most fervour soon came to long for their expulsion.
But revolutionary ideas kept their charm. Under Napoleon the
essential part of the changes made by the Republic was preserved
in these countries also. Moreover the effacement of old
boundaries, the overthrow of ancestral governments, and the
invocation, however hollow, of the sovereignty of the people,
awoke national feeling which had slumbered long and prepared
the struggle for national union and independence in the igth
century.
See also FRANCE, sections History and Lena and Institutions.
For the leading figures in the Revolution see their biographies under
separate headings. Particular phases, facts, and institutions of
the period are also separately dealt with, e.g. ASSIGNATS, CON-
VENTION. THE NATIONAL, JACOBINS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The MS. authorities for the history of the
French Revolution are exceedingly copious. The largest collection
M in the Archives Nationales in Paris, but an immense number of
documents are to be found in other collections in Paris and the
provinces. The printed materials are so abundant and varied that
any brief notice of them must be imperfect.
The condition of France and the state of public opinion at the
beginning of the Revolution may be studied in the printed collections
o( Cahiert. The OMeri were the statements of 'grievances drawn
up for the guidance of deputies to the States-General by those who
had elected them. In every bailliage and ttntehausste each estate
drew up its own cahier and the cahiers of the Third Estate were con-
denied from separate cahiers drawn up by each parish in the district.
Tin* the cahiers of the Third Estate number many thousands, the
greater part of which have not yet been printed. Among the collec-
tion* printed we may mention Let Election! et lei colliers de Paris
en 1789, by C. L. Oiassin (4 vols., Paris. 1888) ; Cahiers de plaintes et
daleances des parowes de la province de Maine, by A. Bellee and
V. Duchemin (4 voU., Le Mans, 1881-1893); Cahiers de doleances
de 1789 dans le dfpartement du Pas-de-Calais, by H. Luriquet (a vols.,
Arras, 1801); Cahirrs des (xiroisses et communauUs du bailliage
d'Autun, by A_. Charmasse (Autun, 1895). New collections are
printed from time to time. A more general collection of cahiers
than any above named is given in vols. i.-vi. of the Archive} parle-
mentaires. The cahiers must not be read in a spirit of absolute faith,
as they were influenced by certain models circulated at the time of
the elections and by popular excitement, but they remain an author-
ity of the utmost value and a mine of information as to old France.
Reference should also be made to the works of travellers who visited
France at the outbreak of the Revolution. Among these Arthur
Young's Travels in France during the years 1787, 1788 and 1789 (a
vols., Bury St Edmunds, 1792-1794) are peculiarly instructive.
For the history of the Assemblies during the Revolution a main
authority is their Proces verbaux or Journals; those of the Con-
stituent Assembly in 75 vols., those of the Legislative Assembly in
16 vols.; those of the Convention in 74 vols., and those of the
Councils under the Directory in 99 vols. See also the Archives parle-
mentaires edited by J. Mavidal and E. Laurent (Paris, 1867, and
the following years); the Histoire parlementaire de la Revolution,
by P. J. B. Buchez and P. C. Roux (Paris, 1838), and the Histoire
de la Revolution par deux amis de la libertf (Pans, 1792-1803).
The newspapers, of which a few have been mentioned in the text,
were numerous. They are useful chiefly as illustrating the ideas and
passions of the time, for they give comparatively little information
as to facts and that little is peculiarly inaccurate. The ablest of
the Royalist journals was Mallet du Pan's Mercure de France.
Pamphlets of the Revolution period number many thousands.
Such pamphlets as Mourner's Nouvelles Observations sur les Utats-
Genfraux de France and Sieyes's Qu'est-ce que le Tiers lat had a
notable influence on opinion. The richest collections of Revolution
pamphlets are in the Bibliotheque Nationale of Paris and in the
British Museum.
The contemporary memoirs, &c., already published are numerous
and fresh ones are always coming forth. A few of the best known
and most useful are, for the Constituent Assembly, the memoirs of
Bailly, of Ferrteres, of Malouet. The Correspondence of Mirabeau
with the Count de la March, edited by Bacourt (3 vols., Paris, 1851),
is especially valuable. Dumont's Recollections of Mirabeau and
the Diary and Letters of Gouverneur Morris give the impressions of
foreigners with peculiar advantages for observing. For the Legis-
lative Assembly and the Convention the memoirs of Madame
Roland, of Bertrand de Molleville, of Barbarpux, of Buzot, of Louvet,
of Dumouriez are instructive. For the Directory the memoirs of
Barras, of La Revelliere Lepeaux and of Thibaudeau deserve mention.
The memoirs of Lafayette are useful. Those of Talleyrand are
singularly barren, the result, no doubt, of deliberate suppression.
The memoirs of the marquise de La Rochejacquelein are important for
the war of La Vendee. The most notable Jacobins have seldom left
memoirs, but the works of Robespierre and St Just enable us to form
a clearer conception of the authors. The correspondence of the
count of Mercy- Argenteau, the imperial ambassador, with Joseph II.
and Kaunitz, and the correspondence of Mallet du Pan with the court
of Vienna, are also instructive. But the contemporary literature of
the French Revolution requires to be read in an unusually critical
spirit. At no other historical crisis have passions been more fiercely
excited; at none have shameless disregard of truth and blind
credulity been more common.
Among later works based on these original materials the first
place belongs to general histories. In French Louis Blanc's Histoire
de la Revolution (12 vols., Paris, 1847-1862), and Michelet's Histoire
de la Revolution Franfaise (9 vols., Paris, 1847-1853), are the most
elaborate of the older works. Michelet's book is marked by great
eloquence and power. In H. Taine's Origines de la France contem-
poraine (Paris, 1876-1894^ three volumes are devoted to the Revolu-
tion. They show exceptional talent and industry, but their value
is impaired by the spirit of system and by strong prepossessions.
F. A. M. Mignet's Histoire de (a Revolution Franfaise (2 vols., Paris,
1861), short and devoid of literary charm, has the merits of learning
and judgment and is still useful. F. A. Aulard's Histoire politique
de la Revolution Franfaise (Paris, 1901) is a most valuable precis of
political history, based on deep knowledge and lucidly set forth,
although not free from bias. The volume on the Revolution in
Lavisse and Rambaud's Histoire generate de I'Europe (Paris, 1896)
is the work of distinguished scholars using the latest information.
In English, general histories of the Revolution are few. Carlyle's
famous work, published in 1837, is more of a prose epic than a
history, omitting all detail which would not heighten the imaginative
effect and tinged by all the favourite ideas of the author. Some
fifty years later H. M. Stephens published the first (1886) and second
(1892) volumes of a History of the French Revolution. They are
marked by solid learning and contain much information. Volume
viii. of the Cambridge Modern^ History, published in 1904, contains a
general survey of the Revolution.
The most notable German work is H. von Sybel's Geschickte der
Revolutionsteit (5 vols., Stuttgart, 1853-1879). It is strongest in
iyo
FRENCH REVOLUTION
those parts which relate to international affairs and foreign policy.
There is an English translation.
None of the general histories of the Revolution above named is
really satisfactory. The immense mass of material has not yet been
thoroughly sifted; and the passions of that age still disturb the
judgment of the historian. More successful have been the attempts
to treat particular aspects of the Revolution.
The foreign relations of France during the Revolution have been
most ably unravelled by A. Sorel in V Europe et la Revolution Fran-
gaise (8 vols., Paris, 1885-1904) carrying the story down to the
settlement of Vienna. Five volumes cover the years 1789-1799.
The financial history of the Revolution has been traced by C.
Gomel, Histoire financiere de 1'Assemblee Constituante (2 vols., Paris,
1897), and R. Stourm, Les Finances de I'Ancien Regime et de la
Revolution (2 vols., Paris, 1885).
The relations of Church and State are sketched in E. Pressense's
L'elise et la Revolution Frangaise (Paris, 1889).
The general legislation of the period has been discussed by Ph.
Sagnac, La Legislation civile de la Revolution Franfaise (Paris, 1898).
The best work upon the social life of the period is the Histoire de
la societe franfaise sous la Revolution, by E. and J. de Goncourt
(Paris, 1889). For military history see A. Duruy, L'Armee royale
en 1789 (Paris, 1888) ; E. de Hauterive, L'Armee sous la Revolution,
1789^-1794 (Paris, 1894); A. Chuquet, Les Guerres de la Revolution
(Paris, 1886, &c.). See also the memoirs and biographies of the
distinguished soldiers of the Republic and Empire, too numerous
for citation here.
Modern lives of the principal actors in the Revolution are numer-
ous. Among the most important are Memoires de Mirabeau, by
L. de Montigny (Paris, 1834); Les Mirabeau, by L. de Lomenie
(Paris, 1880-1891); H. L. de Lanzac de Laborie's Jean Joseph
Mounter (Paris, 1889); B. Mallet's Mallet du Pan and the French
Revolution (London, 1902); Robinet's Danton (Paris, 1889);
Hamel's Histoire de Robespierre (Paris, 1865-1867) and Histoire de
St-Just (2 vols., Brussels, 1860); A. Bigeon, Sieyes (Paris, 1893);
Memoirs of Carnot, by his son (2 vols., Paris, 1861-1864).
For fuller information see M. Tourneux, Les Sources biblio-
graphiques de I'histoire de la Revolution Franc,aise (Paris, 1898, etc.),
and Bibliographic de I'histoire de Paris pendant la Revolution (Paris,
1890, etc.). (F. C. M.)
French Republican Calendar. Among the changes made
during the Revolution was the substitution of a new calendar,
usually called the revolutionary or republican calendar, for the
prevailing Gregorian system. Something of the sort had been
suggested in 1785 by a certain 'Riboud, and a definite scheme
had been promulgated by Pierre Sylvain Marechal (1750-1803)
in his Almanack des honnUes gens (1788). The objects which
the advocates of a new calendar had in view were to strike a
blow at the clergy and to divorce all calculations of time from
the Christian associations with which they were loaded, in short,
to abolish the Christian year; and enthusiasts were already
speaking of " the first year of liberty " and " the first year of the
republic " when the national convention took up the matter in
1793. The business of drawing up the new calendar was en-
trusted to the president of the committee of public instruction,
Charles Gilbert Romme (1750-1795), who was aided in the work
by the mathematicians Gaspard Monge and Joseph Louis
Lagrange, the poet Fabre d'Eglantine and others. The result
of their labours was submitted to the convention in September;
it was accepted, and the new calendar became law on the sth
of October 1793. The new arrangement was regarded as begin-
ning on the 22nd of September 1792, this day being chosen
because on it the republic was proclaimed and because it was
in this year the day of the autumnal equinox.
By the new calendar the year of 365 days was divided into
twelve months of thirty days each, every month being divided
into three periods of ten days, each of which were called decades,
and the tenth, or last, day of each decade being a day of rest.
It was also proposed to divide the day on the decimal system,
but this arrangement was found to be highly inconvenient and
it was never put into practice. Five days of the 365 still re-
mained to be dealt with, and these were set aside for national
festivals and holidays and were called Sans-culoltides. They
were to fall at the end of the year, i.e. on the five days between
the I7th and the 2ist of September inclusive, and were called
the festivals of virtue, of genius, of labour, of opinion and of
rewards. A similar course was adopted with regard to the
extra day which occurred once in every four years, but the first
of these was to fall in the year III., i.e. in 1795, and not in 1796,
the leap year in the Gregorian calendar. This day was set apart
for the festival of the Revolution and was to be the last of the
Sans-culottides. Each period of four years was to be called a
Franciade.
Some discussion took place about the nomenclature of the
new divisions of time. Eventually this work was entrusted to
Fabre d'Eglantine, who gave to each month a name taken from
some seasonal event therein. Beginning with the new year on
the 22nd of September, the autumn months were Vendemiaire,
the month of vintage, Brumaire, the months of fog, and Frimaire,
AN II.
I793-I794-
AN III.
1794-1795.
AN IV.
1795-1796.
AN V.
1796-1797.
AN VI.
1797-1798.
AN VII.
1798-1799.
AN VIII.
1799-1800.
AN IX.
1800-1801.
Vendemiaire
Brumaire .
Frimaire .
Niv&se
Pluvifise .
Vent&se .
Germinal .
Floreal
Prairial
Messidor .
Thermidor
Fructidor .
22 Sept. 1793
22 Oct.
21 Nov.
21 Dec.
2ojanv. 1794
19 Fevr.
21 Mars
20 Avr.
20 Mai
19 Juin
19 Juil.
1 8 Aoflt
22 Sept. 1794
22 Oct.
21 Nov.
21 Dec.
20 Janv. 1795
19 Fevr.
21 Mars
20 Avr.
20 Mai
19 Juin
19 Juil.
1 8 Aoflt
23 Sept. 1795
23 Oct.
22 NOV.
22 Dec.
21 Janv. 1796
20 Fevr.
21 Mars
20 Avr.
20 Mai
19 Juin
19 Juil.
1 8 Aoflt
22 Sept. 1796
22 Oct.
21 Nov.
21 Dec.
20 Janv. 1797
19 Fevr.
21 Mars
20 Avr.
20 Mai
19 Juin
19 Juil.
1 8 Aoflt
22 Sept. 1797
22 Oct.
21 Nov.
21 Dec.
20 Janv. 1798
19 Fev.
21 Mars
20 Avr.
20 Mai
19 Juin
19 Juil.
1 8 Aoflt
22 Sept. 1798
22 Oct.
21 Nov.
21 Dec.
20 Janv. 1799
19 Fev.
21 Mars
20 Avr.
20 Mai
19 Juin
19 Juil.
1 8 Aoflt
23 Sept. 1799
23 Oct.
22 Nov.
22 Dec.
21 Janv. 1800
20 Fev.
22 Mars
21 Avr.
21 Mai
20 Juin
20 Juil.
19 Aoflt
23 Sept. 1800
23 Oct.
22 Nov.
22 Dec.
21 Janv. 1801
20 Fev.
22 Mars
21 Avr.
21 Mai
20 Juin
20 Juil.
19 Aout
I Sam-culottides
6
1 7 Sept. 1794
1 7 Sept. 1795
22
17 Sept. 1796
1 7 Sept. 1797
17 Sept. 1798
17 Sept. 1799
22
18 Sept. 1800
18 Sept. 1801
ANX.
1801-1802.
AN XI.
1802-1803.
AN XII.
1803-1804.
AN XIII.
1804-1805.
AN XIV.
1805.
Vendemiaire
Brumaire
Frimaire .
Niv6se .
Pluvidse .
Ventfise .
Germinal .
Floreal . . .
Prairial .
Messidor
Thermidor
Fructidor
23 Septembre 1801
23 Octobre
22 Novembre
22 Decembre
21 Janvier 1802
20 Fevrier
22 Mars
21 Avril
21 Mai
20 Juin
20 Juillet
19 Aoflt
23 Septembre 1802
23 Octobre
22 Novembre
22 Decembre
21 Janvier 1803
20 Fevrier
22 Mars
21 Avril
21 Mai
20 Juin
20 Juillet
19 Aoflt
24 Septembre 1803
24 Octobre
23 Novembre
23 Decembre
22 Janvier 1804
21 Fevrier
22 Mars
21 Avril
21 Mai %
20 Juin
20 Juilllet
19 Aoflt
23 Septembre 1804
23 Octobre
22 Novembre
22 Decembre
21 Janvier 1805
20 Fevrier
22 Mars
21 Avril
21 Mai
20 Juin
20 Juillet
19 Aoflt
23 Septembre 1805
23 Octobre ,,
22 Novembre
22 Decembre
I Sans-culottides .
6
1 8 Septembre 1802
1 8 Septembre 1803
23
1 8 Septembre 1804
18 Septembre 1805
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
171
the month of frost. The winter months were .\iv6sr. the
aowy, PltmAse, the rainy, and Venloie, the windy month; then
followed the spring months, Germinal, the month of buds,
Plortiil, the month of flowers, and Prairial, the month of meadows;
and lastly the summer months, Utssidor, the month of reaping,
Tkrrmidor, the month of heat, and Fruttidor, the month of fruit.
To the days Fabre d' Eglantine gave names which retained the
idea of their numerical order, calling them Primedi, Duodi, &c.,
the last day of the ten, the day of rest, being named Dccadi.
The new order was soon in force in France and the new method
was employed in all public documents, but it did not last many
yean. In September 1805 it was decided to restore the Gregorian
calendar, and the republican one was officially discontinued
on the ist of January 1806.
It will easily be seen that the connecting link between the old and
the new calendars is very slight indeed and that the expression of
a date in one calendar in terms of the other is a matter of some diffi-
culty. A simple method of doing this, however, is afforded by the
table on the preceding page, which is taken from the article by J.
Dubourdieu in La Grande kitcyclopedit.
Thus Robespierre was executed on 10 Thermidor An II., i.e. the
38th of July 1794. The insurrection of 12 Germinal An III. took
place on the 1st of April 1795. The famous 18 Brumaire An VIII.
fell on the oth of November 1799, and the coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor
An V. on the 4th of September 1797.
For a complete concordance of the Gregorian and the republican
calendars see Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, tome iii. (Leiden, 1889);
also G. Villain. " Le Calendrier republicain," in La Revolution
for 1884-1885. (A. W. H.*)
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS (1792-1800), the general
name for the first part of the series of French wars which went on
continuously, except for some local and temporary cessations
of hostilities, from the declaration of war against Britain in 1792
to the final overthrow of Napoleon in 1815. The most important
of these cessations viz. the peace of 1801-1803 closes the
" RevolOiionary " and opens the " Napoleonic " era of land
warfare, for which see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, PENINSULAR
WAR and WATERLOO CAMPAIGN. The naval history of the period
is divided somewhat differently; the first period, treated below,
is 1792-1709; for the second, 1700-1815, see NAPOLEONIC
CAMPAIGNS.
France declared war on Austria on the 2oth of April 1792.
But Prussia and other powers had allied themselves with Austria
in view of war, and it was against a coalition and not a single
power that France found herself pitted, at the moment when the
" emigration," the ferment .of the Revolution, and want of
material and of funds had thoroughly disorganized her army.
The first engagements were singularly disgraceful. Near Lille
the French soldiers fled at sight of the Austrian outposts, crying
Ntms sommes Irakis, and murdered their general (April 29).
The commanders- in-chief of the armies that were formed became
one after another " suspects "; and before a serious action had
been fought, the three armies of Rochambeau, Lafayette and
Liickner had resolved themselves into two commanded by
Dumouriez and Kellermann. Thus the disciplined soldiers of the
Allies had apparently good reason to consider the campaign
before them a military promenade. On the Rhine, a combined
army of Prussians, Austrians, Hessians and emigres under the
duke of Brunswick was formed for the invasion of France, flanked
by two smaller armies on its right and left, all three being under
the supreme command of the king of Prussia. In the Netherlands
the Austrians were to besiege Lille, and in the south the Pied-
montese also took the field. The first step, taken against
Brunswick's advice, was the issue (July 25) of a proclamation
which, couched in terms in the last degree offensive to the French
nation, generated the spirit that was afterwards to find ex-
pression in the " armed nation " of 1793-4, and sealed the fate
of Louis XVI. The duke, who was a model sovereign in his own
principality, sympathized with the constitutional side of the
Revolution, while as a soldier he had no confidence in the success
of the enterprise. After completing its preparations in the
leisurely manner of the previous generation, his army crossed
the French frontier on the igth of August. Longwy was easily
captured; and the Allies slowly marched on to Verdun, which
was more indefensible even than Longwy. The commandant,
Colonel Beaurepaire, shot himself in despair, and the place
surrendered on the jrd of September. Brunswick now began his
march on Paris and approached the denies of the Argonne.
But Dumouriez, who had been training his raw troops at
Valenciennes in constant small engagements, with the purpose
of invading Belgium, now threw himself into the Argonne by a
rapid and daring flank march, almost under the eyes of the
Prussian advanced guard, and barred the Paris road, summoning
Kellermann to his assistance from Metz. The latter moved but
slowly, and before he arrived the northern part of the line of
defence had been forced. Dumouriez, undaunted, changed front
so as to face north, with his right wing on the Argonne and his
left stretching towards Chalons, and in this position Kellermann
joined him at St Menchould on the i9th of September.
Brunswick meanwhile had passed the northern defiles and had
then swung round to cut off Dumouriez from Chalons. At the
moment when the Prussian manoeuvre was nearly
completed, Kellermann, commanding in Dumouriez's
momentary absence, advanced his left wing and took up a posi-
tion between St Menehould and Valmy. The result was the
world-renowned Cannonade of Valmy (September 20, 1792).
Kellermann's infantry, nearly all regulars, stood steady. The
French artillery justified its reputation as the best in Europe,
and eventually, with no more than a half-hearted infantry
attack, the duke broke off the action and retired. This trivial
engagement was the turning-point of the campaign and a land-
mark in the world's history. Ten days later, without firing
another shot, the invading army began its retreat. Dumouriez's
pursuit was not seriously pressed; he occupied himself chiefly
with a series of subtle and curious negotiations which, with the
general advance of the French troops, brought about the com-
plete withdrawal of the enemy from the soil of France.
Meanwhile, the French forces in the south had driven back
the Piedmontese and had conquered Savoy and Nice. Another
French success was the daring expedition into Germany
made by Custine from Alsace. Custine captured Mainz ""W*-
itself on the 2ist of October and penetrated as far as Frankfurt.
In the north the Austrian siege of Lille had completely failed,
and Dumouriez now resumed his interrupted scheme for the
invasion of the Netherlands. His forward movement, made as
it was late in the season, surprised the Austrians, and he disposed
of enormously superior forces. On the 6th of November he won
the first great victory of the war at Jemappes near Mons and, this
time advancing boldly, he overran the whole country from Namur
to Antwerp within a month.
Such was the prelude of what is called the " Great War " in
England and the " Epop6e " in France. Before going further
it is necessary to summarize the special features of the French
army in leadership, discipline, tactics, organization and move-
ment which made these campaigns the archetype of modern
warfare.
At the outbreak of the Revolution the French army, like other
armies in Europe, was a " voluntary " long-service army, augmented
to some extent in war by drafts of militia.
One of the first problems that the Constituent Assembly took
upon itself to solve was the nationalization of this strictly royal and
professional force, and as early as October 1780 the word _.
Conscription " was heard in its debates. But it was
decreed nevertheless that free enlistment alone befitted ^t'i796
a free people, and the regular army was left unaltered
in form. However, a National Guard came into existence side by
side with it, and the history of French army organization in the
next few years is the history of the fusion of these two elements.
The first step, as regards the regular army, was the abolition of
proprietary rights, the serial numbering of regiments throughout
the Army, and the disbandmcnt of the Mai.wn du rot. The
next was the promotion of deserving soldiers to fill the numerous
vacancies caused by the emigration. Along with these, however,
there came to the surface many incompetent leaders, favourites in
the political clubs of Paris, &c., and the old strict discipline became
impossible owing to the frequent intervention of the civil authorities
in matters affecting it, the denunciation of generals, and especially
the wild words and wild behaviour of " Volunteer " (embodied
national guard) battalions.
When war came, it was soon found that the regulars had fallen
too low in numbers and that the national guard demanded too high
172
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS UN THE NETHERLANDS
service
a/the
"Amal-
gam."
pay, to admit of developing the expected field strength. Arms,
discipline, training alike were wanting to the new levies, and the
repulse of Brunswick was effected by manoeuvring and fighting on
the old lines and chiefly with the old army. The cry of La patrie
en danger, after giving, at the crisis, the highest moral support to
the troops in the front, dwindled away after victory, and the French
government contented itself with the half-measures that had,
apparently, sufficed to avert the peril. More, when the armies went
into winter quarters, the Volunteers claimed leave of absence and
went home.
But in the spring of 1793, confronted by a far more serious peril,
the government took strong measures. Universal liability was
asserted, and passed into law. Yet even now whole classes obtained
exemption and the right of substitution as usual forced the burden
of service on the poorer classes, so that of the 100,000 men called
on for the regular army and 200,000 for the Volunteers, only some
180,000 were actually raised. Desertion, generally regarded as the
curse of professional armies, became a conspicuous vice of the
defenders of the Republic, except at moments when a supreme crisis
called forth supreme devotion moments which naturally were
more or less prolonged in proportion to the gravity of the situation.
Thus, while it almost disappeared in the great effort of 1793-1794,
when the armies sustained bloody reverses in distant wars of conquest,
as in 1799, it promptly rose again to an alarming height.
While this unsatisfactory general levy was being made, defeats,
defections and invasion in earnest came in rapid succession, and to
, deal with the almost desperate emergency, the ruthless
' Committee of Public Safety sprang into existence. " The
levy is to be universal. Unmarried citizens and widowers
without children of ages from 1 8 to 25 are to be called up
first," and 450,000 recruits were immediately obtained by
this single act. The complete amalgamation of the regular
and volunteer units was decided upon. The white uniforms of the line
gave place to the blue of the National Guard in all arms and services.
The titles of officers were changed, and in fact every relic of the old
regime, save the inherited solidity of the old regular battalions, was
swept away. This rough combination of line and volunteers therefore
for the " Amalgam was not officially begun until 1794 must be
understood when we refer to the French army of Hondschoote
or of Wattignies. It contained, by reason of its universality and also
because men were better off in the army than put of it if they stayed
at home they went in daily fear of denunciation and the guillotine
the best elements of the French nation. To some extent at any rate
the political arrivistes had been weeded out, and though the informer,
here as elsewhere, struck unseen blows, the mass of the army gradually
evolved its true leaders and obeyed them. It was, therefore, an army
of individual citizen-soldiers of the best type, welded by the enemy's
fire, and conscious of its own solidarity in the midst of the Revolu-
tionary chaos.
After 1794 the system underwent but little radical change until
the end of the Revolutionary period. Its regiments grew in military
value month by month and attained their highest level in the great
campaign of 1796. In 1795 the French forces (now all styled
National Guard) consisted of 531,000 men, of whom 323,000 were
infantry (100 3-battalion demi-brigades), 97,000 light infantry
(30 demi-brigades), 29,000 artillery, 20,000 engineers and 59,000
cavalry. This novel army developed novel fighting methods,
above all in the infantry. This arm had just received a new drill-
book, as the result of a prolonged controversy (see INFANTRY)
between the advocates of " lines " and " columns," and this drill-book,
while retaining the principle of the line, set controversy at rest by
admitting battalion columns of attack, and movements at the
" quick (100-120 paces to the minute) instead of at the " slow "
march (76) . On these two prescriptions, ignoring the rest, the practical
troop leaders built up the new tactics little by little, and almost un-
consciously. The process of evolution cannot be stated exactly, for
the officers learned to use and even to invent now one form, now
another, according to ground and circumstances. But the main
stream of progress is easily distinguishable.
The earlier battles were fought more or less according to the drill-
book, partly in line for fire action, partly in column for the bayonet
T ctlc attack. But line movements required the most accurate
drill, and what was attainable after years of practice
with regulars moving at the slow march was wholly impossible
for new levies moving at 120 paces to the minute. When, therefore,
the line marched off, it broke up into a shapeless swarm of individual
firers. This was the form, if form it can be called, of the tactics of
1703 " horde-tactics," as they have quite justly been called and
a few such experiences as that of Hondschoote sufficed to suggest the
need of a remedy. This was found in keeping as many troops as
possible out of the firing line. From 1794 onwards the latter becomes
thinner and thinner, and instead of the drill-book form, with half the
army firing in line (practically in hordes) and the other half in support
in columns, we find the rear lines becoming more and more important
and numerous, till at last the fire of the leading line (skirmishers)
becomes insignificant, and the decision rests with the bayonets
of the closed masses in rear. Indeed, the latter often used mixed
line and column formations, which enabled them not only to charge,
but to fire close-order volleys absolutely regardless of the skirmishers
in front. In other words, the bravest and coolest marksmen were let
loose to do what damage they could, and the rest, massed in close
order, were kept under the control of their officers and only exposed
to the dissolving influence of the fight when the moment arrived to
deliver, whether by fire or by shock, the decisive blow.
The cavalry underwent little change in its organization and tactics,
which remained as in the drill-books founded on Frederick's practice.
But except in the case of the hussars, who were chiefly .
Alsatians, it was thoroughly disorganized by the emigra-
tion or execution of the nobles who had officered it, and
for long it was incapable of facing the hostile squadrons
in the open. Still, its elements were good, it was fairly well trained,
and mounted, and not overwhelmed with national guard drafts, and
like the other arms it duly evolved and obeyed new leaders.
In artillery matters this period, 1792-1796, marks an important
progress, due above all to Gribeauval (q.t.) and the two du Teils,
Jean Pierre (1722-1794) and Jean (1733-1820) who were Napoleon's
instructors. The change was chiefly in organization and equipment
the great tactical development of the arm was not to come until
the time of the Grande Armee and may be summarized as the
transition from battalion guns and reserve artillery to batteries of
horse and field."
The engineers, like the artillery, were a technical and non-noble
corps. They escaped, therefore, most of the troubles of the Revolu-
tion indeed the artillery and engineer officers, Napoleon and Carnot
amongst them, were conspicuous in the political regeneration of
France and the engineers carried on with little change the traditions
of Vaubanand Cormontaingne(see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT).
Both these corps were, after the Revolution as before it, the best in
Europe, other armies admitting their superiority and following their
precepts.
In all this the army naturally outgrew its old " linear " organiza-
tion. Temporary divisions, called for by momentary necessities,
placed under selected generals and released from the detailed super-
vision of the commander-in-chief , soon became, though in an irregular
and haphazard fashion, permanent organisms, and by 1796 the
divisional system had become practically universal. The next step,
as the armies became fewer and larger, was the temporary grouping
of divisions; this too in turn became permanent, and bequeathed
to the military world of to-day both the army corps and the capable,
self-reliant and enterprising subordinate generals, for whom the
old linear organization had no room.
This subdivision of forces was intimately connected with the
general method of making war adopted by the " New French,"
as their enemies called them. What astonished the Allies most
of all was the number and the velocity of the Repub-
licans. These improvised armies had in fact nothing to
delay them. Tents were unprocurable for want of money, O ^ 0er
untransportable for want of the enormous number of war f anf
wagons that would have been required, and also un-
necessary, for the discomfort that would have caused wholesale
desertion in professional armies was cheerfully borne by the men of
1793-1794.. Supplies for armies of then unheard-of size could not
be carried: in convoys, and the French soon became familiar with
" living on the country." Thus 1793 saw the birth of the modern
system of war rapidity of movement, full development of national
strength, bivouacs and requisitions, and force, as against cautious
manoeuvring, small professional armies, tents and full rations, and
chicane. The first represented the decision-compelling spirit, the
second the spirit of risking little to gain a little. Above all, the
decision-compelling spirit was reinforced by the presence of the
emissaries of the Committee of Public Safety, the " representatives
on mission " who practically controlled the guillotine. There were
civil officials with the armies of the Allies too, but their chief function
was not to infuse desperate energy into the military operations, but
to see that the troops did not maltreat civilians. Such were the
fundamental principles of the " New French " method of warfare,
from which the warfare of to-day descends in the direct line.
But it was only after a painful period of trial and error, of waste
and misdirection, that it became possible for the French army to
have evolved Napoleon, and for Napoleon to evolve the principles and
methods of war that conformed to and profited to the utmost by
the new conditions.
Those campaigns and battles of this army which are described in
detail in the present article have been selected, some on account of
their historical importance as producing great results ; others from
their military interest as typifying and illustrating the nature of
the revolution undergone by the art of war in these heroic years.
CAMPAIGNS IN THE NETHERLANDS
The year 1793 opened disastrously for the Republic. As a
consequence of Jemappes and Valmy, France had taken the
offensive both in Belgium,' which had been overrun by
Dumouriez's army, and in the Rhine countries, where Custine
had preached the new gospel to the sentimental and half-
discontented Hessians and Mainzers. But the execution of
Louis XVI. raised up a host of new and determined enemies.
England, Holland, Austria, Prussia, Spain and Sardinia promptly
IN THE NETHERLANDS] FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
formed the First Coalition. England poured out money in pro-
fusion to pay and equip her Allies' land armies, and herself began
the great struggle for the command of the sea (see Naval Opera-
tions, below).
In the Low Countries, while Dumouriez was beginning his
proposed invasion of Holland, Prince Josias of Saxe-Coourg,
the new Austrian commander on the Lower Rhine,
advanced with 42,000 men from the region of Cologne,
and drove in the various detachments that Dumouriez
had posted to cover his right. The French general thereupon
abandoned his advance into Holland, and, with what forces he
could gather, turned towards the Mouse. The two armies met
at Neerwinden (?..) on the i8th of March 1793. Dumouriez
had only a few thousand men more than his opponent, instead
of the enormous superiority he had had at Jemappes. Thus the
enveloping attack could not be repeated, and in a battle on equal
fronts the old generalship and the old armies had the advantage.
Dumouriez was thoroughly defeated, the house of cards collapsed,
and the whole of the French forces retreated in confusion to the
strong line of border fortresses, created by Louis XIV. and
Vauban. 1 Dumouriez, witnessing the failure of his political
schemes, declared against the Republic, and after a vain attempt
to induce his own army to follow his example, fled (April 5) into
the Austrian lines. The leaderless Republicans streamed back
to Valenciennes. There, however, they found a general. Picot
(comte de) Dampierre was a regimental officer of the old army,
who, in spite of his vanity and extravagance, possessed real
loyalty to the new order of things, and brilliant personal courage.
At the darkest hour he seized the reins without orders and without
reference to seniority, and began to reconstruct the force and
the spirit of the shattered army by wise administration and
dithyrambic proclamations. Moreover, he withdrew it well
behind Valenciennes out of reach of a second reverse. The
region of Dunkirk and Cassel, the camp of La Madeleine near
Lille, and Bouchain were made the rallying points of the various
groups, the principal army being at the last-named. But the
blow of Neerwinden had struck deep, and the army was for long
incapable of service, what with the general distrust, the mis-
conduct of the newer battalions, and the discontent of the old
white-coated regiments that were left ragged and shoeless to
the profit of the " patriot " corps. " Beware of giving horses
to the ' Hussars of Liberty,' " wrote Carnot, " all these new
corps are abominable."
France was in fact defenceless, and the opportunity existed
for the military promenade to Paris that the allied statesmen had
imagined in 1792. But Coburg now ceased to be a purely
Austrian commander, for one by one allied contingents, with
instructions that varied with the political aims of the various
governments, began to arrive. Moreover, he had his own views
as to the political situation, fearing especially to be the cause of
the queen's death as Brunswick had been of the king's, and
negotiated for a settlement. The story of these negotiations
should be read in Chuquet's Valenciennes it gives the key to
many mysteries of the campaign and shows that though the
revolutionary spirit had already passed all understanding,
enlightened men such as Coburg and his chief-of-staff Mack
sympathized with its first efforts and thought the constitution
of 1791 a gain to humanity. " If you come to Paris you will
find 80,000 patriots ready to die," said the French negotiators.
" The patriots could not resist the Austrian regulars," replied
Coburg, " but I do not propose to go to Paris. I desire to see
a stable government, with a chief, king or other, with whom
we can treat." Soon, however, these personal negotiations
were stopped by the emperor, and the idea of restoring
order in France became little more than a pretext
for a general intrigue amongst the confederate powers,
each seeking to aggrandize itself at France's expense.
" If you wish to deal with the French," observed Dumouriez
ironically to Coburg, " talk ' constitution.' You may beat them
but you cannot subdue them." And their subjugation was
becoming less and less possible as the days went on and men
'For the following operations ee map inSpxNlSHSuccESSiON WAR.
/<*
talked of the partition of France as a question of the moment
like the partition of Poland a pretension that even the Emigres
resented.
Coburg's plan of campaign was limited to the objects acceptable
to all the Allies alike. He aimed at the conquest of a first-class
fortress Lille or Valenciennes and chiefly for this reason.
War meant to the burgher of Germany and the Netherlands a
special form of haute politique with which it was neither his
business nor his inclination to meddle. He had no more com-
punction, therefore, in selling his worst goods at the best price
to the army commissaries than in doing so to his ordinary
customers. It followed that, owing to the distance between
Vienna and Valenciennes, and the exorbitant prices charged by
carters and horse-owners, a mere concentration of Austrian
troops at the latter place cost as much as a campaign, and the
transport expenses rose to such a figure that Coburg's first duty
was to find a strong place to serve as a market for the country-
side and a depot for the supplies purchased, and to have it as
near as possible to the front to save the hire of vehicles. As for
the other governments which Coburg served as best he could,
the object of the war was material concessions, and it would be
easy to negotiate for the cession of Dunkirk and Valenciennes
when the British and Austrian colours already waved there.
The Allies, therefore, instead of following up their advantage over
the French field army and driving forward on the open Paris
road, set their faces westward, intending to capture Valenciennes,
Le Quesnoy, Dunkirk and Lille one after the other.
Dampierre meanwhile grew less confident as responsibility
settled upon his shoulders. Quite unable to believe that Coburg
would bury himself in a maze of rivers and fortresses
when he could scatter the French army to the winds
by a direct advance, he was disquieted and puzzled
by the Austrian investment of Condi'-. This was
followed by skirmishes around Valenciennes, so unfavourable
to the French that their officers felt it would be madness to
venture far beyond the support of the fortress guns. But the
representatives on mission ordered Dampierre, who was re-
organizing his army at Bouchain, to advance and occupy Famars
camp, east of Valenciennes, and soon afterwards, disregarding
his protests, bade him relieve Conde at all costs. His skill,
though not commensurate with his personal courage and devotion,
sufficed to give him the idea of attacking Coburg on the right
bank of the Scheldt while Clerfayt, with the corps covering the
siege of Cond6, was on the left, and then to turn against Clerfayt
in fact, to operate on interior lines but it was far from being
adequate to the task of beating either with the disheartened
forces he commanded. On the ist of May, while Clerfayt was
held in check by a very vigorous demonstration, Coburg's
positions west of Qui6vrain were attacked by Dampierre himself.
The French won some local successes by force of numbers and
surprise, but the Allies recovered themselves, thanks chiefly to
the address and skill of Colonel Mack,and drove the Republicans
in disorder to their entrenchments. Dampierre's discouragement
now became desperation,and, urged on by the representatives
(who, be it said, had exposed their own lives freely enough in
the action), he attacked Clerfayt on the 8th at Raismes. The
troops fought far better in the woods and hamlets west of the
Scheldt than they had done in the plains to the east. But in
the heat of the action Dampierre, becoming again the brilliant
soldier that he had been before responsibility stifled him, risked
and lost his life in leading a storming party, and his men retired
sullenly, though this time in good order, to Valenciennes. Two
days later the French gave up the open field and retired into
Valenciennes. Dampierre's remains were by a vote of the
Convention ordered to be deposited in the Pantheon. But he
was a " ci-devant " noble, the demagogues denounced him as a
traitor, and the only honour finally paid to the man who had
tided over the weeks of greatest danger was the placing of his
bust, in the strange company of those of Brutus and Marat, in
the chamber of deputies.
Another pause folio wed, Coburg awaiting the British contingent
under the duke of York, and the Republicans endeavouring to
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS UN THE NETHERLANDS
assimilate the reinforcements of conscripts, for the most part
" undesirables," who now arrived. Mutiny and denunciations
augmented the confusion in the French camp. Plan of campaign
there was none, save a resolution to stay at Valenciennes in the
hope of finding an opportunity of relieving Conde and to create
diversions elsewhere by expeditions from Dunkirk, Lille and
Sedan. These of course came to nothing, and before they had
even started, Coburg, resuming the offensive, had stormed the
lines of Famars (May 24), whereupon the French army retired
to Bouchain, leaving not only Conde 1 but also Valenciennes to
resist as best they could. The central point of the new positions
about Bouchain was called Caesar's Camp. Here, surrounded
by streams and marshes, the French generals thought that their
troops were secure from the rush of the dreaded Austrian cavalry,
and Mack himself shared their opinion.
Custine now took command of the abjectly dispirited army,
the fourth change of command within two months. His first
task was to institute a severe discipline, and his prestige was so
great that his mere threat of death sentences for offenders pro-
duced the desired effect. As to operations, he wished for a
concentration of all possible forces from other parts of the frontier
towards Valenciennes, even if necessary at the cost of sacrificing
his own conquest of Mainz. But after he had induced the govern-
ment to assent to this, the generals of the numerous other armies
refused to give up their troops, and on the i7th of June the idea
was abandoned in view of the growing seriousness of the Vendean
insurrection (see VENDEE) . Custine, therefore, could do no more
than continue the work of reorganization. Military operations
were few. Coburg, who had all this time succeeded in remaining
concentrated, now found himself compelled to extend leftwards
towards Flanders, 2 for Custine had infused some energy into the
scattered groups of the Republicans in the region of Douai,
Lille and Dunkirk and during this respite the Paris Jacobins
sent to the guillotine both Custine and his successor La Marliere
before July was ended. Both were " ci-devant " nobles and, so
far as is ascertainable, neither was guilty of anything worse than
attempts to make his orders respected by, and himself popular
with, the soldiers. By this time, owing to the innumerable
denunciations and arrests,the confusion in the Army of the North
was at its height, and no further attempt was made either to
relieve Valenciennes and Cond6, or to press forward from Lille
and Dunkirk. Cond6, starved out as Coburg desired, capitulated
on the roth of June, and the Austrians, who had done their work
as soldiers, but were filled with pity for their suffering and
distracted enemies, marched in with food for the women and
children. Valenciennes, under the energetic General Ferrand,
held out bravely until the fire of the Allies became
intolerable, and then the civil population began to
cieaaea. plot treachery, and to wear the Bourbon cockade in
the open street. Ferrand and the representatives
with him found themselves obliged to surrender to the duke of
York, who commanded the siege corps, on the 28th of July,
after rejecting the first draft of a capitulation sent in by the
duke and threatening to continue the defence to the bitter end.
Impossible as this was known to be for Valenciennes seemed
to have become a royalist town Ferrand's soldierly bearing
carried the day, and honourable terms were arranged. The
duke even offered to assist the garrison in repressing disorder.
Shortly after this the wreck of the field army was forced to
evacuate Caesar's Camp after an unimportant action (Aug. 7-8)
and retired on Arras. By this they gave up the direct defence
of the Paris road, but placed themselves in a " flank position "
relatively to it, and secured to themselves the resources and
reinforcements available in the region of Dunkirk - Lille.
1 Coburg refrained from a regular siege of Conde. He wished to
gain possession of the fortress in a defensible state, intending to use
it as his own depot later in the year. He therefore reduced it by
famine. During the siege of Valenciennes the Allies appear to have
been supplied from Mons.
* Hencetorth to the end of 1794 both armies were more or less
" in cordon," the cordon possessing greater or less density at any
particular moment or place, according to the immediate intentions
of the respective commanders and the general military situation.
Bouchain and Cambrai, Landrecies and Le Quesnoy, were left
to their own garrisons.
With this ended the second episode of the amazing campaign
of 1793. Military operations were few and spasmodic, on the
one side because the Allied statesmen were less concerned with
the nebulous common object of restoring order in France than
with their several schemes of aggrandisement, on the other
owing to the almost incredible confusion of France under the
r6gime of Danton and Marat. The third episode shows little
or no change in the force and direction of the allied efforts, but
a very great change in France. Thoroughly roused by disaster
and now dominated by the furious and bloodthirsty energy of
the terrorists, the French people and armies at last set before
themselves clear and definite objects to be pursued at all costs.
Jean Nicolas Houchard, the next officer appointed to command,
had been a heavy cavalry trooper in the Seven Years' War. His
face bore the scars of wounds received at Minden, and Hoachara
his bravery, his stature, his bold and fierce manner,
his want of education, seemed to all to betoken the ideal sans-
culotte general. But he was nevertheless incapable of leading
an army, and knowing this, carefully conformed to the advice
of his staff officers Berthelmy and Gay-Vernon, the latter of
whom, an exceptionally capable officer, had been Custine's chief
of staff and was consequently under suspicion. At one moment,
indeed, operations had to be suspended altogether because his
papers were seized by the civil authorities, and amongst them
were all the confidential memoranda and maps required for
the business of headquarters. It was the darkest hour. The
Vendeans, the people of Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon, were in
open and hitherto successful revolt. Valenciennes had fallen
and Coburg's hussar parties pressed forward into the Somme
valley. Again the Allies had the decision of the war in their
own hands. Coburg,indeed,was still afraid, on Marie Antoinette's
account, of forcing the Republicans to extremities, and on
military grounds too he thought an advance on Paris hazardous.
But, hazardous or not, it would have been attempted but for
the English. The duke of York had definite orders from his
government to capture Dunkirk at present a nest of corsairs
which interfered with the Channel trade, and in the future, it
was hoped, a second Gibraltar and after the fall of Valenciennes
and the capture of Caesar's Camp the English and Hanoverians
marched away, via Tournai and Ypres, to besiege the coast
fortress. Thereupon the king of Prussia in turn called off his
contingent for operations on the middle Rhine. Holland, too,
though she maintained her contingent in face of Lille (where
it covered Flanders), was not disposed to send it to join the
imperialists in an adventure in the heart of France. Coburg,
therefore, was brought to a complete standstill, and the scene
of the decision was shifted to the district between Lille and the
coast.
Thither came Carnot, the engineer officer who was in charge
of military affairs in the Committee of Public Safety and is
known to history as the " Organizer of Victory." His views of
the strategy to be pursued indicate either a purely geographical
idea of war, which does not square with his later principles and
practice, or, as is far more likely, a profound disbelief in the
capacity of the Army of the North, as it then stood, to fight a
battle, and they went no further than to recommend an inroad
into Flanders on the ground that no enemy would be encountered
there. This, however, in the event developed into an operation
of almost decisive importance, for at the moment of its inception
the duke of York was already on the march. Fighting en route
a very severe but successful action (Lincelles, Aug. 18) with the
French troops encamped near Lille, the Anglo-Hanoverians
entered the district densely intersected with canals and
morasses around Dunkirk and Bergues on the 2ist and 22nd.
On the right, by way of Furnes, the British moved towards
Dunkirk and invested the east front of the weak fortress, while
on the left the Hanoverian field marshal v. Freytag moved via
Poperinghe on Bergues. The French had a chain of outposts
between Furnes and Bergues, but Freytag attacked them
resolutely, and the defenders,except a brave handful who stood
IN THE NETHERLANDS] FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
17 S
to cross bayonets, fled in all directions. The east front of
Bergues was invested on the ajrd, and Freytag spread out his
forces to cover the duke of York's attack on Dunkirk,
his right being opposite Bergues and his centre at
Bambeke, while his left covered the space between Roosbrugge
and Ypres with a cordon of posts. Houchard was in despair
at the bad conduct of his troops. But one young general,
Jourdan, anticipating Houchard's orders, had already brought
a strong force from Lille to Cassel, whence he incessantly harried
Freytag's posts. Carnot encouraged the garrisons of Dunkirk
and Bergues, and caused the sluices to be opened. The moral
of the defenders rose rapidly. Houchard prepared to bring up
every available man of the Army of the North, and only waited
to make up his mind as to the direction in which his attack should
be made. The Allies themselves recognized the extreme danger
of their position. It was cut in half by the Great Morass, stretches
of which extended even to Furnes. Neither Dunkirk nor
Bergues could be completely invested owing to the inundations,
and Freytag sent a message to King George III. to the effect
that if Dunkirk did not surrender in a few days the expedition
would be a complete failure.
As for the French, they could hardly believe their good fortune.
Generals, staff officers and representatives on mission alike were
eager for a swift and crushing offensive. " ' Attack' and ' attack
in mass ' became the shibboleth and the catch-phrase of the
camps " (Chuquet), and fortresses and armies on other parts of
the frontier were imperiously called upon to supply large drafts
for the Army of the North. Gay-Vernon's strategical instinct
found expression in a wide-ranging movement designed to secure
the absolute annihilation of the duke of York's forces. Beginning
with an attack on the Dutch posts north and east of Lille, the
army was then to press forward towards Furnes, the left wing
holding Freytag's left wing in check, and the right swinging
inwards and across the line of retreat of both allied corps. At
that moment all men were daring, and the scheme was adopted
with enthusiasm. On the 28th of August, consequently, the
Dutch posts were attacked and driven away by the mobile
forces at Lille, aided by parts of the main army from Arras.
But even before they had fired their last shot the Republicans
dispersed to plunder and compromised their success. Houchard
and Gay-Vernon began to fear that their army would not emerge
successfully from the supreme test they were about to impose
on it, and from this moment the scheme of destroying the
English began to give way to the simpler and safer idea of
relieving Dunkirk. The place was so ill-equipped that after a
few days' siege it was in extremis, and the political importance of
its preservation led not merely the civilian representatives, but
even Carnot, to implore Houchard to put an end to the crisis at
once. On the 3Oth, Cassel, instead of Ypres, was designated as
the point of concentration for the " mass of attack." This
surprised the representatives and Carnot as much as it surprised
the subordinate generals, all of whom thought that there would
still be time to make the detour through Ypres and to cut off
the Allies' retreat before Dunkirk fell, But Houchard and Gay-
Vernon were no longer under any illusions as to the manoeuvring
power of their forces, and the government agents wisely left
them to execute their own plans. Thirty-seven thousand men
were left to watch Coburg and to secure Arras and Douai, and
the rest, 50,000 strong, assembled at Cassel. Everything was in
Houchard's favour could he but overcome the indiscipline of his
own army. The duke of York was more dangerous in appearance
than in reality as the result must infallibly have shown had
Houchard and Gay-Vernon possessed the courage to execute the
original plan and Freytag's covering army extended in a line
of disconnected posts from Bergues to Ypres.
Against the left and centre of this feeble cordon 40,000 men
advanced in many columns on the 6th of September. A confused
outpost fight, in which the various assailing columns
JJjj^fc, dissolved into excited swarms, ended, long after
nightfall, in the orderly withdrawal of the various
allied posts to Hondschoote. The French generals were occupied
the whole of next day in sorting out their troops, who had not
only completely wasted their strength against mere outposts,
but had actually consumed their rations and used up their
ammunition. On the 8th, the assailants, having more or less
recovered themselves, advanced again. They found Wallmoden
(who had succeeded Freytag, disabled on the 6th) entrenched on
cither side of the village of Hondschoote, the right resting on the
great morass and the left on the village of Leysele. Here was
the opportunity for the " attack in mass " that had been so freely
discussed; but Houchard was now concerned more with the
relief of Dunkirk than with the defeat of the enemy. He sent
away one division to Dunkirk, another to Bergues, and a third
towards Ypres, and left himself only some 20,000 men for the
battle. But Wallmoden had only 13,000 so great was the dis-
proportion between end and means in this ill-designed enterprise
against Dunkirk.
Houchard despatched a column, guided by his staff officer
Berthelmy, to turn the Hanoverians' left, but this column lost
Redrawn from a map in Fortocue't Hillary of the British Army, by pcrmisuoa
of Macmillan& Co., Ltd.
its way in the dense country about Loo. The centre waited
motionless under the fire of the allied guns near Hondschoote.
In vain the representative Delbrel implored the general to order
the advance. Houchard was obstinate, and ere long the natural
result followed. Though Delbrel posted himself in front of the
line, conspicuous by his white horse and tricoloured sash and
plume, to steady the men, the bravest left the ranks and skir-
mished forward from bush to bush, and the rest sought cover.
Then the allied commander ordered forward one regiment of
Hessians, and these, advancing at a ceremonial slow march,
and firing steady rolling volleys, scattered the Republicans before
them. At this crisis Houchard uttered the fatal word " retreat,"
but Delbrel overwhelmed him with reproaches and stung him into
renewed activity. He hurried away to urge forward the right
wing while Jourdan rallied the centre and led it into the fight
again. Once more Jourdan awaited in vain the order to advance,
and once more the troops broke. But at last the exasperated
Delbrel rose to the occasion. "You fear the responsibility,"
he cried to Jourdan; " well, I assume it. My authority overrides
the general's and I give you the formal order to attack at once ! "
Then, gently, as if to soften a rebuke, he continued, " You have
forced me to speak as a superior; now I will be your aide-de-
176
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS [IN THE NETHERLANDS
camp," and at once hurried off to bring up the reserves and to
despatch cavalry to collect the fugitives. This incident, amongst
many, serves to show that the representatives on mission were
no mere savage marplots, as is too generally assumed. They
were often wise and able men, brave and fearless of responsibility
in camp and in action. Jourdan led on the reserves, and the
men fighting in the bushes on either side of the road heard their
drums to right and left. Jourdan fell wounded, but Delbrel
headed a wild irregular bayonet charge which checked the
Hanoverians, and Houchard himself, in his true place as a
cavalry leader, came up with 500 fresh sabres and flung himself
on the Allies. The Hanoverians, magnificently disciplined
troops that they were, soon re-formed after the shock, but by
this time the fugitives collected by Delbrel's troopers, reanimated
by new hopes of victory, were returning to the front in hundreds,
and a last assault on Hondschoote met with complete success.
Hondschoote was a psychological victory. Materially, it
was no more than the crushing of an obstinate rearguard at
enormous expense to the assailants, for the duke of York was able
to withdraw while there was still time. Houchard had indeed
called back the division he had sent to Bergues, and despatched
it by Loo against the enemy's rear, but the movement was under-
taken too late in the day to be useful. The struggle was
practically a front to front battle, numbers and enthusiasm on
the one side, discipline, position and steadiness on the other.
Hence, though its strategical result was merely to compel the
duke of York to give up an enterprise that he should never
have undertaken, Hondschoote established the fact that the
" New French " were determined to win, at any cost and by sheer
weight and energy. It was long before they were able to meet
equal numbers with confidence, and still longer before they could
freely oppose a small corps to a larger one. But the nightmare
of defeats and surrenders was dispelled.
The influence of Houchard on the course of the operations
had been sometimes null, sometimes detrimental, and only
occasionally good. The plan and its execution were the work
of Berthelmy and Gay-Vernon, the victory itself was Jourdan's
and, above all, Delbrel's. To these errors, forgiven to a victor,
Houchard added the crowning offence of failure, in the reaction
after the battle, to pursue his advantage. His enemies in Paris
became more and more powerful as the campaign continued.
Having missed the great opportunity of crushing the English,
Houchard turned his attention to the Dutch posts about Menin.
Mealn. As far as the Allies were concerned Hondschoote was
a mere reverse, not a disaster, and was counter-
balanced in Coburg's eyes by his own capture of Le Quesnoy
(Sept. n). The proximity of the main body of the French to
Menin induced him to order Beaulieu's corps (hitherto at
Cysoing and linking the Dutch posts with the central group)
to join the prince of Orange there, and to ask the duke
of York to do the same. But this last meant negotiation, and
before anything was settled Houchard, with the army from
Hondschoote and a contingent from Lille, had attacked the
prince at Menin and destroyed his corps (Sept. 12-13).
After this engagement, which, though it was won by immensely
superior forces, was if not an important at any rate a complete
victory, Houchard went still farther inland leaving detachments
to observe York and replacing them by troops from the various
camps as he passed along the cordon in the hope of dealing
with Beaulieu as he had dealt with the Dutch, and even of
relieving Le Quesnoy. But in all this he failed. He had ex-
pected to meet Beaulieu near Cysoing, but the Austrian general
had long before gone northward to assist the prince of Orange.
Thus Houchard missed his target. Worse still, one of his pro-
tective detachments chanced to meet Beaulieu near Courtrai on the
15th, and was not only defeated but driven in rout from Menin.
Lastly, Coburg had already captured Le Quesnoy, and had also
repulsed a straggling attack of the Landrecies, Bouchain and other
French garrisons on the positions of his covering army (izth). 1
1 In the course of this the column from Bouchain, 451x1 strong, was
caught in the open at Ayesnes-le-Sec by 5 squadrons of the allied
cavalry and literally annihilated.
Houchard's offensive died away completely, and he halted
his army (45,000 strong excluding detachments) at Gaverelle,
half-way between Douai and Arras, hoping thereby to succour
Bouchain, Cambrai or Arras, whichever should prove to be
Coburg's next objective. After standing still for several days,
a prey to all the conflicting rumours that reached his ears, he
came to the conclusion that Coburg was about to join the duke
of York in a second siege of Dunkirk, and began to close on his
left. But his conclusion was entirely wrong. The Allies were
closing on their left inland to attack Maubeuge. Coburg drew in
Beaulieu, and even persuaded the Dutch to assist, the duke of
York undertaking for the moment to watch the whole of the
Flanders cordon from the sea to Tournai. But this concentra-
tion of force was merely nominal, for each contingent worked
in the interests of its own masters, and, above all, the siege
that was the object of the concentration was calculated to last
four weeks, i.e. gave the French four weeks unimpeded liberty
of .action.
Houchard was now denounced and brought captive to Paris.
Placed upon his trial, he offered a calm and reasoned defence of
his conduct, but when the intolerable word "coward " was hurled
at him by one of his judges he wept with rage, pointing to the
scars of his many wounds, and then, his spirit broken, sank into
a lethargic indifference, in which he remained to the end. He was
guillotined on the i6th of November 1793.
After Houchard's arrest, Jourdan accepted the command,
though with many misgivings, for the higher ranks were filled
by officers with even less experience than he had himself, equip-
ment and clothing was wanting, and, perhaps more important
still, the new levies, instead of filling up the depleted ranks of
the line, were assembled in undisciplined and half-armed hordes
at various frontier camps, under elected officers who had for the
most part never undergone the least training. The field states
showed a total of 104,000 men, of whom less than a third formed
the operative army. But an enthusiasm equal to that of
Hondschoote, and similarly demanding a plain, urgent and
recognizable objective, animated it, and although Jourdan and
Carnot (who was with him at Gaverelle, where the army had
now reassembled) began to study the general strategic situation,
the Committee brought them back to realities by ordering them
to relieve Maubeuge at all costs.
The Allies disposed in all of 66,000 men around the threatened
fortress, but 26,000 of these were actually employed in the
siege, and the remainder, forming the covering army,
extended in an enormous semicircle of posts facing ga ies.
west, south and east. Thus the Republicans, as before,
had two men to one at the point of contact(44,ooo against 2 1 ,000) ,
but so formidable was the discipline and steadiness of manoeuvre
of the old armies that the chances were considered as no more than
" rather in favour " of the French. Not that these chances
were seriously weighed before engaging. The generals might
squander their energies in the council chamber on plans of sieges
and expeditions, but in the field they were glad enough to seize
the opportunity of a battle which they were not skilful enough
to compel. It took place on the i$th and i6th of October, and
though the allied right and centre held their ground, on their left
the plateau of Wattignies (<?..), from which the battle derives its
name, was stormed on the second day, Carnot, Jourdan and the
representatives leading the columns in person. Coburg indeed
retired in unbroken order, added to which the Maubeuge garrison
had failed to co-operate with their rescuers by a sortie, 2 and the
duke of York had hurried up with all the men he could spare
from the Flanders cordon. But the Dutch generals refused to
advance beyond the Sambre, and Coburg broke up the siege of
Maubeuge and retired whence he had come, while Jourdan, so
far from pressing forward, was anxiously awaiting a counter-
attack, and entrenching himself with all possible energy. So
ended the episode of Wattignies, which, alike in its general
outline and in its details, gives a perfect picture of the character,
at once intense and spasmodic, of the " New French " warfare
in the days of the Terror.
1 One of the generals at Maubeuge, Chancel, was guillotined.
IN THE NETHERLANDS) FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
177
I 1794.
To complete the story of '93 it remains to sketch, very briefly,
the principal event* on the eastern and southern frontier* of Fran. .
These present, in the main, no special features, and all that it is
nett miry to retain of them is the fact of their existence. What this
multiplication of their tasks meant to the Committee of Public Safety
and to Carnot in particular it is impossible to realize. It was not
merely on the Sambre and the Scheldt, nor against one army of
heterogeneous allies that the Republic had to fight for life, but ag.im-i
Prussians and Hessians on the Rhine, Sardinians in the Alps,
Spaniards in the Pyrenees, and also (one might say, indeed, above all)
against Frenchmen in Vendee, Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon.
On the Rhine, the advance of a Prussian- Hessian army, 63,000
strong, rapidly drove back Custine from the Main into the valleys of
the Saar and the hauler. An Austrian corps under Wurmser soon
afterwards invaded Alsace. Here, as on the northern frontier, there
was a long period of trial and error, of denunciations and indiscipline,
mad of wholly trivial fighting, before the Republicans recovered
them selves. But in the end the ragged enthusiasts found their true
leader in Lazare Hoche, and, though defeated by Brunswick at
Pirrnasens and Kaiserslautern, they managed to develop almost
their full strength against Wurmser in Alsace. On the 26th of Decem-
ber the latter, who had already undergone a series of partial reverses,
was driven by main force from the lines of Weissenburg, after which
Hoche advanced into the Palatinate and delivered Landau, and
Pichegru moved on to recapture Mainz, which had surrendered
in Jury. On the Spanish frontier both sides indulged in a fruitless
war of posts in broken ground. The Italian campaign of 1793,
equally unprofitable, will be referred to below. Far more serious than
either was the insurrection of Vendee (.) and the counter-revolution
in the south of France, the principal incidents of which were the
terrible sieges of Lyons and Toulon.
For 1794 Carnot planned a general advance of all the northern
armies, that of the North (Pichegru) from Dunkirk-Cassel by
Ypres and Oudenarde on Brussels, the minor Army
of the Ardennes to Charleroi, and the Army of the
Moselle (Jourdan) to Liege, while between Charleroi
and Lille demonstrations were to be made against the hostile
centre. He counted upon little as regards the two armies near
the Meuse, but hoped to force on a decisive battle by the
advance of the left wing towards Ypres. Coburg, on the other
side, intended, if not forced to develop his strength on the Ypres
side, to make his main effort against the French centre about
Landrecies. This produced the siege of Landrecies, which need
not concern us, a forward movement of the French to Menin
and Courtrai which resulted in the battles of Tourcoing and
Tournai, and the campaign of Fleurus, which, almost fortuit-
ously, produced the long-sought decision.
The first crisis was brought about by the advance of the left
wing of the Army of the North, under Souham , to Menin-Courtrai.
This advance placed Souham in the midst of the enemy's right
wing, and at last stimulated the Allies into adopting the plan
that Mack had advocated, in season and out of season, since
before Neerwinden that of annihilating the enemy's army.
This vigorous purpose, and the leading part in its execution
played by the duke of York and the British contingent, give
these operations, to Englishmen at any rate, a living interest
which is entirely lacking in, say, the sieges of Le Qucsnoy and
Landrecies. On the other side, the " New French " armies and
their leaders, without losing the energy of 1793, had emerged from
confusion and inexperience, and the powers of the new army
and the new system had begun to mature. Thus it was a fair
trial of strength between the old way and the new.
In the second week of May the left wing of the Army of the
North the centre was towards Landrecies, and the right,
fused in the Army of the Ardennes, towards Charleroi found
itself interposed at Menin-Courtrai-Lille between two hostile
masses, the main body of the allied right wing about Tournai
and a secondary corps at Thick. Common-sense, therefore,
dictated a converging attack for the Allies and a series of rapid
radial blows for the French. In the allied camp common-sense
had first to prevail over routine, and the emperor's first orders
were for a raid of the Thielt corps towards Ypres, which his
advisers hoped would of itself cause the French to decamp.
But the duke of York formed a very different plan, and Feld-
zeugmeister Clerfayt, in command at Thielt, agreed to co-
operate. Their proposal was to surround the French on the Lys
with their two corps, and by the 1 51 h the emperor had decided to
use larger forces with the same object.
On that day Coburg himself, with 6000 men under Feldzeug-
nu-i>tcr Kinsky from the central (Landrecies) group, entered
Tournai and took up the general command, while ..,,i-,
another reinforcement under the archduke Charles annihii-
marched towards Orchies. Orders were promptly issued mlloa ,,
for a general offensive. Clerfayt's corps was to be ^*
between Rousselaer and Menin on the i6th, and the next day to force
its way across the Lys at Werwick and connect with the main
army. The main army was to advance in four columns. Thefirst
three, under the duke of York, were to move off, at daylight on the
1 7th, by Dottignies, Leers and Lannoy respectively to the line
Mouscron-Tourcoing-Mouveaux. The fourth and fifth under
Kinsky and the archduke Charles were to defeat the French
corps on the upper Marque, and then, leaving Lille on their left
and guaranteeing themselves by a cordon system against being
Sketch of Ffcnch pot4t*u> About
Courtrai, Tourcoing- & Lille
May i6th.,i794
cut off from Tournai (either by the troops just defeated or by the
Lille garrison), to march rapidly forward towards Werwick,
getting touch on their right with the duke of York and on their
left with Clerfayt, and thus completing the investing circle
around Souham's and Moreau's isolated divisions. Speed was
enjoined on all. Picked volunteers to clear away the enemy's
skirmishers, and pioneers to make good difficult places on the
roads, were to precede the heads of the columns. Then came
at the head of the main body the artillery with an infantry
escort. All this might have been designed by the Japanese for
the attack of some well-defined Russian position in the war of
1904. Outpost and skirmisher resistance was to be overpowered
the instant it was offered, and the attack on the closed bodies
of the enemy was to be initiated by a heavy artillery fire at the
earliest possible moment. But in 1904 the Russians stood still,
which was the last thing that the Revolutionary armies of 1794
would or could do. Mack's well-considered and carefully balanced
i 7 8
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS [IN THE NETHERLANDS
combinations failed, and doubtless helped to create the legend
of his incapacity, which finds no support either in the opinion
of Coburg, the representative of the old school, or in that of
Scharnhorst, the founder of the new.
Souham.who commanded in the temporary absence of Pichegru,
had formed his own plan. Finding himself with the major
part of his forces between York and Clerfayt, he had decided
to impose upon the former by means of a covering detach-
ment, and to fall upon Clerfayt near Rousselaer with the bulk
of his forces. This plan, based as it was on a sound calculation
of time, space, strength and endurance, merits close consideration,
for it contains more than a trace of the essential principles of
modern strategy, yet with one vital difference, that whereas,
in the present case, the factor of the enemy's independent will
wrecked the scheme, Napoleon would have guaranteed to himself,
before and during its development, the power of executing it
in spite of the enemy. The appearance of fresh allied troops
(Kinsky) on his right front at once modified these general
arrangements. Divining Coburg's intentions from the arrival
of the enemy near Pont-a-Marque and at Lannoy, he ordered
Bonnaud (Lille group, 27,000) to leave enough troops on the upper
Marque to amuse the enemy's leftmost columns, and with every
man he had left beyond this absolute minimum to attack the left
flank of the columns moving towards Tourcoing, which his weak
centre (12,000 men at Tourcoing, Mouscron and Roubaix) was
to stop by frontal defence. No role was as yet assigned to the
principal mass (50,000 under Moreau) about Courtrai.
Vandamme's brigade was to extend along the Lys from Menin to
Werwick and beyond, to deny as long as possible the passage to
Clerfayt.
This second plan failed like the first, because the enemy's
counter-will was not controlled. All along the line Coburg's
advance compelled the French to fight as they were without any
redistribution. But the French were sufficiently elastic to adapt
themselves readily to unforeseen conditions, and on Coburg's
side too the unexpected happened. When Clerfayt appeared
on the Lys above Menin, he found Werwick held. This was an
accident, for the battalion there was on its way to Menin,
and Vandamme, who had not yet received his new orders, was
still far away. But the battalion fought boldly, Clerfayt sent
for his pontoons, and ere they arrived Vandamme's leading
troops managed to come up on the other side. Thus it was not
till i A.M. on the i8th that the first Austrian battalions passed
the Lys.
On the front of the main allied group the " annihilation
plan " was crippled at the outset by the tardiness of the arch-
duke's (fifth or left) column. On this the smooth working of the
whole scheme depended, for Coburg considered that he must
defeat Bonnaud before carrying out his intended envelopment
of the Menin-Courtrai group (the idea of " binding " the enemy
by a detachment while the main scheme proceeded had not yet
arisen). The allied general, indeed, on discovering the back-
wardness of the archduke, went so far as to order all the other
columns to begin by swerving southward against Bonnaud, but
these were already too deeply committed to the original plan
to execute any new variation.
The rightmost column (Hanoverians) under von dem Bussche
moved on Mouscron, overpowering the fragmentary, if energetic,
resistance of the French advanced posts. Next on the left,
Lieutenant Field Marshal Otto moved by Leers and Watrelos,
driving away a French post at Lis (near Lannoy) on his left flank,
and entered Tourcoing. But meantime a French brigade had
driven von dem Bussche away from Mouscron, so that Otto felt
compelled to keep troops at Leers and Watrelos to protect his
rear, which seriously weakened his hold on Tourcoing. The
third column, led by the duke of York, advanced from Templeuve
on Lannoy, at the same time securing its left by expelling the
French from Willems. Lannoy was stormed by the British
Guards under Sir R. Abercromby with such vigour that the
cavalry which had been sent round the village to cut off the
French retreat had no time to get into position. Beyond Lannoy,
the French resistance, still disjointed, became more obstinate as
the ground favoured it more, and the duke called up the Austrians
from Willems to turn the right of the French position at Roubaix
by way of a small valley. Once again, however, the Guards dis-
lodged the enemy before the turning movement had taken effect.
A third French position now appeared, at Mouvaux, and this
seemed so formidable that the duke halted to rest his now
weary men. The emperor himself, however, ordered the advance
to be resumed, and Mouvaux too was carried by Abercromby.
It was now nightfall, and the duke having attained his objective
point prepared to hold it against a counter attack.
Kinsky meanwhile with the fourth column had made feints
opposite Pont-a-Tressin,and had forced the passage of the Marque
near Bouvines with his main body. But Bonnaud gave ground
so slowly that up to 4 P.M. Kinsky had only progressed a few
hundred paces from his crossing point. The fifth column, which
was behind time on the i6th, did not arrive at Orchies till dawn
on the I7th, and had to halt there for rest and food. Thence,
moving across country in fighting formation, the archduke
made his way to Pont-a-Marque. But he was unable to do more,
before calling a halt, than deploy his troops on the other side of
the stream.
So closed the first day's operations. The " annihilation plan "
had already undergone a serious check. The archduke and
Kinsky, instead of being ready for the second part of their task,
had scarcely completed the first, and the same could be said of
Clerfayt, while von dem Bussche had definitively failed. Only
the duke of York and Otto had done their share in the centre,
and they now stood at Tourcoing and Mouvaux isolated in the
midst of the enemy's main body, with no hope of support from
the other columns and no more than a chance of meeting Clerfayt.
Coburg's entire force was, without deducting losses, no more
than 53,000 for a front of 18 m., and only half of the enemy's
available 80,000 men had as yet been engaged. Mack sent a
staff officer, at i A.M., to implore the archduke to come up to
Lannoy at once, but the young prince was asleep and his suite
refused to wake him.
Matters did not, of course, present themselves in this light at
Souham's headquarters, where the generals met in an informal
council. The project of flinging Bonnaud's corps against the
flank of the duke of York had not received even a beginning of
execution, and the outposts, reinforced though they were from
the main group, had everywhere been driven in. All the sub-
ordinate leaders, moreover (except Bonnaud), sent in the most
despondent reports. " Councils of war never fight " is an old
maxim, justified in ninety-nine cases in a hundred. But this
council determined to do so, and with all possible vigour. The
scheme was practically that which Coburg's first threat had
produced and his first brusque advance had inhibited. Van-
damme was to hold Clerfayt, the garrison of Lille and a few
outlying corps to occupy the archduke and Kinsky, and in the
centre Moreau and Bonnaud, with 40,000 effectives, were to
attack the Tourcoing-Mouvaux position in front and flank at
dawn with all possible energy.
The first shots were fired on the Lys, where, it will be re-
membered, Clerfayt's infantry had effected its crossing in the
night. Vandamme, who was to defend the river, had ......
in the evening assembled his troops (fatigued by a Tourcoiag.
long march) near Menin instead of pushing on at once.
Thus only one of his battalions had taken part in the defence
of Werwick on the I7th, and the remainder were by this chance
massed on the flank of Clerfayt's subsequent line of advance.
Vandamme used his advantage well. He attacked, with perhaps
12,000 men against 21,000, the head and the middle of Clerfayt's
columns as they moved on Lincelles. Clerfayt stopped at once,
turned upon him and drove him towards Roncq and Menin.
Still, fighting in succession, rallying and fighting again,
Vandamme's regiments managed to spin out time and to
commit Clerfayt deeper and deeper to a false direction till it was
too late in the day to influence the battle elsewhere.
V. dem Bussche's column at Dottignies, shaken by the blow
it had received the day before, did nothing, and actually retreated
to the Scheldt. On the other flank, Kinsky and the archduke
IN IM. NMH.KIAM.M FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
179
Charles practically remained inactive despite repeated orders
to proceed to Lannoy. Kinsley waiting for the archduke, and the
latter using up his limr anil tones in clatiorating a protective
cordon all around his left and rear. Both alleged that " thctroops
were tired," but there was a stronger motive. It was felt that
Belgium was about to be handed over to France as the price
of peace, and the generals did not see the force of wasting
toldkrs on a lost cause. There remained the two centre columns,
Otto's and the duke of York's. The orders of the emperor to
the duke were that he should advance to establish communica-
tion with Clerfayt at Lincelles. Having thus cut off the French
Court rai group, he was to initiate a general advance to crush it,
in which all the allied columns would take part, Clerfayt, York
and Otto in front, von dem Bussche on the right flank and the
archduke and Kinsky in support. These airy schemes were
destroyed at dawn on the iSth. Macdonald's brigade carried
Tourcoing at the first rush, though Otto's guns and the volleys
of the infantry checked its further progress. Malbrancq's
brigade swarmed around the duke of York's entrenchments at
Mouvaux, while Bonnaud's mass from the side of Lille passed
the Marque and lapped round the flanks of the British posts at
Roubaix and Lannoy. The duke had used up his reserves in
assisting Otto, and by 8 A.M. the positions of Roubaix, Lannoy
and Mouvaux were isolated from each other. But the Allies
fought magnificently, and by now the Republicans were in
confusion, excited to the highest pitch and therefore extremely
sensitive to waves of enthusiasm or panic; and at this moment
Clerfayt was nearing success, and Vandamme fighting almost
back to back with Malbrancq. Otto was able to retire gradually,
though with heavy losses, to Leers, before Macdonald's left
column was able to storm Watrelos, or Daendels' brigade, still
farther towards the Scheldt , could reach his rear. The resistance
of the Austrians gave breathing space to the English, who held
on to their positions till about 11.30, attacked again and again
by Bonnaud, and then, not without confusion, retired to join
Otto at Leers.
With the retreat of the two sorely tried columns and the
suspension of Clerfayt 's attack between Lincelles and Roncq,
the battle of Tourcoing ended. It was a victory of which the
young French generals had reason to be proud. The main
attack was vigorously conducted, and the two-to-onc numerical
superiority which the French possessed at the decisive point
is the best testimony at once to Souham's generalship and to
Vandamme's bravery. As for the Allies, those of them who took
part in the battle at all. generals and soldiers, covered themselves
with glory, but the inaction of two-thirds of Coburg's army was
the bankruptcy declaration of the old strategical system. The
Allies lost, on this day, about 4000 killed and wounded and 1 500
prisoners besides 60 guns. The French loss, which was probably
heavier, is not known. The duke of York defeated, Souham
at once turned his attention to Clerfayt, against whom he directed
all the forces he could gather after a day's " horde-tactics." The
Austrian commander, however, withdrew over the river un-
harmed. On the iqth be was at Rousselaer and Ingelminster, 9
or to m. north of Courtrai, while Coburg's forces assembled and
encamped in a strong position some 3 m. west and north-west of
Tournai, the Hanoverians remaining out in advance of the right
on the Espierre.
Souham's victory, thanks to his geographical position, had
merely given him air. The Allies, except for the loss of some
5500 men, were in no way worse off. The plan had failed, but
the army as a whole had not been defeated, while the troops of
the duke of York and Otto were far too well disciplined not to
take their defeat as " all in the day's work." Souham was still
on the Lys and midway between the two allied masses, able to
strike each in turn or liable to be crushed between them in pro-
portion as the opposing generals calculated time, space and
endurance accurately. Souham, therefore, as early as the ipth,
had decided that until Clerfayt had been pushed back to his
old positions near Thick he could not deal with the main body
of the Allies on the side of Tournai, and be had left Bonnaud
to bold the latter while he concentrated most of his forces
towards Courtrai. This move had the desired effect, for Clerfayt
retired without a contest, and on the aist of May Souham issued
his orders for an advance on Coburg's army, which, as he knew,
had meantime been reinforced. Vandamme alone was left to
face Clerfayt, and this time with outposts far out, at Ingelminster
and Roosebcke, so as to ensure his chief, not a few hours', but
two or three days' freedom from interference.
Pichegru now returned and took up the supreme command,
Souham remaining in charge of his own and Moreau's divisions.
On the extreme right, from Pont-d-Tressin, only
demonstrations were to be made; the centre, between
Baisieux and Estaimbourg, was to be the scene of the
holding attack of Bonnaud's command, while Souham, in con-
siderably greater density, delivered the decisive attack on the
allied right by St Leger and Warcoing. At Hclchin a brigade was
to guard the outer flank of the assailants against a movement by
the Hanoverians and to keep open communication with Courtrai
in case of attack from the direction of Oudenarde. The details of
the allied position were insufficiently known owing to the multi-
plicity of their advanced posts and the intricate and densely culti-
vated nature of the ground. The battle of Tournai opened in
the early morning of the 22nd and was long and desperately
contested. The demonstration on the French extreme right
was soon recognized by the defenders to be negligible, and the
allied left wing thereupon closed on the centre. There Bonnaud
attacked with vigour, forcing back the various advanced posts,
especially on the left, where he dislodged the Allies from Nechin.
The defenders of Templeuve then fell back, and the attacking
swarms a dissolved line of battle fringed the brook beyond
Templeuve, on the other side of which was the Allies' main
position, and even for a moment seized Blandain. Meanwhile
the French at Nechin, in concert with the main attack, pressed
on towards Ramegnies.
Macdonald's and other brigades had forced the Espierre
rivulet and driven von dem Bussche's Hanoverians partly over
the Scheldt (they had a pontoon bridge), partly southward.
The main front of the Allies was defined by the brook that flows
between Templeuve and Blandain, then between Ramegnies
and Pont-a-Chin and empties into the Scheldt near the last-named
hamlet. On this front till close on nightfall a fierce battle raged.
Pichegru's main attack was still by his left, and Pont-a-Chin was
taken and retaken by French, Austrians, British and Hanoverians
in turn. Between Blandain and Pont-a-Chin Bonnaud's troops
more than once entered the line of defence. But the attack was
definitively broken off at nightfall and the Republicans withdrew
slowly towards Lannoy and Leers. They had for the first time
in a fiercely contested " soldier's battle " measured their strength,
regiment for regiment, against the Allies, and failed, but by so
narrow a margin that henceforward the Army of the North
realized its own strength and solidity. The Army of the Revolu-
tion, already superior in numbers and imbued with the decision-
compelling spirit, had at last achieved self-confidence.
But the actual decision was destined by a curious process of
evolution to be given by Jourdan's far-distant Army of the
Moselle, to which we now turn.
The Army of the Moselle had been ordered toassemblc a striking
force on its left wing, without prejudicing the rest of its cordon
in Lorraine, and with this striking force to operate towards
Liege and Namur. Its first movement on Arlon, in April, was
repulsed by a small Austrian corps under Beaulieu that guarded
this region. But in the beginning of May the advance was
resumed though the troops were ill-equipped and ill-fed, and
requisitions had reduced the civil population to semi-starvation
and sullen hostility. We quote Jourdan's instructions to his
advanced guard, not merely as evidence of the trivial purpose
of the march as originally planned, but still more as an illustration
of the driving power that made the troops march at all, and of
the new method of marching and subsisting them.
Its commander was " to keep in mind the purpose of cutting
the communications between Luxemburg and Namur, and was
therefore to throw out strong bodies against the enemy daily and
at different points, to parry the enemy's movements by rapid
i8o
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS [IN THE NETHERLANDS
marches, to prevent any transfer of troops to Belgium, and lastly
to seek an occasion for giving battle, for cutting off his convoys
and for seizing his magazines." So much for the
P ur P se - The method of achieving it is defined as
en Liege, follows. " General Hatry, in order to attain the object
of these instructions, will have with him the minimum
of wagons. He is to live at the expense of the enemy as much
as possible, and to send back into the interior of the Republic
whatever may be useful to it; he will maintain his communica-
tions with Longwy, report every movement to me, and when
necessary to the Committee of Public Safety and to the minister
of war, maintain order and discipline, and firmly oppose every
sort of pillage." How the last of these instructions was to be
reconciled with the rest, Hatry was not informed. In fact, it
was ignored. " I am far from believing," wrote the representa-
tive on mission Gillet, " that we ought to adopt the principles
of philanthropy with which we began the war."
At the moment when, on these terms, Jourdan's advance was
resumed, the general situation east of the Scheldt was as follows:
The Allies' centre under Coburg had captured Landrecies, and
now (May 4) lay around that place, about 65,000 strong, while
the left under Raunitz (27,000) was somewhat north of Maubeuge,
with detachments south of the Sambre as far as the Meuse.
Beyond these again were the detachment of Beaulieu (8000)
near Arlon, and another, 9000 strong, around Trier. On the side
of the French, the Army of the Moselle (41,000 effectives) was
in cordon between Saargemiind and Longwy; the Army of the
Ardennes (22,000) between Beaumont and Givet; of the Army
of the North, the right wing (38,000) in the area Beaumont
Maubeuge and the centre (24,000) about Guise. In the aggregate
the allied field armies numbered 139,000 men, those of the
French 203,000. Tactically the disproportion was sufficient to
give the latter the victory, if, strategically, it could be made
effective at a given time and place. But the French had mobility
' as a remedy for over-extension, and though their close massing
on the extreme flanks left no more than equal forces opposite
Coburg in the centre, the latter felt unable either to go forward
or to close to one Sank when on his right the storm was brewing
at Menin and Tournai, and on his left Kaunitz reported the
gathering of important masses of the French around Beaumont.
Thus the initiative passed over to the French, but they missed
their opportunity, as Coburg had missed his in 1 793. Pichegru's
right was ordered to march on Mons, and his left to master the
navigation of the Scheldt so as to reduce the Allies to wagon-
drawn supplies the latter an objective dear to the 18th-century
general; while Jourdan's task, as we know, was to conquer the
Liege or Namur country without unduly stripping the cordon on
the Saar and the Moselle. Jourdan's orders and original purpose
were to get Beaulieu out of his way by the usual strategical
tricks, and to march through the Ardennes as rapidly as possible,
living on what supplies he could pick up from the enemy or the
inhabitants. But he had scarcely started when Beaulieu made
his existence felt by attacking a French post at Bouillon. There-
upon Jourdan made the active enemy, instead of Namur, his
first object.
The movement of the operative portion of the Army of the
Moselle began on the 2ist of May from Longwy through Arlon
towards Neufchateau. Irregular fighting, sometimes with the
Austrians, sometimes with the bitterly hostile inhabitants,
marked its progress. Beaulieu was nowhere forced into a battle.
But fortune was on Jourdan's side. The Austrians were a de-
tachment of Coburg's army, not an independent force, and when
threatened they retired towards Ciney, drawing Jourdan after
them in the very direction in which he desired to go. On the
28th the French, after a vain detour made in the hope of forcing
Beaulieu to fight " les esclaves n'osent pas se mesurer avec
des hommes libres," wrote Jourdan in disgust, reached Ciney,
and there heard that the enemy had fallen back to a strongly
entrenched position on the east bank of the Meuse near Namur.
Jourdan was preparing to attack them there, when considerations
of quite another kind intervened to change his direction, and
thereby to produce the drama of Charleroi and Fleurus which
military historians have asserted to be the foreseen result of the
initial plan.
The method of " living on the country " had failed lamentably
in the Ardennes, and Jourdan, though he had spoken of changing
his line of supply from Arlon to Carignan, then to Mezieres and
so on as his march progressed, was still actually living from hand
to mouth on the convoys that arrived intermittently from his
original base. When he sought to take what he needed from the
towns on the Meuse, he infringed on the preserves of the Army
of the Ardennes. 1 The advance, therefore, came for the moment
to a standstill, while Beaulieu, solicitous for the safety of Charleroi
in which fortress he had a magazine called up the outlying
troops left behind on the Moselle to rejoin him by way of Bastogne.
At the same moment (29th) Jourdan received new orders from
Paris (a) to take Dinant and Charleroi and to clear the country
between the Meuse and the Sambre, and (b) to attack Namur,
either by assault or by regular siege. In the latter case the bulk
of the forces were to form a covering army beyond the place,
to demonstrate towards Nivelles, Louvain and Liege, and to
serve at need as a support to the right flank of the Ardennes
Army. From these orders and from the action of the enemy
the campaign at last took a definite shape.
When the Army of the Moselle passed over to the left bank
of the Meuse, it was greeted by the distant roar of guns towards
Charleroi and by news that the Army of the Ardennes, Cbarlerol
which had already twice been defeated by Kaunitz,
was for the third time deeply and unsuccessfully engaged beyond
the Sambre. The resumption of the march again complicated
the supply question, and it was only slowly that the army
advanced towards Charleroi, sweeping the country before it
and extending its right towards Namur. But at last on the 3rd
of June the concentration of parts of three armies on the Sambre
was effected. Jourdan took command of the united force (Army
of the Sambre and Meuse) with a strong hand, the 40,000 new-
comers inspired fresh courage in the beaten Ardennes troops, and
in the sudden dominating enthusiasm of the moment pillaging
and straggling almost ceased. Troops that had secured bread
shared it with less fortunate comrades, and even the Liegois
peasantry made free gifts. of supplies. " We must believe," says
the French general staff of to-day, " that the idea symbolized
by the Tricolour, around which marched ever these sansculottes,
shoeless and hungry, unchained a mysterious force that preceded
our columns and aided the achievement of military success."
Friction, however, arose between Jourdan and the generals
of the Ardennes Army, to whom the representatives thought
it well to give a separate mission. This detachment of 18,000
men was followed by another, of 16,000, to keep touch with
Maubeuge. Deducting another 6000 for the siege of Charleroi,
when this should be made, the covering army destined to fight
the Imperialists dwindled to 55,000 out of 96,000 effectives.
Even now, we see, the objective was not primarily the enemy's
army. The Republican leaders desired to strike out beyond
the Sambre, and as a preliminary to capture Charleroi. They
would not , ho we ver, risk the loss of their connexion with Maubeuge
before attaining the new foothold.
Meanwhile, Tourcoing and Tournai had at last convinced
Coburg that Pichegru was his most threatening opponent, and
he had therefore, though with many misgivings, decided to
move towards his right, leaving the prince of Orange with not
more than 45,000 men on the side of Maubeuge-Charleroi-
Namur.
Jourdan crossed the Sambre on the izth of June, practically
unopposed. Charleroi was rapidly invested and the covering
army extended in a semicircular position. For the fourth
time the Allies counter-attacked successfully, and after a severe
struggle the French had to abandon their positions and their
siege works and to recross the Sambre (June 16). But the army
was not beaten. On the contrary, it was only desirous of having
its revenge for a stroke of ill-fortune, due, the soldiers said, to
1 Each of the fifteen armies on foot had been allotted certain
departments as supply areas, Jourdan's being of course far away in
Lorraine.
IN THE NETHERLANDS! FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
181
the fog and to the want of ammunition. The fierce threats of
St Just (who had joined the army) to fair* tomber Us tttcs
if more energy were not shown were unnecessary, and within
two days the army was advancing again. On the i8th Jourdan's
columns recrossed the river and extended around Charleroi
in the same positions as before. This time, having in view the
weariness of his troops and their heavy losses on the i6th, the
prince of Orange allowed the siege to proceed. His reasons for
so doing furnish an excellent illustration of the different ideas
mad capacities of a professional army and a " nation in arms."
" The Imperial troops," wrote General Alvintzi, " are very
fatigued. We have fought nine times since the loth of May,
we have bivouacked constantly, and made forced marches.
Further, we are short of officers." All this, it need hardly be
pointed out, applied equally to the French.
Charleroi , garrisoned by less than 3000 men, was intimidated
into surrender (isth) when the third parallel was barely estab-
lished. Thus the object of the first operations was achieved.
As to the next neither Jourdan nor the representatives seem to
have had anything further in view than the capture of more
fortresses. But within twenty-four hours events had deckled
for them.
Coburg had quickly abandoned his intention of dosing on
his right wing, and (after the usual difficulties with his Allies
on that side) had withdrawn 12,000 Austrians from the centre
of his cordon opposite Pichegru, and made forced marches to
join the prince of Orange. On the 24th of June he had collected
52,000 men at various points round Charleroi, and on the 25th
he set out to relieve the little fortress. But he was in complete
ignorance of the state of affairs at Charleroi. Signal guns were
fired, but the woods drowned even the roar of the siege batteries,
and at last a party under Lieutenant Radetzky made its way
through the covering army and discovered that the place had
fallen. The party was destroyed on its return, but Radetzky
was reserved for greater things. He managed, though twice
wounded, to rejoin Coburg with his bad news in the midst of
the battle of Fleurus.
On the 26th Jourdan's army (now some 73,000 strong) was still
posted in a semicircle of entrenched posts, 20 m. in extent,
round the captured town, pending the removal of the now un-
necessary pontoon bridge at Marchiennes and the selection of
a shorter line of defence.
Coburg was still more widely extended. Inferior in numbers
as be was, he proposed to attack on an equal front, and thus gave
himself, for the attack of an entrenched position,
an order of battle of three men to every two yards of
front, all reserves included. The Allies were to attack in five
columns, the prince of Orange from the west and north-west
towards Trazegnies and Monceau wood, Quasdanovich from the
north on Gosselies, Raunitz from the north-east, the archduke
Charles from the east through Fleurus, and finally Beaulieu
towards Lambusart . The scheme was worked out in such minute
detail and with so entire a disregard of the chance of unforeseen
incidents, that once be had given the executive command to move,
the Austrian general could do no more. If every detail worked
out as planned, victory would be his; if accidents happened
be could do nothing to redress them, and unless these righted
themselves (which was improbable in the case of the stiffly
organized old armies) he could only send round the order to break
off the action and retreat.
In these circumstances the battle of Fleurus is the sum rather
than the product of the various fights that took place between
each allied column and the French division that it met. The
prince of Orange attacked at earliest dawn and gradually drove
in the French left wing to Courcelles, Roux and Marchiennes,
but somewhat after noon the French, under the direction for the
most pan of Kleber, began a series of counterstrokes which
recovered the lost ground, and about 5, without waiting for
Coburg's instructions, the prince retired north-westward off
the battlefield. The French centre division, under Morlot, made
a gradual fighting retreat on Gosselies, followed up by the
Quasdanovich column and part of Kaunitz's force. No serious
impression was made on the defenders, chiefly because the brook
west of Mcllet was a serious obstacle to the rigid order of the
Allies and had to be bridged before their guns could be got over.
Kaunitz's column and Championnet's division met on the battle-
field of 1600. The French were gradually driven in from the
outlying villages to their main position between Heppignics and
Wangenies. Here the Allies, well led and taking every advantage
of ground and momentary chances, had the best of it. They
pressed the French hard, necessitated the intervention of such
small reserves as Jourdan had available, and only gave way to the
defenders' counlerstroke at the moment they received Coburg's
orders for a general retreat.
On the allied left wing the fighting was closer and more severe
than at any point. Beaulieu on the extreme left advanced upon
Velaine and the French positions in the woods to the south in
several small groups of all arms. Here were the divisions of the
Army of the Ardennes, markedly inferior in discipline and
endurance to the rest, and only too mindful of their four previous
reverses. For six hours, more or less, they resisted the oncoming
Allies, but then, in spite of the example and the despairing
appeals of their young general Marceau, they broke and fled,
leaving Beaulieu free to combine with the archduke Charles,
who carried Fleurus after obstinate fighting, and then pressed on
towards Campinaire. Hcau^icu took command of all the allied
forces on this side about noon, and from then to 5 P.M. launched
a series of terrible attacks on the French (Lefebvre's division,
part of the general reserve, and the remnant of Marceau 's troops)
above Campinaire and Lambusart. The disciplined resolution
of the imperial battalions, and the enthusiasm of the French
Revolutionaries, were each at their height. The Austrians came
on time after time over ground that was practically destitute of
cover. Villages, farms and fields of corn caught fire. The French
grew more and more excited " No retreat to-day!" they called
out to their leaders, and finally, clamouring to be led against the
enemy, they had their wish. Lefebvre seized the psychological
moment when the fourth attack of the Allies had failed, and
(though he did not know it) the order to retreat had come from
Coburg. The losses of the unit that delivered it were small,
for the charge exactly responded to the moral conditions of the
moment, but the proportion of killed to wounded (55 to 81) is
good evidence of the intensity of the momentary conflict.
So ended the battle. Coburg had by now learned definitely
that Charleroi had surrendered, and while the issue of the battle
was still doubtful for though the prince of Orange was beaten,
Beaulieu was in the full tide of success he gave (towards 3 P.M.)
the order for a general retreat. This was delivered to the various
commanders between 4 and 5, and these, having their men in
hand even in the heat of the engagement, were able to break off
the battle without undue confusion. The French were far too
exhausted to pursue them (they had lost twice as many men
as the Allies), and their leader had practically no formed body
at hand to follow up the victory, thanks to the extraordinary
dissemination of the army.
Tourcoing, Tournay and Fleurus represent the maximum result
achievable under the earlier Revolutionary system of making war,
and show the men and the leaders at the highest point of combined
steadiness and enthusiasm they ever reached that is, as a " Sans-
culotte " army. Fleurus was also the last great victory of the
French, in point of time, prior to the advent of Napoleon, and may
therefore be considered as illustrating the general conditions of
warfare at one of the most important points in its development.
The sequel of these battles can be tola in a few words. The Austrian
government had, it is said, long ago decided to evacuate the Nether-
lands, and Coburg retired over the Meuse, practically unpursued,
while the duke of York's forces fell back in good order, though
pursued by Pichegru through Flanders. The English contingent
embarked for home, thereat retired through Holland into Hanoverian
territory, leaving the Dutch troops to surrender to the victors. The
last phase of the pursuit reflected great glory on Pichegru, for it
was conducted in midwinter through a country bare of supplies and
densely intersected with dykes ana meres. The crowning incident
was the dramatic capture of the Dutch fleet, frozen in at the Texel,
by a handful of hussars who rode over the ice and browbeat the crews
of the well-armed battleships into surrender. It was many years
before a prince of Orange ruled again in the United provinces, while
the Austrian whitecoats never again mounted guard in Brussels.
l82
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS [17* IN GERMANY
The Rhine campaign of 1794, waged as before chiefly by the
Prussians, was not of great importance. General v. Mollendorf won a
victory at Kaiserslautern on the 23rd of May, but operations there-
after became spasmodic, and were soon complicated by Coburg's
retreat over the Meuse. With this event the offensive of the Allies
against the French Revolution came to an inglorious end. Poland
now occupied the thoughts of European statesmen, and Austria began
to draw her forces on to the east. England stopped the payment of
subsidies, and Prussia made the Peace of Basel on the 5th of April
1795. On the Spanish frontier the French under General Dugommier
(who was killed in the last battle) were successful in almost every
encounter, and Spain, too, made peace. Only the eternal enemies,
France and Austria, were left face to face on the Rhine,and elsewhere,
of all the Allies, Sardinia alone (see below under Italian Campaigns)
continued the struggle in a half-hearted fashion.
The operations of 1795 on the Rhine present no feature of the
Revolutionary Wars that other and more interesting campaigns
fail to show. Austria had two armies on foot under the general
command of Clerfayt, one on the upper Rhine, the other south of
the Main, while Mainz was held by an army of imperial contingents.
The French, Jourdan on the lower, Pichegru on the upper Rhine,
had as usual superior numbers at their disposal. Jourdan combined
a demonstrative frontal attack on Neuwied with an advance in force
via Dusseldorf, reunited his wings beyond the river near Neuwied,
and drove back the Austrians in a series of small engagements to the
Main, while Pichegru passed at Mannheim and advanced towards
the Neckar. But ere long both were beaten, Jourdan at Hochst
and Pichegru at Mannheim, and the investment of Mainz had to be
abandoned. This was followed by the invasion of the Palatinate
by Clerfayt and the retreat of Jourdan to the Moselle. The position
was further compromised by secret negotiations between Pichegru
and the enemy for the restoration of the Bourbons. The meditated
treason came to light early in the following year, and the guilty
commander disappeared into the obscure ranks of the royalist
secret agents till finally brought to justice in 1804.
THE CAMPAIGN or 1796 IN GERMANY
The wonder of Europe now transferred itself from the drama
of the French Revolution to the equally absorbing drama of a
great war on the Rhine. " Every day, for four terrible years,"
wrote a German pamphleteer early in 1796, " has surpassed the
one before it in grandeur and terror, and to-day surpasses all
in dizzy sublimity." That a manoeuvre on the Lahn should
possess an interest to the peoples of Europe surpassing that of
the Reign of Terror is indeed hardly imaginable, but there was a
good reason for the tense expectancy that prevailed everywhere.
France's policy was no longer defensive. She aimed at invading
and " revolutionizing " the monarchies and principalities of old
Europe, and to this end the campaign of 1796 was to be the great
and conclusive effort. The " liberation of the oppressed " had
its part in the decision, and the glory of freeing the serf easily
merged itself in the glory of defeating the serf's masters. But
a still more pressing motive for carrying the war into the enemy's
country was the fact that France and the lands she had overrun
could no longer subsist her armies. The Directory frankly told
its generals, when they complained that their men were starving
and ragged, that they would find plenty of subsistence beyond
the Rhine.
On her part, Austria, no longer fettered by allied contingents
nor by the expenses of a far distant campaign, could put forth
more strength than on former campaigns, and as war came
nearer home and the citizen saw himself threatened by " re-
volutionizing " and devastating armies, he ceased to hamper or
to swindle the troops. Thus the duel took place on the grandest
scale then known in the history of European armies. Apart
from the secondary theatre of Italy, the area embraced in the
struggle was a vast triangle extending from Dusseldorf to Basel
and thence to Ratisbon, and Carnot sketched the outlines in
accordance with the scale of the picture. He imagined nothing
less than the union of the armies of the Rhine and the Riviera
before the walls of Vienna. Its practicability cannot here be
discussed, but it is worth contrasting the attitude of contem-
poraries and of later strategical theorists towards it. The
former, with their empirical knowledge of war, merely thought
it impracticable with the available means, but the latter have
condemned it root and branch as " an operation on exterior
lines."
The scheme took shape only gradually. The first advance
was made partly in search of food, partly to disengage the
Palatinate, which Clerfayt had conquered in 1795. " If you
have reason to believe that you would find some supplies on
the Lahn, hasten thither with the greater part of your forces,"
wrote the Directory to Jourdan (Army of the Sambre-and-
Meuse, 72,000) on the 29th of March. He was to move at once,
before the Austrians could concentrate, and to pass the Rhine
at Dusseldorf, thereby bringing back the centre of the
enemy over the river. He was, further, to take every J daa
advantage of their want of concentration to deliver Mareaa.
blow after blow, and to dp his utmost to break them
up completely. A fortnight later Moreau (Army of the Rhine-
and-Moselle, 78,000) was ordered to take advantage of Jourdan's
move, which would draw most of the Austrian forces to the
Mainz region, to enter the Breisgau and Suabia. "You will
attack Austria at home, and capture her magazines. You will
enter a new country, the resources of which, properly handled,
should suffice for the needs of the Army of the Rhine-and-
Moselle."
Jourdan, therefore, was to take upon himself the destruction
of the enemy, Moreau the invasion of South Germany. The
first object of both was to subsist their armies beyond the
Rhine, the second to defeat the armies and terrorize the popula-
tions of the empire. Under these instructions the campaign
opened. Jourdan crossed at Dusseldorf and reached the Lahn,
but the enemy concentrated against him very swiftly and he
had to retire over the river. Still, if he had not been able to
" break them up completely," he had at any rate drawn on
himself the weight of the Austrian army, and enabled Moreau
to cross at Strassburg without much difficulty.
The Austrians were now commanded by the archduke Charles,
who, after all detachments had been made, disposed of some
56,000 men. At first he employed the bulk of this force against
Jourdan, but on hearing of Moreau's progress he returned to
the Neckar country with 20,000 men, leaving Feldzeugmeister
v. Wartensleben with 36,000 to observe Jourdan. In later
years he admitted himself that his own force was far too small
to deal with Moreau, who, he probably thought, would retire
after a few manoeuvres.
But by now the two French generals were aiming at something
more than alternate raids and feints. Carnot had set before
them the ideal of a decisive battle as the great object.
Jourdan was instructed, if the archduke turned on The
Moreau, to follow him up with all speed and to bring
him to action. Moreau, too, was not retreating but
advancing. The two armies, Moreau's and the archduke's, met
in a straggling and indecisive battle at Malsch on the gth of
July, and soon afterwards Charles learned that Jourdan had
recrossed the Rhine and was driving Wartensleben before him.
He thereupon retired both armies from the Rhine valley into the
interior, hoping that at least the French would detach large
forces to besiege the river fortresses. Disappointed of this, and
compelled to face a very grave situation, he resorted to an
expedient which may be described in his own words: " to
retire both armies step by step without committing himself
to a battle, and to seize the first opportunity to unite them so
as to throw himself with superior or at least equal strength on
one of the two hostile enemies." This is the ever-recurring idea
of " interior lines." It was not new, for Frederick the Great had
used similar means in simila^. circumstances, as had Souham
at Tourcoing and even Dampierre at Valenciennes. Nor was it
differentiated, as were Napoleon's operations in this same year,
by the deliberate use of a small containing force at one point
to obtain relative superiority at another. A general of the i8th
century did not believe in the efficacy of superior numbers had
not Frederick the Great disproved it ? and for him operations
on " interior lines " were simply successive blows at successive
targets, the efficacy of the blow in each case being dependent
chiefly on his own personal qualities and skill as a general on
the field of battle. In the present case the point to be observed
is not the expedient, which was dictated by the circumstances,
but the courage of the young general, who, unlike Wartens-
leben and the rest of his generals, unlike, too, Moreau and
1790 IN GERMANS
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
183
JouriUn themselves, surmounted difficulties instead of lamenting
them.
On the other side, Carnot, of course, foresaw this possibility.
He warned the generals not to allow the enemy to " use his
forces sometimes against one, sometimes against the other, as
he did in the last campaign," and ordered them to go forward
respectively into Franconia and into the country of the upper
Neckar, with view to seeking out and defeating the enemy's
army. But the plan of operations soon grew bolder. Jourdan
was informed on the list of July that if he reached the Regnitz
without meeting the enemy, or if his arrival there forced the
latter to retire rapidly to the Danube, he was not to hesitate to
advance to Ratisbon and even to Passau if the disorganization
of the enemy admitted it, but in these contingencies he was to
detach a force into Bohemia to levy contributions. " We pre-
sume that the enemy is too weak to offer a successful resistance
and will have united his forces on the Danube; we hope that
our two armies will act in unison to rout him completely. Each
is, in any case, strong enough to attack by itself, and nothing
is so pernicious as slowness in war." Evidently the fear that
the two Austrian armies would unite against one of their as-
sailants had now given place to something like disdain.
This was due in all probability to the rapidity with which
Moreau was driving the archduke before him. After a brief
stand on the Neckar at Cannstadt, the Austrians, only 25,000
strong, fell back to the Rauhe Alb, where they halted again,
to cover their magazines at Ulm and Gtinzburg, towards the end
of July. Wartensleben was similarly falling back before Jourdan,
though the latter, starting considerably later than Moreau, had
not advanced so far. The details of the successive positions
occupied by Wartensleben need not be stated; all that concerns
the general development of the campaign is the fact that the
hitherto independent leader of the " Lower Rhine Army "
resented the loss of his freedom of action, and besides lamenta-
tions opposed a dull passive resistance to all but the most formal
orders of the prince. Many weeks passed before this was over-
come sufficiently for his leader even to arrange for the contem-
plated combination, and in these weeks the archduke was being
driven back day by day, and the German principalities were
falling away one by one as the French advanced and preached
the revolutionary formula. In such circumstances as these
the general facts, if not the causes, were patent enough it was
natural that the confident Paris strategists should think chiefly
of the profits of their enterprise and ignore the fears of the generals
at the front. But the latter were justified in one important
respect; their operating armies had seriously diminished in
numbers, Jourdan disposing of not more than 45,000 and Moreau
of about 50,000. The archduke had now, owing to the arrival
of a few detachments from the Black Forest and elsewhere, about
34,000 men, Wartensleben almost exactly the same, and the
former, for some reason which has never been fully explained
but has its justification in psychological factors, suddenly turned
and fought a long, severe and straggling battle above
Neresheim (August n). This did not, however, give
him much respite, and on the mh and i3th he retired over the
Danube. At this date Wartensleben was about Amberg, almost
as far away from the other army as he had been on the Rhine,
owing to the necessity of retreating round instead of through the
principality of Bayreuth, which was a Prussian possession and
could therefore make its neutrality respected.
Hitherto Charles had intended to unite his armies on the
Danube against Moreau. His later choice of Jourdan's army as
the objective of his combination grew out of circumstances and
in particular out of the brilliant reconnaissance work of a cavalry
brigadier of the Lower Rhine Army, Nauendorff. This general's
reports he was working in the country south and south-east
of Nurnberg, Wartensleben being at Amberg indicated first an
advance of Jourdan's army from Forchheim through NUrnberg
to the south, and induced the archduke, on the 1 2th, to begin a
concentration of his own army towards Ingolstadt. This was a
purely defensive measure, but Nauendorff reported on the i ith
and uth that the main columns of the French were swinging
away to the east against Wartensleben's front and inner Sank,
and on the 141(1 he boldly suggested the idea that decided the
campaign. " If your Royal Highness will or can advance 12,000
men against Jourdan's rear, he is lost. We could not have a
better opportunity." When this message arrived at head-
quarters the archduke had already issued orders to the same
effect. Lieutenant Field Marshal Count Latour, with 30,000
men, was to keep Moreau occupied another expedient of the
moment, due to the very close pressure of Moreau's advance,
and the failure of the attempt to put him out of action at
Neresheim. The small remainder of the army, with a few
detachments gathered en route, in all about 27,000 men, began
to recross the Danube on the I4th, and slowly advanced north
on a broad front, its leader being now sure that at some point
on his line he would encounter the French, whether they were
heading for Ratisbon or Amberg. Meanwhile, the Directory had,
still acting on the theory of the archduke's weakness, ordered
Moreau to combine the operations with those of Bonaparte in
Italian Tirol, and Jourdan to turn both flanks of his immediate
opponent, and thus to prevent his joining the archduke, as well
as his retreat into Bohemia. And curiously enough it was this
latter, and not Moreau's move, which suggested to the archduke
that his chance had come. The chance was, in fact, one dear to
the i8th century general, catching his opponent in the act of
executing a manoeuvre. So far from " exterior lines " being
fatal to Jourdan, it was not until the French general began to
operate against Wartensleben's inner flank that the archduke's
opportunity came.
The decisive events of the campaign can be described very
briefly, the ideas that directed them having been made clear.
The long thin line of the archduke wrapped itself round
Jourdan's right flank near Amberg, while Wartensleben
fought him in front. The battle (August 24) was a wii
series of engagements between the various columns that
met; it was a repetition in fact of Fleurus, without the intensity
of fighting spirit that redeems that battle from dulness. Success
followed, not upon bravery or even tactics, but upon the pre-
existing strategical conditions. At the end of the day the French
retired, and next morning the archduke began another wide
extension to his left, hoping to head them off. This consumed
several days. In the course of it Jourdan attempted to take
advantage of his opponent's dissemination to regain the direct
road to Wiirzburg, but the attempt was defeated by an almost
fortuitous combination of forces at the threatened point. More
effective, indeed, than this indirect pursuit was the very active
hostility of the peasantry, who had suffered in Jourdan's advance
and retaliated so effectually during his retreat that the army
became thoroughly demoralized, both by want of food and by
the strajn of incessant sniping. Defeated again at Wurzburg on
the 3rd of September, Jourdan continued his retreat to the Lahn,
and finally withdrew the shattered army over the Rhine, partly
by DUsseldorf, partly by Neuwied. In the last engagement
on the Lahn the young and brilliant Marceau was mortally
wounded. Far away in Bavaria, Moreau had meantime been
driving Latour from one line of resistance to another. On re-
ceiving the news of Jourdan's reverses, however, he made a rapid
and successful retreat to Strassburg, evading the prince's army,
which had ascended the Rhine valley to head him off, in the nick
of time.
This celebrated campaign is pre-eminently strategical in its
character, in that the positions and movements anterior to the
battle preordained its issue. It raised the reputation of the arch-
duke Charles to the highest point, and deservedly, for he wrested
victory from the most desperate circumstances by the skilful
and resolute employment of his one advantage. But this was
only possible because Moreau and Jourdan were content to accept
strategical failure without seeking to redress the balance by hard
fighting. The great question of this campaign is, why did
Moreau and Jourdan fail against inferior numbers, when in Italy
Bonaparte with a similar army against a sfmilar opponent won
victory after victory against equal and superior forces ? The
answer will not be supplied by any theory of " exterior and
184
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
[ITALY 1793-97
interior lines." It lies far deeper. So far as it is possible to
summarize it in one phrase, it lies in the fact that though the
Directory meant this campaign to be the final word on the
Revolutionary War, for the nation at large this final word had
been said at Fleurus. The troops were still the nation; they no
longer fought for a cause and for bare existence, and Moreau and
Jourdan were too closely allied in ideas and sympathies with the
misplaced citizen soldiers they commanded to be able to dominate
their collective will. In default of a cause, however, soldiers
will fight for a man, and this brings us by a natural sequence of
ideas to the war in Italy.
THE WAR IN ITALY 1793-97
Hitherto we have ignored the operations on the Italian
frontier, partly because they were of minor importance and
partly because the conditions out of which Napoleon's first
campaign arose can be best considered in connexion with that
campaign itself, from which indeed the previous operations
derive such light as they possess. It has been mentioned that
in 1792 the French overran Savoy and Nice. In 1793 the
Sardinian army and a small auxiliary corps of Austrians waged
a desultory mountain warfare against the Army of the Alps
about Briancon and the Army of Italy on the Var. That furious
offensive on the part of the French, which signalized the year 1 793
elsewhere, was made impossible here by the counter-revolution
Ih the cities of the Midi.
In 1 794, when this had been crushed, the intention of the French
government was to take the offensive against the Austro-
Sardinians. The first operation was to be the capture of Oneglia.
The concentration of large forces in the lower Rhone valley had
naturally infringed upon the areas told off for the provisioning of
the Armies of the Alps (Kellermann) and of Italy (Dumerbion) ;
indeed, the sullen population could hardly be induced to feed the
troops suppressing the revolt, still less the distant frontier
armies. Thus the only source of supply was the Riviera of
Genoa: " Our connexion with this district is imperilled by the
corsairs of Oneglia (a Sardinian town) owing to the cessation of
our operations afloat. The army is living from hand to mouth,"
wrote the younger Robespierre in September 1793. Vessels
bearing supplies from Genoa could not avoid the corsairs by
taking the open sea, for there the British fleet was supreme.
Carnot therefore ordered the Army of Italy to capture Oneglia,
and 21,000 men (the rest of the 67,000 effectives were held back
for coast defence) began operations in April. The French left
moved against the enemy's positions on the main road over the
Col di Tenda, the centre towards Ponte di Nava, and the right
Saorgio a l n S the Riviera. All met with success, thanks to
Massena's bold handling of the centre column. Not
only was Oneglia captured, but also the Col di Tenda. Napoleon
Bonaparte served in these affairs on the headquarter staff.
Meantime the Army of the Alps had possessed itself of the Little
St Bernard and Mont Cenis, and the Republicans were now
masters of several routes into Piedmont (May). But the Alpine
roads merely led to fortresses, and both Carnot and Bonaparte
Napoleon had by now captivated the younger Robespierre and
become the leading spirit in Dumerbion's army considered
that the Army of the Alps should be weakened to the profit of
the Army of Italy, and that the tune had come to disregard the
feeble neutrality of Genoa, and to advance over the Col di Tenda.
Napoleon's first suggestion for a rapid condensation of the
French cordon, and an irresistible blow on the centre of the Allies
Na leon ^ v Tenda-Coni, 1 came to nothing owing to the waste
la ?794. f l ' me m negotiations between the generals and the
distant Committee, and meanwhile new factors came
into play. The capture of the pass of Argentera by the right wing
of the Army of the Alps suggested that the main effort should be
made against the barrier fortress of Demonte, but here again
Napoleon proposed a concentration of effort on the primary and
economy of force in the secondary objective. About the same
time, in a memoir on the war in general, he laid down his most
1 Liguria was not at this period thought of, even by Napoleon,
as anything more than a supply area.
celebrated maxim: " The principles of war are the same as those
of a siege. Fire must be concentrated on one point, and as soon
as the breach is made, the equilibrium is broken and the rest is
nothing." In the domain of tactics he was and remains the
principal exponent of the art of breaking the equilibrium, and
already he imagined the solution of problems of policy and
strategy on the same lines. " Austria is the great enemy;
Austria crushed, Germany, Spain, Italy fall of themselves. We
must not disperse, but concentrate our attack." Napoleon
argued that Austria could be effectively wounded by an offensive
against Piedmont, and even more effectively by an ulterior
advance from Italian soil into Germany. In pursuance of the
single aim he asked for the appointment of a single commander-
in-chief to hold sway from Bayonne to the Lake of Geneva, and
for the rejection of all schemes for " revolutionizing " Italy till
after the defeat of the arch-enemy.
Operations, however, did not after all take either of these forms.
The younger Robespierre perished with his brother in the coup
d'itat of 9th Thermidor, the advance was suspended, and
Bonaparte, amongst other leading spirits of the Army of Italy,
was arrested and imprisoned. Profiting by this moment, Austria
increased her auxiliary corps. An Austrian general took command
of the whole of the allied forces, and pronounced a threat from
the region of Cairo (where the Austrians took their place on the
left wing of the combined army) towards the Riviera. The
French, still dependent on Genoa for supplies, had to take the
offensive at once to save themselves from starvation, and the
result was the expedition of Dego, planned chiefly by Napoleon,
who had been released from prison and was at headquarters,
though unemployed. The movement began on the I7th of
September; and although the Austrian general Colloredo
repulsed an attack at Dego (Sept. 21) he retreated to Acqui,
and the incipient offensive of the Allies ended abruptly.
The first months of the winter of 1794-1795 were spent in
re-equipping the troops, who stood in sore need after their rapid
movements in the mountains. For the future operations, the
enforced condensation of the army on its right wing with the
object of protecting its line of supply to Genoa and the dangers of
its cramped situation on the Riviera suggested a plan roughly
resembling one already recommended by Napoleon, who had
since the affair of Dego become convinced that the way into
Italy was through the Apennines and not the Alps. The essence
of this was to anticipate the enemy by a very early and rapid
advance from Vado towards Carcare by the Ceva road, the only
good road of which the French disposed and which they signifi-
cantly called the chemin de canon.
The plan, however, came to nothing; the Committee, which
now changed its personnel at fixed intervals, was in consequence
wavering and non-committal, troops were withdrawn scbinr
for a projected invasion of Corsica, and in November and
1794 Dumerbion was replaced by Sch6rer, who
assembled only 17,000 of his 54,000 effectives for field
operations, and selected as his line of advance the Col di Tenda-
Coni road. Scherer, besides being hostile to any suggestion
emanating from Napoleon, was impressed with the apparent
danger to his right wing concentrated in the narrow Riviera,
which it was at this stage impossible to avert by a sudden and
early assumption of the offensive. After a brief tenure Scherer
was transferred to the Spanish frontier, but Kellermann, who now
received command of the Army of Italy in addition to his own,
took the same view as his predecessor the view of the ordinary
general. But not even the Scherer plan was put into execution,
for spring had scarcely arrived when the prospect of renewed
revolts in the south of France practically paralysed the army.
This encouraged the enemy to deliver the blow that had so long
been feared. The combined forces, under Devins, the Sar-
dinians, the Austrian auxiliary corps and the newly arrived
Austrian main army, advanced together and forced the French
right wing to evacuate Vado and the Genoese littoral. But at
this juncture the conclusion of peace with Spain released the
Pyrenees armies, and Sch6rer returned to the Army of Italy at the
head of reinforcements. He was faced with a difficult situation,
ITALY 1793-971
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
185
but he bad the means wherewith to meet it, as Napoleon
promptly pointed out. Up to this, Napoleon said, the French
commanded the mountain crest, and therefore covered Savoy and
Nice, and also Oneglia. Loano and Vado, the ports of the Riviera.
But now that Vado was lost the breach was made. Genoa was
cut off, and the south of France was the only remaining resource
for the army commissariat. Vado must therefore be retaken and
the line reopened to Genoa, and to do this it was essential first
to dose up the over-extended cordon and with the greatest
rapidity, lest the enemy, with the shorter line to move on, should
gather at th point of contact before the French and to advance
on Vado. Further, knowing (as every one knew) that the king of
Sardinia was not inclined to continue the struggle indefinitely, he
predicted that this ruler would make peace once the French army
had established itself in his dominions, and for this the way into
the interior, he asserted, was the great road Savona-Ceva. But
Napoleon's mind ranged beyond the immediate future. He
calculated that once the French advanced the Austrians would
seek to cover Lombardy, the Piedmontese Turin, and this separa-
tion, already morally accomplished, it was to be the French
general's task to accentuate in fact. Next, Sardinia having been
coerced into peace, the Army of Italy would expel the Austrians
from Lombardy, and connect its operations with those of the
French in South Germany by way of Tirol. The supply question,
once the soldiers had gained the rich valley of the Po, would
solve itself.
This was the essence of the first of four memoranda on this
subject prepared by Napoleon in his Paris office. The second
indicated the means of coercing Sardinia first the
Austrians were to be driven or scared away towards
Alessandria, then the French army would turn sharp to the left,
driving the Sardinians eastward and north-eastward through
Ceva, and this was to be the signal for the general invasion of
Piedmont from all sides. In the third paper he framed an
elaborate plan for the retaking of Vado, and in the fourth he
summarized the contents of the other three. Having thus
cleared his own mind as to the conditions and the solution
of the problem, he did his best to secure the command for
himself.
The measures recommended by Napoleon were translated
into a formal and detailed order to recapture Vado. To Napoleon
the miserable condition of the Army of Italy was the most urgent
incentive to prompt action. In Scherer's judgment, however, the
army was unfit to take the field, and therefore ex hypolhesi to
attack Vado, without thorough reorganization, and it was only in
November that the advance was finally made. It culminated,
thanks once more to the resolute Massena, in the victory of Loano
(November 23-24). But Sch6rer thought more of the destitution
of his own army than of the fruits of success, and contented
himself with resuming possession of the Riviera.
Meanwhile the Mentor whose suggestions and personality were
equally repugnant to Schrer had undergone strange vicissitudes
of fortune dismissal from the headquarters' staff, expulsion from
the list of general officers, and then the " whiff of grapcshot "
of ijth Vendimiaire, followed shortly by his marriage with
Josephine, and his nomination to command the Army of Italy.
These events had neither shaken his cold resolution nor disturbed
his balance.
The Army of Italy spent the winter of 1 795- 1 706 as before in the
narrow Riviera, while on the one side, just over the mountains,
lay the Austro-Sardinians, and on the other, out of
range of the coast batteries but ready to pounce on the
supply ships, were the British frigates. On Bonaparte's
left Rellermann, with no more than 18,000, maintained
a string of posts between Lake Geneva and the Argentera as before.
Of the Army of Italy, 7000 watched the Tenda road and 20,000
men the coast-line. There remained for active operations some
27,000 men, ragged, famished and suffering in every way in spite
of their victory of Loano. The Sardinian and Austrian auxiliaries
(Colli), 25,000 men, lay between Mondovi and Ceva, a force
strung out in the Alpine valleys opposed Kellermann, and the
main Austrian army (commanded by Beaulieu) , in widely extended
cantonments between Acqui and Milan, numbered 27,000 field
troops. Thus the short-lived concentration of all the allied
forces for the battle against Schrer had ended in a fresh separa-
tion. Austria was far more concerned with Poland than with the
moribund French question, and committed as few of her troops as
possible to this distant and secondary theatre of war. As for
Piedmont, " peace " was almost the universal cry, even within
the army. All this scarcely affected the regimental spirit and
discipline of the Austrian squadrons and battalions, which had
now recovered from the defeat of Loano. But they were im-
portant factors for the new general-in-chief on the Riviera, and
formed the basis of his strategy.
Napoleon's first task was far more difficult than the writing of
memoranda. He had to grasp the reins and to prepare his troops,
morally and physically, for active work. It was not merely that a
young general with many enemies, a political favourite of the
moment, had been thrust upon the army. The army itself was
in a pitiable condition. Whole companies with their officers went
plundering in search of mere food, the horses had never received
as much as half-rations for a year past, and even the generals
were half-starved. Thousands of men were barefooted and
hundreds were, without arms. But in a few days he had secured
an almost incredible ascendancy over the sullen, starved, half-
clothed army.
" Soldiers," he told them, " you are famished and nearly naked.
The government owes you much, but can do nothing for you.
Your patience, your courage, do you honour, but give you no
glory, no advantage. I will lead you into the most fertile plains
of the world. There you will find great towns, rich provinces.
There you will find honour, glory and riches. Soldiers of Italy,
will you be wanting in courage ? "
Such words go far, and little as he was able to supply material
deficiencies all he could do was to expel rascally contractors,
sell a captured privateer for 5000 and borrow 2500 from
Genoa he cheerfully told the Directory on the 28th of March
that " the worst was over." He augmented his army of operations
to about 40,000, at the expense of the coast divisions, and set on
foot also two small cavalry divisions, mounted on the half -starved
horses that had survived the winter. Then he announced that
the army was ready and opened the campaign.
The first plan, emanating from Paris, was that, after an
expedition towards Genoa to assist in raising a loan there, the
army should march against Beaulieu, previously neutralizing
the Sardinians by the occupation of Ceva. When Beaulieu was
beaten it was thought probable that the Piedmontese would enter
into an alliance with the French against their former comrades.
A second plan, however, authorized the general to begin by
subduing the Piedmontese to the extent necessary to bring about
peace and alliance, and on this Napoleon acted. If the present
separation of the Allies continued, he proposed to overwhelm the
Sardinians first, before the Austrians could assemble from winter
quarters, and then to turn on Beaulieu. If, on the other hand, the
Austrians, before he could strike his blow, united with Colli, he
proposed to frighten them into separating again by moving on
Acqui and Alessandria. Hence Carcare, Vhere the road from
Acqui joined the "cannon-road," was the first objective of his
march, and from there he could manoeuvre and widen the breach
between the allied armies. His scattered left wing would assist
in the attack on the Sardinians as well as it could for the
immediate attack on the Austrians its co-operation would of
course have been out of the question. In any case he grudged
every week spent in administrative preparation. The delay due
to this, as a matter of fact, allowed a new situation to develop.
Beaulieu was himself the first to move, and he moved towards
Genoa instead of towards his Allies. The gap between the two
allied wings was thereby widened, but it was no longer possible
for the French to use it, for their plan of destroying Colli while
Beaulieu vias ine/ective had collapsed.
In connexion with the Genoese loan, and to facilitate the move-
ment of supply convoys, a small French force had been pushed
forward to Voltri. Bonaparte ordered it back as soon as be
arrived at the front, but the alarm was given. The Austrians
i86
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
[ITALY 1793-97
broke up from winter quarters at once, and rather than lose the
food supplies at Voltri, Bonaparte actually reinforced Massena
at that place, and gave him orders to hold on as long as possible,
cautioning him only to watch his left rear (Montenotte). But
he did not abandon his purpose. Starting from the new condi-
tions, he devised other means, as we shall see, for reducing
Beaulieu to ineffectiveness. Meanwhile Beaulieu's plan of
offensive operations, such as they were, developed. The French
advance to Voltri had not only spurred him into activity, but
convinced him that the bulk of the French army lay east of
Savona. He therefore made Voltri the objective of a converging
attack, not with the intention of destroying the French
mTv"'"* army but with that of " cutting its communications
meats. with Genoa," and expelling it from " the only place
in the Riviera where there were sufficient ovens to
bake its bread." (Beaulieu to the Aulic Council, 15 April.) The
Sardinians and auxiliary Austrians were ordered to extend
leftwards on Dego to close the gap that Beaulieu's advance on
Genoa-Voltri opened up, which they did, though only half-
heartedly and in small force, for, unlike 'Beaulieu, they knew
that masses of the enemy were still in the western stretch of the
Riviera. The rightmost of Beaulieu's own columns was on the
road between Acqui and Savona with orders to seize Monte
Legino as an advanced post, the others were to converge towards
Voltri from the Genoa side and the mountain passes about
Campofreddo and Sassello. The wings were therefore so far
connected that Colli wrote to Beaulieu on this day " the enemy
will never dare to place himself between our two armies." The
event belied the prediction, and the proposed minor operation
against granaries and bakeries became the first act of a decisive
campaign.
On the night of the gth of April the French were grouped
as follows: brigades under Gamier and Macquard at the Finestre
and Tenda passes, Serurier's division and Rusca's brigade east
of Garessio; Augereau's division about Loano, Meynier's at
Finale, Laharpe's at Savona with an outpost on the Monte
Legino, and Cervoni's brigade at Voltri. Massena was in general
charge of the last-named units. The cavalry was far in rear
beyond Loano. Colli's army, excluding the troops in the valleys
that led into Dauphine, was around Coni and Mondovi-Ceva,
the latter group connecting with Beaulieu by a detachment
under Provera between Millesimo and Carcare. Of Beaulieu's
army, Argenteau's division, still concentrating to the front
in many small bodies, extended over the area Acqui-Dego-
Sassello. Vukassovich's brigade was equally extended between
Ovada and the mountain-crests above Voltri, and Pittoni's
division was grouped around Gavi and the Bocchetta, the two
last units being destined for the attack on Voltri. Farther to
the rear was Sebottendorf's division around Alessandria-
Tortona.
On the afternoon of the loth Beaulieu delivered his blow
at Voltri, not, as he anticipated, against three-quarters of the
French army, but against Cervoni's detachment. This, after a
long irregular fight, slipped away in the night to Savona. Dis-
covering his mistake* next morning, Beaulieu sent back some
of his battalions to join Argenteau. But there was no road
by which they could do so save the detour through Acqui and
Dego, and long before they arrived Argenteau's advance on
Monte Legino had forced on the crisis. On the nth (a day
behind time), this general drove in the French outposts, but he
soon came on three battalions under Colonel Rampon, who
threw himself into some old earthworks that lay near, and said
to his men, " We must win or die here, my friends." His redoubt
and his men stood the trial well, and when day broke on the
1 2th Bonaparte was ready to deliver his first "Napoleon-
stroke."
The principle that guided him in the subsequent operations
may be called " superior numbers at the decisive point." Touch
had been gained with the enemy all along the long line
between the Tenda and Voltri, and he decided to
concentrateswiftlyuponthe nearest enemy Argenteau.
Augereau's division, or such part of it as could march at once,
was ordered to Mallare, picking up here and there on the way
a few horsemen and guns. Massena, with 9000 men, was to
send two brigades in the direction of Carcare and Altare, and with
the third to swing round Argenteau's right and to head for
Montenotte village in his rear. Laharpe with 7000 (it had
become clear that the enemy at Voltri would not pursue their
advantage) was to join Rampon, leaving only Cervoni and two
battalions in Savona. Serurier and Rusca were to keep the
Sardinians in front of them occupied. The far-distant brigades
of Gamier and Macquard stood fast, but the cavalry drew
eastward as quickly as its condition permitted. In rain and
mist on the early morning of the I2th the French marched up
from all quarters, while Argenteau's men waited in their cold
bivouacs for light enough to resume their attack on Monte
Legino. About 9 the mists cleared, and heavy fighting began,
but Laharpe held the mountain, and the vigorous Massena with
his nearest brigade stormed forward against Argenteau's right.
A few hours later, seeing Augereau's columns heading for their
line of retreat, the Austrians retired, sharply pressed, on Dego.
The threatened intervention of Provera was checked by
Augereau's presence at Carcare.
Montenotte was a brilliant victory, and one can imagine its
effects on the but lately despondent soldiers of the Army of
French....
Auatrians _'. .O
Sardinians.^. .O
Sketch of the positions occupied
on the night of April i4th.
Italy, for all imagined that Beaulieu's main body had been
defeated. This was far from being the case, however, and although
the French spent the night of the battle at Cairo-Carcare-Monte-
notte, midway between the allied wings, only two-thirds of
Argenteau's force, and none of the other divisions, had been
beaten, and the heaviest fighting was to come. This became
evident on the afternoon of the I3th, but meanwhile Bonaparte,
eager to begin at once the subjugation of the Piedmontese (for
which purpose he wanted to bring Serurier and Rusca into play)
sent only Laharpe's division and a few details of Massina's,
under the latter, towards Dego. These were to protect the
main attack from interference by the forces that had been
engaged at Montenotte (presumed to be Beaulieu's
main body), the said main attack being delivered by
Augereau's division, reinforced by most of Mass6na's, on the
positions held by Provera. The latter, only 1000 strong to
Augereau's 9000, shut himself in the castle of Cossaria, which
he defended d la Rampon against a series of furious assaults.
Not until the morning of the I4th was his surrender secured,
after his ammunition and food had been exhausted.
Argenteau also won a day's respite on the ijth, for Laharpe
did not join Mass4na till late, and nothing took place opposite
Dego but a little skirmishing. During the day Bonaparte saw
ITALY 1793-971
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
187
for himself that he had overrated the effects of Montenotte.
Beaulieu, on the other hand, underrated them, treating it as a
mishap which was more than counterbalanced by his own
success in " cutting off the French from Genoa." He began to
reconstruct his line on the front Dego-Sassello, trusting to
Colli to harry the French until the Voltri troops had finished
their detour through Acqui and rejoined Argenteau. This, of
course, presumed that Argent eau's troops were intact and
Colli's able to move, which was not the case with either. Not
until the afternoon of the 14:11 did Beaulieu place a few extra
battalions at Argenteau 's disposal " to be used only in case of
extreme necessity," and order Vukassovich from the region
of Sassello to " make a diversion " against the French right
with two battalions.
Thus Argenteau, already shaken, was exposed to destruction.
On the I4th, after Provera's surrender, Massena and Laharpe,
reinforced until they had nearly a two-to-one superior-
ity, stormed Dego and killed or captured 3000 of
Argenteau's 5500 men, the remnant retreating in disorder to
Acqui. But nothing was done towards the accomplishment of
the purpose of destroying Colli on that day, save that Serurier
and Rusca began to close in to meet the main body between
Ceva and Millesimo. Moreover, the victory at Dego had produced
its usual results on the wild fighting swarms of the Republicans,
who threw themselves like hungry wolves on the little town,
without pursuing the beaten enemy or even placing a single
outpost on the Acqui road. In this state, during the early
hours of the ijth, Vukassovich 's brigade, 1 marching up from
Sassello, surprised them, and they broke and fled in an instant.
The whole morning had to be spent in rallying them at Cairo,
and Bonaparte had for the second time to postpone his union
with Serurier and Rusca, who meanwhile, isolated from one
another and from the main army, were groping forward in the
mountains. A fresh assault on Dego was ordered, and after
very severe fighting, Massena and Laharpe succeeded late in
the evening in retaking it. Vukassovich lost heavily, but
retired steadily and in order on Spigno. The killed and wounded
numbered probably about 1000 French and 1500 Austrians,
out of considerably less than 10,000 engaged on each side a
loss which contrasted very forcibly with those suffered in other
battles of the Revolutionary Wars, and by teaching the Army
of Italy to bear punishment, imbued it with self-confidence.
But again success bred disorder, and there was a second orgy in
the houses and streets of Dego which went on till late in the
morning and paralysed the whole army.
This was perhaps the crisis of the campaign. Even now it
was not certain that the Austrians had been definitively pushed
aside, while it was quite clear that Beaulicu's main body was
intact and Colli was still more an unknown quantity. But
Napoleon's intention remained the same, to attack the Pied-
montese as quickly and as heavily as possible, Beaulieu being
held in check by a containing force under Massena and Laharpe.
The remainder of the army, counting in now Rusca and Serurier,
was to move westward towards Ceva. This disposition, while
it illustrates the Napoleonic principle of delivering a heavy
blow on the selected target and warding off interference at other
points, shows also the difficulty of rightly apportioning the
available means between the offensive mass and the defensive
system, for, as it turned out, Beaulieu was already sufficiently
scared, and thought of nothing but self-defence on the line
Acqui-Ovada-Bocchetta, while the French offensive mass was
very weak compared with Colli's unbeaten and now fairly
concentrated army about Ceva and Montczemolo.
On the afternoon of the i6th the real advance was begun by
Augercau's division, reinforced by other troops. Rusca joined
Augereau towards evening, and Serurier approached Ceva
from the south. Colli's object was now to spin out time, and
having repulsed a weak attack by Augereau, and feeling able
to repeat these tactics on each successive spur of the Apennines,
1 Yukawovich had received Beaulieu ' order to demonstrate with
two battalions, and also appeals for help from Argenteau. He
therefore lmnl most of his troops with him.
San
Mkhclc.
he retired in the night to a new position behind the Cursaglia.
On the 1 7th, reassured by the absence of fighting on the Dego
side, and by the news that no enemy remained at Sassello,
Bonaparte released Massna from Dego, leaving only Laharpe
there, and brought him over towards the right of the main
body, which thus on the evening of the i;ili formed a long
straggling line on both sides of Ceva, S6rurier on the left,
echeloned forward, Augereau, Joubert and Rusca in the centre,
and Massena, partly as support, partly as flank guard, on
Augereau's right rear. Sdrurier had been bidden to extend
well out and to strive to get contact with Massna, i.e. to
encircle the enemy. There was no longer any idea of waiting
to besiege Ceva, although the artillery train had been ordered
up from the Riviera by the " cannon-road " for eventual use
there. Further, the line of supply, as an extra guarantee against
interference, was changed from that of Savona-Carcare to that of
Loano-Bardinetto. When this was accomplished, four clear days
could be reckoned on with certainty in which to deal with Colli.
The latter, still expecting the Austrians to advance to his
assistance, had established his corps (not more than 12,000
muskets in all) in the immensely strong positions
of the Cursaglia, with a thin line of posts on his left
stretching towards Cherasco, whence he could com-
municate, by a roundabout way, with Acqui. Opposite this
position the long straggling line of the French arrived, after
many delays due to the weariness of the troops, on the igth.
A day of irregular fighting followed, everywhere to the advantage
of the defenders. Napoleon, fighting against time, ordered a
fresh attack on the 2oth, and only desisted when it became
evident that the army was exhausted, and, in particular, when
S6nirier reported frankly that without bread the soldiers would
not march. The delay thus imposed, however, enabled him to
clear the " cannon-road " of all vehicles, and to bring up the
Dego detachment to replace Mass6na in the valley of the western
Bormida, the latter coming in to the main army. Further,
part at any rate of the convoy service was transferred still
farther westward to the line Albenga-Garessio-Ceva. Nelson's
fleet, that had so powerfully contributed to force the French
inland, was becoming less and less innocuous. If leadership and
force of character could overcome internal friction, all the
success he had hoped for was now within the young commander's
grasp.
Twenty-four thousand men, for the first time with a due
proportion of cavalry and artillery, were now disposed along
Colli's front and beyond his right flank. Colli, out- .. .
numbered by two to one and threatened with en-
velopment, decided once more to retreat, and the Republicans
occupied the Cursaglia lines on the morning of the 2ist without
firing a shot. But Colli halted again at Vico, half-way to
Mondovi (in order, it is said, to protect the evacuation of a
small magazine he had there), and while he was in this un-
favourable situation the pursuers came on with true Republican
swiftness, lapped round his flanks and crushed him. A few
days later (27th April), the armistice of Cherasco put an end
to the campaign before the Austrians moved a single battalion
to his assistance.
The interest of the campaign being above all Napoleonic, its moral
must be found by discovering the " Napoleon touch " that differen-
tiated it from other Revolutionary campaigns. A great -.
deal is common to all, on both sides. The Austrians ,. .
and Sardinians worked together at least as effectively as to ^f?.
the Austrians, Prussians, British and Dutch in the Nether-
lands. Revolutionary energy was common to the Army of Italy and
to the Army of the North. Why_, therefore, when the war dragged on
from one campaign to another in the great plains of the Meuse and
Rhine countries, did Napoleon bring about so swift a decision in these
cramped valleys? The answer is to be found partly in the exigencies
of the supply service, but still more in Napoleon s own personality
and the strategy born of it. The first, as we have seen, was at
the end of its resources when Beaulieu placed himself across the
Genoa road. Action of some sort was the plain alternative to
starvation, and at this point Napoleon's personality intervened.
He would have no quarter-rations on the Riviera, but plenty and to
spare beyond the mountains. If there were many thousand soldiers
who marched unarmed and shoeless in the ranks, it was towards " the
Promised Land " that he led them. He looked always to the end, and
i88
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
[ITALY 1793-97
met each day as if with full expectation of attaining it before sunset.
Strategical conditions and " new French " methods of war did not
save Bonaparte in the two crises the Dego rout and the sullen halt
of the army at San Michele but the personality which made the
soldiers, on the way to Montenotte, march barefoot past a wagon-
load of new boots.
We have said that Napoleon's strategy was the result of this per-
sonal magnetism. Later critics evolved from his success the theory
of " interior lines," and then accounted for it by applying the
criterion they had evolved. Actually, the form in which the will to
conquer found expression was in many important respects old.
What, therefore, in the theory or its application was the product of
Napoleon's own genius and will-power ? A comparison with Souham's
campaign of Tourcoing will enable us to answer this question. To
begin with, Souham found himself midway between Coburg and Cler-
fayt almost by accident, and his utilization of the advantages of his
position was an expedient for the given case. Napoleon, however,
placed himself deliberately and by fighting his way thither, in an
analogous situation at Carcare and Cairo. Military opinion of the
time considered it dangerous, as indeed it was, for no theory can alter
the fact that had not Napoleon made his men fight harder and march
farther than usual, he would have been destroyed. The effective
play of forces on interior lines depends on the two conditions that
the outer enemies are not so near together as to give no time for the
inner mass to defeat one before the arrival of the other, and that
they are not so far apart that before one can be brought to action
the other has inflicted serious damage elsewhere.
Neither condition was fully met at any time in the Montenotte
campaign. On the nth Napoleon knew that the attack on Voltri
had been made by a part only of the Austrian forces, yet he flung
his own masses on Montenotte. On the 1 3th he thought that
Beaulieu's main body was at Dego and Colli's at Millesimo, and on
this assumption had to exact the most extraordinary efforts from
Augereau's troops at Cossaria. On the iQth and 2Oth he tried to
exclude the risks of the Austrians' intervention, and with this the
chances of a victory over them to follow his victory over Colli, by
transferring the centre of gravity of his army to Ceva and Garessio,
and fighting it out with Colli alone.
It was not, in fact, to gain a position on interior lines with respect
to two opponents that Napoleon pushed his army to Carcare.
Before the campaign began he hoped by using the " cannon-road "
to destroy the Piedmontese before the Austrians were in existence
at all as an army. But on the news from Voltri and Monte Legino
he swiftly " concentrated fire, made the breach, and broke the
equilibrium " at the spot where the interests and forces of the two
Allies converged and diverged. The hypothesis in the first case was
that the Austrians were practically non-existent, and the whole
object in the second was to breach the now connected front of the
Allies (" strategic penetration ") and to cause them to break up into
two separate systems. More, having made the breach, he had the
choice (which he had not before) of attacking either the Austrians or
the Sardinians, as every critic has pointed out. Indeed the Austrians
offered by far the better target. But he neither wanted nor used
the new alternative. His purpose was to crush Piedmont. " My
enemies saw too much at once," said Napoleon. Singleness of aim
and of purpose, the product of clear thinking and of " personality,"
was the foundation-stone of the new form of strategy.
In the course of subduing the Sardinians, Napoleon found himself
placed on interior lines between two hostile masses, and another new
idea, that of " relative superiority," reveals itself. Whereas Souham
had been in superior force (90,000 against 70,000), Napoleon (40,000
against 50,000) was not, and yet the Army of Italy was always placed
in a position of relative superiority (at first about 3 to 2 and ulti-
mately a to i) to the immediate antagonist. " The essence of
strategy," said Napoleon in 1797, " is, with a weaker army, always
to have more force at the crucial point than the enemy. But this
art is taught neither by books nor by practice; it is a matter of
tact." In this he expressed the result of his victories on his own
mind rather than a preconceived formula which produced those
victories. But the idea, though undefined, and the method of
practice, though imperfectly worked out, were in his mind from the
first. As soon as he had made the breach, he widened it by pushing
out Massena and Laharpe on the one hand and Augereau on the
other. This is mere common sense. But immediately afterwards,
though preparing to throw alLavailable forces against Colli, he posted
Massena and Laharpe at Dego to guard, not like yandamme on the
Lys against a real and pressing enemy, but against a possibility,
and he only diminished the strength and altered the position of this
containing detachment in proportion as the Austrian danger
dwindled. Later in his career he defined this offensive-defensive
system as " having all possible strength at the decisive point,"
and " being nowhere vulnerable," and the art of reconciling^ these
two requirements, in each case as it arose, was always the principal
secret of his generalship. At first his precautions (judged by events
. t . and not by the probabilities of the moment) were excessive,
Ho an< ^ tne " ens ' ve mass small. But the latter was handled
by a general untroubled by multiple aims and anxieties,
and if such self-confidence was equivalent to 10,000
men on the battlefield, it was legitimate to detach 10,000 men to
secure it. These 10,000 were posted 8 m. out on the dangerous
flank, not almost back to back with the main body as Vandamme
had been, 1 and although this distance was but little compared to
those of his later campaigns, when he employed small armies for the
same purpose, it sufficed in this difficult mountain country, where
the covering force enjoyed the advantage of strong positions.
Of course, if Colli had been better concentrated, or if Beaulieu had
been more active, the calculated proportions between covering force
and main body might have proved fallacious, and the system on
which Napoleon's relative superiority rested might have broken
down. But the point is that such a system, however rough its first
model, had been imagined and put into practice.
This was Napoleon s individual art of war, as raiding bakeries and
cutting communications were Beaulieu's speciality. Napoleon made
the art into a science, and in our own time, with modern conditions
of effective, armament and communications, it is more than possible
that Moreaus and Jourdans will prove able to practise it with success.
But in the old conditions it required a Napoleon. " Strategy," said
Moltke, " is a system of expedients." But it was the intense personal
force, as well as the genius, of Napoleon that forged these expedients
into a system.
The first phase of the campaign satisfactorily settled, Napoleon
was free to turn his attention to the " arch-enemy " to whom he
was now considerably superior in numbers (35,000 to 25,000).
The day after the signature of the armistice of Cherasco he
began preparing for a new advance and also for the role of
arbiter of the destinies of Italy. Many whispers there were,
even in his own army, as to the dangers of passing on without
" revolutionizing " aristocratic Genoa and monarchical Piedmont,
and of bringing Venice, the pope and the Italian princes into the
field against the French. But Bonaparte, flushed with victory,
and better informed than the malcontents of the real condi-
tion of Italy, never hesitated. His first object was to drive
out Beaulieu, his second to push through Tirol, and his only
serious restriction the chance that the armistice with Piedmont
would not result in a definitive treaty. Beaulieu had fallen back
into Lombardy, and now bordered the Po right and left of
Valenza. To achieve further progress, Napoleon had first to
cross that river, and the point aad method of crossing was the
immediate problem, a problem the more difficult as Napoleon
had no bridge train and could only make use of such existing
bridges as he could seize intact. 2 If he crossed above Valenza,
he would be confronted by one river-line after another, on one
of which at least Beaulieu would probably stand to fight. But
quite apart from the immediate problem, Napoleon's intention
was less to beat the Austrians than to dislodge them. He needed
a foothold in Lombardy which would make him independent of,
and even a menace to, Piedmont. If this were assured, he could
for a few weeks entirely ignore his communications with France
and strike out against Beaulieu, dethrone the king of Sardinia,
or revolutionize Parma, Modena and the papal states according
to circumstances.
Milan, therefore, was his objective, and Tortona-Piacenza his
route thither. To give himself every chance, he had stipulated
with the Piedmontese authorities for the right of
passing at Valenza, and he had the satisfaction of
seeing Beaulieu fall into the trap and concentrate opposite that
part of the river. The French meantime had moved to the region
Alessandria-Tortona. Thence on the 6th of May Bonaparte,
with a picked body of troops, set out for a forced march on
Piacenza, and that night the advanced guard was 30 m. on the
way, at Castel San Giovanni, and Laharpe's and the cavalry
divisions at Stradella, 10 m. behind them. Augereau was at
Broni, Massena at Sale and S6rurier near Valenza, the whole
forming a rapidly extending fan, 50 m. from point to point.
If the Piacenza detachment succeeded in crossing, the army was
to follow rapidly in its track. If, on the other hand, Beaulieu fell
1 We have seen that after Tourcoing, taught by experience,
Souham posted Vandamme's covering force 14 or 15 m. out. But
Napoleon's disposition was in advance of experience.
8 The proposed alliance with the Sardinians came to nothing.
The kings of Sardinia had always made their alliance with either
Austria or France conditional on cessions of conquered territory.
But, according to Thiers, the Directory only desired to conquer
the Milanese to restore it to Austria in return for the definitive
cession of the Austrian Netherlands. If this be so, Napoleon's
proclamations of " freedom for Italy " were, if not a mere political
expedient, at any rate no more than an expression of his own desires
which he was not powerful enough to enforce.
ITALY 1 793-971
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
189
back to oppose the advanced guard, the Valenza divisions would
take advantage of his absence to cross there. In either case, be it
observed, the Austrian* were to be etadtd, not brought to action.
On the morning of the 7th, the swift advanced guard under
General Dallemagne crossed at Piacenza, 1 and, hearing of this,
Bonaparte ordered every division except Se'rurier's thither with
all possible speed. In the exultation of the moment he mocked
at Beaulieu's incapacity, but the old Austrian was already on
the alert. This game of manoeuvres he understood; already
one of his divisions had arrived in close proximity to Dallemagne
and the others were marching eastward by all available roads.
It was not until the 8th that the French, after a series of partial
encounters, were securely established on the left bank of the Po,
and Beaulieu had given up the idea of forcing their most advanced
troops to accept battle at a disadvantage. The success of
the French was due less to their plan than to their mobility,
which enabled them first to pass the river before the Austrians
(who had actually started a day in advance of them) put in an
appearance, and afterwards to be in superior numbers at each
point of contact. But the episode was destined after all to
culminate in a great event, which Napoleon himself indicated
as the turning-point of his life. " Vendemiaire and even Montc-
notte did not make me think myself a superior being. It was
after Lodi that the idea came to me. . . . That first kindled the
(park of boundless ambition."
The idea of a battle having been given up, Beaulieu retired to
the Adda, and most of his troops were safely beyond it before the
French arrived near Lodi, but he felt it necessary to
leave a strong rearguard on the river opposite that
place to cover the reassembly of his columns after their scattered
march. On the afternoon of the loth of May, Bonaparte, with
Dallemagne, Masslna and Augcrcau, came up and seized the
town. But 200 yds. of open ground had to be passed from the
town gate to the bridge, and the bridge itself was another 250
in length. A few hundred yards beyond it stood the Austrians,
oooo strong with 14 guns. Napoleon brought up all his guns
to prevent the enemy from destroying the bridge. Then sending
all his cavalry to turn the enemy's right by a ford above the
town, he waited two hours, employing the time in cannonading
the Austrian lines, resting his advanced infantry and dosing
up Massena's and Augereau's divisions. Finally he gave the
order to Dallemagne's 4000 grenadiers, who were drawn up
under cover of the town wall, to rush the bridge. As the column,
not more than thirty men broad, made its appearance, it was
met by the concentrated fire of the Austrian guns, and half
way across the bridge it checked, but Bonaparte himself and
Mastena rushed forward, the courage of the soldiers revived,
and, while some jumped off the bridge and scrambled forward
in the shallow water, the remainder stormed on, passed through
the guns and drove back the infantry. This was, in bare outline,
the astounding passage of the Bridge of Lodi. It was not till
after the battle that Napoleon realized that only a rearguard
was in front of him. When he launched his 4000 grenadiers
he thought that on the other side there were four or five times
that number of the enemy. No wonder, then, that after the
event he recognized in himself the flash of genius, the courage
to risk everything, and the " tact " which, independent of,
and indeed contrary to all reasoned calculations, told him that
the moment had come for " breaking the equilibrium." Lodi
was a tactical success in the highest sense, in that the principles
of his tactics rested on psychology on the " sublime " part
of the an of war as Saxe bad called it long ago. The spirit pro-
duced the form, and Lodi was the prototype of the Napoleonic
battle contact, manoeuvre, preparation, and finally the well-
timed, massed and unhesitating assault. The absence of strate-
gical results mattered little. Many months elapsed before this
bold assertion of superiority ceased to decide the battles of
France and Austria.
1 On entering the territory of the duke of Parma Bonaparte
imposed, besides other contributions, the surrender of twenty
famous pictures, and thus began a practice which for many years
enriched the Louvre and only ceased with the capture of Paris
in 1814.
Next day, still under the vivid tactical impressions of the
Bridge of Lodi, he postponed his occupation of the Milanese
and set off in pursuit of Beaulieu, but the latter was Milan
now out of reach, and during the next few days the
French divisions were installed at various points in the area
Pavia-Milan-Pizzighetone, facing outwards in all dangerous
directions, with a central reserve at Milan. Thus secured,
Bonaparte turned his attention to political and military ad-
ministration. This took the form of exacting from the neigh-
bouring princes money, supplies and objects of art, and the once
famished Army of Italy revelled in its opportunity. Now, how-
ever, the Directory, suspicious of the too successful and too
sanguine young general, ordered him to turn over the command
in Upper Italy to Kellermann, and to take an expeditionary
corps himself into the heart of 'the Peninsula, there to preach
the Republic and the overthrow of princes. Napoleon absolutely
refused, and offered his resignation. In the end (partly by
bribery) he prevailed, but the incident reawakened his desire
to close with Beaulieu. This indeed he could now do with a
free hand, since not only had the Milanese been effectively
occupied, but also the treaty with Sardinia had been ratified.
But no sooner had he resumed the advance than it was
interrupted by a rising of the peasantry in his rear. The exac-
tions of the French had in a few days generated sparks of dis-
content which it was easy for the priests and the nobles to fan
into open flames. Milan and Pavia as well as the countryside
broke into insurrection, and at the latter place the mob forced
the French commandant to surrender. Bonaparte acted
swiftly and ruthlessly. Bringing back a small portion of the
army with him, he punished Milan on the 25th, sacked and
burned Binasco on the 26th, and on the evening of the latter
day, while his cavalry swept the open country, he broke his
way into Pavia with 1500 men and beat down all resistance.
Napoleon's cruelty was never purposeless. He deported several
scores of hostages to France, executed most of the mob leaders,
and shot the French officer who had surrendered. In addition,
he gave his 1500 men three hours' leave to pillage. Then, as
swiftly as they had come, they returned to the army on the
Oglio. From this river Napoleon advanced to the banks of the
Mincio, where the remainder of the Italian campaign was fought
out, both sides contemptuously disregarding Venetian neutrality.
It centred on the fortress of Mantua, which Beaulieu, too weak
to keep the field, and dislodged from the Mincio in the action of
Borghetto (May 30), strongly garrisoned before retiring into
Tirol. Beaulieu was soon afterwards replaced by Dagobert
Siegmund, count von Wurmser (b. 1724), who brought con-
siderable reinforcements from Germany.
At this point, mindful of the narrow escape he had had of
losing his command, Bonaparte thought it well to begin the
resettlement of Italy. The scheme for co-operating with Moreau
on the Danube was indefinitely postponed, and the Army of
Italy (now reinforced from the Army of the Alps and counting
42,000 effectives) was again disposed in a protective " zone of
manoeuvre," with a strong central reserve. Over 8000 men,
however, garrisoned the fortresses of Piedmont and Lombardy,
and the effective blockade of Mantua and political .expeditions
into the heart of the Peninsula soon used up the whole of this
reserve.
Moreover, no siege artillery was available until the Austrians
in the citadel of Milan capitulated, and thus it was not till
the 1 8th of July that the first parallel was begun. Almost at the
same moment Wurmser began his advance from Trent with
55,000 men to relieve Mantua.
The protective system on which his attack would fall in the
first instance was now as follows: Augereau (6000) about
Legnago, Despinoy (8000) south-east of Verona, 8ltnof
Massena (13,000) at Verona and Peschiera, with Maatua.
outposts on the Monte Baldo and at La Corona,
Sauret (4500) at Salo and Gavardo. Srurier (12,000) was
besieging Mantua, and the only central reserve was the cavalry
(2000) under Kilmainc. The main road to Milan passed by
Brescia. Sauret's brigade, therefore, was practically a detached
190
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
[ITALY 1793-97
post on the line of communication, and .on the main defensive
front less than 30,000 men were disposed at various points
between La Corona and Legnago (30 m. apart), and at a distance
of 1 5 to 20 m. from Mantua. The strength of such a disposition
depended on the fighting power and handiness of the troops,
who in each case would be called upon to act as a rearguard to
gain time. Yet the lie of the country scarcely permitted a closer
grouping, unless indeed Bonaparte fell back on the old-time
device of a " circumvaUation," and shut himself up, with the
supplies necessary for the calculated duration of the siege, in an
impregnable ring of earthworks round Mantua. This, however,
he could not have done even if he had wished, for the wave of
revolt radiating from Milan had made accumulations of food
impossible, and the lakes above and below the fortress, besides
being extremely unhealthy, would have extended the perimeter
of the circumvallation so greatly that the available forces would
not suffice to man it. It was not in this, but in the absence of an
important central reserve that Bonaparte's disposition is open to
criticism, which indeed could impugn the scheme in its entirety,
as overtaxing the available resources, more easily than it could
attack its details.
If Bonaparte has occasionally been criticized for his defensive
measures, Wurmser's attack procedure has received almost universal
condemnation, as to the justice of which it may be pointed out 1
that the object of the expedition was not to win a battle by falling
on the disunited French with a well-concentrated army, but to over-
power one, .any one, of the corps covering the siege, and to press
.straight forward to the relief of Mantua, i.e. to the destruction of
Bonaparte's batteries and the levelling of his trench work. The old
principle that a battle was a grave event of doubtful issue was
reinforced in the actual case by Beaulieu's late experiences of French
tlan, and as a temporary victory at one point would suffice for the
purpose in hand, there was every incentive to multiply the points of
contact. The soundness of Wurmser's plan was proved by the event.
New ideas and new forces, undiscernible to a man of seventy-two
years of age, obliterated his achievement by surpassing it, but such
as it was a limited use of force for a limited object the venture
undeniably succeeded.
The Austrians formed three corps, one (Quasdanovirh, 18,000
men) marching round the west side of the Lake of Garda on
Gavardo, Salo and the Brescia road, the second (under Wurmser,
about 30,000) moving directly down the Adige, and the third
(Davidovich, 6000) making a d6tour by the Brenta valley
and heading for Verona by Vicenza.
1 See C. von B.-K., Geist und Staff, pp. 449-451.
On the 2gth Quasdanovich attacked Sauret at Salo, drove
him towards Desenzano, and pushed on to Gavardo and thence
into Brescia. Wurmser expelled Massena's advanced guard
from La Corona, and captured in succession the Monte Baldo
and Rivoli posts. The Brenta column approached Verona with
little or no fighting. News of this column led Napoleon early in
the day to close up Despinoy, Massena and Kilmaine at Castel-
nuovo, and to order Augereau from Legnago to advance on
Montebello (19 m. east of Verona) against Davidovich's left
rear. But after these orders had been despatched came the news
of Sauret's defeat, and this moment was one of the most anxious
in Napoleon's career. He could not make up his mind to give up
the siege of Mantua, but he hurried Augereau back to the Mincio,
and sent order after order to the officers on the lines of communi-
cation to send all convoys by the Cremona instead of by the
Brescia road. More, he had the baggage, the treasure and the
sick set in motion at once for Marcaria, and wrote to Serurier
a despatch which included the
words " perhaps we shall recover
ourselves . . . but I must take
serious measures for a retreat."
On the 3oth he wrote: " The
enemy have broken through our
line hi three places . . . Sauret
has evacuated Salo . . . and the
enemy has captured Brescia.
You see that our communications
with Milan and Verona are cut."
The reports that came to him
during the morning of the 3oth
enabled him to place the main
body of the enemy opposite
Massena, and this, without in the
least alleviating the gravity of
the situation, helped to make his
course less doubtful. Augereau
was ordered to hold the line of
the Molinella, in case Davido-
vich's attack, the least-known
factor, should after all prove to
be serious; Massena to recon-
noitre a road from Peschiera
through Castiglione towards
Orzinovi, and to stand fast at
Castelnuovo opposite Wurmser
as long as he could. Sauret
and Despinoy were concentrated
at Desenzano with orders on the 3ist to clear the main line of
retreat and to recapture Brescia. The Austrian movements were
merely the continuation of those of the zgth. Quasdanovich
wheeled inwards, his right finally resting on Montechiaro and
his left on Salo. Wurmser drove back Massena to the west side
of the Mincio. Davidovich made a slight advance.
In the late evening Bonaparte held a council of war at Rover-
beUa. The proceedings of this council are unknown, but it at
any rate enabled Napoleon to see clearly and to act.
Hitherto he had been covering the siege of Mantua with Mantua.
various detachments, the defeat of any one of which
might be fatal to the enterprise. Thus, when he had lost his
main line of retreat, he could assemble no more than 8000 men
at Desenzano to win it back. Now, however, he made up his
mind that the siege could not be continued, and bitter as the
decision must have been, it gave him freedom. At this moment
of crisis the instincts of the great captain came into play, and
showed the way to a victory that would more than counter-
balance the now inevitable failure. S6rurier was ordered to
spike the 140 siege guns that had been so welcome a few days
before, and, after sending part of his force to Augereau, to
establish himself with the rest at Marcaria on the Cremona road. ,
The field forces were to be used on interior lines. On the 3131
Sauret, Despinoy, Augereau and Kilmaine advanced westward
against Quasdanovich. The first two found the Austrians at
Operations around Mantua 1796-7
Positions of the night of a-3 August 1796
shown approximately
Emery Vidkcrsi
ITALY IW97I
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
191
Salo and Lonato and drove them back, while with Augereau
and the cavalry Bonaparte himself made a forced march on
Brescia, never halting night or day till he reached the town and
recovered his depots. Meantime Se'rurier had retired (night
of July ji), Masse'na had gradually drawn in towards Lonato,
and Wunnscr's advanced guard triumphantly entered the
fortress (August i).
The Austrian general now formed the plan of crushing
Bonaparte between Quasdanovich and his own main body.
But meantime Quasdanovich had evacuated Brescia under the
threat of Bonaparte's advance and was now fighting a long
irregular action with Despinoy and Sauret about Gavardo and
Salo, and Bonaparte, having missed his expected target, had
brought Augereau by another severe march back to Montechiaro
on the Chiese. Masse'na was now assembled between Lonato
and Ponte San Marco, and Se'rurier was retiring quietly on
Marcaria. Wurmser's main body, weakened by the detachment
sent to Mantua, crossed the Mincio about Valcggio and Goito
on the znd, and penetrated as far as Castiglione, whence Massfina's
rearguard was expelled. But a renewed advance of Quasdano-
vich, ordered by Wurmser, which drove Sauret and Despinoy
back on Brescia and Lonato, in the end only placed
strong detachment of the Austrians within striking
distance of Masse'na, who on the 3rd attacked it,
front to front, and by sheer fighting destroyed it,
while at the same time Augereau recaptured Castiglione from
Wurmser. On the 4th Sauret and Despinoy pressed back
Quasdanovich beyond Salo and Gavardo. One of the Austrian
columns, finding itself isolated and unable to retreat with the
others, turned back to break its way through to Wurmser, and
was annihilated by Masscna in the neighbourhood of Lonato.
On this day Augereau fought his way towards Solferino, and
Wurmser, thinking rightly or wrongly that he could not now
retire to the Mincio without a battle, drew up his whole force,
close on 30,000 men, in the plain between Solferino and Medole.
The finale may be described in very few words. Bonaparte,
convinced that no more was to be feared from Quasdanovich,
and seeing that Wurmser meant to fight, called in Despinoy's
division to the main body and sent orders to Se'rurier, then far
distant on the Cremona road, to march against the left flank of
the Austrians. On the sth the battle of Castiglione was fought.
Closely contested in the first hours of the frontal attack till
Serurier's arrival decided the day, it ended in the retreat of the
Austrians over the Mincio and into Tirol whence they had
come.
Thus the new way had failed to keep back Wurmser, and the
old had failed to crush Napoleon. Each was the result of its own
conditions. In former wars a commander threatened as Napoleon
was, would have fallen back at once to the Adda, abandoning the
siege in such good time that he would have been able to bring off his
siege artillery. Instead of this Bonaparte hesitated long enough
to lose it, which, according to accepted canons was a waste, and held
hi* ground, which was, by the same rules, sheer madness. But
Revolutionary discipline was not firm enough to stand a retreat.
Once it turned back, the army would have streamed away to Milan
and perhaps to the Alps (cf. 1799), an<1 the on ' v alternative to com-
plete dissolution therefore was fighting.
A* to the manner of this fighting, even the principle of " relative
superiority " failed him so long as he was endeavouring to cover
the siege and again when his chief care was to protect his new line of
retreat and to clear his old. In this period, viz. up to his return
from Brescia on the 2nd of August, the only " mass " he collected
delivered a blow in the air, while the covering detachments had to
fight hard for bare existence. Once released from its trammels,
the Napoleonic principle had fair play. He stood between Wurmser
and Quasdanovich, ready to fight either or both. The latter was
i, thanks to local superiority and the resolute leading of
a, but at Castiglione Wurmser actually outnumbered his
it till the last 01 Napoleon's precautionary dispositions had
been given up, and Serurier brought back from the " alternative line
of retreat " to the battlefield. The moral is, again, that it was not the
mere fact of being on interior lines that gave Napoleon the victory,
but his " tact," his fine appreciation of the chances in his favour,
ured in terms of time, space, attacking force and containing
r. AH these factors were greatly influenced by the ground, which
iTfit the swarms and columns of the French and deprived
the brilliant Austrian cavalry of its power to act. But of far
prater importance was the mobility that Napoleon's personal
t-i. .?']
force imparted to the French. Napoleon himself rode five horses
to death in three days, and Augereau 's division marched from
Kovcrbella to Brescia and back to Montechiaro, a total distance of
nearly 50 in. . in about thirty-six hours. This indeed was the founda-
tion of his " relative superiority," for every hour saved in the time
of marching meant more freedom to destroy one corps before the
rest could overwhelm the covering detachments and come to its
.instance.
Wurmser's plan for the relief of Mantua, suited to its purpose,
succeeded. But when he made his objective the French field army,
he had to take his own army as he found it, disposed for an altogether
different purpose. A properly combined attack of convergent
columns framed ab initio by a good staff officer, such as Mack,
might indeed have given good results. But the success of such a
plan depends principally on the assailant's original possession of the
initiative, and not on the chances of his being able to win it over to
his own side when operations, as here, are already in progress.
W r hen the time came to improvise such a plan, the initiative had
passed over to Napoleon, and the plan was foredoomed.
By the end of the second week in August the blockade of
Mantua had been resumed, without siege guns. But still under
the impression of a great victory gained, Bonaparte was planning
a long forward stride. He thought that by advancing past
Mantua directly on Trieste, and thence onwards to the Semmering
he could impose a peaceon theemperor. The Directory, however,
which had by now focussed its attention on the German cam-
paign, ordered him to pass through Tirol and to co-operate with
Moreau, and this plan, Bonaparte, though protesting against an
Alpine venture being made so late in the year, prepared to execute,
drawing in reinforcements and collecting great quantities of
supplies in boats on the Adige and Lake Garda. Wurmser was
thought to have posted his main body near Trent, and to have
detached one division to Bassano " to coverTrieste." The French
advanced northward on the 2nd, in three disconnected columns
(precisely as Wurmser had done in the reverse direction at the
end of July) Masse'na (13,000) from Rivoli to Ala, Augereau
(oooo) from Verona by hill roads, keeping on his right rear,
Vaubois (n,ooo) round the Lake of Garda by Riva and Tor-
bole. Sahuguet's division (8000) remained before Mantua. The
French divisions successfully combined and drove the enemy
before them to Trent.
There, however, they missed their target. Wurmser had already
drawn over the bulk of his army (22,000) into the Val Sugana,
whence, with the Bassano division as his advanced guard, he
intended once more to relieve Mantua, while Davidovich with
13,000 (excluding detachments) was to hold Tirol against any
attempt of Bonaparte to join forces with Moreau.
Thus Austria was preparing to hazard a second (as in the
event she hazarded a third and a fourth) highly trained and
expensive professional army in the struggle for the preservation
of a fortress, and we must conclude that there were weighty
reasons which actuated so notoriously cautious a body as the
Council of War in making this unconditional venture. While
Mantua stood, Napoleon, for all his energy and sanguineness,
could not press forward into Friuli and Carniola, and immunity
from a Republican visitation was above all else important for
the Vienna statesmen, governing as they did more or less dis-
contented and heterogeneous populations that had not felt the
pressure of war for a century and more. The Austrians, so far
as is known, desired no more than to hold their own. They no
longer possessed the superiority of moral that guarantees victory
to one side when both are materially equal. There was therefore
nothing to be gained, commensurate with the risk involved, by
fighting a battle in the open field. In Italien siegt nicht die
Katallerie was an old saying in the Austrian army, and therefore
the Austrians could not hope to win a victory of the first mag-
nitude. The only practicable alternative was to strengthen
Mantua as opportunities offered themselves, and to prolong
the passive resistance as much as possible. Napoleon's own
practice in providing for secondary theatres of war was to
economize forces and to delay a decision, and the fault of the
Austrians, viewed from a purely military standpoint, was that
they squandered, instead of economizing, their forces to gain
time. If we neglect pure theory, and regard strategy as the
handmaiden of statesmanship which fundamentally it is we
192
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
[ITALY 1793-97
cannot condemn the Vienna authorities unless it be first proved
that they grossly exaggerated the possible results of Bonaparte's
threatened irruption. And if their capacity for judging the
political situation be admitted, it naturally follows that their
object was to preserve Mantua at all costs which object Wurmser,
though invariably defeated in action, did in fact accomplish.
When Massena entered Trent on the morning of the 5th of
September, Napoleon became aware that the force in his front
was a mere detachment, and news soon, came in that
BasssBo. ^ urmser was j n tne y a i Sugana about Primolano and
at Bassano. This move he supposed to be intended to cover
Trieste, being influenced by his own hopes of advancing in that
direction, and underestimating the importance, to the Austrians,
of preserving Mantua. He therefore informed the Directory
that he could not proceed with the Tirol scheme, and spent one
more day in driving Davidovich well away from Trent. Then,
leaving Vaubois to watch him, Napoleon marched Augereau and
Massena, with a rapidity he scarcely ever surpassed, into the
Val Sugana. Wurmser's rearguard was attacked and defeated
again and again, and Wurmser himself felt compelled to stand
and fight, in the hope of checking .the pursuit before going
forward into the plains. Half his army had already reached
Montebello on the Verona road, and with the rear half he posted
himself at Bassano, where on the 8th he was attacked and
defeated with heavy losses. Then began a strategic pursuit or
general chase, and in this the mobility of the French should
have finished the work so well begun by their tactics.
But Napoleon directed the pursuers so as to cut off Wurmser
from Trieste, not from Mantua. Massena followed up the
Austrians to Vicenza, while Augereau hurried towards Padua,
and it was not until late on the pth that Bonaparte realized that
his opponent was heading for Mantua via Legnago. On the loth
Massena crossed the Adige at Ronco, while Augereau from
Padua reached Montagnana. Sahuguet from Mantua and
Kilmaine from Verona joined forces at Casfellaro on the nth,
with orders to interpose between Wurmser and the fortress.
Wurmser meantime had halted for a day at Legnago, to restore
order, and had then resumed his march. It was almost too late,
for in the evening, after having to push aside the head of Massena's
column at Cerea, he had only reached Nogara, some miles short of
Castellaro, and close upon his rear was Augereau, who reached
Legnago that night. On the I2th, eluding Sahuguet by a detour
to the southward, he reached Mantua, with all the columns of
the French, weary as most of them were, in hot pursuit. After
an attempt to keep the open field, defeated in a general action
on the isth, the relieving force was merged in the garrison, now
some 28,000 in all. So ended the episode of Bassano, the most
brilliant feature of which as usual was the marching power of
the French infantry. This time it sufficed to redeem even
strategical misconceptions and misdirections. Between the
5th and the nth, besides fighting three actions, Massena had
marched 100 m. and Augereau 114.
Feldzeugmeister Alvintzi was now appointed to command a
new army of relief. This time the mere distribution of the
troops imposed a concentric advance of separate columns, for
practically the whole of the fresh forces available were in Carniola,
the Military Frontier, &c., while Davidovich was still in Tirol.
Alvintzi's intention was to assemble his new army (29,000) in
Friuli, and to move on Bassano, which was to be occupied on
the 4th of November. Meantime Davidovich (18,000) was to
capture Trent, and the two columns were to connect by the Val
Sugana. All being well, Alvintzi and Davidovich, still separate,
were then to converge on the Adige between Verona and Legnago.
Wurmser was to co-operate by vigorous sorties. At this time
Napoleon's protective system was as follows: Kilmaine (9000)
investing Mantua, Vaubois (10,000) at Trent, and Mass6na
(oooo) at Bassano and Treviso, Augereau (9000) and Macquard
(3000) at Verona and Villafranca constituting, for the first time
in these operations, important mobile reserves. Hearing of
Alvintzi's approach in good time, he meant first to drive back
Davidovich, then with Augereau, Mass6na, Macquard and 3000
of Vaubois's force to fall upon Alvintzi, who, he calculated,
would at this stage have reached Bassano, and finally to send
back a large force through the Val Sugana to attack Davidovich.
This plan practically failed.
Instead of advancing, Vaubois was driven steadily backward.
By the 6th, Davidovich had fought his way almost to Roveredo,
and Alvintzi had reached Bassano and was there
successfully repelling the attacks of Massena and
Augereau. That night Napoleon drew back to Vicenza. On
the 7th Davidovich drove in Vaubois to Corona and Rivoli,
and Alvintzi came within 5 m. of Vicenza. Napoleon watched
carefully for an opportunity to strike out, and on the 8th massed
his troops closely around the central point of Verona. On the
9th, to give himself air, he ordered Massena to join Vaubois,
and to drive back Davidovich at all costs. But before this order
was executed, reports came in to the effect that Davidovich
had suspended his advance. The loth and nth were spent by
both sides in relative inaction, the French waiting on events
and opportunities, the Austrians resting after their prolonged
exertions. Then, on the afternoon of the nth, being informed
that Alvintzi was approaching, Napoleon decided to attack him.
On the 1 2th the advanced guard of Alvintzi's army was furiously
assailed in the position of Caldiero. But the troops in rear came
up rapidly, and by 4 P.M. the French were defeated all along the
line and in retreat -on Verona. Napoleon's situation was now
indeed precarious. He was on " interior lines," it is true, but
he had neither the force nor the space necessary for the delivery
of rapid radial blows. Alvintzi was in superior numbers, as the
battle of Caldiero had proved, and at any moment Davidovich,
who had twice Vaubois's force, might advance to the attack of
Rivoli. The reserves had proved insufficient, and Kilmaine
had to be called up from Mantua, which was thus for the third
time freed from the blockaders. Again the alternatives were
retreat, in whatever order was possible to Republican armies,
and beating the nearest enemy at any sacrifice. Napoleon chose
the latter, though it was not until the evening of the I4th that
he actually issued the fateful order.
The Austrians, too, had selected the isth as the date of their '
final advance on Verona, Davidovich from the north, Alvintzi
via Zevio from the south. But Napoleon was no longer there;
leaving Vaubois to hold Davidovich as best he might, and
posting only 3000 men in Verona, he had collected the rest of
his small army between Albaro and Ronco. His plan seems to
have been to cross the Adige well in rear of the Austrians, to
march north on to the Verona-Vicenza highway, and there,
supplying himself from their convoys, to fight to the last. On
the 1 5th he had written to the Directory, " The weakness and
the exhaustion of the army causes me to fear the worst. We are
perhaps on the eve of losing Italy." In this extremity of danger
the troops passed the Adige in three columns near Ronco and
Albaredo, and marched forward along the dikes, with deep
marshes and pools on either hand. If Napoleon's intention was
to reach the dry open ground of S. Bonifacio in rear of the
Austrians, it was not realized, for the Austrian army, instead of
being at the gates of Verona, was still between Caldiero and
S. Bonifacio, heading, as we know, for Zevio. Thus Alvintzi
was able, easily and swiftly, to wheel to the south.
The battle of Arcola almost defies description. The first day
passed in a series of resultless encounters between the heads
of the columns as they met on the dikes. In the Arco i a
evening Bonaparte withdrew over the Adige, expecting
at every moment to be summoned to Vaubois's aid. But Davido-
vich remained inactive, and on the i6th the French again crossed
the river. Massena from Ronco advanced on Porcile, driving
the Austrians along the causeway thither, but on the side of
Arcola, Alvintzi had deployed a considerable part of his forces
on the edge of the marshes, within musket shot of the causeway
by which Bonaparte and Augereau had to pass, along the
Austrian front, to reach the bridge of Arcola. In these circum-
stances the second day's battle was more murderous and no
more decisive than the first, and again the French retreated to
Ronco. But Davidovich again stood still, and with incredible
obstinacy Bonaparte ordered a third assault for the I7th, using
ITALY 1793-97)
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
'93
indeed more tactical expedients than before, but calculating
chiedy on the fighting powers of his men and on the exhaustion
of the enemy. M assent again advanced on Porcile, Robert's
brigade on Arcola, but the rest, under Augereau, were to pass
the Alpone near its confluence with the Adige, and joining various
small bodies which passed the main stream lower down, to storm
forward on dry ground to Arcola. The Austrians, however,
themselves advanced from Arcola, overwhelmed Robert's
brigade on the causeway and almost reached Ronco. This was
perhaps the crisis of the battle, for Augereau's force was now
on the other side of the stream, and Massena, with his back
to the new danger, was approaching Porcile. But the fire of a
deployed regiment stopped the head of the Austrian column;
Masslna, turning about, cut into its flank on the dike; and
Augereau, gathering force, was approaching Arcola from the
south. The bridge and the village were evacuated soon after-
wards, and Massena and Augereau began to extend in the plain
beyond. But the Austrians still sullenly resisted. It was at
this moment that Bonaparte secured victory by a mere ruse,
but a ruse which would have been unprofitable and ridiculous
had it not been based on his fine sense of the moral conditions.
Both sides were nearly fought out, and be sent a few trumpeters
to the rear of the Austrian army to sound the charge. They
did so, and in a few minutes the Austrians were streaming back
to S. Bonifacio. This ended the drama of Arcola, which more
than any other episode of these wars, perhaps of any wars in
modern history, centres on the personality of the hero. It is
said that the French fought without spirit on the first day, and
yet on the second and third Bonaparte had so thoroughly imbued
them witfc his own will to conquer that in the end they prevailed
over an enemy nearly twice their own strength.
The climax was reached just in time, for on the i;th Vaubois
was completely defeated at Rivoli and withdrew to Peschiera,
leaving the Verona and Mantua roads completely open to
Davidovich. But on the ipth Napoleon turned upon him, and
combining the forces of Vaubois, Masslna and Augereau against
him, drove him back to Trent. Meantime Alvintzi returned
from Vicenza to San Bonifacio and Caldiero (November 2ist),
and Bonaparte at once stopped the pursuit of Davidovich. On
the return of the French main body to Verona, Alvintzi finally
withdrew, Wurmser, who had emerged from Mantua on the 23rd,
was driven in again, and this epilogue of the great struggle
came to a feeble end because neither side was now capable of
prolonging the crisis.
Alvintzi renewed his advance in January 1797 with all the
forces that could be assembled for a last attempt to save Mantua.
At this time 8000 men under Serurier blockaded Mantua.
Massena (oooo) was at Verona, Joubert (Vaubois's successor)
at Rivoli with 10,000, Augereau at Legnago with 9000. In
reserve were Rey's division (4000) between Brescia and Monte-
chiaro, and Victor's brigade at Goito and Castelnuovo. On the
other side, Alvintzi had 9000 men under Provera at Padua,
oooo under BayaliC at Bassano, and he himself with 28,000 men
stood in the Tirol about Trent. This time be intended to make
his principal effort on the Rivoli side. Provera was to capture
Legnago on the Qth of January, and Hayalif Verona on the 1 2th,
while the main army was to deliver its blow against the Rivoli
position on the ijth.
The first marches of this scheme were duly carried out, and
several days elapsed before Napoleon was able to discern the
gtn g_ direction of the real attack. Augereau fell back,
skirmishing a little, as Provera 's and Bayalic's advance
developed. On the nth, when the latter was nearing Verona,
Alvintzi's leading troops appeared in front of the Rivoli position.
On the i th Bayalit with a weak force (he had sent reinforce-
ments to Alvintzi by the V'al Pantena) made an unsuccessful
tuck on Verona, Provera, farther south, remaining inactive.
On the ijth Napoleon, still in doubt, launched Messina's division
against Bayalii, who was driven back to San Bonifacio; but
at the same time definite news came from Joubert that Alvintzi's
main army was in front of La Corona. From this point begins
the decisive, though by no means the most intense or dramatic,
n 7
struggle of the campaign. Once he felt sure of the situation
Napoleon acted promptly. Joubert was ordered to hold on to
Rivoli at all costs. Rey was brought up by a forced march to
Castelnuovo, where Victor joined him, and ahead of them both
Massena was hurried on to Rivoli. Napoleon himself joined
Joubert on the night of the I3th. There he saw the watch-fires
of the enemy in a semicircle around him, for Alvintzi, thinking
that he had only to deal with one division, had begun a wide-
spread enveloping attack. The horns of this attack were as yet
so far distant that Napoleon, instead of extending on an equal
front, only spread out a few regiments to gain an hour or two
and to keep the ground for Massena and Rey, and on the morning
of January I4th, with 10,000 men in hand against 26,000, he
fell upon the central columns of the enemy as they advanced
up the steep broken slopes of the foreground. The fighting was
severe, but Bonaparte had the advantage. Massena arrived at
9 A.M.. and a little later the column of Quasdanovich, which had
moved along the Adige and was now attempting to gain a foothold
on the plateau in rear of Joubert, was crushed by the converging
fire of Joubert's right brigade and by Mass6na's guns, their rout
being completed by the charge of a handful of cavalry under
Lasalle. The right horn of Alvintzi's attack, when at last it
swung in upon Napoleon's rear, was caught between Massdna
and the advancing troops of Rey and annihilated, and even
before this the dispirited Austrians were in full retreat. A last
alarm, caused by the appearance of a French infantry regiment
in their rear (this had- crossed the lake in boats from Salo), com-
pleted their demoralization, and though less than 2000 had been
killed and wounded, some 12,000 Austrian prisoners were left
in the hands of the victors. Rivoli was indeed a moral triumph.
After the ordeal of Arcola, the victory of the French was a fore-
gone conclusion at each point of contact. Napoleon hesitated,
or rather refrained from striking, so long as his information was
incomplete, but he knew now from experience that his covering
detachment, if well led, could not only hold its own without
assistance until it had gained the necessary information, but
could still give the rest of the army time to act upon it. Then,
when the centre of gravity had been ascertained, the French
divisions hurried thither, caught the enemy in the act of manoeu-
vring and broke them up. And if that confidence in success
which made all this possible needs a special illustration, it may
be found in Napoleon's sending Murat's regiment over the lake
to place a mere two thousand bayonets across the line of
retreat of a whole army. Alvintzi's manoeuvre was faulty
neither strategically in the first instance nor tactically as
regards the project of enveloping Joubert on the I4th. It
failed because Joubert and his men were better soldiers than his
own, and because a French division could move twice as fast as
an Austrian, and from these two factors a new form of war was
evolved, the essence of which was that, for a given time and in
a given area, a small force of the French should engage and
hold a much larger force of the enemy.
The remaining operations can be very briefly summarized.
Provera, still advancingon Mantua, joined hands there withWurmser,
and for a time held Serurier at a disadvantage. But hearing of this,
Napoleon sent back Mass6na from the field of Rivoli, and that general,
with Augereau and Serurier, not only forced Wurmser to retire again
into the fortress, but compelled Provera to lay down his arms. On
the 2nd of February 1797, after a long and honourable defence,
Mantua, and with it what was left of Wurmser's army, surrendered.
The campaign of 1797, which ended the war of the First Coalition,
was the brilliant sequel of these hard-won victories. Austria had
decided to save Mantua at all costs, and had lost her armies in the
attempt, a loss which wa not compensated by the "strategic "
victories of the archduke. Thus the Republican " visitation of
Carinthia and Carniola was one swift march politically glorious,
if dangerous from a purely military standpoint of Napoleon's
army to the Semmcring. The archduke, who was called thither
from Germany, could do no more than fight a few rearguard actions,
and make threats against Napoleon's rear, which the latter, with his
usual " tact," ignored. On the Rhine, as in 1705 and 1796, the armies
of the Sambre-and-Meuse (Hoche) and the Rhine-and-Moselle
(Morcau) were opposed by the armies of the Lower Rhine (Werneck)
and of the Upper Rhine (Latour). Moreau crossed the river near
Strawburg ana fought a series of minor actions. Hoche, like his
predecessors, crossed at Dttsseldorf and Neuwied and fought his
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS [SECOND COALITION
way to the Lahn, where for the last time in the history of these wars,
there was an irregular widespread battle. But Hoche, in this his
last campaign, displayed the brilliant energy of his first, and delivered
the " series of incessant blows " that Carnot had urged upon Jourdan
the year before. VVerneck was driven with ever-increasing losses
from the lower Lahn to Wetzlar and Giessen. Thence, pressed
hard by the French left wing under Championnet, he retired on the
Nidda, only to find that Hoche's right had swung completely round
, - him. Nothing but the news of the armistice of Leoben
saved him from envelopment and surrender. This
general armistice was signed by Bonaparte, on his own authority
and to the intense chagrin of the Directory and of Hoche, on the
l8th of April, and was the basis of the peace of Campo Formio.
NAPOLEON IN EGYPT
Within the scope of this article, yet far more important from its
political and personal than from its general military interest, comes
the expedition of Napoleon to Egypt and its sequel (see also EGYPT :
History; NAPOLEON, &c.). A very brief summary must here suffice.
Napoleon left Toulon on the igth of May 1798, at the same time as
his army (40,000 strong in 400 transports) embarked secretly at
various ports. Nelson's fleet was completely evaded, and, capturing
Malta en route, the armada reached the coast of Egypt on the 1st of
July. The republicans stormed Alexandria on the 2nd. Between
Embabeh and Gizeh, on the left bank of the Nile, 60,000 Mamelukes
were defeated and scattered on the 2ist (battle of the Pyramids),
the French for the most part marching and fighting in the chequer
of infantry squares that afterwards became the classical formation
for desert warfare. While his lieutenants pursued the more important
groups of the enemy, Napoleon entered Cairo in triumph, and pro-
ceeded to organize Egypt as a French protectorate. Meantime
Nelson, though too late to head off the expedition, had annihilated
the squadron of Admiral Brueys. This blow severed the army
from the home country, and destroyed all hope of reinforcements.
But to eject the French already in Egypt, military invasion of that
country was necessary. The first attempts at this were made in
September by the Turks as overlords of Egypt. Napoleon after
suppressing a revolt in Cairo marched into Syria to meet them,
and captured El Arish and Jaffa (at the latter place the prisoners,
whom he could afford neither to feed, to release, nor to guard, were
shot by his order) . But he was brought to a standstill (March 1 7-May
20) before the half-defensible fortifications of Acre, held by a Turkish
garrison and animated by the leadership of Sir W. Sidney Smith
(?..). In May, though meantime a Turkish relieving army had been
severely beaten in the battle of Mount Tabor (April 16, 1799),
Napoleon gave up his enterprise, and returned to Egypt, where he
won a last victory in annihilating at Aboukir, with 6000 of his own
men, a Turkish army 18,000 strong that had landed there (July 25,
1799). With this crowning tactical success to set against the Syrian
reverses, he handed over the command to Kleber and returned to
France (August 22) to ride the storm in a new coup d'etat, the " i8th
Brumaire." Kleber, attacked by the English and Turks, concluded
the convention of El Arish (January 27, 1800), whereby he secured
free transport for the army back to France. But this convention
was disavowed by the British government, and Kleber prepared to
hold his ground. On the 2Oth of March 1800 he thoroughly defeated
the Turkish army at Heliopolis and recovered Cairo, and French
influence was once more in the ascendant in Egypt, when its director
was murdered by a fanatic on the I4th of June, the day of Marengo.
Klfeber's successor, the incompetent Menou, fell an easy victim to the
British expeditionary force under Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1801.
The British forced their way ashore at Aboukir on the 8th of March.
On the 2ist, Abercromby won a decisive battle, and himself fell in the
hour of victory (see ALEXANDRIA: Battle of 1801). His successor,
General Hely Hutchinson, slowly followed up this advantage, and
received the surrender of Cairo in July and of Alexandria in August,
the debris of the French army being given free passage back to France.
Meantime a mixed force of British and native troops from India,
under Sir David Baird, had landed at Kosseir and marched across
the desert to Cairo.
THE WAR OF THE SECOND COALITION
In the autumn of 1798, while Napoleon's Egyptian expedition
was in progress, and the Directory was endeavouring at home
to reduce the importance and the predominance of the army
and its leaders, the powers of Europe once more allied themselves,
not now against the principles of the Republic, but against the
treaty of Campo Formio. Russia, Austria, England, Turkey,
Portugal, Naples and the Pope formed the Second Coalition. The
war began with an advance into the Roman States by a worthless
and ill-behaved Neapolitan army (commanded, much against
his will, by Mack), which the French troops under Championnet
destroyed with ease. Championnet then revolutionized Naples.
After this unimportant prelude the curtain rose on a general
European war. The Directory which now had at its command
neither numbers nor enthusiasm, prepared as best it could to
'"
meet the storm. Four armies, numbering only 160,000, were
set on foot, in Holland (Brune, 24,000); on the Upper Rhine
(Jourdan, 46,000); in Switzerland, which had been militarily
occupied in 1 798 (Massena, 30,000) ; and in upper Italy (Scherer,
60,000). In addition there was Championnet 's army, now
commanded by Macdonald, in southern Italy. All these forces
the Directory ordered, in January and February 1799, to assume
the offensive.
Jourdan, in the Constance and Schaffhausen region, had only
40,000 men against the archduke Charles's 80,000, and was soon
brought to a standstill and driven back on Stokach.
mi 11111 ii i> Stokach.
The archduke had won these preliminary successes
with seven-eighths of his army acting as one concentrated mass.
But as he had only encountered a portion of Jourdan's army, he
became uneasy as to his flanks, checked his bold advance, and
ordered a reconnaissance in force. This practically extended
his army while Jourdan was closing his, and thus the French
began the battle of Stokach (March 25) in superior numbers, and
it was not until late in the day that the archduke brought up
sufficient strength (60,000) to win a victory. This was a battle
of the " strategic " type, a widespread straggling combat in
which each side took fifteen hours to inflict a loss of 12%
on the other, and which ended in Jourdan accepting defeat and
drawing off, unpursued by the magnificent Austrian cavalry,
though these counted five times as many sabres as the French.
The French secondary army in Switzerland was in the hands
of the bold and active Massena. The forces of both sides in the
Alpine region were, from a military point of view, mere flank
guards to the main armies on the Rhine and the Adige. But
unrest, amounting to civil war, among the Swiss and Grison
peoples tempted both governments to give these flank guards
considerable strength. 1
The Austrians in the Vorarlberg and Grisons were under
Hotze, who had 13,000 men at Bregenz, and 7000 commanded
by Auffenberg around Chur, with, between them,
5000 men at Feldkirch and a post of 1000 in the strong
position of the Luziensteig nearMayenfeld. Massena's fa,,,/.
available force was about 20,000, and he used almost
the whole of it against Auffenberg. The Rhine was crossed
by his principal column near Mayenfeld, and the Luziensteig
stormed (March 6), while a second column from the Zurich side
descended upon Disentis and captured its defenders. In three
days, thanks to Massena's energy and the ardent attacking spirit
of his men, Auffenberg's division was broken up, Oudinot
meanwhile holding off Hotze by a hard-fought combat at
Feldkirch (March 7). But a second attack on Feldkirch made
on the 23rd by Massena with 15,000 men was repulsed and the
advance of his left wing came to a standstill.
Behind Auffenberg and Hotze was Belle-garde in Tirol with
some 47,000 men. Most of these were stationed north of Inns-
bruck and Landeck, probably as a sort of strategic reserve to
the archduke. The rest, with the assistance of the Tirolese
themselves, were to ward off irruptions from Italy. Here the
French offensive was entrusted to two columns, one from
Mass6na's command under Lecourbe, the other from the Army
of Italy under Dessolle. Simultaneously with Massena,
Lecourbe marched from Bellinzona with 10,000 men, by the
San Bernadino pass into the Spliigen valley, and thence over the
Julier pass into the upper Engadine. A small Austrian force
under Major-General Loudon attacked him near Zernetz, but
was after three days of rapid manoeuvres and bold tactics driven
back to Martinsbriick, with considerable losses, especially in
prisoners. But ere long the country people flew to arms, and
Lecourbe found himself between two fires, the levies occupying
Zernetz and Loudon's regulars Martinsbriick. But though he
had only some 5000 of his original force left, he was not discon-
certed, and, by driving back the levies into the high valleys
whence they had come, and constantly threatening Loudon,
'The assumption by later critics (Clausewitz even included)
that the " flank position " held by these forces relatively to the
main armies in Italy and Germany was their raison d'etre is un-
supported by contemporary evidence.
SECOND COALITION, FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
'95
be was able to maintain himself and to wait for Dessolles. The
latter, moving up the Yaltclline, by now fought his way to the
Stelvio pass, but beyond it the defile of Tauffers (S.W. of Glurns)
was entrenched by Loudon, who thus occupied a position
midway between the two French columns, while his irregulars
beset all the passes and ways giving access to the Vintschgau and
the lower Engadine. In this situation the French should have
been destroyed in detail. But as usual their speed and dash gay
them the advantage in every manoeuvre and at every point of
contact.
On the a$th Lecourbe and Dessolles attacked Loudon at
Nauders in the Engadine and Tauffers in the Yintschgau re-
spectively. At Nauders the French passed round
the flanks of the defence by scrambling along the high
mountain crests adjacent, while at Tauffers the
assailants, only 4500 strong, descended into a deep
ravine, debouched unnoticed in the Austrian*' rear, and captured
6000 men and 16 guns. The Austrian leader with a couple of
companies made his way through Glurns to Nauders, and there,
finding himself headed off by Lecourbe, he took to the mountains.
His corps, like Auffenberg's, was annihilated.
This ended the French general offensive. Jourdan had been
defeated by the archduke and forced or induced to retire over the
Rhine. Massena was at a standstill before the strong position
of Fddkirch, and the Austrians of Hotze were still massed at
Bregenz, but the Orisons were revolutionized, two strong bodies
of Austrians numbering in all about 20,000 men had been
destroyed, and Lecourbe and Dessolles had advanced far into
Tirol. A pause followed. TheAustriansinthemountainsneeded
time to concentrate and to recover from their astonishment.
The archduke fell ill, and the Vienna war council forbade his
army to advance lest Tirol should be " uncovered," though
Bellegarde and Hotze still disposed of numbers equal to those
of Massfna and Lecourbe. Massena succeeded Jourdan in general
command on the French side and promptly collected all available
forces of both armies in the hilly non-Alpine country between
Basel, Zurich and Schaffhausen, thereby directly barring the
roads into France (Berne-Neuchatel-Pontarlier and Bascl-
Besancon) which the Austrians appeared to desire to conquer.
The protection of Alsace and the Vosges was left to the fortresses.
There was no suggestion, it would appear, that the Rhine between
Basel and Schaffhausen was a flank position sufficient of itself
to bar Alsace to the enemy.
It is now time to turn to events in Italy, where the Coalition
intended to put forth its principal efforts. At the beginning of
March the French had 80,000 men in Upper Italy and some 35,000
in the heart of the Peninsula, the latter engaged chiefly in sup-
porting newly-founded republics. Of the former, 53,000 formed
the field army on the Mincio under Scherer. The Austrians,
commanded by Kray, numbered in all 84,000, but detachments
reduced this figure to 67,000, of whom, moreover, 15,000 had not
yet arrived when operations began. They were to be joined by a
Russian contingent under the celebrated Suvarov, who was to
command the whole on arrival, and whose extraordinary person-
ality gives the campaign its special interest. Kray himself was
a resolute soldier, and when the French, obeying the general order
to advance, crossed the Adige, he defeated them in a severely
fought battle at Magnano near Verona (March 5), the French
losing 4000 killed and wounded and 4500 taken, out of 4 1 ,000. The
Austrians lost some 3800 killed and wounded and 1 500 prisoners,
out of 46,000 engaged. The war, however, was undertaken not
to annihilate, but to evict the French, and, probably under orders
from Vienna, Kray allowed the beaten enemy to depart.
Suvarov appeared with 17,000 Russians on the 4th of April.
His first step was to set Russian officers to teach the Austrian
3_ r jj^ troops whose feelings can be imagined how to
attack with the bayonet, his next to order the whole
army forward. The Allies broke camp on the lyth, iSth and
toth of April, and on the 201 h, after a forced march of close on
30 m., they passed the Chiese. Brescia had a French garrison, but
Suvarov soon cowed it into surrender by threats of a massacre,
which no one doubted that he would carry into execution.
At the same time, dissatisfied with the marching of the Austrian
infantry, he sent the following characteristic reproof to their
commander: " The march was in the service of the Kaiser.
Fair weather is for my lady's chamber, for dandies, for sluggards.
He who dares to cavil against his high duty (der Grosssprecher
wider den hohen Dim. it) is, as an egoist, instantly to vacate his
command. Whoever is in bad health can stay behind. The
so-called reasoners (raisonneurs) do no army any good. . . ."
One day later, under this unrelenting pressure, the advanced
posts of the Allies reached Cremona and the main body the
Oglio. The pace became slower in the following days, as many
bridges had to be made, and meanwhile Moreau, Scherer's
successor, prepared with a mere 20,000 men to defend Lodi,
Cassano and Lecco on the Adda. On the 26th the Russian hero
attacked him all along the line. The moral supremacy had
passed over to the Allies. Mclas, under Suvarov's stern orders,
flung his battalions regardless of losses against the strong position
of Cassano. The story of 1796 repeated itself with the r61es
reversed. The passage was carried, and the French rearguard
under Se'rurier was surrounded and captured by an inferior corps
of Austrians. The Austrians (the Russians at Lecco were hardly
engaged) lost 6000 men, but they took 7000 prisoners, and in
all Moreau's little army lost half its numbers and retreated in
many disconnected bodies to the Ticino, and thence to Alessandria.
Everywhere the Italians turned against the French, mindful of
the exactions of their commissaries. The strange Cossack
cavalry that western Europe had never yet seen entered Milan
on the -<)! h of April, eleven days after passing the Mincio, and
next day the city received with enthusiasm the old field marshal,
whose exploits against the Turks had long invested him with a
halo of romance and legend. Here, for the moment, his offensive
culminated. He desired to pass into Switzerland and to unite
his own, the archduke's, Hotze's and Bellegarde's armies in one
powerful mass. But the emperor would not permit the execution
of this scheme until all the fortresses held by the enemy in
Upper Italy should have been captured. In any case, Mac-
donald's army in southern Italy, cut off from France by the
rapidity of Suvarov's onslaught, and now returning with all
speed to join Moreau by force or evasion, had still to be dealt
with.
Suvarov's mobile army, originally 00,000 strong, had now
dwindled, by reason of losses and detachments for sieges, to
half that number, and serious differences arose between the
Vienna government and himself. If he offended the pride
of the Austrian army, he was at least respected as a leader who
gave it victories, but in Vienna he was regarded as a madman
who had to be kept within bounds. But at last, when he was
becoming thoroughly exasperated by this treatment, Macdonald
came within striking distance and the active campaign re-
commenced. In the second week of June, Moreau, who had
retired into the Apennines about Gavi, advanced with the in-
tention of drawing upon himself troops that would otherwise
have been employed against Macdonald. He succeeded, for
Suvarov with his usual rapidity collected 40,000 men at Aless-
andria, only to learn that Macdonald with 35,000 men was
coming up on the Parma road. When this news arrived, Mac-
donald had already engaged an Austrian detachment at Modena
and driven it back, and Suvarov found himself between Moreau
and Macdonald with barely enough men under his hand to
enable him to play the game of " interior lines." But at the
crisis the rough energetic warrior who despised " raisonneurs,"
displayed generalship of the first order, and taking in hand all his
scattered detachments, he manoeuvred them in the Napoleonic
fashion.
On the I4th Macdonald was calculated to be between Modena,
Rcggio and Carpi, but his destination was uncertain. Would he
continue to hug the Apennines to join Moreau, or
would he strike out northwards against Kray, who
with 20,000 men was besieging Mantua ? From
Alessandria it is four marches to Piacenza and nine to Mantua,
while from Reggie these places are four and two marches
respectively. Piacenza, therefore, was the crucial point if
The
Tnbblm.
196
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS [SECOND COALITION
Macdonald continued westward, while, in the other case, nothing
could save Kray but the energetic conduct of Hohenzollern's
detachment, which was posted near Reggio. This latter, however,
was soon forced over the Po, and Ott, advancing from Cremona
to join it, found himself sharply pressed in turn. The field marshal
had hoped that Ott and Hohenzollern together would be able to
win him time to assemble at Parma, where he could bring on a
battle whichever way the French took. But on receipt of Ott's
report he was convinced that Macdonald had chosen the western
route, and ordering Ott to delay the French as long as possible by
stubborn rearguard actions and to put a garrison into Piacenza
under a general who was to hold out " on peril of his life and
honour," he collected what forces were ready to move and
hurried towards Piacenza, the rest being left to watch Moreau.
He arrived just in time. When after three forced marches the
main body (only 26,000 strong) reached Castel San Giovanni,
Ott had been driven out of Piacenza, but the two joined forces
safely. Both Suvarov and Macdonald spent the 1 7th in closing
up and deploying for battle. The respective forces were Allies
30,000, French 35,000. Suvarov believed the enemy to be
only 26,000 strong, and chiefly raw Italian regiments, but his
temperament would not have allowed him to stand still even
had he known his inferiority. He had already issued one of his
peculiar battle-orders, which began with the words, " The
hostile army will be taken prisoners " and continued with
directions to the Cossacks to spare the surrendered enemy.
But Macdonald too was full of energy, and believed still that he
could annihilate Ott before the field marshal's arrival. Thus
the battle of the Trebbia (June 17-19) was fought by both sides
in the spirit of the offensive. It was one of the severest struggles
in the Republican wars, and it ended in Macdonald's retreat
with a loss of 15,000 men probably 6000 in the battle and
9000 killed and prisoners when and after the equilibrium was
broken for Suvirov, unlike other generals, had the necessary
surplus of energy after all the demands made upon him by a
great battle, to order and to direct an effective pursuit. The
Allies lost about 7000. Macdonald retreated to Parma and
Modena, harassed by the peasantry, and finally recrossed the
Apennines and made his way to Genoa. The battle of the
Trebbia is one of the most clearly-defined examples in military
history of the result of moral force it was a matter not merely
of energetic leading on the battlefield, but far more of educating
the troops beforehand to meet the strain, of ingraining in the
soldier the determination to win at all costs. " It was not,"
says Clausewitz, " a case of losing the key of the position, of
turning a flank or breaking a centre, of a mistimed cavalry charge
or a lost battery ... it is a pure trial of strength and expense of
force, and victory is the sinking of the balance, if ever so slightly,
in favour of one side. And we mean not merely physical, but
even more moral forces."
To return now to the Alpine region, where the French offensive
had culminated at the end of March. Their defeated left was
behind the Rhine in the northern part of Switzerland, the half-
victorious centre athwart the Rhine between Mayenfeld and
Chur, and their wholly victorious right far within Tirol between
Glurns, Nauders and Landeck. But neither the centre nor the
right could maintain itself. The forward impulse given by
Suv4rov spread along the whole Austrian front from left to right.
Dessolles' column (now under Loison) was forced back to
Chiavenna. Bellegarde drove Lecourbe from position to position
towards the Rhine during April. There Lecourbe added to the
remnant of his expeditionary column the outlying bodies of
Massena 's right wing, but even so he had only 8000 men against
Bellegarde's 17,000, and he was now exposed to the attack of
Hotze's 25,000 as well. The Luziensteig fell to Hotze and Chur to
Bellegarde, but the defenders managed to escape from the
converging Austrian columns into the valley of the Reuss.
Having thus reconquered all the lost ground and forced the
French into the interior of Switzerland, Bellegarde and Hotze
parted company, the former marching with the greater part of his
forces to join Suvarov, the latter moving to his right to reinforce
the archduke. Only a chain of posts was left in the Rhine
Valley between Disentis and Feldkirch. The archduke's opera-
tions now recommenced.
Charles and Hotze stood, about the isth of May, at opposite
ends of the lake of Constance. The two together numbered about
88,000 men, but both had sent away numerous detachments to the
flanks, and the main bodies dwindled to 35,000 for the archduke
and 20,000 for Hotze. Massena, with 45,000 men in all, retired
slowly from the Rhine to the Thur. The archduke crossed the
Rhine at Stein, Hotze at Balzers, and each then cautiously felt his
way towards the other. Their active opponent attempted to
take advantage of their separation, and an irregular fight took
place in the Thur valley (May 25), but Massena, finding Hotze
close on his right flank, retired without attempting to force a
decision. On the 27th, having joined forces, the Austrians
dislodged Massena from his new position on the Toss without
difficulty, and this process was repeated from time to time in the
next few days, until at last Mass6na halted in the
position he had prepared for defence at Zurich. He
had still but 25,000 of his 45,000 men in hand, for he
maintained numerous small detachments on his right, behind the
Zurcher See and the Wallen See, and on his left towards Basel.
These 25,000 occupied an entrenched position 5 m. in length;
against which the Austrians, detaching as usual many posts to
protect their flanks and rear, deployed only 42,000 men, of whom
8000 were sent on a wide turning movement and 8000 held in
reserve 4 m. in rear of the battlefield. Thus the frontal attack
was made with forces not much greater than those of the defence
and it failed accordingly (June 4) . But Massena, fearing perhaps
to strain the loyalty of the Swiss to their French-made constitution
by exposing their town to assault and sack, retired on the sth.
He did not fall back far, for his outposts still bordered the
Limmat and the Linth, while his main body stood in the valley of
the Aar between Baden and Lucerne. The archduke pressed
Massdna as little as he had pressed Jourdan after Stokach
(though in this case he had less to gain by pursuit) , and awaited
the arrival of a second Russian army, 30,000 strong, under
Korsakov, before resuming the advance, meantime throwing out
covering detachments towards Basel, where Massena had a
division. Thus for two months operations, elsewhere than in
Italy, were at a standstill, while Massena drew in reinforcements
and organized the fractions of his forces in Alsace as a skeleton
army, and the Austrians distributed arms to the peasantry of
South Germany.
In the end, under pressure from Paris, it was Massena who
resumed active movemenls. Towards the middle of August,
Lecourbe, who formed a loose right wing of the French army in
the Reuss valley, was reinforced to a strength of 25,000 men, and
pounced upon the extended left wing of the enemy, which had
stretched itself, to keep pace with Suvarov, as far westward as the
St Gothard. The movement began on the i4th, and in two days
the Austrians were driven back from the St Gothard and the
Furka to the line of the Linth, with the loss of 8000 men and many
guns. At the same time an attempt to take advantage of
Mass6na's momentary weakness by forcing the Aar at Dottingen
near its mouth failed completely (August 16-17). Only 200
men guarded the point of passage, but the Austrian engineers
had neglected to make a proper examination of the river, and
unlike the French, the Austrian generals had no authority to
waste their expensive battalions in forcing the passage in boats.
No one regarded this war as a struggle for existence, and no one
but Suvlrov possessed the iron strength of character to send
thousands of men to death for the realization of a diplomatic
success for ordinary men, the object of the Coalition was to
upset the treaty of Campo Formio. This was the end of the
archduke's campaign in Switzerland. Though he would have
preferred to continue it, the Vienna government desired him to
return to Germany. An Anglo-Russian expedition was about to
land in Holland, 1 and the French were assembling fresh forces on
the Rhine, and, with the double object of preventing an invasion of
1 For this expedition, which was repulsed by Brune in the battle
of Castricum, see Fortescue's Hist, of the British Army, vol. iv., and
Sachot's Brune en Hottande.
HOHENLINDEN)
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
197
South Germany And of inducing the French to augment their
forces in Alsace at the expense of those in Holland, the archduke
left affairs in Switzerland to Hotze and Kors&kov, and marched
away with 35,000 men to join the detachment of Sztarray
(jo.ooo) that be had placed in the Black Forest before entering
Switzerland. His new campaign never rose above the level of a
war of posts and of manoeuvres about Mannheim and Philipps-
burg. In the latter stage of it Lecourbe commanded the French
and obtained a slight advantage.
Suvarov's last exploit in Italy coincided in time, but in no other
respect, with the skirmish at Dottingen. Returning swiftly from
the battlefield of the Trebbia, he began to drive back Moreau to
the Riviera. At this point Joubert succeeded to the command
on the French side, and against the advice of his generals, gave
battle. Equally against the advice of his own subordinates, the
field marshal accepted it, and won his last great victory at Novi
on the ijth of August, Joubert being killed. This was followed
by another rapid march against a new French " Army of the Alps "
(Championnet) which had entered Italy by way of the Mont
Cenis. But immediately after this he left all further operations in
Italy to Melas with 60,000 men and himself with the Russians and
an Austrian corps marched away, via Varese, for the St Gothard
to combine operations against Masslna with Hotze and Kors&kov.
It was with a heavy heart that he left the scene of his battles, in
which the force of his personality had carried the old-fashioned
" linear " armies for the last time to complete victory. In the
early summer he had himself suggested, eagerly and almost
angrily, the concentration of his own and the archduke's armies
in Switzerland with a view, not to conquering that country, but
to forcing Jourdan and Massna into a grand decisive battle.
But, as we have seen, the Vienna government would not release
him until the last Italian fortress had been reoccupied, and
when finally he received the order that a little while before he had
so ardently desired, it was too late. The archduke had already
left Switzerland, and he was committed to a resultless warfare in
the high mountains, with an army which was a mere detachment
jarij^r and in the hope of co-operating with two other dctach-
rtftrvrfto ments far away on the other side of Switzerland. As
*'***' for the reasons which led to the issue of such an order,
it can only be said that the bad feeling known to exist
between the Austrians and Russians induced England to recom-
mend, as the first essential of further operations, the separate
concentration of the troops of each nationality under their own
generals. Still stranger was the reason which induced the tsar to
give his consent. It was alleged that the Russians would be
healthier in Switzerland than the men of the southern plains!
From such premises as these the Allied diplomats evolved a new
plan of campaign, by which the Anglo- Russians under the duke of
York were to reconquer Holland and Belgium, the Archduke
Charles to operate on the Middle Rhine, Suvirov in Switzerland
and Melas in Piedmont a plan destitute of every merit but that
of simplicity.
It is often said that it is the duty of a commander to resign
rather than undertake an operation which he believes to be faulty.
So, however, Suvirov did not understand it. In the simplicity
of his loyalty to the formal order of his sovereign be prepared to
carry out his instructions to the letter. Massena's command
(77,000 men) was distributed, at the beginning of September,
along an enormous S, from the Simplon, through the St Gothard
and Giants, and along the Linth, the ZUricher See and the
Limmat to Basel. Opposite the lower point of this S, Suv&rov
( 28,000) was about to advance. Hotze 's corps ( 2 5,000 Austrians) ,
extending from Utznach by Chur to Disentis, formed a thin line
roughly parallel to the lower curve of the S, Korsakov's Russians
(30,000) were opposite the centre at Zurich, while Nauendorff
with a small Austrian corps at Waldshut faced the extreme upper
point. Thus the only completely safe way in which Suv&rov
could reach the Zurich region was by skirting the lower curve of
the S, under protection of Hotze. But this detour would be
long and painful, and the ardent old man preferred to cross the
mountains once for all at the St Gothard, and to follow the valley
of the ReuM to Altdorf and Schwyz i*. to strike vertically
upward to the centre of the S and to force his way through the
French cordon to Zurich, and if events, so far as concerned his
own corps, belied his optimism, they at any rate justified his
choice of the shortest route. For, aware of the danger gathering
in his rear, Massena gathered up all his forces within reach
towards his centre, leaving Lecourbe to defend the St Gothard
and the Reuss valley and Soult on the Linth. On the 34th he
forced the passage of the Limmat at Dietikon. On the
25th, in the second battle of Zurich, he completely ztirkh'
routed Kors&kov, who lost 8000 killed and wounded,
large numbers of prisoners and 100 guns. All along the line the
Allies fell back, one corps after another, at the moment when
Suv&rov was approaching the foot of the St Gothard.
On the 2ist the field marshal's headquarters were at Bellinzona,
where he made the final preparations. Expecting to be four days
en route before he could reach the nearest friendly
magazine, he took his trains with him, which inevitably
augmented the difficulties of the expedition. On the
24th Airolo was taken, but when the far greater task of
storming the pass itself presented itself before them, even the
stolid Russians were terrified, and only the passionate protests
of the old man, who reproached his " children " with deserting
their father in his extremity, induced them to face the danger.
At last after twelve hours' fighting, the summit was reached.
The same evening Suv&rov pushed on to Hospenthal, while a
flanking column from Disentis made its way towards Amsteg
over the Crispalt. Lecourbe was threatened in rear and pressed
in front, and his engineers, to hold off the Disentis column, had
broken the Devil's Bridge. Discovering this, he left the road,
threw his guns into the river and made his way by fords and
water-meadows to Goschenen, where by a furious attack he
cleared the Disentis troops off his line of retreat. His rearguard
meantime held the ruined Devil's Bridge. This point and the
tunnel leading to it, called the Urner Loch, the Russians attempted
to force, with the most terrible losses, battalion after battalion
crowding into the tunnel and pushing the foremost ranks into
the chasm left by the broken bridge. But at last a ford was
discovered and the bridge, cleared by a turning movement,
was repaired. More broken bridges lay beyond, but at last
Suv&rov joined the Disentis column near Goschenen. When
Altdorf was reached, however, Suv&rov found not only Lecourbe
in a threatening position, but an entire absence of boats on the
Lake of the Four Cantons. It was impossible (in those days the
Axenstrasse did not exist) to take an army along the precipitous
eastern shore, and thus passing through one trial after another,
each more severe than the last, the Russians, men and horses
and pack animals in an interminable single file, ventured on the
path leading over the Kinzig pass into the Muotta Thai. The
passage lasted three days, the leading troops losing men and
horses over the precipices, the rearguard from the fire of the
enemy, now in pursuit. And at last, on arrival in the Muotta
Thai, the field marshal received definite information that
Kors&kov's army was no longer in existence. Yet even so it was
long before he could make up his mind to retreat, and the pursuers
gathered on all sides. Fighting, sometimes severe, and never
altogether ceasing, went on day after day as the Allied column,
now reduced to 15,000 men, struggled on over one pass after
another, but at last it reached Ilanz on the Vorder Rhine (October
8). The Archduke Charles meanwhile had, on hearing of the
disaster of Zurich, brought over a corps from the Neckar, and
for some time negotiations were made for a fresh combined
operation against Mass^na. But these came to nothing, for the
archduke and Suv&rov could not agree, either as to their own rela-
tions or as to the plan to be pursued. Practically, Suv&rov's
retreat from Altdorf to Ilanz closed the campaign. It was his
last active service, and formed a gloomy but grand climax to the
career of the greatest soldier who ever wore the Russian uniform.
MARENGO AND HOHENUNDEN
The disasters of 1799 sealed the fate of the Directory, and
placed Bonaparte, who returned from Egypt with the prestige
of a recent victory, in his natural place as civil and military
198
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
[HOHENLINDEN
head of France. In the course of the campaign the field strength
of the French had been gradually augmented, and in spite of
losses now numbered 227,000 at the front. These were divided
into the Army of Batavia, Brune (25,000), the Army of the
Rhine, Moreau (146,000), the Army of Italy, Massena (56,000),
and, in addition, there were some 100,000 in garrisons and depots
in France.
Most of these field armies were in a miserable condition owing
to the losses and fatigues of the last campaign. The treasury
was empty and credit exhausted, and worse still for spirit and
enthusiasm, as in 1794, would have remedied material de-
ficiencies the conscripts obtained under Jourdan's law of 1798
(see CONSCRIPTION) came to their regiments most unwillingly.
Most of them, indeed, deserted on the way to join the colours.
A large draft sent to the Army of Italy arrived with 310 men
instead of 10,250, and after a few such experiences, the First
Consul decided that the untrained men were to be assembled in
the fortresses of the interior and afterwards sent to the active
battalions in numerous small drafts, which they could more
easily assimilate. Besides accomplishing the immense task of
reorganizing existing forces, he created new ones, including
the Consular Guard, and carried out at this moment of crisis
two such far-reaching reforms as the replacement of the civilian
drivers of the artillery by soldiers, and of the hired teams by
horses belonging to the state, and the permanent grouping of
divisions in army corps.
As early as the 25th of January 1800 the First Consul provided
for the assembly of all available forces in the interior in an
The Arm " ^ Tmv ^ Reserve." He reserved to himself the
of Reserve, command of this army, 1 which gradually came into
being as the pacification of Vendee and the return of
some of Brune's troops from Holland set free the necessary
nucleus troops. The conscription law was stringently re-
enforced, and impassioned calls were made for volunteers (the
latter, be it said, did not produce five hundred useful men).
The district of Dijon, partly as being central with respect to the
Rhine and Italian Armies, partly as being convenient for supply
purposes, was selected as the zone of assembly. Chabran's
division was formed from some depleted corps of the Army of
Italy and from the depots of those in Egypt. Chambarlhac's,
chiefly of young soldiers, lost 5 % of its numbers on the way to
Dijon from desertion a loss which appeared slight and even
satisfactory after the wholesale dSbandade of the winter months.
Lechi's Italian legion was newly formed from Italian refugees.
Boudet's division was originally assembled from some of the
southern garrison towns, but the units composing it were fre-
quently changed up to the beginning of May. The cavalry was
deficient in saddles, and many of its units were new formations.
The Consular Guard of course was a corps d'flite, and this and
two and a half infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade coming
from the veteran " Army of the West " formed the real back-
bone of the army. Most of the newer units were not even
armed till they had left Dijon for the front.
Such was the first constitution of the Army of Reserve. We
can scarcely imagine one which required more accurate and
detailed staff work to assemble it correspondence with the
district commanders, with the adjutant-generals of the various
armies, and orders to the civil authorities on the lines of march,
to the troops themselves and to the arsenals and magazines.
No one but Napoleon, even aided by a Berthier, could have
achieved so great a task in six weeks, and the great captain,
himself doing the work that nowadays is apportioned amongst
a crowd of administrative staff officers, still found time to
administer France's affairs at home and abroad, and to think
out a general plan of campaign that embraced Moreau's.Massena's
and his own armies.
The Army of the Rhine, by far the strongest and best equipped,
lay on the upper Rhine. The small and worn-out Army of Italy
was watching the Alps and the Apennines from Mont Blanc to
1 He afterwards appointed Berthier to command the Army of
Reserve, but himself accompanied it and directed it, using Berthier
as chief of staff.
Genoa. Between them Switzerland, secured by the victory of
Zurich, offered a starting-point for a turning movement on
either side this year the advantage of the flank position was
recognized and acted upon. The Army of Reserve was assembling
around Dijon, within 200 m. of either theatre of war. The
general plan was that the Army of Reserve should march through
Switzerland to close on the right wing of the Army of the Rhine.
Thus supported to whatever degree might prove to be necessary,
Moreau was to force the passage of the Rhine about Schaff hausen,
to push back the Austrians rapidly beyond the Lech, and then,
if they took the offensive in turn, to hold them in check for
ten or twelve days. During this period of guaranteed freedom
the decisive movement was to be made. The Army of Reserve,
augmented by one large corps of the Army of the Rhine, was to
descend by the Splugen (alternatively by the St Gothard and
even by Tirol) into the plains of Lombardy. Magazines were
to be established at Zurich and Lucerne (not at Chur, lest the
plan should become obvious from the beginning), and all likely
routes reconnoitred in advance. The Army of Italy was at first
^
ITALIAN CAMPAIGNS
1794-1800
Scale. 1 :3. ooo ,000
Publish Miles
o 10 m 3f> 40 St
to maintain a strict defensive, then to occupy the Austrians
until the entry of the Reserve Army into Italy was assured, and
finally to manoeuvre to join it.
Moreau, however, owing to want of horses for his pontoon
train and also because of the character of the Rhine above
Basel, preferred to cross below that place, especially as in Alsace
there were considerably greater supply facilities than in a country
which had already been fought over and stripped bare. With
the greatest reluctance Bonaparte let him have his way, and
giving up the idea of using the Splugen and the St Gothard, began
to turn his attention to the more westerly passes, the St Bernard
and the Simplon. It was not merely Moreau's scruples that led
to this essential modification in the scheme. At the beginning
of April the enemy took the offensive against Mass6na. On the
8th Melas's right wing dislodged the French from the Mont
Cenis, and most of the troops that had then reached Dijon were
shifted southward to be ready for emergencies. By the 25th
Berthier reported that Mass6na was seriously attacked and that
he might have to be supported by the shortest route. Bonaparte's
resolution was already taken. He waited no longer for Moreau
HOHENL1NDEN]
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
199
( who indeed so far from volunteering assistance, act ually demanded
it (or himself). Convinced from thepaucityof ncwsthat Massena's
army was closely pressed and probably severed from France,
and feeling also that the Austrian* were deeply committed
to their struggle with the Army of Italy, he told Berthier to
inarch with 40,000 men at once by way of the St Bernard unless
otherwise advised. Berthier protested that he had only 25,000
effectives, and the equipment and armament was still far from
complete as indeed it remained to the end but the troops
inarched, though their very means of existence were precarious
from the time of leaving Geneva to the time of reaching Milan,
for nothing could extort supplies and money from the sullen
At the beginning of May the First Consul learned of the
serious plight of the Army of Italy. Massena with his right
wing was shut up in Genoa, Suchet with the left wing
'* driven back to the Yar. Meanwhile Morcau had won
a preliminary victory at Stokach, and the Army of
Reserve had begun its movement to Geneva. With
these data the plan of campaign took a clear shape at last
Massena to resist as long as possible; Suchet to resume the
offensive, if he could do so, towards Turin; the Army of Reserve
to pass the Alps and to debouch into Piedmont by Aosta; the
Army of the Rhine to send a strong force into Italy by the St
Gothard. The First Consul left Paris on the 6th of May.
Berthier went forward to Geneva, and still farther on the route
magazines were established at Villeneuve and St-Pierre.
Gradually, and with immense efforts, the leading troops of the
long column' were passed over the St Bernard, drawing their
artillery on sledges, on the isth and succeeding days. Driving
away small posts of the Austrian army, the advance guard
entered Aosta on the i6th and Chatillon on the iSth and the
alarm was given. Melas, committed as he was to his Riviera
campaign, began to look to his right rear, but he was far from
suspecting the seriousness of his opponent's purpose.
Infinitely more dangerous for the French than the small
detachment that Melas opposed to them, or even the actual
crossing of the pass, was the unexpected stopping
power of the little fort of Bard. The advanced guard
of the French appeared before it on the ipth, and after three
wasted days the infantry managed to find a difficult mountain
by-way and to pass round the obstacle. Ivrea was occupied
on the ijrd, and Napoleon hoped to assemble the whole army
there by the 27th. But except for a few guns that with infinite
precautions were smuggled one by one through the streets of
Bard, the whole of the artillery, as well as a detachment (under
Chabran) to besiege the fort, had to be left behind. Bard sur-
rendered on the 2nd of June, having delayed the infantry of
the French army for four days and the artillery for a fortnight.
The military situation in the last week of May, as it presented
itself to the First Consul at Ivrea, was this. The Army of Italy
under Masslna was closely besieged in Genoa, where provisions
were running short, and the population so hostile that the French
general placed his field artillery to sweep the streets. But
Masslna was no ordinary general, and the First Consul knew
that while Massena lived the garrison would resist to the last
extremity. Suchet was defending Nice and the Var by vigorous
minor operations. The Army of Reserve, the centre of which
had reached at Ivrea the edge of the Italian plains, consisted
of four weak army corps under Victor, Duhesme, Lannes and
Murat. There were still to be added to this small army of 34,000
effectives, Turreau's division, which had passed over the Mont
Cenis and was now in the valley of the Dora Riparia, Moncey's
corps of the Army of the Rhine, which had at last been extorted
from Moreau and was due to pass the St Gothard before the end
of May, Chabran's division left to besiege Bard, and a small
force under Bethencourt, which was to cross the Simplon and
to descend by Arona (this place proved in the event a second
Bard and immobilized Bethencourt until after the decisive
battle). Thus it was only the simplest part of Napoleon's task
to concentrate half of bis army at Ivrea, and he had yet to bring
1 Only one division of the main body uwd the Little St Bernard.
in the rest. The problem was to reconcile the necessity for time,
which he wanted to ensure the maximum force being brought
over the Alps, with the necessity for haste, in view of the impend-
ing fall of Genoa and the probability that once this conquest
was achieved, Melas would bring back his 100,000 men into the
Milanese to deal with the Army of Reserve. As early as the i ,|i h
of May he had informed Moncey that from Ivrea the Army of
Reserve would move on Milan. On the 2$th of May, in response
to Berthier's request for guidance, the First Consul ordered
Lannes (advanced guard) to push out on the Turin road, " in
order to deceive the enemy and to obtain news of Turreau,"
and Duhesme's and Murat's corps to proceed along the Milan
road. On the 27th, after Lannes had on the 26th defeated an
Austrian column near Chivasso, the main body was already
advancing on Vercelli.
Very few of Napoleon|s acts of generalship have been more
criticized than this resolution to march on Milan, which abandoned
Genoa to its fate and gave Melas a week's leisure to
assemble his scattered forces. The account of his motives "
he dictated at St Helena (Nap. Correspondence, v. 30, toM " aa -
pp. 375-377), in itself an unconvincing appeal to the rules of strategy
as laid down by the theorists which rules his own practice througn-
out transcended gives, when closely examined, some at least of the
necessary clues. He says in effect that by advancing directly on
Turin he would have " risked a battle against equal forces without
an assured line of retreat, Bard being stilluncaptured." It is indeed
strange to find Napoleon shrinking before equal forces of the enemy,
even if we admit without comment that it was more difficult to pass
Bard the second time than the first. The only incentive to go
towards Turin was the chance of partial victories over the discon-
nected Austrian corps that would be met in that direction, and this he
deliberately set aside. Having done so, for reasons that will appear
in the sequel, he could only defend it by saying in effect that he might
have been defeated which was true, but not the Napoleonic principle
of war. Of the alternatives, one was to hasten to Genoa ; this in
Napoleon's eyes would have been playing the enemy's game, for they
would have concentrated at Alessandria, facing west " in their
natural position." It is equally obvious that thus the enemy would
have played his game, supposing that this was to relieve Genoa, and
the implication is that it was not. The third course, which Napoleon
took, and in this memorandum defended, gave his army the enemy's
depots at Milan, of which it unquestionably stood in sore need, and
the reinforcement of Moncey's 15,000 men from the Rhine, while at
the same time Moncey's route offered an " assured line of retreat "
by the Simplon* and the St Gothard. He would in fact make for
himself there a " natural position " without forfeiting the advantage
of being in Melas's rear. Once possessed of Milan, Napoleon says,
he could have engaged Melas with a light heart and with confidence
in the greatest possible results of a victory, whether the Austrians
sought to force their way back to the east by the right or the left
bank of the Po, and he adds that if the French passed on and con-
centrated south of the Po there would be no danger to the Milan-
St Gothard line of retreat, as this was secured by the rivers Tjcino
and Sesia. In this last, as we shall see, he is shielding an undeniable
mistake, but considering for the moment only the movement to
Milan, we are justified in assuming that his object was not the relief
of Genoa, but the most thorough defeat of Mclas's field army, to
which end, putting all sentiment aside, he treated the hard-pressed
Massena as a " containing force " to keep Melas occupied during the
strategical deployment of the Army of Reserve. In the beginning
he had told Massena that he would " disengage " him, even if he
had to go as far east as Trent to find a way into Italy. From the
first, then, no direct relief was intended, and when, on hearing bad
news from the Riviera, he altered his route to the more westerly
passes, it was probably because he felt that Massena's containing
power was almost exhausted, and that the passage and reassembly
of the Reserve Army must be brought about in the minimum time
and by the shortest way. But the object was still the defeat of
Melas, and for this, as the Austrians possessed an enormous numerical
superiority, the assembly of all forces, including Moncey's, was
indispensable. One essential condition of this was that the points
of passage used should be out of reach of the enemy. The more
westerly the passes chosen, the more dangerous was the whole
operation in fact the Mont Cenis column never reached him at all
and though his expressed objections to the St Bernard line seem,
as we have said, to be written after the event, to disarm his critics,
there is no doubt that at the time he disliked it. It was a pis alter
forced upon him by Moreau's delay and Masena'g extremity, and
from the moment at which he arrived at Milan he did, as a fact,
abandon it altogether in favour of theSt Gothard. Lastly, so strongly
was he impressed with the necessity of completing the deployment
of all his forces, that though he found the Austrian* on the Turin
side much scattered and could justifiably expect a aeries of rapid
* When he made his decision he was unaware that Bethencourt
had been held up at Arona.
2OO
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
[HOHENLINDEN
partial victories, Napoleon let them go, and devoted his whole
energy to creating for himself a " natural " position about Milan.
If he sinned, at any rate he sinned handsomely, and except that he
went to Milan by Vercelli instead of by Lausanne and Domodossola *
(on the safe side of the mountains), his march is logistically beyond
cavil.
Napoleon's immediate purpose, then, was to reassemble the
Army of Reserve in a zone of manoeuvre about Milan. This
was carried out in the first days of June. Lannes at Chivasso
stood ready to ward off a flank attack until the main army had
filed past on the Vercelli road, then leaving a small force to com-
bine with Turreau (whose column had not been able to advance
into the plain) in demonstrations towards Turin, he moved off,
still acting as right flank guard to the army, in the direction of
Pavia. The main body meanwhile, headed by Murat, advanced
on Milan by way of Vercelli and Magenta, forcing the passage of
the Ticino on the 3ist of May at Turbigo and Buffalora. On the
same day the other divisions closed up to the Ticino, 2 and faithful
to his principles Napoleon had an examination made of the
little fortress of Novara, intending to occupy it as a place du
moment to help in securing his zone of manoeuvre. On the morn-
ing of the 2nd of June Murat occupied Milan, and in the evening
of the same day the headquarters entered the great city, the
Austrian detachment under Vukassovich (the flying right wing
of Melas's general cordon system in Piedmont) retiring to the
Adda. Duhesme's corps forced that river at Lodi, and pressed
on with orders to organize Crema and if possible Orzinovi as
temporary fortresses. Lechi's Italians were sent towards
Bergamo and Brescia. Lannes meantime had passed Vercelli,
and on the evening of the 2nd his cavalry reached Pavia, where,
as at Milan, immense stores of food, equipment and warlike
stores were seized.
Napoleon was now safe in his " natural " position, and barred
one of the two main lines of retreat open to the Austrians. But
his ambitions went further, and he intended to cross the Po and to
establish himself on the other likewise, thus establishing across
the plain a complete barrage between Melas and Mantua. Here
his end outranged his means, as we shall see. But he gave himself
every chance that rapidity could afford him, and the moment that
some sort of a " zone of manoeuvre " had been secured between
the Ticino and the Ogh'o, he pushed on his main body or rather
what was left after the protective system had been provided for
to the Po. He would not wait even for his guns, which had at
last emerged from the Bard defile and were ordered to come to
Milan by a safe and circuitous route along the foot of the Alps.
At this point the action of the enemy began to make itself
felt. Melas had not gained the successes that he had expected
in Piedmont and on the Riviera, thanks to Massena's
mo'"-'* obstinacy and to Suchet 's brilliant defence of the Var.
meats. These operations had led him very far afield, and the
protection of his over-long line of communications had
caused him to weaken his large army by throwing off many
detachments to watch the Alpine valleys on his right rear.
One of these successfully opposed Turreau in the valley of the
Dora Riparia, but another had been severely handled by Lannes
at Chivasso, and a third (Vukassovich) found itself, as we know,
directly in the path of the French as they moved from Ivrea to
Milan, and was driven far to the eastward. He was further
handicapped by the necessity of supporting Ott before Genoa
and Elsnitz on the Var, and hearing of Lannes's bold advance on
Chivasso and of the presence of a French column with artillery
(Turreau) west of Turin, he assumed that the latter represented
the main body of the Army of Reserve in so far indeed as he
believed in the existence of that army at all. 3 Next, when
1 This may be accounted for by the fact that Napoleon's mind
was not yet definitively madeup when his advanced guard had already
begun to climb the St Bernard (izth). Napoleon s instructions for
Moncey were written on the I4th. The magazines, too, had to be
provided and placed before it was known whether Moreau's detach-
ment would be forthcoming.
* Six guns had by now passed Fort Bard and four of these were with
Murat and Duhesme, two with Lannes.
' It is supposed that the foreign spies at Dijon sent word to their
various employers that the Army was a bogy. In fact a great part
of it never entered Dijon at all, and the troops reviewed there by
Lannes moved away towards Pavia, Melas thought for a moment
that fate had delivered his enemy into his hands, and began to
collect such troops as were at hand at Turin with a view to cutting
off the retreat of the French on Ivrea while Vukassovich held
them in front. It was only when news came of Moncey's arrival
in Italy and of Vukassovich's fighting retreat on Brescia that the
magnitude and purpose of the French column that had penetrated
by Ivrea became evident. Melas promptly decided to give up
his western enterprises, and to concentrate at Alessandria,
preparatory to breaking his way through the network of small
columns as the disseminated Army of Reserve still appeared
to be which threatened to bar his retreat. But orders circulated
so slowly that he had to wait in Turin till the 8th of June for
Elsnitz, whose retreat was, moreover, sharply followed up and
made exceedingly costly by the enterprising Suchet. Ott, too,
in spite of orders to give up the siege of Genoa at once and to
march with 'all speed to hold the Alessandria-Piacenza road,
waited two days to secure the prize, and agreed (June 4) to allow
Massena's army to go free and to join Suchet. And lastly, the
cavalry of O'Reilly, sent on ahead from Alessandria to the
Stradella defile, reached that point only to encounter the French.
The barrage was complete, and it remained for Melas to break
it with the mass that he was assembling, with all these misfortunes
and delays, about Alessandria. His chances of doing so were
anything but desperate.
On the 5th of June Murat, with his own corps and part of
Duhesme's, had moved on Piacenza, and stormed the bridge-head
there. Duhesme with one of his divisions pushed out on Crema
and Orzinovi and also towards Pizzighetone. Moncey's leading
regiments approached Milan, and Berthier thereupon sent on
Victor's corps to support Murat and Lannes. Meantime the half
abandoned line of operations, Ivrea- Vercelli, was briskly attacked
by the Austrians, who had still detachments on the side of Turin,
waiting for Elsnitz to rejoin, and the French artillery train was
once more checked. On the 6th Lannes from Pavia, crossing the
Po at San Cipriano, encountered and defeated a large force,
(O'Reilly's column), and barred the Alessandria- Parma main
road. Opposite Piacenza Murat had to spend the day in gathering
material for his passage, as the pontoon bridge had been cut
by the retreating garrison of the bridge-head. On the eastern
border of the " zone of manoeuvre " Duhesme's various columns
moved out towards Brescia and Cremona, pushing back Vukasso-
vich. Meantime .the last divisions of the Army of Reserve (two
of Moncey's excepted) were hurried towards Lannes's point of
passage, as Murat had not yet secured Piacenza. On the 7th,
while Duhesme continued to push back Vukassovich and seized
Cremona, Murat at last captured Piacenza, finding there immense
magazines. Meantime the army, division by division, passed
over, slowly owing to a sudden flood, near Belgiojoso, and
Lannes's advanced guard was ordered to open communication
with Murat along the main road Stradella-Piacenza. " Moments
are precious " said the First Consul. He was aware that Elsnitz
was retreating before Suchet, that Melas had left Turin for
Alessandria, and that heavy forces of the enemy were at or east
of Tortona. He knew, too, that Murat had been engaged with
certain regiments recently before Genoa and (wrongly) assumed
O'Reilly's column, beaten by Lannes at San Cipriano, to have
come from the same quarter. Whether this meant the deliverance
or the surrender of Genoa he did not yet know, but it was certain
that Massena's holding action was over, and that Melas was
gathering up his forces to recover his communications. Hence
Napoleon's great object was concentration. " Twenty thousand
men at Stradella," in his own words, was the goal of his efforts,
and with the accomplishment of this purpose the campaign enters
on a new phase.
On the 8th of June, Lannes's corps was across, Victor following
as quickly as the flood would allow. Murat was at Piacenza,
but the road between Lannes and Murat was not known to
be clear, and the First Consul made the establishment of the
Bonaparte were only conscripts and details. By the time that the
veteran divisions from the west and Paris arrived, either the spies
had been ejected or their news was sent off too late to be of use.
MONTEBELLO)
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
201
connexion, and the construction of a third point of passage mid-
way between the other two, the principal objects of the day's
work. The army now being disseminated between the
*'* Alps, the Apennines, the Ticino and the Chicse, it
was of vital importance to connect up the various
parts into a well-balanced system. But the Napoleon
of 1800 solved the problem that lay at the root of his
strategy, " concentrate, but be vulnerable nowhere," in a way
that compares unfavourably indeed with the methods of the
Napoleon of 1806. Duhesme was still absent at Cremona.
Lechi was far away in the Brescia country, Bethencourt de-
tained at Arena. Moncey with about 15,000 men had to cover
an area of 40 m. square around Milan, which constituted the
original zone of manoeuvre, and if Melas chose to break through
the flimsy cordon of outposts on this side (the risk of which was
the motive for detaching Moncey at all) instead of at the Stradella,
it would take Moncey two days to concentrate his force on any
battlefield within the area named, and even then he would be
outnumbered by two to one. As for the main body at the
Stradella, its position was wisely chosen, for the ground was too
cramped for the deployment of the superior force that Melas
might bring up, but the strategy that set before itself as an
object 20,000 men at the decisive point out of 50,000 available,
is, to say the least, imperfect. The most serious feature in all this
was the injudicious order to Lannes to send forward his advanced
guard, and to attack whatever enemy he met with on the road to
Voghera. The First Consul, in fact, calculated that Melas could
not assemble 20,000 men at Alessandria before the i2th of
June, and he told Lannes that if he met the Austrians towards
Voghera, they could not be more than 10,000 strong. A later
order betrays some anxiety as to the exactitude of these assump-
tions, warns Lannes not to let himself be surprised, indicates his
line of retreat, and, instead of ordering him to advanceon Voghera,
authorizes him to attack any corps that presented itself at
Stradella. But all this came too late. Acting on the earlier
order Lannes fought the battle of Montebello on the gth. This
was a very severe running fight, beginning east of
Casteggio and ending at Montebello, in which the
French drove the Austrians from several successive
positions, and which culminated in a savage fight at close
quarters about Montebello itself. The singular feature of the
battle is the disproportion between the losses on either side
French, 500 out of 12,000 engaged; Austrians, 2100 killed
and wounded and 2100 prisoners out of 14,000. These figures
are most conclusive evidence of the intensity of the French
military spirit in those days. One of the two divisions (Watrin's)
was indeed a veteran organization, but the other, Chambarlhac's,
was formed of young troops and was the same that, in the march
to Dijon, had congratulated itself that only 5 % of its men had
deserted. On the other side the soldiers fought for " the honour of
their arms " not even with the courage of despair, for they were
ignorant of the " strategic barrage " set in front of them by
Napoleon, and the loss of their communications had not as yet
lessened their daily rations by an ounce.
Meanwhile, Napoleon had issued orders for the main body to
stand fast, and for the detachments to take up their definitive
covering positions. Duhesme's corps was directed, from its
eastern foray, to Piacenza, to join the main body. Moncey was
to provide for the defence of the Ticino line, Lechi to
form a " flying camp " in the region of Orzinovi-Brescia and
Cremona, and another mixed brigade was to control the Austrians
in Pizzighetone and in the citadel of Piacenza. On the other
side of the Po, between Piacenza and Montebello, was the main
body (Lannes, Murat and part of Victor's and Duhesme's corps),
and a flank guard was stationed near Pavia, with orders to keep
on the right of the army as it advanced (this is the first and only
hint of any intention to go westward) and to fall back fighting
should Melas come on by the left bank. One division was to be
always a day's march behind the army on the right bank, and
a flotilla was to ascend the Po, to facilitate the speedy reinforce-
ment of the flank guard. Farther to the north was a small
column on the road Milan- Vercelli. All the protective troops,
except the division of the main body detailed as an eventual
support for the flank guard, was to be found by Moncey's corps
(which had besides to watch the Austrians in the citadel of Milan)
and Chabran's and Lechi's weak commands. On this same day
Bonaparte tells the Minister of War, Carnot, that Moncey has
only brought half the expected reinforcements and that half of
these are unreliable. As to the result of the impending contest
Napoleon counts greatly upon the union of 18,000 men under
Massdna and Suchet to crush Melas against the " strategic
barrage " of the Army of Reserve, by one or other bank of the
Po, and he seems equally confident of the result in either case.
If Genoa had held out three days more, he says, it would have
been easy to count the number of Melas's men who escaped.
The exact significance of this last notion is difficult to establish,
and all that could be written about it would be merely conjectural.
But it is interesting to note that, without admitting it, Napoleon
felt that his " barrage " might not stand before the flood. The
details of the orders of the gth to the main body (written before
the news of Montebello arrived at headquarters) tend to the
closest possible concentration of the main body towards
Casteggio, in view of a decisive battle on the i2th or i.^th.
But another idea had begun to form itself in his mind. Still
believing that Melas would attack him on the Stradella side,
and hastening his preparations to meet this, he began to allow
for the contingency of Melas giving up or failing in his
attempt to re-establish his communication with the
Mantovese, and retiring on Genoa, which was now
in his hands and could be provisioned and reinforced by sea.
On the loth Napoleon ordered reserve ammunition to be sent
Scale, i 650 ooo
. . > , 6 IMUtt
from Pavia, giving Serravalle, which is south of Novi, as- its
probable destination. But this was surmise, and of the facts
he knew nothing. Would the enemy move east on the Stradella,
north-east on the Ticino or south on Genoa? Such reports as
were available indicated no important movements whatever,
which happened to be true, but could hardly appear so to the
French headquarters. On the nth, though he thereby forfeited
the reinforcements coming up from Duhesme's corps at Cremona,
Napoleon ordered the main body to advance to the Scrivia.
Lapoype's division (the .right flank guard), which was observing
the Austrian posts towards Casale, was called to the south bank
of the Po, the zone around Milan was stripped so bare of troops
that there was no escort for the prisoners taken at Montebello,
while information sent by Chabran (now moving up from Ivrea)
as to the construction of bridges at Casale (this was a feint made
by Melas on the loth) passed unheeded. The crisis was at hand,
and, clutching at the reports collected by Lapoype as to the
quietude of the Austrians toward Valenza and Casale, Bonaparte
and Berthier strained every nerve to bring up more men to the
202
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
[HOHENLINDEN
Marengo.
Voghera side in the hope of preventing the prey from slipping
away to Genoa.
On the 1 2th, consequently, the army (the ordre de batailk of
which had been considerably modified on the nth) moved to
the Scrivia, Lannes halting at Castelnuovo, Desaix (who had
just joined the army from Egypt) at Pontecurone, Victor at
Tortona with Murat's cavalry in front towards Alessandria.
Lapoype's division, from the left bank of the Po, was marching in
all haste to join Desaix. Moncey, Duhesme, Lechi and Chabran
were absent. The latter represented almost exactly half of
Berthier's command (30,000 out of 58,000), and even the con-
centration of 28,000 men on the Scrivia had only been obtained
by practically giving up the " barrage " on the left bank of the
Po. Even now the enemy showed nothing but a rearguard,
and the old questions reappeared in a new and acute form.
Was Melas still in Alessandria ? Was he marching on Valenza
and Casale to cross the Po ? or to Acqui against Suchet, or to
Genoa to base himself on the British fleet? As to the first,
why had he given up his chances of fighting on one of the few
cavalry battlegrounds in north Italy the plain of Marengo
since he could not stay in Alessandria for any indefinite time ?
The second question had been answered in the negative by
Lapoype, but his latest information was thirty-six hours old.
As for the other questions, no answer whatever was forthcoming,
and the only course open was to postpone decisive measures
and to send forward the cavalry, supported by infantry, to gain
information.
On the i3th, therefore, Murat, Lannes and Victor advanced
into the plain of Marengo, traversed it without difficulty and
carrying the villages held by the Austrian rearguard,
established themselves for the night within a mile of
the fortress. But meanwhile Napoleon, informed we may suppose
of their progress, had taken a step that was fraught with the
gravest consequences. He had, as we know, no intention of
forcing on a decision until his reconnaissance produced the
information on which to base it, and he had therefore kept back
three divisions under Desaix at Pontecurone. But as the day
wore on without incident, he began to fear that the reconnaissance
would be profitless, and unwilling to give Melas any further
start, he sent out these divisions right and left to find and to
hold the enemy, whichever way the latter had gone. At noon
Desaix with one division was despatched southward to Rivalta
to head off Melas from Genoa and at 9 A.M. on the 14th, 1 Lapoype
was sent back over the Po to hold the Austrians should they
be advancing from Valenza towards the Ticino. Thus there
remained in hand only 21,000 men when at last, in the forenoon
of the i4th the whole of Melas's army, more than 40,000 strong,
moved out of Alessandria, not southward nor northward, but
due west into the plain of Marengo (q.v.). The extraordinary
battle that followed is described elsewhere. The outline of
it is simple enough. The Austrians advanced slowly and in the
face of the most resolute opposition, until their attack had
gathered weight, and at last they were carrying all before them,
when Desaix returned from beyond Rivalta and initiated a
series of counterstrokes. These were brilliantly successful,
and gave the French not only local victory but the supreme
self-confidence that, next day, enabled them to extort from
Melas an agreement to evacuate all Lombardy as far as the
Mincio. And though in this way the chief prize, Melas's army,
escaped after all, Marengo was the birthday of the First
Empire.
One more blow, however, was required before the Second
Coalition collapsed, and it was delivered by Moreau. We have
seen that he had crossed the upper Rhine and defeated Kray
at Stokach. This was followed by other partial victories, and
Kray then retired to Ulm, where he reassembled his forces,
hitherto scattered in a long weak line from the Neckar to Schaff-
hausen. Moreau continued his advance, extending his forces
up to and over the Danube below Ulm, and winning several
combats, of which the most important was that of Hochstadt,
1 On the strength of a report, false as it turned out, that the
Austrian rearguard had broken the bridges of the Bormida.
fought on the famous battlegrounds of 1703 and 1704, and
memorable for the death of La Tour d'Auvergne, the " First
Grenadier of France " (June 19). Finding himself in danger of
envelopment, Kray now retired, swiftly and skilfully, across the
front of the advancing French, and reached Ingolstadt in safety.
Thence he retreated over the Inn, Moreau following him to the
edge of that river, and an armistice put an end for the moment
to further operations.
This not resulting in a treaty of peace, the war was resumed
both in Italy and in Germany. The Army of Reserve and the
Army of Italy, after being fused into one, under Massena's
command, were divided again into a fighting army under Brune,
who opposed the Austrians (Bellegarde) on the Mincio, and a
political army under Murat,which re-established French influence
in the Peninsula. The former, extending on a wide front as
usual, won a few strategical successes without tactical victory,
the only incidents of which worth recording are the gallant
fight of Dupont's division, which had become isolated during a
manoeuvre, at Pozzolo on the Mincio (December 25) and the
descent of a corps under Macdonald from the Grisons by way of
the Spliigen, an achievement far surpassing Napoleon's and
even Suvirov's exploits, in that it was made after the winter
snows had set in.
In Germany the war for a moment reached the sublime.
Kray had been displaced in command by the young archduke
John, who ordered the denunciation of the armistice
and a general advance. His plan, or that of his
advisers, was to cross the lower Inn, out of reach of
Moreau's principal mass, and then to swing round the French
flank until a complete chain was drawn across their rear. But
during the development of the manoeuvre, Moreau also moved,
and by rapid marching made good the time he had lost in con-
centrating his over-dispersed forces. The weather was appalling,
snow and rain succeeding one another until the roads were
almost impassable. On the 2nd of December the Austrians
were brought to a standstill, but the inherent mobility of the
Revolutionary armies enabled them to surmount all difficulties,
and thanks to the respite afforded him by the archduke's halt,
Moreau was able to see clearly into the enemy's plans and
dispositions. On the 3rd of December, while the Austrians in
many disconnected columns were struggling through the dark
and muddy forest paths about Hohenlinden, Moreau struck
the decisive blow. While Ney and Grouchy held fast the head
of the Austrian main column at Hohenlinden, Richepanse's
corps was directed on its left flank. In the forest Richepanse
unexpectedly met a subsidiary Austrian column which actually
cut his column in two. But profiting by the momentary con-
fusion he drew off that part of his forces which had passed
beyond the point of contact and continued his march, striking
the flank of the archduke's main column, most of which had not
succeeded in deployingoppositeNey,at the village of Mattempost.
First the baggage train and then the artillery park fell into his
hands, and lastly he reached the rear of the troops engaged
opposite Hohenlinden, whereupon the Austrian main body
practically dissolved. The rear of Richepanse's corps, after
disengaging itself from the Austrian column it had met in the
earlier part of the day, arrived at Mattempost in time to head off
thousands of fugitives who had escaped from the carnage at
Hohenlinden. The other columns of the unfortunate army
were first checked and then driven back by the French divisions
they met, which, moving more swiftly and fighting better in the
broken ground and the woods, were able to combine two brigades
against one wherever a fight developed. On this disastrous
day the Austrians lost 20,000 men, 1 2,000 of them being prisoners,
and 90 guns.
Marengo and Hohenlinden decided the war of the Second
Coalition as Rivoli had decided that of the First, and the Revolu-
tionary Wars came to an end with the armistice of Steyer
(December 25, 1800) and the treaty of Luneville (February 9,
1801). But only the first act of the great drama was accom-
plished. After a short respite Europe entered upon the
Napoleonic Wars.
NAVAL OPERATIONS, FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
203
r. By far the most important modern work* are
nuquct's Ut rrrrs de la Revolution (II monographs forming to-
gether a complete hUiory of the campaigns of 1792-93), and the
publication* of the French General Staff. The latter appear first,
a* a rule, in the official " Revue d'hiatoire " and are then rcpublishcd
in wpar.itr M-luine-. of which every year adds to the number. V.
Dupui*' L'Armet du nord 1793'. Coutanceau'i L'Armte du nord
1794; J. Colin'* Education milttaire de Napoleon and Campagne de
1793 * Alsace; and C. de Cugnac'i Campagne de I'armee de reserve
iSoo may be specially named. Among other works of importance
the principal are C. von B(inder)-K(neglstein), Geist und Staff im
Kriege (Vienna, 1896); E. Gachot's work* on Massena's career
(containing invaluable evidence though written in a somewhat
rhetorical style); Ritter von Angeli, Enhertog Karl (Vienna, 1896);
F. N. Maude, Evolution of Modem Strategy; G. A. Furse, Marengo
and Hohenlindm; C. von C'lauscwitz, Feldzug 1796 in Italien and
Feldzug 1799 (French translations); H. Bonnal, De Rosbach a Ulm;
Krebs and Moris, Campagnes dans les Alpes (Paris, 1891-1895);
Yorck von Wartenburg, Napoleon als Feldherr (English and French
translation*); F. Bouvier, Bonaparte en Italie 1706; Kuhl, Bona-
parte's enter Feldtut; J. W. Fortescue, Hist, of the British Army,
vol. iv. ; G. D. v. Scharnhorst, Ursache des Clucks der Frantosen
1793-1794 (reprinted in A. Weiss's Short German Military Readings,
London, 1892); E. D'Hauterive, L'Armfe sous la Revolution;
C. Rousset, Les Volonlaires; Max Jahns, Das frantosische I leer;
Shad well. Mountain Warfare; works of Colonel Camon (Guerre
.\apoleonienne, &c.) ; Austrian War Office, Krieg gegen die front.
Revolution 1793-1797 (Vienna, 1905); Archduke Charles, Grundsatte
der Stratetie (1796 campaign in Germany), and Gesch. des Feldtuges
1799 in Devise kl. und der Schweit; v. Zeissberg, Erzherzog Karl;
the old history called Vieloires ei conquttes des Franc/tis (27 volumes,
Paris, 1817-1825); M. Hartmann, Anteil der Russen am Feldzug
1799 in der Sckmis (Zurich, 1892); Danelewski-Miliutin, Der
Krieg Russlandi gegen Frankreich unter Paul I. (Munich, 1858);
German General Staff, "Napoleons Feldzug 1796-1797" (Suppl.
Mil. Wothenblatt, 1889), and Pirmasens und Kaiserslautern (" Kriegs-
ge*ch. Einzelschriften," 1893). (C.F.A.)
NAVAL OPERATIONS
The naval side of the wars arising out of the French Revolution
was marked by unity, and even by simplicity. France had but
one serious enemy, Great Britain, and Great Britain had but
one purpose, to beat down France. Other states were drawn
into the strife, but it was as the allies, the enemies and at times
the victims, of the two dominating powers. The field of battle
was the whole expanse of the ocean and the landlocked seas.
The weapons, the methods and the results were the same. When
a general survey of the whole struggle is taken, its unity is
manifest. The Revolution produced a profound alteration in the
government of France, but none in the final purposes of its
policy. To secure for France its so-called " natural limits "
the Rhine, the Alps, the Pyrenees and the ocean; to protect
both flanks by reducing Holland on the north and Spain on the
south to submission; to confirm the mighty power thus con-
stituted, by the subjugation of Great Britain, were the objects
of the Republic and of Napoleon, as they had been of Louis XIV.
The naval war, like the war on land, is here considered in the
first of its two phases the Revolutionary (1792-99). (For the
Napoleonic phase (1800-15), see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.)
The Revolutionary war began in April 1 792. In the September
of that year Admiral Truguet sailed from Toulon to co-operate
with the French troops operating against the Austrians and
their allies in northern Italy. In December Latouche Trtville
was sent with another squadron to cow the Bourbon rulers of
Naples. The extreme feebleness of their opponents alone saved
the French from disaster. Mutinies, which began within ten
days of the storming of the Bastille (i4th of July 1789), had
disorganized their navy, and the effects of these disorders
continued to be felt so long as the war lasted. In February
1793 war broke out with Great Britain and Holland. In March
Spain was added to the list of the powers against which France
declared war. Her resources at sea were wholly inadequate
to meet the coalition she had provoked. The Convention did
indeed order that fifty-two ships of the line should be com-
missioned in the Channel, but it was not able in fact to do more
than send out a few diminutive and ill-appointed squadrons,
manned by mutinous crews, which kept close to the coast. The
British navy was in excellent order, but the many calls made
on it for the protection of world-wide commerce and colonial
possessions caused the operations in the Channel to be somewhat
languid. Lord Howe cruised in search of the enemy without
being able to bring them to action. The severe blockade which
in the later stages of the war kept the British fleet permanently
outside of Brest was not enforced in the earlier stages. Lord
Howe preferred to save his fleet from the wear and tear of
perpetual cruising by maintaining his headquarters at St Helens,
and keeping watch on the French ports by frigates. The French
thus secured a freedom of movement which in the course of
1794 enabled them to cover the arrival of a great convoy laden
with food from America (see FIRST OF JUNE, BATTLE OF). This
great effort was followed by a long period of languor. Its internal
defects compelled the French fleet in the Channel to play a very
poor part till the last days of 1796. Squadrons were indeed sent
a short way to sea, but their inefficiency was conspicuously
displayed when, on the I7th of June 1795, a much superior
number of their line of battle ships failed to do any harm to the
small force of Cornwallis, and when on the 2 2nd of the same
month they fled in disorder before Lord Bridport at the Isle de
Groix.
Operations of a more decisive character had in the meantime
taken place both in the Mediterranean and in the West Indies.
In April 1793 the first detachment of a British fleet, which was
finally raised to a strength of 21 sail of the line, under the com-
mand of Lord Hood, sailed for the Mediterranean. By August
the admiral was off Toulon, acting in combination with a Spanish
naval force. France was torn by the contentions of Jacobins
and Girondins, and its dissensions led to the surrender of the
great arsenal to the British admiral and his Spanish colleague
Don Juan de Langara, on the 27th of August. The allies were
joined later by a contingent from Naples. But the military
forces were insufficient to hold the land defences against the
army collected to expel them. High ground commanding the
anchorage was occupied by the besieging force, and on the i8th
of December 1793 the allies retired. They carried away or
destroyed thirty-three French vessels, of which thirteen were of
the line. But partly through the inefficiency and partly through
the ill-will of the Spaniards, who were indisposed to cripple the
French, whom they considered as their only possible allies against
Great Britain, the destruction was not so complete as had been
intended. Twenty-five ships, of which eighteen were of the line,
were left to serve as the nucleus of an active fleet in later years.
Fourteen thousand of the inhabitants fled with the allies to
escape the vengeance of the victorious Jacobins. Their suffer-
ings, and the ferocious massacre perpetrated on those who
remained behind by the conquerors, form one of the blackest
pages of the French Revolution. The Spanish fleet took no
further part in the war. Lord Hood now turned to the occupa-
tion of Corsica, where the intervention of the British fleet was
invited by the patriotic party headed by Pascual Paoli. The
French ships left at Toulon were refitted and came to sea in the
spring of 1794, but Admiral Martin who commanded them did
not feel justified in giving battle, and his sorties were mere
demonstrations. From the 2$th of January 1794 till November
1796 the British fleet in the Mediterranean was mainly occupied
in and about Corsica, securing the island, watching Toulon
and co-operating with the allied Austrians and Picdmontese
in northern Italy. It did much to hamper the coastwise com-
munications of the French. But neither Lord Hood, who went
home at the end of 1794, nor his indolent successor Hotham,
was able to deliver an effective blow at the Toulon squadron.
The second of these officers fought two confused actions with
Admiral Martin in the Gulf of Lyons on the i6th of March and
the 1 2th of July 1795, Dut though three French ships were cut
off and captured, the baffling winds and the placid disposition
of Hotham united to prevent decisive results. A new spirit was
introduced into the command of the British fleet when Sir
John Jervis, afterwards Earl Saint Vincent, succeeded Hotham
in November 1795.
Jervis came to the Mediterranean with a high reputation,
which had been much enhanced by his recent command in the
West Indies. In every war with France it was the natural policy
204
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS [NAVAL OPERATIONS
of the British government to seize on its enemy's colonial
possessions, not only because of their intrinsic value, but because
they were the headquarters of active privateers. The occupation
of the little fishing stations of St Pierre and Miquelon (i4th May
1793) and of Pondicherry in the East Indies (23rd Aug. 1793)
were almost formal measures taken at the beginning of every
war. But the French West Indian islands possessed intrinsic
strength which rendered their occupation a service of difficulty
and hazard. In 1793 they were torn by dissensions, the result
of the revolution in the mother country. Tobago was occupied
in April, and the French part of the great island of San Domingo
was partially thrown into British hands by the Creoles, who
were threatened by their insurgent slaves. During 1794 a
lively series of operations, in which there were some marked
alternations of fortune, took place in and about Martinique and
Guadaloupe. The British squadron, and the contingent of
troops it carried, after a first repulse, occupied them both in
March and April, together with Santa Lucia. A vigorous
counter-attack was carried out by the Terrorist Victor Hugues
with ability and ferocity. Guadaloupe and Santa Lucia were
recovered in August. Yet on the whole the British government
was successful in its policy of destroying the French naval power
in distant seas. The seaborne commerce of the Republic was
destroyed.
The naval supremacy of Great Britain was limited, and was
for a time menaced, in consequence of the advance of the French
armies on land. The invasion of Holland in 1794 led to the
downfall of the house of Orange, and the establishment of the
Batavian Republic. War with Great Britain under French
dictation followed in January 1795. In that year a British
expedition under the command of Admiral Keith Elphinstone
(afterwards Lord Keith) occupied the Dutch colony at the Cape
(August-September) and their trading station in Malacca. The
British colonial empire was again extended, and the command
of the sea by its fleet confirmed. But the necessity to maintain
a blockading force in the German Ocean imposed a fresh strain
on its naval resources, and the hostility of Holland closed a most
important route to British commerce in Europe. In 1795
Spain made peace with France at Basel, and in September 1796
re-entered the war as her ally. The Spanish navy was most
inefficient, but it required to be watched and therefore increased
the heavy strain on the British fleet. At the same time the rapid
advance of the French arms in Italy began to close the ports of
the peninsula to Great Britain. Its ships were for a time with-
drawn from the Mediterranean. Poor as it was in quality, the
Spanish fleet was numerous. It was able to facilitate the move-
ments of French squadrons sent to harass British commerce
in the Atlantic, and a concentration of forces became necessary.
It wasthemore important because thecherishedFrenchscheme
for an attack on the heart of the British empire began to take
shape. While Spain occupied one part of the British fleet to the
south, and Holland another in the north, a French expedition,
which was to have been aided by a Dutch expedition from the
Texel, was prepared at Brest. The Dutch were confined to
harbour by the vigilant blockade of Admiral Duncan, afterwards
Lord Camperdown. But in December 1796 a French fleet com-
manded by Admiral Morard de Galle, carying 13,000 troops
under General Hoche, was allowed to sail from Brest for Ireland,
by the slack management of theblockadeunder Admiral Colpoys.
Being ill-fitted, ill-manned and exposed to constant bad weather
the French ships were scattered. Some reached their destination,
Bantry Bay, only to be driven out again by north-easterly gales.
The expedition finally returned after much suffering, and in
fragments, to Brest. Yet the year 1797 was one of extreme
trial to Great Britain. The victory of Sir John Jervis over the
Spaniards near Cape Saint Vincent on the I4th of February
(see SAINT VINCENT, BATTLE or) disposed of the Spanish fleet.
In the autumn of the year the Dutch, having put to sea, were
defeated at Camperdown by Admiral Duncan on the nth of
October. Admiral Duncan had the more numerous force,
sixteen ships to fifteen, and they were on the average heavier.
Attacking from windward he broke through the enemy's line
and concentrated on his rear and centre. Eight line of battle-
ships and two frigates were taken, but the good gunnery and
steady resistance of the Dutch made the victory costly. Be-
tween these two battles the British fleet was for a time menaced
in its very existence by a succession of mutinies, the result of
much neglect of the undoubted grievances of the sailors. The
victory of Camperdown, completing what the victory of Cape
Saint Vincent had begun, seemed to put GreatBritain beyond fear
of invasion. But the government of the Republic was intent
on renewing the attempt. The successes of Napoleon at the head
of the army of Italy had reduced Austria to sign the peace of
Campo Formio,on the 1 7th of October 1797, and he was appointed
commander of the new army of invasion. It was still thought
necessary to maintain the bulk of the British fleet in European
waters, within call in the ocean. The Mediterranean was left
free to the French, whose squadrons cruised in the Levant,
where the Republic had become possessed of the Ionian Islands
by the plunder of Venice. The absence of a British force in the
Mediterranean offered to the government of the French Republic
an alternative to an invasion of Great Britain or Ireland, which
promised to be less hazardous and equally effective. It was
induced largely by the persuasion of Napoleon himself, and the
wish of the politicians who were very willing to see him em-
ployed at a distance. The expedition to Egypt under his com-
mand sailed on the igth of May 1798, having for its immediate
purpose the occupation of the Nile valley, and for its ultimate
aim an attack on Great Britain " from behind " in India (see
NILE, BATTLE or THZ). The British fleet re-entered the
Mediterranean to pursue and baffle Napoleon. The destruction
of the French squadron at the anchorage of Aboukir on the
ist of August gave it the complete command of the sea. A
second invasion of Ireland on a smaller scale was attempted
and to some extent carried out, while the great attack by Egypt
was in progress. One French squadron of four frigates carrying
1 1 50 soldiers under General Humbert succeeded in sailing from
Rochefort on the 6th of August. On the 22nd Humbert was
landed at Killala Bay, but after making a vigorous raid he was
compelled to surrender at Ballinamuck on the 8th of September.
Eight days after his surrender, another French squadron of one
sail of the line and eight frigates carrying 3000 troops, sailed
from Brest under Commodore Bompart to support Humbert.
It was watched and pursued by frigates, and on the i2th of
October was overtaken and destroyed by a superior British
force commanded by Sir John Borlase Warren, near Tory Island.
From the close of 1798 till the coup <T6tat of the i8th Brumaire
(gth November) 1799, which established Napoleon as First
Consul and master of France, the French navy had only one
object to reinforce and relieve the army cut off in Egypt by the
battle of the Nile. The relief of the French garrison in Malta
was a subordinate part of the main purpose. But the supremacy
of the British navy was by this time so firmly founded that
neither Egypt nor Malta could be reached except by small ships
which ran the blockade. On the 25th of April, Admiral Bruix
did indeed leave Brest, after baffling the blockading fleet of
Lord Bridport, which was sent on a wild-goose chase to the south
of Ireland by means of a despatch sent out to be captured and to
deceive. Admiral Bruix succeeded in reaching Toulon, and his
presence in the Mediterranean caused some disturbance. But,
though his twenty-five sail of the line formed the best-manned
fleet which the French had sent to sea during the war, and though
he escaped being brought to battle, he did not venture to steer
for the eastern Mediterranean. On the I3th of August he was
back at Brest, bringing with him a Spanish squadron carried
off as a hostage for the fidelity of the government at Madrid to
its disastrous alliance with France. On the day on which Bruix
re-entered Brest, the i3th of August 1799, a combined Russian
and British expedition sailed from the Downs to attack the
French army of occupation in the Batavian Republic. The
military operations were unsuccessful, and terminated in the
withdrawal of the allies. But the naval part was well executed.
Vice-admiral Mitchell forced the entrance to the Texel, and on
the 3oth of August received the surrender of the remainder of the
FRENCH WEST AFRICA FREPPEL
205
Dutch fleet thirteen vessels in the Nieuwe Diep the sailors
having refused to fight for the republic. In spite of the failure on
land, the expedition did much to confirm the naval supremacy
of Great Britain by the entire suppression of the most seaman-
like of the forces opposed to it.
AUTHORITIES. Chevalier, Histoire de la marine franfaise sous
U prtmitri Republique (Paris. 1886) ; James's Natal History (London,
1837); Captain Mahan, Influence of Sea Power upon the French
RncJuttan and the Empire (London, 1892). The French schemes of
invasion are exhaustively dralt with in Captain E. Desbriere's
Pnjtls tt teniatnet de debarquements aux lies Britanniques (Paris,
1900, Ac.)- (D. H.)
FRENCH WEST AFRICA (L' Afrique occidentale fran(aise),
the common designation of the following colonies of France:
(i) Senegal, (a) Upper Senegal and Niger, (3) Guinea, (4) the
Ivory Coast, (5) Dahomey; of the territory of Mauretania, and
of a large portion of the Sahara. The area is estimated at nearly
3,000,000 sq. m., of which more than half is Saharan territory.
The countries thus grouped under the common designation
French West Africa comprise the greater part of the continent
west of the Niger delta (which is British territory) and south of the
tropic of Cancer. It embraces the upper and middle course of
the Niger, the whole of the basin of the Senegal and the south-
western pan of the Sahara. Its most northern point on the coast
is Cape Blanco, and it includes Cape Verde, the most westerly
point of Africa. Along the Guinea coast the French possessions
axe separated from one another by colonies of Great Britain and
other powers, but in the interior they unite not only with one
another but with the hinterlands of Algeria and the French
Congo.
In physical characteristics French West Africa presents three
types: (i) a dense forest region succeeding a narrow coast belt
greatly broken by lagoons; (2) moderately elevated and fertile
plateaus, generally below 2000 ft., such as the region enclosed
in the great bend of the Niger; (3) north of the Senegal and Niger,
the desert lands forming part of the Sahara (?..). The most
elevated districts are Futa Jallon, whence rise the Senegal,
Gambia and Niger, and Gon both massifs along the south-
western edge of the plateau lands, containing heights of 5000
to 6000 ft. or more. Among the chief towns are Timbuktu and
Jenne on the Niger, Porto Novo in Dahomey, and St Louis and
Dakar in Senegal, Dakar being an important naval and com-
mercial port. The inhabitants are for the most part typical
Negroes, with in Senegal and in the Sahara an admixture of
Berber and Arab tribes. In the upper Senegal and Futa Jallon
large numbers of the inhabitants are Fula. The total population
of French West Africa is estimated at about 13,000,000. The
European inhabitants number about 12,000.
The French possessions in West Africa have grown by the
extension inland of coast colonies, each having an independent
origin. They were first brought under one general government
in 1895, when they were placed under the supervision of the
governor of Senegal, whose title was altered to meet the new
situation. Between that date and 1005 various changes in the
areas and administrations of the different colonies were made,
involving the disappearance of the protectorates and military
territories known as French Sudan and dependent on Senegal.
These were partly absorbed in the coast colonies, whilst the central
portion became the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger. At
the same time the central government was freed from the direct
administration of the Senegal and Niger countries (Decrees of
Oct. 1002 and Oct. 1904). Over the whole of French West
Africa is a governor-general, whose headquarters are at Dakar. 1
He is assisted by a government council, composed of high
functionaries, including the lieutenant-governors of all colonies
under his control. The central government, like all other French
colonial administrations, is responsible, not to the colonists, but
to the home government, and its constitution is alterable at
will by presidential decree save in matters on which the chambers
1 The organization of the new government was largely the work of
E. N. Roume (b. 1858), governor-general 1902-1907, an able and
energetic official, formerly director of Asian affairs at the colonial
have expressly legislated. To it is confided financial control
over the colonies, responsibility.for the public debt, the direction
of the departments of education and agriculture, and the carrying
out of works of general utility. It alone communicates with
the home authorities. Its expenses are met by the duties levied
on goods and vessels entering and leaving any port of French
West Africa. It may make advances to the colonies under its
care, and may, in case of need, demand from them contributions
to the central exchequer. The administration of justice is
centralized and uniform for all French West Africa. The court
of appeal sits at Dakar. There is also a uniform system of land
registration adopted in 1006 and based on that in force in
Australia. Subject to the limitations indicated the five colonies
enjoy autonomy. The territory of Mauretania is administered
by a civil commissioner under the direct control of the governor-
general. The colony of Senegal is represented in the French
parliament by one deputy.
Since the changes in administration effected in 1895 the com-
merce of French West Africa has shown a steady growth, the
volume of external trade increasing in the ten years 1895-1904
from 3,131,094 to 6,238,091. In 1907 the value of the trade
was 7,097,000; of this 53% was with France. Apart from
military expenditure, about 600,000 a year, which is borne by
France, French West Africa is self-supporting. The general
budget for 1006 balanced at 1,356,000. There is a public debt
of some i i ,000,000, mainly incurred for works of general utility.
See SENEGAL, FRENCH GUINEA, IVORY COAST and DAHOMEY. For
Anglo-French boundaries east of the Niger see SAHARA and NIGERIA.
For the constitutional connexion between the colonies and France
see FRANCE: Colonies. An account of the economic situation of the
colonies is given by G. Francois in Le Gouvernement general de
I' Afrique occidentale franfaise (Paris, 1008). Consult also the annual
Report on the Trade, Agriculture, Sfc. of French West Africa issued by
the British foreign office. A map of French West Africa by A.
Meunier and E. Barralier (6 sheets on the scale 1:2,000,000) was
published in Paris, 1903.
FRENTANI, one of the ancient Samnite tribes which formed
an independent community on the east coast of Italy. They
entered the Roman alliance after their capital, Frentrum, was
taken by the Romans in 305 or 304 B.C. (Livy ix. 16. 45). This
town either changed its name'or perished some time after the
middle of the 3rd century B.C., when it was issuing coins of its
own with an Oscan legend. The town Larinum, which belonged
to the same people (Pliny, Nat. Hist. Hi. 103), became latinized
before 200 B.C., as its coins of that epoch bear a legend
LARINOR(VM) which cannot reasonably be treated as any-
thing but Latin. Several Oscan inscriptions survive from the
neighbourhood of Vasto (anc. Histonium), which was in the
Frentane area.
On the forms of the name, and for further details see R.S.Conway,
Italic Dialects, p. 206 ff and p. 212: for the coins id. No. 195-196.
FREPPEL, CHARLES EMILE (1827-1891), French bishop and
politician, was born at Oberehnheim(Obernai), Alsace, on the ist
of June 1827. He was ordained priest in 1849 and for a short
time taught history at the seminary of Strassburg, where he had
previously received his clerical training. In 1854 he was ap-
pointed professor of theology at the Sorbonne, and became
known as a successful preacher. He went to Rome in 1869, at
the instance of Pius IX., to assist in the steps preparatory to the
promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility. He was con-
secrated bishop of Angers in 1870. During the Franco-German
war Freppel organized a body of priests to minister to the French
prisoners in Germany, and penned an eloquent protest to the
emperor William I. against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine.
In 1880 he was elected deputy for Brest and continued to
represent it until his death. Being the only priest in the Chamber
of Deputies since the death of Dupanloup, he became the chief
parliamentary champion of the Church, and, though no orator,
was a frequent speaker. On all ecclesiastical affairs Freppel
voted with the Royalist and Catholic party, yet on questions in
which French colonial prestige was involved, such as the expedi-
tion to Tunis, Tong-King, Madagascar (1881, 1883-85), he
supported the government of the day. He always remained a
staunch Royalist and went so far as to oppose Leo XIII. 's policy
2o6
FRERE, SIR H. B. E.
of conciliating the Republic. He died at Angers on the 1 2th of
December 1891. Freppel's historical and theological works
form 30 vols., the best known of which are: Les Peres apostoliques
et leur epoque (1859); Les Apologisles chrSliens au II' siecle
(2 vols., 1860); Saint Irenee et V eloquence chretienne dans la Cattle
aux deux premiers siecles (1861); Tertuttien (2 vols., 1863);
Saint Cyprien et l'glise d' Afrique (1864); Clement d'Alexandrie
(1865); Origene (2 vols., 1867).
There are interesting lives by E. Cornut (Paris, 1893) and F.
Charpentier (Angers, 1904).
FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD (1813-1884),
British administrator, born at Clydach in Brecknockshire, on
the 29th of March 1815, was the son of Edward Frere, a member
of an old east county family, and a nephew of John Hookham
Frere, of Anti-Jacobin and Aristophanes fame. After leaving
Haileybury, Bartle Frere was appointed a writer in the Bombay
civil service in 1834, and went out to India by way of Egypt,
crossing the Red Sea in an open boat from Kosseir to Mokha,
and sailing thence to Bombay in an Arab dhow. Having passed
his examination in the native languages, he was appointed
assistant collector at Poona in 1835. There he did valuable
work and was in 1842 chosen as private secretary to Sir George
Arthur, governor of Bombay. Two years later he became
political resident at the court of the rajah of Satara, where he
did much to benefit the country by the development of its com-
munications. On the rajah's death in 1848 he administered the
province both before and after its formal annexation in 1849.
In 1850 he was appointed chief commissioner of Sind, and took
ample advantage of the opportunities afforded him of developing
the province. He pensioned off the dispossessed amirs, improved
the harbour at Karachi, where he also established municipal
buildings, a museum and barracks, instituted fairs, multiplied
roads, canals and schools.
Returning to India in 1857 after a well-earned rest, Frere
was greeted at Karachi with news of the mutiny. His rule had
been so successful that he felt he could answer for the internal
peace of his province. He therefore sent his only European
regiment to Multan, thus securing that strong fortress against
the rebels, and sent further detachments to aid Sir John Lawrence
in the Punjab. The 178 British soldiers who remained in Sind
proved sufficient to extinguish such insignificant outbreaks
as occurred. His services were fully recognized by the Indian
authorities, and he received the thanks of both houses of
parliament and was made K.C.B. He became a member of the
viceroy's council in 1859, and was especially serviceable in
financial matters. In 1862 he was appointed governor of
Bombay, where he effected great improvements, such as the
demolition of the old ramparts, and the erection of handsome
public offices upon a portion of the space, the inauguration of
the university buildings and the improvement of the harbour.
He established the Deccan College at Poona, as well as a college
for instructing natives in civil engineering. The prosperity
due to the American Civil War which rendered these develop-
ments possible brought in its train a speculative mania, which
led eventually to the disastrous failure of the Bombay Bank
(1866), an affair in which, from neglecting to exercise such means
of control as he possessed, Frere incurred severe and not wholly
undeserved censure. In 1867 he returned to England, was made
G. C.S.I., and received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cam-
bridge; he was also appointed a member of the Indian council.
In 1872 he was sent by the foreign office to Zanzibar to
negotiate a treaty with the sultan, Seyyid Burghash, for the
suppression of the slave traffic. In 1875 he accompanied the
prince of Wales to Egypt and India. The tour was beyond
expectation successful, and to Frere, from Queen Victoria
downwards, came acknowledgments of the service he had
rendered in piloting the expedition. He was asked by Lord
Beaconsfield to choose between being made a baronet or G.C.B.
He chose the former, but the queen bestowed both honours
upon him. But the greatest service that Frere undertook on
behalf of his country was to be attempted not in Asia, but in
Africa. Sir Bartle landed at Cape Town as high commissioner
of South Africa on the 3ist of March 1877. He had been chosen
by Lord Carnarvon in the previous October as the statesman
most capable of carrying his scheme of confederation into effect,
and within two years it was hoped that he would be the first
governor of the South African Dominion. He went out in
harmony with the aims and enthusiasm of his chief, " hoping to
crown by one great constructive effort the work of a bright and
noble life." In this hope he was disappointed. As he stated
at the close of his high commissionership, a great mistake seemed
to have been made in trying to hasten what could only result
from natural growth, and the state of South Africa during Frere's
tenure of office was inimical to such growth.
Discord or a policy of blind drifting seemed to be the alterna-
tives presented to Frere upon his arrival at the Cape. He
chose the former as the less dangerous, and the first year of
his sway was marked by a Kaffir war on the one hand and by a
rupture with the Cape (Molteno-Merriman) ministry on the
other. The Transkei Kaffirs were subjugated early in 1878 by
General Thesiger (the 2nd Lord Chelmsford) and a small force
of regular and colonial troops. The constitutional difficulty
was solved by Frere dismissing his obstructive cabinet and
entrusting the formation of a ministry to Mr (afterwards Sir)
Gordon Sprigg. Frere emerged successfully from a year of crisis,
but the advantage was more than counterbalanced by the
resignation of Lord Carnarvon early in 1878, at a time when
Frere required the steadiest and most unflinching support. He
had reached the conclusion that there was a widespread insurgent
spirit pervading the natives, which had its focus and strength
in the celibate military organization of Cetywayo and in the
prestige which impunity for the outrages he had committed
had gained for the Zulu king in the native mind. That organiza-
tion and that evil prestige must be put an end to, if possible
by moral pressure, but otherwise by force. Frere reiterated
these views to the colonial office, where they found a general
acceptance. When, however, Frere undertook the responsibility
of forwarding, in December 1878, an ultimatum to Cetywayo,
the home government abruptly discovered that a native war
in South Africa was inopportune and raised difficulties about
reinforcements. Having entrusted to Lord Chelmsford the
enforcement of the British demands, Frere's immediate responsi-
bility ceased. On the nth of January 1879 the British troops
crossed the Tugela, and fourteen days later the disaster of Isandhl-
wana was reported; and Frere, attacked and censured in the
House of Commons, was but feebly defended by the government.
Lord Beaconsfield, it appears, supported Frere; the majority
of the cabinet were inclined to recall him. The result was the
unsatisfactory compromise by which he was censured and begged
to stay on. Frere wrote an elaborate justification of his conduct,
which was adversely commented on by the colonial secretary
(Sir Michael Hicks Beach), who " did not see why Frere should
take notice of attacks; and as to the war, all African wars had
been unpopular." Frere's rejoinder was that no other sufficient
answer had been made to his critics, and that he wished to place
one on record. " Few may now agree with my view as to the
necessity of the suppression of the Zulu rebellion. Few, I fear,
in this generation. But unless my countrymen are much changed,,
they will some day do me justice. I shall not leave a name to be
permanently dishonoured."
The Zulu trouble and the disaffection that was brewing in
the Transvaal reacted upon each other in the most disastrous
manner. Frere had borne no part in the actual annexation of
the Transvaal, which was announced by Sir Theophilus Shepstone
a few days after the high commissioner's arrival at Cape Town.
The delay in giving the country a constitution afforded a pretext
for agitation to the malcontent Boers, a rapidly increasing
minority, while the reverse at Isandhlwana had lowered British
prestige. Owing to the Kaffir and Zulu wars Sir Bartle had
hitherto been unable to give his undivided attention to the state
of things in the Transvaal. In April 1879 he was at last able to
visit that province, and the conviction was forced upon him
that the government had been unsatisfactory in many ways.
The country was very unsettled. A large camp, numbering
FRERE, J. H. FRERE-ORBAN
4000 disaffected Boers, had been formed near Pretoria, and
they were terrorizing the country. Frere visited them unarmed
and practically alone. Even yet all might have been well, for
he won the Boers' respect and liking. On the condition that the
Boers dispersed, Frere undertook to present their complaints
to the British government, and to urge the fulfilment of the
promises that had been made to them. They parted with mutual
good feeling, and the Boers did eventually disperse on the very
day upon which Frere received the telegram announcing the
government's censure. He returned to Cape Town, and his
journey back was in the nature of a triumph. But bad news
awaited him at Government House on the ist of June 1870 the
prince imperial had met his death in Zululand and a few hours
later Frere heard that the government of the Transvaal and
Natal, together with the high commissionership in the eastern
pan of South Africa, had been transferred from him to Sir
Garnet Wolseley.
When Gladstone's ministry came into office in the spring of
1880, Lord Kimberley had no intention of recalling Frere. In
June, however, a section of the Liberal party memorialized
Gladstone to remove him, and the prime minister weakly com-
plied (ist August 1880). Upon his return Frere replied to the
charges relating to his conduct respecting Afghanistan as well as
South Africa, previously preferred in Gladstone's Midlothian
speeches, and was preparing a fuller vindication when he died
at Wimbledon from the effect of a severe chill on the 2Qth of May
1884. He was buried in St Paul's, and in 1888 a statue of Frere
upon the Thames embankment was unveiled by the prince of
Wales. Frere edited the works of his uncle, Hookham Frere,
and the popular story-book, Old Deccan Days, written by his
daughter, Mary Frere. He was three times president of the
Royal Asiatic Society.
His Lift and Correspondence, by John Martineau, was published
in 1895. For the South African anti-confederation view, see P. A.
Molteno's Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molttno (2 vols., London
1900). See also SOUTH AFRICA: History.
FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM (1769-1846), English diplomatist
and author, was born in London on the 2 ist of May 1769. His
father, John Frere, a gentleman of a good Suffolk family, had been
educated at Caius College, Cambridge, and would have been
senior wrangler in 1763 but for the redoubtable competition of
Paley; his mother, daughter of John Hookham, a rich London
merchant, was a lady of no small culture, accustomed to amuse
her leisure with verse- writ ing. His father's sister Eleanor, who
married Sir John Fenn (1730-1704), the learned editor of the
Potion Letters, wrote various educational works for children
under the pseudonyms " Mrs Lovechild " and " Mrs Teachwell."
Young Frere was sent to Eton in 1785, and there began an
intimacy with Canning which greatly affected his after life.
From Eton he went to his father's college at Cambridge, and
graduated B.A. in 1792 and M.A. in 1795. He entered public
service in the foreign office under Lord Grenville, and sat from
1796 to 1802 as member of parliament for the close borough of
West Looe in Cornwall.
From his boyhood he had been a warm admirer of Pitt, and
along with Canning he entered heart and soul into the defence
of his government, and contributed freely to the pages of the
Anti- Jacobin, edited by Gifford. He contributed, in collabora-
tion with Canning, " The Loves of the Triangles," a clever
parody of Darwin's " Loves of the Plants," " The Needy Knife-
Grinder " and " The Rovers." On Canning's removal to the
board of trade in 1709 he succeeded him as under-secretary of
state; in October 1800 he was appointed envoy extraordinary
and plenipotentiary to Lisbon; and in September 1802 he was
transferred to Madrid, where he remained for two years. He was
recalled on account of a personal disagreement he had with the
duke of Alcudia, but the ministry showed its approval of his
action by a pension of 1700 a year. He was made a member of
the privy council in 1805; in 1807 he was appointed pleni-
potentiary at Berlin, but the mission was abandoned, and Frere
was again sent to Spain in 1808 as plenipotentiary to the Central
Junta. The condition of Spain rendered his position a very
2O7
responsible and difficult one. When Napoleon began to advance
on Madrid it became a matter of supreme importance to decide
whether Sir John Moore, who was then in the north of Spain,
should endeavour to anticipate the occupation of the capital or
merely make good his retreat, and if he did retreat whether he
should do so by Portgual or by Galicia. Frere was strongly of
opinion that the bolder was the better course, and he urged his
views on Sir John Moore with an urgent and fearless persistency
that on one occasion at least overstepped the limits of his
commission. After the disastrous retreat to Corunna, the public
accused Frere of having by his advice endangered the British
army, and though no direct censure was passed upon his conduct
by the government, he was recalled, and the marquess of
Wellesley was appointed in his place.
Thus ended Frere's public life. He afterwards refused to under-
take an embassy to St Petersburg, and twice declined the honour
of a peerage. In 1816 he married Elizabeth Jemima, dowager
countess of Erroll, and in 1820, on account of her failing health,
he went with her to the Mediterranean. There he finally settled
in Malta, and though he afterwards visited England more than
once, the rest of his life was for the most part spent in the island
of his choice. In quiet retirement he devoted himself to litera-
ture, studied his favourite Greek authors, and taught himself
Hebrew and Maltese. His hospitality was well known to many
an English guest, and his charities and courtesies endeared him
to his Maltese neighbours. He died at the Pieta Valetta on
the 7th of January 1846. Frere's literary reputation now rests
entirely upon his spirited verse translations of Aristophanes,
which remain in many ways unrivalled. The principles according
to which he conducted his task were elucidated in an article 'on
Mitchell's Aristophanes, which he contributed to The Quarterly
Review, vol. xxiii. The translations of The Acharnians, The
Knights, The Birds, and The Frogs were privately printed, and
were first brought into general notice by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis
in the Classical Museum for 1847. They were followed some
time after by Theognis Restilutus, or the personal history of the
poet Theognis, reduced from an analysis of his existing fragments.
In 1817 he published a mock-heroic Arthurian poem entitled
Prospectus and Specimen of an intended National Work, by
William and Robert Whistlecrafl, of Slowmarket in Suffolk,
Harness and Collar Makers, intended to comprise the most interest-
ing particulars relating to King Arthur and his Round Table.
William Tennant in Anster Fair had used the oltava rima as a
vehicle for semi-burlesque poetry five years earlier, but Frere's
experiment is interesting because Byron borrowed from it the
measure that he brought to perfection in Don Juan.
Frere's complete works were published in 1871, with a memoir
by his nephews, W. E. and Sir Bartle Frere, and reached a second
edition in 1874. Compare also Gabrielle Festing, J. H. Frere and his
Friends (1899).
FRERE, PIERRE EDOUARD (1810-1886), French painter,
studied under Delaroche, entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in
1836 and exhibited first at the Salon in 1843. The marked
sentimental tendency of his art makes us wonder at Ruskin's
enthusiastic eulogy which finds in Frere's work " the depth of
Wordsworth, the grace of Reynolds, and the holiness of Angelico."
What we can admire in his work is his accomplished craftsman-
ship and the intimacy and tender homeliness of his conception.
Among his chief works are the two paintings, " Going to School "
and " Coming from School," " The Little Glutton " (his first
exhibited picture) and " L'Exercice " (Mr Astor's collection).
A journey to Egypt in 1860 resulted in a small series of Orientalist
subjects, but the majority of Frere's paintings deal with the life
of the kitchen, the workshop, the dwellings of the humble, and
mainly with the pleasures and little troubles of the young,
which the artist brings before us with humour and sympathy.
He was one of the most popular painters of domestic genre in
the middle of the igth century.
FRERE-ORBAN, HUBERT JOSEPH WALTHER (1812-1896),
Belgian statesman, was born at Lii-ge on the 24th of April 1812.
His family name was FrJre, to which on his marriage he added
his wife's name of Orban. After studying law in Paris, he
208
FRERET FRERON, L. M. S.
practised as a barrister at Liege, took a prominent part in the
Liberal movement, and in June 1847 was returned to the Chamber
as member for Lie"ge. In August of the same year he was ap-
pointed minister of public works in the Rogier cabinet, and from
1848 to 1852 was minister of finance. He founded the Banque
Nationale and the Caisse d'Epargne, abolished the newspaper
tax, reduced the postage, and modified the customs duties as
a preliminary to a decided free-trade policy. The Liberalism
of the cabinet, in which Frere-Orban exercised an influence
hardly inferior to that of Rogier, was, however, distasteful to
Napoleon III. Frere-Orban, to facilitate the negotiations for
a new commercial treaty, conceded to France a law of copyright,
which proved highly unpopular in Belgium, and he resigned
office, soon followed by the rest of the cabinet. His work
La Mainmorte et la charite (1854-1857), published under the
pseudonym of " Jean van Damme," contributed greatly to
restore his party to power in 1857, when he again became
minister of finance. He now embodied his free-trade principles in
commercial treaties with England and France, and abolished the
octroi duties and the tolls on the national roads. He resigned
in 1 86 1 on the gold question, but soon resumed office, and in
1868 succeeded Rogier as prime minister. In 1869 he defeated
the attempt of France to gain control of the Luxemburg railways,
but, despite this service to his country, fell from power at the
elections of 1870. He returned to office in 1878 as president of
the council and foreign minister. He provoked the bitter opposi-
tion of the Clerical party by his law of 1879 establishing secular
primary education, and in 1880 went so far as to break off diplo-
matic relations with the Vatican. He next found himself at
variance with the Radicals, whose leader, Janson, moved the
introduction of universal suffrage. Frere-Orban, while rejecting
the proposal, conceded an extension of the franchise (1883);
but the hostility of the Radicals, and the discontent caused by a
financial crisis, overthrew the government at the elections of
1884. Frere-Orban continued to take an active part in politics
as leader of the Liberal opposition till 1894, when he failed to
secure re-election. He died at Brussels on the and of January
1896. Besides the work above mentioned, he published La
Question monetaire (1874); La Question monetaire en Belgique
in 1889; Echange de vues entre MM. Frere-Orban et E. deLaveleye
(1890); and La Revision constitutionnelle en Belgique et ses
consequences (1894). He was also the author of numerous
pamphlets, among which may be mentioned his last work,
La Situation prfsenle (1895).
FRfiRET, NICOLAS (1688-1749), French scholar, was born
at Paris on the isth of February 1688. His father was procureur
to the parlement of Paris, and destined him to the profession
of the law. His first tutors were the historian Charles Rollin
and Father Desmolets (1677-1760). Amongst his early studies
history, chronology and mythology held a prominent place.
To please his father he studied law and began to practise at the
bar; but the force of his genius soon carried him into his own
path. At nineteen he was admitted to a society of learned men
before whom he read memoirs on the religion of the Greeks,
on the worship of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Cybele and of Apollo.
He was hardly twenty-six years of age when he was admitted
as pupil to the Academy of Inscriptions. One of the first
memoirs which he read was a learned and critical discourse,
Sur I'origine des Francs (1714). He maintained that the Franks
were a league of South German tribes and not, according to the
legend then almost universally received, a nation of free men
deriving from Greece or Troy, who had kept their civilization
intact in the heart of a barbarous country. These sensible
views excited great indignation in the Abb6 Vertot, who de-
nounced Freret to the government as a libeller of the monarchy.
A letlre de cachet was issued, and Fr6ret was sent to the Bastille.
During his three months of confinement he devoted himself to
the study of the works of Xenophon, the fruit of which appeared
later in his memoir on the Cyropaedia. From the time of his
liberation in March 1715 his life was uneventful. In January
1716 he was received associate of the Academy of Inscriptions,
and in December 1742 he was made perpetual secretary. He
worked without intermission for the interests of the Academy,
not even claiming any property in his own writings, which were
printed in the Recueil de I'academie des inscriptions. The list
of his memoirs, many of them posthumous, occupies four columns
of the Nouvelle Biographic generate. They treat of history,
chronology, geography, mythology and religion. Throughout
he appears as the keen, learned and original critic; examining
into the comparative value of documents, distinguishing between
the mythical and the historical, and separating traditions with
an historical element from pure fables and legends. He rejected'
the extreme pretensions of the chronology of Egypt and China,
and at the same time controverted the scheme of Sir Isaac
Newton as too limited. He investigated the mythology not only
of the Greeks, but of the Celts, the Germans, the Chinese and
the Indians. He was a vigorous opponent of the theory that
the stories of mythology may be referred to historic originals.
He also suggested that Greek mythology owed much to the
Phoenicians and Egyptians. He was one of the first scholars of
Europe to undertake the study of the Chinese language; and in
this he was engaged at the time of his committal to the Bastille.
He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1749.
Long after his death several works of an atheistic character were
falsely attributed to him, and were long believed to be his. The most
famous of these spurious works are the Examen critique des apologistes
de la religion chretienne (1766), and theLettredeTkrasybuleaLeucippe,
printed in London about 1768. A very defective and inaccurate
edition of Freret's works was published in 1796-1799. A new and
complete edition was projected by Champollion-Figeac, but of this
only the first volume appeared (1825). It contains a life of Freret.
His manuscripts, after passing through many hands, were deposited
in the library of the Institute. The best account of his works is
" Examen critique des ouvrages composes par Freret " in C. A.
Walckenaer's Recueil des notices, &c. (1841-1850). See also Qu6rard's
France litteraire.
FRERON, LIE CATHERINE (1719-1776), French critic and
controversialist, was born at Quimper in 1719. He was educated
by the Jesuits, and made such rapid progress in his studies
that before the age of twenty he was appointed professor at the
college of Louis-le-Grand. He became a contributor to the
Observations sur les ecrits modernes of the abbe Guyot Desfon-
taines. The very fact of his collaboration with Desfontaines,
one of Voltaire's bitterest enemies, was sufficient to arouse the
latter's hostility, and although Freron had begun his career as
one of his admirers, his attitude towards Voltaire soon changed.
Freron in 1746 founded a similar journal of his own, entitled
Lettres de la Comtesse de . . . It was suppressed in 1749, but he
immediately replaced it by Lettres sur quelques ecrits de ce temps,
which, with the exception of a short suspension in 1752, on
account of an attack on the character of Voltaire, was continued
till 1754, when it was succeeded by the more ambitious Annie
litteraire. His death at Paris on the roth of March 1776 is said
to have been hastened by the temporary suppression of this
journal. Freron is now remembered solely for his attacks on
Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists, and by the retaliations they
provoked on the part of Voltaire, who, besides attacking him in
epigrams, and even incidentally in some of his tragedies, directed
against him a virulent satire, Le Pauvre diable, and made him
the principal personage in a comedy L'Ecossaise, in which the
journal of Freron is designated L'Ane litteraire. A further
attack on Fr6ron entitled Anecdotes sur Freron . . . (1760),
published anonymously, is generally attributed to Voltaire.
Freron was the author of Ode sur la bataille de Fontenoy (1745);
Histoire de Marie Stuart (1742, 2 vols.); and Histoire de I'empire
dAllemagne, (1771, 8 vols.). See Ch. Nisard, Les Ennemis de
Voltaire (1853); Despois, Journalistes et journaux du XVIII'
siecle; Barthelemy, Les confessions de Freron; Ch. Mpnselet,
Freron, ou I'illustre critique (1864); Freron, sa vie, souvenirs, &c.
(1876). L
FRfiRON, LOUIS MARIE STANISLAS (1754-1802), French
revolutionist, son of the preceding, was born at Paris on the I7th
of August 1754. His name was, on the death of his father,
attached to L'Annee litteraire, which was continued till 1790
and edited successively by the abbs G. M. Royou and J. L.
Geoffrey. On the outbreak of the revolution FreVon, who was a
schoolfellow of Robespierre and Camille Desmoulins, established
FRESCO FRESNILLO
209
the violent journal L'Oralfur dtt ptplt. Commissioned, along
with Barras in 1703, to establish the authority of the con-
vention at Marseilles and Toulon, he distinguished himself
in the atrocity of his reprisals, but both afterwards joined the
Thennidoriens, and Frtron became the leader of the jevnesse
tort* and of the Thennidorian reaction. He brought about the
accusation of Fouquier-Tinville, and of J. B. Carrier, the deporta-
tion of B. Barere, and the arrest of the last Moniagnards. He
made his paper the official journal of the reactionists, and being
sent by the Directory on a mission of peace to Marseilles he
published in 1706 Altmoire histortque sur la rtattion royale et
sur Us malkrurs du midi. He was elected to the council of the
Five Hundred, but not allowed to take his seat. Failing as
suitor for the hand of Pauline Bonaparte, one of Napoleon's
sisters, he went in 1 799 as commissioner to Santo Domingo and
died there in 1802. General V. M. Leclerc, who had married
Pauline Bonaparte, also received a command in Santo Domingo
in 1801, and died in the same year as his former rival.
FRESCO (Ilal. for cool, " fresh "), a term introduced into
English, both generally (as in such phrases as alfresco, " in the
fresh air "), and more especially as a technical term for a sort
of mural painting on plaster. In the latter sense the Italians
distinguished painting a secco (when the plaster had been allowed
to dry) from a fresco (when it was newly laid and still wet). The
nature and history of fresco-painting is dealt with in the article
PAINTING.
FRESCOBALDI. GIROLAMO (1583-1644), Italian musical
composer, was born in 1583 at Ferrara. Little is known of his
life except that he studied music under Alessandro Milleville,
and owed his first reputation to his beautiful voice. He was
organist at St Peter's in Rome from 1608 to 1628. According to
Baini no less than 30,000 people flocked to St Peter's on his first
appearance there. On the 2oth of November 1628 he went to
live in Florence, becoming organist to the duke. From December
1633 to March 1643 he was again organist at St Peter's. But in
the last year of his life he was organist in the parish church of
San Lorenzo in Monte. He died on the 2nd of March 1644, being
buried at Rome in the Church of the Twelve Apostles. Fresco-
baldi also excelled as a teacher, Frohbergcr being the most
distinguished of his pupils. Frescobaldi's compositions show
the consummate art of the early Italian school, and his works
for the organ more especially are full of the finest devices of
fugal treatment. He also wrote numerous vocal compositions,
such as canzone, motets, hymns, &c., a collection of madrigals
for five voices (Antwerp, 1608) being among the earliest of his
published works.
FRESENIUS. KARL REMIOIUS (1818-1897), German chemist,
was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 28th of December 1818.
After spending some time in a pharmacy in his native town, he
entered Bonn University in 1840, and a year later migrated to
Giessen, where he acted as assistant in Liebig's laboratory, and
in 1843 became assistant professor. In 1845 he was appointed
to the chair of chemistry, physics and technology at the Wies-
baden Agricultural Institution, and three years later he became
the first director of the chemical laboratory which he induced
the Nassau government to establish at that place. Under his
care this laboratory continuously increased in size and popularity,
school of pharmacy being added in 1862 (though given up in
1877) and an agricultural research laboratory in 1868. Apart
from his administrative duties Fresenius occupied himself almost
exclusively with analytical chemistry, and the fullness and
accuracy of his text-books on that subject (of which that on
qualitative analysis first appeared in 1841 and that on quantita-
tive in 1846) soon rendered them standard works. Many of his
original papers were published in the Zeitschrift ftir analytische
ChemU, which be founded in 1862 and continued to edit till his
death. He died suddenly at Wiesbaden on the nth of June
1897. In 1 88 1 he handed over the directorship of the agricultural
research station to his son, Rcmigius Heinrich Fresenius (b.
1847), who was trained under H. Kolbe at Leipzig. Another son,
Theodor Wilhelm Fresenius (b. 1856), was educated at Strassburg
and occupied various positions in the Wiesbaden laboratory.
FRESHWATER, a watering place in the Isle of Wight,
England, 12 m. W. by S. of Newport by rail. Pop.(i9Oi) 3306.
It is a scattered township lying on the peninsula west of the
river Var, which forms the western extremity of the island. The
portion known as Freshwater Gate fronts the English Channel
from the strip of low-lying coast interposed between the cliffs
of the peninsula and those of the main part of the island. The
peninsula rises to 397 ft. in Headon Hill, and the cliffs are
magnificent. The western promontory is flanked on the north
by the picturesque Alum Bay, and the lofty detached rocks
known as the Needles lie off it. Farringford House in the parish
was for some time the home of Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who is.
commemorated by a tablet in All Saints' church and by a great
cross on the high downs above the town. There are golf links
on the downs.
FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN (1788-1827), French physicist,
the son of an architect, was born at Broglie (Eure) on the loth
of May 1788. His early progress in learning was slow, and when
eight years old he was still unable to read. At the age of thirteen
he entered the Ecole Centrale in Caen, and at sixteen and a half
the ficole Polytechnique, where he acquitted himself with dis-
tinction. Thence he went to the Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees.
He served as an engineer successively in the departments of
Vendee, Dr6me and Ille-et-Villaine; but his espousal of the
cause of the Bourbons in 1814 occasioned, on Napoleon's re-
accession to power, the loss of his appointment. On the second
restoration he obtained a post as engineer in Paris, where much
of his life from that time was spent. His researches in optics,
continued until his death, appear to have been begun about the
year 1814, when he prepared a paper on_the aberration of light,
which, however, was not published. In 1818 he read a memoir
on diffraction for which in the ensuing year he received the prize
of the Acad6mie des Sciences at Paris. He was in 1823 unani-
mously elected a member of the academy, and in 1825 he
became a member of the Royal Society of London, which in 1827,
at the time of his last illness, awarded him the Rumford medal.
In 1819 he was nominated a commissioner of lighthouses, for
which he was the first to construct compound lenses as substitutes
for mirrors. He died of consumption at Ville-d'Avray, near
Paris, on the I4th of July 1827.
The undulatory theory of light, first founded upon experi-
mental demonstration by Thomas Young, was extended to a
large class of optical phenomena, and permanently established
by his brilliant discoveries and mathematical deductions. By
the use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other
an angle of nearly 180, he avoided the diffraction caused in
the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi (1618-1663) on interference
by the employment of apertures for the transmission of the light,
and was thus enabled in the most conclusive manner to account
for the phenomena of interference in accordance with the
undulatory theory. With D. F. J. Arago he studied the laws
of the interference of polarized rays. Circularly polarized light
he obtained by means of a rhomb of glass, known as " Fresnel's
rhomb," having obtuse angles of 126, and acute angles of 54.
His labours in the cause of optical science received during his
lifetime only scant public recognition, and some of his papers
were not printed by the Acad6mie des Sciences till many years
after his decease. But, as he wrote to Young in 1824, in him
" that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory"
had been blunted. " All the compliments," he says, " that I have
received from Arago, Laplace and Biot never gave me so much
pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation
of a calculation by experiment."
See Duleau, "Notice ur Fresnel," Revue ency. t. xxxix. ;
Arago, CEuvres completes, t. i. ; and Dr G. Peacock, Miscellaneous
Works of Thomas Young, vol. i.
FRESNILLO, a town of the state of Zacatecas, Mexico, 37 m.
N.W. of the city of Zacatecas on a branch of the Santiago river.
Pop. (1000) 6309. It stands on a fertile plain between the Santa
Cruz and Zacatecas ranges, about 7700 ft. above sea-level, has
a temperate climate, and is surrounded by an agricultural
district producing Indian corn and wheat. It is a clean, well-
2IO
FRESNO FREWEN
built town, whose chief distinction is its school of mines founded
in 1853. Fresnillo has large amalgam works for the reduction
of silver ores. Its silver mines, located in the neighbouring
Proano hill, were discovered in 1569, and were for a time among
the most productive in Mexico. Since 1833, when their richest
deposits were reached, the output has greatly decreased. There
is a station near on the Mexican Central railway.
FRESNO, a city and the county-seat of Fresno county, Cali-
fornia, U.S.A., situated in the San Joaquin valley (altitude
about 300 ft.) near the geographical centre of the state. Pop.
(1880) 1112; (1890) 10,818; (1900) 12,470, of whom 3299 were
foreign-born and 1279 were Asiatics; (1910 census) 24,892.
The city is served by the Southern Pacific and the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe railways. The county is mainly a vast
expanse of naturally arid plains and mountains. The valley is
the scene of an extensive irrigation system, water being brought
(first in 1872-1876) from King's river, 20 m. distant; in 1905
500 sq. m. were irrigated. Fresno is in a rich farming country,
producing grains and fruit, and is the only place in America
where Smyrna figs have been grown with success; it is the centre
of the finest raisin country of the state, and has extensive vine-
yards and wine-making establishments. The city's principal
manufacture is preserved (dried) fruits, particularly raisins;
the va'ue of the fruits thus preserved in 1905 was $6,942,440,
being 70- 5 % of the total value of the factory product in that year
($9,849,001). In 1900-1905 the factory product increased
257-9%, a ratio of increase greater than that of any other city
in the state. In the mountains, lumbering and mining are
important industries; lumber is carried from Shaver in the
mountains to Clovis on the plains by a V-shaped flume 42 m.
long, the waste water from which is ditched for irrigation. The
petroleum field of the county is one of the richest in California.
Fresno is the business and shipping centre of its county and of the
surrounding region. The county was organized in 1856. In
1872 the railway went through, and Fresno was laid out and
incorporated. It became the county-seat in 1874 and was
chartered as a city in 1885.
FRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE DU (1611-1665), French
painter and writer on his art, was born in Paris, son of an apothe-
cary. He was destined for the medical profession, and well
educated in Latin and Greek; but, having a natural propensity
for the fine arts, he would not apply to his intended vocation,
and was allowed to learn the rudiments of design under Perrier
and Vouet. At the age of twenty-one he went off to Rome, with
no resources; he drew ruins and architectural subjects. After
two years thus spent he re-encountered his old fellow-student
Pierre Mignard, and by his aid obtained some amelioration of his
professional prospects. He studied Raphael and the antique,
went in 1633 to Venice, and in 1656 returned to France. During
two years he was now employed in painting altar-pieces in the
chateau of Raincy, landscapes, &c. His death was caused by
an attack of apoplexy followed by palsy; he expired at Villiers
le Bel, near Paris. He never married. His pictorial works are
few; they are correct in drawing, with something of the Caracci
in design, and of Titian in colouring, but wanting fire and ex-
pression, and insufficient to keep his name in any eminent repute.
He is remembered now almost entirely as a writer rather than
painter. His Latin poem, De arle graphica, was written during
his Italian sojourn, and embodied his observations on the art
of painting; it may be termed a critical treatise on the practice
of the art, with general advice to students. The precepts are
sound according to the standard of his time; the poetical
merits slender enough. The Latin style is formed chiefly on
Lucretius and Horace. This poem was first published by
Mignard, and has been translated into several languages. In
1684 it was turned into French by Roger de Piles; Dryden
translated the work into English prose; and a rendering into
verse by Mason followed, to which Sir Joshua Reynolds added
some annotations.
FRET, (i) (From O. Eng. fretan, a word common in various
forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. fressen, to eat greedily),
properly to devour, hence to gnaw, so used of the slow corroding
action of chemicals, water, &c., and hence, figuratively, to chafe
or irritate. Possibly connected with this word, in sense of rubbing,
is the use of " fret " for a bar on the fingerboard of a banjo,
guitar, or similar musical instruments to mark the fingering.
(2) (Of doubtful origin; possibly from the O. Eng. frative, orna-
ments, but its use is paralleled by the Fi.frelte, trellis or lattice),
network, a term used in heraldry for an interlaced figure, but
best known as applied to the decoration used by the Greeks
in their temples and vases: the Greek fret consists of a series
of narrow bands of different lengths, placed at right angles to
one another, and of great variety of design. It is an ornament
which owes its origin to woven fabrics, and is found on the
ceilings of the Egyptian tombs at Benihasan, Siout and elsewhere.
In Greek work it was painted on the abacus of the Doric capital
and probably on the architraves of their temples; when employed
by the Romans it was generally carved; the Propylaea of the
temple at Damascus and the temple at Atil being examples of
the 2nd century. It was carved in large dimensions on some
of the Mexican temples, as for instance on the palace at Mitla
with other decorative bands, all of which would seem to have
been reproductions of woven patterns, and had therefore an
independent origin. It is found in China and Japan, and in the
latter country when painted on lacquer is employed as a fret-
diaper, the bands not being at right angles to one another but
forming acute and obtuse angles. In old English writers a wider
signification was given to it, as it was applied to raised patterns
in plaster on roofs or ceilings, which were not confined to the
geometrical fret but extended to the modelling of flowers,
leaves and fruit; in such cases the decoration was known as
fret-work. In France the fret is better known as the " meander."
FREUDENSTADT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wiirttemberg, on the right bank of the Murg, 40 m. S.W. from
Stuttgart, on the railway to Hochdorf. Pop. 7000. It has a
Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, some small manu-
factures of cloth, furniture, knives, nails and glass, and is
frequented as a climatic health resort. It was founded in 1599
by Protestant refugees from Salzburg.
FREUND, WILHELM (1806-1894), German philologist and
lexicographer, was born at Kempen in the grand duchy of Posen
on the 27th of January 1806. He studied at Berlin, Breslau and
Halle, and was for twenty years chiefly engaged in private
tuition. From 1855-1870 he was director of the Jewish school
at Gleiwitz in Silesia, and subsequently retired to Breslau, where
he died on the 4th of June 1894. Although chiefly known
for his philological labours, Freund took an important part in
the movement for the emancipation of his Prussian coreligionists,
and the Judengesetz of 1847 was in great measure the result
of his efforts. The work by which he is best known is his Worter-
buch der lateinischen Sprache (1834-1845), practically the basis
of all Latin-English dictionaries. His Wie studiert man klassischt
Philologie? (6th ed., 1903) and Triennium philologicum (and ed.,
1878-1885) are valuable aids to the classical student.
FREWEN, ACCEPTED (1588-1664), archbishop of York, was
born at Northiam, in Sussex, and educated at Magdalen College,
Oxford, where in 1612 he became a fellow. In 1617 and 1621
the college allowed him to act as chaplain to Sir John Digby,
ambassador in Spain. At Madrid he preached a sermon which
pleased Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., and the latter on
his accession appointed Frewen one of his chaplains. In 1625
he became canon of Canterbury and vice-president of Magdalen
College, and in the following year he was elected president.
He was vice-chancellor of the university in 1628 and 1629,
and again in 1638 and 1639. It was mainly by his instrument-
ality that the university plate was sent to the king at York in
1642. Two years later he was consecrated bishop of Lichfield
and Coventry, and resigned his presidentship. Parliament
declared his estates forfeited for treason in 1652, and Cromwell
afterwards set a price on his head. The proclamations, however,
designated him Stephen Frewen, and he was consequently able
to escape into France. At the Restoration he reappeared in
public, and in 1660 he was consecrated archbishop of York. In
1661 he acted as chairman of the Savoy conference.
FREY FREYCINET
211
FREY (Old Norse, Freyr) son of Njord, one of the chief deities
in the northern pantheon and the national god of the Swedes.
He is the god of fruitfulness, the giver of sunshine and rain, and
thus the source of all prosperity. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES,
ifin.)
FREYBURG [FREYBURG AN DER UNSTRUT], a town of
Germany, in Prussian Saxony, in an undulating vine-clad
country on the Unstrut, 6 m. N. from Naumberg-on-the-Saale,
on the railway to Artern. Pop. 3200. It has a parish church,
mixture of Gothic and Romanesque architecture, with a
handsome tower. It is, however, as being the " Mecca " of the
German gymnastic societies that Freyburg is best known. Here
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), the father of German
gymnastic exercises, lies buried. Over his grave is built the
Turnhallc. with a statue of the " master," while hard by it the
Jahn Museum in Romanesque style, erected in 1903. Freyburg
produces sparkling wine of good quality and has some other
small manufactures. On a hill commanding the town is the
castle of Neuenburg, built originally in 1062 by Louis the Leaper,
count in Thuringia. but in its present form mainly the work of
the dukes of Saxe-Wcissenfcls.
FREYCINET, CHARLES LOUIS DE SAULCES DE (1828- ),
French statesman, was born at Foix on the i4th of November
1828. He was educated at the Ecole Poly technique, and entered
the government service as a mining engineer. In 1858 he was
appointed traffic manager to the Compagnie de chemins de fer
du Midi, a post in which he gave proof of his remarkable talent
for organization, and in 1862 returned to the engineering service
(in which he attained in 1886 the rank of inspector-general).
He was sent on a number of special scientific missions, among
which may be mentioned one to England, on which he wrote
a notable Mtmtnre sur It travail desfemmes ei des enfants dans les
manufactures de I'Angleterre (1867). On the establishment of
the Third Republic in September 1870, he offered his services
to Gambetta, was appointed prefect of the department of Tarn-et-
Garronne, and in October became chief of the military cabinet.
It was mainly his powers of organization that enabled Gambetta
to raise army after army to oppose the invading Germans. He
showed himself a strategist of no mean order; but the policy
of dictating operations to the generals in the field was not
attended with happy results. The friction between him and
General d'Aurelle de Paladines resulted in the loss of the ad-
vantage temporarily gained at Orleans, and he was responsible
for the campaign in the east, which ended in the destruction of
Bourbaki's army. In 1871 he published a defence of his admini-
stration under the title of La Guerre en province pendant le siege de
Paris. He entered the Senate in 1876 as a follower of Gambetta,
and in December 1877 became minister of public works in the
Dufaure cabinet. He carried a great scheme for the gradual
acquisition of the railways by the state and the construction of
new lines at a cost of three milliards, and for the development
of the canal system at a further cost of one milliard. He retained
his post in the ministry of Waddington, whom he succeeded in
December 1879 as president of the council and minister for
foreign affairs. He passed an amnesty for the Communists,
but in attempting to steer a middle course on the question of the
religious associations, lost the support of Gambetta, and resigned
in September 1880. In January 1882 he again became president
of the council and minister for foreign affairs. His refusal to
join England in the bombardment of Alexandria was the death-
knell of French influence in Egypt. He attempted to com-
promise by occupying the Isthmus of Suez, but the vote of credit
was rejected in the Chamber by 41 7 votes to 75, and the ministry
resigned. He returned to office in April 1885 as foreign minister
in the Brisson cabinet, and retained that post when, in January
1886, he succeeded to the premiership. He came into power
with an ambitious programme of internal reform; but except
that he settled the question of the exiled pretenders, his successes
were won chiefly in the sphere of colonial extension. In spite of
his unrivalled skill as a parliamentary tactician, he failed to
keep his party together, and was defeated on 3rd December
1886. In the following year, after two unsuccessful attempts
to construct new ministries he stood for the presidency of the
republic; but the radicals, to whom his opportunism was*
distasteful, turned the scale against him by transferring the
votes to M. Sadi Carnot.
In April 1888 he became minister of war in the Floquet cabinet
the first civilian since 1848 to hold that office. His services
to France in this capacity were the crowning achievement of his
life, and he enjoyed the conspicuous honour of holding his office
without a break for five years through as many successive
administrations those of Floquet and Tirard, his own fourth
ministry (March i8go-February 1892), and the Loubet and
Ribot ministries. To him were due the introduction of the
three-years' service and the establishment of a general staff,
a supreme council of war, and the army commands. His premier-
ship was marked by heated debates on the clerical question, and
it was a hostile vote on his Bill against the religious associations
that caused the fall of his cabinet. He failed to clear himself
entirely of complicity in the Panama scandals, and in January
1893 resigned the ministry of war. In November 1898 he once
more became minister of war in the Dupuy cabinet, but resigned
office on 6th May 1899. He has published, besides the works
already mentioned, Traitf de mtcanique rationnelle (1858); De
I'analyse infiniUsimale (1860, revised ed., 1881); Des pentes
(conomiques en chemin defer (1861); Emploi des eaux d'egout en
agriculture (1869); Principes de I'assainissement des villes and
Traitt d'assainissement industriel (1870) ; Essai sur la philosophic
des sciences (1896); La Question d'Egypte (1905); besides some
remarkable " Pensees " contributed to the Contemporain under
the pseudonym of " Alceste." In 1882 he was elected a member
of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1890 to the French Academy
in succession to Etnile Augier.
FREYCINET, LOUIS CLAUDE DESAULSES DE (1779-1842),
French navigator, was born at Montelimart, Dr&me, on the 7th
of August 1779. In 1793 he entered the French navy. After
taking part in several engagements against the British, he joined
in 1800, along with his brother Louis Henri Freycinet (1777-
1840), who afterwards rose to the rank of admiral, the expedition
sent out under Captain Baudin in the " Naturaliste " and
" Geographe " to explore the south and south-west coasts of
Australia. Much of the ground already gone over by Flinders
was revisited, and new names imposed by this expedition, which
claimed credit for discoveries really made by the English navi-
gator. An inlet on the coast of West Australia, in 26 S., is
called Freycinet Estuary; and a cape near the extreme south-
west of the same coast also bears the explorer's name. In 1805
he returned to Paris, and was entrusted by the government
with the work of preparing the maps and plans of the expedition;
he also completed the narrative, and the whole work appeared
under the title of Voyage de dtcouvertes aux terres australes
(Paris, 1807-1816). In 1817 he commanded the " Uranie,"
in which Arago and others went to Rio de Janeiro, to take a series
of pendulum measurements. This was only part of a larger
scheme for obtaining observations, not only in geography and
ethnology, but in astronomy, terrestrial magnetism, and meteor-
ology, and for the collection of specimens in natural history.
On this expedition the hydrographic operations were conducted
by Louis Isidore Duperry (1786-1865) who in 1822 was appointed
to the command of the " Coquille," and during the next three
years carried out scientific explorations in the southern Pacific
and along the coast of South America. For three years
Freycinet cruised about, visiting Australia, the Marianne,
Sandwich, and other Pacific isknds, South America, and other
places, and, notwithstanding the loss of the " Uranie " on the
Falkland Islands during the return voyage, returned to France
with fine collections in all departments of natural history, and
with voluminous notes and drawings which form an important
contribution to a knowledge of the countries visited. The
results of this voyage were published under Freycinet 's super-
vision, with the title of Voyage autour du monde sur les corvettes
" I'Uranit" el "la Physicienne" in 1824-1844, in 13 quarto
volumes and 4 folio volumes of fine plates and maps. Freycinet
was admitted into the Academy of Sciences in 1825, and was one
212
FREYIA FRIBOURG
of the founders of the Paris Geographical Society. He died at
Freycinet, Drdme, on the i8th of August 1842.
FREYIA, the sister of Frey, and the most prominent goddess in
Northern mythology. Her character seems in general to have
resembled that of her brother. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, ad fin.)
FBEYTAG, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1788-1861),
German philologist, was born at Liineburg on the igth of
September 1788. After attending school he entered the univer-
sity of Gottingen as a student of philology and theology; here
from 1811 to 1813 he acted as a theological tutor, but in the latter
year accepted an appointment as sub-librarian at Konigsberg.
In 1815 he became a chaplain in the Prussian army, and in that
capacity visited Paris. On the proclamation of peace he resigned
his chaplaincy, and returned to his researches in Arabic, Persian
and Turkish, studying at Paris under De Sacy. In 1819 he was
appointed to the professorship of oriental languages in the new
university of Bonn, and this post he continued to hold until his
death on the i6th of November 1861.
Besides a compendium of Hebrew grammar (Kurzgefasste Gram-
matik der hebrdtschen Sprache, 1835), and a treatise on Arabic
versification (Darstellung der arabischen Verskunst, 1830), he edited
two volumes of Arabic songs (Hafaasae carmina, 1828-1852) and
three of Arabic proverbs (Arabum -praverbia., 1838-1843). But his
principal work was the laborious and praiseworthy Lexicon Arabico-
latinum (Halle, 1830-1837), an abridgment of which was published
in 1837.
FREYTAG, GUSTAV (1816-1895), German novelist, was born
at Kreuzburg, in Silesia, on the i3th of July 1816. After attend-
ing the gymnasium at Ols, he studied philology at the universities
of Breslau and Berlin, and in 1838 took the degree with a remark-
' able dissertation, De iniliis poeseos scenicae apud Germanos.
In 1839 he settled at Breslau, as Privatdocent in German
language and literature, but devoted his principal attention to
writing for the stage, and achieved considerable success with
the comedy Die Brautf.ahrt, oder Kunz von der Rosen (1844).
This was followed by a volume of unimportant poems, In
Breslau (1845) and the dramas Die Valentine (1846) and Graf
Waldemar (1847). He at last attained a prominent position
by his comedy, Die Journalisten (1853), one of the best German
comedies of the I9th century. In 1847 he migrated to Berlin,
and in the following year took over, in conjunction with
Julian Schmidt, the editorship of Die Grenzboten, a weekly
journal which, founded in 1841, now became the leading organ of
German and Austrian liberalism. Freytag helped to conduct it
until 1861, and again from 1867 till 1870, when for a short time
he edited a new periodical, Im neuen Reich. His literary fame
was made universal by the publication in 1855 of his novel,
SollundHaben, which was translated into almost all the languages
of Europe. It was certainly the best German novel of its day,
impressive by its sturdy but unexaggerated realism, and in many
parts highly humorous. Its main purpose is the recommendation
of the German middle class as the soundest element in the nation,
but it also has a more directly patriotic intention in the contrast
which it draws between the homely virtues of the Teuton and the
shiftlessness of the Pole and the rapacity of the Jew. As a
Silesian, Freytag had no great love for his Slavonic neighbours,
and being a native of a province which owed everything to
Prussia, he was naturally an earnest champion of Prussian
hegemony over Germany. His powerful advocacy of this idea
in his Grenzboten gained him the friendship of the duke of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, whose neighbour he had become, on acquiring the
estate of Siebleben near Gotha. At the duke's request Freytag
was attached to the staff of the crown prince of Prussia in the
campaign of 1870, and was present at the battles of Worth and
Sedan. Before this he had published another novel, Die verlorene
Handschrift (1864), in which he endeavoured to do for German
university life what in Soil und Haben he had done for commercial
life. The hero is a young German professor, who is so wrapt up
in his search for a manuscript by Tacitus that he is oblivious
to an impending tragedy in his domestic life. The book was,
however, less successful than its predecessor. Between 1859 and
1867 Freytag published in five volumes Bilder aus der deutschen
Vergangenheit, a most valuable work on popular lines, illustrating
the history and manners of Germany. In 1872 he began a
work with a similar patriotic purpose, Die Ahnen, a series of
historical romances in which he unfolds the history of a German
family from the earliest times to the middle of the igth century.
The series comprises the following novels, none of which, however,
reaches the level of Frey tag's earlier books, (i) Ingo und Ingra-
ban '(1872), (2) Das Nest der Zaunkonige (1874), (3) Die Bruder
vont deulschen Hause (1875), (4) Marcus Konig (1876), (5) Die
Geschwister (1878), and (6) in conclusion, Aus einer kleinen Stadt
(1880). Among Frey tag's other works may be noticed Die
Technik des Dramas (1863) ; an excellent biography of the Baden
statesman Karl Mathy (1869); an autobiography (Erinnerungen
aus meinen Leben, 1887); his Gesammelte Aufsatze, chiefly
reprinted from the Grenzboten (1888); Der Kronprinz und die
deutsche Kaiserkrone; Erinnerungsblalter (1889). He died at
Wiesbaden on the 3oth of April 1895.
Freytag's Gesammelte Werke were published in 22 vols. at Leipzig
(1886-1888); his Vermischte Aufsdtze have been edited by E. Elster,
2 vols. (Leipzig, 1901-1903). On Freytag's life see, besides his
autobiography mentioned above, the lives by C. Alberti (Leipzig,
1890) and F. Seiler (Leipzig, 1898).
FRIAR (from the Lat. f rater, through the Fr. frere), the
English generic name for members of the mendicant religious
orders. Formerly it was the title given to individual members
of these orders, as Friar Laurence (in Romeo and Juliet) , but this
is not now common. In England the chief orders of friars were
distinguished by the colour of their habit: thus the Franciscans
or Minors were the Grey Friars; the Dominicans or Preachers
were the Black Friars (from their black mantle over a white
habit), and the Carmelites were the White Friars (from their
white mantle over a brown habit): these, together with the
Austin Friars or Hermits, formed the four great mendicant
orders Chaucer's " alle the ordres foure." Besides the four
great orders of friars, the Trinitarians (q.v.), though really
canons, were in England called Trinity Friars or Red Friars; the
Crutched or Crossed Friars were often identified with them, but
were really a distinct order; there were also a number of lesser
orders of friars, many of which were suppressed by the second
council of Lyons in 1274. Detailed information on these orders
and on their position in England is given in separate articles.
The difference between friars and monks is explained in article
MONASTICISM. Though the usage is not accurate, friars, and also
canons regular, are often spoken of as monks and included among
the monastic orders.
See Fr. Cuthbert, The Friars and how they came to. England,
pp. 1 1-32 (1903) ; also F. A. Gasquet, English Monastic Life, pp. 23^-
249 (1904), where special information on all the English friars is
coveniently brought together. (E. C. B.)
FRIBOURG [Ger. Freiburg], one of the Swiss Cantons, in
the western portion of the country, and taking its name from
the town around which the various districts that compose it
gradually gathered. Its area is 646-3 sq. m., of which 568 sq. m.
are classed as " productive " (forests covering 119 sq. m. and
vineyards -8 sq. m.); it boasts of no glaciers or eternal snow.
It is a hilly, not mountainous, region, the highest summits (of
which the Vanil Noir, 7858 ft., is the loftiest) rising in the Gruyere
district at its south-eastern extremity, the best known being
probably the Moleson (6582 ft.) and the Berra (5653 ft.). But
it is the heart of pastoral Switzerland, is famed for its cheese and
cattle, and is the original home of the " Ranz des Vaches," the
melody by which the herdsmen call their cattle home at milking
time. It is watered by the Sarine or Saane river (with its tribu-
taries the Singine or Sense and the Glane) that flows through the
canton from north to south, and traverses its capital town.
The upper course of the Broye (like the Sarine, a tributary of
the Aar) and that of the Veveyse (flowing to the Lake of Geneva)
are in the southern portion of the canton. A small share of the
lakes of Neuchatel and of Morat belongs to the canton, wherein
the largest sheet of water is the Lac Noir or Schwarzsee. A
sulphur spring rises near the last-named lake, and there are other
such springs in the canton at Montbarry and at Bonn, near the
capital. There are about 150 m. of railways in the canton, the
main line from Lausanne to Bern past Fribourg running through
FRIBOURG
213
it ; there are also lines from Fribourg to Moral and to Estavayer,
while from Romont (on the main line) a line runs to Hullo, and
in 1004 was extended to Gcssenay or Saanen near the head of the
Sarine or Saane valley. The population of the canton amounted
in 1900 to 127,951 souls, of whom 108,440 were Romanists,
19,305 Protestants, and 167 Jews. The canton is on the linguistic
frontier in Switzerland, the line of division running nearly due
north and south through it, and even right through its capital.
In looo there were 78,353 French-speaking inhabitants, and
38,738 German-speaking, the latter being found chiefly in the
north-western (Moral region) and north-eastern (Singine valley)
portions, as well as in the upper valley of the Jogne or Jaun in
the south-east. Besides the capital, Fribourg (?..), the only
towns of any importance are Bulle (3330 inhabitants), Chatel
St Denis (2500 inhabitants), Moral (q.t.) or Murten (2263 in-
habitants), Romont (2110 inhabitanls), and Estavayer le Lac
or Stlffis am See (1636 inhabitanls).
The canton is pre-eminently a pastoral and agricultural
region, tobacco, cheese and limber being ils chief products.
Its industries are comparatively few: straw-plaiting, watch-
making (Semsaks), paper-making (Marly), lime-kilns, and, above
all, the huge Caillcr chocolate factory at Broc. It forms part
of the diocese of Lausanne and Geneva, the bishop living since
1663 at Fribourg. Il is a stronghold of the Romanists, and still
contains many monasteries and nunneries, such as the Carthusian
monks at Valsainte, and the Cistercian nuns at La Fille Dieu
and at Maigrauge. The canton is divided into 7 administrative
districts, and contains 283 communes. It sends 2 members
(named by the cantonal legislature) to the Federal Stdndcrath,
and 6 members to the Federal Nationalrath. The cantonal
constitution has scarcely been altered since 1857, and is remark-
able as containing none of the modern devices (referendum,
initiative, proportional representation) save Ihe right of " initia-
tive " enjoyed by 6000 citizens to claim the revision of the
cantonal constitution. The executive council of 7 members is
named for 5 years by the cantonal legislature, which consists
of members (holding office for 5 years) elected in the proportion
of one to every 1 200 (or fraction over 800) of the population.
(W. A. B. C.)
PRIBOURG [Ger. Freiburg], the capital of the Swiss canton
of that name. It is built almost entirely on the left bank of the
Sarine, the oldest bit (the Bourg) of the town being just above
the river bank, flanked by the Neuveville and Auge quarters,
these last (with the Planche quarter on the right bank of the
river) forming the Vilie Basse. On the steeply rising ground
to the west of the Bourg is the Quartier des Places, beyond
which, to the west and south-west, is the still newer Perolles
quarter, where are the railway station and the new University;
all these (with Ihe Bourg) constituting the Ville Haute. In
1000 the population of the town was 15,794, f whom 13,270
were Romanists and 109 Jews, while 9701 were French-speaking,
and 5595 German-speaking, these last being mainly in the Ville
Basse. Its linguistic history is curious. Founded as a German
town, the French tongue became the official language during the
greater part of the uth and isth centuries, bul when il joined
the Swiss Confederation in 1481 the German influence came to
the fore, and German was the official language from 1483 to 1798,
becoming thus associated with the rule of the patricians. From
1798 to 1814, and again from 1830 onwards, French prevailed,
as at present, though the new University is a centre of German
influence.
Fribourg is on Ihe main line of railway from Bern (20 m.) lo
Lausanne (41 m.). The principal building in Ihe town is the
collegiate church of St Nicholas, of which Ihe nave dales from Ihe
I3th-i4th centuries, while the choir was rebuilt in the I7th
cenlury. Il is a fine building, remarkable in itself, as well as
for ils lofty, late isth cenlury, bell-lower (249 fl. high), with a
fine peal of bells; its famous organ was built between 1824 and
1834 by Aloys Mooser (a native of the town), has 7800 pipes,
and is played daily in summer for Ihe edification of tourists.
The numerous monasteries in and around Ihe town, ils old-
fashioned aspect, its steep and narrow streets, give it a most
striking appearance. One of the most conspicuous buildings in
the town is the college of St Michael, while in front of the i6th
century town hall is an ancient lime tree stated (but this is very
doubtful) to have been planted on the day of the victory of Moral
(June 22, 1476). In the Lycee is the Cantonal Museum of Fine
Arts, wherein, besides many interesting objects, is the collection
of paintings and statuary bequeathed to the town in 1879 by
Duchess Adela Colonna (a member of the d'Affry family of
Fribourg), by whom many were executed under the name of
" Marcello." The deep ravine of the Sarine is crossed by a very
fine suspension bridge, constructed 1832-1834 by M. Chaley,
of Lyons, which is 167 ft. above the Sarine, has a span of 808 ft.,
and consists of 6 huge cables composed of 3294 strands. A
loftier suspension bridge is thrown over the Gotteron stream
just before it joins the Sarine: it is 590 it. long and 246 ft. in
height, and was built in 1840. About 3 m. north of the town
is the great railway viaduct or girder bridge of Grandfey, con-
structed in 1862 (1092 ft. in length, 249 ft. high) at a cost of
2} million francs. Immediately above the town a vast dam
(591 ft. long) was constructed across the Sarine by the engineer
Riller in 1870-1872, the fall thus obtained yielding a water-
power of 2600 to 4000 horse-power, and forming a sheet of water
known as the Lac de P6rolles. A motive force of 600 horse-
power, secured by turbines in the stream, is conveyed to the
plateau of Perolles by " telodynamic " cables of 2510 ft. in
length, for whose passage a tunnel has been pierced in the rock.
On the Perolles plateau is the International Catholic University
founded in 1889.
History. In 1178 the foundation of the town (meant to hold
in check the turbulent nobles of the neighbourhood) was com-
pleted by Berchthold IV., duke of Zahringen, whose father Conrad
had founded Freiburg in Breisgau in 1120, and whose son,
Berchthold V., was to found Bern in 1191. The spot was chosen
for purposes of military defence, and was situated in the Uechl-
land or waste land between Alamannian and Burgundian
territory. He granted it many privileges, modelled on the
charters of Cologne and of Freiburg in Breisgau, though the oldest
existing charter of the town dates from 1 249. On the extinction
of the male line of the Zahringen dynasty, in 1218, their lands
passed to Anna, the sister of the last duke and wife of Count
Ulrich of Kyburg. That house kept Fribourg till it too became
extinct, in 1264, in the male line. Anna, the heiress, married
about 1273 Eberhard, count of Habsburg-Laufenburg, who sold
Fribourg in 1277 for 3000 marks to his cousin Rudolf, the head
of the house of Habsburg as well as emperor. The town had to
fight many a hard battle for its existence against Bern and the
count of Savoy, especially between 1448 and 1452. Abandoned
by the Habsburgs, and desirous of escaping from the increasing
power of Bern, Fribourg in 1452 finally submitted to the count
of Savoy, to whom it had become indebted for vast sums of money.
Yet, despite all its difficulties, it was in the first half of the isth
century thai Fribourg exported much leather and cloth to France,
Italy and Venice, as many as 10,000 to 20,000 bales of cloth being
stamped with the seal of the town. When Yolande, dowager
duchess of Savoy, entered into an alliance with Charles the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, Fribourg joined Bern, and helped to gain the
victories of Grandson and of Moral (1476).
In 1477 the town was finally freed from the rule of Savoy,
while in 1481 (with Soleure) it became a member of the Swiss
Confederation, largely, it is said, through the influence of the
holy man, Bruder Klaus (Niklaus von der FlUe). In 1475
the town had taken Illens and Arconciel from Savoy, and in
1536 won from Vaud much territory, including Romont, Rue,
Chatel St Denis, Estavayer, St Aubin (by these two conquests its
dominion reached the Lake of Neuchatel), as well as Vuissens and
Surpierre, which slill form outlying portions (physically within
the canton of Vaud) of its terrilory, while in 1537 it took Bulle
from the bishop of Lausanne. In 1502-1504 the lordship of
Bellegarde or Jaun was bought, while in 1555 it acquired (jointly
with Bern) the lands of the last count of the Gruyere, and thus
obtained the rich district of lhal name. From 1475 il ruled
(wilh Bern) Ihe bailiwicks of Moral, Grandson, Orbe and
214
FRICTION
Echallens, just taken from Savoy, but in 1798 Moral was incor-
porated with (finally annexed in 1814) the canton of Fribourg,
the other bailiwicks being then given to the canton of Leman
(later of Vaud). In the i6th century the original democratic
government gradually gave place to the oligarchy of the patrician
families. Though this government caused much discontent
it continued till it was overthrown on the French occupation of
1798.
From 1803 (Act of Mediation) to 1814, Fribourg was one of
the six cantons of the Swiss Confederation. But, on the fall of
the new regime, in 1814, the old patrician rule was partly restored,
as 1 08 of the 144 seats in the cantonal legislature were assigned to
members of the patrician families. In 1831 the Radicals gained
the power and secured the adoption of a more liberal constitution.
In 1846 Fribourg (where the Conservatives had regained power
in 1837) joined the Sonderbund and, in 1847, saw the Federal
troops before its walls, and had to surrender to them. The
Radicals now came back to power, and again revised the cantonal
constitution in a liberal sense. The Catholic and Conservative
party made several attempts to recover their supremacy, but
their chiefs were driven into exile. In 1856 the Conservatives
regained the upper hand at the general cantonal election, secured
the adoption in 1857 of a new cantonal constitution, and have
ever since maintained their rule, which some dub " clerical,"
while others describe it as " anti-radical."
AUTHORITIES. Archives de la Societe d'histoire du Canton de
F., from 1850; F. Buomberger, Bevolkerungs- u. Vermogensstatistik
in d. Stadt u. Landschaft F. urn die Mitte d. if ten Jahrhunderts (Bern,
1900) ; A. Daguet, Histoire de la ville et de la seigneurie de F., to
1481 (Fribourg, 1889) ; A. DelHon, Diclionnaire historique et
statistique des paroisses catholiques du C. de F. (12 vols., Fribourg,
1884-1903); Freiburger Geschichtsblatter, from 1894; Fribourg
artistique (fine plates), from 1890; E. Heyck, Geschichte der Herzoge
von Zdhringen (Freiburg i. Br., 1891); F. Kuenlin, Der K. Freiburg
(St Gall and Bern, 1834); Memorial de F. (6 vols., 1854-1859);
Recueil diplomatique du Cant, de F. (original documents) (8 vols.,
Fribourg, 1839-1877); F. E. Welti, Beitrdge zur Geschichte des
alteren Stadtrechtes von Freiburg im Uechtland (Bern, 1908); J. Zemp,
L'Art de la ville de Fribourg au moyen dge (Fribourg, 1905); J.
Zimmerli, Die deutsch-franzosische Sprachgrenze in d. Schweiz
(Basel and Geneva, 1895), vol. ii., pp. 72 seq.; Les Alpes fribour-
geoises (Lausanne, 1908). (W.A. B.C.)
FRICTION (from Lat./wcare, to rub), in physical and mechani-
cal science, the term given to the resistance which every material
surface presents to the sliding of any other such surface upon it.
This resistance is due to the roughness of the surfaces; the
minute projections upon each enter more or less into the minute
depressions on the other, and when motion occurs these rough-
nesses must either be worn off, or continually lifted out of the
hollows into which they have fallen, or both, the resistance to
motion being in either case quite perceptible and measurable.
Friction is preferably spoken of as " resistance " rather than
" force," for a reason exactly the same as that which induces
us to treat stress rather as molecular resistance (to change of
form) than as force, and which may be stated thus: although
friction can be utilized as a moving force at will, and is continually
so used, yet it cannot be a primary moving force; it can transmit
or modify motion already existing, but cannot in the first instance
cause it. For this some external force, not friction, is required.
The analogy with stress appears complete; the motion of the
" driving link " of a machine is communicated to all the other
parts, modified or unchanged as the case may be, by the stresses
in those parts; but the actual setting in motion of the driving
link itself cannot come about by stress, but must have for its
production force obtained directly from the expenditure of some
form of energy. It is important, however, that the use of the
term " resistance " should not be allowed to mislead. Friction
resists the motion of one surface upon another, but it may and
frequently does confer the motion of the one upon the other, and
in this way causes, instead of resists, the motion of the latter.
This may be made more clear, perhaps, by an illustration.
Suppose we have a leather strap A passing over a fixed cylindrical
drum B, and let a pulling force or effort be applied to the strap.
The force applied to A can act on B only at the surfaces of contact
between them. There it becomes an effort tending either to move
A upon B, or to move the body B itself, according to the frictional
conditions. In the absence of friction it would simply cause A
to slide on B, so that we may call it an effort tending to make
A slide on B. The friction is the resistance offered by the surface
of B to any such motion. But the value of this resistance is not
in any way a function of the effort itself, it depends chiefly
upon the pressure normal to the surfaces and the nature of the
surfaces. It may therefore be either less or greater than the
effort. If less, A slides over B, the rate of motion being deter-
mined by the excess of the effort over the resistance (friction).
But if the latter be greater no sliding can occur, i.e. A cannot,
under the action of the supposed force, move upon B. The effort
between the surfaces exists, however, exactly as before, and
it must now tend to cause the motion of B. But the body B is
fixed, or, in other words, we suppose its resistance to motion
greater than any effort which can tend to move it, hence no
motion takes place. It must be specially noticed, however,
that it is not the friction between A and B that has prevented
motion, this only prevented A moving on B. it is the force
which keeps B stationary, whatever that may be, which has
finally prevented any motion taking place. This can be easily
seen. Suppose B not to be fixed, but to be capable of moving
against some third body C (which might, e.g., contain cylindrical
bearings, if B were a drum with its shaft), itself fixed, and
further, suppose the frictional resistance between B and C to
be the only resistance to B's motion. Then if this be less than
the effort of A upon B, as it of course may be, this effort will cause
the motion of B. Thus friction causes motion, for had there
been no frictional resistance between the surfaces of A and of B,
the latter body would have remained stationary, and A only
would have moved. In the case supposed, therefore, the friction
between A and B is a necessary condition of B receiving any
motion from the external force applied to A.
Without entering here on the mathematical treatment of
the subject of friction, some general conclusions may be pointed
out which have been arrived at as the results of experiment.
The "laws" first enunciated by C. A. Coulomb (1781), and after-
wards confirmed by A. J. Morin (1830-1834), have been found to
hold good within very wide limits. These are: (i) that the fric-
tion is proportional to the normal pressure between the surfaces
of contact, and therefore independent of the area of those surfaces,
and (2) that it is independent of the velocity with which the
surfaces slide one on the other. For many practical purposes
these statements are sufficiently accurate, and they do in fact
sensibly represent the results of experiment for the pressures
and at the velocities most commonly occurring. Assuming the
correctness of these, friction is generally measured in terms
simply of the total pressure between the surfaces, by multiplying
it by a " coefficient of friction " depending on the material of
the surfaces and their state as to smoothness and lubrication.
But beyond certain limits the " laws " stated are certainly
incorrect, and are to be regarded as mere practical rules, of
extensive application certainly, but without any pretension to-
be looked at as really general laws. Both at very high and very
low pressures the coefficient of friction is affected by the intensity
of pressure, and, just as with velocity, it can only be regarded
as independent of the intensity and proportional simply to the
total load within more or less definite limits.
Coulomb pointed out long ago that the resistance of a body
to be set in motion was in many cases much greater than the
resistance which it offered to continued motion; and since his
time writers have always distinguished the " friction of rest,"
or static friction, from the " friction of motion," or kinetic
friction. He showed also that the value of the former depended
often both upon the intensity of the pressure and upon the
length of time during which contact had lasted, both of which
facts quite agree with what we should expect from our know-
ledge of the physical nature, already mentioned, of the causes
of friction. It seems not unreasonable to expect that the
influence of time upon friction should show itself in a comparison
of very slow with very rapid motion, as well as in a comparison
of starting (i.e. motion after a long time of rest) with continued
FRIDAY FRIEDLAND
215
motion That the friction at the higher velocities occurring in
engineering practice is much less than at common velocities
has been shown by several modern experiments, such as those
of Sir Douglas Gallon (see Report Brit. Asset., 1878, and Proc.
lust. Meek. E*t-, 1878, 1879) on the friction between brake-blocks
and wheels, and between wheels and rails. But no increase in
the coefficient of friction had been detected at slow speeds,
until the experiments of Prof. Fleeming Jenkin (Phil. Trans.,
1877, pt. 3) showed conclusively that at extremely low velocities
(the lowest measured was about -0002 ft. per second) there is a
sensible increase of frictional resistance in many cases, most
notably in those in which there is the most marked difference
between the friction of rest and that of motion. These experi-
ments distinctly point to the conclusion, although without
absolutely proving it, that in such cases the coefficient of kinetic
friction gradually increases as the velocity becomes extremely
small, and passes without discontinuity into that of static
friction. (A. B. W. K.; W. E. D.)
FRIDAY (A.S. frige-decf, fr. frige, gen. of frigu, love, or the
goddess of love the Norse Frigg, the dag, day; cf. Icelandic
frjddagr, O.H. Ger. friatag, frigatag, mod. Ger. Freilag),
the sixth day of the week, corresponding to the Roman Dies
Veneris, the French Vendredi and Italian Venerdi. The ill-luck
associated with the day undoubtedly arose from its connexion
with the Crucifixion; for the ancient Scandinavian peoples
regarded it as the luckiest day of the week. By the Western
and Eastern Churches the Fridays throughout the year, except
when Christmas falls on that day, have ever been observed as
days of fast in memory of the Passion. The special day on
which the Passion of Christ is annually commemorated is
known as Good Friday (?..). According to Mahommedan
tradition, Friday, which is the Moslem Sabbath, was the day on
which Adam was created, entered Paradise and was expelled,
and it was the day of his repentance, the day of bis death, and
will be the Day of Resurrection.
PRIED BERG, the name of two towns in Germany.
1. A small town in Upper Bavaria, with an old castle, known
mainly as the scene of Moreau's victory of the 24th of August
1796 over the Austrians.
2. FXIEDBEBG IN DEB WETTERAU, in the grand duchy of
Hesse-Darmstadt, on an eminence above the Usa, 14 m. N. of
Frankfort -on-Main, on the railway to Cassel and at the junction
of a line to Hanau. Pop. (1005) 7702. It is a picturesque
town, still surrounded by old walls and towers, and contains many
medieval buildings, of which the beautiful Gothic town church
(Evangelical) and the old castle are especially noteworthy.
The grand-ducal palace has a beautiful garden. The schools
include technical and agricultural academies and a teachers'
seminary. It has manufactures of sugar, gloves and leather,
and breweries. Friedberg is of Roman origin, but is first men-
tioned as a town in the i ith century. In 1211 it became a free
imperial city, but in 1349 was pledged to the counts of Schwarz-
burg, and subsequently often changed hands, eventually in
1802 passing to Hesse- Darmstadt.
See Dicffenbach, Geickickle der Sladl und Burg Friedberg (Darms.,
1857).
FRIEDEL, CHARLES (1832-1809), French chemist and miner-
alogist, was born at Strassburg on the I2th of March 1832.
After graduating at Strassburg University he spent a year in
the counting-house of his father, a banker and merchant, and
then in 1851 went to live in Paris with his maternal grandfather,
Georges Louis Duvernoy (1777-1855), professor of natural
history and, from 1850, of comparative anatomy, at the College
de France. In 1854 be entered C. A. Wurtz's laboratory, and
in 1856, at the instance of H. H. de Senarmont (1808-1862), was
appointed conservator of the mineralogical collections at the
Ecole des Mines. In 1871 be began to lecture in place of A. L.
O. L. Des Cloizeaux (1817-1897) at the Ecole Normalc, and in
1876 be became professor of mineralogy at the Sorbonne, but on
the death of YVurtz in 1884 he exchanged that position for
the chair of organic chemistry. He died at Montauban on the
20th of April 1809. Friedel achieved distinction both in miner-
alogy and organic chemistry. In the former he was one of the
leading workers, in collaboration from 1879 to 1887 with Emile
Edmond Sarasin (1843-1890), at the formation of minerals by
artificial means, particularly in the wet way with the aid of heat
and pressure, and he succeeded in reproducing a large number
of the natural compounds. In 1893, as the result of an attempt
to make diamond by the action of sulphur on highly carburetted
cast iron at 45O-5oo (> C. be obtained a black powder too small in
quantity to be analysed but hard enough to scratch corundum.
He also devoted much attention to the pyroelectric phenomena
of crystals, which served as the theme of one of the two memoirs
he presented for the degree of D.Sc. in 1869, and to the deter-
mination of crystallographic constants. In organic chemistry,
his study of the ketones and aldehydes, begun in 1857, provided
him with the subject of his other doctoral thesis. In 1862 he
prepared secondary propyl alcohol, and in 1863, with James
Mason Crafts (b. 1839), for many years a professor at the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, he obtained various
organometallic compounds of silicon. A few years later further
work, with Albert Ladenburg, on the same element yielded
silicochloroform and led to a demonstration of the close analogy
existing between the behaviour in combination of silicon and
carbon. In 1871, with R. D. da Silva (b: 1837) he synthesized
glycerin, starting from propylene. In 1877, with Crafts, he
made the first publication of the fruitful and widely used method
for synthesizing benzene homologues now generally known as
the " Friedel and Crafts reaction." It was based on an accidental
observation of the action of metallic aluminium on amyl chloride,
and consists in bringing together a hydrocarbon and an organic
chloride in presence of aluminium chloride, when the residues
of the two compounds unite to form a more complex body.
Friedel was associated with Wurtz in editing the latter's Diclion-
naire de chimie, and undertook the supervision of the supplements
issued after 1884. He was the chief founder of the Revue generate
de chimie in 1890. His publications include a Notice sur la vie
el les travaux de Wurtz (1885), Cours de chimie organique (1887)
and Cours de miner ologie (1893). He acted as president of the
International Congress held at Geneva in 1892 for revising the
nomenclature of the fatty acid series.
See a memorial lecture by J. M. Crafts, printed in the Journal of
the London Chemical Society for 1900.
FRIEDLAND, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 103 m. N.E. of
Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 6229. Besides the old town, which
is still surrounded by walls, it contains three suburbs. The
principal industry is the manufacture of woollen and linen cloth.
Friedland is chiefly remarkable for its old castle, which occupies
an imposing situation on a small hill commanding the town.
A round watch-tower is said to have been built on its site as
early as 1014; and the present castle dates from the I3th century.
It was several times besieged in the Thirty Years' and Seven
Years' Wars. In 1622 it was purchased by Wallenstein, who
took from it his title of duke of Friedland. After his death it
was given to Count Mathias Gallas by Ferdinand II., and since
1757 it has belonged to the Count Clam Gallas. It was magnifi-
cently restored in 1868-1869.
FRIEDLAND, the name of seven towns in Germany. The
most important now is that in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz, on the MUhlenteich, 35 m. N.E. of Strelitz by the
railway to Neu-Brandenburg. Pop. 7000. It possesses a fine
Gothic church and a gymnasium, and has manufactures of
woollen and linen cloth, leather and tobacco. Friedland was
founded in 1244 by the margraves John and Otto III. of
Brandenburg.
FRIEDLAND, a town of Prussia, on the Alle, 27 m. S.E. of
Kflnigsberg (pop. 3000), famous as the scene of the battle
fought between the French under Napoleon and the Russians
commanded by General Bennigscn, on the i4th of June 1807
(see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). The Russians had on the 131(1
driven the French cavalry outposts from Friedland to the west-
ward, and Bennigsen's main body began to occupy the town in
the night. The army of Napoleon was set in motion for Friedland,
but it was still dispersed on its various march routes, and the
2l6
FRIEDMANN FRIEDRICHRODA
first stage of the engagement was thus, as usual, a pure " en-
counter-battle." The corps of Marshal Lannes as " general
advanced guard " was first engaged, in the Sortlack Wood and
in front of Posthenen (2.30-3 A.M. on the I4th). Both sides now
used their cavalry freely to cover the formation of lines of battle,
and a race between the rival squadrons for the possession of
Heinrichsdorf resulted in favour of the French under Grouchy.
Lannes in the meantime was fighting hard to hold Bennigsen,
foi Napoleon feared that the Russians meant to evade him again.
Actually, by 6 A.M. Bennigsen had nearly 50,000 men across the
river and forming up west of Friedland. His infantry, in two
lines, with artillery, extended between the Heinrichsdorf-Friedland
road and the upper bends of the river. Beyond the right of the
infantry, cavalry and Cossacks extended the line to the wood
N.E. of Heinrichsdorf, and small bodies of Cossacks penetrated
even to Schwonau. The left wing also had some cavalry and,
beyond the Aile, batteries were brought into action to cover it.
A heavy and indecisive fire-fight raged in the Sortlack Wood
between the Russian skirmishers and some of Lannes's troops.
The head of Mortier's (French and Polish) corps appeared at
Scale, 1:100,000
English Miles
Emery Walker I
Heinrichsdorf and the Cossacks were driven out of Schwonau.
Lannes held his own, and by noon, when Napoleon arrived,
40,000 French troops were on the scene of action. His orders
were brief: Ney's corps was to take the line between Posthenen
and the Sortlack Wood, Lannes closing on his left, to form the
centre, Mortier at Heinrichsdorf the left wing. Victor and the
Guard were placed in reserve behind Posthenen. Cavalry
masses were collected at Heinrichsdorf. The main attack was
to be delivered against the Russian left, which Napoleon saw at
once to be cramped in the narrow tongue of land between the
river and the Posthenen mill-stream. Three cavalry divisions
were added to the general reserve. The course of the previous
operations had been such that both armies had still large de-
tachments out towards Konigsberg. The afternoon was spent by
the emperor in forming up the newly arrived masses, the deploy-
ment being covered by an artillery bombardment. At 5 o'clock
all was ready, and Ney, preceded by a heavy artillery fire,
rapidly carried the Sortlack Wood. The attack was pushed on
toward the Alle. One of Ney's divisions (Marchand) drove part
of the Russian left into the river at Sortlack. A furious charge
of cavalry against Marchand's left was repulsed by the dragoon
division of Latour-Maubourg. Soon the Russians were huddled
together in the bends of the Alle, an easy target for the guns of
Ney and of the reserve. Ney's attack indeed came eventually
to a standstill; Bennigsen's reserve cavalry charged with great
effect and drove him back in disorder. As at Eylau, the approach
of night seemed to preclude a decisive success, but in June and
on firm ground the old mobility of the French reasserted
its value. The infantry division of Dupont advanced rapidly
from Posthenen, the cavalry divisions drove back the Russian
squadrons into the now congested masses of foot on the river
bank, and finally the artillery general. Senarmont advanced a
mass of guns to case-shot range. It was the first example of
the terrible artillery preparations of modern warfare, and the
Russian defence collapsed in a few minutes. Ney's exhausted
infantry were able to pursue the broken regiments of Bennigsen's
left into the streets of Friedland. Lannes and Mortier had all
this time held the Russian centre and right on its ground, and
their artillery had inflicted severe losses. When Friedland itself
was seen to be on fire, the two marshals launched their infantry
attack. Fresh French troops approached the battlefield.
Dupont distinguished himself for the second time by fording
the mill-stream and assailing the left flank of the Russian centre.
This offered a stubborn resistance, but the French steadily
forced the line backwards, and the battle was soon over. The
losses incurred by the Russians in retreating over the river at
Friedland were very heavy, many soldiers being drowned.
Farther north the still unbroken troops of the right wing drew
off by the Allenburg road; the French cavalry of the left wing,
though ordered to pursue, remaining, for some reason, inactive.
The losses of the victors were reckoned at 12,100 out of 86,000,
,or 14%, those of the Russians at 10,000 out of 46,000, or 21%
(Berndt, Zahl im Kriege).
FRIEDMANN, MEIR (1831-1908), Hungarian Jewish scholar.
His editions of the Midrash are the standard texts. His chief
editions were the Sifre (1864), the Mekhilta (1870), Pesiqla
Rabbathi (1880). At the time of his death he was editing the
Sifra. Friedmann, while inspired with regard for tradition, dealt
with the Rabbinic texts on modern scientific methods, and ren-
dered conspicuous service to the critical investigation of the
Midrash and to the history of early homilies. (I. A.)
FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836- ), German theologian, was
born at Poxdorf in Upper Franconia on the 5th of May 1836,
and was educated at Bamberg and at Munich, where in 1865 he
was appointed professor extraordinary of theology. In 1869 he
went to the Vatican Council as secretary to Cardinal Hohenlohe,
and took an active part in opposing the dogma of papal infalli-
bility, notably by supplying the opposition bishops with histori-
cal and theological material. He left Rome before the council
closed. " No German ecclesiastic of his age appears to have won
for himself so unusual a repute as a theologian and to have held
so important a position, as the trusted counsellor of the leading
German cardinal at the Vatican Council. The path was fairly
open before him to the highest advancement in the Church of
Rome, yet he deliberately sacrificed all such hopes and placed
himself in the van of a ha rd and doubtful struggle" ( The Guardian,
1872, p. 1004). Sentence of excommunication was passed on
Friedrich in April 1871, but he refused to acknowledge it and
was upheld by the Bavarian government. He continued to
perform ecclesiastical functions and maintained his academic
position, becoming ordinary professor in 1872. In 1882 he was
transferred to the philosophical faculty as professor of history.
By this time he had to some extent withdrawn from the ad-
vanced position which he at first occupied in organizing the Old
Catholic Church, for he was not in agreement with its abolition
of enforced celibacy.
Friedrich was a prolific writer; among his chief works are:
Johann Wessd (1862); Die Lehre des Johann Hus (1862); Kirchen-
geschichte DeutsMands (1867-1869); Tagebuch wdhrend des Vatikan.
Concils gefiihrt (1871); Zur Verteidigung meines Tagebuchs (1872);
Beitrage zur Kirchengeschichte des iSten Jahrh. (1876); Geschichte des
Vatikan. Konzils (1877-1886); Beitrage zur Cesch. des Jesuilenordens
(1881); Das Papsttum (1892); 7. v. Dollinger (1899-1901).
FRIEDRICHRODA, a summer resort in the duchy of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, Germany, at the north foot of the Thuringian
Forest, 13 m. by rail S.W. from Gotha. Pop. 4500. It is sur-
rounded by fir-clad hills and possesses numerous handsome
FRIEDRICHSDORF FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
217
villa residences, a Kurkaia, sanatorium, &c. In the immediate
neighbourhood is the beautiful ducal hunting seat of Reinhards-
brunn, built out of the ruins of the famous Benedictine monastery
founded in 1085.
FRIEDRICHSDORF. a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau, on the southern slope of the Taunus
range, 3 m. N.E. from Homburg. Pop. 1300. It has a French
Reformed church, a modern school, dyeworks, weaving mills,
tanneries and tobacco manufactures. Friedrichsdorf was founded
in 1687 by Huguenot refugees and the inhabitants still speak
French. There is a monument to Philipp Reis (1834-1874),
who in 1860 first constructed the telephone while a science
master at the school.
FRIEDRICHSHAFEN. a town of Germany, in the kingdom
of Wurttemberg, on the east shore of the Lake of Constance, at
the junction of railways to Bretten and Lindau. Pop. 4600.
It consists of the former imperial town of Buchhorn and the
monastery and village of Hofen. The principal building is the
palace, formerly the residence of the provosts of Hofen, and
now the summer residence of the royal family. To the palace
is attached the Evangelical parish church. The town has a
hydropathic establishment and is a favourite tourist resort.
Here are also the natural history and antiquarian collections of
the Lake Constance Association. Buchhorn is mentioned (as
Buachihorn or Puchihorn) in documents of 837 and was the
seat of a powerful countship. The line of counts died out in
1089, and the place fell first to the Welfs and in 1191 to the
Hohenstaufen. In 1275 it was made a free imperial city by
King Rudolph I. In 1802 it lost this status and was assigned
to Bavaria, and in 1810 to WUrttemberg. The monastery of
Hofen was founded in 1050 as a convent of Benedictine nuns,
but was changed in 1420 into a provostship of monks. It was
suppressed in 1802 and in 1805 came to Wurttemberg. King
Frederick I., who caused the harbour to be made, amalgamated
Buchhorn and Hofen under the new name of Friedrichshafen.
FRIEDRICHSRUH, a village in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, 15 m. S.E. of Hamburg, with a station on
the main line of railway to Berlin. It gives its name to the
famous country seat of the Bismarck family. The house is a
plain unpretentious structure, but the park and estate, forming
a portion of the famous Sachsenwald, are attractive. Close by,
on a knoll, the Schneckenberg, stands the mausoleum in
which the remains of Prince Otto von Bismarck were entombed
on the i6th of March 1809.
FRIENDLY 1 SOCIETIES. These organizations, according to
the comprehensive definition of the Friendly Societies Act 1896,
which regulates such societies in Great Britain and Ireland,
are " societies for the purpose of providing by voluntary subscrip-
tions of the members thereof, with or without the aid of donations,
for the relief or maintenance of the members, their husbands,
wives, children, fathers, mothers, brothers or sisters, nephews
or nieces, or wards being orphans, during sickness or other
infirmity, whether bodily or mental, in old age, or in widowhood,
or for the relief or maintenance of the orphan children of members
during minority; for insuring money to be paid on the birth of
a member's child, or on the death of a member, or for the funeral
expenses of the husband, wife, or child of a member, or of the
widow of a deceased member, or, as respects persons of the
Jewish persuasion, for the payment of a sum of money during
the period of confined mourning; for the relief or maintenance
of the members when on travel in search of employment or when
in distressed circumstances, or in case of shipwreck, or loss
or damage of or to boats or nets; for the endowment of members
or nominees of members at any age; for the insurance against
fire to any amount not exceeding 15 of the tools or implements
of the trade or calling of the members " and are limited in
their contracts for assurance of annuities to 52 (previous to the
1 The word " friend " (O.E. freond, Ger. Freund, Dutch Vriend) is
derived from an old Teutonic verb meaning to love. While used
generally as the opposite to enemy, it is specially the term which
connotes any degree, but particularly a high degree of personal
goodwill, affection or regard, from which the element of sexual love
nabseni.
Friendly Societies Act 1908 the sum was 50), and for insurance
of a gross sum to 300 (previous to the act of 1908 the sum was
200). They may be described in a more popular and condensed
form of words as the mutual insurance societies of the poorer
classes, by which they seek to aid each other in the emergencies
arising from sickness and death and other causes of distress. A
phrase in the first act for the encouragement and relief of friendly
societies, passed in 1793, designating them "societies of good
fellowship," indicates another useful phase of their operations.
The origin of the friendly society is, probably in all countries,
the burial club. It has been the policy of every religion, if indeed
it is not a common instinct of humanity, to surround the disposal
of a dead body with circumstances of pomp and expenditure,
often beyond the means of the surviving relatives. The appeal
for help to friends and neighbours which necessarily follows is
soon organized into a system of mutual aid, that falls in naturally
with the religious ceremonies by which honour is done to the
dead. Thus in China there are burial societies, termed " long-life
loan companies," in almost all the towns and villages. Among
the Greeks the tpnvoi combined the religious with the provident
element (see CHARITY AND CHARITIES). From the Greeks the
Romans derived their fraternities of a similar kind. The Teutons
in like manner had their gilds. Whether the English friendly
society owes its origin in the higher degree to the Roman or the
Teutonic influence can hardly be determined. The utility of
providing by combination for the ritual expenditure upon burial
having been ascertained, the next step to render mutual assist-
ance in ciicumstances of distress generally was an easy one,
and we find it taken by the Greek tpavoi and by the English
gilds. Another modification that the societies should consist not
so much of neighbours as of persons having the same occupation
soon arises; and this is the germ of our trade unions and
our city companies in their original constitution. The interest,
however, that these inquiries possess is mainly antiquarian.
The legal definition of a friendly society quoted above points to
an organization more complex than those of the ancient fraterni-
ties and gilds, and proceeding upon different principles. It
may be that the one has grown out of the other. The common
element of a provision for a contingent event by a joint contribu-
tion is in both; but the friendly society alone has attempted
to define with precision what is the risk against which it intends
to provide, and what should be the contributions of the members
to meet that risk.
United Kingdom. It would be curious to endeavour to trace
how, after the suppression of the religious gilds in the i6th
century, and the substitution of an organized system of relief
by the poor law of Elizabeth for the more voluntary and casual
means of relief that previously existed, the modern system of
friendly societies grew up. The modern friendly society, particu-
larly in rural districts, clings with fondness to its annual feast
and procession to church, its procession of all the brethren on
the occasion of the funeral of one of them, and other incidents
which are almost obviously survivals of the customs of medieval
gilds. The last recorded gild was in existence in 1628, and there
are records of friendly societies as early as 1634 and 1639. The
connecting links, however, cannot be traced. With the exception
of a society in the port of Borrowstounness on the Firth of Forth,
no existing friendly society is known to be able to trace back its
history beyond a date late in the I7th century, and no records
remain of any that might have existed in the latter half of the
i6th century or the greater part of the lyth. One founded in
1666 was extant in 1850, but it has since ceased to exist. This
is not so surprising as it might appear. Documents which exist
in manuscript only are much less likely to have been preserved
since the invention of printing than they were before; and such
would be the simple rules and records of any society that might
have existed during this interval if, indeed, many of them
kept records at all. On the whole, it seems probable therefore
that the friendly society is a lineal descendant of the ancient
gild the idea never having wholly died out, but having been
kept up from generation to generation in a succession of small
and scattered societies.
218
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
At the same time, it seems probable that the friendly society
of the present day owes its revival to a great extent to the Protest-
ant refugees of Spitalfields, one of whose societies was founded
in 1703, and has continued among descendants of the same
families, whose names proclaim their Norman origin. This
society has distinguished itself by the intelligence with which it
has adapted its machinery to the successive modifications of the
law, and it completely reconstructed its rules under the provisions
of the Friendly Societies Acts 1875 and 1876.
Another is the society of Lintot, founded in London in 1708,
in which the office of secretary was for more than half a century
filled by persons of the name of Levesque, one of whom published
a translation of its original rules. No one was to be received into
the society who was not a member, or the descendant of a mem-
ber, of the church of Lintot, of recognized probity, a good Pro-
testant, and well-intentioned towards the queen [Anne] and
faithful to the government of the country. No one was to be
admitted below the age of eighteen, or who had not been received
at holy communion and become member of a church. A
member should not have a claim to relief during his first year's
membership, but if he fell sick within the year a collection should
be made for him among the members. The foreign names still
borne by a large proportion of the members show that the con-
nexion with descendants of the refugees is maintained.
The example of providence given by these societies was so
largely followed that Rose's Act in 1793 recognized the existence
of numerous societies, and provided encouragement for them in
various ways, as well as relief from taxation to an extent which
in those days must have been of great pecuniary value, and ex-
empticn from removal under the poor law. The benefits offered
by tnis statute were readily accepted by the societies, and the
vast number of societies which speedily became enrolled shows
that Rose's Act met with a real public want. In the county of
Middlesex alone nearly a thousand societies were enrolled within
a very few years after the passing of the act, and the number in
some other counties was almost as great. The societies then
formed were nearly all of a like kind small clubs, in which the
feature of good fellowship was in the ascendant, and that of
provident assurance for sickness and death merely accessory.
This is indicated by one provision which occurs in many of the
early enrolled rules, viz. that the number of members shall be
limited to 61, 81 or 101, as the case may be. The odd i which
occurs in these numbers probably stands for the president or
secretary, or is a contrivance to ensure a clear majority. Several
of these old societies are still in existence, and can point to a
prosperous career based rather upon good luck than upon
scientific calculation. Founded among small tradesmen or
persons in the way to thrive, the claims for sickness were only
made in cases where the sickness was accompanied by distress,
and even the funeral allowance was not always demanded.
The societies generally not being established upon any scientific
principle, those which met with this prosperity were the excep-
tion to the rule; and accordingly the cry that friendly societies
were failing in all quarters was as great in 1819 as in 1869. A
writer of that time speaks of the instability of friendly societies
as " universal "; and the general conviction that this was so
resulted in the passing of the act of 1819. It recites that " the
habitual reliance of poor persons upon parochial relief, rather
than upon their own industry, tends to the moral deterioration
of the people and to the accumulation of heavy burthens upon
parishes; and it is desirable, with a view as well to the reduction
of the assessment made for the relief of the poor as to the improve-
ment of the habits of the people, that encouragement should be
afforded to persons desirous of making provision for themselves
or their families out of the fruits of their own industry. By the
contributions of the savings of many persons to one common
fund the most effectual provision may be made for the casualties
affecting all the contributors; and it is therefore desirable to
afford further facilities and additional security to persons who
may be willing to unite in appropriating small sums from time
to time to a common fund for the purposes aforesaid, and it is
desirable to protect such persons from the effects of fraud or
miscalculation." This preamble went on to recite that the
provisions of preceding acts had been found insufficient for these
purposes, and great abuses had prevailed in many societies
established under their authority. By this statute a friendly
society was defined as " an institution, whereby it is intended
to provide, by contribution, on the principle of mutual insurance,
for the maintenance or assistance of the contributors thereto,
their wives or children, in sickness, infancy, advanced age,
widowhood or any other natural state or contingency, whereof
the occurrence is susceptible of calculation by way of average."
It will be seen that this act dealt exclusively with the scientific
aspect of the societies, and had nothing to say to the element
of good fellowship. Rules and tables were to be submitted by
the persons intending to form a society to the justices, who,
before confirming them, were to satisfy themselves that the con-
tingencies which the society was to provide against were within
the meaning of the act, and that the formation of the society
would be useful and beneficial, regard being had to the existence
of other societies in the same district. No tables or rules con-
nected with calculation were to be confirmed by the justices until
they had been approved by two persons at least, known to be
professional actuaries or persons skilled in calculation, as fit
and proper, according to the most correct calculation of which
the nature of the case would admit. The justices in quarter
sessions were also by this act authorized to publish general rules
for the formation and government of friendly societies within
their county. The practical effect of this statute in requiring that
the societies formed under it should be established on sound
principles does not appear to have been as great as might have
been expected. The justices frequently accepted as " persons
skilled in calculation " local schoolmasters and others who had
no real knowledge of the technical difficulties of the subject,
while the restrictions upon registry served only to increase the
number of societies established without becoming registered.
In 1829 the law relating to friendly societies was entirely re-
constructed by an act of that year, and a barrister was appointed
under that act to examine the rules of societies, and ascertain
that they were in conformity to -law and to the provisions of the
act. The barrister so appointed was John Tidd Pratt (1797-
1870); and no account of friendly societies would be complete
that did not do justice to the remarkable public service rendered
by this gentleman. For forty years, though he had by statute
really very slight authority over the societies, his name exercised
the widest influence, and the numerous reports and publications
by which he endeavoured to impress upon the public mind sound
principles of management of friendly societies, and to expose
those which were managed upon unsound principles, made him
a terror to evil-doers. On the other hand, he lent with readiness
the aid of his legal knowledge and great mental activity to assist-
ing well-intentioned societies in coming within the provisions
of the acts, and thus gave many excellent schemes a legal
organization.
By the act of 1829, in lieu of the discretion as to whether the
formation of the proposed society would be useful and beneficial,
and the requirement of the actuarial certificate to the tables, it was
enacted that the justices were to satisfy themselves that the
tables proposed to be used might be adopted with safety to all
parties concerned. This provision, of course, became a dead
letter and was repealed in 1834. Thenceforth, societies were
free to establish themselves upon what conditions and with what
rates they chose, provided only they satisfied the barrister that
the rules were " calculated to carry into effect the intention of the
parties framing them," and were " in conformity to law."
By an act of 1846 the barrister certifying the rules
was constituted " Registrar of Friendly Societies," and the
rules of all societies were brought together under his custody.
An actuarial certificate was to be obtained before any society
could be registered " for the purpose of securing any benefit
dependent on the laws of sickness and mortality." In 1850 the
acts were again repealed and consolidated with amendments.
Societies were divided into two classes, " certified " and
" registered." The certified societies were such as obtained a
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
219
certificate to their tables by an actuary possessing a given quali-
fication, who was required to set forth the data of sickness and
mortality upon which he proceeded, and the rate of interest
assumed in the calculations. All other societies were to be
simply registered. Very few societies were constituted of the
" certified " class. The distinction of classes was repealed and
the acts were again consolidated in 1855. Under this act, which
admitted of all possible latitude to the trainers of rules of societies,
11,875 societies were registered, a large number of them being
lodges or courts of affiliated orders, and the act continued in
force till the end of 1875.
The Friendly Societies Act 1875 and the several acts amending
it are still, in effect, the law by which these societies are regulated,
though in form they have been replaced by two consolidating
acts, viz. the Friendly Societies Act 1806 and the Collecting
Societies and Industrial Assurance Companies Act 1806. This
legislation still bears the permissive and elastic character which
marked the more successful of the previous acts, but it provides
ampler means to members of ascertaining and remedying defectsof
management and of restraining fraud. The business of registry is
under the control of a chief registrar, who has an assistant registrar
in each of the three countries, with an actuary. An appeal to the
chief registrar in the case of the refusal of an assistant registrar
to register a society or an amendment of rules, and in the case of
suspension or cancelling of registry, is interposed before appeal
b to be made to the High Court. Registry under a particular
name may be refused if in the opinion of the registrar the name
is likely to deceive the members or the public as to the nature
of the society or as to its identity. It is the duty of the chief
registrar, among other things, to require from every society a
return in proper form each year of its receipts and expenditure,
funds and effects; and also once every five years a valuation of
its assets and liabilities. Upon the application of a certain
proportion of the members, varying according to the magnitude
of the society, the chief registrar may appoint an inspector to
examine into its affairs, or may call a general meeting of the
members to consider and determine any matter affecting its
interests. These are powers which have been used with excellent
effect. Cases have occurred in which fraud has been detected
and punished by this means that could not probably have been
otherwise brought to light. In others a system of mismanagement
has been exposed and effectually checked. The power of calling
special meetings has enabled societies to remedy defects in their
rules, to remove officers guilty of misconduct, &c., where the
procedure prescribed by the rules was for some reason or other
inapplicable. Upon an application of a like proportion of mem-
bers the chief registrar may, if he finds that the funds of a society
are insufficient to meet the existing claims thereon, or that
the rates of contribution are insufficient to cover the benefits
assured (upon which he consults his actuary), order the society
to be dissolved, and direct how its funds are to be applied.
Authority is given to the chief registrar to direct the expense
(preliminary, incidental, &c.) of an inspection or special
meeting to be defrayed by the members or officers, or former
members or officers, of a society, if he does not think they
should be defrayed either by the applicants or out of the
society's funds. He is also empowered, with the approval of
the treasury, to exempt any friendly society from the provisions
of the Collecting Societies Act if he considers it to be one to
which those provisions ought not to apply. Every society regis-
tered after 1895, to which these provisions do apply, is to use the
words " Collecting Society " as the lost words of its name.
The law as to the membership of infants has been altered three
times. The act of 1875 allowed existing societies to continue
any rule or practice of admitting children as members that was
in force at its passing, and prohibited membership under sixteen
yean of age in any other case, except the case of a juvenile
society composed wholly of members under that age. The
treasury made special regulations for the registry of such juvenile
societies. In 1887 the maximum age of their members was
extended to twenty-one. In 1895 it was enacted that no society
should have any members under one year of age, whether
authorized by an existing rule or not; and that every society
should be entitled to make a rule admitting members at any age
over one year, but by the Friendly Societies Act 1008 member-
ship was permitted to minors under the age of one year. The
Treasury, upon the enactment of 1895 coming into operation,
rescinded its regulations for the registry of juvenile societies;
and though it is still the practice to submit for registry societies
wholly composed of persons under twenty-one, these societies
in no way differ from other societies, except in the circumstances
that they are obliged to seek officers and a committee of manage-
ment from outside, as no member of the committee of any society
can be under twenty-one years of age. In order to promote the
discontinuance of this anomalous proceeding of creating societies
under the Friendly Societies Act, which, by the conditions of
their existence, are unable to be self-governing, the act provides
an easy method of amalgamating juvenile societies and ordinary
societies or branches, or of distributing the members and the
funds of a juvenile society among a number of branches. The
liability of schoolboys and young working lads to sickness is
small, and these societies frequently accumulate funds, which,
as their membership is temporary, remain unclaimed and are
sometimes misapplied.
The legislation of 1*75 and 1876 was the result of the labours of
a royal commission of nigh authority, presided over by Sir Stafford
Northcote (afterwards Lord Iddesleigh), which sat from 1870101874,
and prosecuted an exhaustive inquiry into the organization and
condition of the various classes of friendly societies. Their reports
occupy more than a dozen large bluebooks. They divided registered
friendly societies into 13 classes.
The first class included the affiliated societies or " orders," such
as the Manchester Unity of Oddfellows, the Ancient Order of
Foresters, the Rechabites, Druids, &c. These societies have a
central body, either situated in some large town, as in the case of the
Manchester Unity, or moving from place to place, as in that of the
Foresters. Under this central body, the country is (in most cases)
parcelled out into districts, and these districts again consist each of
a number of independent branches, called " lodges," " courts,"
"tents," or "divisions," having a separate fund administered by
themselves, but contributing also to a fund under the control of
the central body. Besides these great orders, there were smaller
affiliated bodies, each having more than 1000 members; and the
affiliated form of society appears to have great attraction. Indeed,
in the colony of Victoria, Australia, all the existing friendly societies
are of this class. _ The orders have their " secrets," but these, it
may safely be said, are of a very innocent character, and merely
serve the purpose of identifying a member of a distant branch by his
knowledge of the "grip," and of the current password, &c. Indeed
they are now so far from being " secret societies " that their meetings
are attended by reporters and the debates published in the news-
papers, and the Order of Foresters has passed a wise resolution
expunging from its publications all affectation of mystery.
Most of the lodges existing before 1875 have converted themselves
into registered branches. The requirement that for that purpose a
vote of three-fourths should be necessary was altered in 1895 to a
bare majority vote. The provisions as to settlement of disputes were
extended in 1885 to every description of dispute between branches
and the central body, and in 1895 it was provided that the forty
days after which a member may apply to the court to settle a dispute
where the society fails to do so, shall not begin to run until application
has been made in succession to all the tribunals created by the order
for the purpose. In 1887 it was enacted that no body which had been
a registered branch should be registered as a separate society except
upon production of a certificate from the order 'that it had seceded
or been expelled; and in _ 1 895 it was further enacted that no such
body should, after secession or expulsion, use any name or number
implying that it is still a branch of the order. The orders generally,
especially the greater ones, have carefully supervised the valuations
of their branches, and have urged and, as far as circumstances have
rendered it practicable, have enforced upon the branches measures
for diminishing the deficiencies which the valuations have disclosed.
They have organized plans by which branches disposed to make an
effort to help themselves in this matter may be assisted out of a
central fund. The second class was made up of " general societies,"
principally existing in London, of which the commissioners enu-
merated 8 with nearly 60,000 members, and funds amounting to a
quarter of a million.
The third class included the " county societies." These societies
have been but feebly supported by those for whose benefit they are
instituted, having all exacted high rates of contribution, in order
to secure financial soundness.
Class 4, " local town societies," is a very numerous one. Among:
some of the larger societies may be mentioned the " Chelmsford
Provident," the " Brighton and Sussex Mutual," the " Cannon
Street, Birmingham," the " Birmingham General Provident." In
220
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
this group might also' be included the interesting societies which are
established among the Jewish community. They differ from ordinary
friendly societies partly in the nature of the benefits granted upon
death, which are intended to compensate for loss of employment
during the time of ceremonial seclusion enjoined by the Jewish law,
which is called " sitting shiva." They also provide a cab for the
mourners and rabbi, and a tombstone for the departed, and the
same benefits as an ordinary friendly society during sickness. Some
also provide a place of worship. Of these the " Pursuers of Peace "
(enrolled in December 1797), the " Bikhur Cholim, or Visitors
of the Sick " (April 1798), the " Hozier Holim " (1804), may be
mentioned.
Class 5 was " local village and country societies," including the
small public-house clubs which abound in the villages and rural
districts, a large proportion of which are unregistered.
Class 6 was formed of " particular trade societies."
Class 7 was " dividing societies." These were before 1875 un-
authorized by law, though they were very attractive to the members.
Their practice is usually to start afresh every January, paying a
subscription somewhat in excess of that usually charged by an
ordinary friendly society, out of which a sick allowance is granted
to any member who may fall sick during the year, and at Christmas
the balance not so applied is divided among the members equally,
with the exception of a small sum left to begin the new year with.
The mischief of the system is that, as there is no accumulation of
funds, the society cannot provide for prolonged sickness or old age,
and must either break up altogether or exclude its sick and aged
members at the very time when they most need its help. This,
however, has not impaired the popularity of the societies, and the
act of 1875, framed on the sound principle that the protection of
the law should not be withheld from any form of association, enables
a society to be registered with a rule for dividing its funds, provided
only that all existing claims upon the society are to be met before
a division takes place.
Class 8, " deposit friendly societies," combine the characteristics
of a savings bank with those of a friendly society. They were
devised by the Hon. and Rev. S. Best, on the principle that a certain
proportion of the sick allowance is to be raised out of a members
separate deposit account, which, if not so used, is retained for his
benefit. Their advantages are in the encouragement they offer to
saving, and in meeting the selfish objection sometimes raised to
friendly societies, that the man who is not sick gets nothing for his
money ; their disadvantage is in their failing to meet cases of sickness
so prolonged as to exhaust the whole of the member's own deposit.
Class 9, " collecting societies," are so called because their con-
tributions are received through a machinery of house-to-house
collection. These were the subject of much laborious investigation
and close attention on the part of the commissioners. They deal
with a lower class of the community, both with respect to means
and to intelligence, than that from which the members of ordinary
friendly societies are drawn. The large emoluments gained by the
officers and collectors, the high percentage of expenditure (often ex-
ceeding half the contributions), and the excessive frequency of
lapsing of insurances point to mischiefs in their management. " The
radical evil of the whole system (the commissioners remark) appears
to us to lie in the employment of collectors, otherwise than under
the direct supervision and control of the members, a supervision and
control which we fear to be absolutely unattainable in burial societies
that are not purely local." On the other hand, it must be conceded
that these societies extend the benefits of life insurance to a class
which the other societies cannot reach, namely, the class that will
not take the trouble to attend at an office, but must be induced to
effect an insurance by a house-to-house canvasser, and be regularly
visited by the collector to ensure their paying the contributions.
To many such persons these societies, despite all their errors of
constitution and management, have been of great benefit. The great
source of these errors lies in a tendency on the part of the managers
of the societies to forget that they are simply trustees, and to look
upon the concern as their own personal property to be managed for
their own benefit. These societies are of two kinds, local and general.
For the general societies the act of 1875 made certain stringent
provisions. Each member was to be furnished with a copy of the
rules for one penny, and a signed policy for the same charge. For-
feiture of benefit for non-payment is not to be enforced without
fourteen days' written notice. The transfer of a member from one
society to another was not to be made without his written consent
and notice to the society affected. No collector is to be a manager,
or vote or take part at any meeting. At least one general meeting
was to be held every year, of which notice must be given cither by
advertisement or by letter or post card to each member. The
balance-sheet is to be open for inspection seven days before the
meeting, and to be certified by a public accountant, not an officer of
the society. Disputes could be settled by justices, or county courts,
notwithstanding anything in the rules of the society to the contrary.
Closely associated with the question of the management of these
societies is that of the risk incurred by infant life, through the
facilities offered by these societies for making insurances on the
death of children. That this is a real risk is certain from the records
of the assizes, and from many circumstances of suspicion; but the
extent of it cannot be measured, and has probably been exaggerated.
It has never been lawful to assure more than 6 on the death of a
child under five years of age, or more than 10 on the death of one
under ten. Previous to the act of 1875, however, there was no
machinery for ascertaining that the law was complied with, or for
enforcing it. This is supplied by that act, though still somewhat
imperfectly. When the bill went up to the House of Lords, an
amendment was made, reducing the limit of assurance on a child
under three years of age to 3, but this amendment was unfortunately
disagreed with by the House of Commons.
Class 10, annuity societies, prevail in the west of England. These
societies are few, and their business is diminishing. Most of them
originated at the time when government subsidized friendly societies
by allowing them 4: II : 3 % per annum interest. Now annuities
may be purchased direct from the National Debt commissioners.
These societies are more numerous, however, in Ireland.
Class 1 1 , female societies, are numerous. Many of them resemble
affiliated orders at least in name, calling themselves Female Foresters,
Odd Sisters, Loyal Orangewomen, Comforting Sisters and so forth.
In their rules may be found such a provision as that a member shall
be fined who does not " behave as becometh an Orange woman. "
Many are unregistered. In the northern counties of England they are
sometimes termed " life boxes," doubtless from the old custom of
placing the contributions in a box. The trustees, treasurer, and
committee are usually females, but very frequently the secretary
is a man, paid a small salary.
Under Class. 12 the commissioners included the societies for
various purposeswhich were authorized by the secretary of state to
be registered under the Friendly Societies Act of 1855, comprising
working-men's clubs, and certain specially authorized societies,
as well as others that are now defined to be friendly societies. Among
these purposes are assisting members in search of employment;
assisting members during slack seasons of trade; granting temporary
relief to members in distressed circumstances; purchase of coals and
other necessaries to be supplied to members; relief or maintenance
in case of lameness, blindness, insanity, paralysis, or bodily hurt
through accidents; also, the assurance against loss by disease or
death of cattle employed in trade or agriculture; relief in case of
shipwreck or loss or damage to boats or nets; and societies for social
intercourse, mutual helpfulness, mental and moral improvement,
rational recreation, &c., called working-men's clubs.
Class 13 was composed of cattle insurance societies.
These are the thirteen -classes into which the commissioners
divided registered friendly societies. There were 26,034 societies
enrolled or certified under the various acts for friendly societies
in force between 1793 and 1855; and, as we have seen, 21,875
societies registered under the act of 1855 before the 1st January
1876, when the act of 1875 came into operation. The total there-
fore of societies to which a legal constitution had been given was
47i99- Of these 26,087 were presumed to be in existence when
the registrar called for his annual return, but only 11,282 furnished
the return required. These had 3,404,187 members, and 9,336,946
funds. Twenty-two societies returned over 10,000 members each;
nine over 30,000. One society (the Royal Liver Friendly Society,
Liverpool, the largest of the collecting societies) returned 682,371
members. The next in order was one of the same class, the United
Assurance Society, Liverpool, with 159,957 members; but in all
societies of this class the membership consists very largely of in-
fants. The average of members in the 11,260 societies with less
than 10,000 members each was only 171.
Such were the registered societies; but there remained behind a
large body of unregistered societies. With increased knowledge of
the advantages of registration, 1 and of the true principles upon
which friendly societies should be established, the number of un-
registered societies, in comparison with those registered, ought to
become much less.
On the actuarial side it is in the highest degree essential to the
interests of their members that friendly societies should be financially
sound, in other words, that they should throughout their existence
be able to meet the engagements into which they have entered with
their members. For this purpose it is necessary that the members'
contributions should be so fixed as to prove adequate, with proper
management, to provide the benefits promised to the members.
These benefits almost entirely depend upon the contingencies of
health and life ; that is, they take the form of payments to members
when sick, of payments to members upon attaining given ages, or
of payments upon members' deaths, and frequently a member is
1 These may be briefly summed up thus: (i) power to hold land
and vesting of property in trustees by mere appointment; (2) remedy
against misapplication of funds; (3) priority in bankruptcy or on
death of officer; (4) transfer of stock byjdirection of chief registrar;
(5) exemption from stamp duties; (6) membership of minors;
(7) certificates of birth and death at reduced cost; (8) investment
with National Debt Commissioners; (9) reduction of fines on admis-
sion to copyholds; (10) discharge of mortgages by mere receipt;
(11) obligation on officers to render accounts; (12) settlement of
disputes; (13) insurance of funeral expenses for wives and children
without insurable interest; (14) nomination at death; (15) payment
without administration; (16) services of public auditors and valuers;
(17) registry of documents, of which copies may be put in evidence.
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
221
I (or all these benefit*, yix. a weekly payment if at any time
lick before attaining a certain age, a weekly payment for the
remainder of life after attaining that age, and a sum to be paid upon
his death. Of course the object of the allowance in sickness is to
provide a substitute for the weekly wage lost in consequence of being
unable to work, and the object of the weekly payment after attaining
certain age, when the member will probably be too infirm to be
able to earn a living by the exercise of his calling or occupation, is
to provide him with the necessaries of life, and so enable him to
be independent of poor relief. There is every reason to believe that,
when a urge group of persons of the same age and calling are observed,
there will oelound to prevail among them, taken one with another,
an average number of days' sickness, as well as an average rate of
mortality, in passing through each year of life, which can be very
early predicted from the results furnished by statistics based upon
observations previously made upon similarly circumstanced groups.
Assuming, therefore, the necessary statistics to be attainable, the
computation of suitable rates of contribution to be paid by the
members of a society in return for certain allowances during sickness,
or upon attaining a certain age, or upon death, can be readily made
by an actuarial expert. Accordingly, to furnish these statistics, the
act of 1875, in continuation of an enactment which first appeared
in a statute passed in 1829, required every registered society to make
quinquennial returns of the sickness and mortality experienced by
its members. By the year 1880 ten periods of five years had been
completed, and at the end of each of them a number of returns had
been received. Some of these had been tabulated by actuaries, the
latest tabulation being of those for the five years ending 1855.
There remained untabulated five complete sets of returns Tor the
five subsequent quinquennial periods. It was resolved that these
should be tabulated once for all, and it was considered that they
would afford sufficient material for the construction of tables of
sickness and mortality that might be adopted for the future as
standard tables for friendly societies; and that it would be
inexpedient to impose any longer on the societies the burden of
making such returns. This requirement of the act was accordingly
repealed in 1882. The result of the tabulation appeared in 1896,
in a bluebook of 1367 folio pages, containing tables based upon the
n'ence of nearly four ana a half million years of life. These
* s . * ._ __
, showed generally, as compared with previous observations,
an increased liability to sickness. This inference has been confirmed
by the observations of Mr Alfred W. Watson, actuary to the Inde-
pendent Order of Oddfellows, Manchester Unity Friendly Society,
on his investigation of the sickness and mortality experience of that
society during the five years 1893-1897, which extended over
800,000 individuals, more than 3,000,000 years of life and 7,000,000
weeks of sickness.
The establishment of the National Conference of Friendly Societies
by the orders and a few other societies has been of great service in
obtaining improvements in the law, and in enabling the societies
strongly to represent to the government and the legislature any
grievance entertained by them. A complaint that membership of a
shop club was made by certain employers a condition of employment,
ana that the rules ol the club required the members to withdraw
from other societies, led to the appointment of a departmental
committee, who recommended that such a condition of employment
should be made illegal, except in certain cases, and that in every
cae it should be illegal to make the withdrawal from a society a
condition of employment. In 1902 an act was passed based upon
this recommendation.
It is an increasing practice among societies of combining together
to obtain medical attendance and medicine for their members by
the formation of medical associations. In 1895 trade unions were
enabled to join in such associations, and it was provided that a
contributing society or union should not withdraw from an associa-
tion except upon three months' notice. The working of these
associations has been viewed with dissatisfaction by mcnibers of the
medical profession, and it has been suggested that a board of con-
ciliation should be formed consisting of representatives of the
Conference of Friendly Societies and ofan equal number of medical
The following figures are derived from returns of registered
societies and branches of registered societies to the beginning of 1905 :
Number of
Returns.
Number of
Members.
Amount of
Funds.
Ordinary Friendly Societies (classes 2 to 8, 10 and 1 1).
Societies having Branches (class I )
6,938
20,819
3,132,065
2,606,029
17,042,398
23.446,330
Collecting Friendly Societies (class 9) .
Benevolent Societies (class 12)
45
7,448,549
7,862,569
Working Men's Club, (class 12) .
Specially Authorized Societies (class 12)
Specially Authorized Loan Societies (class 12)
93
122
5>7
236,298
75.089
H5.5II
318,945
628,759
771.578
Medical Societies (see last paragraph) .
Cattle Insurance Societies (class 13) .
95
57
324.M5
3.736
62,049
7,746
Shop Clubs (under act of 1902)
7
10.859
773
29,588
'3.978.790
50,459,060
British Empire. In many of the British colonies legislation
on the subject similar to that of the mother-country has been
adopted. In those forming the Commonwealth of Australia
and in New Zealand the affiliated orders hold the field, there
being few, if any, independent friendly societies. The state
of Victoria has more than 1000 lodges with more than 100,000
members and nearly i \ million pounds funds, averaging nearly
14 per member. Besides the registrar there is a government
actuary for friendly societies, by whom the liabilities and
accounts of all societies are valued every five years, a method
which ensures uniformity in the processes of valuation. The
friendly societies in the other Australasian states are not
so numerous nor so wealthy, but are in each case under the
supervision of vigilant public officials. In New Zealand a friendly
society was established at New Plymouth in 1841, the first year
of that settlement. The formation of a society at Nelson was
resolved upon by the emigrants on shipboard on their passage
out, and the first meeting was held among the tall fern near the
beach a few days after they landed. The societies have now a
registrar, an actuary, a revising barrister and two public valuers.
Investigations have been made into their sickness experience,
with results which compare favourably with those of the Man-
chester Unity and the registry office in the mother-country
until the higher ages, when greater sickness appears to result
from lower mortality. The average funds per member are
19,103. Nearly four-fifths are invested in the purchase or on
mortgage of real estate.
In Cape Colony no society is allowed to. register unless it be
shown to the satisfaction of the registrar that the contributions
which it proposes to charge are adequate to provide for the
benefits which it undertakes to grant. The consequence is that
little more than one-third of the existing societies are registered.
In the Dominion of Canada, province of Ontario, extensive
powers of control are given to the registrar, and societies are not
admitted to registry without strict proof of their compliance
with the conditions of registry imposed by the law. Very full
returns of their transactions are required and published, and
registry is cancelled when any of the conditions of registry
cease to be observed. These conditions apply not only to societies
existing in Ontario, but to foreign societies transacting business
there.
In several of the West Indian Islands statutes have been
passed on the model of British legislation and registrars have
been appointed.
European Countries. In foreign countries the development
of friendly societies has proceeded upon different lines. Belgium
has a Commission royale permanenle des socittts de secours muluel.
Under laws passed in 1851 and 1894 societies are divided into
two classes, recognized and not recognized. The recognized
societies were in 1886 only about half as many as the unrecog-
nized. There were in 1904 nearly 7000 recognized societies
with 700,000 members. They enjoy the privileges of incorpora :
tion, exemption from stamp duty, gratuitous announcement in
the official Moniteur and may have free postage.
In France under the second empire a scheme was prepared
for assisting friendly societies by granting them collective
insurances under government security. The societies have
the privilege of investing their funds in the Caisse des Depots
et Consignations, corresponding to the English National Debt
commission. The dual classification
of societies in France is into those
" authorized " and those " approved."
By a law of the ist of April 1898 a
friendly society may be established by
merely depositing a copy of its rules
and list of officers with the sousprefet.
Approved societies are entitled to
certain state subventions for assisting
in the purchase of old-age pensions and
otherwise. A higher council has been
established to advise on their working.
In Germany a law was passed on
222
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
the yth of April 1876 (amended on the ist of June 1884)
which prescribed for registered friendly societies many things
which in England are left to the discretion of their founders;
and it provided for an amount of official interference in their
management that is wholly unknown here. The superintend-
ing authority had a right to inspect the books of every
society, whether registered or not, and to give formal notice
to a society to call in arrears, exclude defaulters, pay benefits
or revoke illegal resolutions. A higher authority might, in
certain cases, order societies to be dissolved. These pro-
visions related to voluntary societies; but it was competent
for communal authorities also to order the formation of a friendly
society, and to make a regulation compelling all workmen not
already members of a society to join it. Since then the great
series of imperial statutes has been passed, commencing in 1883
with that for sickness insurance, followed in 1884 by that for
workmen's accident insurance, extended to sickness insurance
in 1885, developed in the laws relating to accident and sickness
insurance of persons engaged in agricultural and forestry pursuits
in 1886, of persons engaged in the building trade and of seamen
and others engaged in seafaring pursuits in 1887, and crowned
by the law relating to infirmity and old-age insurance in 1889.
Mr H. Unger, a distinguished actuary, remarks that the whole
German workman's insurance and its executive bodies (sickness
funds, trade associations, insurance institutions) are constantly
endeavouring to improve the position of the workmen in a social
and sanitary aspect, to the benefit of internal peace and the
welfare of the German empire.
In Holland it is stated that the number of burial clubs and
sickness benefit societies appears to be greater in proportion
to the population than in any other country; but that the burial
clubs do not rest upon a scientific basis, and have an unfavour-
able influence upon infant mortality. Half the population are
insured in some burial club or other. The sick benefit societies
are, as in England, some in a good and some in a bad financial
condition; and legislation follows the English system of com-
pulsory publicity, combined with freedom of competition.
In Spain friendly societies have grown out of the religious
gilds. They are regulated by an act of 1887. Their actuarial
condition appears to be backward, but to show indications of
improvement. (E. W. B.)
United States. Under the title of fraternal societies are
included in the United States what are known in England as
friendly societies, having some basis of mutual help to members,
mutual insurance associations and benefit associations of all
kinds. There are various classes and a great variety of forms
of fraternal associations. It is therefore difficult to give a concrete
historical statement of their origin and growth; but, dealing
with those having benefit features for the payment of certain
amounts in case of sickness, accident or death, it is found that
their history in the United States is practically within the last
half of the igth century. The more important of the older
organizations are the Improved Order of Red Men, founded in
1771 and reorganized in 1834; Ancient Order of Foresters,
1836; Ancient Order of Hibernians of America, 1836; United
Ancient Order of Druids, 1839; Independent Order of Recha-
bites, 1842; Independent Order of B'nai B'rith, founded in 1843;
Order of the United American Mechanics, 1845; Independent
Order of Free Sons of Israel, 1849; Junior Order of United
American Mechanics, 1853. A very large proportion, probably
more than one-half, of the societies which have secret organiza-
tions pay benefits in case of sickness, accident, disability, and
funeral expenses in case of death. This class of societies grew
out of the English friendly societies and have masonic character-
istics. The Freemasons and other secret societies, while not all
having benefit features in their distinctive organizations, have
auxiliary societies with such features. There is also a class of
secret societies, based largely on masonic usages, that have for
their principal object the payment of benefits in some form.
These are the Oddfellows, the Knights of Pythias, the Knights
of Honour, the Royal Arcanum and some others. Many trade
unions have now adopted benefit features, especially the Typo-
| graphical Union, while many subordinate unions and great
publishing houses have mutual relief associations purely of a local
character, and some of the more important newspapers have such
mutual relief or benefit societies. The New York trade unions,
taken as a whole, have paid out large sums of money in benefits
where members have been out of work, or are sick, or are on strike
or have died. The total paid in one year for all these benefits
was over $500,000.
It is impossible to give the membership of all the fraternal
associations in the United States; but, including Oddfellows,
Freemasons, purely benefit associations and all the class of the
larger fraternal organizations, the membership is over 6,000,000.
Among the more important, so far as membership is concerned,
are the Knights of Pythias, the Oddfellows, the Modern Wood-
men of America, the Ancient Order of United Workmen, Im-
proved Order of Red Men, Royal Arcanum, Knights of the
Maccabees, Junior Order of United American Mechanics,
Foresters of America, Independent Order of Foresters, &c.
These and other organizations pay out a vast amount of money
every year in the various forms.
Since about the year 1870 a new form of benefit organization has
come into existence. This is a life insurance based on the assessment
plan, assessments being levied whenever a member dies; ^ ssess .
or, as more recently, regular assessments being made in meat
advance of death, as post-mortem assessments have proved insurance.
a fallacious method of securing the means of paying
death benefits. There are about 200 mutual benefit insurance
companies or associations in the United States conducted on the
" lodge system "; that is to say, they have regular meetings for
social purposes and for general improvement, and in their work there
is found the mysticism, forms and ceremonies which belong to
secret societies generally. These elements have proved a very strong
force in keeping this class of associations fairly intact. The work "
of the lodges in the initiation of members and their passing through
various degrees is attractive to many people, and in small places,
remote from the amusements of the city, these lodges constitute
a resort where members can give play to their various talents. In
most of them the features of the Masonic ritual are prominent. The
amount of insurance which a single member can carry in such associa-
tions is small. In the Knights of Honour, one of the first of this
class, policies ranging from $500 to $2000 are granted. In the Royal
Arcanum the maximum is $3000. This form of insurance may be
called co-operative, and has many elements which make the organiza-
tions practising it stronger than the ordinary assessment insurance
companies having no stated meetings of members. These co-
operative insurance societies are organized on the federal plan as
the Knights of Honour, for instance having local assemblies, where
the lodge-room element is in force; state organizations, to which
the local bodies send delegates, and the national organization, which
conducts all the insurance business through its executive officers.
The local societies pay a certain given amount towards the support
of the state and national offices, and while originally they paid
death assessments, as called for, they now pay regular monthly
assessments, in order to avoid the weakness of the post-mortem
assessment. The difficulty which these organizations have in
conducting the insurance business is in keeping the average age of
membership at a low point, for with an increase in the average the
assessments increase, and many such organizations have had great
trouble to convince younger members that their assessments should
be increased to make up for the heavy losses among the older members.
The experience of these purely insurance associations has not been
sufficient yet to demonstrate their absolute soundness or desirability,
but they have enabled a large number of persons of limited means
to carry insurance at a very low rate. They have not materially
interfered with regular level premium insurance enterprises, for they
have stimulated the people to understand the benefits of insurance,
and have really been an educational force in this direction.
A modern method of benefit association is found in the railway
relief departments of some of the large railway corporations. These
departments are organized upon a different plan from the Railway
benefit features of labour organizations and secret societies, relief
providing the members not only with payments on account depart-
of death, but also with assistance of definite amounts in meats.
case of sickness or accident, the railway companies con-
tributing to the funds, partly from philanthropic and partly from
financial motives. The principal railway companies in the United
States which have established these relief departments are the
Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & Reading, the Baltimore &
Ohio, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, and the Plant System.
The relief department benefits the employes, the railways, and the
public, because it is based upon the sound principle that the
interests and welfare of labour, capital and society are common
and harmonious, and can be promoted more by co-operation of
effort than by antagonism and strife."
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
223
The railway employes support one-twentieth of the entire popula-
tion, and most ol their associations maintain organizations to provide
their members with relief and insurance. The Brotherhood of
Locomotive Engineers, the Order of Railway Conductors of America,
the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, the Brotherhood of
Railway Trainmen, the Brotherhood of Railway Trackmen, the
Switchmen's Union, the Brotherhood of Railway Carmen, and the
Order of Railway Telegraphers, all have relief and benefit features.
The oldest and Urgest of these is the International Brotherhood of
Locomotive Engineers, founded at Detroit in August 1863. Like
other labour organizations of the higher class of workmen, the
objects of the brotherhoods of railway employes are partly social
and partly educational, but in addition to these great purposes they
seek to protect their members through relief and benefit features.
Of course the relief departments of the railway companies are
competitors of the relief and insurance features of the railway
employes orders, but both methods of providing assistance have
proved successful and beneficial.
For a history of the various American organizations, see Albeit C.
Relief Departments," ' Brotherhood Relief and Insurance of
Railway Employes," " Mutual Relief and Benefit Associations
in the Printing Trade," " Benefit Features of American Trade
Unions," Bulletins No*. 8, 17, 19 and 33 of the U.S. Department
of Labour. (C. D. W.)
FRIENDS. SOCIETY OF, the name adopted by a body of
Christians, who, in law and general usage, are commonly called
QUAKERS. Though small in number, the Society occupies a
position of singular interest. To the student of ecclesiastical
history it is remarkable as exhibiting a form of Christianity
widely divergent from the prevalent types, being a religious
fellowship which has no formulated creed demanding definite
subscription, and no liturgy, priesthood or outward sacrament,
and which gives to women an equal place with men in church
organization. The student of English constitutional history
will observe the success with which Friends have, by the mere
force of passive resistance, obtained, from the legislature and the
courts, indulgence for all their scruples and a legal recognition
of their customs. In American history they occupy an
important place because of the very prominent part which
they played in the colonization of New Jersey and Penn-
sylvania.
The history of Quakerism in England may be divided into
three periods: (i) from the first preaching of George Fox in
1647 to the Toleration Act 1689; (2) from 1689 to the evangelical
movement in 1835; (3) from 1835 to the present time.
i. Period 1647-1689. George Fox (1624-1691), the son of a
weaver of Drayton-in-the-Clay (now called Fenny Drayton) in
Leicestershire, was the founder of the Society. He
began his public ministry in 1647, but there is no
evidence to show that he set out to form a separate
religious body. Impressed by the formalism and deadness of
contemporary Christianity (of which there is much evidence
in the confessions of the Puritan writers themselves) he empha-
sized the importance of repentance and personal striving after
the truth. When, however, his preaching attracted followers,
a community began to be formed, and traces of organization
and discipline may be noted in very early times. In 1652 a
number of people in Westmorland and north Lancashire who
bad separated from the common national worship, 1 came under
the influence of Fox, and it was this community (if it can be so
called) at Preston Patrick which formed the nucleus of the
Quaker church. For two years the movement spread rapidly
throughout the north of England, and in 1654 more than sixty
ministers went to Norwich, London, Bristol, the Midlands,
Wales and other parts. Fox and his fellow-preachers spoke
whenever opportunity offered, sometimes in churches(declining,
for the most part, to occupy the pulpit), sometimes in barns,
sometimes at market crosses. The insistence on an inward
spiritual experience was the great contribution made by Friends
'At the time referred to, and during the Commonwealth, the
points of the cathedrals and churches were occupied by Episcopalians
of the Richard Baxter type, Presbyterians, Independents and a few
Baptists. It is these, and not the clergy of the Church of England,
who are continually referred to by George Fox as " priests."
to the religious life of the time, and to thousands it came as a new
revelation. There is evidence to show that the arrangement
for this " publishing of Truth" rested mainly with Fox, and
that the expenses of it and of the foreign missions were borne
out of a common fund. Margaret Fell (1614-1702), wife of
Thomas Fell (1598-1658), vice-chancellor of the duchy of Lan-
caster, and afterwards of George Fox, opened her house, Swarth-
more Hall near Ulverston, to these preachers and probably
contributed largely to this fund.
Their insistence on the personal aspect of religious experience
made it impossible for Friends to countenance the setting apart
of any man or building for the purpose of divine worship to
the exclusion of all others. The operation of the Spirit was in
no way limited to time, or individual or place. The great stress
which they laid upon this aspect of Christian truth caused them
to be charged with unbelief in the current orthodox views as
to the inspiration of the Scriptures, and the person and work of
Christ, a charge which they always denied. Contrary to the
Puritan teaching of the time, they insisted on the possibility,
in this life, of complete victory over sin. Robert Barclay, writing
some twenty years later, admits of degrees of perfection, and the
possibility of a fall from it (Apology, Prop. viii.). Such teaching
necessarily brought Fox and his friends into conflict with all
the religious bodies of England, and they were continually
engaged in strife with the Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists,
Episcopalians and the wilder sectaries, such as the Ranters and
the Muggletonians. The strife was often conducted on both sides
with a zeal and bitterness of language which were character-
istic of the period. Although there was little or no stress laid
on either th joys or the terrors of a future life, the movement
was not infrequently accompanied by most of those physical
symptoms which usually go with vehement appeals to the
conscience and emotions of a rude multitude. It was owing to
these physical manifestations that the name " Quaker " was
either first given or was regarded as appropriate when given for
another reason (see Fox's Journal concerning Justice Bennet at
Derby in 1650 and Barclay's Apology, Prop, n, 8). The early
Friends definitely asserted that those who did not know quaking
and trembling were strangers to the experience of Moses, David
and other saints.
Some of the earliest adherents indulged in extravagances of
no measured kind. Some of them imitated the Hebrew prophets
in the performance of symbolic acts of denunciation, foretelling
or warning, going barefoot, or in sackcloth or undress, and, in a
few cases, for brief periods, altogether naked; even women in
some cases distinguished themselves by extravagance of conduct.
The case of James Nayler (i6i7?-i66o), who, in spite of Fox's
grave warning, allowed Messianic homage to be paid to him, is the
best known of these instances; they are to be explained partly
by mental disturbance, resulting from the undue prominence of
a single idea, and partly by the general religious excitement of
the time and the rudeness of manners prevailing in the classes of
society from which many of these individuals came. It must be
remembered that at this time, and for long after, there was no
definite or formal membership or system of admission to the
society, and it was open to any one by attending the meetings
to gain the reputation of being a Quaker.
The activity of the early Friends was not confined to England
or even to the British Isles. Fox and others travelled in America
and the West India Islands; another reached Jerusalem and
preached against the superstition of the monks; Mary Fisher
(fl. 1652-1697), " a religious maiden," visited Smyrna, the
Morea and the court of Mahommed IV. at Adrianople; Alex-
ander Parker (1628-1689) went to Africa; others made their
way to Rome; two women were imprisoned by the Inquisition
at Malta; two men passed into Austria and Hungary; and
William Penn, Geoige Fox and several others preached in
Holland and Germany.
It was only gradually that the Quaker community clothed
itself with an organization. The beginning of this appears to be
due to William Dewsbury (1621-1688) and George Fox; it was
not until 1666 that a complete system of church organization
224
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
was established. The introduction of an ordered system and
discipline was, naturally, viewed with some suspicion by people
taught to believe that the inward light of each individual man
was the only true guide for his conduct. The project met with
determined opposition for about twenty years (1675-1695)
from persons of considerable repute in the body. John Wilkinson
and John Story of Westmorland, together with William Rogers
of Bristol, raised a party against Fox concerning the management
of the affairs of the society, regarding with suspicion any fixed
arrangement for meetings for conducting church business, and
in fact hardly finding a place for such meetings at all. They
stood for the principle of Independency against the Presbyterian
form of church government which Fox had recently established
in the " Monthly Meetings " (see below). They opposed all
arrangement for the orderly distribution of travelling ministers
to different localities, and even for the payment of their expenses
(see above); they also strongly objected to any disciplinary
power being entrusted to the women's separate meetings for
business, which had become of considerable importance after
the Plague (1665) and the Fire of London (1666) in consequence
of the need for poor relief. They also claimed the right to meet
secretly for worship in time of persecution (see below). They
drew a considerable following away with them and set up a
rival organization, but before long a number returned to their
original leader. William Rogers set forth his views in The
Christian Quaker, 1680; the story of the dissension is told, to
some extent, in The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the
Commonwealth, by R. Barclay (not the " Apologist ") ; the best
account is given in a pamphlet entitled Micah's Mother by John
S. Rowntree.
Robert Barclay (q.v.), a descendant of an ancient Scottish
family, who had received a liberal education, principally in Paris,
at the Scots College, of which his uncle was rector, joined the
Quakers about 1666, and William Penn (q.v.) came to them about
two years later. The Quakers had always been active contro-
versialists, and a great body of ttects and papers was issued by
them; but hitherto these had been of small account from a
literary point of view. Now, however, a more logical and
scholarly aspect was given to their literature by the writings of
Barclay, especially his Apology for the True Christian Divinity
published in Latin (1676) and in English (1678), and by the
works of Penn, amongst which No Cross No Crown and the
Maxims or Fruits of Solitude are the best known.
During the whole time between their rise and the passing of
the Toleration Act 1689, the Quakers were the object of almost
continuous persecution which they endured with
extraordinary constancy and patience; they insisted
on the duty of meeting openly in time of persecu-
tion, declining to hold secret assemblies for worship as other
Nonconformists were doing. The number who died in prison
approached 400, and at least 100 more perished from violence
and ill-usage. A petition to the first parliament of Charles II.
stated that 3179 had been imprisoned; the number rose to 4500
in 1662, the Fifth Monarchy outbreak, in which Friends were
in no way concerned, being largely responsible for this increase.
There is no evidence to show that they were in any way con-
nected with any of the plots of the Commonwealth or Restoration
periods. A petition to James II. in 1685 stated that 1460 were
then in prison. Under the Quaker Act of 1662 and the Con-
venticle Act of 1664 a number were transported out of England,
and under the last-named act and that of 1670 (the second
Conventicle Act) hundreds of households were despoiled of all
their goods. The penal laws under which Friends suffered may
be divided chronologically into those of the Commonwealth and
the Restoration periods. Under the former there were a few
charges of plotting against the government. Several imprison-
ments, including that of George Fox at Defby in 1650-1651, were
brought about under the Blasphemy Act of 1650, which inflicted
penalties on any one who asserted himself to be very God or equal
with God, a charge to which the Friends were peculiarly liable
owing to their doctrine of perfection. After a royalist insurrec-
tion in 1655, a proclamation was issued announcing that persons
suspected of Roman Catholicism would be required to take an
oath abjuring the papal authority and transubstantiation. The
Quakers, accused as they were of being Jesuits, and refusing to
take the oath, suffered under this proclamation and under the
more stringent act of 1656. A considerable number were flogged
under the Vagrancy Acts (39 Eliz. c. 4; 7 Jac. I. c. 4), which were
strained to cover the case of itinerant Quaker preachers. They
also came under the provisions of the acts of 1644, 1650 and 1656
directed against travelling on the Lord's day. The interruption
of preachers when celebrating divine service rendered the offender
liable to three months' imprisonment under a statute of the first
year of Mary, but Friends generally waited to speak till the
service was over. 1 The Lord's Day Act 1656 also enacted
penalties against any one disturbing the service, but apart from
statute many Friends were imprisoned for open contempt of
ministers and magistrates. At the Restoration 700 Friends,
imprisoned for contempt and some minor offences, were set at
liberty. After the Restoration there began a persecution of
Friends and other Nonconformists as such, notwithstanding the
king's Declaration of Breda which had proclaimed liberty for
tender consciences as long as no disturbance of the peace was
caused. Among the most common causes of imprisonment was
the practice adopted by judges and magistrates of tendering to
Friends (particularly when no other charge could be proved
against them) the Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance (5 Eliz.
c. i & 7 Jac. I. c. 6). The refusal in any circumstance to take
an oath led to much suffering. The Act 3 Jac. I. c. 4, passed
in consequence of the Gunpowder Plot, against Roman Catholics
for not attending church, was put in force against Friends, and
under it enormous fines were levied. The Quaker Act 1662
and the Conventicle Acts of 1664 and 1670, designed to enforce
attendance at church, and inflicting severe penalties on those
attending other religious gatherings, were responsible for the
most severe persecution of all. The act of 1670 gave to informers
a pecuniary interest (they were to have one-third of the fine
imposed) in hunting down Nonconformists who broke the law,
and this and other statutes were unduly strained to secure con-
victions. A somewhat similar act of 35 Eliz. c. i., enacting even
more severe penalties, had never been repealed, and was some-
times put in force against Friends. The Militia Act 1663 (14 Car.
II. c. 3), enacting fines against those who refused to find a man for
the militia, was occasionally put in force. The refusal to pay
tithes and other ecclesiastical demands led to continuous and
heavy distraints, under the various laws made in that behalf.
This state of things continued to some extent into the igth
century. For further information see " The Penal Laws affect-
ing Early Friends in England " (from which the foregoing sum-
mary is taken) by Wm. Chas. Braithwaite in The First Publishers
of Truth. On the isth of March 1672 Charles II. issued his
declaration suspending the penal laws in ecclesiastical matters,
and shortly afterwards, by pardon under the great seal, he
released nearly 500 Quakers from prison, remitted their fines and
released such of their estates as were forfeited by praemunire.
It is of interest to note that, although John Bunyan was bitterly
opposed to Quakers, his friends, on hearing of the petition
contemplated by them, requested them to insert his name on the
list, and in this way he gained his freedom. The dissatisfaction
which this exercise of the royal prerogative aroused induced the
king, in the following year, to withdraw his proclamation, and,
notwithstanding appeals to him, the persecution continued
intermittently throughout his reign. On the accession of James
II. the Quakers addressed him (see above) with some hope on
account of his known friendship for William Penn, and the king
not long afterwards directed a stay of proceedings in all matters
pending in the exchequer against Quakers on the ground of non-
attendance at the national worship. In 1687 came his declaration
for liberty of conscience, and, after the Revolution of 1688, the
Toleration Act 1689 put an end to the persecution of Quakers
(along with other Dissenters) for non-attendance at church.
1 On the whole subject of preaching " after the priest had done,"
see Barclay's Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Common-
wealth, ch. xii.
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
225
For many years after this they were liable to imprisonment for
non-payment of tithes, and, together with other Dissenters,
they remained under various civil disabilities, the gradual removal
of which is part of the general history of England. In the years
succeeding the Toleration Act at least twelve of their number
were prosecuted (often more than once in the spiritual and other
courts) for keeping school without a bishop's licence. It is
coining to be recognized that the growth of religious toleration
owed much to the early Quakers who, with the exception of a
few Baptists at the first, stood almost alone among Dissenters in
holding their public meetings openly and regularly.
The Toleration Act was not the only law of William and Mary
which benefited Quakers. The legislature has continually had
regard to their refusal to take oaths, and not only the said
act but also another of the same reign, and numerous others,
subsequently passed, have respected the peculiar scruples of
Friends (see Davis 's Digest of Legislative Enactments relating
to Friends, Bristol, 1820).
j. Period 1689-1835. From the beginning of the i8th
century the zeal of the Quaker body abated. Although many
^^^ " General " and other meetings were held in different
OB***. P*rts of the country for the purpose of setting forth
Quakerism, the notion that the whole Christian church
would be absorbed in it, and that the Quakers were, in fact, the
church, gave place to the conception that they were " a peculiar
people " to whom, more than to others, had been given an under-
standing of the will of God. The Quakerism of this period was
largely of a traditional kind; it dwelt with increasing emphasis
on the peculiarities of its dress and language; it rested much
upon discipline, which developed and hardened into rigorous
forms; and the correction or exclusion of its members occupied
more attention than did the winning of converts.
. Excluded from political and municipal life by the laws which
required either the taking of an oath or joining in the Lord's
Supper according to the rites of the Established Church, exclud-
ing themselves not only from the frivolous pursuits of pleasure,
but from music and an in general, attaining no high average
level of literary culture (though producing some men of eminence
in science and medicine), the Quakers occupied themselves
mainly with trade, the business of their Society, and the calls of
philanthropy. From early times George Fox and many others
had taken a keen interest in education, and in 1779 there was
founded at Ackworth, near Pontefract, a school for boys and
girls; this was followed by the reconstitution, in 1808, of a
school at Sidcot in the Mendips, and in 181 1, of one in Islington
Road, London; it was afterwards removed to Croydon, and,
later, to Saffron Walden. Others have since been established
at York and in other parts of England and Ireland. None of
them are now reserved exclusively for the children of Friends.
During this period Quakerism was sketched from the outside
by two very different men. Voltaire (Dictionnaire Philosophique,
" Quaker," " Toleration ") described the body, which attracted
his curiosity, his sympathy and his sneers, with all his brilliance.
Thomas Garkson (Portraiture of Quakerism) has given an
elaborate and sympathetic account of the Quakers as he knew
them when be travelled amongst them from bouse to house on his
crusade against the slave trade.
3. From 1835. During the i8th century the doctrine of the
Inward Light acquired such exclusive prominence as to bring
about a tendency to disparage, or, at least, to neglect, the written
word (the Scriptures) as being " outward " and non-essential.
In the early part of the loth century an American Friend, Elias
Hicks, pressed this doctrine to its furthest limits, and, in doing so,
be laid stress on " Christ within " in such a way as practically
to take little account of the person and work of the " outward,"
i.e. the historic Christ. The result was a separation of the Society
in America into two divisions which persist to the present day
( below, " Quakerism in America "). This led to a counter
movement in England, known as the Beacon Controversy,
from the name of a warning publication issued by Isaac Crewdson
of Manchester in 1835, advocating views of a pronounced " evan-
gelical " type. Much controversy ensued, and a certain number
w 8
of Friends (Beaconites as they are sometimes called) departed
from the parent stock. They left behind them, however, many
influential members, who may be described as a middle party,
and who strove to give a more " evangelical " tone to Quaker
doctrine. Joseph John Gurney of Norwich, a brother of Eliza-
beth Fry, by means of his high social position and his various
writings (some published before 1835), was the most prominent
actor in this movement. Those who quitted the Society main-
tained, for some little time, a separate organization of their
own, but sooner or later most of them joined the Evangelical
Church or the Plymouth Brethren.
Other causes have been at work modifying the Quaker society.
The repeal of the Test Act, the admission of Quakers to Parlia-
ment in consequence of their being allowed to affirm instead of
taking the oath (1832, when Joseph Pease was elected for South
Durham), the establishment of the University of London, and,
more recently, the opening of the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge to Nonconformists, have all had their effect upon the
body. It has abandoned its peculiarities of dress and language,
as well as its hostility to music and art, and it has cultivated a
wider taste in literature. In fact, the number of men, either
Quakers or of Quaker origin and proclivities, who occupy
positions of influence in English life is large in proportion to
the small body with which they are connected. During the igth
century the interests of Friends became widened and they are
no longer a close community.
Doctrine. It is not easy to state with certainty the doctrines
of a body which (in England at least) has never demanded sub-
scription to any creed, and whose views have undoubtedly
undergone more or less definite changes. There is not now the
sharp distinction which formerly existed between Friends and
other non-sacerdotal evangelical bodies; these have, in theory
at least, largely accepted the spiritual message of Quakerism.
By their special insistence on the fact of immediate communion
between God and man, Friends have been led into those views
and practices which still mark them off from their fellow-
Christians.
Nearly all their distinctive views (e.g. their refusal to take
oaths, their testimony against war, their disuse of a professional
ministry, and their recognition of women's ministry) were being
put forward in England, by various individuals or sects, in the
strife which raged during the intense religious excitement of the
middle of the i7th century. Nevertheless, before the rise of the
Quakers, these views were nowhere found in conjunction as held
by any one set of people; still less were they regarded as the
outcome of any one central belief or principle. It is rather in
their emphasis on this thought of Divine communion, in their
insistence on its reasonable consequences (as it seems to them),
that Friends constitute a separate community. The appoint-
ment of one man to preach, to the exclusion of others, whether
he feels a divine call so to do or not, is regarded as a limitation
of the work of the Spirit and an undue concentration of that
responsibility which ought to be shared by a wider circle. For
the same reason they refuse to occupy the time of worship with
an arranged programme of vocal service; they meet in silence,
desiring that the service of the meeting shall depend
on spiritual guidance. Thus it is left to any man or ^onhip.
woman to offer vocal prayer, to read the Scriptures,
or to utter such exhortation or teaching as may seem to be
called for. Of late years, in certain of their meetings on Sunday
evening, it has become customary for part of the time to be
occupied'with set addresses for the purpose of instructing the
members of the congregation, or of conveying the Quaker message
to others who may be present, all their meetings for worship
being freely open to the public. In a few meetings hymns are
occasionally sung, very rarely as part of any arrangement,
but almost always upon the request of some individual for a
particular hymn appropriate to the need of the congregation.
The periods of silence arc regarded as times of worship equally
with those occupied with vocal service, inasmuch as Friends
hold that robustness of spiritual life is best promoted by earnest
striving on the part of each one to know the will of God for
226
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
himself, and to be drawn into Christian fellowship with the
other worshippers. The points on which special stress is laid
are: (i) the share of responsibility resting on each individual,
whether called to vocal service or not, for the right spiritual
atmosphere of the Meeting, and for the welfare of the congrega-
tion; (2) the privilege which may be enjoyed by each worshipper
of waiting upon the Lord without relying on spoken words,
however helpful, or on other outward matters; (3) freedom
for ach individual (whether a Friend or not) to speak, for the
help of others, such message as he or she may feel called to utter;
(4) a fresh sense of a divine call to deliver the message on that
particular occasion, whether previous thought has been given
to it or not. The idea which ought to underlie a Friends' meeting
is thus set forth by Robert Barclay: " When I came into the
silent assemblies of God's people, I felt a secret power among
them, which touched my heart, and as I gave way unto it, I
found the evil weakening in me and the good raised up " (Apology,
xi. 7). In many places Friends have felt the need of bringing
spiritual help to those who are unable to profit by the somewhat
severe discipline of their ordinary manner of worship. To meet
this need they hold (chiefly on Sunday evenings) meetings which
are not professedly " Friends' meetings for worship," but which
are services conducted on lines similar to those of other religious
bodies, with, in some cases, a portion of time set apart for silent
worship, and freedom for any one of the congregation to utter
words of exhortation or prayer.
From the beginning Friends have not practised the outward
ordinances of Baptism and the Lord's Supper, even in a non-
sacerdotal spirit. They attach, however, supreme value to the
realities of which the observances are reminders or types on the
Baptism which is more than putting away the filth of the flesh,
and on the vital union with Christ which is behind any outward
ceremony. Their testimony is not primarily against these
outward observances; their disuse of them is due to a sense
of the danger of substituting the shadow for the reality. They
believe that an experience of more than 250 years gives ample
warrant for the belief that Christ did not command them as a
perpetual outward ordinance; on the contrary, they hold that
it was alien to His method to lay down minute, outward rules
for all time, but that He enunciated principles which His Church
should, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, apply to the
varying needs of the day. Their contention that every event of
life may be turned into a sacrament, a means of grace, is summed
up in the words of Stephen Grellet: " I very much doubt
whether, since the Lord by His grace brought me into the faith
of His dear Son, I have ever broken bread or drunk wine, even
in the ordinary course of life, without the remembrance of, and
some devout feeling regarding, the broken body and the blood-
shedding of my dear Lord and Saviour."
When the ministry of any man or woman has been found to
be helpful to the congregation, the Monthly Meeting (see below)
may, after solemn consideration, record the fact that
Ministers. , J ' . ... .
it believes the individual to have a divine call to the
ministry, and that it encourages him or her to be faithful to the
gift. Such ministers are said to be " acknowledged " or " re-
corded "; they are emphatically not appointed to preach, and
the fact of their acknowledgment is not regarded as conferring
any special status upon them. The various Monthly Meetings
appoint Elders, or some body of Friends, to give advice of
encouragement or restraint as may be needed, and, generally,
to take the ministry under their care.
With regard to the ministry of women, Friends hold that
there is no evidence that the gifts of prophecy and teaching are
Women con fi ne d to one sex. On the contrary, they see that a
manifest blessing has rested on women's preaching,
and they regard its almost universal prohibition as a relic of the
seclusion of women which was customary in the countries where
Christianity took its rise. The particular prohibition of Paul
(i Cor. xiv. 34, 35) they regard as due to the special circumstances
of time and place.
Friends have always held that war is contrary to the precepts
and spirit of the Gospel, believing that it springs from the lower
Theolog}.
impulses of human nature, and not from the seed of divine life
with its infinite capacity of response to the Spirit of God. Their
testimony is not based primarily on any objection to Wmf
the use of force in itself, or even on the fact that
war involves suffering and loss of life; their root objection is
based on the fact that war is both the outcome and the cause of
ambition, pride, greed, hatred and everything that is opposed to
the mind of Christ; and that no end to be attained can justify
the use of such means. While not unaware that with this, as
with all moral questions, there may be a certain borderland of
practical difficulty, Friends endeavour to bring all things to the
test of the Realities which, though not seen, are eternal, and
to hold up the ideal, set forth by George Fox, of living in the
virtue of that life and power which takes away the occasion of
war.
Friends have always held that the attempt to enforce truth-
speaking by means of an oath, in courts of law and elsewhere,
tends to create a double standard of truth. They find _ ,.
- i . i i. r * Oatns.
Scripture warrant for this belief in Matt. v. 33-37 and
James v. 12. Their testimony in this respect is the better under-
stood when we bear in mind the large amount of perjury in the
law courts, and profane swearing in general which prevailed
at the time when the Society took its rise. " People swear to
the end that they may speak truth; Christ would have men
speak truth to the end they might not swear " (W. Penn, A
Treatise of Oaths).
With regard to the fundamental doctrines of Christianity,
the belief of the Society of Friends does not essentially differ
from that of other Christian bodies. At the same time
their avoidance of exact definition embodied in a rigid
creed, together with their disuse of the outward ordinances of
Baptism and the Supper, has laid them open to considerable
misunderstanding. As will have been seen, they hold an exalted
view of the divinity and work of Christ as the Word become
flesh and the Saviour of the world; but they have always shrunk
from rigid Trinitarian definitions. They believe that the same
Spirit who gave forth the Scriptures still guides men to a right
understanding of them. "You profess the Holy Scriptures:
but what do you witness and experience? What interest have
you in them ? Can you set to your seal that they are true by
the work of the same spirit in you that gave them forth in the
holy ancients?" (William Penn, A Summons or Call to Chris-
tendom). At certain periods this doctrine, pushed to an extreme,
has led to a practical undervaluing of the Scriptures, but of late
times it has enabled Friends to face fearlessly the conclusions
of modern criticism, and has contributed to a largely increased
interest in Bible study. During the past few years a new move-
ment has been started in the shape of lecture schools, lasting for
longer or shorter periods, for the purpose of studying Biblical,
ecclesiastical and social subjects. In 1903 there was established
at Woodbrooke, an estate at Selly Oak on the outskirts of
Birmingham, a permanent settlement for men and women, for
the study of these questions on modern lines. The outward
beginning of this movement was the Manchester Conference of
1895, a turning-point in Quaker history. Speaking generally,
it may be noted that the Society includes various shades of
opinion, from that known as " evangelical," with a certain
hesitation in receiving modern thought, to the more " advanced "
position which finds greater freedom to consider and adopt new
suggestions of scientific, religious or other thinkers. The
differences, however, are seldom pressed, and rarely become acute.
Apart from points of doctrine which can be more or less definitely
stated (not always with unanimity) Quakerism is an atmosphere,
a manner of life, a method of approaching questions, a habit and
attitude of mind.
Quakerism in Scotland. Quakerism was preached in Scotland
very soon after its rise in England; but in the north and south
of Scotland there existed, independently of and before this
preaching, groups of persons who were dissatisfied with the
national form of worship and who met together in silence for
devotion. They naturally fell into this Society. In Aberdeen
the Quakers took considerable hold, and were there joined by
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
227
persons of influence and position, especially Alexander
Jaffray, sometime provost of Aberdeen, and Colonel David
Barclay of I'ry and his son Robert, the author of the Apology.
Much light has been thrown on the history of the Quakers in
Aberdeenshire by the discovery in 1826 at Ury of a MS. Diary
of Jaffray, since published with elucidations (and ed., London,
: -
Ireland The father of Quakerism in Ireland was William
Edmondson; his preaching began in 1653-1654. The History of
Ike Quakers in Ireland (from 1653 to 175*), by Wight and Rutty,
may be consulted. Dublin Yearly Meeting, constituted in 1670,
is independent of London Yearly Meeting (see below).
America. In July 1656 two women Quakers, Mary Fisher and
Ann Austin, arrived at Boston. Under the general law against
heresy their books were burnt by the hangman, they were
searched for signs of witchcraft, they were imprisoned for five
weeks and then sent away. During the same year eight others
were sent back to England.
In 1656, 1657 and 1658 laws were passed to prevent the intro-
duction of Quakers into Massachusetts, and it was enacted
that on the first conviction one ear should be cut off, on the
second the remaining ear, and that on the third conviction the
tongue should be bored with a hot iron. Fines were laid upon
all who entertained these people or were present at their meetings.
Thereupon the Quakers, who were perhaps not without the
obstinacy of which Marcus Aurelius complained in the early
Christians, rushed to Massachusetts as if invited, and the result
was that the general court of the colony banished them on pain of
death, and four of them, three men and one woman, wore hanged
for refusing to depart from the jurisdiction or for obstinately
returning within it. That the Quakers were, at times, irritating
cannot be denied: some of them appear to have publicly
mocked the institutions and the rulers of the colony and to have
interrupted public worship; and a few of their men and women
acted with the fanaticism and disorder which frequently charac-
terized the religious controversies of the time. The particulars
of the proceedings of Governor Endecott and the magistrates of
New England as given in Besse's Sufferings of the Quakers (see
below) are startling to read. On the Restoration of Charles II.
a memorial was presented to him by the Quakers in England
stating the persecutions which their fellow-members had under-
gone in New England. Even the careless Charles was moved
to issue an order to the colony which effectually stopped the
hanging of the Quakers for their religion, though it by no means
put an end to the persecution of the body in New England.
It is not wonderful that the Quakers, persecuted and oppressed
at home and in New England, should turn their eyes to the
unoccupied pans of America, and cherish the hope of founding,
amidst their woods, some refuge from oppression, and some
likeness of a city of God upon earth. As early as 1660 George
Fox was considering the question of buying land from the
Indians. In 1671-1673 he had visited the American plantations
from Carolina to Rhode Island and had preached alike to Indians
and to settlers; in 1674 a portion of New Jersey (q.t.) was sold
by Lord Berkeley to John Fenwicke in trust for Edward Byllynge.
Both these men were Quakers, and in 1675 Fenwicke with a large
company of his co-religionists crossed the Atlantic, sailed up
Delaware Bay, and landed at a fertile spot which he called
Salem. Byllynge, having become embarrassed in his circum-
stances, placed his interest in the land in the hands of Penn and
others as trustees for his creditors; they invited buyers, and
companies of Quakers in Yorkshire and London were amongst
the largest purchasers. In 1677-1678 five vessels with eight
hundred emigrants, chiefly Quakers, arrived in the colony (then
separated from the rest of New Jersey, under the name of West
New Jersey), and the town of Burlington was established. In
1677 the fundamental laws of West New Jersey were published,
and recognized in a most absolute form the principles of demo-
cratic equality and perfect freedom of conscience. Notwith-
standing certain troubles from claims of the governor of New
York and of the duke of York, the colony prospered, and in 1681
the first legislative assembly of the colony, consisting mainly of
Quakers, was held. They agreed to raise an annual sum of 200
for the expenses of their commonwealth; they assigned their gov-
ernor a salary of 20; they prohibited the sale of ardent spirits
to the Indians and imprisonment for debt. (Sec NEW JERSEY.)
But beyond question the most interesting event in connexion
with Quakerism in America is the foundation by William Pcnn
(q.t.) of the colony of Pennsylvania, where he hoped
to carry into effect the principles of his sect to found
and govern a colony without armies or military
power, to reduce the Indians by justice and kindness to civiliza-
tion and Christianity, to administer justice without oaths, and
to extend an equal toleration to all persons who professed a
belief in God. The history of this is part of the history of America
and of Pennsylvania (q.v.) in particular. The chief point of
interest in the history of Friends in America during the i8th
century is their effort to clear themselves of complicity in
slavery and the slave trade. As early as 1671 George Fox when
in Barbados counselled kind treatment of slaves and ultimate
liberation of them. William Penn provided for the freedom
of slaves after fourteen years' service. In 1688 the German
Friends of Germantown, Philadelphia, raised the first official
protest uttered by any religious body against slavery. In 1711
a law was passed in Pennsylvania prohibiting the importation
of slaves, but it was rejected by the Council in England. The
prominent anti-slavery workers were Ralph Sandiford, Benjamin
Lay, Anthony Benezet and John Woolman. 1 By the end of
the i8th century slavery was practically extinct among Friends,
and the Society as a whole laboured for its abolition, which came
about in 1865, the poet Whittier being one of the chief writers
and workers in the cause. From early times up to the present
day Friends have laboured for the welfare of the North American
Indians. The history of the ipth century is largely one of
division. Elias Hicks (?..), of Long Island, N.Y., propounded
doctrines inconsistent with the orthodox views concerning
Christ and the Scriptures, and a separation resulted in 1827-
1828 (see above). His followers are known as " Hicksites,"
a name not officially used by themselves, and only assented to
for purposes of description under some protest. They have
their own organization, being divided into seven yearly meetings
numbering about 20,000 members, but these meetings form no
part of the official organization which links London Yearly
Meeting with other bodies of Friends on the American continent.
This separation led to strong insistence on "evangelical "views
(in the usual sense of the term) concerning Christ.the Atonement,
imputed righteousness, the Scriptures, &c. This showed itself
in the Beaconite controversy in England (see above), and in a
further division in America. John Wilbur, a minister of New
England, headed a party of protest against the new evangelical-
ism, laying extreme stress on the " Inward Light "; the result
was a further separation of " Wilburites " or " the smaller
body," who, like the " Hicksites," have a separate independent
organization of their own. In 1907 they were divided into seven
yearly meetings (together with some smaller independent
bodies, the result of extreme emphasis laid on individualism),
with a membership of about 5000. Broadly speaking, the
" smaller body " is characterized by a rigid adherence to old
forms of dress and speech, to a disapproval of music and art,
and to an insistence on the " Inward Light " which, at times,
leaves but little room for the Scriptures or the historic Christ,
although with no definite or intended repudiation of them.
In 1908 the number of " orthodox " yearly meetings in America,
including one in Canada, was fifteen, with a total membership
of about 100,000. They have, for the most part, adopted, to a
greater or less degree, the " pastoral system," i.e. the appoint-
ment of one man or woman in each congregation to " conduct "
the meeting for worship and to carry on pastoral work. In most
cases the pastor receives a salary. A few of them demand from
their ministers definite subscription to a specific body of doctrine,
mostly of the ordinary " evangelical " type. In the matters of
1 Woolman ' Journal and Works are remarkable. He had a
vision of a political economy based not on selfishness but on love,
not on desire but on self-denial.
228
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
organization, disuse of the outward ordinances (this point is
subject to some slight exception, principally in Ohio) , and women's
ministry, they do not differ from English Friends. The yearly
meetings of Baltimore and Philadelphia have not adopted the
pastoral system; the latter contains a very strong conservative
element, and, contrary to the practice of London and the other
" orthodox " yearly meetings, it officially regards the meetings
of " the smaller body " (see above) as meetings of the Society
of Friends. In 1902 the " orthodox " yearly meetings in the
United States established a " Five Years' Meeting," a representa-
tive body meeting once every five years to consider matters
affecting the welfare of all, and to further such philanthropic
and religious work as may be undertaken in common, e.g.
matters concerning foreign missions, temperance and peace, and
the welfare of negroes and Indians. Two yearly meetings remain
outside the organization, that of Ohio on ultra-evangelical
grounds, while that of Philadelphia has not taken the matter into
consideration. Canada joined at the first, and having withdrawn,
again joined in 1907.
See James Bowden, History cf the Society of Friends in America
(1850-1854); Allan C. and Richard H. Thomas, The History of
Friends in America (4th edition, 1905); Isaac Sharpless, History of
Quaker Government in Pennsylvania (1898, 1890); R. P. Hallowell,
The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts (1887), and The Pioneer
Quakers (1887).
Organization and Discipline. The duty of watching over one
another for good was insisted on by the early Friends, and has
been embodied in a system of discipline. Its objects embrace
(a) admonition to those who fail in the payment of their just
debts, or otherwise walk contrary to the standard of Quaker
ethics, and the exclusion of obstinate or gross offenders from
the body, and, as incident to this, the hearing of appeals from
individuals or meetings considering themselves aggrieved;
(b) the care and maintenance of the poor and provision for the
Christian education of their children, for which purpose the
Society has established boarding schools in different parts of the
country; (c) the amicable settlement of "all differences about
outward things," either by the parties in controversy or by the
submission of the dispute to arbitration, and the restraint of all
proceedings at law between members except by leave; (d) the
" recording " of ministers (see above) ; (e) the cognizance of all
steps preceding marriage according to Quaker forms; (/) the
registration of births, deaths and marriages and the admission
of members; (g) the issuing of certificates or letters of approval
granted to ministers travelling away from their homes, or to
members removing from one meeting to another; and (h) the
management of the property belonging to the Society. The
meetings for business further concern themselves with arrange-
ments for spreading the Quaker doctrine, and for carrying out
various religious, philanthropic and social activities not neces-
sarily confined to the Society of Friends.
The present organization of the Quaker church is essentially
democratic ; every person born of Quaker parents is a member, and,
. together with those who have been admitted on their own
requesc, is entitled to take part in the business assemblies
! m ",~ of any meeting of which he or she is a member. The
Society is organized as a series of subordinated meetings
which recall to the mind the Presbyterian model. The " Preparative
Meeting " usually consists of a single congregation; next in order
comes the " Monthly Meeting," the executive body, usually embrac-
ing several Preparative Meetings called together, as its name indi-
cates, monthly (in some cases less often) ; then the " Quarterly
Meeting," embracing several Monthly Meetings; and lastly the
" Yearly Meeting," embracing the whole of Great Britain (but not
Ireland). After several yearly or " general " meetings had been held
in different places at irreguiar intervals as need arose, the first of an
uninterrupted series met in 1668. From that date until 1904 it was
held in London. In 1905 it met in Leeds, and in 1908 in Birmingham.
Its official title is " London Yearly Meeting." It is the legislative
body of Friends in Great Britain. It considers questions of policy,
and some of its sittings are conferences for the consideration of
reports on religious, philanthropic, educational and social work
which is carried on. Its sessions occupy a week in May of each year.
Representatives are sent from each inferior to each superior meeting,
but they have no precedence over others, and all Friends may
attend any meeting and take part in any of which they are members.
Formerly the system was double, the men and women meeting
separately for their own appointed business. Of late years the
meetings have been, for the most part, held jointly, with equal
liberty for all men and women to state their opinions, and to serve
on all committees and other appointments. The mode of conducting
these meetings is noteworthy. A secretary or " clerk," as he is
called, acts as chairman or president; there are no formal resolu-
tions; and there is no voting or applause. The clerk ascertains
what he considers to be the judgment of the assembly, and records
it in a minute. The permanent standing committee of the Society
is known as the " Meeting for Sufferings " (established in 1675),
which took its rise in the days when the persecution of many Friends
demanded the Christian care and material help of those who were
able to give it. It is composed of representatives- (men and women)
sent by the quarterly meetings, and of all recorded Ministers and
Elders. Its work is not confined to the interests of Friends; it is
sensitive to the call of oppression and distress (e.g. a famine) in all
parts of the world, it frequently raises large sums of money to
alleviate the same, and intervenes, often successfully, and mostly
without publicity, with those in authority who have the power to
bring about an amelioration.
The offices known to the Quaker body are: (l) that of minister
(the term " office " is not strictly applicable, see above as to " record-
ing ") ; (2) of elder, whose duty it is " to encourage and help young
ministers, and advise others as they, in the wisdom of God, see
occasion "; (3) of overseer, to whom is especially entrusted that
duty of Christian care for and interest in one another which Quakers
recognize as obligatory in all the members of a church. In most
Monthly Meetings the care of the poor is committed to the overseers.
These officers hold, from time to time, meetings separate from the
general assemblies of the members, but the special organization for
many years known as the Meeting of Ministers and Elders, recon-
stituted in 1876 as the Meeting on Ministry and Oversight, came to
an end in 19*06-1907.
This present form both of organization and of discipline has been
reached only by a process of development. As early as 1652-1654
there is evidence of some slight organization for dealing with
marriages, poor relief, " disorderly walkers," matters of arbitration,
&c. The Quarterly or " General " meetings of the different counties
seem to have been the first unions of separate congregations. In
1666 Fox established Monthly Meetings; in 1727 elders were first
appointed; in 1752 overseers were added; and in 1737 the right
of children of Quakers to be considered as members was fully
recognized. Concerning the i8th centmy in general, see above.
Of late years the stringency of the Quaker discipline has been
relaxed: the peculiarities of dress and language have been
abandoned; marriage with a non-member or between two non-
members is now possible at a Quaker meeting-house; and marriage
elsewhere has ceased to involve exclusion from the body. Above
all, many of its members have come to " the conviction, which is
not new, but old, that the virtues which can be rewarded and the
vices which can be punished by external discipline are not as a rule
the virtues and the vices that make or mar the soul " (Hatch,
Bampton Lectures, 81).
A genuine vein of philanthropy has always existed in the Quaker
body. In nothing has this been more conspicuous than in the
matter of slavery. George Fox and William Penn _.
laboured to secure the religious teaching of slaves. As .. '
early as 1676 the assembly of Barbados passed " An Act f ''
to prevent the people called Quakers from bringing
negroes to their meetings." On the attitude of Friends in America
to slavery, see the section " Quakerism in America " (above). In
1783 the first petition to the House of Commons for the abolition
of the slave trade and slavery went up from the Quakers; and in the
long agitation which ensued the Society took a prominent part.
In 1798 Joseph Lancaster, himself a Friend, opened his first school
for the education of the poor; and the cause of unsectarian religious
education found in the Quakers steady support. They also took an
active part in Sir Samuel Romilly's efforts to ameliorate the penal
code, in prison reform, with which the name of Elizabeth Fry (a
Friend) is especially connected, and in the efforts to ameliorate the
condition of lunatics in England (the Friends' Retreat at York,
founded in 1792, was the earliest example in England of kindly
treatment of the insane). It is noteworthy that Quaker efforts for
the education of the poor and philanthropy in general, though they
have always been Christian in character, have not been undertaken
primarily for the purpose of bringing proselytes within the body,
and have not done so to any great extent.
By means of the Adult Schools, Friends have been able to exercise
a religious influence beyond the borders of their own Society. The
movement began in Birmingham in 1845, in an attempt
to help the loungers at street corners; reading and
writing were the chief inducements offered. The schools
are unsectarian in character and mainly democratic in government :
the aim is to draw out what is best in men and to induce them to act
for the help of their fellows. Whilst the work is essentially religious
in character, a well-equipped school also caters for the social,
intellectual and physical parts of a man's nature. Bible teaching is
the central part of the school session : the lessons are mainly con-
cerned with life's practical problems. The spirit of brotherliness
which prevails is largely the secret of the success of the movement.
At the end of 1909 there were in connexion with the " National
Council of Adult-School Associations " 1818 " schools " for men with
Educa-
tion.
FRIES, E. M. FRIES, J. F.
a membership of about 113.789; and 402 for women with a member-
ship of about 27,000. The movement, which is no longer exclusively
under the control of Friends, is rapidly becoming one of the chief
means of bringing about a religious fellowship among a class which
the organized churches have largely failed to reach. The effect of
the work upon the Society itself may be summarized thus: some
addition to membership; the creation of a sphere of usefulness for
the younger and more active members; a general stirring of interest
in social questions.'
A strong interest in Sunday schools for children preceded the
Adult School movement. The earliest schools which are still
existing were formed at Bristol, for boys in 1810 and for girls in the
following year. Several isolated efforts were made earlier than this;
it is evident that there was a school at Lothersdale near Skipton
in 1800 " for the preservation of the youth of both sexes, and for
their instruction in useful learning"; and another at Nottingham.
Even earlier still were the Sunday and day schools in Rosscndalc,
Lancashire, dating from 1793. At the end of 1909 there were in
connexion with the Friends' First-Day School Association 240
schools with 2722 teachers and 25,215 scholars, very few of whom
were the children of Friends. Not included in these figures arc
classes for children of members and " attendcrs," which are usually
held before or during a portion of the time of the morning meeting
for worship; in these distinctjy denominational teaching is given.
Monthly organ, Teachers and Taught.
A " orovisional committee " of members of the Society of Friends
was formed in 1865 to deal with offers of service in foreign lands.
l^_^_ In 1868 this developed into the Friends' Foreign Mission
Association, which now undertakes Missionary work in
India (begun 1866), Madagascar (1867), Syria (1869),
China (1886), Ceylon (1896). In 1909 the number of missionanes
(including wives) was 113; organized churches, 194; members and
adherents, 21,085; schools, 135; pupils, 7042; hospitals and
dispensaries, 17; patients treated, 6865; subscriptions raised from
Friends in Great Britain and Ireland, 26,689, besides 3245 received
in the fields of work. Quarterly organ, Our Missions.
Statistics of Quakerism. At the close of 1909 there were 18,686
Quakers (the number includes children) in Great Britain; and
associates " and habitual " attenders " not in membership, 8586;
number of congregations regularly meeting, 390. Ireland mem-
bers. 2528; habitual attenders not in membership, 402.
The central offices and reference library of the Society of Friends
are situate at Devonshire House, Bishopsgatc Without, London.
Bibliography. The writings of the early Friends are very numer-
ous: the roost noteworthy are the Journals of George Fox and of
Thomas Ellwood, both autobiographies, the Apology and other
works of Robert Barclay, and the works of Penn and Penington.
Early in the 1 8th century William Sewel, a Dutch Quaker, wrote a
history of the Society and published an English translation; modern
(Ball) histories have been written by T. Edmund Harvey (The
Rise of the Quakers) and by Mrs Emmott (The Story of Quakerism).
Tkt Sufferings of the Quakers by Joseph Besse ( 1 753) gives a detailed
account of the persecution of the early Friends in England and
America. An excellent portraiture of early Quakerism is given in
William Tanner's Lectures on Friends in Bristol and Somersetshire.
Tts Book of Discipline in its successive printed editions from 1783
to 1906 contains the working rules of the organization, and also a
compilation of testimonies borne by the Society at different periods,
to important points of Christian truth, and often called forth by the
special circumstances of the time. The Inner Life of the Religious
Societies of the Commonwealth (London, 1876) by Robert Barclay,
a descendant of the Apologist, contains much curious information
about the Quakers. See also " Quaker " in the index to Masson's
Life of Muton. Joseph Smith's Descriptive Catalogue of Friends'
Books (London, 1867) gives the information which its title promises;
the same author has also published a catalogue of works hostile to
Quakerism. For an exposition of Quakerism on its spiritual side
many of the poems by Whittier may be referred to, also Quaker
Strongholds and Light Arising by Caroline E. Stephen ; The Society of
Friends, its Faith and Practice, and other works by John Stephenson
Rowntree, A Dynamic Faith and other works by Rufus M. Jones;
Authority and the Light Within and other works by Edw. Grubb,
aad the series of " Swarthmore Lectures " as well as the histories
above mentioned. Much valuable information will be found in John
Stephenson Rovntree: His Life and Work (1908). The history of the
SBOoern forward movement may be studied in Essays and Addresses
by John Wilhelm Rowntree, ana in Present Day Papers edited by him.
The social life of the l8th century and the first naif of the igth is
portrayed in Records ol a Quaker Family, the Richardsons of Cleveland,
by Mrs Boyce, and The Dtaries of Edward Pease, the Father of English
rtairsmyi. edited by Sir A. E. Pease. Other works which may usefully
be consulted are the Journals of John Woolman, Stephen Grellct and
Elizabeth Fry; also The First Publishers of Truth, a reprint of con-
temporary accounts of the rise of Quakerism in various districts.
The periodicals issued (not officially) in connexion with the Quaker
body are The Friend (weekly). The British Friend (monthly). The
1 See A History of the Adult School Movement by J. W. Rowntree
and H. B. Binns. The organ of the movement is One and All,
pubfisbeH monthly. See also The Adult School Year Book.
22 9
Friends' Witness, The Friendly Messenger, The Friends' Fellowship
Papers, The Friends' Quarterly Examiner, Journal of the Friends'
Historical Society. Officially issued: The Book of Meetings and The
Friends' Year Book. See also works mentioned at the close of
sections on Adult Schools and on Quakerism in America, Scutl;in<l
and Ireland, and elsewhere in this article; also Fox, GEORGE.
(A. N. B.)
FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS (1794-1878), Swedish botanist,
was born at Femsjtt, Smaland, on the 151)1 of August 1794.
From his father, the pastor of the church at Femsjo, he early
acquired an extensive knowledge of flowering plants. In 1811
he entered the university of Lund, where in 1814 he was elected
docent of botany and in 1824 professor. In 1834 he became
professor of practical economy at Upsala, and in 1844 and 1848
he represented the university of that city in the Rigsdag. On
the death of Gfiran Wahlenberg (1780-1851) he was appointed
professor of botany at Upsala, where he died on the 8th of
February 1878. Fries was admitted a member of the Swedish
Royal Academy in 1847, and a foreign member of the Royal
Society of London in 1875.
As an author on the Cryptogamia he was in the first rank. He
wrote Novitiae florae Suecicae (1814 and 1823); Observationes
mycologicae (1815); Flora Hollandica (1817-1818); Systema myco-
logicum (1821-1829); Systema orbis vegetabilis, not completed
(1825); Elenchus fungorum (1828); Lichenographia Europaea
(1831); Epicrisis systematis mycologici (1838; 2nd ed., or Hymeno-
mycetes Europaei, 1874); Summa vegetabilium Scandinaviae [1846);
Sveriges dtliga och giftiga Svampar, with coloured plates (1860);
Monographia hymenomycelum Suecicae (1863), with the Icones
hymenomycetum, vol. i. (1867), and pt. i. vol. ii. (1877). - .
FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH ( 1 7 73-1 843) , German philosopher,
was born at Barby, Saxony, on the 23rd of August 1773. Having
studied theology in the academy of the Moravian brethren at
Niesky, and philosophy at Leipzig and Jena, he travelled for
some time, and in 1806 became professor of philosophy and
elementary mathematics at Heidelberg. Though the progress
of his psychological thought compelled him to abandon the
positive theology of the Moravians, he always retained an
appreciation of its spiritual or symbolic significance. His philo-
sophical position with regard to his contemporaries he had
already made clear in the critical work Reinhold, Fichte und
Schelling (1803; reprinted in 1824 as Polcmische Schriften),
and in the more systematic treatises System der Philosophic als
evidenle Wissenschaft (1804), Wissen, Glaube und Ahnung (1805,
new ed. 1005). His most important treatise, the Neue oder
anthropologische Kritik der Vernunft (znd ed., 1828-1831), was
an attempt to give a new foundation of psychological analysis
to the critical theory of Kant. In 1811 appeared his System
der Logik (ed. 1819 and 1837), a very instructive work, and in
1814 Julius und Evagoras, a philosophical romance. In 1816
he was invited to Jena to fill the chair of theoretical philosophy
(including mathematics and physics, and philosophy proper),
and entered upon a crusade against the prevailing Romanticism.
In politics he was a strong Liberal and Unionist, and did much
to inspire the organization of the Burschenschaft. In 1816 he
had published his views in a brochure, Vom deutschen Bund
und deutscher Staatsverfassung, dedicated to " the youth of
Germany," and his influence gave a powerful impetus to the
agitation which led in 1819 to the issue of the Carlsbad Decrees
by the representatives of the German governments. Karl Sand,
the murderer of Kotzebue, was one of his pupils; and a letter
of his, found on another student, warning the lad against par-
ticipation in secret societies, was twisted by the suspicious
authorities into evidence of his guilt. He was condemned by the
Mainz Commission; the grand-duke of Weimar was compelled
to deprive him of his professorship; and he was forbidden to
lecture on philosophy. The grand-duke, however, continued
to pay him his stipend, and in 1824 he was recalled to Jena
as professor of mathematics and physics, receiving permission
also to lecture on philosophy in his own rooms to a select number
of students. Finally, in 1838, the unrestricted right of lecturing
was restored to him. He died on the loth of August 1843.
The most important of the many works written during his Jena
professorate are the Handbuch der praktischen Philosophie (1817-
1832), the Handbuch der psychischen Anthropologie (1820-1821,
2nd ed. 1837-1839), Die mathematische Naturphilosophie (1822),
230
System der Metaphysik (1824), Die Geschichte der Philosophie (1837-
1840). Fries's point of view in philosophy may be described as a
modified Kantianism, an attempt to reconcile the criticism of Kant
and Jacobi's philosophy of belief. With Kant he regarded Kritik,
or the critical investigation of the faculty of knowledge, as the
essential preliminary to philosophy. But he differed from Kant
both as regards the foundation for this criticism and as regards the
metaphysical results yielded by it. Kant's analysis of knowledge
had disclosed the a priori element as the necessary complement of
the isolated a posteriori facts of experience. But it did not seem to
Fries that Kant had with sufficient accuracy examined the mode in
which we arrive at knowledge of this a priori element. According
to him we only know these a priori principles through inner or
psychical experience; they are not then to be regarded as tran-
scendental factors of all experience, but as the necessary, constant
elements discovered by us in our inner experience. Accordingly
Fries, like the Scotch school, places psychology or analysis of con-
sciousness at the foundation of philosophy, and called his criticism
of knowledge an anthropological critique. A second point in which
Fries differed from Kant is the view taken as to the relation between
immediate and mediate cognitions. According to Fries, the under-
standing is purely the faculty of proof; it is in itself void ; immediate
certitude is the only source of knowledge. Reason contains principles
which we cannot demonstrate, but which can be deduced, and are
the proper objects of belief. In this view of reason Fries approxi-
mates to Jacob! rather than to Kant. His most original idea is the
graduation of knowledge into knowing, belief and presentiment.
We know phenomena, how the existence of things appears to us in
nature; we believe in the true nature, the eternal essence of things
(the good, the true, the beautiful) ; by means of presentiment
(Ahnung) the intermediary between knowledge and belief, we
recognize the supra-sensible in the sensible, the being in the pheno-
menon.
See E. L. Henke, /. F. Fries (1867); C. Grapengiesser, /. F. Fries,
ein Gedenkblatt and Kant's " Kritik der Vernunft " und deren Fort-
bildung durch J. F. Fries (1882); H. Strasosky, J. F. Fries als
Kritiker der Kantischen Erkenntnistheorie (1891); articles in Ersch
and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopddie and Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie; J. E. Erdmann, Hist, of Philos. (Eng. trans., London,
1890), vol. ii. 305.
FRIES, JOHN (c. 1764-1825), American insurgent leader, was
born in Pennsylvania of " Dutch " (German) descent about
1764. As an itinerant auctioneer he became well acquainted
with the Germans in the S.E. part of Pennsylvania. In July
1798, during the troubles between the United States and France,
Congress levied a direct tax (on dwelling-houses, lands and
slaves) of $2,000,000, of which Pennsylvania was called upon to
contribute $237,000. There were very few slaves in the state,
and the tax was accordingly assessed upon dwelling-houses and
land, the value of the houses being determined by the number
and size of the windows. The inquisitorial nature of the pro-
ceedings aroused strong opposition among the Germans, and
many of them refused to pay. Fries, assuming leadership,
organized an armed band of about sixty men, who marched
about the country intimidating the assessors and encouraging
the people to resist. At last the governor called out the
militia (March 1799) and the leaders were arrested. Fries and
two others were twice tried for treason (the second time before
Samuel Chase) and were sentenced to be hanged, but they were
pardoned by President Adams in April 1800, and a general
amnesty was issued on 2ist May. The affair is variously known
as the Fries Rebellion," the Hot- Water Rebellion " because
hot water was used to drive assessors from houses , and the
" Home Tax Rebellion." Fries died in Philadelphia in 1825.
See T. Carpenter, Two Trials of John Fries . . . Taken in Short-
hand (Philadelphia, 1800) ; the second volume of McMaster's History
of the United States (New York, 1883) ; and W. W. H. Davis, The
Fries Rebellion (Doylestown, Pa., 1899).
FRIESLAND, or VRIESLAND, a province of Holland, bounded
S.W., W. and N. by the Zuider Zee and the North Sea, E. by
Groningen and Drente, and S.E. by Overysel. It also includes
the islands of Ameland and Schiermonnikoog (see FRISIAN
ISLANDS). Area, 1281 sq. m.; pop. (1900) 340,262. The soil
of Friesland falls naturally into three divisions consisting of
sea-clay in the north and north-west, of low-fen between the
south-west and north-east, and of a comparatively small area
of high-fen in the south-east. The clay and low-fen furnish a
luxuriant meadow-land for the principal industries of the province
cattle-rearing and cheese- and butter-making. Horse-breeding
has also been practised for centuries, and the breed of black
FRIES, J. FRIGATE
Frisian horse is well known. On the clay lands agriculture is
also extensively practised. In the high-fen district peat-digging
is the chief occupation. The effect of this industry, however,
is to lay bare a subsoil of diluvial sand which offers little induce-
ment for subsequent cultivation. Despite the general productive-
ness of the soil, however, the social condition of Friesland has
remained in a backward state and poverty is rife in many districts.
The ownership of property being largely in the hands of absentee
landlords, the peasantry have little interest in the land, the
profits from which go to enrich other provinces. Moreover,
the nature of the fertility of the meadow-lands is such as to
require little manual labour, and other industrial means of
subsistence have hardly yet come into existence. This state of
affairs has given rise to a social-democratic outcry on account
of which Friesland is sometimes regarded as the " Ireland of
Holland." The water system of the province comprises a few
small rivers (now largely canalized) in the high lands in the east,
and the vast network of canals, waterways and lakes of the whole
north and west. The principal lakes are Tjeuke Meer, Sloter
Meer, De Fluessen and Sneeker Meer. The tides being lowest
on the north coast of the province, the scheme of the Waterstaat,
the government department (dating from 1879), provides for
the largest removal of superfluous surface water into the Lau-
werszee. But owing to the long distance which the water must
travel from certain parts of the province, and the continual
recession of the Lauwerszee, the drainage problem is a peculiarly
difficult one, and floods are sometimes inevitable.
The population of the province is evenly distributed in small
villages. The principal market centres are Leeuwarden, the
chief towns, Sneek, Bolsward, Franeker (qq.v.), Dokkum (4053)
and Heerenveen (5011). With the exception of Franeker and
Heerenveen all these towns originally arose on the inlet of the
Middle Sea. The seaport towns are more or less decayed;
they include Stavoren (820), Hindeloopen (1030), Workum
(3428), Harlingen (q.v.) and Makkum (2456).
For history see FRISIANS.
FRIEZE, i. (Through the Fr. frise, and Ital. jregio, from
the Lat. Phrygium, sc. opus, Phrygian or embroidered work),
a term given in architecture to the central division of the en-
tablature of an order (see ORDER) , but also apph'ed to any oblong
horizontal feature, introduced for decorative purposes and
enriched with carving. The Doric frieze had a structural origin
as the triglyphs suggest vertical support. The Ionic frieze was
purely decorative and probably did not exist in the earliest
examples, if we may judge by the copies found in the Lycian
tombs carved in the rock. There is no frieze in the Caryatide
portico of the Erechtheum, but in the Ionic temples its introduc-
tion may have been necessitated in consequence of more height
being required in the entablature to carry the beams supporting
the lacunaria over the peristyle. In the frieze of the Erechtheum
the figures (about 2 ft. high) were carved in white marble and
affixed by clamps to a background of black Eleusinian marble.
The frieze of the Choragic monument of Lysicrates (10 in. high)
was carved with figures representing the story of Dionysus and
the pirates. The most remarkable frieze ever sculptured was
that on the outside of the wall of the cella of the Parthenon
representing the procession of the celebrants of the Panathenaic
Festival. It was 40 in. in height and 525 ft. long, being carried
round the whole building under the peristyle. Nearly the whole
of the western frieze exists in situ; of the remainder, about half
is in the British Museum, and as much as remains is either in
Athens or in other museums. In some of the Roman temples,
as in the temple of Antoninus and Faustina and the temple
of the Sun, the frieze is elaborately carved and in later work is
made convex, to which the term " pulvinated " is given.
2. (Probably connected with " frizz," to curl; there is no
historical reason to connect the word with Friesland), a thick,
rough woollen cloth, of very lasting quality, and with a heavy
nap, forming small tufts or curls. It is largely manufactured in
Ireland.
FRIOATE (Fr. frigate, Span, and Port, fragata; the etymology
of the word is obscure; it has been derived from the Late Lat.
FRIGATE-BIRD FRIIS
231
fabrieala, and the use of the Fr. Mlimtnt. for a vessel as well as a
building is compared; another suggestion derives the word from
the Or. &<t>paicrot, unfenced or unguarded), originally a small
swift, undecked vessel, propelled by oars or sails, in use on the
Mediterranean. The word is thus used of the large open boats,
without guns, used for war purposes by the Portuguese in the
East Indies during the i6th and i;th centuries. The Fiench
first applied the term to a particular type of ships of war during
the second quarter of the i8th century. The Seven Years'
War (1756-1763) marked the definite adoption of the " frigate "
as a standard class of vessel, coming next to ships of the line,
and used for cruising and scouting purposes. They were three-
masted, fully rigged, fast vessels, with the main armament
carried on a single deck, and additional guns on the poop and
forecastle. The number of guns varied from 24 to 50, but
between 30 and 40 guns was the usual amount carried. " Frigate"
continued to be used as the name for this type of ship, even
after the introduction of steam and of ironclad vessels, but the
class is now represented by that known as " cruiser."
FRIGATE-BIRD, the name commonly given by English
sailors, on account of the swiftness of its flight, its habit of
cruising about near other species and of daringly pursuing them,
to a large sea-bird 1 the Fregata aquila of most ornithologists
the Frrgatle of French and the Rabikorcado of Spanish mariners.
It was placed by Linnaeus in the genus Pelecanus, and its
assignment to the family Pelecanidae had hardly ever been
doubted till Professor St George Mivart declared (Trans. Zool.
Soc. x. p. 364) that, as regards the postcranial part of its axial
skeleton, he could not detect sufficiently good characters to
unite it with that family in the group named by Professor J. F.
Brandt Steganopodes. There seems to be no ground for disputing
this decision so far as separating the genus Fregata from the
PeUcanidae goes, but systematists will probably pause before
they proceed to abolish the Steganopodes, and the result will
most likely be that the frigate-birds will be considered to form
a distinct family (Fregatidae) in that group. In one very remark-
able way the osteology of Fregata differs from that of all other
birds known. The furcula coalesces firmly at its symphysis
with the carina of the sternum, and also with the coracoids at
the upper extremity of each of its rami, the anterior end of each
coracoid coalescing also with the proximal end of the scapula.
Thus the only articulations in the whole sternal apparatus are
where the coracoids meet the sternum, and the consequence is
a bony framework which would be perfectly rigid did not the
flexibility of the rami of the furcula permit a limited amount of
motion. That this mechanism is closely related to the faculty
which the bird possesses of soaring for a considerable time in the
air with scarcely a perceptible movement of the wings can
hardly be doubted.
Two species of Fregata are considered to exist, though they
differ in little but size and geographical distribution. The larger,
P. aquila, has a wide range all round the world within the tropics
and at times passes their limits. The smaller, F. minor, appears
to be confined to the eastern seas, from Madagascar to the
Moluccas, and southward to Australia, being particularly abun-
dant in Torres Strait, the other species, however, being found
there as well. Having a spread of wing equal to a swan's and
a very small body, the buoyancy of these birds is very great.
It is a beautiful sight to watch one or more of them floating
overhead against the deep blue sky, the long forked tail alternately
opening and shutting like a pair of scissors, and the head, which
is of course kept to windward, inclined from side to side, while
the wings are to all appearance fixedly extended, though the
breeze may be constantly varying in strength and direction.
Equally fine is the contrast afforded by these birds when engaged
in fishing, or, as seems more often to happen, in robbing other
birds, especially boobies, as they are fishing. Then the speed
of their flight is indeed seen to advantage, as well as the marvi-1-
" Man-of-war-bird " is also sometimes applied to it, and is
perhaps the older name; but it a less distinctive, some of the larger
Albatrona being so called, and, in books at least, has generally
~ 1 out of
lous suddenness with which they can change their rapid course
as their victim tries to escape from their attack. Before gales
frigate-birds are said often to fly low, and their appearance
near or over land, except at their breeding-time, is supposed to
portend a hurricane. 1 Generally seen singly or in pairs, except
when the prospect of prey induces them to congregate, they
breed in large companies, and O. Salvin has graphically described
(Ibis, 1864, p. 375) one of their settlements off the coast of
British Honduras, which he visited in May 1862. Here they
chose the highest mangrove-trees' on which to build their frail
nests, and seemed to prefer the leeward side. The single egg
laid in each nest has a white and chalky shell very like that of a
cormorant's. The nestlings are clothed in pure white down,
and so thickly as to resemble puff-balls. When fledged, the
beak, head, neck and belly are white, the legs and feet bluish-
white, but the body is dark above. The adult females retain the
white beneath, but the adult males lose it, and in both sexes at
maturity the upper plumage is of a very dark chocolate brown,
nearly black, with a bright metallic gloss, while the feet in the
females are pink, and black in the males the last also acquiring
a bright scarlet pouch, capable of inflation, and being perceptible
when on the wing. The habits of F. minor seem wholly to
resemble those of F. aquila. According to J. M. Bechstein, an
example of this last species was obtained at the mouth of the
Weser in January 1792. (A. N.)
FRIGG. the wife of the god Odin (Woden) in northern mytho-
logy. She was known also to other Teutonic peoples both on
the continent (O. H. Ger. Friia, Langobardic Frea) and in Eng-
land, where her name still survives in Friday (O.E. Frigedeeg).
She is often wrongly identified with Freyia. (See TEUTONIC
PEOPLES, ad fin.)
FRIGIDARIUH, the Latin term (from frigidus, cold) applied
to the open area of the Roman thermae, in which there was
generally a cold swimming bath, and sometimes to the bath
(see BATHS). From the description given by Aelius Spartianus
(A.D. 297) it would seem that portions of the frigidarium were
covered over by a ceiling formed of interlaced bars of gilt bronze,
and this statement has been to a certain extent substantiated
by the discovery of many tons of T-shaped iron found in the
excavations under the paving of the frigidarium of the thermae
of Caracalla. Dr J. H. Middleton in The Remains of Ancient
Rome (1892) points out that in the part of the enclosure walls
are deep sinkings to receive the ends of the great girders. He
suggests that the panels of the lattice-work ceiling were filled in
with concrete made of light pumice stone.
FRIIS, JOHAN (1494-1570), Danish statesman, was born in
1 494, and was educated at Odense and at Copenhagen, completing
his studies abroad. Few among the ancient Danish nobility
occupy so prominent a place in Danish history as Johan Friis,
who exercised a decisive influence in the government of the
realm during the reign of three kings. He was one of the first
of the magnates to adhere to the Reformation and its promoter
King Frederick. I. (1523-1333), his apostasy being so richly
rewarded out of the spoils of the plundered Church that his heirs
had to restore property of the value of 1,000,000 kroner. Friis
succeeded Claus Gjoodsen as imperial chancellor in 1532, and
held that dignity till his death. During the ensuing interregnum
he powerfully contributed, at the head of the nobles of Funen
and Jutland, to the election of Christian III. (1533-1559), but
in the course of the " Count's War " he was taken prisoner by
Count Christopher, the Catholic candidate for the throne, and
forced to do him homage. Subsequently by judicious bribery
he contrived to escape to Germany, and from thence rejoined
Christian III. He was one of the plenipotentiaries who concluded
peace with LUbeck at the congress of Hamburg, and subsequently
took an active part in the great work of national reconstruction
necessitated by the Reformation, acting as mediator between
the Danish and the German parties who were contesting for
* Hence another of the names " hurricane-bird " by which this
species is occasionally known.
1 Captain Taylor, however, found their nests as well on low bushes
of the same tree in the Bay of Fonseca (Ibis, 1859, pp. 150-152).
232
FRIMLEY FRISI
supremacy during the earlier years of Christian III. This he was
able to do, as a moderate Lutheran, whose calmness and common
sense contrasted advantageously with the unbridled violence
of his contemporaries. As the first chancellor of the recon-
structed university of Copenhagen, Friis took the keenest
interest in spiritual and scientific matters, and was the first donor
of a legacy to the institution. He also enjoyed the society of
learned men, especially of " those who could talk with him
concerning ancient monuments and their history." He encour-
aged Hans Svaning to complete Saxo's history of Denmark,
and Anders Vedel to translate Saxo into Danish. His generosity
to poor students was well known; but he could afford to be
liberal, as his share of spoliated Church property had made him
one of the wealthiest men in Denmark. Under King Frederick II.
(1559-1588), w ho understood but little of state affairs, Friis
was well-nigh omnipotent. He was largely responsible for the
Scandinavian Seven Years' War (1562-70), which did so much
to exacerbate the relations between Denmark and Sweden.
Friis died on the 5th of December 1570, a few days before the
peace of Stettin, which put an end to the exhausting and un-
necessary struggle.
FRIMLEY, an urban district in the Chertsey parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 33 m. W.S.W. from London by
the London & South- Western railway, and i m. N. of Farn-
borough in Hampshire. Pop. (1901) 8409. Its healthy climate,
its position in the sandy heath-district of the west of Surrey,
and its proximity to Aldershot Camp have contributed to its
growth as a residential township. To the east the moorland
rises in the picturesque elevation of Chobham Ridges; and
3 m. N.E. is Bagshot, another village growing into a residential
town, on the heath of the same name extending into Berkshire.
Bisley Camp, to which in 1890 the meetings of the National
Rifle Association were removed from Wimbledon, is 4 m. E.
Coniferous trees and rhododendrons are characteristic products
of the soil, and large nurseries are devoted, to their cultivation.
FRIMONT, JOHANN MARIA PHILIPP, COUNT or PALOTA,
PRINCE or ANTRODOCCO (1759-1831), Austrian general, entered
the Austrian cavalry as a trooper in 1776, won his commission
in the War of the Bavarian Succession, and took part in the
Turkish wars and in the early campaigns against the French
Revolutionary armies, in which he frequently earned distinction.
At Frankenthal in 1 796 he won the cross of Maria Theresa. In
the campaign of 1800 he distinguished himself greatly as a
cavalry leader at Marengo (i4th of June), and in the next year
became major-general. In the war of 1 805 he was again employed
in Italy and won further renown by his gallantry at the battle
of Caldiero. In 1809 he again saw active service in Italy in the
rank of lieutenant field marshal, and in 1812 led the cavalry of
Schwarzenberg's corps in the Russian campaign. He served in
the campaigns of 1813-14 in high command, and rendered
conspicuous service at Brienne-La Rothiere and at Arcis-sur-
Aube. In 1815 he was commander-in-chief of the Austrians in
Italy, and his army penetrated France as far as Lyons, which
was entered on the nth of July. With the army of occupation
he remained in France for some years, and in 1819 he commanded
at Venice. In 182 1 he led the Austrian army which was employed
against the Neapolitan rebels, and by the 24th of March he had
victoriously entered Naples. His reward from King Ferdinand
of Naples was the title of prince of Antrodocco and a handsome
sum of money, and from his own master the rank of general of
cavalry. After this he commanded in North Italy, and was
called upon to deal with many outbreaks of the Italian patriots.
He became president of the Aulic council in 1831, but died a few
months later.
FRISCHES HAFF, a lagoon on the Baltic coast of Germany,
within the provinces East and West Prussia, between Danzig
and Kdnigsberg. It is 52 m. in length, from 4 to 12 m. broad,
332 sq. m. in area, and is separated from the Baltic by a narrow
spit or bank of land. This barrier was torn open by a storm in
1510, and the channel thus formed, now dredged out to a depth
of 22 ft., affords a navigable passage for vessels. Into the Haff
flow the Nogat, the Elbing, the Passarge, the Pregel and the
Frisching, from the last of which the name Frisches Haff probably
arose.
FRISCHLIN, PHILIPP NIKODEMUS (1547-1590), German
philologist and poet, was born on the 22nd of September 1547
at Balingen in Wiirttemberg, where his father was parish
minister. He was educated at the university of Tubingen,
where in 1568 he was promoted to the chair of poetry and
history. In 1575 for his comedy of Rebecca, which he read at
Regensburg before the emperor Maximilian II., he was rewarded
with the laureateship, and in 1577 he was made a count palatine
(comes palatinus) or Pfalzgraf. In 1582 his unguarded language
and reckless life made it necessary that he should leave Tubingen,
and he accepted a mastership at Laibach in Carniola, which he
held for about two years. Shortly after his return to the univer-
sity in 1584, he was threatened with a criminal prosecution on a
charge of immoral conduct, and the threat led to his withdrawal
to Frankfort-on-Main in 1587. For eighteen months he taught
in the Brunswick gymnasium, and he appears also to have resided
occasionally at Strassburg, Marburg and Mainz. From the
last-named city he wrote certain libellous letters, which led to his
being arrested in March 1 590. He was imprisoned in the fortress
of Hohenurach, near Reutlingen, where, on the night of the 291(1
of November 1590, he was killed by a fall in attempting to let
himself down from the window of his cell.
Frischlin's prolific and versatile genius produced a great variety
of works, which entitle him to some rank both among poets and
among scholars. In his Latin verse he often successfully imitated
the classical models; his comedies are not without freshness and
vivacity; and some of his versions and commentaries, particularly
those on the Georgics and Bucolics of Virgil, though now well-nigh
forgotten, were important contributions to the scholarship of his
time. There is no collected edition of his works, but his Opera
poetica were published twelve times between 1535 and 1636. Among
those most widely known may be mentioned the Hebraeis (1590), a
Latin epic based on the Scripture history of the Jews ; the Elegiaca
(1601), his collected lyric poetry, in twenty-two books; the Opera
scenica (1604) consisting of six comedies and two tragedies (among
the former, Julius Caesar rediviyus, completed 1584); the Gram-
matica Latina (1585); the versions of Callimachus and Aristo-
phanes; and the commentaries on Persius and Virgil. See the
monograph of D. F. Strauss (Leben und Schriften des Dichters und
Philologen Frischlin, 1856).
FRISI, PAOLO (1728-1784), Italian mathematician and
astronomer, was born at Milan on the I3th of April 1728. He
was educated at the Barnabite monastery and afterwards at
Padua. When twenty-one years of age he composed a treatise
on the figure of the earth, and the reputation which he soon
acquired led to his appointment by the king of Sardinia to the
professorship of philosophy in the college of Casale. His friend-
ship with Radicati, a man of liberal opinions, occasioned Frisi's
removal by his clerical superiors to Novara, where he was com-
pelled to do duty as a preacher. In 1753 he was elected a corre-
sponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, and shortly
afterwards he became professor. of philosophy in the Barnabite
College of St Alexander at Milan. An acrimonious attack by a
young Jesuit, about this time, upon his dissertation on the
figure of the earth laid the foundation of his animosity against
the Jesuits, with whose enemies, including J. d'Alembert,
J. A. N. Condorcet and other Encyclopedists, he later closely
associated himself. In 1756 he was appointed by Leopold,
grand-duke of Tuscany, to the professorship of mathematics
in the university of Pisa, a post which he held for eight years.
In 1757 he became an associate of the Imperial Academy of
St Petersburg, and a foreign member of the Royal Society of
London, and in 1758 a member of the Academy of Berlin, in
1766 of that of Stockholm, and in 1770 of the Academies of
Copenhagen and of Bern. From several European crowned
heads he received, at various times, marks of special distinction,
and the empress Maria Theresa granted him a yearly pension ,
of 100 sequins (50). In 1764 he was created professor of
mathematics in the palatine schools at Milan, and obtained
from Pope Pius VI. release from ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and
authority to become a secular priest. In 1766 he visited France
and England, and in 1768 Vienna. In 1777 he became director
of a school of architecture at Milan. His knowledge of hydraulics
FRISIAN ISLANDS
233
I
caused him to be frequently consulted with respect to the manage-
ment of canals and other watercourses in various parts of Europe.
It was through his means that lightning-conductors were first
introduced into Italy for the protection of buildings. He died
on the 22nd of November 1784.
HIM publications include: Disqvisitio mathematics in cousam
pkywam fitunu ft magnitudinis Itrrot (Milan, 1751); Saggio deiia
muralt lUosoJtti (Lugano, 1753); Nota eiectricilatts theoria (Milan,
1755); Diisrrtatio de mot* diurno terra* (Pisa, 1758); Dissertaliones
mnti (3 voU. 410, Lucca, 1759, 1761): Del modo di regolare i fiumi
i larrtnti (Lucca, 1763); Cosmographia phvsica el mathematics
>. '774- '775- * vols - 4 to - nis cn ' l 'f wrt): "*"' architeUura,
statua r ijraulica (Milan, 1777) : and other treatise*.
See Verri, Utmorie . . del signer dom Paolo Frisi (Milan, 1787),
I to; Fabbroni. " Elogj d' illustri Italian!," Alti di Mtlano, vol. li. ;
. C. Poggendorff, Biograph. litterar. Handworterbuch, vol. i.
FRISIAN ISLANDS, a chain of islands, lying from 3 to 20 m.
from the mainland, and stretching from the Zuider Zee E. and
N. as far as Jutland, along the coasts of Holland and Germany.
They are divided into three groups: (i) The West Frisian, (a)
the East Frisian, and (3) the North Frisian.
The chain of the Frisian Islands marks the outer fringe of the
former continental coast-line, and is separated from the mainland
by shallows, known as Wadden or Watten, answering to the maria
*uiosa of the Romans. Notwithstanding the protection afforded
by sand-dunes and earthen embankments backed by stones
and timber, the Frisian Islands are slowly but surely crumbling
away under the persistent attacks of storm and flood, and the
old Frisian proverb " de nick vill diken mat wikcn " (" who will
not build dikes must go away ") still holds good. Many of the
Frisian legends and folk-songs deal with the submerged villages
and hamlets, which lie buried beneath the treacherous waters
of the Wadden. Heinrich Heine made use of these legends in his
Sordseebilder, composed during a visit to Norderney in 1825.
The Prussian and Dutch governments annually expend large
sums for the protection of the islands, and in some casesthe erosion
on the seaward side is counterbalanced by the accretion of land
on the inner side, fine sandy beaches being formed well suited
for sea-bathing, which attracts many visitors in summer. The
inhabitants of these islands support themselves by seafaring,
pilotage, grazing of cattle and sheep, fishing and a little agri-
culture, chiefly potato-growing.
The islands, though well lighted, are dangerous to navigation,
and a glance at a wreck chart will show the entire chain to be
densely dotted. One of the most remarkable disasters was the
loss of H.M.S. " La Lutine," 32 guns, which was wrecked off
Vlieland in October 1799, only one hand being saved, who
died before reaching England. " La Lutine," which had been
captured from the French by Admiral Duncan, was carrying
a large quantity of bullion and specie, which was underwritten
at Lloyd's. The Dutch government claimed the wreck and
granted one-third of the salvage to bullion-fishers. Occasional
recoveries were made of small quantities which led to repeated
disputes and discussions, until eventually the king of the Nether-
lands ceded to Great Britain, for Lloyd's, half the remainder
of the wreck. A putch salvage company, which began operations
in August 1857, recovered 09,803 in the course of two years,
but it was estimated that some 1,175,000 are still unaccounted
for. The ship's rudder, which was recovered in 1859, has been
fashioned into a chair and a table, now in the possession of
Lloyd's.
The West Frisian Islands belong to the kingdom of the Nether-
lands, and embrace Texel or Tessel (71 sq. m.), Vlieland (19 sq.
m.), Terschelling (41 sq- m.), Ameland (23 sq. m.),
Schiermonnikoog ( 1 9 sq. m.) , as well as the much smaller
islands of Boschplaat and Rottum, which are practi-
cally uninhabited. The northern end of Texel is called Eierland,
or " island of eggs," in reference to the large number of sea-birds'
eggs which are found there. It was joined to Texel by a sand-dike
in 1620-1630, and is now undistinguishable from the main island.
Texel was already separated from the mainland in the 8th century,
but remained a Frisian province and countship, which once
extended as far as Alkmaar in North Holland, until it came into
the possession of the counts of Holland. The island was occupied
by British troops from August to December 1799. The village
of Oude Schild has a harbour. The island of Terschelling once
formed a separate lordship, but was sold to the states of Holland.
The principal village of West-Terschelling has a harbour. As
early as the beginning of the gth century Ameland was a lordship
of the influential family of Cammingha who held immediately
of the emperor, and in recognition of their independence the
Amelanders were in 1369 declared to be neutral in the fighting
between Holland and Friesland, while Cromwell made the same
declaration in 1654 with respect to the war between England and
the United Netherlands. The castle of the Camminghas in the
village of Ballum remained standing till 1810, and finally dis-
appeared in 1829 after four centuries. This island is joined to
the mainland of Friesland by a stone dike constructed in 1873
for the purpose of promoting the deposit of mud. The island of
Schiermonnikoog has a village and a lighthouse. Rottum was
once the property of the ancient abbey at Rottum, 8 m. N.
of Groningen, of which there are slight remains.
With the exception of Wangeroog, which belongs to the grand
duchy of Oldenburg, the East Frisian Islands belong to Prussia.
They comprise Borkum (12$ sq. m.), with two light- ^^
houses and connected by steamer with Emden and Fri*i*o.
Leer; Memmert; Juist (2} sq. m.), with two lifeboat
stations, and connected by steamer with Norddeich and Greet-
siel; Norderney (si sq. m.); Baltrum, with a lifeboat station;
Langeoog (8 sq. m.), connected by steamer with the adjacent
islands, and with Bensersiel on the mainland; Spiekeroog
(4 sq. m.), with a tramway for conveyance to the bathing beach,
and connected by steamer with Carolinenziel; and Wangeroog
(2 sq. m.), with a lighthouse and lifeboat station. All these
islands are visited for sea-bathing. In the beginning of the
i8th century Wangeroog comprised eight times its present area.
Borkum and Juist are two surviving fragments of the original
island of Borkum (computed at 380 sq. m.), known to Drusus as
Fabaria, and to Pliny as Burchana, which was rent asunder by
the sea in 1 170. Neuwerk and Scharhorn, situated off the mouth
of the Elbe, are islands belonging to the state of Hamburg.
Neuwerk, containing some marshland protected by dikes, has two
lighthouses and a lifeboat station. At low water it can be reached
from Duhnen by carriage.
About the year 1250 the area of the North Frisian Islands was
estimated at 1065 sq. m.; by 1850 this had diminished to only
105 sq. m. This group embraces the islands of Nord-
strand (17! sq. m.), which up to 1634 formed one
larger island with the adjoining Pohnshallig and
Nordstrandisch-Moor; Pellworm (i6J sq. m.), protected by a
circle of dikes and connected by steamer with Husum on the
mainland; Amrum (loj sq. m.); Fohr (32 sq. m.); Sylt (38
sq. m.); Rom (16 sq. m.), with several villages, the principal of
which is Kirkeby; Fan6 (21 sq. m.); and Heligoland (J sq. m.).
With the exception of Fan9, which is Danish, all these islands
belong to Prussia. In the North Frisian group there are also
several smaller islands called Halligen . These rise generally only
a few feet above the level of the sea, and are .crowned by a single
house standing on an artificial mound and protected by a
surrounding dike or embankment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Staring, De Bodem van Nederland (1856);
Blink, Nederland en tijne Bewoners (1892); P. H. Witkamp,
Aardrijkskundig Woordenboek van Nederland (1895); P. W. J.
Teding van Berkhout, De Landaanwinning op de Frtesche Wadden
(1869); J. de Vries and T. Focken, Ostfriesland (1881); Dr D. F.
Buitenrust Hettema, Fryske Bybleteek (Utrecht, 1895); Dr Eugen
Traeger, Die Halligen der Nordsee (Stuttgart, 1892); also Clobus.
vol. Txxviii. (1900), No. 15; P. Axelsen, in Deut. Rundschau fur
Geoe. u. Slatistik (1808): Christian Jensen, Vom Dunenstrand der
Nordsee und vom Wattenmeer (Schleswig, 1901), which contains a
bibliography ; Osterloh, Wangeroog und sein Seebad (Emden, 1884);
Zwickertl Fuhrer durch das Nordseebad Wangeroog (Oldenburg,
1894)- Nellner, Die Nordseeinsel Spiekeroog (Emden, 1884);
Tongcrs, Die Nordseeinsel Langeoog (2nd ed., Norden, 1892); Meier,
Die Nordseeinsel Borkum (loth ed., Emden, 1894); Herquet, Die
Intel Borkum, &c. (Emden, 1886); Scherz, Die Nords,e t nselJuist
(2nd ed., Norden, 1893): von Bertouch, Vor 40 Jahren: Naturund
Kultur auf der Insel Nordstrand (Weimar, 1891); W. G. Black,
Heligoland and the Islands of the North Sea (Glasgow, 1888).
North
234
FRISIANS
FRISIANS (Lat. Frisii; in Med. Lat. Frisones, Frisiones,
Fresones; in their own tongue Fresa, Fresen), a people of
Teutonic (Low-German) stock, who in the first century of our
era were found by the Romans in occupation of the coast lands
stretching from the mouth of the Scheldt to that of the Ems.
They were nearly related both by speech and blood to the Saxons
and Angles, and other Low German tribes, who lived to the east
of the Ems and in Holstein and Schleswig. The first historical
notices of the Frisians are found in the Annals of Tacitus. They
were rendered (or a portion of them) tributary by Drusus, and
became socii of the Roman people. In A.D. 28 the exactions of
a Roman official drove them to revolt, and their subjection was
henceforth nominal. They submitted again to Cn. Domitius
Corbulo in the year 47, but shortly afterwards the emperor
Claudius ordered the withdrawal of all Roman troops to the left
bank of the Rhine. In 58 they attempted unsuccessfully to
appropriate certain districts between the Rhine and the Yssel,
and in 70 they took part in the campaign of Claudius Civilis.
From this time onwards' their name practically disappears. As
regards their geographical position Ptolemy states that they
inhabited the coast above the Bructeri as far as the Ems, while
Tacitus speaks of them as adjacent to the Rhine. But there is
some reason for believing that the part of Holland which lies to
the west of the Zuider Zee was at first inhabited by a different
people, the Canninefates, a sister tribe to the Batavi. A trace
of this people is perhaps preserved in the name Kennemerland
or Kinnehem, formerly applied to the same district. Possibly,
therefore, Tacitus's statement holds good only for the period
subsequent to the revolt of Civilis, when we hear of the Cannine-
fates for the last time.
In connexion with the movements of the migration period the
Frisians are hardly ever mentioned, though some of them are
said to have surrendered to the Roman prince Constantius about
the year 293. On the other hand we hear very frequently of
Saxons in the coast regions of the Netherlands. Since the Saxons
(Old Saxons) of later times were an inland people, one can
hardly help suspecting either that the two nations have been
confused or, what is more probable, that a considerable mixture
of population, whether by conquest or otherwise, had taken
place. Procopius (Goth. iv. 20) speaks of the Frisians as one of
the nations which inhabited Britain in his day, but we have no
evidence from other sources to bear out his statement. In
Anglo-Saxon poetry mention is frequently made of a Frisian
king named Finn, the son of Folcwalda, who came into conflict
with a certain Hnaef, a vassal of the Danish king Healfdene,
about the middle of the sth century. Hnaef was killed, but his
followers subsequently slew Finn in revenge. The incident is
obscure in many respects, but it is perhaps worth noting that
Hnaef's chief follower, Hengest, may quite possibly be identical
with the founder of the Kentish dynasty. About the year 520
the Frisians are said to have joined the Frankish prince Theod-
berht in destroying a piratical expedition which had sailed up
the Rhine under Chocilaicus (Hygelac), king of the Gotar.
Towards the close of the century they begin to figure much more
prominently in Frankish writings. There is no doubt that by
this time their territories had been greatly extended in both
directions. Probably some Frisians took part with the Angles
and Saxons in their sea-roving expeditions, and assisted their
neighbours in their invasions and subsequent conquest of England
and the Scottish lowlands.
The rise of the power of the Franks and the advance of their
dominion northwards brought on a collision with the Frisians, who
in the 7th century were still in possession of the whole of the sea-
coast, and apparently ruled over the greater part of modern
Flanders. Under the protection of the Frankish king Dagobert
(622-638), the Christian missionaries Amandus (St Amand)
and Eligius (St Eloi) attempted the conversion of these Flemish
Frisians, and their efforts were attended with a certain measure
of success; but farther north the building of a church by Dago-
bert at Trajectum (Utrecht) at once aroused the fierce hostility
of the heathen tribesmen of the Zuider Zee. The " free " Frisians
could not endure this Frankish outpost on their borders. Utrecht
was attacked and captured, and the church destroyed. The
first missionary to meet with any success among the Frisians was
the Englishman Wilfrid of York, who, being driven by a storm
upon the coast, was hospitably received by the king, Adgild or
AdgisI, and was allowed to preach Christianity in the land.
Adgild appears to have admitted the overlordship of the Frankish
king, Dagobert II. (675). Under his successor, however, Radbod
(Frisian Rdbad), an attempt was made to extirpate Chris-
tianity and to free the Frisians from the Frankish subjection.
He was, however, beaten by Pippin of Heristal in the battle of
Dorstadt (689), and was compelled to cede West Frisia (Frisia
citerior) from the Scheldt to the Zuider Zee to the conqueror. On
Pippin's death Radbod again attacked the Franks and advanced
as far as Cologne, where he defeated Charles Martel, Pippin's
natural son. Eventually, however, Charles prevailed and com-
pelled the Frisians to submit. Radbod died in 7 19, but for some
years his successors struggled against the Frankish power. A
final defeat was, however, inflicted upon them by Charles Martel
in 734, which secured the supremacy of the Franks in the north,
though it was not until the days of Charles the Great (785) that
the subjection of the Frisians was completed. Meanwhile
Christianity had been making its conquests in the land, mainly
through the lifelong labours and preaching of the Englishman
Willibrord, who came to Frisia in 692 and made Utrecht his
headquarters. He was consecrated (695) at Rome archbishop of
the Frisians, and on his return founded a number of bishoprics
in the northern Netherlands, and continued his labours un-
remittingly until his death in 739. It is an interesting fact that
both Wilfrid and Willibrord appear to have found no difficulty
from the first in preaching to the Frisians in their native dialect,
which was so nearly allied to their own Anglo-Saxon tongue.
The see of Utrecht founded by Willibrord has remained the chief
see of the Northern Netherlands from his day to our own. Fries-
land was likewise the scene of a portion of the missionary labours
of a greater than Willibrord, the famous Boniface, the Apostle
of the Germans, also an Englishman. It was at Dokkum in
Friesland that he met a martyr's death (754).
Charles the Great granted the Frisians important privileges
under a code known as the Lex Frisionum, based upon the
ancient laws of the country. They received the title of freemen
and were allowed to choose their own podestat or imperial
governor. In the Lex Frisionum three districts are clearly
distinguished: West Frisia from the Zwin to the Flie; Middle
Frisia from the Flie to the Lauwers; East Frisia from the
Lauwers to the Weser. At the partition treaty of Verdun (843)
Frisia became part of Lotharingia or Lorraine; at the treaty of
Mersen (870) it was divided between the kingdoms of the East
Franks (Austrasia) and the West Franks (Westrasia); in 880
the whole country was united to Austrasia; in 911 it fell under
the dominion of Charles the Simple, king of the West Franks,
but the districts of East Frisia asserted their independence and
for a long time governed themselves after a very simple demo-
cratic fashion. The history of West Frisia gradually loses itself
in that of the countship of Holland and the see of Utrecht (see
HOLLAND and UTRECHT) .
The influence of the Frisians during the interval between the
invasion of Britain and the loss of their independence must have
been greater than is generally recognized. They were a sea-
faring people and engaged largely in trade, especially perhaps
the slave trade, their chief emporium being Wyk te Duurstede.
During the period in question there is considerable archaeo-
logical evidence for intercourse between the west coast of Norway
and the regions south of the North Sea, and it is worth noting
that this seems to have come to an end early in the 9th century.
Probably it is no mere accident that the first appearance, or
rather reappearance, of Scandinavian pirates in the west took
place shortly after the overthrow of the Frisians. Since Radbod's
dominions extended from Duerstede to Heligoland his power
must have been by no means inconsiderable.
Besides the Frisians discussed above there is a people called
North Frisians, who inhabit the west coast of Schleswig. At
present a Frisian dialect is spoken only between Tondern and
FRITH, J.
Husum, but formerly it extended farther both to the north and
south. In historical times these North Frisians were subjects
of the Danish kingdom and not connected in any way with tin
Frisians of the empire. They are first mentioned by Saxo
Grammatkus in connexion with the exile of Knud V. Saxo
recognized that they were of Frisian origin, but did not know
when they had first settled in this region. Various opinions arc
still held with regard to the question; but it seems not unlikely
that the original settlers were Frisians who had been expelled
by the Franks in the 8th century. Whether the North Frisian
language is entirely of Frisian origin is somewhat doubtful owing
to the close relationship which Frisian bears to English. The in-
habitants of the neighbouring islands, Sylt, Amrum and Fohr,
who speak a kindred dialect, have apparently never regarded
themselves as Frisians, and it is the view of many scholars that
they are the direct descendants of the ancient Saxons.
In 1 148 William of Holland, having become emperor, restored
to the Frisians in his countship their ancient liberties in reward
for the assistance they had rendered him in the siege of Aachen;
but in 1254 they revolted, and William lost his life in the contest
which ensued. After many struggles West Friesland became
completely subdued, and was henceforth virtually absorbed in
the county of Holland. But the Frieslanders east of the Zuider
Zee obstinately resisted repeated attempts to bring them into
subjection. In the course of the i4th century the country was
in a state of anarchy; petty lordships sprang into existence, the
interests of the common weal were forgotten or disregarded, and
the people began to be split up into factions, and these were
continually carrying on petty warfare with one another. Thus
the Fetkoopers (Fatmongers) of Oostergoo had endless feuds
with the Schieringers (Eelfishers) of Westergoo.
This state of affairs favoured the attempts of the counts of
Holland to push their conquests eastward, but the main body of
the Frisians was still independent when the countship of Holland
puced into the hands of Philip the Good of Burgundy. Philip
laid claim to the whole country, but the people appealed to the
protection of the empire, and Frederick III., in August 1457,
recognized their direct dependence on the empire and called on
Philip to bring forward formal proof of his rights. Philip's
successor, Charles the Bold, summoned an assembly of notables
at Enkhuizcn in 1469, in order to secure their homage; but the
conference was without result, and the duke's attention was soon
absorbed by other and more important affairs. The marriage
of Maximilian of Austria with the heiress of Burgundy was to be
productive of a change in the fortunes of that part of Frisia
which lies between the Vlie and the Lauwers. In 1498 Maxi-
milian reversed the policy of his father Frederick III., and
detached this territory, known afterwards as the province of
Friesland, from the empire. He gave it as a fief to Albert of
Saxony, who thoroughly crushed out all resistance. In 1523 it
fell with all the rest of the provinces of the Netherlands under
the strong rule of the emperor Charles, the grandson of Maxi-
milian and Mary of Burgundy.
That part of Frisia which lies to the cast of the Lauwers had
a divided history. The portion which lies between the Lauwers
and the Ems after some struggles for independence had, like the
rest of the country, to submit itself to Charles. It became
ultimately the province of the town and district of Groningen
(Stadt en Landen) (see GRONINGEN). The easternmost part
between the Ems and the Weser, which had since 1454 been a
county, was ruled by the descendants of Edzard Cirksena, and
was attached to the empire. The last of the Cirksenas, Count
Charles Edward, died in 1744 and in default of heirs male the
king of Prussia took possession of the county.
The province of Friesland was one of the seven provinces
which by the treaty known as the Union of Utrecht bound
themselves together to resist the tyranny of Spain. From 1579
to 1795 Friesland remained one of the constituent parts of the
republic of the United Provinces, but it always jealously insisted
on its sovereign rights, especially against the encroachments of
the predominant province of Holland. It maintained throughout
the whole of the republican period a certain distinctiveness of
235
nationality, which was marked by the preservation of a different
dialect and of a separate stadtholder. Count William Lewis
of Nassau-Siegen, nephew and son-in-law of William the Silent,
was chosen stadtholder, and through all the vicissitudes of the
1 7th and i8th centuries the stadtholdership was held by one of
his descendants. Frederick Henry of Orange was stadtholder
of six provinces, but not of Friesland, and even during the stadt-
holderlcss periods which followed the deaths of William II. and
William III. of Orange the Frisians remained stanch to the
family of Nassau-Siegen. Finally, by the revolution of 1748,
William of Nassau-Siegen, stadtholder of Friesland (who, by
default of heirs male of the elder line, had become William IV.,
prince of Orange), was made hereditary stadtholder of all the
provinces. His grandson in 1815 took the title of William I.,
king of the Netherlands. The male line of the " Frisian "
Nassaus came to an end with the death of King William III. in
1890.
BIBLIOGRAPHY See Tacitus, Ann. iv. 72 f., xi. 19 f., xiii. 54;
Hist. iv. 15 f.; Germ. 34; Ptolemy, Ceogr. li. n, | n; Dio Cassius
liv. 32; Eumenius, Paneg. iv. 9; the Anglo-Saxon poems, Finn,
Beowulf and Widsith; Fredegani Chronici tontinuatio and various
German Annals; Gesta regum Francorum; Eddius, Vita Wilfridi,
cap. 25 f.; Bede, Hist. Eccles. iv. 22, v. 9 f.; Alcuin, Vita WMe-
brordi; I. Undset, Aarbger for nordisk Oldkyndighed (1880), p. 89 ff.
(cf. E. Mogk in Paul's Grundriss d. germ. Phuologie ii. p. 623 ff.);
Ubbo Emmius, Rerum Frisicarum historic (Leiden, 1616); Pirius
Winsemius, Chronique van Vriesland (Franoker, 1822); C. Scotanus,
Beschryvinge end Chronyck van des Heerlickheydt van Frieslandt
('655) ; Croat Placaat en Charter-boek van Friesland (ed. Baron C. F.
zu Schwarzenberg) (5 vols., Leeuwarden, 1768-1793); T. D. Wiarda,
Ost-friesckiscke Gesch. (vols. i.-ix., Aurich, 1791) (vol. x., Bremen,
1817); J. Dirks, Geschiedkundig onderzoek van den Koophandel der
Friczen (Utrecht, 1846); O. Klopp, Gesch. Ostfrieslands (3 vols.,
Hanover, 1854-1858); Hooft van Iddekingc, Friesland en de
Friezen in de Middcleeuwen (Leiden, 1881); A. Telling, Het Oud-
friesche Stadrecht (The Hague, 1882); P. J. Blok, Friesland im
Mittelalter (Leer, 1891).
FRITH (or FRYTH), JOHN (c. 1503-1533), English Reformer
and Protestant martyr, was born at Westerham, Kent. He was
educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, where Gardiner,
afterwards bishop of Winchester, was his tutor. At the invita-
tion of Cardinal Wolsey, after taking his degree he migrated
(December 1525) to the newly founded college of St Frideswide
or Cardinal College (now Christ Church), Oxford. The sympa-
thetic interest which he showed in the Reformation movement
in Germany caused him to be suspected as a heretic, and led to his
imprisonment for some months. Subsequently he appears to
have resided chiefly at the newly founded Protestant university
of Marburg, where he became acquainted with several scholars
and reformers of note, especially Patrick Hamilton (q.v.).
Frith's first publication was a translation of Hamilton's Places,
made shortly after the martyrdom of its author; and soon
afterwards the Revelation of Antichrist, a translation from the
German, appeared, along with A Pistte to the Christen Reader,
by "Richard Brightwell " (supposed to be Frith), and An
Antithesis wherein are compared logeder Chrisles Actes and our
Holye Father the Popes, dated " at Malborow in the lande of
Hesse," izth July 1529. His Disputacyon of Purgalorye, a
treatise in three books, against Rastell, Sir T. More and Fisher
(bishop of Rochester) respectively, was published at the same
place in 1531. While at Marburg, Frith also assisted Tyndale,
whose acquaintance he had made at Oxford (or perhaps in
London) in his literary labours. In 1532 he ventured back to
England, apparently on some business in connexion with the
prior of Reading. Warrants for his arrest were almost imme-
diately issued at the instance of SirT. More, then lord chancellor.
Frith ultimately fell into the hands of the authorities at Milton
Shore in Essex, as he was on the point of making his escape to
Flanders. The rigour of his imprisonment in the Tower was
somewhat abated when Sir T. Audley succeeded to the chan-
cellorship, and it wasundcrstood that both Cromwell and Cranmer
were disposed to show great leniency. But the treacherous
circulation of a manuscript " lytle treatise " on the sacraments,
which Frith- had written for the information of a friend, and
without any view to publication, served further to excite the
236
FRITH, W. P. FRITZLAR
hostility of his enemies. In consequence of a sermon preached
before him against the " sacramentaries," the king ordered that
Frith should be examined; he was afterwards tried and found
guilty of having denied, with regard to the doctrines of purgatory
and of transubstantiation, that they were necessary articles of
faith. On the 23rd of June 1533 he was handed over to the
secular arm, and at Smithfield on the 4th of July following he
was burnt at the stake. During his captivity he wrote, besides
several letters of interest, a reply to More's letter against
Frith's " lytle treatise "; also two tracts entitled A Mirror or
Glass to know thyself, and A Mirror or Looking-glass wherein you
may behold the Sacrament of Baptism.
Frith is an interesting and so far important figure in English
ecclesiastical history as having been the first to maintain and
defend that doctrine regarding the sacrament of Christ's body
and blood, which ultimately came to be incorporated in the
English communion office. Twenty-three years after Frith's
death as a martyr to the doctrine of that office, that " Christ's
natural body and blood are in Heaven, not here," Cranmer, who
had been one of his judges, went to the stake for the same belief.
Within three years more, it had become the publicly professed
faith of the entire English nation.
See A. a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses (ed. P. Bliss, 1813), !. p. 74;
John Foxe, Acts and Monuments (ed. G. Townshend, 1843-1849),
v. pp. 1-16 (also Index); G. Burnet, Hist, of the Reformation of the
Church of England (ed. N. Pocock, 1865), i. p. 273; L. Richmond,
The Fathers of the English Church, i. (1807) ; Life and Martyrdom of
John Frith (London, 1824), published by the Church of England
Tract Society; Deborah Alcock, Six Heroic Men (1906).
FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL (1810-1909), English painter,
was born at Aldfield, in Yorkshire, on the 9th of January 1819.
His parents moved in 1826 to Harrogate, where his father became
landlord of the Dragon Inn, and it was then that the boy began
his general education at a school at Knaresborough. Later he
went for about two years to a school at St Margaret's, near
Dover, where he was placed specially under the direction of the
drawing-master, as a step towards his preparation for the pro-
fession which his father had decided on as the one that he wished
him to adopt. In 1835 he was entered as a student in the well-
known art school kept by Henry Sass in Bloomsbury, from which
he passed after two years to the Royal Academy schools. His
first independent experience was gained in 1839, when he went
about for some months in Lincolnshire executing several com-
missions for portraits; but he soon began to attempt composi-
tions, and in 1840 his first picture, " Malvolio, cross-gartered
before the Countess Olivia," appeared at the Royal Academy.
During the next few years he produced several notable paintings,
among them " Squire Thornhill relating his town adventures to
the Vicar's family," and " The Village Pastor," which established
his reputation as one of the most promising of the younger men
of that time. This last work was exhibited in 1845, and in the
autumn of that year he was elected an Associate of the Royal
Academy. His promotion to the rank of Academician followed
in 1853, when he was chosen to fill the vacancy caused by
Turner's death. The chief pictures painted by him during his
tenure of Associateship were: " An English Merry-making
in the Olden Time," " Old Woman accused of Witchcraft,"
" The Coming of Age," " Sancho and Don Quixote," " Hogarth
before the Governor of Calais," and the " Scene from Goldsmith's
' Good-natured Man,' " which was commissioned in 1850 by
Mr Sheepshanks, and bequeathed by him to the South Kensington
Museum. Then came a succession of large compositions which
gained for the artist an extraordinary popularity. " Life at
the Seaside," better known as " Ramsgate Sands." was exhibited
in 1854, and was bought by Queen Victoria; " The Derby Day,"
in 1858; " Claude Duval," in 1860; " The Railway Station,"
in 1862; "The Marriage of the Prince of Wales," painted for
Queen Victoria, in 1865; "The Last Sunday of Charles II.,"
in 1867; "The Salon d'Or," in 1871; "The Road to Ruin,"
a series, in 1878; a similar series, " The Race for Wealth,"
shown at a gallery in King Street, St James's, in 1880; " The
Private View," in 1883; and "John Knox at Holyrood," in
1886. Frith also painted a considerable number of portraits
of well-known people. In 1889 he became an honorary retired
academician. His " Derby Day " is in the National Gallery of
British Art. In his youth, in common with the men by whom
he was surrounded, he had leanings towards romance, and he
scored many successes as a painter of imaginative subjects.
In these he proved himself to be possessed of exceptional qualities
as a colourist and manipulator, qualities that promised to earn
for him a secure place among the best executants of the British
School. But in his middle period he chose a fresh direction.
Fascinated by the welcome which the public gave to his first
attempts to illustrate the life of his own times, he undertook a
considerable series of large canvases, in which he commented
on the manners and morals of society as he found it. He became
a pictorial preacher, a painter who moralized about the everyday
incidents of modern existence; and he sacrificed some of his
technical variety. There remained, however, a remarkable
sense of characterization, and an acute appreciation of dramatic
effect. Frith died on the 2nd of November 1909.
Frith published his Autobiography and Reminiscences in 1887, and
Further Reminiscences in 1889.
FRITILLARY (Fritillaria: from Lat. fritillus, a chess-board,
so called from the chequered markings on the petals), a genus
of hardy bulbous plants of the natural order Liliaceae, containing
about 50 species widely distributed in the northern hemisphere.
The genus is represented in Britain by the fritillary or snake's
head, which occurs in moist meadows in the southern half of
England, especially in Oxfordshire. A much larger plant is
the crown imperial (F. imperialis), a native of western Asia
and well known in gardens. This grows to a height of about
3 ft., the lower part of the stoutish stem being furnished with
leaves, while near the top is developed a crown of large pendant
flowers surmounted by a tuft of bright green leaves like those
of the lower part of the stem, only smaller. The flowers are
bell-shaped, yellow or red, and in some of the forms double. The
plant grows freely in good garden soil, preferring a deep well-
drained loam, and is aU the better for a top-dressing of manure
as it approaches the flowering stage. Strong clumps of five or
six roots of one kind have a very fine effect. It is a very suitable
subject for the back row in mixed flower borders, or for recesses
in the front part of shrubbery borders. It flowers in April or
early in May. There are a few named varieties, but the most
generally grown are the single and double yellow, and the single
and double red,the single red having also two variegated varieties,
with the leaves striped respectively with white and yellow.
" Fritillary " is also the name of a kind of butterfly.
FRITZLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Cassel, on the left bank of the Eder, 16 m. S.W. from Cassel,
on the railway Wabern-Wildungen. Pop. (1905) 3448. It is a
prettily situated old-fashioned place,with an Evangelical and two
Roman Catholic churches, one of the latter, that of St Peter, a
striking medieval edifice. As early as 732 Boniface, the apostle of
Germany, established the church of St Peter and a small
Benedictine monastery at Frideslar, " the quiet home " or
" abode of peace." Before long the school connected with the
monastery became famous, and among its earlier scholars it
numbered Sturm, abbot of Fulda, and Megingod, second bishop
of Wiirzburg. When Boniface found himself unable to continue
the supervision of the society himself, he entrusted the office to
Wigbert of Glastonbury, who thus became the first abbot of
Fritzlar. In 774 the little settlement was taken and burnt by
the Saxons; but it evidently soon recovered from the blow.
For a short time after 786 it was the seat of the bishopric of
Buraburg, which had been founded by Boniface in 741. At the
diet of Fritzlar in 919 Henry I. was elected German king. In
the beginning of the i3th century the village received municipal
rights; in 1232 it was captured and burned by the landgrave
Conrad of Thuringia and his allies; in 1631 it was taken by
William of Hesse; in 1760 it was successfully defended by
General Luckner against the French; and in 1761 it was occupied
by the French and unsuccessfully bombarded by the Allies.
As a principality Fritzlar continued subject to the archbishopric
FRIULI FROBISHER
237
ol Maine till 1802. when it was incorporated with Hesse. From
180; i 1814 it belonged to the kingdom of Westphalia; and
in 1866 passed with Hesse Cassel to Prussia.
FRIULI (in the local dialect, Furlanei), a district at the head
of the Adriatic Sea, at present divided between Italy and Austria,
the Italian portion being included in the province of Udine and
the district of Portogruaro, and the Austrian comprising the
province of Gorz and C'.railisLa. and the so-called Idrian district.
In the north and cast Friuli includes portions of the Julian and
Carnic Alps, while the south is an alluvial plain richly watered
by the Isonzo, the Tagliamcnto, and many lesser streams which,
although of small volume during the dry season, come down in
enormous floods after rain or thaw. The inhabitants, known
a* Furlanians, are mainly Italians, but they speak a dialect of
their own which contains Celtic elements. The area of the
country is about 3300 sq. m.; it contains about 700,000 in-
habitants.
Friuli derives its name from the Roman town of Forum
lulii, or Forojulium, the modern Cividalc, which is said by
Paulus Diaconus to have been founded by Julius Caesar. In the
2nd century B.C. the district was subjugated by the Romans,
and became pan of Gallia Transpadana. During the Roman
period, besides Forum Julii, its principal towns were Concordia,
Aquileia and Vedinium. On the conquest of the country by
the Lombards during the 6th century it was made one of their
thirty-six duchies, the capital being Forum Julii or, as they
called it, Civitas Austriae. It is needless to repeat the list of
dukes of the Lombard line, from Gisulf (d. 611) to Hrothgaud,
who fell a victim to his opposition to Charlemagne about 776;
their names and exploits may be read in the Historic Lango-
bordarum of Paulus Diaconus, and they were mainly occupied
in struggles with the Avars and other barbarian peoples, and in
resisting the pretensions of the Lombard kings. The discovery,
however, of Gisulf's grave at Cividale, in 1874, is an interest-
ing proof of the historian's authenticity. Charlemagne filled
Hrothgaud 's place with one of his own followers, and the frontier
position of Friuli gave the new line of counts, dukes or margraves
(for they are variously designated) the opportunity of acquiring
importance by exploits against the Bulgarians, Slovenians and
other hostile peoples to the east. After the death of Charle-
magne Friuli shared in general in the fortunes of northern Italy.
In the nth century the ducal rights over the greater part of
Friuli were bestowed by the emperor Henry IV. on the patriarch
of Aquileia; but towards the close of the i4th century the nobles
called in the assistance of Venice, which, after defeating the
archbishop, afforded a new illustration of Aesop's well-known
fable, by securing possession of the country for itself. The
eastern part of Friuli was held by the counts of Gcirz till 1 500,
when on the failure of their line it was appropriated by the
German king, Maximilian I., and remained in the possession of
the house of Austria until the Napoleonic wars. By the peace
of Campo Formio in 1797 the Venetian district also came to
Austria, and on the formation of the Napoleonic kingdom of
Italy in 1805 the department of Passariano was made to include
the whole of Venetian and pan of Austrian Friuli, and in 1809
the rest was added to the Illyrian provinces. The title of duke
of Friuli was borne by Marshal Duroc. In 1815 the whole
country was recovered by the emperor of Austria, who himself
assumed the ducal title and coat of arms; and it was not till
1866 that the Venetian portion was again ceded to Italy by the
peace of Prague. The capital of the country is Udine, and its
arms are a crowned eagle on a field azure.
See Manzano, Annali del Friuli (Udine, 1858-1879); and Com-
pendia di sloria friulana (Udine, 1876); Antonini, // Friuli orientate
tit. 1865): von Zann, Friaulische Studien (Vienna, 1878);
Pirona, Vocabolarw friulina (Venice, 1869) : and L. Fracaaeetti, La
Staiutua einofrajua del Friuli (Udine, 1003). (T. As.)
PROBEN [FBOBEMUS], JOANNES (c. 1460-1527), German
printer and scholar, was born at Hammelburg in Bavaria
about the year 1460. After completing his university career
at Basel, where he made the acquaintance of the famous printer
Johannes Auerbach (1443-1513), be established a printing house
in that city about 1491, and this soon attained, a European
reputation for accuracy and for taste. In 1500 he married the
daughter of the bookseller Wolfgang Lachner, who entered into
partnership with him. He was on terms of friendship with
Erasmus (q.v.), who not only had his own works printed by him,
but superintended Frobenius's editions of St Jerome, St Cyprian,
Tertullian, Hilary of Poitiers and St Ambrose. His Neues
Testament in Greek (1516) was used by Luther for his translation.
Frobenius employed Hans Holbein to illuminate his texts.
It was part of his plan to print editions of the Greek Fathers.
He did not, however, live to carry out this project, but it was
very creditably executed by his son Jerome and his son-in-law
Nikolaus Episcopius. Frobenius died in October 1527. His
work in Basel made that city in the i6th century the leading
centre of the German book trade. An extant letter of Erasmus,
written in the year of Frobenius's death, gives an epitome
of his life and an estimate of his character; and in it Erasmus
mentions that his grief for the death of his friend was far more
poignant than that which he had felt for the loss of his own
brother, adding that " all the apostles of science ought to wear
mourning." The epistle concludes with an epitaph in Greek
and Latin.
FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN (c. 1535-1594), English navigator
and explorer, fourth child of Bernard Frobisher of Altofts in
the parish of Normanton, Yorkshire, was born some time between
1530 and 1540. The family came originally from North Wales.
At an early age he was sent to a school in London and placed
under the care of a kinsman, Sir John York, who in 1544 placed
him on board a ship belonging to a small fleet of merchantmen
sailing to Guinea. By 1565 he is referred to as Captain Martin
Frobisher, and in 1571-1572 as being in the public service at
sea off the coast of Ireland. He married in 1559. As early as
1560 or 1561 Frobisher had formed a resolution to undertake a
voyage in search of a North-West Passage to Cathay and India.
The discovery of such a route was the motive of most of the
Arctic voyages undertaken at that period and for long after,
but Frobisher's special merit was in being the first to give to
this enterprise a national character. For fifteen years he solicited
in vain the necessary means to carry his project into execution,
but in 1576, mainly by help of the earl of Warwick, he was put
in command of an expedition consisting of two tiny barks, the
" Gabriel " and " Michael," of about 20 to 25 tons each, and a
pinnace of 10 tons, with an aggregate crew of 35.
He weighed anchor at Blackwall, and, after having received
a good word from Queen Elizabeth at Greenwich, set sail on the
7th of June, by way of the Shetland Islands. Stormy weather
was encountered in which the pinnace was lost, and some time
afterwards the "Michael" deserted; but stoutly continuing
the voyage alone, on the z8th of July the " Gabriel " sighted
the coast of Labrador in lat. 62 2' N. Some days later the
mouth of Frobisher Bay was reached, and a farther advance
northwards being prevented by ice and contrary winds, Frobisher
determined to sail westward up this passage (which he conceived
to be a strait) to see " whether he mighte carrie himself through
the same into some open sea on the backe syde." Butcher's
Island was reached on the i8th of August, and some natives
being met with here, intercourse was carried on with them for
some days, the result being that five of Frobisher's men were
decoyed and captured, and never more seen. After vainly
trying to get back his men, Frobisher turned homewards, and
reached London on the 9th of October.
Among the things which had been hastily brought away
by the men was some " black earth," and just as it' seemed
as if nothing more was to come of this expedition, it was
noised abroad that the apparently valueless " black earth "
was really a lump of gold ore. It is difficult to say how
this rumour arose, and whether there was any truth in it,
or whether Frobisher was a party to a deception, in order
to obtain means to carry out the great idea of his life.
The story, at any rate, was so far successful; the greatest
enthusiasm was manifested by the court and the commercial
and speculating world of the time; and next year a much more
important expedition than the former was fitted out, the queen
2 3 8
FROCK FROEBEL
lending the " Aid " from the royal navy and subscribing 1000
towards the expenses of the expedition. A Company of Cathay
was established, with a charter from the crown, giving the
company the sole right of sailing in every direction but the east;
Frobisher was appointed high admiral of all lands and waters
that might be discovered by him. On the 26th of May 1377 the
expedition, consisting, besides the "Aid," of the ships " Gabriel "
and " Michael," with boats, pinnaces and an aggregate com-
plement of 120 men, including miners, refiners, &c., left Black-
wall, and sailing by the north of Scotland reached Hall's Island
at the mouth of Frobisher Bay on the i7th of July. A few days
later the country and the south side of the bay was solemnly
taken possession of in the queen's name. Several weeks were now
spent in collecting ore, but very little was done in the way of
discovery, Frobisher being specially directed by his commission
to " defer the further discovery of the passage until another
time." There was much parleying and some skirmishing with
the natives, and earnest but futile attempts made to recover the
men captured the previous year. The return was begun on the
23rd of August, and the " Aid " reached Milford Haven on the
23rd of September; the " Gabriel " and " Michael," having
separated, arrived later at Bristol and Yarmouth.
Frobisher was received and thanked by the queen at Windsor.
Great preparations were made and considerable expense incurred
for the assaying of the great quantity of " ore " (about 200 tons)
brought home. This took up much time, and led to considerable
dispute among the various parties interested. Meantime the
faith of the queen and others remained strong in the productive-
ness of the newly discovered territory, which she herself named
Mela Incognita, and it was resolved to send out a larger expedi-
tion than ever, with all necessaries for the establishment of a
colony of 100 men. Frobisher was again received by the queen
at Greenwich, and her Majesty threw a fine chain of gold around
his neck. On the 3ist of May 1578 the expedition, consisting in
all of fifteen vessels, left Harwich, and sailing by the English
Channel on the 2oth of June reached the south of Greenland,
where Frobisher and some of his men managed to land. On the
2nd of July the foreland of Frobisher Bay was sighted, but
stormy weather and dangerous ice prevented the rendezvous
from being gained, and, besides causing the wreck of the barque
" Dennis " of 100 tons, drove the fleet unwittingly up a new
(Hudson) strait. After proceeding about 60 m. up this " mistaken
strait," Frobisher with apparent reluctance turned back, and
after many bufferings and separations the fleet at last came to
anchor in Frobisher Bay. Some attempt was made at founding
a settlement, and a large quantity of ore was shipped; but, as
might be expected, there was much dissension and not a little
discontent among so heterogeneous a company, and on the last
day of August the fleet set out on its return to England, which
was reached in the beginning of October. Thus ended what was
little better than a fiasco, though Frobisher himself cannot be
held to blame for the result; the scheme was altogether chim-
erical, and the " ore " seems to have been not worth smelting.
In 1580 Frobisher was employed as captain of one of the
queen's ships in preventing the designs of Spain to assist the
Irish insurgents, and in the same year obtained a grant of the
reversionary title of clerk of the royal navy. In 1585 he com-
manded the " Primrose," as vice-admiral to Sir F. Drake in his
expedition to the West Indies, and when soon afterwards the
country was threatened with invasion by the Spanish Armada,
Frobisher's name was one of four mentioned by the lord high
admiral in a letter to the queen of " men of the greatest ex-
perience that this realm hath," and for his signal services in the
" Triumph," in the dispersion of the Armada, he was knighted.
He continued to cruise about in the Channel until 1590, when he
was sent in command of a small fleet to the coast of Spain. In
1591 he visited his native Altofts, and there married his second
wife, a daughter of Lord Wentworth, becoming at the same time
a landed proprietor in Yorkshire and Notts. He found, how-
ever, little leisure for a country life, and the following year took
charge of the fleet fitted out by Sir Walter Raleigh to the Spanish
coast, returning with a rich prize. In November 1594 he was
engaged with a squadron in the siege and relief of Brest, when
he received a wound at Fort Crozon from which he died at
Plymouth on the 22nd of November. His body was taken to
London and buried at St Giles', Cripplegate. Though he appears
to have been somewhat rough in his bearing, and too strict a
disciplinarian to be much loved, Frobisher was undoubtedly one
of the most able seamen of his time and justly takes rank among
England's great naval heroes.
See Hakluyt's Voyages; the Hakluyt Society's Three Voyages of
Frobisher; Rev. F. Jones's Life of Frobisher (1878); Julian Corbett,
Drake and the Tudor Navy (1898).
FROCK, originally a long, loose gown with broad sleeves, more
especially that worn by members of the religious orders. The
word is derived from the O. Fr. j 'roc, of somewhat obscure origin;
in medieval Lat.froccus appears also a&fioccus, which, if it is the
original, as Du Cange suggests (litenda mutata), would connect
the word with " fleck " (<?..), properly a tuft of wool. Another
suggestion refers the word to the German Rock, a coat (cf.
" rochet "), which in some rare instances is found as hrock. The
formal stripping off of the frock became part of the ceremony of
degradation or deprivation in the case of a condemned monk;
hence the expression " to unfrock " (med. Lat. defrocare, Fr.
defroquer) used of the degradation of monks and of priests from
holy orders. In the middle ages " frock " was also used of a long
loose coat worn by men and of a coat of mail, the "frock of mail."
In something of this sense the word survived into the igth
century for a coat with long skirts, now called the " frock coat."
The word in now chiefly used in English for a child's or young
girl's dress, of body and skirt, but is frequently used of a woman's
dress. Du Cange (Glossarium, s.v. flocus) quotes an early use
of the word for a woman's garment (Miracula S. Udalrici, ap.
Mabillon, Acta Sanctorum Benedict, saec. v. p. 466). Here a
woman, possessed of a devil, is cured, and sends her garments
to the tomb of the saint, and a dalmatic is ordered to be made
out of the flocus orftocus. " Frock " also appears in the " smock
frock," once the typical outer garment of the English peasant.
It consists of a loose shirt of linen or other material, worn over
the other clothes and hanging to about the knee; its character-
istic feature is the " smocking," a puckered honeycomb stitching
round the neck and shoulders.
FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST (1782-1852),
German philosopher, philanthropist and educational reformer,
was born at Oberweissbach, a village of the Thuringian forest,
on the 2ist of April 1782. Like Comenius, with whom he had
much in common, he was neglected in his youth, and the re-
membrance of his own early sufferings made him in after life
the more eager in promoting the happiness of children. His
mother he lost in his infancy, and his father, the pastor of
Oberweissbach and the surrounding district, attended to his
parish but not to his family. Friedrich soon had a stepmother,
and neglect was succeeded by stepmotherly attention; but a
maternal uncle took pity on him, and gave him a home for some
years at Stadt-Ilm. Here he went to the village school, but like
many thoughtful boys he passed for a dunce. Throughout life
he was always seeking for hidden connexions and an underlying
unity in all things. Nothing of the kind was to be perceived
in the piecemeal studies of the school, and Froebel's mind, busy
as it was for itself, would not work for the masters. His half-
brother was therefore thought more worthy of a university
education, and Friedrich was apprenticed for two years to a
forester (1797-1799).
Left to himself in the Thuringian forest, Froebel began to
study nature, and without scientific instruction he obtained a
profound insight into the uniformity and essential unity of
nature's laws. Years afterwards the celebrated Jahn (the
" Father Jahn " of the German gymnasts) told a Berlin student
of a queer fellow he had met, who made out all sorts of wonderful
things from stones and cobwebs. This queer fellow was Froebel;
and the habit of making out general truths from the observation
of nature, especially from plants and trees, dated from the solitary
rambles in the forest. No training could have been better suited
to strengthen^ his inborn tendency to mysticism; and when he
FROEBEL
239
Ic fi the forest at the early age of seventeen, be seems to have
been possessed by the main ideas which influenced him all his
life. The conception which in him dominated all others was the
unity of nature; and he longed to study natural sciences that
he might find in them various applications of nature's universal
laws. With great difficulty he got leave to join his elder brother
at the university of Jena, and there for a year he went from
lecture-room to lecture-room hoping to grasp that connexion
of the sciences which had for him far more attraction than any
particular science in itself. But Froebel's allowance of money
was very small, and his skill in the management of money was
never great, so his university career ended in an imprisonment
of nine weeks for a debt of thirty shillings. He then returned
home with very poor prospects, but much more intent on what
he calls the course of " self -completion " (VenoUkommnung
mfinfs sdbst) than on " getting on " in a worldly point of view.
He was sent to learn farming, but was recalled in consequence
of the failing health of his father. In 1802 the father died, and
Froebel, now twenty years old, had to shift for himself. It was
some time before he found his true vocation, and for the next
three and a half years we find him at work now in one part of
Germany now in another sometimes land-surveying, sometimes
acting as accountant, sometimes as private secretary; but in all
this his " outer life was far removed from his inner life," and in
spite of his outward circumstances he became more and more
conscious that a great task lay before him for the good of
humanity. The nature of the task, however, was not clear to
him, and it seemed determined by accident. While studying
architecture in Frankfort -on-Main, he became acquainted with
the director of a model school, who had caught some of the
enthusiasm of Pestalozzi. This friend saw that Froebel's true
field was education, and he persuaded him to give up architecture
and take a post in the model school. In this school Froebel
worked for two years with remarkable success, but he then
retired and undertook the education of three lads of one family.
In this he could not satisfy himself, and he obtained the parents'
consent to his taking the boys to Yverdon, near Neuchatel, and
there forming with them a part of the celebrated institution of
Pestalozzi. Thus from 1807 till 1809 Froebel was drinking in
Pestalozzianism at the fountainhead, and qualifying himself to
carry on the work which Pestalozzi had begun. For the science
of education had to deduce from Pestalozzi's experience principles
which Pestalozzi himself could not deduce. And " Froebel, the
pupil of Pestalozzi, and a genius like his master, completed the
reformer's system; taking the results at which Pestalozzi had
arrived through the necessities of his position, Froebel developed
the ideas involved in them, not by further experience but by
deduction from the nature of man, and thus he attained to the
conception of true human development and to the requirements
of true education " (Schmidt's Geschichte der Pitdagogik).
Holding that man and nature, inasmuch as they proceed from
the same source, must be governed by the same laws, Froebel
longed for more knowledge of natural science. Even Pestalozzi
seemed to him not to " honour science in her divinity." He
therefore determined to continue the university course which
had been so rudely interrupted eleven years before, and in 1811
be began studying at Gottingen. whence he proceeded to Berlin.
But again his studies were interrupted, this time by the king
of Prussia's celebrated call " to my people." Though not a
Prussian, Froebel was heart and soul a German. He therefore
responded to the call, enlisted in LUtzow's corps, and went through
the campaign of 1813. But his military ardour did not take
his mind off education. " Everywhere," he writes, " as far as
the fatigues I underwent allowed, I carried in my thoughts my
future calling as educator; yes, even in the few engagements
in which I had to take part. Even in these I could gather
experience for the task I proposed to myself." Froebel's
soldiering showed him the value of discipline and united action,
how the individual belongs not to himself but to the whole
body, and bow the whole body supports the individual.
Froebel was rewarded for his patriotism by the friendship
of two men whose names will always be associated with his,
Langethal and Middendorff. These young men, ten years
younger than Froebel, became attached to him in the field, and
were ever afterwards his devoted followers, sacrificing all their
prospects in life for the sake of carrying out his ideas.
At the peace of Fontainebleau (signed in May 1814) Froebel
returned to Berlin, and became curator of the museum of
mineralogy under Professor Weiss. In accepting this appoint-
ment from the government he seemed to turn aside from his
work as educator; but if not teaching he was learning. More
and more the thought possessed him that the one thing needful
for man was unity of development, perfect evolution in accordance
with the laws of his being, such evolution as science discovers
in the other organisms of nature. He at first intended to become
a teacher of natural science, but before long wider views dawned
upon him. Langethal and Middendorff were in Berlin, engaged
in tuition. Froebel gave them regular instruction in his theory,
and at length, counting on their support, he resolved to set
about realizing his own idea of " the new education." This was
in 1816. Three years before one of his brothers, a clergyman,
had died of fever caught from the French prisoners. His widow
was still living in the parsonage at Griesheim, a village on the
Ilm. Froebel gave up his post, and set out for Griesheim on foot,
spending his very last groschen on the way for bread. Here
he undertook the education of his orphan niece and nephews,
and also of two more nephews sent him by another brother.
With these he opened a school and wrote to Middendorff and
Langethal to come and help in the experiment. Middendorff
came at once, Langethal a year or two later, when the school
had been moved to Keilhau, another of the Thuringian villages,
which became the Mecca of the new faith. In Keilhau Froebel,
Langethal, Middendorff and Barop, a relation of Middendorff's,
all married and formed an educational community. Such zeal
could not be fruitless, and the school gradually increased, though
for many years its teachers, with Froebel at their head, were in
the greatest straits for money and at times even for food. After
fourteen years' experience he determined to start other institu-
tions to work in connexion with the parent institution at Keilhau,
and being offered by a private friend the use of a castle on the
Wartensee, in the canton of Lucerne, he left Keilhau under the
direction of Barop, and with Langethal he opened the Swiss
institution. The ground, however, was very ill chosen. The
Catholic clergy resisted what they considered as a Protestant
invasion, and the experiment on the Wartensee and at Willisau
in the same canton, to which the institution was moved in 1833,
never had a fair chance. It was in vain that Middendorff at
Froebel's call left his wife and family at Keilhau, and laboured
for four years in Switzerland without once seeing them. The
Swiss institution never flourished. But the Swiss government
wished to turn to account the presence of the great educator;
so young teachers were sent to Froebel for instruction, and
finally Froebel moved to Burgdorf (a Bernese town of some
importance, and famous from Pestalozzi's labours there thirty
years'earlier) to undertake the establishment of a public orphanage
and also to superintend a course of teaching for schoolmasters.
The elementary teachers of the canton were to spend three
months every alternate year at Burgdorf, and there compare
experiences, and learn of distinguished men such as Froebel and
Bitzius. In his conferences with these teachers Froebel found
that the schools suffered from the state of the raw material
brought into them. Till the school age was reached the children
were entirely neglected. Froebel's conception of harmonious
development naturally led him to attach much importance to
the earliest years, and his great work on The. Education of Man,
published as early as 1826, deals chiefly with the child up to the
age of seven. At Burgdorf his thoughts were much occupied
with the proper treatment of young children, and in scheming
for them a graduated course of exercises, modelled on the games
in which he observed them to be most interested. In his eagerness
to carry out his new plans he grew impatient of official restraints;
so he returned to Keilhau, and soon afterwards opened the first
Kindergarten or " Garden of Children," in the neighbouring village
of Blankenburg (1837). Firmly convinced of the importance of
240
FROG
the Kindergarten for the whole human race, Froebel described
his system in a weekly paper (his Sonntagsblatt) which appeared
from the middle of 1837 till 1840. He also lectured in great
towns; and he gave a regular course of instruction to young
teachers at Blankenburg. But although the principles of the
Kindergarten were gradually making their way, the first Kinder-
garten was failing for want of funds. It had to be given up, and
Froebel, now a widower (he had lost his wife in 1839), carried
on his course for teachers first at Keilhau, and from 1848, for
the last four years of his life, at or near Liebenstein, in the
Thuringian forest, and in the duchy of Meiningen. It is in these
last years that the man Froebel will be best known to posterity,
for in 1849 he attracted within the circle of his influence a woman
of great intellectual power, the baroness von Marenholtz-Btilow,
who has given us in her Recollections of Friedrich Froebel the only
lifelike portrait we possess.
These seemed likely to be Froebel's most peaceful days. He
married again in 1851, and having now devoted himself to the
training of women as educators, he spent his time in instructing
his class of young female teachers. But trouble came upon him
from a quarter whence he least expected it. In the great year
of revolutions (1848) Froebel had hoped to turn to account the
general eagerness for improvement, and Middendorff had pre-
sented an address on Kindergartens to the German parliament.
Besides this, a nephew of Froebel's, Professor Karl Froebel of
Zurich, published books which were supposed to teach socialism.
True, the uncle and nephew differed so widely that the " new
Froebelians " were the enemies of " the old," but the distinction
was overlooked, and Friedrich and Karl Froebel were regarded
as the united advocates of some new thing. In the reaction
which soon set in, Froebel found himself suspected of socialism
and irreligion, and in 1851 the " cultus-minister " Von Raumer
issued an edict forbidding the establishment of schools " after
Friedrich and Karl Froebel's principles " in Prussia. This was
a heavy blow to the old man, who looked to the government of
the " Cultus-staat " Prussia for support, and was met with denun-
ciation. Whether from the worry of this new controversy, or from
whatever cause, Froebel did not long survive the decree. His
seventieth birthday was celebrated with great rejoicings in May
1852, but he died on the 2ist of June, and was buried at Schweina,
a village near his last abode, Marienthal, near Bad-Liebenstein.
" All education not founded on religion is unproductive."
This conviction followed naturally from Froebel's conception of
the unity of all things, a unity due to the original Unity from
whom all proceed and in whom all " live, move and have their
being." As man and nature have one origin they must be subject
to the same laws. Hence Froebel, like Comenius two centuries
before him, looked to the course of nature for the principles
of human education. This he declares to be his fundamental
belief: " In the creation, in nature and the order of the material
world, and in the progress of mankind, God has given us the true
type (Urbild) of education." As the cultivator creates nothing
in the trees and plants, so the educator creates nothing in the
children, he merely superintends the development of inborn
faculties. So far Froebel agrees with Pestalozzi; but in one
respect he went' beyond him. Pestalozzi said that the faculties
were developed by exercise. Froebel added that the function
of education was to develop the faculties by arousing voluntary
activity. Action proceeding from inner impulse (Selbsttatigkeit)
was the one thing needful.
The prominence which Froebel gave to action, his doctrine
that man is primarily a doer and even a creator, and that he
learns only through "self-activity," has its importance all
through education. But it was to the first stage of life that
Froebel paid the greatest attention. He held with Rousseau
that each age has a completeness of its own, and that the per-
fection of the later stage can be attained only through the
perfection of the earlier. If the infant is what he should be as
an infant, and the child as a child, he will become what he should
be as a boy, just as naturally as new shoots spring from the healthy
plant. Every stage, then, must be cared for and tended in such
a way that it may attain its own perfection. Impressed with the
immense importance of the first stage, Froebel like Pestalozzi
devoted himself to the instruction of mothers. But he would not,
like Pestalozzi, leave the children entirely in the mother's hands.
Pestalozzi held that the child belonged to the family; FIchte,
on the other hand, claimed it for society and the state.
Froebel, whose mind delighted in harmonizing apparent con-
tradictions, and who taught that " all progress lay through
opposites to their reconciliation," maintained that the child
belonged both to the family and to society, and he would there-
fore have children spend some hours of the day in a common
life and in well-organized common employments. These
assemblies of children he would not call schools, for the children
in them ought not to be old enough for schooling. So he in-
vented the name Kindergarten, garden of children, and called
the superintendents " children's gardeners." He laid great
stress on every child cultivating its own plot of ground, but this
was not his reason for the choice of the name. It was rather
that he thought of these institutions as enclosures in which
young human plants are nurtured. In the Kindergarten the
children's employment should be play. But any occupation
in which children delight is play to them; and Froebel invented
a series of employments, which, while they are in this sense
play to the children, have nevertheless, as seen from the adult
point of view, a distinct educational object. This object, as
Froebel himself describes it, is "to give the children employment
in agreement with their whole nature, to strengthen their bodies,
to exercise their senses, to engage their awakening mind, and
through their senses to bring them acquainted with nature and
their fellow creatures; it is especially to guide aright the heart
and the affections, and to lead them to the original ground of all
life, to unity with themselves."
Froebel's own works are: Menschenerziehung (" Education of
Man "), (1826), which has been translated into French and English;
Pddagogik d. Kindergartens; Kleinere Schriften and Mutter- und
Koselieder; collected editions have been edited by Wichard Lange
(1862) and Friedrich Seidel (1883).
A. B. Hauschmann's Friedrich Frobel is a lengthy and unsatis-
factory biography. An unpretentious but useful little book is
F. Froebel, a Biographical Sketch, by Matilda H. Kriege, New York
(Steiger). A very good account of Froebel's life and thoughts is
given in Karl Schmidt's Geschichte d. Pddagogik, vol. iv. ; also in
Adalbert Weber's Geschichte d. Volksschulpdd. u. d. Kleinkinder-
erziehung (Weber carefully gives authorities). For a less favour-
able account see K. Strack's Geschichte d. deutsch. Volksschulwesens,
Frau von Marenholtz-Biilow published her Erinnerungen an F. Frobel
(translated by Mrs. Horace Mann, 1877). This lady, the chief in-
terpreter of Froebel, has expounded his principles in Das Kind u.
sein Wesen and Die Arbeit u. die neue Erziehung. H. Courthope
Bowen has written a memoir (1897) in the " Great Educators "
series. In England Miss Emily A. E. Shirreff has published Principles
of Froebel's System, and a short sketch of Froebel's life. See also
Dr Henry Barnard's Papers on Froebel's Kindergarten (1881); R. H.
Quick, Educational Reformers (1890). (R. H. Q.)
FROG, 1 a name in zoology, of somewhat wide application,
strictly for an animal belonging to the family Ranidae, but also
used of some other families of the order Ecaudata of the sub-class
Batrachia (<?..).
Frogs proper are typified by the common British species,
Rana temporaria, and its allies, such as the edible frog, R.
esculenta, and the American bull-frog R. catesbiana. The genus
Rana may be defined as firmisternal Ecaudata with cylindrical
transverse processes to the sacral vertebra, teeth in the upper
jaw and on the vomer, a protrusible tongue which is free and
forked behind, a horizontal pupil and more or less webbed toes.
It includes about 200 species, distributed over the whole world
1 The word " frog " is in O.E. frocga or frox, cf. Dutch vorsch,
Ger. Frosch; Skeat suggests a possible original source in the root
meaning " to jump," r< to spring," cf. Ger. froh, glad, joyful and
" frolic. The term is also applied to the following objects: the
horny part in the center of a horse's hoof; an attachment to a belt
for suspending a sword, bayonet, &c. ; a fastening for the front
of a coat, still used in military uniforms, consisting of two buttons
on opposite sides joined by ornamental looped braids; and, in rail-
way construction, the point where two rails cross. These may be
various transferred applications of the name of the animal, but the
" frog " of a horse was also called " frush," probably a corruption of
the French n&mefourchette, lit. little fork. The ornamental braiding
is also more probably due to " frock," Lat. floccus.
FROG-BIT FROHSCHAMMER
241
with the exception of the greater part of South America and
Australia. Some of the species are thoroughly aquatic and have
fully webbed toes, others are terrestrial, except during the breed-
ing season, others are adapted for burrowing, by means of the
much-enlarged and sharp-edged tubercle at the base of the inner
toe, whilst not a few have the tips of the digits dilated into disks
by which they are able to climb on trees. In most of the older
classifications great importance was attached to these physio-
logical characters, and a number of genera were established
which, owing to the numerous annectent forms which have since
been discovered, must be abandoned. The arboreal species
were thus associated with the true tree-frogs, regardless of their
internal structure. We now know that such adaptations are
of comparatively small importance, and cannot be utilized
for establishing groups higher than genera in a natural or
phylogenetic classification. The tree-frogs, Hylidae, with which
the arboreal Ranidae were formerly grouped, show in their
anatomical structure a close resemblance to the toads, Bufonidae,
and are therefore placed far away from the true frogs, however
great the superficial resemblance between them.
Some frogs grow to a large size. The bull-frog of the eastern
United States and Canada, reaching a length of nearly 8 in. from
snout to vent, long regarded as the giant of the genus, has been
surpassed by the discovery of Kana guppyi (8J in.) in the
Solomon Islands, and of Rana goliath (10 in.) in South Cameroon.
The family Ranidae embraces a large number of genera, some
of which are very remarkable. Among these may be mentioned
the hairy frog of West Africa, Trichobalrackus robustus, some
specimens of which have the sides of the body and of the hind
limbs covered with long villosities, the function of which is
unknown, and its ally Gampsosteonyx baltsi, in which the last
phalanx of the fingers and toes is sharp, claw-like and perforates
the skin. To this family also belong the Rhacopkorus of eastern
Asia, arboreal frogs, some of which are remarkable for the
extremely developed webs between the fingers and toes, which
are believed to act as a parachute when the frog leaps from the
branches of trees (flying-frog of A. R. Wallace), whilst others
have been observed to make aerial nests between leaves overhang-
ing water, a habit which is shared by their near allies the Chiro-
manlis of tropical Africa. Dimorpkognathus, from West Africa,
is the unique example of a sexual dimorphism in the dentition,
the males being provided with a series of large sharp teeth in the
lower jaw, which in the female, as in most other members of the
family, is edentulous. The curious horned frog of the Solomon
Islands, Ceratobatrathus gueniheri, which can hardly be separated
from the Ranidae, has teeth in the lower jaw in both sexes,
whilst a few forms, such as Dendrobales and Cardioglossa, which
on this account have been placed in a distinct family, have no
teeth at all, as in toads. These facts militate strongly against
the importance which was once attached to the dentition in the
classification of the tailless batrachians.
FROG-BIT, in botany, the English name for' a small floating
herb known botanically as Hydrocharis Morsus-Ranae, a member
of the order Hydrocharideae, a family of Monocotyledons. The
plant has rosettes of roundish floating leaves, and multiplies
like the strawberry plant by means of runners, at the end
of which new leaf-rosettes develop. Staminate and pistillate
flowers are borne on different plants; they have three small
green sepals and three broadly ovate white membranous petals.
The fruit, which is fleshy, is not found in Britain. The plant
occurs in ponds and ditches in England and is rare in Ireland.
FROGMORB, a mansion within the royal demesne of Windsor,
England, in the Home Park, i m. S.E. of Windsor Castle. It
was occupied by George III.'s queen, Charlotte, and later by
the duchess of Rent, mother of Queen Victoria, who died here
in 1861. The mansion, a plain building facing a small lake, has
in its grounds the mausoleum of the duchess of Kent and the
royal mausoleum. The first is a circular building surrounded
with Ionic columns and rising in a dome, a lower chamber within
containing the tomb, while in the upper chamber is a statue of the
duchess. There is also a bust of Princess Hohenlohe-Langen-
berg, half-sister of Queen Victoria; and before the entrance is a
memorial erected by the queen to Lady Augusta Stanley (d.
1876), wife of Dean Stanley. The royal mausoleum, a cruciform
building with a central octagonal lantern, richly adorned within
with marbles and mosaics, was erected (1862-1870) by Queen
Victoria over the tomb of Albert, prince consort, by whose side
the queen herself was buried in 1001. There are also memorials
to Princess Alice and Prince Leopold in the mausoleum. To
the south of the mansion are the royal gardens and dairy.
FROHLICH. ABRAHAM EMANUBL (1796-1865), Swiss poet,
was bom on the ist of February 1706 at Brugg in the canton of
Aargau, where his father was a teacher. After studying theology
at ZUrich he became a pastor in 1817 and returned as teacher
to his native town, where he lived for ten years. He was then
appointed professor of the German language and literature in
the cantonal school at Aarau, which post he lost, however, in
the political quarrels of 1830. He afterwards obtained the post
of teacher and rector of the cantonal college, and was also
appointed assistant minister at the parish church. He died at
Baden in Aargau on the ist of December 1865. His works are
770 Fabeln (1823); Sckweizerlieder (1827); Das Evangelium
St Johannis, in Liedern (1830); Elegien an Wieg' und Sarg
(1835); Die Epopden; Ulrich Zwingli (1840); Ulrich von
Hulten (1845); Auserlesene Psalmen und geisttiche Lieder fur
die Evangelisch-reformirte Kirche des Cantons Aargau (1844);
i}ber den Kirchengesang der Protestanten (1846); Trostlieder
(1852); Der Junge Deutsch-Muhel (1846); Reimspruche aus
Stoat, Schule, und Kirche (1820). An edition of his collected
works, in 5 vols., was published at Frauenfeld in 1853. Frohlich
is best known for his two heroic poems, Ulrich Zwingli and
Ulrich von Hulten, and especially for his fables, which have been
ranked with those of Hagedorn, Lessing and Gellert.
See the Life by R. Fasi (Zilrich, 1907).
FROHSCHAMMER. JAKOB (1821-1893), German theologian
and philosopher, was born at Illkofen, near Regensburg, on the
6th of January 1821. Destined by his parents for the Roman
Catholic priesthood, he studied theology at Munich, bu.t felt
an ever-growing attraction to philosophy. Nevertheless, after
much hesitation, he took what he himself calls the most mistaken
step of his life, and in 1847 entered the priesthood. His keenly
logical intellect, and his impatience of authority where it clashed
with his own convictions, quite unfitted him for that unquestion-
ing obedience which the Church demanded. It was only after
open defiance of the bishop of Regensburg that he obtained
permission to continue his studies at Munich. He at first devoted
himself more especially to the study of the history of dogma,
and in 1850 published his Beitrage zur Kirchengeschichle, which
was placed on the Index Expurgatorius. But he felt that his
real vocation was philosophy, and after holding for a short time
an extraordinary professorship of theology, he became professor
of philosophy in 1855. This appointment he owed chiefly to his
work, t)ber den Ursprung der menschlichen Seelen (1854), in
which he maintained that the human soul was not implanted
by a special creative act in each case, but was the result of a
secondary creative act on the part of the parents: that soul as
well as body, therefore, was subject to the laws of heredity.
This was supplemented in 1853 by the controversial M ' enschensecle
und Physiologie. Undeterred by the offence which these works
gave to his ecclesiastical superiors, he published in 1858 the
Einleilung in die Philosophic und Grundriss der Metaphysik,
in which he assailed the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas, that
philosophy was the handmaid of theology. In 1861 appeared
Cber die Aujga.be der Naturphilosophie und ihr Verhdllnis zur
Naturwissenschaft, which was, he declared, directed against the
purely mechanical conception of the universe, and affirmed the
necessity of a creative Power. In the same year he published
Cber die Freiheit der Wissenschaft, in which he maintained the
independence of science, whose goal was truth, against authority,
and reproached the excessive respect for the latter in the Roman
Church with the insignificant part played by the German Catholics
in literature and philosophy. He was denounced by the pope
himself in an apostolic brief of the nth of December 1862,
and students of theology were forbidden to attend his lectures.
242
FROISSART
Public opinion was now keenly excited; he received an ovation
from the Munich students, and the king, to whom he owed his
appointment, supported him warmly. A conference of Catholic
savants, held in 1863 under the presidency of Dollinger, decided
that authority must be supreme in the Church. When, however,
Dollinger and his school in their turn started the Old Catholic
movement, Frohschammer refused to associate himself with
their cause, holding that they did not go far enough, and that
their declaration of 1863 had cut the ground from under their
feet. Meanwhile he had, in 1862, founded the Athendum as the
organ of Liberal Catholicism. For this he wrote the first adequate
account in German of the Darwinian theory of natural selection,
which drew a warm letter of appreciation from Darwin himself.
Excommunicated in 1871, he replied with three articles, which
were reproduced in thousands as pamphlets in the chief European
languages: Der Pels Petri in Rom (1873), Der Primal Petri
und des Papstes (1875), and Das Christenthum Christi und das
Christenthum des Papstes (1876). In Das neue Wissen und der
neue Glaube (1873) he showed himself as vigorous an opponent
of the materialism of Strauss as of the doctrine of papal infalli-
bility. His later years were occupied with a series of philosophical
.works, of which the most important were: Die Phantasie als
Grundprincip des W eltprocesses (1877), Uber die Genesis der
Menschheit und deren geistige Entwicklung in Religion, Sittlichkeit
und Sprache (1883), and Uber die Organisation und Cultur der
mensMichen Gesellschaft (1885). His system is based on the
unifying principle of imagination (Phantasie), which he extends
to the objective creative force of Nature, as well as to the subjec-
tive mental phenomena to which the term is usually confined.
He died at Bad Kreuth in the Bavarian Highlands on the I4th
of June 1893.
In addition to other treatiseson theological subjects, Frohschammer
was also the author of Monaden und Weltphantasie and Uber die
Bedeutuneder EinbUdungskraft in der Philosophie Kants und Spinozas
(1879); Uber die Principien der Aristotelischen Philosophie und die
Bedeutung der Phantasie in derselben (1881); Die Philosophie als
Idealwissenschaft und System (1884); Die Philosophie des Thomas
von Aquino kritisch gewurdigt (1889) ; Uber das Mysterium Magnum
des Daseins (1891); System der Philosophie im Umriss, pt. i. (1892).
His autobiography was published in A. Hinrichsen's Deutsche Denker
(1888). See also F. Kirchner, Uber das Grundprincip des Welt-
processes (1882), with special reference to F. ; E. Reich, Welt-
anschauung und Menschenleben; Betrachtungen iiber die Philosophie
J. Frohschammers (1894); B. Miinz, J. Frohschammer, der Philosoph
der Weltphantasie (1894) and Briefe von und iiber J. Frohschammer
(1897); j. Friedrich, Jakob Frohschammer (1896) and Systematische
und kritische Darstellung der Psychologic J. Frohschammers (1899) ;
A. Attensperger, /. Frohschammers philosophisches System im
Grundriss (1899).
FROISSART, "JEAN (1338-1410?), French chronicler and
raconteur, historian of his own times. The personal history
of Froissart, the circumstances of his birth and education, the
incidents of his life, must all be sought in his own verses and
chronicles. He possessed in his own lifetime no such fame as
that which attended the steps of Petrarch; when he died it did
not occur to his successors that a chapter might well be added
to his Chronicle setting forth what manner of man he was who
wrote it. The village of Lestines, where he was cure, has long
forgotten that a great writer ever lived there. They cannot
point to any house in Valenciennes as the lodging in which he
put together his notes and made history out of personal remi-
niscences. It is not certain when or where he died, or where he
was buried. One church, it is true, doubtfully claims the honour
of holding his bones. It is that of St Monegunda of Chimay.
' Gallorum sublimis honps et fama tuorum,
Hie Froissarde, jaces, si modo forte jaces."
It is fortunate, therefore, that the scattered statements in his
writings may be so pieced together as to afford a tolerably
connected history of his life year after year. The personality
of the man, independently of his adventures, may be arrived at
by the same process. It will be found that Froissart, without
meaning it, has portrayed himself in clear and well-defined
outline. His forefathers were juris (aldermen) of the little
town of Beaumont, lying near the river Sambre, to the west of the
forest of Ardennes. Early in the i4th century the castle and
seigneurie of Beaumont foil into the hands of Jean, younger son
of the count of Hainaut. With this Jean, sire de Beaumont,
lived a certain canon of Liege called Jean le Bel, who fortunately
was not content simply to enjoy life. Instigated by his seigneur
he set himself to write contemporary history, to tell " la pure
veriteit de tout li fait entierement al manire de chroniques."
With this view, he compiled two books of chronicles. And the
chronicles of Jean le Bel were not the only literary monuments
belonging to the castle of Beaumont. A hundred years before
him Baldwin d'Avernes, the then seigneur, had caused to be
written a book of chronicles or rather genealogies. It must
therefore be remembered that when Froissart undertook his own
chronicles he was not conceiving a new idea, but only following
along familiar lines.
Some 20 m. from Beaumont stood the prosperous city of
Valenciennes, possessed in the I4th century of important
privileges and a flourishing trade, second only to places like
Bruges or Ghent in influence, population and wealth. Beaumont,
once her rival, now regarded Valenciennes as a place where the
ambitious might seek for wealth or advancement, and among
those who migrated thither was the father of Foissart. He
appears from a single passage in his son's verses to have been a
painter of armorial bearings. There was, it may be noted,
already what may be called a school of painters at Valenciennes.
Among them were Jean and Colin de Valenciennes and Andre
Beau-Neveu, of whom Froissart says that he had not his equal
in any country.
The date generally adopted for his birth is 1338. In after
years Froissart pleased himself by recalling in verse the scenes
and pursuits of his childhood. These are presented in vague
generalities. There is nothing to show that he was unlike any
other boys, and, unfortunately, it did not occur to him that a
photograph of a schoolboy's life amid bourgeois surroundings
would be to posterity quite as interesting as that faithful por-
traiture of courts and knights which he has drawn up in his
Chronicle. As it is, we learn that he loved games of dexterity
and skill rather than the sedentary amusements of chess and
draughts, that he was beaten when he did not know his lessons,
that with his companions he played at tournaments, and that
he was always conscious a statement which must be accepted
with suspicion that he was born
" Loer Dieu et servir le monde."
In any case he was born in a place, as well as at a time, singu-
larly adapted to fill the brain of an imaginative boy. Valenciennes
was then a city extremely rich in romantic associations. Not
far from its walls was the western fringe of the great forest of
Ardennes, sacred to the memory of Pepin, Charlemagne, Roland
and Ogier. Along the banks of the Scheldt stood, one after the
other, not then in ruins, but bright with banners, the gleam of
armour, and the liveries of the men at arms, castles whose
seigneurs, now forgotten, were famous in their day for many a
gallant feat of arms. The castle of Valenciennes itself was
illustrious in the romance of Perceforest. There was born that
most glorious and most luckless hero, Baldwin, first emperor
of Constantinople. All the splendour of medieval life was to
be seen in Froissart's native city: on the walls of the Salle le
Comte glittered perhaps painted by his father the arms and
scutcheons beneath the banners and helmets of Luxembourg,
Hainaut and Avesnes; the streets were crowded with knights
and soldiers, priests, artisans and merchants; the churches were
rich with stained glass, delicate tracery and precious carving;
there were libraries full of richly illuminated manuscripts on
which the boy could gaze with delight ; every year there was the
fete of the puy d' Amour de Valenciennes, at which he would hear
the verses of the competing poets; there were festivals, masques,
mummeries and moralities. And, whatever there might be
elsewhere, in this happy city there was only the pomp, and not
the misery, of war; the fields without were tilled, and the
harvests reaped, in security; the workman within plied his
craft unmolested for good wage. But the eyes of the boy were
turned upon the castle and not upon the town; it was the
splendour of the knights which dazzled him, insomuch that he
FROISSART
243
regarded and continued ever afterwards to regard a prince
gallant in the field, glittering of apparel, lavish of largesse, as
almost a god.
The moon, he says, rules the first four years of life; Mercury
the next ten; Venus follows. He was fourteen when the last
goddess appeared to him in person, as he tells us, after the
manner of his time, and informed him that he was to love a lady,
" belle, jone, et gente." Awaiting this happy event, he began to
consider how best to earn his livelihood. They first placed him in
some commercial position impossible now to say of what kind
which he simply calls " la marchandise." This undoubtedly
means some kind of buying and selling, not a handicraft
at all. He very soon abandoned merchandise " car vaut
inieux science qu'argens " and resolved on becoming a learned
clerk. He then naturally began to make verses, like every other
learned clerk. Quite as naturally, and still in the character of a
learned clerk, he fulfilled the prophecy of Venus and fell in love.
He found one day a demoiselle reading a book of romances. He
did not know who she was, but stealing gently towards her, he
asked her what book she was reading. It was the romance of
Cleomades. He remarks the singular beauty of her blue eyes
and fair hair, while she reads a page or two, and then one would
almost suspect a reminiscence of Dante -
" Adont laissamcs nous le lire."
He was thus provided with that essential for soldier, knight
or poet, a mistress one for whom he could write verses. She
was rich and he was poor; she was nobly born and he obscure;
it was long before she would accept the devotion, even of the
conventional kind which Froissart offered her, and which would
in no way interfere with the practical business of her life. And
in this hopeless way, the passion of the young poet remaining
the same, and the coldness of the lady being unaltered, the course
of this passion ran on for some time. Nor was it until the day
of Froissart 's departure from his native town that she gave him
an interview and spoke kindly to him, even promising, with tears
in her eyes, that " Doulce Pensee " would assure him that she
would have no joyous day until she should see him again.
He was eighteen years of age; he had learned all that he
wanted to learn; he possessed the mechanical art of verse;
he had read the slender stock of classical literature accessible;
he longed to see the world. He must already have acquired
some distinction, because, on setting out for the court of England,
he was able to take with him letters of recommendation from
the king of Bohemia and the count of Hainaut to Queen Philippa,
niece of the latter. He was well received by the queen, always
ready to welcome her own countrymen; he wrote ballades and
virelays for her and her ladies. But after a year he began to
pine for another sight of " la tres douce, simple, et quoie," whom
he loved loyally. Good Queen Philippa, perceiving his altered
looks and guessing the cause, made him confess that he was in
love and longed to see his mistress. She gave him his congt on
the condition that he was to return. It is clear that the young
clerk had already learned to ingratiate himself with princes.
The conclusion of his single love adventure is simply and
unaffectedly told in his Trettie dc I'tspinette amoureuse. It
was a passion conducted on the well-known lim s of conventional
love; the pair exchanged violets and roses, the lady accepted
ballads; Froissart became either openly or in secret her recog-
nized lover, a mere title of honour, which conferred distinction
on her who bestowed it, as well as upon him who received it.
But the progress of the amour was rudely interrupted by the arts
of " Maleboucbe," or Calumny. The story, whatever it was,
that Malebouche whispered in the ear of the lady led to a
complete rupture. The damoiselle not only scornfully refused
to speak to her lover or acknowledge him, but even seized him
by the hair and pulled out a handful. Nor would she ever
be reconciled to him again. Years afterwards, when Froissart
writes the story of his one love passage, he shows that he still
takes delight in the remembrance of her, loves to draw her
portrait, and lingers with fondness over the thought of what
she once was to him.
Perhaps to get healed of his sorrow, Froissart began those
wanderings in which the best part of his life was to be consumed.
He first visited Avignon, perhaps to ask for a benefice, perhaps
as the bearer of a message from the bishop of Cambray to pope
or cardinal. It was in the year 1360, and in the pontificate of
Innocent VI. From the papal city he seems to have gone to
Paris, perhaps charged with a diplomatic mission. In 1361 he
returned to England after an absence of five years. He certainly
interpreted his leave of absence in a liberal spirit, and it may have
been with a view of averting the displeasure of his kind-hearted
protector that he brought with him as a present a book of
rhymed chronicles written by himself. He says that notwith-
standing his youth, he took upon himself the task "a rimer et
a dieter " which can only mean to " turn into verse " an
account of the wars of his own time, which he carried over to
England in a book " tout compil6," complete to date, and
presented to his noble mistress Philippa of Hainaut, who joy-
fully and gently received it of him. Such a rhymed chronicle
was no new thing. One Colin had already turned the battle of
Cr6cy into verse. The queen made young Froissart one of her
secretaries, and he began to serve her with " beaux <lii t it's et
trailed amoureux."
Froissart would probably have been content to go on living
at ease in this congenial atmosphere of flattery, praise and
caresses, pouring out his virelays and chansons according to
demand with facile monotony, but for the instigation of Queen
Philippa, who seems to have suggested to him the propriety of
travelling in order to get information for more rhymed chronicles.
It was at her charges that Froissart made his first serious journey.
He seems to have travelled a great part of the way alone, or
accompanied only by his servants, for he was fain to beguile
the journey by composing an imaginary conversation in verse
between his horse and his hound. This may be found among his
published poems, but it does not repay perusal. In Scotland
he met with a favourable reception, not only from King David
but from William of Douglas, and from the earls of Fife,
Mar, March and others. The souvenirs of this journey are
found scattered about in the chronicles. He was evidently much
impressed with the Scots; he speaks of the valour of the Douglas,
the Campbell, the Ramsay and the Graham; he describes the
hospitality and rude life of the Highlanders; he admires the
great castles of Stirling and Roxburgh and the famous abbey of
Melrose. His travels in Scotland lasted for six months. Return-
ing southwards he rode along the whole course of the Roman
wall, a thing alone sufficient to show that he possessed the true
spirit of an archaeologist; he thought that Carlisle was Carlyon,
and congratulated himself on having found King Arthur's
capital; he calls Westmorland, where the common people still
spoke the ancient British tongue, North Wales; he rode down
the banks of the Severn, and returned to London by way of
Oxford "1'escole d!Asque-Suffort."
In London Froissart entered into the service of King John
of France as secretary, and grew daily more courtly, more in
favour with princes and great ladies. He probably acquired at
this period that art, in which he has probably never been sur-
passed, of making people tell him all they knew. No newspaper
correspondent, no American interviewer, has ever equalled this
medieval collector of intelligence. From Queen Philippa, who
confided to him the tender story of her youthful and lasting love
for her great husband, down to the simplest knight Froissart
conversed with none beneath the rank of gentlemen all united
in telling this man what he wanted to know. He wanted to
know everything: he liked the story of a battle from both sides
and from many points of view; he wanted the details of every
little cavalry skirmish, every capture of a castle, every gallant
action and brave deed. And what was more remarkable, he
forgot nothing. " I had," he says, " thanks to God, sense,
memory, good remembrance of everything, and an intellect
clear and keen to seize upon the acts which I could learn." But
as yet he had not begun to write in prose.
At the age of twenty-nine, in 1366, Froissart once more left
England. This time he repaired first to Brussels, whither were
gathered together a great concourse of minstrels from all parts.
244
FROISSART
from the courts of the kings of Denmark, Navarre and Aragon,
from those of the dukes of Lancaster, Bavaria and Brunswick.
Hither came all who could " rimer et dieter." What distinction
Froissart gained is not stated; but he received a gift of money,
as appears from the accounts: " uni Fritsardo, dictori, qui est
cum regina Angliae, dicto die, vi. mottones."
After this congress of versifiers, he made his way to Brittany,
where he heard from eye-witnesses and knights who had actually
fought there details of the battles of Cocherel and Auray, the
Great Day of the Thirty and the heroism of Jeanne de Montfort.
Windsor Herald told him something about Auray, and a French
knight, one Antoine de Beaujeu, gave him the details of Cocherel.
From Brittany he went southwards to Nantes, La Rochelle and
Bordeaux, where he arrived a few days before the visit of Richard,
afterwards second of that name. He accompanied the Black
Prince to Dax, and hoped to go on with him into Spain, but
was despatched to England on a mission. He next formed part
of the expedition which escorted Lionel duke of Clarence to
Milan, to marry the daughter of Galeazzo Visconti. Chaucer
was also one of the prince's suite. At the wedding banquet
Petrarch was a guest sitting among the princes.
From Milan Froissart, accepting gratefully a cotte hardie with
20 florins of gold, set out upon his travels in Italy. At Bologna,
then in decadence, he met Peter king of Cyprus, from whose
follower and minister, Eustache de Conflans, he learned many
interesting particulars of the king's exploits. He accompanied
Peter as far as Venice, where he left him after receiving a gift
of 40 ducats. With them and his cotte hardie, still lined we may
hope with the 20 florins, Froissart betook himself to Rome.
The city was then at its lowest point: the churches were roofless;
there was no pope; there were ho pilgrims; there was no
splendour; and yet, says Froissart sadly,
" Ce furent jadis en Rome
Li plus preu et li plus sage homrae,
Car par sens tons les arts passerent."
It was at Rome that he learned of the death of his friend King
Peter of Cyprus, and, worse still, an irreparable loss to him,
that of the good Queen Philippa, of whom he writes, in grateful
remembrance
" Propices li sort Diex & Time!
J'en suis bien tenus de pryer
Et ses larghesces escuyer,
Car elle me fist et crea."
Philippa dead, Froissart looked around for a new patron.
Then he hastened back to his own country and presented himself,
with a new book in French, to the duchess of Brabant, from
whom he received the sum of 16 francs, given in the accounts
as paid uni Frissardo dictatori. The use of the word uni does
not imply any meanness of position, but is simply an equivalent
to the modern French sieur. Froissart may also have found a
patron in Yolande de Bar, grandmother of King Rene of Anjou.
In any case he received a substantial gift from some one in the
shape of the benefice of Lestines, a village some three or four
miles from the town of Binche. Also, in addition to his cure, he
got placed upon the duke of Brabant's pension list, and was
entitled to a yearly grant of grain and wine, with some small
sum in money.
It is clear, from Froissart's own account of himself, that he
was by no means a man who would at the age of four or five and
thirty be contented to sit down at ease to discharge the duties
of parish priest, to say mass, to bury the dead, to marry the
villagers and to baptize the young. In those days, and in that
country, it does not seem that other duties were expected".
Preaching was not required, godliness of life, piety, good works,
and the graces of a modern ecclesiastic were not looked for.
Therefore, when Froissart complains to himself that the taverns
of Lestines got 500 francs of his money, we need not at once set
him down as either a bad priest or exceptionally given to drink.
The people of the place were greatly addicted to wine; the
taverniers de Lestines proverbially sold good wine; the Flemings
were proverbially of a joyous disposition
" Ceux de Hainaut chantent a pleines gorges."
Froissart, the parish priest of courtly manners, no doubt
drank with the rest, and listened if they sang his own, not the
coarse country songs. Mostly he preferred the society of Gerard
d'Obies, provost of Binche, and the little circle of knights within
that town. Or for it was not incumbent on him to be always
in residence he repaired to the court of Coudenberg, and became
" moult frere et accointe " with the duke of Brabant. And then
came Gui de Blois, one of King John's hostages in London in the
old days. He had been fighting in Prussia with the Teutonic
knights, and now, a little tired of war, proposed to settle down
for a time in his castle of Beaumont. This prince was a member
of the great house of Chatillon. He was count of Blois, of
Soissons and of Chimay. He had now, about the year 1374, an
excellent reputation as a good captain. In him Froissart, who
hastened to resume acquaintance, found a new patron. More
than that, it was this sire de Beaumont, in emulation of his
grandfather, the patron of Jean le Bel, who advised Froissart
seriously to take in hand the history of his own time. Froissart
was then in his thirty-sixth year. For twenty years he had been
rhyming, for eighteen he had been making verses for queens and
ladies. Yet during all this time he had been accumulating in his
retentive brain the materials for his future work.
He began by editing, so to speak, that is, by rewriting with
additions, the work of Jean le Bel; Gui de Blois, among others,
supplied him with additional information. His own notes, taken
from information obtained in his travels, gave him more details,
and when in 1374 Gui married Marie de Namur, Froissart found
in the bride's father, Robert de Namur, one who had himself
largely shared in the events which he had to relate. He, for
instance, is the authority for the story of the siege of Calais
and the six burgesses. Provided with these materials, Froissart
remained at Lestines, or at Beaumont, arranging and writing
his chronicles. During this period, too, he composed his Espinetle
amoureuse, and the Joli Buisson de jonesce, and his romance of
Meliador. He also became chaplain to the count of Blois, and
obtained a canonry of Chimay. After this appointment we hear
nothing more of Lestines, which he probably resigned.
In these quiet pursuits he passed twelve years, years of which
we hear nothing, probably because there was nothing to tell.
In 1386 his travels began again, when he accompanied Gui to
his castle at Blois, in order to celebrate the marriage of his son
Louis de Dunois with Marie de Berry. He wrote a pastourelle
in honour of the event. Then he attached himself for a few days
to the duke of Berry, from whom he learned certain particulars
of current events, and then, becoming aware of what promised to
be the most mighty feat of arms of his time, he hastened to Sluys
in order to be on the spot. At this port the French were collecting
an enormous fleet, and making preparations of the greatest
magnitude in order to repeat the invasion of William the Con-
queror. They were tired of being invaded by the English and
wished to turn the tables. The talk was all of conquering the
country and dividing it among the knights, as had been done by
the Normans. It is not clear whether Froissart intended to go
over with the invaders; but as his sympathies are ever with the
side where he happens to be, he exhausts himself in admiration
of this grand gathering of ships and men. " Any one," he says,
" who had a fever would have been cured of his malady merely
by going to look at the fleet." But the delays of the duke of
Berry, and the arrival of bad weather, spoiled everything. There
was no invasion of England. In Flanders Froissart met many
knights who had fought at Rosebeque, and could tell him of the
troubles which in a few years desolated that country, once so
prosperous. He set himself to ascertain the history with as
much accuracy as the comparison of various accounts by eye-
witnesses and actors would allow. He stayed at Ghent, among
those ruined merchants and mechanics, for whom, as one of the
same class, he felt a 'sympathy never extended to English or
French, perhaps quite as unfortunate, and he devotes no fewer
than 300 chapters to the Flemish troubles, an amount out of
all proportion to the comparative importance of the events.
This portion of the chronicle was written at Valenciennes.
During this residence in his birthplace his verses were crowned
at the " puys d'amour " of Valenciennes and Tournay.
FROISSART
245
This part of his work finished, he considered what to do next.
There was small chance of anything important happening in
Picardy or Hainault, and he determined on making a journey
to the south of France in order to learn something new. He was
then fifty-one years of age, and being still, as he tells us, in his
prime, " of an age, strength, and limbs able to bear fatigue,"
he set out as eager to see new places as when, 33 years before,
he rode through Scotland and marvelled at the bravery of the
Douglas. What he had, in addition to strength, good memory
and good spirits, was a manner singularly pleasing and great
personal force of character. This he does not tell us, but it
comes out abundantly in his writings; and, which he does tell
us, be took a singular delight in his book. " The more I work
at it," he says, " the better am I pleased with it."
On this occasion he rode first to Blois; on the way he fell in
with two knights who told him of the disasters of the English
army in Spain; one of them also informed him of the splendid
hospitalities and generosity of Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix,
on hearing of which Froissart resolved to seek him out. He
avoided the English provinces of Poitou and Guienne, and rode
southwards through Berry, Auvergne and Languedoc. Arrived
at Foiz be discovered that the count was at Orthez, whither he
proceeded in company with a knight named Espaing de Lyon,
who, Froissart found, had not only fought, but could describe.
The account of those few days' ride with Espaing de Lyon is
the most charming, the most graphic, and the most vivid chapter
in the whole of Froissart. Every turn of the road brings with
it the sight of a ruined castle, about which this knight of many
memories has a tale or a reminiscence. The whole country
teems with fighting stories. Froissart never tires of. listening
nor the good knight of telling. " Sainte Marie I " cries Froissart
in mere rapture. " How pleasant are your tales, and how much
do they profit me while you relate them! And you shall not lose
your trouble, for they shall all be set down in memory and remem-
brance in the history which I am writing." Arrived at length
at Orthez, Froissart lost no time in presenting his credentials to
the count of Foix. Gaston Phoebus was at this time fifty-nine
years of age. His wife, from whom he was separated, was that
princess, sister of Charles of Navarre, with whom Guillaumc de
Machault carried on his innocent and poetical amour. The story
of the miserable death of his son is well known, and may be read
in Froissart. But that was already a tale of the past, and the
state which the count kept up was that of a monarch. To such a
prince such a visitor as Froissart would be in every way welcome.
Mindful no doubt of those paid clerks who were always writing
verses, Froissart introduced himself as a chronicler. He could,
of course, rhyme, and in proof he brought with him his romance
of Mtiiador; but he did not present himself as a wandering
poet. The count received him graciously, speedily discovered
the good qualities of his guest, and often invited him to read his
Utiitidor aloud in the evening, during which time, says Froissart,
" nobody dared to say a word, because he wished me to be heard,
such great delight did he take in listening." Very soon Froissart,
from reader of a romance, became raconteur of the things he had
seen and heard; the next step was that the count himself began
to talk of affairs, so that the notebook was again in requisition.
There was a good deal, too, to be learned of people about the
court. One knight recently returned from the East told about
the Genoese occupation of Famagosta; two more had been in the
fray of Otterbourne; others had been in the Spanish wars.
Leaving Gaston at length, Froissart assisted at the wedding
of the old duke of Berry with the youthful Jeanne de Bourbon,
and was present at the grand reception given to Isabeau of
Bavaria by the Parisians. He then returned to Valenciennes,
and sat down to write his fourth book. A journey undertaken
at this time is characteristic of the thorough and conscientious
-.pint in which he composed his work; it illustrates also his
restless and curious spirit. While engaged in the events of the
year 1385 be became aware that his notes taken at Orthez and
elsewhere on the affairs of Castile and Portugal were wanting in
completeness. He left Valenciennes and hastened to Bruges,
where, be felt certain, he should find some one who would help
him. There was, in fact, at this great commercial centre, a
colony of Portuguese. From them he learned that a certain
Portuguese knight, Dom Juan Fernand Pacheco, was at the
moment in Middelburg on the point of starting for Prussia.
He instantly embarked at Sluys, reached Middelburg in time
to catch this knight, introduced himself, and conversed with him
uninterruptedly for the space of six days, getting his information
on the promise of due acknowledgment. During the next two
years we learn little of his movements. He seems, however,
to have had trouble with his seigneur Gui de Blois, and even to
have resigned his chaplaincy. Froissart is tender with Gui's
reputation, mindful of past favours and remembering how great
a lord he is. Yet the truth is clear that in his declining years
the once gallant Gui de Blois became a glutton and a drunkard,
and allowed his affairs to fall into the greatest disorder. So
much was he crippled with debt that he was obliged to sell his
castle and county of Blois to the king of France. Froissart lays
all the blame on evil counsellors. " He was my lord and master,"
he says simply, " an honourable lord and of great reputation ;
but he trusted too easily in those who looked for neither his
welfare nor his honour." Although canon of Chimay and perhaps
curfe of Lestines as well, it would seem as if Froissart was not able
to live without a patron. He next calls Robert de Namur his
seigneur, and dedicates to him, in a general introduction, the
whole of his chronicles. We then find him at Abbeville, trying
to learn all about the negotiations pending between Charles VI.
and the English. He was unsuccessful, either because he could
not get at those who knew what was going on, or because the
secret was too well kept. He next made his last visit to England,
where, after forty years' absence, he naturally found no one
who remembered him. Here he gave King Richard a copy of his
" traites.amoureux," and got favour at court. He stayed in
England some months, seeking information on all points from
his friends Henry Chrystead and Richard Stury, from the dukes
of York and Gloucester, and from Robert the Hermit.
On his return to France, he found preparations going on
for that unlucky crusade, the end of which he describes in his
Chronicle. It was headed by the count of Nevers. After him
floated many a banner of knights, descendants of the crusaders,
who bore the proud titles of duke of Athens, duke of Thebes,
sire de Sidon, sire de Jericho. They were going to invade the
sultan's empire by way of Hungary; they were going to march
south; they would reconquer the holy places. And presently
we read how it all came to nothing, and how the slaughtered
knights lay dead outside the city of Nikopoli. In almost the
concluding words of the Chronicle the murder of Richard II.
of England is described. His death ends the long and crowded
Chronicle, though the pen of the writer struggles through a few
more unfinished sentences.
The rest is vague tradition. He is said to have died at Chimay ;
it is further said that he died in poverty so great that his relations
could not even afford to carve his name upon the headstone of
his tomb; not one of his friends, not even Eustache Deschamps,
writes a line of regret in remembrance; the greatest historian
of his age had a reputation so limited that his death was no
more regarded than that of any common monk or obscure
priest. We would willingly place the date of his death, where
his Chronicle stops, in the year 1400; but tradition assigns
the date of 1410. What date more fitting than the close of the
century for one who has made that century illustrious for ever ?
Among his friends were Guillaume de Machault, Eustache
Deschamps, the most vigorous poet of this age of decadence,
and C 'uvdicr. a follower of Bertrand du Guesclin. These alliances
are certain. It is probable that he knew Chaucer, with whom
Deschamps maintained a poetical correspondence; there is
nothing to show that he ever made the acquaintance of Christine
de Pisan . Froissart .was more proud of his poetry than his prose.
Posterity has reversed this opinion, and though a selection of
his verse has been published, it would be difficult to find an
admirer, or even a reader, of his poems. The selection published
by Buchon in 1829 consists of the Dil dou florin, half of which
is a description of the power of money; the Dtbat dou chnal
246
FROME FROMENTIN
et dott lewier, written during his journey in Scotland; the
Dittie de la flour de la Margherite; a Dittie d'amour called
L'Orlose amoureus, in which he compares himself, the imaginary
lover, with a clock; the Espinette amoureuse, which contains a
sketch of his early life, freely and pleasantly drawn, accompanied
by rondeaux and virelays; the Buisson de jonesce, in which
he returns to the recollections of his own youth; and various
smaller pieces. The verses are monotonous; the thoughts are
not without poetical grace, but they are expressed at tedious
length. It would be, however, absurd to expect in Froissart
the vigour and verve possessed by none of his predecessors.
The time was gone when Marie de France, Rutebceuf and
Thibaut de Champagne made the 13th-century language a
medium for verse of which any literature might be proud.
Briefly, Froissart's poetry, unless the unpublished portion
be better than that before us, is monotonous and mechanical.
The chief merit it possesses is in simplicity of diction. This not
infrequently produces a pleasing effect.
As for the character of his Chronicle, little need be said.
There has never been any difference of opinion on the distinctive
merits of this great work. It presents a vivid and faithful
drawing of the things done in the I4th century. No more
graphic account exists of any age. No historian has drawn
so many and such faithful portraits. They are, it is true, portraits
of men as they seemed to the writer, not of men as they were.
Froissart was uncritical; he accepted princes by their appearance.
Who, for instance, would recognize in his portrait of Gaston
Phoebus de Foix the cruel voluptuary, stained with the blood
of his own son, which we know him to have been? Froissart,
again, had no sense of historical responsibility; he was no
judge to inquire into motives and condemn actions; he was
simply a chronicler. He has been accused by French authors
of lacking patriotism. Yet it must be remembered that he was
neither a Frenchman nor an Englishman, but a Fleming. He
has been accused of insensibility to suffering. Indignation
against oppression was not, however, common in the I4th
century; why demand of Froissart a quality which is rare
enough even in our own time? Yet there are moments when,
as in describing the massacre of Limoges, he speaks with tears
in his voice.
Let him be judged by his own aims. " Before I commence
this book," he says, " I pray the Saviour of all the world, who
created every thing out of nothing, that He will also create and
put in me sense and understanding of so much worth, that this
book, which I have begun, I may continue and persevere in,
so that all those who shall read, see, and hear it may find in it
delight and pleasance." To give delight and pleasure, then,
was his sole design.
As regards his personal character, Froissart depicts it himself
for us. Such as he was in youth, he tells us, so he remained in
more advanced life; rejoicing mightily in dances and carols,
in hearing minstrels and poems; inclined to love all those who
love dogs and hawks; pricking up his ears at the uncorking of
bottles, "Car au voire prens grand plaisir"; pleased with
good cheer, gorgeous apparel and joyous society, but no common-
place reveller or greedy voluptuary, everything in Froissart
was ruled by the good manners which he set before all else;
and always eager to listen to tales of war and battle. As we have
said above, he shows, not only by his success at courts, but also
by the whole tone of his writings, that he possessed a singularly
winning manner and strong personal character. He lived
wholly in the present, and had no thought of the coming changes.
Born when chivalrous ideas were most widely spread, but the
spirit of chivalry itself, as inculcated by the best writers, in its
decadence, he is penetrated with the sense of knightly honour,
and ascribes to all his heroes alike those qualities which only the
ideal knight possessed.
The first edition of Froissart's Chronicles was published in Paris.
It bears no date; the next editions are those of the years 1505, 1514,
1518 and 1520. The edition of Buchon, 1824, was a continuation
of one commenced by Dacier. The best modern editions are those
of Kervyn de Lettenhove (Brussels, 1863-1877) and Simeon Luce
(Paris, 1860-1888); for bibliography see Potthast, BMiotheca hist.
medii aevi, i. (Berlin, 1896). An abridgment was made in Latin by
Belleforest, and published in 1672. An English translation was
made by Bouchier, Lord Berners, and published in London, 1525.
See the 1 " Tudor Translations " edition of Berners (Nutt, 1901),
with introduction by W. P. Ker; and the " Globe " edition, with
introduction by G. C. Macaulay. The translation by Thomas
Johnes was originally published in 1802-1805. For Froissart's
poems see Scheler's text in K. de Lettenhove's complete edition;
Mbliador has been edited by Longnon for the Societe des Anciens
Textes (1895-1899). See also Madame Darmesteter (Duclaux),
Froissart (1894). (W, BE.)
FROME, a market town in the Frome parliamentary division
of Somersetshire, England, 107 m. W. by S. of London by the
Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,057. It
is unevenly built on high ground above the river Frome, which
is here crossed by a stone bridge of five arches. It was formerly
called Frome or Froome Selwood, after the neighbouring forest
of Selwood; and the country round is still richly wooded and
picturesque. The parish church of St John the Baptist, with
its fine tower and spire, was built about the close of the i4th
century, and, though largely restored, has a beautiful chancel,
Lady chapel and baptistery. Fragments of Norman work are
left; the interior is elaborately adorned with sculptures and
stained glass. The market-hall, museum, school of art, and a
free grammar school, founded under Edward VI., may be noted
among buildings and institutions. The chief industries are
brewing and art metal-working, also printing, metal-founding,
and the manufacture of cloth, silk, tools and cards for wool-
dressing. Dairy farming is largely practised in the neighbour-
hood. Selwood forest was long a favourite haunt of brigands,
and even in the i8th century gave shelter to a gang of coiners and
highwaymen.
The Saxon occupation of Frome (From) is the earliest of
which there is evidence, the settlement being due to the founda-
tion of a monastery by Aldhelm in 705. A witenagemot was
held there in 934, so that Frome must already have been a place
of some size. At the time of the Domesday Survey the manor
was owned by King William. Local tradition asserts that
Frome was a medieval borough, and the reeve of Frome is
occasionally mentioned in documents after the reign of Edward
I., but there is no direct evidence that Frome was a borough and
no trace of any charter granted to it. It was not represented
in parliament until given one member by the Reform Act of
1832. Separate representation ceased in 1885. Frome was
never incorporated. A charter of Henry VII. to Edmund
Leversedge, then lord of the manor, granted the right to have
fairs on the 22nd of July and the 2ist of September. In the
1 8th century two other fairs on the 24th of February and the
25th of November were held. Cattle fairs are now held on the
last Wednesday in February and November, and a cheese fair
on the last Wednesday in September. The Wednesday market
is held under the charter of Henry VII. There is also a Saturday
cattle market. The manufacture of woollen cloth has been
established since the isth century, Frome being the only Somer-
set town in which this staple industry has flourished continuously.
FROMENTIN, EUGENE (1820-1876), French painter, was
born at La Rochelle in December 1820. After leaving school
he studied for some years under Louis Cabat, the landscape
painter. Fromentin was one of the earliest pictorial interpreters
of Algeria, having been able, while quite young, to visit the
land and people that suggested the subjects of most of his
works, and to store his memory as well as his portfolio with the
picturesque and characteristic details of North African life. In
1849 he obtained a medal of the second class. In 1852 he paid
a second visit to Algeria, accompanying an archaeological
mission, and then completed that minute study of the scenery
of the country and of the habits of its people which enabled him
to give to his after-work the realistic accuracy that comes from
intimate knowledge. In a certain sense his works are not more
artistic results than contributions to ethnological science. His
first great success was produced at the Salon of 1847, by the
" Gorges de la Chiffa." Among his more important works are
" La Place de la breche a Constantine " (1849); " Enterrement
FROMMEL FRONDE
247
Maure " u^Sj); " Bateleurs negres " and " Audience chez un
cbaiifc " (1859); " Berger kabyle " and " Courriers arabes "
(1861); " Bivouac arabe," " Chassc au faucon," " Fauconnier
arabc " (now at Luxembourg) (1863); " Chasse au h6ron "
(1865); " Voleurs de nuit " (1867); "Centaurs et arabes
ailaques par une lionne " (1868); " Hake de muleticrs " (1869);
" Lc Nil " and " Un Souvenir d'Esneh " (1875). Fromentin was
much influenced in style by Eugene Delacroix. His works are
distinguished by striking composition, great dexterity of hand-
ling and brilliancy of colour. In them is given with great
truth and refinement the unconscious grandeur of barbarian
and animal attitudes and gestures. His later works, however,
show signs of an exhausted vein and of an exhausted spirit,
accompanied or caused by physical enfeeblement. But it must
be observed that Fromenlin's paintings show only one side of
a genius that was perhaps even more felicitously expressed in
literature, though of course with less profusion. " Dominique,"
first published in the Revue des deux mondes in 1862, and
dedicated to George Sand, is remarkable among the fiction
ot the century for delicate and imaginative observation and for
emotional earnestness. Fromentin's other literary works are
I isites trtisliques (1853); Simples Peierinages (1856); Un ti
dans It SaMara (1857); Une Annie dans le Sahel (1858); and
Lei UdUres d'outrefois (1876). In 1876 he was an unsuccessful
candidate for the Academy. He died suddenly at La Rochelle
on the 271(1 of August 1876.
FROMMEL. GASTON (1862-1906), Swiss theologian, pro-
fessor of theology' in the university of Geneva from 1894 to 1906.
An Alsatian by birth, he belonged mainly to French Switzerland,
where he spent most of his life. He may best be described as
continuing the spirit of Vinet (q.v.) amid the mental conditions
marking the end of the icjth century. Like Vinet, he derived
his philosophy of religion from a peculiarly deep experience of
the Gospel of Christ as meeting the demands of the moral con-
sciousness; but he developed even further than Vinet the
psychological analysis of conscience and the method of verifying
every doctrine by direct reference to spiritual experience. Both
made much of moral individuality or personality as the crown
and criterion of reality, believing that its correlation with
Christianity, both historically and philosophically, was most
intimate. But while Vinet laid most stress on the liberty from
human authority essential to the moral consciousness, the
changed needs of the age caused Frommel to develop rather the
aspect of man's dependence as a moral being upon God's spiritual
initiative, " the conditional nature of his liberty." " Liberty
is not the primary, but the secondary characteristic " of con-
science; " before being free, it is the subject of obligation."
On this depends its objectivity as a real revelation of the Divine
Will. Thus he claimed that a deeper analysis carried one beyond
the human subjectivity of even Kant's categorical imperative,
since consciousness of obligation was " une experience impose'e
sous le mode de 1'absolu." By his use of imposet Frommel
emphasized the priority of man's sense of obligation to his
consciousness either of self or of God. Here he appealed to the
current psychology of the subconscious for confirmation of his
analysis, by which he claimed to transcend mere intellectualism.
In his language on this fundamental point he was perhaps too
jealous of admitting an ideal element as implicit in the feeling
of obligation. Still he did well in insisting on priority to self-
conscious thought as a mark of metaphysical objectivity in the
case of moral, no less than of physical experience. Further, he
found in the Christian revelation the same characteristics as
belonged to the universal revelation involved in conscience,
viz. God's sovereign initiative and his living action in history.
From this standpoint he argued against a purely psychological
type of religion (agnosticisme religieux, as he termed it) a
tendency to which he saw even in A. Sabatier and the symbolo-
Sdfitme of the Paris School as giving up a real and unifying
faith. His influence on men, especially the student class, was
greatly enhanced by the religious force and charm of his per-
sonality. Finally, like Vinet. he was a man of letters and a
penetrating critic of men and systems.
LITERATURE. G. Godet, Gotten Frommel (Neuchatel, 1906), a
compact sketch, with full citation of sources; cf. H. Bois, in Sainte-
Croix for 1906, for " L'Etudiant et le professeur." A complete
edition of his writings was begun in 1907. (J. V. B.)
FRONDE, THE. the name given to a civil war in France
which lasted from 1648 to 1652, and to its sequel, the war with
Spain in 1653-59. The word means a sling, and was applied to
this contest from the circumstance that the windows of Cardinal
Mazarin's. adherents were pelted with stones by the Paris mob.
Its original object was the redress of grievances, but the move-
ment soon degenerated into a factional contest among the nobles,
who sought to reverse the results of -Richelieu's work and to
overthrow his successor Mazarin. In May 1648 a tax levied on
judicial officers of the parlement of Paris was met by that body,
not merely with a refusal to pay, but with a condemnation of
earlier financial edicts, and even with a demand for the accept-
ance of a scheme of constitutional reforms framed by a com-
mittee of the parlement. This charter was somewhat influenced
by contemporary events in England. But there is no real
likeness between the two revolutions, the French parlement
being no more representative of the people than the Inns of
Court were in England. The political history of the time is
dealt with in the article FRANCE: History, the present article
being concerned chiefly with the military operations of what
was perhaps the most costly and least necessary civil war in
history.
The military record of the first or " parliamentary " Fronde
is almost blank. In August 1648, strengthened by the news
of Cond6's victory at Lens, Mazarin suddenly arrested the
leaders of the parlement, whereupon Paris broke into insurrection
and barricaded the streets. The court, having no army at its
immediate disposal, had to release the prisoners and to promise
reforms, and fled from Paris on the night of the 22nd of October.
But the signing of the peace of Westphalia set free Cond6's
army, and by January 1649 it was besieging Paris. The peace
of Rueil was signed in March, after little blood had been shed.
The Parisians, though still and always anti-cardinalist, refused
to ask for Spanish aid, as proposed by their princely and noble
adherents, and having no prospect of military success without
such aid, submitted and received concessions. Thenceforward
the Fronde becomes a story of sordid intrigues and half-hearted
warfare, losing all trace of its first constitutional phase. The
leaders were discontented princes and nobles Monsieur (Gaston
of Orleans, the king's uncle), the great Cond6 and his brother
Conti, the due de Bouillon and his brother Turenne. To these
must be added Gaston's daughter, Mademoiselle de Montpensier
(La grande Mademoiselle), Conde's sister, Madame de Longue-
ville, Madame de Chevreuse, and the astute intriguer Paul de
Gondi, later Cardinal de Retz. The military operations fell
into the hands of war-experienced mercenaries, led by two
great, and many second-rate, generals, and of nobles to whom
war was a polite pastime. The feelings of the people at large
were enlisted on neither side.
This peace of Rueil lasted until the end of 1649. The princes,
received at court once more, renewed their intrigues against
Mazarin, who, having come to an understanding with Monsieur,
Gondi and Madame de Chevreuse, suddenly arrested Conde\
Conti and Longueville (January 14, 1650). The war which
followed this coup is called the "Princes' Fronde." This time
it was Turenne, before and afterwards the most loyal soldier
of his day, who headed the armed rebellion. Listening to the
promptings of his Egeria, Madame de Longueville, he resolved
to rescue her brother, his old comrade of Freiburg and Nfird-
lingen. It was with Spanish assistance that he hoped to do so;
and a powerful army of that nation assembled in Artois under the
archduke Leopold, governor-general of the Spanish Netherlands.
But the peasants of the country-side rose against the invaders,
the royal army in Champagne was in the capable hands of Cfisur
de Choiseul, comte du Plessis-Praslin, who counted fifty-two
years of age and thirty-six of war experience, and the little
fortress of Guise successfully resisted the archduke's attack.
Thereupon, however, Mazarin drew upon Plessis-Praslin's army
FRONDE
for reinforcements to be sent to subdue the rebellion in the
south, and the royal general had to retire. Then, happily for
France, the archduke decided that he had spent sufficient of
the king of Spain's money and men in the French quarrel.
The magnificent regular army withdrew into winter quarters,
and left Turenne to deliver the princes with a motley host of
Frondeurs and Lorrainers. Plessis-Praslin by force and bribery
secured the surrender of Rethel on the i3th of December 1650,
and Turenne, who had advanced to relieve the place, fell back
hurriedly. But he was a terrible opponent, and Plessis-Praslin
and Mazarin himself, who accompanied the army, had many
misgivings as to the result of a lost battle. The marshal chose
nevertheless to force Turenne to a decision, and the battle of
Blanc-Champ (near Somme-Py) or Rethel was the consequence.
Both sides were at a standstill in strong positions, Plessis-Praslin
doubtful of the trustworthiness of his cavalry, Turenne too weak
to attack, when a dispute for precedence arose between the
Gardes franfaises and the Picardie regiment. The royal infantry
had to be rearranged in order of regimental seniority, and
Turenne, seeing and desiring to profit by the attendant disorder,
came out of his stronghold and attacked with the greatest vigour.
The battle (December 15, 1650) was severe and for a time doubt-
ful, but Turenne's Frondeurs gave way in the end, and his army,
as an army, ceased to exist. Turenne himself, undeceived as to
the part he was playing in the drama, asked and received the
young king's pardon, and meantime the court, with the maison
du roi and other loyal troops, had subdued the minor risings
without difficulty (March- April 1651). Conde, Conti and
Longueville were released, and by April 1651 the rebellion had
everywhere collapsed. Then followed a few months of hollow
peace and the court returned to Paris. Mazarin, an object of
hatred to all the princes, had already retired into exile. " Le
temps est un galant homme," he remarked, "laissons le faire!"
and so it proved. His absence left the field free for mutual
jealousies, and for the remainder of the year anarchy reigned
in France. In December 1651 Mazarin returned with a small
army. The war began again, and this time Turenne and Conde
were pitted against one another. After the first campaign, as
we shall see, the civil war ceased, but for several other campaigns
the two great soldiers were opposed to one another, Turenne as
the defender of France, Conde as a Spanish invader. Their
personalities alone give threads of continuity to these seven years
of wearisome manoeuvres, sieges and combats, though for a
right understanding of the causes which were to produce the
standing armies of the age of Louis XIV. and Frederick the Great
the military student should search deeply into the material and
moral factors that here decided the issue.
The debut of the new Frondeurs took place in Guyenne
(February-March 1652), while their Spanish ally, the archduke
Leopold William, captured various northern fortresses. On the
Loire, whither the centre of gravity was soon transferred, the
Frondeurs were commanded by intriguers and quarrelsome
lords, until Conde's arrival from Guyenne. His bold trenchant
leadership made itself felt in the action of Bleneau (7th April
1652), in which a portion of the royal army was destroyed, but
fresh troops came up to oppose him, and from the skilful dis-
positions made by his opponents Conde felt the presence of
Turenne and broke off the action. The royal army did likewise.
Cond6 invited the commander of Turenne's rearguard to supper,
chaffed him unmercifully for allowing the prince's men to surprise
him in the morning, and by way of farewell remarked to his
guest, " Quel dommage que des braves gens comme nous se
coupent la gorge pour un faquin " an incident and a remark
that thoroughly justify the iron-handed absolutism of Louis XIV.
There was no hope for France while tournaments on a large
scale and at the public's expense were fashionable amongst the
grands seigneurs. After Bleneau both armies marched to Paris
to negotiate with the parlement, de Retz and Mile de Montpensier,
while the archduke took more fortresses in Flanders, and Charles
IV., duke of Lorraine, with an army of plundering mercenaries,
marched through Champagne to join Cond. As to the latter,
Turenne manoeuvred past Cond6 and planted himself in front
of the mercenaries, and their leader, not wishing to expend his
men against the old French regiments, consented to depart with
a money payment and the promise of two tiny Lorraine fortresses.
A few more manoeuvres, and the royal army was able to hem in
the Frondeurs in the Faubourg St Antoine (and July 1652) with
their backs to the closed gates of Paris. The royalists attacked
all along the line and won a signal victory in spite of the knightly
prowess of the prince and his great lords, but at the critical
moment Gaston's daughter persuaded the Parisians to open the
gates and to admit Conde's army*. She herself turned the guns
of the Bastille on the pursuers. An insurrectional government
was organized in the capital and proclaimed Monsieur lieutenant-
general of the realm. Mazarin, feeling that public opinion was
solidly against him, left France again, and the bourgeois of Paris,
quarrelling with the princes, permitted the king to enter the city
on the 2ist of October 1652. Mazarin returned unopposed in
February 1653.
The Fronde as a civil war was now over. The whole country,
wearied of anarchy and disgusted with the princes, came to look
to the king's party as the party of order and settled government,
and thus the Fronde prepared the way for the absolutism of
Louis XIV. The general war continued in Flanders, Catalonia
and Italy wherever a Spanish and a French garrison were face
to face, and Conde with the wreck of his army openly and
definitely entered the service of the king of Spain. The " Spanish
Fronde " was almost purely a military affair and, except for a
few outstanding incidents, a dull affair to boot. In 1653 France
was so exhausted that neither invaders nor defenders were able
to gather supplies to enable them to take the field till July. At
one moment, near Peronne, Conde had Turenne at a serious
disadvantage, but he could not galvanize the Spanish general
Count Fuensaldana, who was more solicitous to preserve his
master's soldiers than to establish Conde as mayor of the palace
to the king of France, and the armies drew apart again without
fighting. In 1654 the principal incident was the siege and relief
of Arras. On the night of the 24th-25th .August the lines of
circumvallation drawn round that place by the prince were
brilliantly stormed by Turenne's army, and Conde won equal
credit for his safe withdrawal of the besieging corps under cover
of a series of bold cavalry charges led by himself as usual, sword
in hand. In 1655 Turenne captured the fortresses of Landrecies,
Conde and St Ghislain. In 1656 the prince of Conde revenged
himself for the defeat of Arras by storming Turenne's circum-
vallation around Valenciennes (i6th July), but Turenne drew off
his forces in good order. The campaign of 1657 was uneventful,
and is only to be remembered because a body of 6000 British
infantry, sent by Cromwell in pursuance of his treaty of alliance
with Mazarin, took part in it. The presence of the English
contingent and its very definite purpose of making Dunkirk a
new Calais, to be held by England for ever, gave the next cam-
paign a character of certainty and decision which is entirely
wanting in the rest of the war. Dunkirk was besieged promptly
and in great force, and when Don Juan of Austria and Conde
appeared with the relieving army from Fumes, Turenne advanced
boldly to meet him. The battle of the Dunes, fought on the
I4th of June 1658, was the first real trial of strength since the
battle of the Faubourg St Antoine. Successes on one wing were
compromised by failure on the other, but in the end Conde drew
off with heavy losses, the success of his own cavalry charges
having entirely failed to make good the defeat of the Spanish
right wing amongst the Dunes. Here the " red-coats " made
their first appearance on a continental battlefield, under the
leadership of Sir W. Lockhart, Cromwell's ambassador at Paris,
and astonished both armies by the stubborn fierceness of their
assaults, for they were the products of a war where passions
ran higher and the determination to win rested on deeper founda-
tions than in the dfgringolade of the feudal spirit in which they
now figured. Dunkirk fell, as a result of the victory, and flew
the St George's cross till Charles II. sold it to the king of France.
A last desultory campaign followed in 1659 the twenty-fifth
year of the Franco-Spanish War and the peace of the Pyrenees
was signed on the sth of November. On the 27th of January
FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU, COMTE DE
249
1660 the prince asked and obtained at Aix the forgiveness of
Lotus XIV. The later careen of Turenne and Condi- as the
great generals and obedient subjects of their sovereign are
described in the article DUTCH WARS.
For the many memoirs and letters of the time ace the list in
'loood's BMiorrapkie de ikistoirt de Frame (Paris, 1888). The
Lettres dm cardinal Uasarin have been collected in nine volumes
(Paris, 1878-1906). See P. Adolphe Cheruel. Hutoire. de France
Pendant la minorite de Louis XIV (4 vols.. 1879-1880), and his
thitoire de France lous It miniitere de Matarin (} vols., 1883);
L. C. de Beaupoil de Sainte-AuUire, Histoire de la Fronde (2nd ed.,
vols., 1860); " Arvede Barine " (Mme Charles Vincens), La
Jennetse de la gntnde mademoiselle (Paris, 1902); Due d'Aumale,
Hisloire de* princes de Condi (Paris, 1880-1896, 7 vols.). The most
interesting account of the military operations is in General Hardy
de Perini's Turenne el Condi (BataiUei franfaises, vol. iv.).
FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU. LOUIS DE BUADE. COMTE DE
(1620-1698), French-Canadian statesman, governor and lieu-
tenant-general for the French king in La Nouvelle France
(Canada), son of Henri de Buade, colonel in the regiment of
Navarre, was born in the year 1620. The details of his early
life are meagre, as no trace of the Frontenac papers has been
discovered. The de Buades, however, were a family of distinc-
tion in the principality of Beam. Antoine de Buade, seigneur de
Front cnar , grandfather of the future governor of Canada, attained
eminence as a councillor of state under Henri IV.; and his
children were brought up with the dauphin, afterwards Louis
XIII. Louis de Buade entered the army at an early age. In
the year 1635 he served under the prince of Orange in Holland,
and fought with credit and received many wounds during
engagements in the Low Countries and in Italy. He was pro-
moted to the rank of colonel in the regiment of Normandy in
1643,, and three years later, after distinguishing himself at the
siege of Orbitello, where he had an arm broken, he was made
martfkal de camp. His service seems to have been continuous
until the conclusion of the peace of Westphalia in 1648, when he
returned to his father's house in Paris and married, without the
consent of her parents, Anne de la Grange-Trianon, a girl of
great beauty, who later became the friend and confidante of
Madame de Montpensier. The marriage was not a happy one,
'and after the birth of a son incompatibility of temper led to a
separation, the count retiring to his estate on the Indre, where
by an extravagant course of living he became hopelessly involved
in debt. Little is known of his career for the next fifteen years
beyond the fact that he held a high position at court; but in
the year 1669, when France sent a contingent to assist the
Venetians in the defence of Crete against the Turks, Frontenac
was placed in command of the troops on the recommendation of
Turenne. In this expedition he won military glory; but his
fortune was not improved thereby.
At this period the affairs of New France claimed the attention
of the French court. From the year 1665 the colony had been
successfully administered by three remarkable men Daniel de
Rimy de Courcelle, the governor, Jean Talon, the intendant,
and the marquis de Tracy, who had been appointed lieutenant-
general for the French king in America; but a difference of
opinion had arisen between the governor and the intendant, and
each had demanded the other's recall in the public interest.
At this crisis in the administration of New France, Frontenac
was appointed to succeed de Courcelle. The new governor
arrived in Quebec on the i2th of September 1672. From the
commencement it was evident that be was prepared to give
effect to a policy of colonial expansion, and to exercise an inde-
pendence of action that did not coincide with the views of the
monarch or of his minister Colbert. One of the first acts of the
governor, by which he sought to establish in Canada the three
estates nobles, clergy and people met with the disapproval
of the French court, and measures were adopted to curb his
ambition by increasing the power of the sovereign council and
by reviving the office of intendant. Frontenac, however, was
a man of dominant spirit, jealous of authority, prepared to exact
obedience from all and to yield to none. In the course of events
he soon became involved in quarrels with the intendant touching
questions of precedence, and with the ecclesiastics, one or two
of whom ventured to criticize his proceedings. The church in
Canada had been administered for many years by the religious
orders; for the see of Quebec, so long contemplated, had not yet
been erected. But three years after the arrival of Frontenac a
former vicar apostolic, Francois Xavier de Laval de Mont-
morenci, returned to Quebec as bishop, with a jurisdiction over
the whole of Canada. In this redoubtable churchman the
governor found a vigorous opponent who was determined to
render the state subordinate to the church. Frontenac, following
in this respect in the footsteps of his predecessors, had issued
trading licences which permitted the sale of intoxicants. The
bishop, supported by the intendant, endeavoured to suppress
this trade and sent an ambassador to France to obtain remedial
action. The views of the bishop were upheld and henceforth
authority was divided. Troubles ensued between the governor
and the sovereign council, most of the members of which sided
with the one permanent power in the colony the bishop;
while the suspicions and intrigues of the intendant, Duchesneau,
were a constant source of vexation and strife. As the king and
his minister had to listen to and adjudicate upon the appeals
from the contending parties their patience was at last worn out,
and both governor and intendant were recalled to France in
the year 1682. During Frontenac's first administration many
improvemlnts had been made in the country. The defences
had been strengthened, a fort was built at Cataraqui (now
Kingston), Ontario, bearing the governor's name, and conditions
of peace had been fairly maintained between the Iroquois on
the one hand and the French and their allies, the Ottawas and
the Hurons, on the other. The progress of events during the
next few years proved that the recall of the governor had been
ill-timed. The Iroquois were assuming a threatening attitude
towards the inhabitants, and Frontenac's successor, La Barre,
was quite incapable of leading an army against such cunning
foes. At the end of a year La Barre was replaced by the marquis
de Denonville, a man of ability and courage, who, though he
showed some vigour in marching against the western Iroquois
tribes, angered rather than intimidated them, and the massacre
of Lachine (sth of August 1689) must be regarded as one of the
unhappy results of his administration.
The affairs of the colony were now in a critical condition; a
man of experience and decision was needed to cope with the
difficulties, and Louis XIV., who was not wanting in sagacity,
wisely made choice of the choleric count to represent and uphold
the power of France. When, therefore, on the isth of October
1689, Frontenac arrived in Quebec as governor for the second
time, he received an enthusiastic welcome, and confidence was
at once restored in the public mind. Quebec was not long to
enjoy the blessing of peace. On the i6th of October 1690
several New England ships under the command of Sir William
Phipps appeared off the Island of Orleans, and an officer was
sent ashore to demand the surrender of the fort. Frontenac,
bold and fearless, sent a defiant answer to the hostile admiral,
and handled so vigorously the forces he had collected as com-
pletely to repulse the enemy, who in their hasty retreat left
behind a few pieces of artillery on the Beauport shore. The
prestige of the governor was greatly increased by this event, and
he was prepared to follow up his advantage by an attack on
Boston from the sea, but his resources were inadequate for the
undertaking. New France now rejoiced in a brief respite from
her enemies, and during the interval Frontenac encouraged the
revival of the drama at the Chateau St-Louis and paid some
attention to the social life of the colony. The Indians, however,
were not yet subdued, and for two years a petty warfare was
maintained. In 1696 Frontenac decided to take the field against
the Iroquois, although at this time he was seventy-six years of
age. On the 6th of July he left Lachine at the head of a con-
siderable force for the village of the Onondagas, where he arrived
a month later. In the meantime the Iroquois had abandoned
their villages, and as pursuit was impracticable the army com-
menced its return march on the loth of August. The old warrior
endured the fatigue of the march as well as the youngest soldier,
and for his courage and prowess he received the cross of St
250
Louis. Frontenac died on the 28th of November 1698 at the
Chateau St-Louis after a brief illness, deeply mourned by the
Canadian people. The faults of the governor were those of
temperament, which had been fostered by early environment.
His nature was turbulent, and from his youth he had been used
to command; but underlying a rough exterior there was evidence
of a kindly heart. He was fearless, resourceful and decisive,
and triumphed as few men could have done over the difficulties
and dangers of a most critical position.
See Count Frontenac, by W. D. Le Sueur (Toronto, 1906) ; Count
Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV, by Francis Park-
man (Boston, 1878); Le Contte de Frontenac, by Henri Lorin
(Paris, 1895) ; Frontenac et ses amis, by Ernest Myrand (Quebec,
1902). (A. G. D.)
FRONTINUS. SEXTDS JULIUS (c. A.D. 40-103), Roman
soldier and author. In 70 he was city praetor, and five years
later was sent into Britain to succeed Petilius Cerealis as governor
of that island. He subdued the Silures, and held the other
native tribes in check till he was superseded by Agricola (78).
In 97 he was appointed superintendant of the aqueducts (curator
aquarum) at Rome, an office only conferred upon persons of very
high standing. He was also a member of the college of augurs.
His chief work is De aquis urbis Romae, in two books, containing
a history and description of the water-supply of Rome, including
the laws relating to its use and maintenance, and other matters
of importance in the history of architecture. Frontinus also
wrote a theoretical treatise on military science (De re militari)
which is lost. His Strategemalicon libri Hi. is a collection of
examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history,
for the use of officers; a fourth book, the plan and style of which
is different from the rest (more stress is laid on the moral aspects
of war, e.g. discipline), is the work of another writer (best edition
by G. Gundermann, 1888). Extracts from a treatise on land-
surveying ascribed to Frontinus are preserved in Lachmann's
Gromatici veleres (1848).
A valuable edition of the De aquis (text and translation) has been
published by C. Herschel (Boston, Mass., 1899). It contains numer-
ous illustrations; maps of the routes of the ancient aqueducts
and the city of Rome in the time of Frontinus; a photographic
reproduction of the only MS. (the Monte Cassino); several ex-
planatory chapters, and a concise bibliography, in which special
reference is made to P. d Tissot, Etude sur la condition des agri-
mensores (1879). There is a complete edition of the works by
A. Dederich (1855), and an English translation of the Strategematica
by R. Scott (1816).
FRONTISPIECE (through the French, from Med. Lat. frontis-
picium, a front view, frons, fronlis, forehead or front, and specere,
to look at; the English spelling is a mistaken adaptation to
" piece "), an architectural term for the principal front of a
building, but more generally applied to a richly decorated
entrance doorway, if projecting slightly only in front of the
main wall, otherwise portal or porch would be a more correct
term. The word, however, is more used for a decorative design
or the representation of some subject connected with the sub-
stance of a book and placed as the first illustrated page. A
design at the end of the chapter of a book is called a tail-piece.
PRONTO, MARCUS CORNELIUS (c. A.D. 100-170), Roman
grammarian, rhetorician and advocate, was born of an Italian
family at Cirta in Numidia. He came to Rome in the reign of
Hadrian, and soon gained such renown as an advocate and
orator as to be reckoned inferior only to Cicero. He amassed a
large fortune, erected magnificent buildings and purchased the
famous gardens of Maecenas. Antoninus Pius, hearing of his
fame, appointed him tutor to his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius
and Lucius Verus. In 143 he was consul for two months, but
declined the proconsulship of Asia on the ground of ill-health.
His latter years were embittered by the loss of all his children
except one daughter. His talents as an orator and rhetorician
were greatly admired by his contemporaries, a number of whom
formed themselves into a school called after him Frontoniani,
whose avowed object it was to restore the ancient purity and
simplicity of the Latin language in place of the exaggerations of
the Greek sophistical school. However praiseworthy the inten-
tion may have been, the list of authors specially recommended
FRONTINUS FROST, W. E.
does not speak well for Fronto's literary taste. The authors of
the Augustan age are unduly depreciated, while Ennius, Plautus,
Laberius, Sallust are held up as models of imitation. Till 1815
the only extant works ascribed (erroneously) to Fronto were two
grammatical treatises, De nominum iierborumque diferentiis
and Exempla elocutionum (the last being really by Arusianus
Messius). In that year, however, Angelo Mai discovered in
the Ambrosian library at Milan a palimpsest manuscript (and,
later, some additional sheets of it in the Vatican), on which had
been originally written some of Fronto's letters to his royal
pupils and their replies. These palimpsests had originally
belonged to the famous convent of St Columba at Bobbio, and
had been written over by the monks with the acts of the first
council of Chalcedon. The letters, together with the other
fragments in the palimpsest, were published at Rome in 1823.
Their contents falls far short of the writer's great reputation.
The letters consist of correspondence with Antoninus Pius,
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, in which the character of
Fronto's pupils appears in a very favourable light, especially
in the affection they both seem to have retained for their old
master; and letters to friends, chiefly letters of recommendation.
The collection also contains treatises on eloquence, some historical
fragments, and literary trifles on such subjects as the praise of
smoke and dust, of negligence, and a dissertation on Arion.
" His style is a laborious mixture of archaisms, a motley cento,
with the aid of which he conceals the poverty of his knowledge
and ideas." His chief merit consists in having preserved extracts
from ancient writers which would otherwise have been lost.
The best edition of his works is by S. A. Naber (1867), with an
account of the palimpsest; see also G. Boissier, " Marc-Aurele et
les lettres de F., ' in Revue des deux mondes (April 1868); R. Ellis,
in Journal of Philology (1868) and Correspondence of Fronto and M.
Aurelius (1904.) ; and the full bibliography in the article by Brzoska
in the new edition of Pauly's Realencyclopddie der classischen Alter-
tumswissenschaft, iv. pt. i. (1900).
FROSINONE (anc. Frusino], a town of Italy in the province
of Rome, from which it is 53 m. E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901)
town, 9530; commune, 11,029. The place is picturesquely
situated on a hill of 955 ft. above sea-level, but contains no
buildings of interest. Of the ancient city walls a small fragment
alone is preserved, and no other traces of antiquity are visible,
not even of the amphitheatre which it once possessed, for which
a ticket (tessera) has been found (Th. Mommsen in Ber. d. Sach-
sischen Gesellschaft d. Wissenschafien, 1849, 286). It was a
Volscian, not a Hernican, town; a part of its territory was taken
from it about 306-303 B.C. by the Romans and sold. The town
then became a praefectura, probably with the civilas sine suffragio,
and later a colony, but we hear nothing important of it. It was
situated just above the Via Latina. (T. As.)
FROSSARD, CHARLES AUGUSTS (1807-1875), French
general, was born on the 26th of April 1807, and entered the
army from the Ecole Polytechnique in 1827, being posted to the
engineers. He took part in the siege of Rome in 1849 and in
that of Sebastopol in 1855, after which he was promoted general
of brigade. Four years later as general of division, and chief
of engineers in the Italian campaign, he attracted the particular
notice of the emperor Napoleon III., who made him in 1867 chief
of his military household and governor to the prince imperial.
He was one of the superior military authorities who in this
period 1866-1870 foresaw and endeavoured to prepare for the
inevitable war with Germany, and at the outbreak of war he
was given by Napoleon the choice between a corps command
and the post of chief engineer at headquarters. He chose the
command of the II. corps. On the 6th of August 1870 he held
the position of Spicheren against the Germans until the arrival
of reinforcements for the latter, and the non-appearance of the
other French corps compelled him to retire. After this he took
part in the battles around Metz, and was involved with his corps
in the surrender of Bazaine's army. General Frossard published
in 1872 a Rapport sur les operations du 2* corps. He died at
Chateau-Villain (Haute-Marne) on the 25th of August 1875.
FROST, WILLIAM EDWARD (1810-1877), English painter, was
born at Wandsworth, near London, in September 1810. About
FROST FROTHINGHAM
251
1875, through William Etty, R.A., he was sent to a drawing
school in Bloomsbury, and after several years' study there, and
in the sculpture rooms at the British Museum, Frost was in
1829 admitted as a student in the schools of the Royal Academy.
He won medals in all the schools, except the antique, in which
he was beaten by Maclise. During those years he maintained
himself by portrait-painting. He is said to have painted about
this lime over 300 portraits. In 1839 he obtained the gold
medal of the Royal Academy for his* picture of " Prometheus
bound by Force and Strength." At the cartoon exhibition at
Westminster Hall in 1843 he was awarded a third-class prize
of 100 for his cartoon of " Una alarmed by Fauns and
Satyrs." He exhibited at the Academy " Christ crowned with
Thorns " (1843), " Nymphs dancing " (1844), " Sabrina " (1845),
" Diana and Actaeon " (1846). In 1846 he was elected Associate
of the Royal Academy. His " Nymph disarming Cupid " was ex-
hibited in 1847;" Una and the Wood-Nymphs" of the same year
was bought by the queen. This was the time of Frost's highest
popularity, which considerably declined after 1850. His later
pictures are simply repetitions of earlier motives. Among them
may be named " Euphrosyne " (1848), "Wood-Nymphs"
(1851)," Chastity "(1854)," II Penseroso"(i8s5), "The Graces"
(1856), " Narcissus " (1857), " Zephyr with Aurora playing "
(1858), "The Graces and Loves" (1863), " Hylas and the
Nymphs " (1867). Frost was elected to full membership of the
Royal Academy in December 1871. This dignity, however, he
soon resigned. Frost had no high power of design, though some
of his smaller and apparently less important works are not with-
out grace and charm. Technically, his paintings are, in a sense,
very highly finished, but they are entirely without mastery.
He died on the 4th of June 1877.
FROST (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost,
from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch,
eritzen. Ger. frieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat.
pTttina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal,
Sansk. flush, to burn), in meteorology, the act, or agent of the
process, of freezing; hence the terms " hoar-frost " and " white-
frost " applied to visible frozen vapour formed on exposed surfaces.
A frost can only occur when the surface temperature falls below
32 F., the freezing-point of water; if the temperature be
between 28 and 32 it is a " light frost," if below 28 it is a
" heavy," " killing " or " black frost "; the term " black frost "
is also used when no hoar-frost is present. The number of
degrees below freezing-point is termed " degrees of frost." As
soon as a mass of air is cooled to its dew-point, water begins to
be precipitated in the form of rain, dew, snow or hail. Hoar-
frost is only formed at the immediate surface of the land if the
Utter be at a temperature below 32, and this may occur even
when the temperature of the air a few feet above the ground is
i2-i6 c above the freezing-point. The heaviest hoar-frosts are
formed under weather conditions similar to those under which
the heaviest summer dews occur, namely, clear and calm nights,
when there is no cloud to impede the radiation of heat from the
surface of the land, which thereby becomes rapidly and com-
pletely cooled. The danger of frost is minimized when the soil
is very moist, as for example after 10-12 mm. of rain; and it
is a practice in America to flood fields on the receipt of a frost
warning, radiation being checked by the light fog sheets which
develop over moist soils, just as a cloud-layer in the upper
atmosphere impedes radiation on a grand scale. A layer of
smoke will also impede radiation locally, and to this end smoky
fires are sometimes lit in such positions that the smoke may
drift over planted ground which it is desirable to preserve from
froM. Similarly, frost may occur in open country when a town,
protected by its smoke-cloud above, is free of it. In a valley
with fairly high and steep flanks frost sometimes occurs locally
at the bottom, because the layer of air cooled by contact with
the cold surface of the higher ground is heavier than that not so
cooled, and therefore tends to flow or settle downwards along the
slope of the land. When meteorological considerations point
to a frost, an estimate of the night temperature may be obtained
by multiplying the difference between the readings of the wet
and dry bulb thermometer by 2-5 and subtracting the result
from the dry bulb temperature. This rule applies when the
evening air is at about 50 and 3O-i-in. pressure, the sky being
clear. An instrument has been devised in France for the pre-
diction of frost. It consists of a wet bulb and a dry bulb ther-
mometer, mounted on a board on which is also a scale of lines
corresponding to degrees of the dry bulb, and a pointer traversing
a scale graduated according to degrees of the wet bulb. Observa-
tions for the night arc taken about half an hour before sunset.
By means of the pointer and scale, the point may be found at
which the line of the dry-bulb reading meets the pointer set to
the reading of the wet bulb. The scale is further divided by
colours so that the observed point may fall within one of three
zones, indicating certain frost, probable frost or no probability
of frost.
FROSTBITE, a form of mortification (q.v.), due to the action
of extreme cold in cutting off the blood-supply from the fingers,
toes, nose, ears, &c. In comparatively trifling forms it occurs
as " chaps " and " chilblains," but the term frostbite is usually
applied only to more severe cases, where the part affected
becomes in danger of gangrene. An immediate application of
snow, or ice-water, will restore the circulation; the application
of heat would cause inflammation. But if the mortification has
gone too far for the circulation to be restored, the part will be
lost, and surgical treatment may be necessary.
FROSTBURG, a town of Allegany county, Maryland, U.S.A.,
it m. W. of Cumberland. Pop. (1800) 3804; (1900) 5274
(578 foreign-born and 236 negroes); (1910) 6028. It is served
by the Cumberland & Pennsylvania rail way and the Cumberland
& Westernport electric railway. The town is about 2000 ft.
above sea-level on a plateau between the Great Savage and Dans
mountains, and its delightful scenery and air have made it
attractive as a summer resort. It is the seat of the second state
normal school, opened in 1904. Frostburg is in the midst of the
coal region of the state, and is itself almost completely under-
mined; it has planing mills and manufactures large quantities
of fire-brick. The municipality owns and operates its water-
works. Natural gas is piped to Frostburg from the West Virginia
fields, 120 m. away. Frostburg was first settled in 1812; was
called Mount Pleasant until about 1830, when the present name
was substituted in honour of Meshech Frost, one of the town's
founders; and was incorporated in 1870.
FROTHINGHAM, OCTAVIUS BROOKS (1822-1895), American
clergyman and author, was bora in Boston on the 26th of
November 1822, son of Nathaniel Langdon Frothingham (1793-
1870), a prominent Unitarian preacher of Boston, and through
his mother's family related to Phillips Brooks. He graduated
from Harvard College in 1843 and from the Divinity School in
1846. He was pastor of the North Unitarian church of Salem,
Massachusetts, in 1847-1855. From 1855 to 1860 he was pastor
of a new Unitarian society in Jersey City, where he gave up the
Lord's Supper, thinking that it ministered to self-satisfaction;
and it was as a radical Unitarian that he became pastor of another
young church in New York City in 1860. Indeed in 1864 he was
recognized as leader of the radicals after his reply to Dr Hedge's
address to the graduating students of the Divinity School on
Anti-Supernaturalism in the Pulpit. In 1865, when he had
practically given up " transcendentalism," his church building
was sold and his congregation began to worship in Lyric Hall
under the name of the Independent Liberal Church; in 1875
they removed to the Masonic Temple, but four years later ill-
health compelled Frothingham's resignation, and the church
dissolved. Paralysis threatened him and he never fully recovered
his health; in 1881 he returned to Boston, where he died on the
27th of November 1895. To this later period of his life belongs
his best literary work. While he was in New York he was for a
time art critic of the -Tribune. Always himself on the unpopular
side and an able but thoroughly fair critic of the majority, he
habitually under-estimated his own worth; he was not only an
anti-slavery leader when abolition was not popular even in New
England, and a radical and rationalist when it was impossible
for him to stay conveniently in the Unitarian Church, but he
252
FROUDE
was the first president of the National Free Religious Association
(1867) and an early and ardent disciple of Darwin and Spencer.
To his radical views he was always faithful. It is a mistake to
say that he grew more conservative in later years; but his
judgment grew more generous and catholic. He was a greater
orator than man of letters, and his sermons in New York were
delivered to large audiences, averaging one thousand at the
Masonic Temple, and were printed each week; in eloquence and
in the charm of his spoken word he was probably surpassed in
his day by none save George William Curtis. Personally he
seemed cold and distant, partly because of his impressive appear-
ance, and partly because of his own modesty, which made him
backward in seeking friendships.
His principal published works are: Stories from the Life of the
Teacher (1863), A Child's Book of Religion (1866), and other works
of religious teaching for children; several volumes of sermons;
Beliefs of Unbelievers (1876), The Cradle of the Christ: a Study in
Primitive Christianity (1877), The Spirit of New Faith (1877),
The Rising and the Setting faith (1878), and other expositions of
the "new faith" he preached; Life of Theodore Parker (1874),
Transcendentalism in New England (1876), which is largely bio-
graphical, Gerrit Smith, a Biography (1878), George Ripley (1882),
in the "American Men of Letters" series, Memoir of William
Henry Channing (1886), Boston Unitarianism, 1820-1850 (1890),
really a biography of his father; and Recollections and Impressions,
1822-1890 (1891).
FROUDE, JAMES ANTHONY (1818-1894), English historian,
son of R. H. Froude, archdeacon of Totnes, was born at
Darlington, Devon, on the 23rd of April 1818. He was educated
at Westminster and Oriel College, Oxford, then the centre of the
ecclesiastical revival. He obtained a second class and the
chancellor's English essay prize, and was elected a fellow of
Exeter College (1842). His elder brother, Richard Hurrell
Froude (1803-1836), had been one of the leaders of the High
Church movement at Oxford. Froude joined that party and
helped J. H. Newman, afterwards cardinal, in his Lives of the
English Saints. He was ordained deacon in 1845. By that time
his religious opinions had begun to change, he grew dissatisfied
with the views of the High Church party, and came under the
influence of Carlyle's teaching. Signs of this change first appeared
publicly in his Shadows of the Clouds, a volume containing two
stories of a religious sort, which he published in 1847 under the
pseudonym of " Zeta," and his complete desertion of his party
was declared a year later in his Nemesis of Faith, an heretical
and unpleasant book, of which the earlier part seems to be
au tobiographical .
On the demand of the college he resigned his fellowship at
Oxford, and mainly at least supported himself by writing,
contributing largely to Fraser's Magazine and the Westminster
Review. The excellence of his style was soon generally re-
cognized. The first two volumes of his History of England
from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada
appeared in 1856, and the work was completed in 1870. As an
historian he is chiefly remarkable for literary excellence, for the
art with which he represents his conception of the past. He
condemns a scientific treatment of history and disregards its
philosophy. He held that its office was simply to record human
actions and that it should be written as a drama. Accordingly
he gives prominence to the personal element in history. His
presentations of character and motives, whether truthful or not,
are undeniably fine; but his doctrine that there should be " no
theorizing " about history tended to narrow his survey, and
consequently he sometimes, as in his remarks on the foreign
policy of Elizabeth, seems to misapprehend the tendencies of a
period on which he is writing.
Froude's work is often marred by prejudice and incorrect
statements. He wrote with a purpose. The keynote of his
History is contained in his assertion that the Reformation was
" the root and source of the expansive force which has spread
the Anglo-Saxon race over the globe." Hence he overpraises
Henry VIII. and others who forwarded the movement, and
speaks too harshly of some of its opponents. So too, in his
English in Ireland (1872-1874), which was written to show the
futility of attempts to conciliate the Irish, he aggravates all
that can be said against the Irish, touches too lightly on English
atrocities,and writes unjustly of the influence of Roman Catholi-
cism. A strong anti-clerical prejudice is manifest in his historical
work generally, and is doubtless the result of the change in his
views on Church matters and his abandonment of the clerical
profession. Carlyle's influence on him may be traced both in
his admiration for strong rulers and strong government, which
led him to write as though tyranny and brutality were excusable,
and in his independent treatment of character. His rehabilita-
tion of Henry VIII. was a useful protest against the idea that
the king was a mere sanguinary profligate, but his representation
of him as the self-denying minister of his people's will is erroneous,
and is founded on the false theory that the preambles of the acts
of Henry's parliaments represented the opinions of the educated
laymen of England. As an advocate he occasionally forgets
that sobriety of judgment and expression become an historian.
He was not a judge of evidence, and seems to have been unwilling
to admit the force of any argument or the authority of any
statement which militated against his case. In his Divorce of
Catherine of Aragon (1891) he made an unfortunate attempt to
show that certain fresh evidence on the subject, brought forward
by Dr Gairdner, Dr Friedmann and others, was not inconsistent
with the views which he had expressed in his History nearly
forty years before. He worked diligently at original manuscript
authorities at Simancas, the Record Office and Hatfield House;
but he used his materials carelessly, and evidently brought to his
investigation of them a mind already made up as to their signifi-
cance. His Life of Caesar (1879), a glorification of imperialism,
betrays an imperfect acquaintance with Roman politics and the
life of Cicero; and of his two pleasant books of travel, The
English in the West Indies (1888) shows that he made little effort
to master his subject, and Oceana (1886), the record of a tour in
Australia and New Zealand, among a multitude of other blunders,
notes the prosperity of the working-classes in Adelaide at the
date of his visit, when, in fact, owing to a failure in the wheat-
crop, hundreds were then living on charity. He was constitution-
ally inaccurate, and seems to have been unable to represent the
exact sense of a document which lay before him, or even to
copy from it correctly. Historical scholars ridiculed his mistakes,
and Freeman, the most violent of his critics, never let slip a
chance of hitting at him in the Saturday Review. Froude's
temperament was sensitive, and he suffered from these attacks,
which were often unjust and always too savage in tone. The
literary quarrel between him and Freeman excited general
interest when it blazed out in a series of articles which Freeman
wrote in the Contemporary Review (1878-1879) on Froude's
Short Study of Thomas Becket.
Notwithstanding its defects, Froude's History is a great
achievement; it presents an important and powerful account
of the Reformation period in England, and lays before us a
picture of the past magnificently conceived, and painted in
colours which will never lose their freshness and beauty. As
with Froude's work generally, its literary merit is remarkable;
it is a well-balanced and orderly narrative, coherent in design
and symmetrical in execution. Though it is perhaps needlessly
long, the thread of the story is never lost amid a crowd of details;
every incident is made subordinate to the general idea, appears
in its appropriate place, and contributes its share to the perfection
of the whole. The excellence of its form is matched by the beauty
of its style, for Froude was a master of English prose. The most
notable characteristic of his style is its graceful simplicity; it is
never affected or laboured; his sentences are short and easy,
and follow one another naturally. He is always lucid. He was
never in doubt as to his own meaning, and never at a loss for the
most appropriate words in which to express it. Simple as his
language is, it is dignified and worthy of its subject. Nowhere
perhaps does his style appear to more advantage than in his four
series of essays entitled Short Studies on GreatSubjects( 1 867-1882),
for it is seen there unfettered by the obligations of narrative.
Yet his narrative is admirably told. For the most part flowing
easily along, it rises on fit occasions to splendour, picturesque
beauty or pathos. Few more brilliant pieces of historical
FRUCTOSE FRUGONI
253
writing exist than his description of the coronation procession
of Anne Boleyn through the streets of London, few mor full of
picturesque power than that in which he relates how the spire
of St Paul's was struck by lightning; and to haw once read is
to remember for ever the touching and stately words in which
he compares the monks of the London Charterhouse preparing
for death with the Spartans at Thermopylae. Proofs of his
power in the sustained narration of stirring events arc abundant;
his treatment of the Pilgrimage of Grace, of the sea fight at
St Helens and the repulse of the French invasion, and of the
murder of Rizzio, are among the most conspicuous examples of
it. Nor is he less successful when recording pathetic events,
for his stories of certain martyrdoms, and of the execution of
Mary queen of Scots, are told with exquisite feeling and in
language of well-restrained emotion. And his characters are
alive. We may not always agree with his portraiture, but the
men and women whom he saw exist for us instinct with the life
with which he endows them and animated by the motives which
be attributes to them. His successes must be set against his
failures. At the least he wrote a great history, one which can
never be disregarded by future writers on his period, be their
opinions what they may; which attracts and delights a multitude
of readers, and is a splendid example of literary form and grace
in historical composition.
The merits of his work met with full recognition. Each
instalment of his History, in common with almost everything
which he wrote, was widely read, and in spite of some adverse
criticisms was received with eager applause. In 1868 he was
elected rector of St Andrews University, defeating Disraeli
by a majority of fourteen. He was warmly welcomed in the
United States, which he visited in 1872, but the lectures on
Ireland which he delivered there caused much dissatisfaction.
On the death of his adversary Freeman in 1892, he was appointed,
on the recommendation of Lord Salisbury, to succeed him as
rcgius professor of modern history at Oxford. Except to a
few Oxford men, who considered that historical scholarship
should have been held to be a necessary qualification for the
office, his appointment gave general satisfaction. His lectures
on Erasmus and other 16th-century subjects were largely
attended. With some allowance for the purpose for which
they were originally written, they present much the same
characteristics as his earlier historical books. His health gave
way in the summer of 1894, and he died on the 2oth of
October.
His long life was full of literary work. Besides his labours as
an author, he was for fourteen years editor of Fraser's Magazine.
He was one of Carlyle's literary executors, and brought some
sharp criticism upon himself by publishing Carlyle's Re-
miniscences and the Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle, for they
exhibited the domestic life and character of his old friend in an
unpleasant light. Carlyle had given the manuscripts to him,
telling him that he might publish them if he thought it well
to do so, and at the close of his life agreed to their publication.
Froude therefore declared that in giving them to the world he
was carrying out his friend's wish by enabling him to make a
posthumous confession of his faults. Besides publishing these
manuscripts he wrote a Life of Carlyle. His earlier study of
Irish history afforded him suggestions for a historical novel
entitled The Two Chiefs of Dunboy (1889). In spite of one or
two stirring scenes it is a tedious book, and its personages arc
little more than machines for the enunciation of the author's
opinions and sentiments. Though Froude had some intimate
friends he was generally reserved. When he cared to please,
bis manners and conversation were charming. Those who
knew him well formed a high estimate of his ability in practical
affairs. In 1874 Lord Carnarvon, then colonial secretary, sent
Froude to South Africa to report on the best means of promoting
a confederation of its colonies and states, and in 1875 he was
again sent to the Cape as a member of a proposed conference to
further confederation. Froudc's speeches in South Africa were
rather injudicious, and his mission was a failure (see SOUTH
AnucA: History). He was twice married. His first wife, a
daughter of Pascoe Grenfell and sister of Mrs Charles Kingsley,
died in 1860; his second, a daughter of John Warre, M.P. for
T.i u nt mi, died in 1874.
Froude's Life, by Herbert Paul, was published in 1005.
(W. Hu.)
FRUCTOSE, LAEVULOSE, or FRUIT-SUGAR, a carbohydrate
of the formula r, II, i >. It is closely related to ordinary d-
glucose, with which it occurs in many fruits, starches and also
in honey. It is a hydrolytic product of inulin, from which it
may be prepared; but it is more usual to obtain it from " invert
sugar," the mixture obtained by hydrolysing cane sugar with
sulphuric acid. Cane sugar then yields a syrupy mixture of
glucose and fructose, which, having been freed from the acid
and concentrated, is mixed with water, cooled in ice and calcium
hydroxide added. The fructose is precipitated as a saccharate,
which is filtered, suspended in water and decomposed by carbon
dioxide. The liquid is filtered, the filtrate concentrated, and
the syrup so obtained washed with cold alcohol. On cooling the
fructose separates. It may be obtained as a syrup, as fine,
silky needles, a white crystalline powder, or as a granular
crystalline, somewhat hygroscopic mass. When anhydrous it
melts at about 95 C. It is readily soluble in water and in dilute
alcohol, -but insoluble in absolute alcohol. It is sweeter than
cane sugar and is more easily assimilated. It has been employed
under the name diabetin as a sweetening agent for diabetics,
since it does not increase the sugar-content of the urine; other
medicinal applications are in phthisis (mixed with quassia or
other bitter), and for children suffering from tuberculosis or
scrofula in place of cane sugar or milk-sugar.
Chemically, fructose is an oxyketone or ketose, its structural
formula being CH 2 OH-(CH-OH),-CO-CH 2 OH; this result fol-
lowed from its conversion by H. Kiliani into methylbutylacetic
acid. The form described above is /o^o-rotatory, but it is
termed rf-fructose, since it is related to rf-glucose. Solutions
exhibit mutarotation, fresh solutions having a specific rota-
tion of -104-0, which gradually diminishes 10-92. It was
synthesized by Emil Fischer, who found the synthetic sugar
which he named a-acrose to be (<f+/)-fructose, and by splitting
this mixture he obtained both the d and / forms. Fructose
resembles rf-glucose in being fermentable by yeast (it is the one
ketose which exhibits this property), and also in its power of
reducing alkaline copper and silver solutions; this latter
property is assigned to the readiness with which hydroxyl and
ketone groups in close proximity suffer oxidation. For the
structural (stereochemical) relations of fructose see SUGAR.
FRUGONI, CARLO INNOCENZIO MARIA (1692-1768),
Italian poet, was born at Genoa on the 2ist of November 1692.
He was originally destined for the church and at the age of
fifteen, in opposition to his strong wishes, was shut up in a
convent; but although in the following year he was induced to
pronounce monastic vows, he had no liking for this life. He
acquired considerable reputation as an elegant writer both of
Latin and Italian prose and verse; and from 1716 to 1724 he
filled the chairs of rhetoric at Brescia, Rome, Genoa, Bologna
and Modena successively, attracting by his brilliant fluency a
large number of students at each university. Through Cardinal
Bentivoglio he was recommended to Antonio Farnese, duke of
Parma, who appointed him his poet laureate; and he remained
at the court of Parma until the death of Antonio, after which
he returned to Genoa. Shortly afterwards, through the inter-
cession of Bentivoglio, he obtained from the pope the remission
of his monastic vows, and ultimately succeeded in recovering
a portion of his paternal inheritance. After the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle he returned to the court of Parma, and there devoted
the later years of his life chiefly to poetical composition. He
died on the 2oth of December 1768. As a poet Frugoni was
one of the best of the school of the Arcadian Academy, and
his lyrics and pastorals had great facility and elegance.
Hi* collected work* were published at Parma in 10 vols. in 1799,
and a more complete edition appeared at Lucca in the same year in
15 vols. A selection from hi* works was published at Brescia in
1782, in 4 vols.
254
FRUIT
FRUIT (through the French from the Lat. fructus; frui, to
enjoy), in its widest sense, any product of the soil that can be
enjoyed by man or animals; the word is so used constantly
in -the Bible, and extended, as a Hebraism, to offspring or
progeny of man and of animals, in such expressions as " the
fruit of the body," " of the womb," " fruit of thy cattle " (Deut.
xxviii. 4), &c., and generally to the product of any action or
effort. Between this wide and frequently figurative use of the
word and its application in the strict botanical sense treated
below, there is a popular meaning, regarding the objects denoted
by the word entirely from the standpoint of edibility, and
differentiating them roughly from those other products of the
soil, which, regarded similarly, are known as vegetables. In
this sense " fruit " is applied to such seed-envelopes of plants
as are edible, either raw or cooked, and are usually sweet, juicy
or of a refreshing flavour. But applications of the word in this
sense are apt to be loose and shifting according to the fashion
of the time.
Fruit, in the botanical sense, is developed from the flower
as the result of fertilization of the ovule. After fertilization
various changes take place in the parts of the flower. Those
more immediately concerned in the process, the anther and
stigma, rapidly wither and decay, while the filaments and style
often remain for some time; the floral envelopes become dry,
the petals fall, and the sepals are either deciduous, or remain
persistent in an altered form; the ovary becomes enlarged,
forming the pericarp; and the ovules are developed as the
seeds, containing the embryo-plant. The term fruit is strictly
applied to the mature pistil or ovary, with the seeds in its interior;
but it often includes other parts of the flower, such as the bracts
and floral envelopes. Thus the fruit of the hazel and oak consists
of the ovary enveloped by the bracts; that of the apple and pear,
of the ovary and floral receptacle; and that of the pineapple,
of the whole inflorescence. Such fruits are sometimes distin-
guished as pseudocarps. In popular language, the fruit includes
all those parts which exhibit a striking change as the result of
fertilization. In general, the fruit is not ripened unless fertiliza-
tion has been effected; but cases occur as the result of cultivation
in which the fruit swells and becomes to all appearance perfect,
while no seeds are produced. Thus, there are seedless oranges,
grapes and pineapples. When the ovules are unfertilized, it is
common to find that the ovary withers and does not come to
maturity; but in the case of bananas, plantains and breadfruit,
the non -development of seeds seems to lead to a larger growth
and a greater succulence of fruit.
The fruit, like the ovary, may be formed of a single carpel or of
several. It may have one cell or cavity, being unilocular', or many,
midtilocular, &c. The number and nature of the divisions depend
on the number of carpels and the extent to which their edges are
folded inwards. The appearances presented by the ovary do not
always remain permanent in the fruit. Great changes are observed
to take place, not merely as regards the increased size of the ovary,
its softening or hardening, but also in its internal structure, owing
to the suppression, additional formation or enlargement of parts.
Thus, in the ash (fig. i) an ovary with two cells, each containing an
ovule attached to a central placenta, is changed into a unilocular
fruit with one seed ; one ovule becomes abortive, while the other, g,
gradually enlarging until the septum is pushed to one side, unites
with the walls of the cell, and the placenta appears to be parietal.
In the oak and hazel, an ovary with three and two cells respectively,
and two ovules in each, produces a one-celled fruit with one seed.
In the coco-nut, a trilocular and triovular ovary produces a one-
celled, one-seeded fruit. This abortion may derjend on the pressure
caused by the development of certain ovules, or it may proceed from
non-fertilization of all the ovules and consequent non-enlargement
of the carpels. Again, by the growth of the placenta, or the folding
inwards of parts of the carpels, divisions occur in the fruit which
did not exist in the ovary. In Cathartocarpus Fistula a one-celled
ovary is changed into a fruit having each of its seeds in a seprate
cell, in conseauence of spurious dissepiments being produced hori-
zontal from the inner wall of the ovary. In flax (Linum) by the
folding inwards of the back of the carpels a five-celled ovary becomes
a ten-celled fruit. In Astragalus the folding inwards of the dorsal
suture converts a one-celled ovary into a two-celled fruit; and in
Oxytropis the folding of the ventral suture gives rise to a similar
change. The development of cellular or pulpy matter, and the
enlargement of parts not forming whorls of the flower, frequently
alter the appearance of the fruit, and render it difficult to discover
its formation. In the gooseberry (fig. 29), grape, guava, tomato
and pomegranate, the seeds nestle in pulp formed by the placentas.
In the orange the pulpy matter surrounding the seeds is formed
by succulent cells, which are produced from the inner partitioned
lining of the pericarp. In the strawberry the receptacle becomes
succulent, and bears the mature carpels on its convex surface (fig. 2) ;
in the rose there is a fleshy hollow receptacle which bears the carpels
on its concave surface (fig. 3). In the juniper the scaly bracts grow
up round the seeds and become succulent, and in the fig (fig. 4) the
receptacle becomes succulent and encloses an inflorescence.
The pericarp consists usually of three layers, the external, or
epicarp (fig. 5, ep) ; the middle, or mesocarp, 'm ; and the internal,
FIG. 5.
FIG. 4.
FIG. I. Samara or winged fruit of Ash (Fraxinus). I, Entire,
with its wing a; 2, lower portion cut transversely, to show that it
consists of two cells; one of which, /, is abortive, and is reduced to
a very small cavity, while the other is much enlarged and filled
with a seed g.
FIG. 2. Fruit of the Strawberry (Fragaria vesca), consisting of
an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the small
dry seed-like fruits (achenes). (After Duchartre.)
From Strasburger's Lekrbuch der BoUtnik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 3. Fruit of the Rose cut vertically, s', Fleshy hollowed
receptacle; s, persistent sepals; fr, ripe carpels; e, stamens,
withered.
FlG. 4. Peduncle of Fig (Ficus Carica), ending in a hollow
receptacle enclosing numerous male and female flowers.
FIG. 5. Fruit of Cherry (Prunus Cerasus) in longitudinal section.
ep, Epicarp; m, mesocarp; en, endocarp.
From Strasburger's Lekrbuch da Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
or endocarp, en. These layers are well seen in such a fruit as the
peach, plum or cherry, where they are separable one from the
other; in them the epicarp forms what is commonly called the
skin; the mesocarp, much developed, forms the flesh or pulp,
and hence has sometimes been called sarcocarp; while the endocarp,
hardened by the production of woody cells, forms the stone or
putamen immediately covering the kernel or seed. The pulpy
matter found in the interior of fruits, such as the gooseberry, grape
and others, is formed from the placentas, and must not be con-
founded with the sarcocarp. In some fruits, as in the nut, the
three layers become blended together and are indistinguishable.
In bladder senna (Colutea arborescens) the pericarp retains its leaf-
like appearance, but in most cases it becomes altered both in con-
sistence and in colour. Thus in the date the epicarp is the outer
brownish skin, the pulpy matter is the mesocarp or sarcocarp, and
the thin papery-like lining is the endocarp covering the hard seed.
In the medlar the endocarp becomes of a stony hardness. In the
melon the epicarp and endocarp are very thin, while the mesocarp
forms the bulk of the fruit, differing in texture and taste in its ex-
ternal and internal parts. The rind of the orange consists of epicarp
and mesocarp, while the endocarp forms partitions in the interior,
filled with pulpy cells. The part of the pericarp attached to the
peduncle is the base, and the point where-the style or stigma existed
is the apex. This latter is not always the apparent apex, as in the
case of the ovary ; it may be lateral or even basilar. The style
sometimes remains in a hardened form, rendering the fruit apiculate;
at other times it falls off, leaving only traces of its existence. The
presence of the style or stigma serves to distinguish certain single-
seeded pericarps from seeds.
FRUIT
255
\Vhrn the fruit it mature and the seeds are ripe, the carpels
usually give way either at the ventral or dorsal suture or at both,
n-afc-M "d so allow the seeds to escape. The fruit in this case
is dtkiscntl. But some fruits are indehtuent. falling to
the ground entire, and the seeds eventually reaching the
soil by their decay. By dehisccnce the pericarp becomes divided
into different pieces, or tahts, the fruit being univalvular, bivalvular
or multivalvular, &c., according as there arc one, two or many
valves. The splitting extends the whole length of the fruit, or is
partial, the valves forming teeth
at the apex, as in the order Caryo-
phyllaceae (fig. 6). Sometimes
the valves are detached only at
certain points, and thusdchisccnrr
takes place by pores at the apex,
as in poppy (ng. 7), or at the base,
as in (.itmpiinula. Indchiscent
fruits are either dry, as the nut,
or fleshy, as the cherry and apple.
They are formed of one or several
FlC. 6. Fie. 7. carpels. In the former case they
usually contain only a single seed,
FIG. 6. Seed-vessel or capsule which may become so incorporated
at Campion, opening by ten w ; t h the pericarp as to appear to
teeth at the apex. The calyx c be naked, as in the grain ol wheat
i seen surrounding the seed- and generally in grasses. In such
WJJJii cases the presence of the remains
FIG. 7. Capsule of Poppy. O f style or stigma determines
opening by pores f>. under the their true nature,
radiating peltate stigma s. Dehiscent fruits, when com-
posed of single carpels, may open
by the ventral suture only, as in the paeony, hellebore, AquUegta (fig.
28) and CaUka; by the dorsal suture only, as in magnolias and some
Proteactae, or by both together, as in the pea (fig. 8) and bean;
in these caws the dehiscence is sutural. When composed of several
FIG. 10.
^A
FIG. 8.
FIG. 12.
FIG. 13.
FIG. 8. Dry dehiscent fruit. The pod
(legume) of the Pea; r, the dorsal suture;
b, the ventral; c, calyx; s, seeds.
Fran Vine* 1 StmiaHf Tot-Book of Botany, by per-
mission of Swan Sonnenscbein & Co.
FIG. 9. (i) Fruit or capsule of Meadow
Saffron (Colehicum autumnoie), dehiscing along
the septa (septicidally); (2) same cut across,
showing the three chambers with the seeds
attached along the middle line (axile placen-
tation).
FIG. II. FIG. 10. Diagram to illustrate the septi-
cidal dehiscence in a pentalocular capsule.
The loculaments / correspond to the number of the carpels, which
separate by splitting through the septa, i.
FIG. II. The seed vessel (capsule) of the Flower-de-Luce (Iris),
opening in a loculicidal manner. The three valves bear the septa
in the centre, and the opening takes place through the back of the
loculaments. Each valve is formed by the halve* of contiguous
carpel*.
FIG. 1 2. Diagram to illustrate loculicidal dehiscence. The locula-
mtnts /, split at the back, and the valve* separate, bearing the
septa t on their centres.
FIG. 13. Diagram to illustrate srptifragal dehiscence, in which
the dehiscence takes place through the back of the loculaments /,
and the valves separate from the septa t, which are left attached to
the placentas in the centre.
united carpels, two types of dehiscence occur a longitudinal and a
transverse. In the longitudinal the separation may take place by
the dissepiments throughout their length, so that the fruit is resolved
into its original carpels, and each valve represents a carpel, as in
rhododendron, Colehicum, &c. ; this dehiscence, in consequence of
taking place through the septum, is called septicidal (figs. 9, 10).
The valves separate from their commissure, or central line of union,
carrying the placentas with them, or they leave the latter in the
centre, so as to form with the axis a column of a cylindrical, conical
or prismatic shape. Dehiscence is loculicidal when the union
between the edges of the carpels is persistent, and they dehisce by
the dorsal suture, or through the back of the loculaments, as in the
lily and iris (figs, n, 12). In these cases each valve consists of a
half of each of two contiguous carpels. The placentas either remain
united to the axis, or they separate from it, being attached to the
septa on the valves. When the outer walls of the carpels break off
from the septa, leaving them attached to the central column, the
dehiscence is said to be seplifragat (fig. 13), and where, as in Linutn
catharticum and Calluna, the splitting takes place first of all in a
septicidal manner, the fruit is described as septicidally septifragal;
while in other cases, as in thorn apple (Datura Stramonium), where
the splitting is at first loculicidal, the dehiscence is loculicidally
seplifragal. In all those forms the separation of the valves takes
place either from above downwards or from below upwards. In
FIG. 14. FIG. 15. FIG. 17. FIG. 18.
FIG. 14. Siliqua or seed-vessel of Wallflower (Cheiranthus Chciri),
opening by two valves, which separate from the base upwards,
leaving the seeds attached to the dissepiment which is supported by
the replum.
From Struburger*s Lekrbuch der Botartik, by permission of GusUv Fischer.
FIG. 15. Capsule of an Orchid (X^ytobium). v, valve.
FIG. 16. Seed-vessel of Anagallisarvensis, opening by circum-
scissile dehiscence.
From Stnsburger's Lekrbuch der Bolaruk, by permission of GusUv Fischer.
FIG. 17. Lomentum of Hedysarum which, when ripe, separates
transversely into single-seeded portions or mericarps.
FIG. 18. Fruit of Geranium pratense, after splitting.
Saxifraga a splitting for a short distance of the ventral sutures of
the carpels takes place, so that a large apical pore is formed. In
the fruit of Cruciferae, as wallflower (fig. 14), the valves separate
from the base of the fruit, leaving a central replum, or frame, which
supports the false septum formed oy a prolongation from the parietal
placentas on opposite sides of the fruit, extending between the
ventral sutures of the carpels. In Orchidaceae (fig. 15) the pericarp,
when ripe, separates into three valves in a loculicidal manner,
but the midribs of the carpels, to which the placentas are attached,
often remain adherent to the axis both at the apex and base after
the valves bearing the seeds have fallen. The other type of de-
hiscence is transverse, or circumscissile, when the upper part of the
united carpels falls off in the form of a lid or opcrculum, as \nAnagallis
and in henbane (Hyoscyamus) (fig. 16).
Sometimes the axis is prolonged beyond the base of the carpels,
as in the mallow and castor-oil plant, the carpels being united to it
throughout their length by their faces, and separating from it without
opening. In the Umbelliferae the two carpels separate from the
lower part of the axis, and remain attached by their apices to a
prolongation of it, called a carpophore or podocarp, which splits
into two (fig. 25) and suspends them ; hence the fruit is termed a
cremocarp, _ which divides into two mericarps. The general term
schitocarp is applied to all dry fruits, which break up into two or
more one-seeded indehiscent mericarps, as in Hedysarum (fig. 17).
In the order Geraniaccae the styles remain attached to a central
column, and the mericarps 'separate from below upwards, before
dehixcing by their ventral suture (fig. 18). Carpels which separate
one from another in this manner arc called cocci. They arc well
2 5 6
FRUIT
of fruit or
seed.
seen in the order Euphorbiaceae, where there are usually three such
carpels, and the fruit is termed tricoccus. In many of them, as
Hura crepitans, the cocci separate with great force and elasticity.
In many leguminous plants, such as Ornithopus, Hedysarum (fig. 17),
Entada, Coronilla and the gum-arabic plant (Acacia arabica), the
fruit becomes a schizocarp by the formation of transverse partitions
from the folding in of the sides of the pericarp, and distinct separa-
tions taking place at these partitions.
Fruits are formed by one flower, or are the product of several
flowers combined. In the former case they are either apocarpous,
of one mature carpel or of several separate free carpels; or syn-
carpous, of several carpels, more or less completely united. When
the fruit is composed of the ovaries of several flowers united, it is
usual to find the bracts and floral envelopes also joined with them,
so as to form one mass; hence such fruits are known as multiple,
confluent or anthocarpous. The term simple is applied to fruits
which are formed by the ovary of a single flower, whether they are
composed of one or several carpels, and whether these carpels are
separate or combined.
The object of the fruit in the economy of the plant is the protection
and nursing of the developing seed and the dispersion of the ripe
_. . seeds. Hence, generally, one-seeded fruits are indehiscent,
while fruits containing more than one seed open to allow
of the dispersal of the seeds over as wide an area as
possible. The form, colour, structure and method of
dehiscence of fruits and the form of the contained seeds are intimately
associated with the means of dispersal, which fall into several
categories. (l) By a mechanism residing in the fruit. Thus many
fruits open suddenly when they are dry, and the seeds are ejected
by the twisting or curving of the valves, or in some other way;
e.g. in gorse, by the spiral curving of the valves; in Impatiens, by
the twisting of the cocci; in squirting cucumber, by the pressure
exerted on the pulpy contents by the walls of the pericarp. (2)
By aid of various external agencies such as water. Fruits or seeds
are sometimes sufficiently buoyant to float for a long time on sea-
or fresh-water; e.g. coco-nut, by means of its thick, fibrous coat
(mesocarp), is carried hundreds of miles in the sea, the tough,
leathery outer coat (epicarp) preventing it from becoming water-
soajced. Fruits and seeds of West Indian plants are thrown up on
the coasts of north-west Europe, having been carried by the Gulf
Stream, and will often germinate; many are rendered buoyant by
air-containing cavities, and the embryo is protected from the sea-
water by the tough coat of fruit or seed. Water-lily seeds are
surrounded with a spongy tissue when set free from the fruit, and
float for some distance before dropping to the bottom. (3) The
most general agent in the dispersal of seeds is the wind or currents
of air the fruit or seed being rendered buoyant by wing-develop-
ments as in fruits of ash (fig. i) or maple (fig. 21), seeds of pines
and firs, or many members of the order Bignoniaceae ; or hair-
developments as in fruits of clematis, where the style forms a feathery
FIG. 20.
FIG. 21.
From Vines' Students' Text-Book o/ Botany, by
permission of Swan Sonnenschein & Co.
FIG. 19. Dry one-seeded fruit of dock (Rumex) cut vertically.
<n>, Pericarp formed from ovary wall ; s, seed ; e, endosperm ; pi,
embryo with radicle pointing upwards and cotyledons downwards
enlarged.
FIG. 20. Achene of Ranunculus arvensis in longitudinal section;
, endosperm; pi, embryo. (After Baillon, enlarged.)
From Strasburger s Lehrbuck der Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 21. Fruit of Common Sycamore (Acer Pseudoplatanus),
dividing into two mericarps m ; s, pedicel ; fl, wings (nat. size).
appendage, fruits of many Compositae (dandelion, thistle, &c.),
which are crowned by a plumose pappus, or seeds of willow and
poplar, or Asclepias (fig. 36), which bear tufts of silky hairs; to
this category belong bladder-like fruits, such as bladder-senna,
which are easily rolled by the wind, or cases like the so-called rose
of Jericho, a small cruciferous plant (Anastatica hierocuntica), where
the plant dries up after developing its fruits and becomes detached
from the ground ; the branches curl inwards, and the whole plant is
rolled over the dry ground by the wind. The wind also aids. the
dispersal of the seeds in the case of fruits which open by small teeth
(many Caryophyllaceae [fig. 6]) or pores (poppy [fig. 7], Campanula,
&c.) ; the seeds are in these cases small and numerous, and are jerked
through the pores when the capsules, which are generally borne on
long, dry stems or stalks, are shaken by the wind. (4) In other cases
members of the animal world aid in seed-dispersal. Fruits often
bear stiff hairs or small hooks, which cling to the coat of an animal
or the feathers of a bird ; such are fruits of cleavers (Galium A parine) ,
a common hedge-row plant, Ranunculus arvensis (fig. 20), carrot,
Geum, &c. ; or the fruit or seed has an often bright-coloured, fleshy
FIG. 22.
FIG. 24.
FIG. 25.
FIG. 22. Vertical section of a grain of wheat, showing embryo
below at the base of the endosperm e; s, scutellum separating
embryo from endosperm; /./, foliage leaf; p.s, sheath of plumule;
p.r, primary root; s.p.r, sheath of primary root.
FIG. 23. Fruit of Comfrey (Symphytum) surrounded by persistent
calyx, c. The style i appears to arise from the base of the carpels,
enlarged.
FIG. 24. Ovary of Foeniculum officinale with pendulous ovules, in
longitudinal section. (After Berg and Schmidt, magnified.)
From Strasburgcr's Lehrbuch del Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 25. Fruit of Carum Carui. A, Ovary of the flower; B, ripe
fruit. The two carpels have separated so as to form two mericarps
(m). Part of the septum constitutes the carpophore (a), p, Top of
flower-stalk ; d, disk on top of ovary ; n, stigma.
From Vines' Students' Text-Book o\ Botany, by permission of Swan Sonnenschein
& Co.
covering, which is sought by birds as food, as in stone-fruits such as
plum, cherry (fig. 5), &c., where the seed is protected from injury
in the mouth or stomach of the animal by the hard endocarp ; or
the hips of the rose (fig. 3), where the succulent scarlet " fruit "
(the swollen receptacle) envelops a number of small dry true fruits
(achenes), which cling by means of stiff hairs to the beak of the bird.
Simple fruits have either a dry or succulent pericarp. The achene
is a dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, the pericarp of which is closely
applied to the seed, but separable from it. It is solitary, p ormso f
forming a single fruit, as in the dock (fig. 19) and in the fru/< _
cashew, where it is supported on a fleshy peduncle; or
aggregate, as in Ranunculus (fig. 20), where several achenes are
placed on a common elevated receptacle. In the strawberry the
achenes (fig. 2) are aggregated on a convex succulent receptacle.
In the rose they are supported on a concave receptacle (fig. 3), and
in the fig the succulent receptacle completely encloses the achenes
(fig. 4). In Dorstenia the achenes are situated on a flat or slightly
concave receptacle. Hence what in common language are called the
seeds of fhe strawberry, rose and fig, are in reality ripe carpels.
The styles occasionally remain attached to the achenes in the form
of feathery appendages, as in Clematis. In Compositae, the fruit
is an inferior achene (cypsela), to which the pappus (modified calyx)
remains adherent. Such is also the nature of the fruit in
Dipsacaceae (e.g. scabious). When the pericarp is thin, and
appears like a bladder surrounding the seed, the achene is termed
a utricle, as in Amarantaceae. When the pericarp is extended in
the form of a winged appendage, a samara or samaroid achene is
produced, as in the ash (fig. i) and common sycamore (fig. 21).
In these cases there are usually two achenes united, one of which,
however, as in Fraxinus (fig. i), may be abortive. The wing sur-
rounds the fruit longitudinally in the elm. When the pericarp be-
comes so incorporated with the seed as to be inseparable from it,
as in grains of wheat (fig. 22), maize, oats and other grasses, then the
name caryopsis is given. The one-seeded portions (mericarps) of
schizocarps often take the form of achenes, e.g. the mericarps of the
FRUIT
257
mallows or of umbellifers (figs. 24, 25). In Labiatae and Boragin-
aceae (t.g. comfrey, fig. 23), where the bicarpelUtry ovary becomes
our one seeded portions in the fruit, the partial fruits are of the
nature of achenes or nutlets according to the texture (leathery or
hard) of the pericarp.
The nut or glans is a dry one-celled indehiscent fruit with a
hardened pericarp, often surrounded by bracts at the base, and,
when mature, containing only
one seed. In the young state
the ovary often contains two
or more ovules, but only one
comes to maturity. It is illus-
trated by the fruits of the hazel
andchestnut, which are covered
by leafy bracts, in the form of
a husk, and by the acorn, in
which the bracts and receptacle
form a cupula or cup (fig. 26).
The parts of the pericarp of the
nut are united so as to appear
one. In common language the
term nut is very vaguely
applied both to fruit and seeds.
The drupe is a succulent
usually one-seeded indehiscent
fruit, with a pericarp easily
distinguishable into epicarp,
rFhckw. mesocarp and endocarp. This
-fc-VtW jpss **'& ^
8SftA3 e^d^Vsr/nrha^foTm!
ing the stone (putamen) of the fruit, which encloses the kernel
or seed. The mesocarp is generally pulpy and succulent, so as to be
truly a sarcocarp, as in the peach, but it is sometimes of a tough
texture, as in the almond, and at other times is more or less fibrous,
as in the coco-nut. In the almond there are often two ovules
formed, only one of which comes to perfection. In the raspberry
and bramble several small drupes or drupels are aggregated so as to
constitute an ttaeno.
The follicle is a dry unilocular many-seeded fruit, formed from
one carpel and dehiscing by the ventral suture. It is rare to meet
with a solitary follicle forming the fruit. There are usually several
aggregated together, either in a whorl on a shortened receptacle,
as in hellebore, aconite, larkspur, columbine (figs. 27, 28) or the order
Crassulaceae, or in a spiral manner on an elongated receptacle, as
in Magnolia and Banksia. Occasionally, follicles dehisce by the
dorsal suture, as in Magnolia grandiflora and Banksia.
The legume or pod is a dry monocarpellary unilocular many-seeded
fruit, formed from one carpel, dehiscing both by the ventral and the
TnnliMMi'i Ltkrtnck
Mioaof Gwuv
Fie. 27.
FIG. 28.
FIG. 30.
FIG. 27. Fruit of Columbine (Aquilegio), formed of five follicles.
FlG. 28. Single follicle, showing dehiscence by the ventral suture.
FIG. 29. Transverse section oTberry of Gooseberry, showing the
seeds attached to the parietal placentas and immersed in pulp,
which is formed partly from the endocarp, partly from the seed-coat.
FIG. 30. Section of the fruit of the Apple (Pyrus Malus), or pome,
MMistirift of a fleshy covering formed by the floral receptacle and
the true fruit or core with five cavities with seeds.
donal suture. It characterizes leguminous plants, as the bean and
pea (fig. 8). In the Madder-senna it forms an inflated legume. In
some Lcguminosae, as Arachis. Cathartocarpus Fistula and the
tamarind, the fruit must be considered a legume, although it does
ot dehisce. The first of these plants produces its fruit under-
-~ ', and is called earth-nut; the second has a partitioned
and is schizocarpic; and both the second and third have
natter surrounding the seeds. Some legumes are schizocarpic
formation of constrictions externally. Such a form is the
or lomentaceoui legume of Ifedyiarum (fig. 17), Coronilla,
In Medteago the legume
Ormtkopms. Enlada and of some Acacias.
FIG. 31. Transverse section
is twisted like a snail, and in Caesalpinia coriaria, or Divi-divi, it is
vermiform or curved like a worm, sometimes the number of seeds
is reduced, as in Erythnna monosperma and Ceoffroya superba,
which arc one-seeded, and in Pterocarpus and Dalbergia, which are
two- seeded.
The berry (bacca) is a term applied generally to all fruits with
seeds immersed in pulp, and includes fruits of very various origin.
In Actaea (baneberry) or Herberts
(barberry) it is derived from a
single free carpel; generally, how-
ever, it is the product of a syn-
carpous ovary, which is superior,
as in grape or potato, or inferior,
as in gooseberry (fig. 29) or currant.
In the pomegranate there is a
peculiar baccate many-celled
inferior fruit, having a tough rind,
enclosing two rows of carpels
placed one above the other. The
seeds are immersed in pulp, and
are attached irregularly to the
wall, base and centre of the loculi.
In the baobab there is a multi-
1 ? Cul !L, 8ynCarP US fr !i it -' '" ? h ' tch of " e fruit of the Melon
the seeds are immersed in pulp. (Cucumis Melo), showing the
The pepo, another indehiscent p| ac e n tas with the seeds attached
syncarpous fruit, is illustrated by to them . The three ca ,
the fruit of the gourd, melon (fie. f orming the pepo are separated
31) and other Cucurbitaceae It by partitions. From the centre
i formed of three carpels, sui - processes pass outwards, ending
mounted by the calyx; the nnd f n tne curved placenta,
is thick and fleshy, am" there are
three or more secd-bearine parietal placentas, either surrounding a
central cavity or prolonged inwards into it. The fruit of the papaw
resembles the pepo, but the calyx is not superior.
The hesperidium is the name given to such indehiscent fleshy
syncarpous fruits as the orange, lemon and shaddock, in which the
epicarp and mesocarp form a separable rind, and the endocarp
sends prolongations inwards, forming triangular divisions, to the
inner angle of which the seeds are attached, pulpy cells being devel-
oped around them from the wall. Both pepo and hesperidium may
be considered as modifications of the berry.
The pome (fie. 30), seen in the apple, pear, guince, medlar and
hawthorn, is a fleshy indehiscent syncarpous fruit, in the formation
of which the receptacle takes part. The outer succulent part is the
swollen receptacle, the horny core being the true fruit developed
from the usually five carpels and enclosing the seeds. In the medlar
the core (or true pericarp) is of a stony hardness, while the outer
succulent covering is open at the summit. The pome somewhat
resembles the fruit of the rose (fig. 3), where the succulent receptacle
surrounds a number of separate acnenes.
The name capsule is applied generally to all dry syncarpous fruits,
which dehisce by valves. It may thus be unilocular or multilocular,
one- or many-seeded. The true valvular capsule is observed in
Colchicum (fig. o), lily and iris (fig. n). The porose capsule is seen
in the poppy (fig. 7), Antirrhinum and Campanula. In Campanula
the pores occur at the base of the capsule, which becomes inverted
when ripe. When the capsule opens by a lid, or by circumscissile
dehiscence, it is called a pyxidium, as in pimpernel (Anagallis
arvensis) (fig. 16), henbane and monkey-pot (Lecythis). The capsule
assumes a screw-like form in Helicleres, and a star-like form in star-
anise (Illicium anisatum). In certain instances the cells of the
capsule separate from each other, and open with elasticity to scatter
the seeds. This kind of capsule is met with in the sandbox tree
(Hum crepitans) and other Euphorbiaceae, where the cocci, con-
taining each a single seed, burst asunder with force; and in Gerani-
aceae, where the cocci, each containing, when mature, usually one
seed, separate from the carpophore, become curved upwards by their
adherent styles, and open by the ventral suture (fig. 18).
The siliqua is a dry syncarpous bilocular many-seeded fruit, formed
from two carpels, with a false septum, dehiscing by two valves
from below upwards, the valves separating from the placentas and
leaving them united by the septum (fig. 32). The seeds are attached
on both sides of the septum, either in one row or in two. When
the fruit is long and narrow it is a siliqua (fig. 14); when broad
and short, iilicula (fig. 33). It occurs in cruciferous plants, as wall-
flower, cabbage and cress. In Glaucium and Eschscholtzia (Papa-
veraceae) the dissepiment is of a spongy nature. It may become
transversely constricted (lomentaceous), as in radish (Raphanus)
and ea-kale, and it may be reduced, as in woad (Isatis), to a one-
seeded condition.
It sometimes happens that the ovaries of two flowers unite so as
to form a double fruit (syncarp). This may be seen in many species
of honeysuckle. But the fruits which are now to be considered
consist usually of the floral envelopes, as well as the ovaries of
several flowers united into one, and are called multiple or confluent.
The term anlhocarpous has also been applied as indicating that the
floral envelopes at well as the carpels are concerned in the formation
of the fruit.
The lorosis is a succulent multiple fruit formed by the confluence
FRUIT
of a spike of flowers, as in the fruit of the pine-apple (fig. 34), the
bread-fruit and jack-fruit. Similarly the fruit of the mulberry
represents a catkin-like inflorescence.
The syconus is an anthocarpous fruit, in which the receptacle
completely encloses numerous flowers and becomes succulent. The
fig (hg. 4) is of this nature, and what are called its seeds are the
achenes of the numerous flowers scattered over the succulent hollowed
receptacle. In Dorstenia the axis is less deeply hollowed, and of a
harder texture, the fruit exhibiting often very anomalous forms.
The strobilus, or cone, is a seed-bearing spike, more or less elon-
gated, covered with scales, each of which may be regarded as repre-
senting a separate flower, and has often two seeds at its base ; the
seeds are naked, no ovary being present. This fruit is seen in the
cones of firs, spruces, larches and cedars, which have received the
FIG. 32.
FIG. 34.
FIG. 32. Honesty (Lunaria biennis), showing the septum after
the carpels have fallen away.
From Strasburger's Lchrbuch da Bmanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 33. Silicula or pouch of shepherd's purse (Capselia), opening
by two folded valves, which separate from above downwards. The
partition is narrow, hence the silicula is angustiseptal.
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 34. Fruit of the pine-apple (Ananassa saliva), developed
from a spike of numerous flowers with bracts, united so as to
form a collective or anthocarpous fruit. The crown of the pine-apple,
c, consists of a series of empty bracts prolonged beyond the fruit,
name of Coniferae, or cone-bearers, on this account. Cone-like
fruit is also seen in most Cycadaceae. The scales of the strobilus
are sometimes thick and closely united, so as to form a more or less
angular and rounded mass, as in the cypress; while in the juniper
they become fleshy, and are so incorporated as to form a globular
fruit like a berry. The dry fruit of the cypress and the succulent
fruit of the juniper have received the name of galbulus. In the hop
the fruit is called also a strobilus, but in it the scales are thin and
membranous, and the seeds are not naked but are contained in
pericarps.
The same causes which produce alterations m the other parts of
the flower give rise to anomalous appearances in the fruit. The
carpels, in place of bearing seeds, are sometimes changed into leaves,
with lobes at their margins. Leaves are sometimes produced from
the upper part of the fruit. In the genus Citrus, to which the orange
and lemon belong, it is very common to meet with a separation of
the carpels, so as to produce what are called horned oranges and
fingered citrons. In this case a syncarpous fruit has a tendency to
become apocarpous. In the orange we occasionally find a super-
numerary row of carpels produced, giving rise to the appearance of
small and imperfect oranges enclosed within the original one; the
navel orange is of this nature. It sometimes happens that, by the
union of flowers, double fruits are produced. Occasionally a double
truit is produced, not by the incorporation of two flowers, but by
the abnormal development of a second carpel in the flower.
Arrangement of Fruits.
A. True fruits developed from the ovary alone.
1. Pericarp not fleshy or fibrous.
i. Indehiscent not opening to allow the escape of the
seeds generally one-seeded. Achene; caryopsis;
cypsela ; nut ; schizocarp.
ii. Dehiscent the pericarp splits to allow the escape
of the seeds generally many-seeded. Follicle;
legume; siliqua; capsule.
2. Pericarp generally differentiated into distinct layers, one
of which is succulent or fibrous. Drupe ; berry.
B. Pseudocarps the development extends beyond the ovary
Pome; syconus; sorosis.
The Seed. The seed is formed from the ovule as the result of
fertilization. It is contained in a seed-vessel formed from the ovary
in the plants called angiospermous ; while in gymnospermous plants,
such as Coniferae and Cycadaceae, it is naked, or, in other words,
has no true pericarp. It sometimes happens in Angiosperms, that
the seed-vessel is ruptured at an early period of growth, so that
the seeds become more or less exposed during their development;
this occurs in mignonette, where the capsule opens at the apex,
and in Cuphea, where the placenta bursts through the ovary and
floral envelopes, and appears as an erect process bearing the young
seeds. After fertilization the ovule is greatly changed, in connexion
with the formation of the embryo. In the embryo-sac of most
Angiosperms (q.v.) there is a development of cellular tissue, the
endosperm, more or less filling the embryo-sac. In Gymnosperms
(q.v.) the endosperm is formed preparatory to fertilization. The
.fertilized egg enlarges and becomes multicellular, forming the
embryo. The embryo-sac enlarges greatly, displacing gradually
the surrounding nucellus, which eventually forms merely a thin layer
around the sac, or completely disappears. The remainder of the
nucellus and the integuments of the ovules form the seed-coats.
In some cases (fig. 35) a delicate inner coat or legmen can be dis-
tinguished from a tougher outer coat or testa; often, however, the
layers are not thus separable. The consistency of the seed-coat,
its thickness, the character of its surface, &c., vary widely, the
variations being often closely associated with the environment or
with the means of seed-dispersal. An account of the development
of the seed from the ovule will be found in the article ANGIOSPERMS.
When the pericarp is dehiscent the seed-covering is of a strong and
often rough character; but when the pericarp is indehiscent and
encloses the seed for a long period, the outer seed-coat is thin and
soft. The cells of the testa are often coloured, and have projections
and appendages of various kinds. Thus in Abrus precatorius and
Adenanthera pavonina it is of a bright red colour; in French beans
it is beautifully mottled; in the almond it is veined; in the tulip
9.
FIG. 35. FIG. 36.
FIG. 35. Seed of Pea (Pisum) with one cotyledon removed, c,
Remaining cotyledon; ch, chalaza-point at which the nourishing
vessels enter; e, legmen or inner coat; /, funicle or stalk; g,
plumule of embryo; m, micropyle; pi, placenta; r, radicle of
embryo; t, tigellum or stalk between root and plumule ; te, testa.
FIG. 36. Seed of Asclepias, with a cluster of hairs arising from
the edges of the micropyle.
and primrose it is rough; in the snapdragon it is marked with
depressions; in cotton and Asclepias (fig. 36) it has hairs attached to
it ; and in mahogany, Bignonia, and the pines and firs it is expanded
in the form of wing-like appendages (fig. 37). In Cnllomia, Acantho-
dium, Cobaea scandens and other seeds, it contains spiral cells, from
which, when moistened with water, the fibres uncoil in a beautiful
manner; and in flax (Linum) and others the cells are converted into
mucilage. These structural peculiarities of the testa in different
plants have relation to the scattering of the seed and its germination
upon a suitable nidus. But in some plants the pericarps assume
structures which subserve tne same purpose; this especially occurs
in small pericarps enclosing single seeds, as achenes^ caryopsides, &c.
Thus in Compositae and valerian, the pappose umb of the calyx
forms a parachute to the pericarp; in Labiatae and some Compositae
spiral cells are formed in the epicarp; and the epicarp is prolonged
as a wing in Fraxinus (fig. l) and Acer (fig. 21).
Sometimes there is an additional covering to the seed, formed
after fertilization, to which the name arittus has been given (fig. 38).
This is seen in the passion-flower, where the covering arises from the
placenta or extremity of the funicle at the base of the ovule and
passes upwards towards the apex, leaving the micropyle uncovered.
In the nutmeg and spindle tree this additional coat is formed from
above downwards, constituting in the former case a laciniated
scarlet covering called mace. In such instances it has been called
an arillode (fig. 39). This arillode, after growing downwards, may
be reflected upwards so as to cover the micropyle. The fleshy
scarlet covering formed around the naked seed in the yew is by
some considered of the nature of an aril. On the testa, at various
points, there are produced at times other cellular bodies, to which
the name of stropnioles, or caruncles, has been given, the seeds being
strophiolate or carunculate. These tumours may occur near the
base of the seed, as in Polygala, or at the apex, as in Castor-oil
plant (Ricinus) ; or they may occur in the course of the raphe, as in
blood-root (Sanguinarid) and Asarabacca. The funicles of the ovules
frequently attain a great length in the seed, and in some magnolias,
when the fruit dehisces, they appear as long scarlet cords suspending
the seeds outside. The hilum or umbilicus of the seed is usually
FRUIT
259
wrll marked, a* a tear of varying sue; in the calabar bean and in
some tpecie* of 1/ntttma and tiolickos it extends along a large
portion of the edge of the seed; it frequently exhibits marked
colour*, being black in the bean, white in many specie* of Pkateoius,
Ac. The mvropyU (fig. 35. M) of the seed may be recognizable by
the naked eye, as in the pea and bean tribe, Iris, &c., or it may be
very minute or microscopic. It imlii-.ito the true apex of the seed,
ana is important as marking the point to which the root of the em-
bryo is directed. At the micropyle in the bean is observed a small
process of integument, which, when the young plant sprouts, is
pushed up like a lid ; it is called the embryoUfO, The chalaza (fig.
38, ck) is often of a different colour from the rest of the seed. In the
orange (fig. 40) it is of a reddish-brown colour, and is easily recognized
at one end of the seed when the integuments are carefully removed.
In anatropal seed* the raphe form* a distinct ridge along one side
of the *eed (fig. 41).
The position of the *eed as regards the pericarp resembles that of
the ovule in the ovary, and the same terms are applied erect,
ascending, pendulous, suspended, curved, &c. These terms have
no reference to the mode in which the fruit is attached to the axis.
Thus the seed may be erect while the fruit itself is pendent, in the
ordinary meaning of that term. The pan of the seed next the axis
or the ventral suture is its face, the opposite side being the back.
Seeds exhibit great varieties of form. They may be flattened
laterally (comprtsui), or from above downwards (depressed). They
may be round, oval, triangular, polygonal, rolled up like a snail, as in
Physostemon, or coiled up like a snake, as in Ophiacaryon paradoxum.
FIG. 37. FIG. 38. FIG. 39. FIG. 40. FIG. 41.
FIG. 37. Seed of Pine (Pinus), with a membranous appendage
w to the testa, called a wing.
FIG. 38. V'oung anatropal seed of the white Water-lily (Nymphaea
alba), cut vertically. It is attached to the placenta by the funicle/,
cellular prolongations from which form an aril a a. The vessels of
the cord are prolonged to the base of the nucellus n by means of
the raphe r. The base of the nucellus is indicated by the chalaza ch,
while the apex is at the micropyle m. The covering of the seed is
marked i. is the nucellus or perispcrm, enclosing the embryo-sac es,
is which the endosperm is formed. The embryo c. with its suspensor,
is contained in the sac, the radicle pointing to the micropyle m.
FIG. 39. Arillode a, or false aril, of the Spindle-tree (Euonymus),
arising from the micropyle/.
FIG. 40. Anatropal seed of the Orange (Citrus Aurantium)
opened to show the chalaza c, which forms a brown spot at one end.
Fie. 41. Entire anatropal seed of the Orange (Citrus Aurantium),
with its rugose or wrinkled testa, and the raphe r ramifying in the
thickness of the testa on one side.
The endosperm formed in the embryo-sac of angiosperms after
fertilization, and found previous to it in gymnosperms, consists of
cells containing nitrogenous and starchy or fatty matter, destined
for the nutriment of the embryo. It occupied the whole cavity of
the embryo-sac, or is formed only at certain portions of it, at the
apex, as in Rhtnanthus, at the base, as in Vaccinium, or in the middle,
as in Veronica. As the endosperm increases in size along with the
embryo-sac and the embryo, the substance of the original nucellus
of the ovule is gradually absorbed. Sometimes, however, as in
Musaceae, Cannaceae, Zingiberaceae, no endosperm is formed;
the cells of the original nucellus, becoming filled with food-materials
for the embryo, are not absorbed, but remain surrounding the
embryo-sac with the embryo, and constitute the perisperm. Again,
ie other plants, as Nymphaeareae (fig. 38) and Piperaceae, both
endosperm and perisperm are present. It was from observations
on cases such as these that old authors, imagining a resemblance
betwixt the plant-ovule and the animal ovum, applied the name
albumen to the outer nutrient mass or perisperm, and designated
the endosperm as viteUus. The term albumen is very generally
used as including all the nutrient matter stored up in the seed, but
it would be advisable to discard the name as implying a definite
rhrmicil substance. There is a large class of plants in which
although at first after fertilization a mass of endosperm is formed,
yet, as the embryo increases in size, the nutrient matter from the
endospermic cell* passes out from them, and is absorbed by the
cdb of the embryo plant. In the mature seed, in such cases, there
is no separate mass of tissue containing nutrient food-material
apart from the embryo itself. Such a seed is said to be exalbuminous,
a* in Compositae, Cruoferae and most Leguminosae (e.[. pea, fig. 35).
r
FIG. 42. The dicotyledonous
When either endosperm or perisperm or both are present the seed
is said to be albuminous.
The albumen varies much in its nature and consistence, and
furnishes important characters. It may be farinaceous or mealy,
consisting chiefly of cells filled with starch, as in cereal grains,
where it is abundant; fleshy or cartilaginous, consisting of thicker
cells which are still soft, as in the coco-nut, and which sometimes
contain oil, as in the oily albumen of Croton, Ricinus and poppy;
horny, when the cell-walls are slightly thickened and capable of
distension, as in date and coffee; the cell-walls sometimes become
greatly thickened, filling up the testa as a hard mass, as in vegetable
ivory (Phytelephas). The albumen may be uniform throughout, or
it may present a mottled appear-
ance, as in the nutmeg, the seeds of
Anonaceaeand some Palms, where
it is called ruminated. This
mottled appearance is due to a
protrusion of a dark lamella of
the integument between folded
protuberances of albumen. A
cavity is sometimes left in the
centre which is usually filled with
fluid, as in the coco-nut. The . ,
relative size of the embryo |and of embryo of the Pea kid open,
the endosperm varies much. In c - c > The two fleshy cotyledons,
Monocotyledons the embryo is or seed-lobes, which remain under
usually small, and the endosperm ground when the plant sprouts;
large, and the same is true in the ' t he radicular extremity of the
case of coffee and many other axls whence the root arises; t,
plants amongst Dicotyledons, the axis (hvpocotyl) bearing the
The opposite is the case in other y? un K stalk and leaves g (plum-
plants, as in the Labiatae, Plum- u ' e ). wh ,' ch lie in a depression of
baginaceae, &c. the cotyledons/.
The embryo consists of an axis bearing the cotyledons (fig. 42, c),
or the first leaves of the plant. To that part of this axis immediately
beneath the cotyledons the terms hypocotyl, caulide or tigellum (t)
have been applied, and continuous backwards with it is the young
root or radicle (r), the descending axis, their point of union being
the collar or neck. The terminal growing bud of the axis is called
the plumule or gemmule (g), and represents the ascending axis. The
radicular extremity points towards the micropyle, while the coty-
ledonary extremity is pointed towards the base of the ovule or the
chalaza. Hence, by ascertaining the position of the micropyle and
chalaza, the two extremities of the embryo can in general be dis-
covered. It is in many cases difficult to recognize the parts in an
embryo; thus in Cuscuta, the embryo appears as an elongated
axis without divisions; and in Caryocar the mass of the embryo is
made up by the radicular extremity and hypocotyl, in a groove of
which the cotyledonary extremity lies embedded (fig. 52). In some
monocotyledonous embryos, as in Orchidaceae, the embryo is a
cellular mass showing no parts. In parasitic plants also which form
no chlorophyll, as Orobanche, Monotropa, &c., the embryo remains
without differentiation, consisting merely of a mass of cells until the
ripening of the seed. When the embryo is surrounded by the endo-
sperm on all sides except its radicular extremity it is internal (see
figs. 19, 20); when lying outside the endosperm, and only coming
into contact with it at certain points, it is external, as in grasses (e.g.
wheat, fig. 22). When the embryo follows the direction of the axis
of the seep, it is axile or axial (fig. 43) ; when it is not in the direction
of the axis, it becomes abaxile or abaxial. In campylotropal seeds
the embryo is curved, and in place of being embedded in endosperm,
is frequently external to it, following the concavity of the seed (fig.
44), and becoming peripherical, with the chalaza situated in the
curvature of the embryo, as in Caryophyllaceae.
It has been already stated that the radicle of the embryo is
directed to the micropyle, and the cotyledons to the chalaza. In
some cases, by the growth of the integuments, the former is turned
round so as not to correspond with the apex of the nucellus, and then
the embryo has the radicle directed to one side, and is called exccntric,
as is seen in Primulaceae, Plantaginaceae and many palms, especially
the date. The position of the embryo in different kinds of seeds
varies. In an orthotropal seed the embryo is inverted or antitropal,
the radicle pointing to the apex of the seed, or to the part opposite
the liilimi. Again, in an anatropal seed the embryo is erect or
homotropal (fig. 43), the radicle being directed to the base of the
seed. In curved or campylotropal seeds the embryo is folded so
that its radicular and cotyledonary extremities are approximated,
and it becomes amphitropal (fig. 44). In this instance the seed
may be exalbuminous, and the embryo may be folded on itself;
or albuminous, the embryo surrounding more or less completely the
endosperm and being peripherical. According to the mode in
which the seed is attached to the pericarp, the radicle may be
directed upwards or downwards, or laterally, as regards the ovary.
In an orthotropal seed attached to the base of the pericarp it is
superior, as also in a suspended anatropal seed. In other anatropal
seeds the radicle is inferior. When the seed is horizontal as regards
the pericarp, the radicle is either centrifugal, when it points to the
outer wall of the ovary; or centripetal, when it points to the axis
or inner wall of the ovary. These characters are of value for purposes
of classification, as they are of ten constant in large groups of genera.
260
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
Plants in which there are two cotyledons produced in the embryo
are dicotyledonous. The two cotyledons thus formed are opposite
to each other (figs. 42 and 45), but are not always of the same size.
Thus, in Abronia and other members of the order Nyctaginaceae, one
of them is smaller than the other (often very small), and in Carapa
fuianensis there appears to be only one, in consequence ot the
intimate union which takes place between the two. The union
between the cotyledonary leaves may continue after the young plant
begins to germinate. Such embryos have been called pseudomono-
cotyledonous. The texture of the cotyledons varies. They may be
thick, as in the pea (fig. 42), exhibiting no traces of venation, with
their flat internal surfaces in contact, and their backs more or less
convex; or they may be in the form of thin .and delicate laminae,
flattened on both sides, and having distinct venacion, as in Ricinus,
Jatropha, Euonymus, &c. The cotyledons usually form the greater
part of the mature embryo, and this is remarkably well seen in such
exalbuminous seeds as the bean and pea.
Cotyledons are usually entire and sessile. But they occasionally
become lobed, as in the walnut and the lime; or petiolate, as in
Geranium motte; or auriculate, as in the ash. Like leaves in the
FIG. 44.
FIG. 45.
FIG. 48.
FIG. 43. Seed of Pansy (Viola tricolor) cut vertically. The em-
bryo pi is axial, in the midst of fleshy endosperm al. The seed is
anatropal, and the embryo is homotropal; the cotyledons co point
to the base of the nucellus or chalaza ch, while the radicle, or the
other extremity of the embryo, points to the micropyle, close to the
hilum h. The hilum or base of the seed, and the chalaza or base of
the nucellus are united by means of the raphe r.
FIG. 44. Seed of the Red Campion (Lychnis), cut vertically,
showing the peripherical embryo, with its two cotyledons and its
radicle. The embryo is curved round the albumen, so that its
cotyledons and radicle both come near the hilum (amphitropal) .
FIG. 45. Mature dicotyledonous embryo of the Almond, with
one of the cotyledons removed, r, Radicle; /, young stem or
caulicle; c, one of the cotyledons left; i, line of insertion of the
cotyledon which has been removed; g, plumule.
FIG. 46. Exalbuminous seed of Wallflower (Cheiranthus) cut
vertically. The radicle r is folded on the edges of the cotyledons c
which are accumbent.
FIG. 47. Transverse section of the seed of the Wallflower (Cheir-
anthus), showing the radicle r folded on the -edges of the accumbent
cotyledons c.
FIG. 48. Transverse section of the seed ot the Dame's Violet
(Hespens). The radicle r is folded on the back of the cotyledons c,
which are said to be incumbent.
bud, cotyledons may be either applied directly to each other, or
may be folded in various ways. In geranium the cotyledons are
twisted and doubled; in convolvulus they are corrugated; and in
the potato and in Bunias, they are spiral, the same terms being
applied as to the foliage leaves. The radicle and cotyledons are
either straight or variously curved. Thus, in some cruciferous
plants, as the wallflower, the cotyledons are applied by their faces,
and the radicle (figs. 46, 47) is folded on their edges, so as to be
lateral; the cotyledons are here accumbent. In others, as Hes peris,
the cotyledons (fig. 48) are applied to each other by their faces,
and the radicle, r, is folded on their back, so as to be dorsal, and
the cotyledons are incumbent. Again, the cotyledons are con-
duplicate when the radicle is dorsal, and enclosed between their folds.
In other divisions the radicle is folded in a spiral manner, and the
cotyledons follow the same course.
In many gymnosperms more than two cotyledons are present,
and they are arranged in a whorl. This occurs in Coniferae, especi-
ally in the pine, fir (fig. 49), spruce and larch, in which six, nine,
twelve and even fifteen have been observed. They are linear, and
resemble in their form and mode of development the clustered or
fasciculated leaves of the larch. Plants having numerous coty-
ledons are termed polycotyledonous. In species of Streptocarpus the
cotyledons are permanent, and act the part of leaves. One of them
is frequently largely developed, while the other is small or abortive.
In those plants in which there is only a single cotyledon in the
embryo, hence called monocotyledonous, the embryo usually has a
cylindrical form more or less rounded at the extremities, or elongated
and fusiform, often oblique. The axis is usually very short com-
pared with the cotyledon, which in general encloses the plumule
by its lower portion, and exhibits on one side a small slit which indi-
cates the union of the edges of the vaginal or sheathing portion of
the leaf (fig. 50). In grasses, by the enlargement of the embryo in a
particular direction, the endosperm is pushed on one side, and thus
the embryo comes to lie outside at the base of the endosperm (figs. 22,
51). The lamina of the cotyledon is not developed. Upon the side
of the embryo next the endosperm and enveloping it is a large
shield-shaped body, termed the scutellum. This is an outgrowth
from the base of the cotyledon, enveloping more or less the cotyledon
FIG. 49. FIG. 50.
FIG. 51.
FIG. 52.
FIG. 49. Polycotyledonous embryo of the Pine (Pinus) beginning
to sprout, t, Hypocotyl ; r, radicle. The cotyledons c are numerous.
Within the cotyledons the primordial leaves are seen, constituting
the plumule or first bud of the plant.
FIG. 50. Embryo of a species of Arrow-grass (Triglochin), showing
a uniform conical mass, with a slit i near the lower part. The
cotyledon c envelops the young bud, which protrudes at the slit
during germination. The radicle is developed from the lower part
of the axis r.
FIG. 51. Grain of Wheat (Triticum) germinating, showing (b)
the cotyledon and (c) the rootlets surrounded by their sheaths
(coleorrhizae).
FIG. 52. Embryo of Caryocar. t, Thick hypocotyl, forming nearly
the whole mass, becoming narrowed and curved at its extremity,
and applied to the groove j. In the figure this narrowed portion is
slightly separated from the groove; c, two rudimentary cotyledons.
and plumule, in some cases, as in maize, completely investing it;
in other cases, as in rice, merely sending small prolongations over its
anterior face at the apex. By others this scutellum is considered
as the true cotyledon, and the sheathing structure covering the
plumule is regarded as a ligule or axillary stipule (see GRASSES).
In many aquatic monocotyledons (e.g. Potamogeton, Ruppia and
others) there is a much-developed hypocotyl, which forms the
greater part of the embryo and acts as a store of nutriment in
germination; these are known as macropodous embryos. A similar
case is that of Caryocar among Dicotyledons, where the swollen
hypocotyl occupies most of the embryo (fig. 52). In some grasses,
as oats and rice, a projection of cellular tissue is seen upon the side
of the embryo opposite to the scutellum, that is, on the anterior
side. This has been termed the epiblast. It is very large in rice.
This by some was considered the rudimentary second cotyledon;
but is now generally regarded as an outgrowth of the sheath of the
true cotyledon. (A. B. R.)
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING. The different sorts of
fruits and flowers are dealt with in articles under their own
headings, to which reference may be made; and these give
the substantial facts as to their cultivation. See also the article
HORTICULTURE.
GREAT BRITAIN
The extent of the fruit industry may be gathered from the
figures for the acreage of land under cultivation in orchards
and small fruit plantations. The Board of Agriculture returns
concerning the orchard areas of Great Britain showed a continuous
expansion year by year from 199,178 acres in 1888 to 234,660
acres in 1901, as will be learnt from Table I. There was, it is
true, an exception in 1892, but the decline in that year is ex-
plained by the circumstance that since 1891 the agricultural
returns have been collected only from holdings of more than
one acre, whereas they were previously obtained from all holdings
of a quarter of an acre or more. As there are many holdings
of less than an acre in extent upon which fruit is grown, and as
fruit is largely raised also in suburban and other gardens which
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
261
do not come into the returns, it may be taken for granted that
the actual extent of land devoted to fruit culture exceeds that
which is indicated by the official figures. In the Board of
Agriculture returns up to June 1908, 308,000 acres are stated
to be devoted to fruit cultivation of all kinds in Great Britain.
TABLE I. Exttnt of Orchards in Great Britain in each Year.
1887 to 1901.
fru
Acre*.
Year.
Acre*.
Y..,r.
Acres.
i:
tttt
1*89
1800
1891
303.334
199.170
'99.897
aoa .305
209,996
1893
1893
1894
itaa
1896
208,950
311,664
S 4- I8 Z
318,438
221,354
1897
IBM
1899
I90O
1901
334,116
336,059
338,603
33^.139
334,660
Table II. shows that the expansion of the orchard area of Great
Britain is mainly confined to England, for it has slightly de-
creased in Wales and Scotland. The acreage officially returned
as under orchards is that of arable or grass land which is also
TABLE II. Areas under Orchards in England, Wales and Scotland
Acres.
\,.,r
England.
Wales.
Scotland.
Great Britain.
'*
1897
215,642
218,261
3677
377
1935
2148
221,254
224,116
1898
220,220
3690
2149
226,059
1899
222,712
3666
2235
228,603
1900
226,164
0M
2270
232,129
I9O1
228,580
3767
2313
234,660
1908
244430
3577
2290
250,397
used for fruit trees of any kind. Conditions of soil and climate
determine the irregular distribution of orchards in Great Britain.
The dozen counties which possess the largest extent of orchard
land all lie in the south or west of the island. According to the
returns for 1908 (excluding small fruit areas) they were the
following:
County.
Acres.
County.
Acres.
County.
Acres.
Kent . .
Devon
Hereford .
Somerset .
32.751
37,300
38,316
25-279
Worcester .
Gloucester .
Cornwall .
Middlesex .
23.653
20434
5415
5.300
Salop .
Dorset . .
Monmouth
Wilts . .
4685
4464
39H
^630
Leaving out of consideration the county of Kent, which grows
* greater variety of fruit than any of the others, the counties
of Devon, Hereford, Somerset, Worcester and Gloucester have
an aggregate orchard area of 1 24,872 acres. These five counties
of the west and south-west of England constituting in one
continuous area what is essentially the cider country of Great
Britain embrace therefore rather less than half of the entire
orchard area of the island, while Salop, Monmouth and Wilts
have about 300 less than they had a few years ago. Five English
counties have less than 1000 acres each of orchards, namely,
the county of London, and the northern counties of Cumberland,
Westmorland, Northumberland and Durham. Rutland has
just over 100 acres. The largest orchard areas in Wales are in
the two counties adjoining Hereford Brecon with 1136 acres
and Radnor with 727 acres; at the other extreme is Anglesey,
with a decreasing orchard area of only 2 2 acres. Of the Scottish
counties, Lanark takes the lead with 1 285 acres, Penh, Stirling
and Haddington following with 684 and 1 29 acres respectively.
Ayr and Midlothian are the only other counties possessing 100
acres or more of orchards, whilst Kincardine, Orkney and
Shetland return no orchard area, and Banff, Bute, Kinross,
Nairn, Peebles, Sutherland and Wigtown return less than 10
acres each. It may be added that in 1908 Jersey returned 1090
acres of orchards, Guernsey, &c., 144 acres, and the Isle of Man,
121 acres; the two last-named places showing a decline as
compared with eight years previously.
Outside the cider counties proper of England, the counties in
which orchards for commercial fruit-growing have increased
considerably in recent yean include Berks, Buckingham,
Cambridge, Essex, Lincoln, Middlesex, Monmouth, Norfolk,
Oxford, Salop, Sussex, Warwick and Wilts. Apples are the
principal fruit grown in the western and south-western counties,
pears also being fairly common. In parts of Gloucestershire,
however, and in the Evesham and Pershore districts of Worcester-
shire, plum orchards exist. Plums are almost as largely grown
as apples in Cambridgeshire. Large quantities of apples, plums,
damsons, cherries, and a fair quantity of pears are grown for the
market in Kent, whilst apples, plums and pears predominate in
Middlesex. In many counties damsons are cultivated around
fruit plantations to shelter the latter from the wind.
Of small fruit (currants,gooseberries,strawberries, raspberries,
&c.) no return was made of the acreage previous to 1888, in
which year it was given as 36,724 acres for Great Britain. In
1889 it rose to 41,933 acres.
Later figures are shown in Table III. It will be observed that,
owing to corrections made in the enumeration in 1897, aconsider-
TABLE III. Areas of Small Fruit in Great Britain.
Year.
Acres.
Year.
Acres.
Year.
Acres.
1890
1891
1892
1893
46,234
58704
62,148
65-487
1894
1895
1896
1897
68,415.
74-547
76,345
69,792
1898
1899
1900
1901
69.753
71,526
73.78o
74,999
able reduction in the area is recorded for that year, and pre-
sumably the error then discovered existed in all the preceding
returns. The returns for 1907 gave the acreage of small fruit
as 82,175 acres, and in 1908 at 84,880 acres an area more than
double that of 1880.
There has undoubtedly been a considerable expansion, rather
than a contraction, of small fruit plantations since 1896. The
acreage of small fruit in Great Britain is about one-third that of
the orchards. As may be seen in Table IV., it is mainly confined
to England, though Scotland has over 4000 more acres of small
TABLE IV. Areas under Small Fruit in England, Wales and Scotland
Acres.
Year.
England.
Wales.
Scotland.
Great Britain.
1898
1899
1900
1901
1908
63.438
64,867
66,749
67,838
75.750
1044
1106
1109
1093
1 200
5271
5553
5922
i 6079
7930
69,753
7L526
73,78o
74,999
84,880
fruit than of orchards. About one-third of the area of small
fruit in England belongs to Kent alone, that county having
returned 24,137 acres in 1008. Cambridge now ranks next with
6878 acres, followed by Norfolk with 5876 acres, Worcestershire
with 4852 acres, Middlesex with 4163 acres, Hants with 3320
acres and Essex with 2150 acres. It should be remarked that
between 1900 and 1908 Cambridgeshire had almost doubled
its area of small fruits, from 3740 to 6878 acres; whilst both
Norfolk and Worcestershire in 1908 had larger areas devoted
to small fruits than Middlesex in which county there had
been a decrease of about 400 acres during the same period.
The largest county area of small fruit in Wales is 806 acres
in Denbighshire, and in Scotland 2791 acres in Perthshire,
2259 acres in Lanarkshire, followed by 412 acres in Forfarshire.
The only counties in Great Britain which make no return under
the head of small fruit are Orkney and Shetland; and Sutherland
only gives 2} acres. It is hardly necessary to say that consider-
able areas of small fruit, in kitchen gardens and elsewhere, find
no place in the official returns, which, however, include small
fruit grown between and under orchard trees.
Gooseberries are largely grown in most small fruit districts.
Currants are less widely cultivated, but the red currant is more
extensively grown than the black, the latter having suffered
seriously from the ravages of the black currant mite. Kent is
the great centre for raspberries and for strawberries, though,
in addition, the latter fruit is largely grown in Cambridgeshire
(2411 acres), Hampshire (2327 acres), Norfolk (2067 acres)
and Worcestershire (i273acres). Essex, Lincolnshire, Cheshire,
262
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
Cornwall and Middlesex each has more than 500 acres devoted
to strawberry cultivation.
The following statement from returns for 1908 shows the
area under different kinds of fruit in 1907 and 1908 in Great
Britain, and also whether there had been an increase or decrease:
1907.
1908.
Increase or
Decrease.
Small Fruit
Strawberries
Raspberries
Currants and Goose-
berries
Other kinds .
Orchards
Apples ....
Pears ....
Cherries ....
Plums ....
Other kinds .
Acres.
27,827
8,878
25.590
19,880
Acres.
28,815
9-323
26,241
20,501
Acres.
+ 988
+ 445
+ 651
+ 621
82,175
84,880
+2705
172,643
8,911
12,027
14,901
41,694
172,751
9,604
n,868
15,683
40,391
+ 108
+ 693
- 159
+ 782
-1303
250,176
250,297
+ 121
It appears from the Board of Agriculture returns that 27,433
acres of small fruit was grown in orchards, so that the total
extent of land under fruit cultivation in Great Britain at the end
of 1908 was about 308,0x20 acres.
There are no official returns as to the acreage devoted to
orchard cultivation in Ireland. The figures relating to small fruit,
moreover, extend back only to 1899, when the area under this
head was returned as 4809 acres, which became 4359 acres in
1900 and 4877 acres in 1901. In most parts of the country
there are districts favourable to the culture of small fruits,
such as strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries and currants,
and of top fruits, such as apples, pears, plums and damsons.
The only localities largely identified with fruit culture as an
industry are the Drogheda district and the Armagh district.
In the former all the kinds named are grown except strawberries,
the speciality being raspberries, which are marketed in Dublin,
Belfast and Liverpool. In the Armagh district, again, all the
kinds named are grown, but in this case strawberries are the
speciality, the markets utilized being Richhill, Belfast, and those
in Scotland. In the Drogheda district the grower bears the
cost of picking, packing and shipping, but he cannot estimate
his net returns until his fruit is on the market. Around Armagh
the Scottish system prevails that is, the fruit is sold while
growing, the buyer being responsible for the picking and
marketing.
The amount of fruit imported into the United Kingdom has
such an important bearing on the possibilities of the industry
that the following figures also may be useful:
The quantities of apples, pears, plums, cherries and grapes
imported in the raw condition into the United Kingdom in each
year, 1892 to 1901, are shown in Table V. Previous to 1892 apples
only were separately enumerated. Up to 1899 inclusive thequantities
were given in bushels, but in 1900 a change was made to hundred-
weights. This renders the quantities in that and subsequent years
not directly comparable with those in earlier years, but the com-
parison of the values, which are also given in the table, continues
to hold good. The figures for 1908 have been added to show the
increase that had taken place. In some years the value of imported
apples exceeds the aggregate value of the pears, plums, cherries
and grapes imported. The extreme values for apples shown in the
table are 844,000 in 1893 and 2,079,000 in 1908. Grapes rank next
to apples in point of value, and over the seventeen years the amount
ranged between 394,000 in 1892 and 728,000 in 1908. On the
average, the annual outlay on imported pears is slightly in excess
of that on plums. The extremes shown are 167,000 in 1895 and
5i5,oooin 1908. In the case of plums, the smallest outlay tabulated
is 166,000 in 1895, whilst the largest is 498,000 in 1897. The
amounts expended upon imported cherries varied between 96,000
in 1895 and 308,000 in 1900. In 1900 apricots and peaches, im-
ported raw, previously included with raw plums, were for the first
time separately enumerated, the import into the United Kingdom
for that year amounting to 13,689 cwt., valued at 25,846; in 1901
the quantity was 13,463 cwt. and the value 32,350. The latter
rose in 1908 to 60,000. In 1900, also, currants, gooseberries and
strawberries, hitherto included in unenumerated raw fruit, were
likewise for the first time separately returned. Of raw currants
the import was 64,462 cwt., valued at 87,170 (1908, 121,850);
of raw gooseberries 26,045 cwt., valued at 14,626 (1908, 25,520);
and of raw strawberries, 52,225 cwt., valued at 85,949. In 1907
only 44,000 cwt. of strawberries were imported. In 1901 the
quantities and values were respectively currants, 70,402 cwt.,
TABLE V. Imports of Raw Apples, Pears, Plums, Cherries and
Grapes into the United Kingdom, 1892 to 1901. Quantities in
Thousands of Bushels (thousands of cwt. in 1900 and
Values in Thousands of Pounds Sterling.
Vo'ir
Quantities.
i Car.
Apples.
Pears.
Plums.
Cherries.
Grapes.
1892
4515
637
413
217
762
1893
3460
915
777
346
979
1894
4969
1310
777
311
833
1895
3292
407
401
196
865
1896
6177
483
560
219
883
1897
4200
1052
1044
312
994
1898
3459
492
922
402
1136
1899
3861
572
558
281
1158
1900
2129 *
477 1
423 1
243 '
593 l
1901
I830
349 '
264!
213 '
680 i
Values.
1892
1354
297
200
135
394
1893
844
347
332
195
530
1894
1389
411
302
167
470
1895
96O
167
166
96
487
1896
1582
207
242
1 06
443
1897
IIS?
378
498
178
495
1898
1108
222
435
231
550
1899
1186
266
294
154
588
1900
1225
367
393
308
595
1901
1183
296
244
214
695
1908
2079
515
428
235
728
1 Thousands of cwts.
75>3o8; gooseberries, 21,735 cwt., 11,420; strawberries, 38,604
cwt., 51,290. Up to 1899 the imports of tomatoes were included
amongst unenumerated raw vegetables, so that the quantity was
not separately ascertainable. For 1900 the import of tomatoes
was 833,032 cwt., valued at 792,339, which is equivalent to a
fraction under 2 Jd. per Ib. For 1901 the quantity was 793,991 cwt.,
and the value 734,051 ; for 1906, there were 1,124,700 cwt., valued
at 953,475; for 1907, 1,135,499 cwt., valued at 1,020,805; and
for 1908, 1,160,283 cwt., valued at 955,983.
In 1908 the outlay of the United Kingdom upon imported raw
fruits, such as can easily be produced at home, was 4,195,654,
made up as follows :
Apples .... 2,079,703 Plums 428,966
Grapes. . . . 728,026 Currants . . . 121,852
Pears .... 515,914 Apricots and peaches 60,141
Cherries . . . 235,523 Gooseberries . . 25,529
In addition about 280,000 was spent upon " unenumerated " raw
fruit, and 560,000 on nuts other than almonds " used as fruit,"
which would include walnuts and filberts, both produced at home.
It is certain, therefore, that the expenditure on imported fruits,
such as are grown within the limits of the United Kingdom, exceeds
four millions sterling per annum. The remainder of the outlay on
imported fruit in 1908, amounting to over 5,000,000, was made
up of 2,269,651 for oranges, 471,713 for lemons, 1,769,249 for
bananas, and 560,301 for almond-nuts; these cannot be grown on
an industrial scale in the British Isles.
It may be interesting to note the source of some of these imported
fruits. The United States and Canada send most of the apples,
the quantity for 1907 being 1,413,000 cwt. and 1,588,000 cwt.
respectively, while Australia contributes 280,000 cwt. Plums
come chiefly from France (200,000 cwt.), followed with 38,000 cwt.
from Germany and 28,000 cwt. from the Netherlands. Pears are
imported chiefly from France (204,000 cwt.) and Belgium (176,000) ;
but the Netherlands send 52,000 cwt., and the United States 24,000
cwt. The great bulk of imported tomatoes comes from the Canary
Islands, the quantity in 1907 being 604,692 cwt. The Channel
Islands also sent 223,800 cwt., France 115,500 cwt., Spain 169,000
cwt., and Portugal a long way behind with 11,700 cwt. Most of
the strawberries imported come from France (33,800 cwt.) and the
Netherlands (10,300 cwt.).
Fruit-growing in Kent. Kent is by far the largest fruit-growing
county in England. For centuries that county has been famous
for its fruit, and appears to have been the centre for the distribu-
tion of trees and grafts throughout the country. The cultivation
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
263
of fruit land upon farms in many parts of Kent has always been
an important feature inits agriculture. An excellent description
of this noteworthy characteristic of Kentish farming is contained
in a comprehensive paper on the agriculture of Kent by Mr
Charles Whitehead, 1 whose remarks, with various additions and
modifications, are here reproduced.
Where the conditions are favourable, especially in East and Mid
Kent, there is a considerable acreage of fruit land attached to each
Carm, planted with cherry, apple, pear, plum and damson trees,
and with bush fruits, or soft fruits as they are sometimes called,
including gooseberries, currants, raspberries, either with or without
standard trees, and strawberries, and filberts and cob-nuts in Mid
Kent. This acreage has largely increased, and will no doubt con-
tinue to increase, as, on the whole, fruit-growing has been profitable
and has materially benefited those fortunate enough to have fruit
land on their farms. There are also cultivators who grow nothing
but fruit. These are principally in the district of East Kent, between
Rochester and Canterbury, and in the district of Mid Kent near
London, and they manage their fruit land, as a pile, better than
farmers, as they give their undivided attention to it and have more
technical knowledge. But there has been great improvement of
tatr in the management of fruit land, especially of cherry and apple
orchards, the grass of which is fed off by animals having corn or
cake, or the land is well manured. Apple trees are grease-banded
and sprayed systematically by advanced fruit-growers, to prevent
or check the attacks of destructive insects. Far more attention is
being paid to the selection of varieties of apples and pears having
colour, sue, flavour, keeping qualities, and other attributes to meet
the tastes of the public, and to compete with the beautiful fruit that
comes from the United States and Canada.
Ot the various kinds of apples at present grown in Kent mention
should be made of Mr Gladstone, Beauty of Bath, Devonshire
Ouarrenden. Lady Sudely, Yellow Ingest re and Worcester Pear main.
These are dessert apples ready to pick in August and September,
and are not stored. For storing. King of the Pippins, Cox's Orange
Pippin (the best dessert apple in existence), Cox s Pomona, Duchess,
Favourite, Gascoyne's Scarlet Seedling, Court Pendu Plat.Baumann's
Red Reinette, Allington Pippin, Duke of Devonshire and Blenheim
Orange. Among kitchen apples for selling straight from the trees
the most usually planted are Lord Grosvenor, Lord Suffield, Keswick
Codlin, Early Julian, Eclinville Seedling, Pott's Seedling, Early
Rivers, Grenadier, Golden Spire, Stirling Castle and Domino. For
storing, the cooking sorts favoured now are Stone's or Loddington,
Warner's King, Wellington, Lord Derby, Queen Caroline, Tower of
Glamis, Winter Queening, Lucombe's Seedling, Bismarck, Bramley's
Seedling, Golden Noble and Lane's Prince Albert. Almost all these
will flourish equally as standards, pyramids and bushes. Among
pears are Heasfc, Clapp's Favourite, William's Bon Chretien, Beurrl
de Capiaumont, Fertility, Beurre Kiche, Chissel, Beurre Clairgeau,
Louise Bonne ofjersey, Doyenne du Cornice and Vicar of Winkficld.
plums, Rivera's Early Prolific, Tsar, Belgian Purple, Black
Diamond, Kentish Bush Plum, Pond's Seedling, Magnum Bonuin
aad Victoria are mainly cultivated. The damson known as Farleigh
Prolific, or Crittenden s, is most extensively grown throughout the
county, and usually yields large crops, which make good prices.
Asa case in point, purchasers were offering to contract for quantities
of this damson at 20 per ton in May of 1899, as the prospects of the
yield were unsatisfactory. On the other hand, in one year recently
when the crop was abnormally abundant, some of the fruit barely
paid the expenses of sending to market. The varieties of cherries
most frequently grown are Governor Wood, Knight's Early Black,
Frog more Blac k heart . Black Eagle, Waterloo, Amberheart, Bigarrcau,
Napoleon Bigarreau and Turk. A variety of cherry known as the
Kentish cherry, of a light red colour and fine subacid flavour, is
Mich grown in Kent for drying and cooking purposes. Another
cherry, similar in colour and quality, which comes rather late, known
as the Flemish, is also extensively cultivated, as well as the very
dark red large Morcllo, used for making cherry brandy. These three
varieties are grown extensively as pyramids, and the last-named
also on walls and sides of buildings. Sometimes the cherry crop is
old by auction to dealers, who pick, pack and consign the fruit to
saarket. Large prices are often made, as much as 80 per acre being
ot uncommon. The crop on a large cherry orchard in Mid Kent
IMS been sold for more than 100 per acre.
Where old standard trees have been long neglected and have
become overgrown by mosaes and lichens, the attempts made to
prove them seldom succeed. The introduction of bush fruit trees
dwarfed by grafting on the Paradise stock has been of much advantage
to fruit cultivators, as they come into bearing in two or three years,
and are more easily cultivated, pruned, sprayed and picked than
standards. Many plantations of these bush trees have been formed in
Kent of apples, pears and plums. Half standards and pyramids have
also been planted of these fruits, as well as of cherries. Bushes of
ooseberries and currants, and clumps or stools of raspberry canes,
** been planted to a great extent in many parts of the East and
Mid divisions of Kent, but not much in the Weald, where apples are
1 Jour. Ray. Afrit. Sec.. 1899.
principally grown. Sometimes fruit bushes are put in alternate rows
with bush or standard trees of apple, pear, plum or damson, or they
are planted by themselves. The distances apart for planting are gener-
ally for cherry and apple treeson grass 30 It. by 30 ft.; for standard
apples and pear trees from 20 ft. to 24 ft. upon arable land, with bush
fruit, as gooseberries and currants, under them. These are set 6 ft. by
6 ft. apart, and 5 ft. by 2 ft. for raspberries, and strawberries 2 ft. 6 in.
to 3 ft. by I ft. 6 in. to I ft. 3 in. apart. On some fruit farms bush
or dwarf trees apples, pears, plums are planted alone, at distances
varying from 8 ft. to 10 ft. apart, giving from 485 to 680 bush trees
per acre, nothing being grown between them except perhaps straw-
berries or vegetables during the first two or three years. It is believed
that this is the best way of ensuring fruit of high quality and colour.
Another arrangement consists in putting standard apple or pear
trees 30 ft. apart (48 trees per acre), and setting bush trees of apples
or pears 15 ft. apart between them; these latter come quickly into
bearing, and are removed when the standards are fully grown.
Occasionally gooseberry or currant bushes, or raspberry canes or
strawberry plants, are set between the bush trees, and taken away
directly they interfere with the growth of these. Half standard
apple or plum trees are set triangularly 15 ft. apart, and strawberry
plants at a distance of I J ft. from plant to plant and 2j ft. from row
to row. Or currant or gooseberry bushes are set between the half
standards, and strawberry plants between these.
These systems involve nigh farming. The manures used are
London manure, where hops are not grown, and bone meal, super-
phosphate, rags, shoddy, wool-waste, fish refuse, nitrate of soda,
k.iinii and sulphate of ammonia. Where hops are grown the London
manure_ is wanted for them. Fruit plantations are always dug by
hand with the Kent spud. Fruit land is never ploughed, as in the
United States and Canada. The soil is levelled down with the
" Canterbury " hoe, and then the plantations are kept free from
weeds with the ordinary draw or ' plate " hoe. The best fruit
farmers spray fruit trees regularly in the early spring, and continue
until the blossoms come out, with quassia and soft soap and paraffin
emulsions, and a very few with Paris green only, where there is no
under fruit, in order to prevent and check the constant attacks of
the various caterpillars and other insect pests. This is a costly and
laborious process, but it pays well, as a rule. The fallacy that fruit
trees on grass land require no manure, and that the grass may be
allowed to grow up to their trunks wit limit any harm, is exploding,
and many fruit farmers are well manuring their grass orchards and
removing the grass for some distance round the stems, particularly
where the trees are young.
Strawberries are produced in enormous quantities in the northern
part of the Mid Kent district round the Grays, and from thence to
Orpington ; also near Sandwich, and to some extent near Maidstone.
Raspberry canes have been extensively put in during the last few
years, and in some seasons yield good profits. There is a very great
and growing demand for all soft fruits for jam-making, and prices
are fairly good, taking an average of years, notwithstanding the
heavy importations from France, Belgium, Holland, Spain and Italy.
The extraordinary increase in the national demand for jam and other
fruit preserves has been of great benefit to Kent fruit producers.
The cheapness of duty-free sugar, as compared with sugar paying
duty in the United States and other large fruit-producing countries,
afforded one of the very few advantages possessed t>y British
cultivators, but the reimposition of the sugar duty in the United
Kingdom in 1901 has modified the position in this respect. Jam
factories were established in several parts of Kent about 1889 or
1890, but most of them collapsed either from want of capital or from
bad management. There are still a few remaining, principally in
connexion with large fruit farms. One of these is at Swanley, whose
energetic owners farm nearly 2000 acres of fruit land in Kent. The
fruit grown by them that will not make satisfactory prices in a fresh
raw state is made into jam, or if time presses it is first made into
pulp, and kept until the opportunity comes for making it into jam.
In this factory there are fifteen steam-jacketed vats in one row, and
six others for candied peel. A season's output on a recent occasion
comprised about 3500 tons of jam, 850 tons of candied peel and
750 gross (108,000 bottles) of bottled fruit. A great deal of the fruit
preserved is purchased, whilst much of that grown on the farms is
sold. A strigging machine is employed, which does as much work
as fifty women in taking currants off their strigs or stalks. Black
currant pulp is stored in casks till winter, when there is time to
convert it into jam. Strawberries cannot be pulped to advantage,
but it is otherwise with raspberries, the pulp of which is largely made.
Apricots for jam are obtained chiefly from France and Spain. There
is another flourishing factory near Sittingbourne worked on the
same lines. It is very advantageous to fruit farmers to have jam
factories in connexion with their farms or to have them near, as
they can thoroughly grade their fruit, and send only the best to market,
thus ensuring a high reputation for its quality. Carriage is saved,
which is a serious charge, though railway rates from Kent to the great
manufacturing towns and to Scotland are very much less proportion-
ally than those to London, and consequently Kent growers send
increasing quantities to these distant markets, where prices are
better, not being so directly interfered with by imported fruit,
which generally finds its way to London.
Kentish fruit-growers are becoming more particular in picking,
264
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
grading, packing and storing fruit, as well as in marketing it. A
larger quantity of fruit is now carefully stored, and sent to selected
markets as it ripens, or when there is an ascertained demand, as it
is found that if it is consigned to market direct from the trees there
must frequently be forced sales and competition with foreign fruit
that is fully matured and in good order. It was customary formerly
for Kentish growers to consign all their fruit to the London markets;
now a good deal of it is sent to Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool,
Sheffield, Newcastle and other large cities. Some is sent even to
Edinburgh and Glasgow. Many large growers send no fruit to
London now. It is by no means uncommon for growers to sell
their fruit crops on the trees or bushes by auction or private treaty,
or to contract to supply a stipulated quantity of specified fruit, say
of currants, raspberries or strawberries, to jam manufacturers. There
is a considerable quantity of fruit, such as grapes, peaches, nectarines,
grown under glass, and this kind of culture tends to increase.
Filberts and cob-nutsareaspecial product of Kent, in the neighbour-
hood of Maidstone principally, and upon the Ragstone soils, certain
conditions of soil and situation being essential for their profitable
production. A part of the filbert and cob-nut crop is picked green
in September, as they do well for dessert, though their kernels are
not large or firm, and it pays to sell them green, as they weigh more
heavily. One grower in Mid Kent has 100 acres of nuts, and has
grown 100 tons in a good year. The average price of late years has
been about 5d. per n>, which would make the gross return of the
100 acres amount to 4660. Kentish filberts have long been pro-
verbial for their excellence. Cobs are larger and look better for
dessert, though their flavour is not so fine. They are better croppers,
and are now usually planted. This cultivation is not much extending,
as it is very long before the trees come into full bearing. The London
market is supplied entirely with these nuts from Kent, and there is
some demand in America for them. Filbert and cob trees are most
closely pruned. All the year's growth is cut away except the very
finest young wood, which the trained eye of the tree-cutter sees at
a glance is blossom-bearing. The trees are kept from 5J to 7 ft.
high upon stems from I J to 2 ft. high, and are trained so as to form
a cup of from 7 to 8 ft. in diameter.
There seems no reason to expect any decrease in the acreage of
fruit land in Kent, and if the improvement in the selection of varieties
and in the general management continues it will yet pay, A hundred
years ago every one was grubbing fruit land in order that hops might
be planted, and for this many acres of splendid cherry orchards were
sacrificed. Now the disposition is to grub hop plants and substitute
apples, plums, or small fruit pr cherry trees.
Fruit-growing in other Districts. The large fruit plantations in
the vicinity of London are to be found mostly in the valley of the
Thames, around such centres as Brentford, Isleworth, Twickenham,
Heston, Hounslow, Cranford and Southall. All varieties of orchard
trees, but mostly apples, pears, and plums and small fruit, are grown
in these districts, the nearness of which to the metropolitan fruit
market at Covent Garden is of course an advantage. Some of the
orchards are old, and are not managed on modern principles. They
contain, moreover, varieties of fruit many of which are out of date
and would not be employed in establishing new plantations. In
the better-managed grounds the antiquated varieties have been
removed, and their places taken by newer and more approved types.
In addition to apples, pears, plums, damsons, cherries and quinces
as top fruit, currants, gooseberries and raspberries are grown as
bottom fruit. Strawberries are extensively grown in some of the
localities, and in favourable seasons outdoor tomatoes are ripened and
marketed.
Fruit is extensively grown in Cambridgeshire and adjacent counties
in the east of England. A leading centre is Cottenham, where the
Lower Greensand crops out and furnishes one of the best of soils for
fruit-culture. In Cottenham about a thousand acres are devoted
to fruit, and nearly the same acreage to asparagus, which is, however,
giving place to fruit. Currants, gooseberries and strawberries are the
most largely grown, apples, plums and raspberries following. Of
varieties of plums the Victoria is first in favour, and then Rivers's
Early Prolific, Tsar and Gisborne. London is the chief market,
as it receives about half the fruit sent away, whilst a considerable
quantity goes to Manchester, and some is sent to a neighbouring jam
factory at Histon, where also a moderate acreage of fruit is grown.
Another fruit-growing centre in Cambridgeshire is at Willing-
ham, where besides plums, gooseberries and raspberries outdoor
tomatoes are a feature. Greengages are largely grown near Cam-
bridge. Wisbech is the centre of an extensive fruit district,
situated partly in Cambridgeshire and partly in Norfolk. Goose-
berries, strawberries and raspberries are largely grown, and as many
as 80 tons of the first-named fruit have been sent away from Wisbech
station in a single day. In the fruit-growing localities of Huntingdon-
shire apples, pfums and gooseberries are the most extensively grown,
but pears, greengages, cherries, currants, strawberries and raspberries
are also cultivated. As illustrating variations in price, it may be
mentioned that about the year 1880 the lowest price for gooseberries
was 10 per ton, whereas it has since been down to 4. Huntingdon-
shire fruit is sent chiefly to Yorkshire, Scotland and South Wales,
but railway freights are high.
Essex affords a good example of successful fruit-farming at Tiptree
Heath, near Kelvedon, where under one management about 260
acres out of a total of 360 are under fruit. The soil, a stiff loam,
grows strawberries to perfection, and 165 acres are allotted to this
fruit. The other principal crops are 43 acres of raspberries and 30
acres of black currants, besides which there are small areas of red
currants, gooseberries, plums, damsons, greengages, cherries, apples,
uinces and blackberries. The variety of strawberry known as the
mall Scarlet is a speciality here, and it occupies 55 acres, as it
makes the best of jam. The Paxton, Royal Sovereign and Noble
varieties are also grown. Strawberries stand for six or seven years
on this farm, and begin to yield well when two years old. A jam
factory is worked in conjunction with the fruit farm. Pulp is not
made except when there is a glut of fruit. Perishable fruit intended
for whole-fruit preserves is never held over after it is gathered.
The picking of strawberries begins at 4 A.M., and the first lot is made
into jam by 6 A.M.
Hampshire, like Cambridgeshire and Norfolk, are the only counties
in which the area of small fruit exceeds that of orchards. The returns
for 1908 show that Hampshire had 3320 acres of small fruit to 2236
acres of orchards; Cambridge had 6878 acres of small fruit to 5221
of orchards; and Norfolk had 5876 acres of small fruit against
5188 acres of orchards. Compared with twenty years previously,
the acreage of small fruit had trebled. This is largely due in Hamp-
shire to the extension of strawberry culture in the Southampton
district, where the industry is in the hands of many small growers,
few of whom cultivate more than 20 acres each. Sarisbury and
Botley are the leading parishes in which the business is carried on.
Most of the strawberry holdings are from half an acre to 5 acres in
extent, a few are from 5 to 10 acres, fewer still from 10 to 20 acres
and only half-a-dozen over that limit. Runners from one-year plants
are used for planting, being found more fruitful than those from
older plants. Peat-moss manure from London stables is much
used, but artificial manures are also employed with good results.
Shortly after flowering the plants are bedded down with straw at
the rate of about 25 cwt. per acre. Picking begins some ten days
earlier than in Kent, at a date between 1st June and isth June.
The first week's gathering is sent mostly to London, but subsequently
the greater part of the fruit goes to the Midlands and to Scotland and
Ireland.
In recent years fruit-growing has much increased in South
Worcestershire, in the vicinity of Evesham and Pershore. Hand-
lights are freely used in the market gardens of this district for the
protection of cucumbers and vegetable marrows, besides which
tomatoes are extensively grown out of doors. At one time the egg
plum and the Worcester damson were the chief fruit crops, apples and
cherries ranking next, pears being grown to only a moderate extent.
According to the 1908 returns, however, apples come first, plums
second, pears third and cherries fourth. In a prolific season a single
tree of the Damascene or Worcester damson will yield from 400 to
500 ft of fruit. There is a tendency to grow plum trees in the bush
shape, as they are less liable than standards to injury from wind.
The manures used include soot, fish guano, blood manure and
phosphates basic slag amongst the last-named. In the Pershore
district, where there is a jam factory, plums are the chief tree fruit,
whilst most of the orchard apples and pears are grown for cider and
perry. Gooseberries are a feature, as are also strawberries, red and
black currants and a few white, but raspberries are little grown.
The soil, a strong or medium loam of fair depth, resting on clay, is so
well adapted to plums that trees live for fifty years. I n order to check
the ravages of the winter moth, plum and apple trees are grease-
banded at the beginning of October and again at the end of March.
The trees are also sprayed when necessary with insecticidal solutions.
Pruning is done in the autumn. An approved distance apart at
which to grow plum trees is 12 ft. by 12 ft. In the Earl of Coventry's
fruit plantation, 40 acres in extent, at Croome Court, plums and
apples are planted alternately, the bottom fruit being black currants,
which are less liable to injury from birds than are red currants or
gooseberries. Details concerning the methods of cultivation of
fruit and flowers in various parts of England, the varieties commonly
grown, the expenditure involved, and allied matters, will be found in
Mr W. E. Bear's papers in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural
Society in 1898 and 1899.
Apart altogether from market gardening and commercial fruit-
growing, it must be borne in mind that an enormous business is
done in the raising of young fruit-trees every year. Hundreds of
thousands of apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines and
apricots are budded or grafted each year on suitable stocks. They
are trained in various ways, and are usually fit for sale the third
year. These young trees replace old ones in private and commercial
gardens, and are also used to establish new plantations in different
parts of the kingdom.
The Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm. The establishment in
1894 of the experimental fruit farm at Ridgmont, near Woburn,
Beds, has exercised a healthy influence upon the progress and
development of fruit-farming in England. The farm was founded
and carried on by the public-spirited enterprise of the Duke of
Bedford and Mr Spencer U. Pickering, the latter acting as director.
The main object of the experimental station was " to ascertain facts
relative to the culture of fruit, and to increase our knowledge of, and
to improve our practice in, this industry." The farm is 20 acres in
extent, and occupies a field which up to June 1894 had been used as
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
265
arable land for the ordinary rotation of farm crops. The soil is a
sandy loam 9 or loin. decp.restingonabedofOxfordClay. Although
it contain* a Urge proportion of sand, the land would generally be
termed very heavy, and the water often used to stand on it in places
lor weeks together in a wet season. The tillage to which the ground
was subjected for the purposes of the fruit farm much improved its
character, and in dry weather it presents as good a tilth as could be
toirrnl Chemical analyse* of the soil from different parts of the field
sJBDW such wide difference* that it is admitted to be by no means an
kiwi one for experimental purposes. Without entering upon further
details, it may be useful to give a summary of the chief results
obtained.
Apples have been grown and treated in a variety of ways, but of
the different methods of treatment careless planting, coupled with
subsequent neglect, has given the most adverse results, the crop
of fruit being not 5% of that from trees grown normally. Of the
separate deleterious items constituting total neglect, by far the most
effective was the growth of weeds on the surface ; careless planting,
absence of manure, and the omission of trenching all had com-
paratively little influence on the results. A set of trees that had been
carelessly planted and neglected, but subsequently tended in the
early part of 1896, were in the autumn of that year only 10%
behind their normally-treated neighbours, thus demonstrating that
the rftptmtf to proper attention is prompt. The growth of grass
around young apple trees produced a very striking effect, the injury
being much greater than that due to weeds. It is possible, however,
that in wet years the ill-effects of both grass and weeds would be
less than in dry seasons. Nevertheless, the grass-grown trees, after
five years, were scarcely bigger than when planted, and the actual
increase in weight which they showed during that time was about
eighteen times smaller than in the case of similar trees in tilled
ground. It is believed that one of the main causes of the ill-effects
is the large increase in the evaporation of water from the soil which
is known to be produced by grass, the trees being thereby made to
suffer from drought, with constant deprivation of other nourishment
as well. That grass growing round young apple trees is deleterious
was a circumstance known to many horticulturists, but the extent to
which it interfere* with the development of the trees had never before
beenrealized. Thousands of poundsare annually thrownaway in Eng-
land through want of knowledge of this fact. Vet trees will flourish
in grass under certain conditions. Whether the dominant factor is
the age (or size) of the tree has been investigated by grassing over
trees which have hitherto been in the open ground, and the results
appear to indicate that the grass is as deleterious to the older trees as
it was to the younger ones. Again, it appears to have been demon-
strated that young apple trees, at all events in certain soils, require
but little or no manure in the early stages of their existence, so
that in this case also large sums must be annually wasted upon
manurial dressings which produce no effects. The experiments
have dealt with dwarf trees of Bramley, Cox and Potts, six trees
of each variety constituting one investigation. Some of the experi-
ments were repeated with Stirling Castle, and others with standard
trees of Bramley, Cox and Lane's Prince Albert. All were planted
in 1804-1895, the dwarfs being then three years old and the standards
four. In each experiment the " normal " treatment is altered in
some one particular, this normal treatment consisting of planting
the trees carefully in trenched ground, and subsequently keeping
the surface clean; cutting back after planting, pruning moderately
in autumn, and shortening the growths when it appeared necessary
in summer; giving in autumn a dressing of mixed mineral manures,
and in February one of nitrate of soda, this dressing being probably
equivalent to one of 12 tons of dung per acre. In the experiments
on branch treatment, the bad effects of omitting to cut the trees back
on planting, or to prune them subsequently, is evident chiefly in
the straggling and bad shape of the resulting trees, but such trees also
are not so vigorous as they should be. The quantity of fruit borne,
however, is in excess of the average. The check on the vigour and
growth of a tree by cutting or injuring its roots is in marked contrast
with the effects of a simitar interference with the branches. Trees
which had been root-pruned each year were in 1898 little more than
half as big as the normal trees, whilst those root-pruned every second
Ewere about two-thirds as big as the normal. The crops borne
bese trees were nevertheless heavy in proportion to the size of
trees. Such frequent root-pruning is not, of course, a practice
which should be adopted. It was found that trees which had been
carefully lifted every other year and replanted at once experienced
no ill-effects from the operation ; but in a case where the trees after
being Uf ted had been left in a shed for three days before replanting
which would reproduce to a certain extent the conditions experienced
when trees are sent out from a nursery material injury was suffered,
these trees after four years being 28% smaller than similar ones
which had not been replanted. Sets of trees planted respectively
in November, January and March have, on the whole, shown
nothing in favour of any of these different times for planting
pW|Nj*u. Some doubt is thrown on the accepted view that there
a tendency, at any rate with young apple and pear trees, to fruit
alternate seasons.
Strawberries of eighty-five different varieties have been experi-
mented with, each variety being represented in 1000 by plants of
ve different ages, from one to five years. In 1896 and 1898 the
crops of fruit were about twice as heavy as in 1897 and 1899, but
it has not been found possible to correlate these variations with the
meteorological recordsof the several seasons. Taking the average of all
the varieties, the relative weights of crop per plant, when these are
compared with the two-year-old plants in the same season, are, for
the five ages of one to five years, 31, 100, 122, 121 and 134, apparently
showing that the bearing power increases rapidly up to two years,
less rapidly up to three years, after which age it remains practically
constant. The relative average size of the berries shows a deteriora-
tion with the age of the plant. The comparative sizes from plants of
one to five years old were 115, 100, 96, 91 and 82 respectively. If
the money value of the crop is taken to be directly dependent on its
total weight, and also on the size of the fruits, the relative values
of the crop for the different ages would be 34, 100, 117, 1 1 1 and 1 10,
so that, on the Ridgmont ground, strawberry plants could be profit-
ably retained up to five years and probably longer. As regards
what may be termed the order of merit of different varieties of
strawberries, it appears that even small differences in position and
treatment cause large variations, not only in the features of the
crop generally, but also in the relative behaviour of the different
varieties. The relative cropping power of the varieties under
apparently similar conditions may often be expressed by a number
five or tenfold as great in one case as in the other. A comparison
of the relative behaviour of the same varieties in different seasons
is attended by similar variations. The varying sensitiveness of
different varieties of strawberry plants to small and undefinable
differences in circumstances is indeed one of the most important
facts brought to light in the experiments.
Fruit Culture in Ireland. The following figures have been kindly
supplied by the Irish Board of Agriculture, and deal with the acreage
under fruit culture in Ireland up to the end of the year 1907.
I . Orchard Fruit Statute Acres.
Apples . .... 5829
Pears
Plums
Damsons .
Other kinds
Small Fruit
Currants, black
Currants, red and white
Gooseberries . . .
Raspberries
Strawberries . . .
Mixed fruit
224
3?
129
Total
6543
234
159
675
374
994
2470
Total . . 4906
It therefore appears that while Ireland grows only about one-
thirty-third the quantity of apples that England does, i t is nevertheless
nearly 5000 acres ahead of Scotland and about 2000 acres ahead of
Wales. It grows 41 times fewer pears than England, but still is
ahead of Scotland and a long way ahead of Wales in this fruit.
There are 70' times fewer plums grown in Ireland than in England,
and about the same in Scotland, while Wales does very little indeed.
In small fruit Ireland is a long way behind Scotland in the culture
of strawberries and raspberries, although with currants and goose-
berries it is very close. Considering the climate, and the fact that
there are, according to the latest available returns, over 62,000
holdings above I acre but not exceeding 5 acres (having a total of
224,000 acres), it is possible fruit culture may become more prevalent
than it has been in the past.
The Flower-growing Industry. During the last two or three
decades of the igth century a very marked increase in flower
production occurred in England. Notably was this the case in
the neighbourhood of London, where, within a radius of 1 5 or
20 m., the fruit crops, which had largely taken the place of garden
vegetables, were themselves ousted in turn to satisfy the increasing
demand for land for flower cultivation. No flower has entered
more largely into the development of the industry than the
narcissus or daffodil, of which there are now some 600 varieties.
Comparatively few of these, however, are grown for market
purposes, although all are charming from the amateur point of
view. On some flower farms a dozen or more acres are devoted
to narcissi alone, the production of bulbs for sale as well as of
flowers for market being the object of the growers.
In the London district the country in the Thames valley west
of the metropolis is as largely occupied by flower farms as it is
by fruit farms in fact, the cultivation of flowers is commonly
associated with that of fruit. In the vicinity of Richmond
narcissi are extensively grown, as they also are more to the west
in the Long Ditton district, and likewise around Twickenham,
Isleworth, Hounslow, Feltham and Hampton. Rosescome more
into evidence in the neighbourhood of Hounslow, Cranford,
266
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
Hillingdon and Uxbridge, and in some gardens daffodils and
roses occupy alternate rows. In this district also such flowers
as herbaceous paeonies, Spanish irises, German irises, Christmas
roses, lilies of the valley, chrysanthemums, foxgloves, holly-
hocks, wallflowers, carnations, &c., are extensively grown in
many market gardens. South of London is the Mitcham country,
long noted for its production of lavender. The incessant growth
of the lavender plant upon the same land, however, has led to
the decline of this industry, which has been largely transferred
to districts in the counties of Bedford, Essex and Hertford. At
Mitcham, nevertheless, mixed flowers are very largely grown
for the supply of the metropolis, and one farm alone has nearly
100 acres under flowers and glass-houses. Chrysanthemums,
asters, Iceland poppies, gaillardias, pansies, bedding calceolarias,
zonal pelargoniums and other plants are cultivated in immense
quantities. At Swanley and Eynsford, in Kent, flowers are
extensively cultivated in association with fruit and vegetables.
Narcissi, chrysanthemums, violets, carnations, campanulas,
roses, pansies, irises, sweet peas, and many other flowers are here
raised, and disposed of in the form both of cut flowers and of
plants.
The Scilly Isles are important as providing the main source
of supply of narcissi to the English markets in the early months
of the year. This trade arose almost by accident, for it was
about the year 1865 that a box of narcissi sent to Covent Garden
Market, London, realized i; and the knowledge of this fact
getting abroad, the farmers of the isles began collecting wild
bulbs from the fields in order to cultivate them and increase their
stocks. Some ten years, however, elapsed before the industry
promised to become remunerative. In 1885 a Bulb and Flower
Association was established to promote the industrial growth
of flowers. The exports of flowers in that year reached 65 tons,
and they steadily increased until 1893, when they amounted
to 450 tons. A slight decline followed, but in 1896 the quantity
exported was no less than 514 tons. This would represent
upwards of 3^ million bunches of flowers, chiefly narcissi and
anemones. Rather more than 500 acres are devoted to flower-
growing in the isles, by far the greater part of this area being
assigned to narcissi, whilst anemones, gladioli, marguerites,
arum lilies, Spanish irises, pinks and wallflowers are cultivated
on a much smaller scale. The great advantage enjoyed by the
Scilly flower-growers is earliness of production, due to climatic
causes; the soil, moreover, is well suited to flower culture and
there is an abundance of sunshine. The long journey to London
is somewhat of a drawback, in regard to both time and freight,
but the earliness of the flowers more than compensates for this.
Open-air narcissi are usually ready at the beginning of January,
and the supply is maintained in different varieties up to the
middle or end of May. The narcissus bulbs are usually planted
in October, 4 in. by 3 in. apart for the smaller sorts and 6 in.
by 4 to 6 in. for the larger. A compost of farmyard manure,
seaweed, earth and road scrapings is the usual dressing, but
nitrate of soda, guano and bones are also occasionally employed.
A better plan, perhaps, is to manure heavily the previous crop,
frequently potatoes, no direct manuring then being needed for
the bulbs, these not being left in the ground more than two or
three years. The expenses of cultivation are heavy, the cost
of bulbs alone of which it requires nearly a quarter of a million
of the smaller varieties, or half as many of the largest, to plant
an acre being considerable. The polyanthus varieties of
narcissus are likely to continue the most remunerative to the
flower-growers of Scilly, as they flourish better in these isles
than on the mainland.
In the district around the Wash, in the vicinity of such towns
as Wisbech, Spalding and Boston, the industrial culture of bulbs
and flowers underwent great expansion in the period between
1880 and 1909. At Wisbech one concern alone has a farm of
some 900 acres, devoted chiefly to flowers and fruit, the soil
being a deep fine alluvium. Roses are grown here, one field
containing upwards of 100,000 trees. Nearly 20 acres are
devoted to narcissi, which are grown for the bulbs and also,
together with tulips, for cut flowers. Carnations are cultivated
Month.
1906.
1907.
1908.
January ....
February ....
March ....
April
31-035
34.647
50,232
^o 800
18,545
25,541
42,611
50 418
29,180
30,541
35,185
42 68 1
May .....
June
July
22,980
17,641
?,^86
21,767
18.358
A COQ
23,129
16,904
August
I 646
T C7Q
1 08 1
September.
October ....
November.
December ....
852
4,481
17-506
18,669
736
3,180
15,763
30,674
953
4,504
15-097
27,080
Total . . .
233,884
233,641
229,802
both in the field and in pots. Cut flowers are sent out in large
quantities, neatly and effectively packed, the parcel post being
mainly employed as a means of distribution. In the neighbour-
hood of Spalding crocuses and snowdrops are less extensively
grown than used to be the case. On one farm, however, upwards
of 20 acres are devoted to narcissi alone, whilst gladioli, lilies
and irises are grown on a smaller scale. Around Boston narcissi
are also extensively grown for the market, both bulbs and cut
blooms being sold. The bulbs are planted 3 in. apart in rows, the
latter being 9 in. apart, and are allowed to stand from two to
four years.
The imports of fresh flowers into the United Kingdom were not
separately shown prior to 1900. In that year, however, their value
amounted to 200,585, in 1901 to 225,011, in 1906 to 233,884, in
1907 to 233,641, and in 1908 to 229,802, so that the trade showed
a fairly steady condition. From the monthly totals quoted in
Table VI. it would appear that the trade sinks to its minimum
TABLE VI. Values of Fresh Flowers imported into the United
Kingdom.
dimensions in the four months July to October inclusive, and that
after September the business continually expands up to April,
subsequent to which contraction again sets in. About one-half of
the trade belongs practically to the three months of February,
March and April.
Hothouse Culture of Fruit and Flowers. The cultivation
of fruit and flowers under glass has increased enormously
since about the year 1880, especially in the neighbourhood
of London, where large sums of money have been sunk in the
erection and equipment of hothouses. In the parish of Cheshunt,
Herts, alone there are upwards of 130 acres covered with glass,
and between that place on the north and London on the south
extensive areas of land are similarly utilized. In Middlesex,
in the north, in the districts of Edmonton, Enfield, Ponders End
and Finchley, and in the west from Isleworth to Hampton,
Feltham, Hillingdon, Sipson and Uxbridge, many crops are now
cultivated under glass. At Erith, Swanley, and other places in
Kent, as also at Worthing, in Sussex, glass-house culture has
much extended. A careful estimate puts the area of industrial
hothouses in England at about 1200 acres, but it is probably
much more than this. Most of the greenhouses are fixtures,
but in some parts of the kingdom structures that move on rails
and wheels are used, to enable the ground to be prepared in the
open for one crop while another is maturing under glass. The
leading products are grapes, tomatoes and cucumbers, the last-
named two being true fruits from the botanist's point of view,
though commercially included with vegetables. To these may
be added on the same ground dwarf or French beans, and runner
or climbing beans. Peaches, nectarines and strawberries are
largely grown under glass, and, in private hothouses from
which the produce is used mainly for household consumption,
and which are not taken into consideration here pineapples,
figs and other fruit. Conservative estimates indicate the average
annual yield of hothouse grapes to be about 1 2 tons per acre and
of tomatoes 20 tons. The greater part of the space in the hot-
houses is assigned to fruit, but whilst some houses are devoted
exclusively to flowers, in others, where fruit is the main
object, flowers are forced in considerable quantities in winter
and early spring. The flowers grown under glass include tulips,
hyacinths, primulas, cyclamens, spiraeas, mignonettes, fuchsias,
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
267
calceolarias, roses, chrysanthemums, daffodils, arum lilies or
callas, liliums, azaleas, eucharises, camellias, stephanotis,
tuberoses, bouvardias, gardenias, heaths or ericas, poinsettias,
lilies of the valley .zonal pelargoniums.tuberous and fibrous rooted
begonias, and many others. There is an increasing demand for
foliage hothouse plants, such as ferns, palms, crotons, aspidistras,
araucarias, dracaenas, India-rubber plants, aralias, grevilleas,
ftc. Berried plants like solanums and aucubas also find a ready
sale, while the ornamental kinds of asparagus such as sprengeri
and flumosus nan us, are ever in demand for trailing decorations,
as well as myrsiphyllum. Special mention must be made of the
winter or perpetual flowering carnations which are now grown
by hundreds of thousands in all parts of the kingdom for
decorative work during the winter season. The converse of
forcing plants into early blossom is adopted with such an im-
portant crop as lily of the valley. During the summer season the
crowns are placed in refrigerators with about t degrees of frost,
and quantities are taken out as required every week and trans-
ferred to the greenhouse to develop. Tomatoes are grown
largely in houses exclusively occupied by them, in which case two
and sometimes three crops can be gathered in the year. In the
Channel Islands, where potatoes grown under glass are lifted
in April and May, in order to secure the high prices of the early
markets, tomato seedlings are planted out from boxes into the
ground as quickly as the potatoes are removed, the tomato
planter working only a few rows behind the potato digger.
The trade in imported tomatoes is so considerable that home
growers are well justified in their endeavours to meet the demand
more fully with native produce, whether raised under glass or
in the open. Tomatoes were not separately enumerated in the
imports previous to 1000. It has already been stated that in
1900 the raw tomatoes imported amounted to 833,032 cwt.,
valued at 792,339, and in 1001 to 793,091 cwt., valued at
"34'5 I - From the monthly quantities given in Table VII.,
TABLE VII. Quantities of Tomatoes imported into the United
Kingdom.
Month.
1906.
1907.
1908.
January ....
February ....
March
April
May
June
61,940
58.187
106,458
103,273
67.933
62.006
56,022
58.289
98,028
109.057
114,041
141 ^70
73.409
69.350
86,928
74.917
88,901
127. 7QT
uly
218.162
I SO.OO7
1 7 1. 078
August
September. . . .
October ....
November
December ....
180,046
114,860
52.678
4L5I3
36.3' 6
102,600
IOI,I98
67,860
66,522
66,591
124.757
119,224
75.722
74.292
73.012
Total . .
1,124^72
I.I35.494
1,160,283
Value
953.475
'.135.499
1,160,283
it would appear that the imports are largest in June, July and
August, about one-half of the year's total arriving during those
three months. It is too early in June and July for home-grown
outdoor tomatoes to enter into competition with the imported
product, but home-grown hothouse tomatoes should be qualified
to challenge this trade.
An important feature of modern flower growing is the pro-
duction and cultivation of what are known as" hardy herbaceous
perennials." Some 2000 or 3000 different species and varieties
of these are now raised in special nurseries, and during the
spring, summer and autumn seasons magnificent displays are
to be seen not only in the markets but t the exhibitions in
London and at the great provincial shows held throughout the
kingdom. The production of many of these perennials is so
easy that amateurs in several instances have taken it up as a
bniineat hobby; and in some cases, chiefly through advertising
in the horticultural press, very lucrative concerns have been
established.
Ornamental flowering trees and shrubs constitute another
feature of modern gardening. These are grown and imported
by thousands chiefly for their sprays of blossom or foliage, and
for planting in large or small gardens, public parks, &c., for
landscape effect. Indeed there is scarcely an easily grown plant
from the northern or southern temperate zones that does not now
find a place in the nursery or garden, provided it is sufficiently
attractive to sell for its flowers, foliage or appearance.
Conditions of the Fruit and Flower growing Industries. As
regards open-air fruit-growing, the outlook for new ventures is
perhaps brighter than in the hothouse industry, not as Mr
Bear has pointed out because the area of fruit land in England
is too small, but because the level of efficiency, from the selection
of varieties to the packing and marketing of the produce, is very
much lower in the former than in the latter branch of enterprise.
In other words, whereas the practice of the majority of hothouse
nurserymen is so skilled, so up-to-date, and so entirely under high
pressure that a new competitor, however well trained, will find
it difficult to rise above mediocrity, the converse is true of open-
air fruit-growers. Many, and an increasing proportion, of the
latter are thoroughly efficient in all branches of their business,
and are in possession of plantations of the best market varieties
of fruit, well cultivated, pruned and otherwise managed. But
the extent of fruit plantations completely up to the mark in
relation to varieties and treatment of trees and bushes, and in
connexion with which the packing and marketing of the produce
are equally satisfactory, is small in proportion to the total fruit
area of the country. Information concerning the best treatment
of fruit trees has spread widely in recent years, and old planta-
tions, as a rule, suffer from the neglect or errors of the past,
however skilful their present holders may be. Although the
majority of professional market fruit-growers may be well up
to the standard in skill, there are numerous contributors to
the fruit supply who are either ignorant of the best methods
of cultivation and marketing or careless in their application.
The bad condition of the great majority of farm orchards is
notorious, and many landowners, farmers and amateur gardeners
who have planted fruit on a more or less extensive scale have
mismanaged their undertakings. For these reasons new growers
of open-air fruit for market have opportunities of succeeding by
means of superiority to the majority of those with whom they
will compete, provided that they possess the requisite knowledge,
energy and capital. It has been asserted on sound authority
that there is no chance of success for fruit-growers except in
districts favourable as regards soil, climate and nearness to a
railway or a good market; and, even under these conditions,
only for men who have had experience in the industry and are
prepared to devote their unremitting attention to it. Most
important is it to a beginner that he should ascertain the varieties
of fruit that flourish best in his particular district. Certain kinds
seem to do well or fairly well in all parts of the country; others,
whilst heavy croppers in some localities, are often unsatisfactory
in others.
As has been intimated, there is probably in England less room
for expansion of fruit culture under glass than in the open.
The large increase of glass-houses in modern times appears to
have brought the supply of hothouse produce, even at greatly
reduced prices, at least up to the level of the demand; and as
most nurserymen continue to extend their expanse of glass,
the prospect for new competitors is not a bright one. Moreover,
the vast scale upon which some of the growers conduct the
hothouse industry puts small producers at a great disadvantage,
not only because the extensive producers can grow grapes and
other fruit more economically than small growers with the
possible exception of those who do all or nearly all their own
work but also, and still more, because the former have greater
ad vantages in transporting and marketing their fruit. There has,
in recent years, been s. much greater fall in the prices of hothouse
than of open-air fruit, especially under the existing system of
distribution, which involves the payment by consumers of 50
to 1 00% more in prices than growers receive. The best openings
for new nurseries are probably not where they are now to be
found in large groups, and especially not in the neighbourhood
268
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
of London, but in suitable spots near the great centres of popula-
tion in the Midlands and the North, or big towns elsewhere not
already well supplied with nurseries. By such a selection of a
locality the beginner may build up a retail trade in hothouse
fruit, or at least a trade with local fruiterers and grocers, thus
avoiding railway charges and salesmen's commissions to a great
extent, though it may often be advantageous to send certain
kinds of produce to a distant market. Above all, a man who has
no knowledge of the hothouse industry should avoid embarking
his capital in it, trusting himself in the hands of a foreman, as
experience shows that such a venture usually leads to disaster.
Some years of training in different nurseries are desirable for
any young man who is desirous of becoming a grower of hothouse
fruits or flowers.
There can be no doubt that flower-growing is greatly extending
in England, and that competition among home growers is be-
coming more severe. Foreign supplies of flowers have increased,
but not nearly as greatly in proportion as home supplies, and it
seems clear that home growers have gained ground in relation
to their foreign rivals, except with respect to flowers for the
growthofwhichforeignershaveextraordinarynaturaladvantages.
There seems some danger of the home culture of the narcissus
being over-done, and the florists' chrysanthemum appears to
be produced in excess of the demand. Again, in the production
of violets the warm and sunny South of France has an advantage
not possessed by England, whilst Holland, likewise for climatic
reasons, maintains her hold upon the hyacinth and tulip trade.
Whether the production of flowers as a whole is gaining ground
upon the demand or not is a difficult question to answer. It is
true that the prices of flowers have fallen generally; but produc-
tion, at any rate under glass, has been cheapened, and if a fair
profit can be obtained, the fall in prices, without which the
existing consumption of flowers would be impossible, does not
necessarily imply over-production. There is some difference of
opinion among growers upon this point; but nearly all agree
that profits are now so small that production on a large scale is
necessary to piovide a fair income. Industrial flower-growing
affords such a wide scope for the exercise of superior skill,
industry and alertness, that it is not surprising to find some
who are engaged in it doing remarkably well to all appearance,
while others are struggling on and hardly paying their way.
That a man with only a little capital, starting in a small way,
has many disadvantages is certain; also, that his chance of
saving money and extending his business quickly is much
smaller than it was. To the casual looker-on, who knows
nothing of the drudgery of the industry, flower-growing seems a
delightful method of getting a living. That it is an entrancing
pursuit there is no doubt; but it is equally true that it is a very
arduous one, requiring careful forethought, ceaseless attention
and abundant energy. Fortunately for those who might be
tempted, without any knowledge of the industry, to embark
capital in it, flower-growing, if at all comprehensive in scope, so
obviously requires a varied and extensive technical knowledge,
combined with good commercial ability, that any one can see
that a thorough training is necessary to a man who intends to
adopt it as a business, especially if hothouse flowers are to be
produced.
The market for fruit, and more especially for flowers, is a fickle
one, and there is nearly always some uncertainty as to the course
of prices. The perishable nature of soft fruit and cut flowers renders
the markets very sensitive to anything in the nature of a glut, the
occurrence of which is usually attended with disastrous results to
producers. Foreign competition, moreover, has constantly to be
faced, and it is Rkely to increase rather than diminish. French
growers have a great advantage over the open-air cultivators of
England, for the climate enables them to get their produce into the
markets early in the season, when the highest prices are obtainable.
The geographical advantage which France enjoys in being so near
to England is, however, considerably discounted by the increasing
facilities for cold storage in transit, both'by rail and sea. The develop-
ment of such facilities permits of the retail sale in England of luscious
fruit as fresh and attractive as when it was gathered beneath the
sunny skies of California. In the case of flowers, fashion is an
element not to be ignored. Flowers much in request in one season
may meet with very little demand in another, and it is difficult
for the producer to anticipate the changes which caprice may dictate,
t-ven for the same kind of flower the requirements are very uncertain
and the white blossom which is all the rage in one season may be
discarded in favour of one of another colour in the next. The sale
of fresh flowers for church decoration at Christmas and Easter has
reached enormous dimensions. The irregularity in the date of the
festival, however, causes some inconvenience to growers. If it falls
very early the great bulk of suitable flowers may not be sufficiently
forward for sale, whilst a late Easter may find the season too far
advanced. The trade in cut flowers, therefore, is generally attended
by uncertainty, and often by anxiety. (W. FR. ; J. Ws.)
UNITED STATES
In the United States horticulture and market gardening have
now assumed immense proportions. In a country of over
3,000,000 sq. m., stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific
on the one hand, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the great
northern lakes and the Dominion of Canada on the other, a
great variation of climatic conditions is not unnatural. From a
horticultural point of view there are practically two well-defined
regions: (i) that to the east of the Rocky Mountains across
to the Atlantic, where the climate is more like that of eastern
Asia than of western Europe so far as rainfall, temperature and
seasonable conditions are concerned; (2) that to the west of the
Rockies, known as the Pacific coast region, where the climate
is somewhat similar to that of western Europe. It may be added
that in the northern states in Washington, Montana, North
Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, &c. the winters are often very
severe, while the southern states practically enjoy a temperature
somewhat similar to that of the Riviera. Indeed the range of
temperature between the extreme northern states and the
extreme southern may vary as much as 1 20 F. The great aim
of American gardeners, therefore, has been to find out or to
produce the kinds of fruits, flowers and vegetables that are
likely to flourish in different parts of this immense country.
Fruit Culture. There is probably no country in the world
where so many different kinds of fruit can be grown with ad-
vantage to the nation as in the United States. In the temperate
regions apples, pears and plums are largely grown, and orchards
of these are chiefly to be found in the states of New York,
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Missouri, Colorado,
and also in northern Texas, Arkansas and N. California. To
these may be added cranberries and quinces, which are chiefly
grown in the New England states. The quinces are not a crop
of first-rate importance, but as much as 800,000 bushels of
cranberries are grown each year. The peach orchards are
assuming great proportions, and are chiefly to be found in
Georgia and Texas, while grapes are grown throughout the
Republic from east to west in all favourable localities. Oranges,
lemons and citrons are more or less extensively grown in Florida
and California, and in these regions what are known as Japanese
or " Kelsey " plums (forms of Prunus trifloro) are also grown
as marketable crops. Pomegranates are not yet largely grown,
but it is possible their culture will develop in southern Texas
and Louisiana, where the climate is tempered by the waters of
the Gulf of Mexico. Tomatoes are grown in most parts of the
country so easily that there is frequently a glut; while the
strawberry region extends from Florida to Virginia, Pennsylvania
and other states thus securing a natural succession from south
to north for the various great market centres.
Of the fruits mentioned apples are undoubtedly the most
important. Not only are the American people themselves
supplied with fresh fruit, but immense quantities are exported
to Europe Great Britain alone absorbing as much as 1,430,000
cwt. in 1908. The varieties originally grown were of course
those taken or introduced from Europe by the early settlers.
Since the middle of the igth century great changes have been
brought about, and "the varieties mostly cultivated now are
distinctly American. They have been raised by crossing and
intercrossing the most suitable European forms with others
since imported from Russia. In the extreme northern states
indeed, where it is essential to have apple trees that will stand
the severest winters, the Russian varieties crossed with the
berry crab of eastern Europe (Pyrus baccato) have produced
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
269
a race eminently suited to that particular region. The individual
fruit* are not very large, but the trees are remarkably hardy.
Farther south larger fruited varieties are grown, and among
these may be noted Baldwins, Newton pippins, Spitzenbcrgs
and Rhode Island greening. Apple orchards are numerous
in the State of New York, where it is estimated that over 100,000
acres are devoted to them. In the hilly regions of Missouri,
Arkansas and Colorado there are also great plantations of apples.
The trees, however, are grown on different principles from those
in New York State. In the latter state apple trees with ordinary
care live to more than 100 years of age and produce great crops;
in the other states, however, an apple tree is said to be middle-
aged at 20, decrepit at 30 and practically useless at 40 years of
age. They possess the advantage, however, of bearing early and
heavily.
Until the introduction of the cold-storage system, about the
year 1880, America could hardly be regarded as a commercial
fruit-growing country. Since then, however, owing to the
great improvements made in railway refrigerating vans and
storage houses, immense quantities of fruit can be despatched
in good condition to any part of the world; or they can be kept
at home in safety until such time as the markets of Chicago,
New York, Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, &c., are con-
sidered favourable for their reception.
Apple trees are planted at distances varying from 25 ft. to
30 ft. apart in the middle western states, to 40 ft. to 50 ft. apart
in New York State. Here and there, however, in some of the
very best orchards the trees are planted 60 ft. apart every way.
Each tree thus has a chance to develop to its utmost limits, and
as air and light reach it better, a far larger fruit-bearing surface
is secured. Actual experience has shown that trees planted at
60 ft. apart about 28 to the acre produce more fruit by 43
bushels than trees at 30 ft. apart i.e. about 48 to the acre.
Until recent years pruning as known to English and French
gardeners was practically unknown. There was indeed no great
necessity for it, as the trees, not being cramped for space, threw
their branches outwards and upwards, and thus rarely become
overcrowded. When practised, however, the operation could
scarcely be called pruning; lopping or trimming would be more
accurate descriptions.
Apple orchards are not immune from insect pests and fungoid
diiriif n, and an enormous business is now done in spraying
machines and various insecticides. It pays to spray the trees,
and figures have been given to show that orchards that have
been sprayed four times have produced an average income of
211 per acre against 103 per acre from unsprayed orchards.
The spring frosts are also troublesome, and in the Colorado
and other orchards the process known as " smudging " is now
adopted to save the crops. This consists in placing 20 or 30,
or even more, iron or tin pots to an acre, each pot containing
wooden chips soaked in tar (or pitch) mixed with kerosene.
Whenever the thermometer shows 3 or 4 degrees of frost the
smudge-pots are lighted. A dense white smoke then arises and
is diffused throughout the orchards, enveloping the blossoming
heads of the trees in a dense cloud. This prevents the frost
from killing the tender pistils in the blossoms, and when several
smudge-pots are alight at the same time the temperature of the
orchard is raised two or three degrees. This work has generally
to be done between 3 and 5 A.M., and the growers naturally
have an anxious time until all danger is over. The failure to
attend to smudging, even on one occasion, may result in the
loss of the entire crop of plums, apples or pears.
Next to apples perhaps peaches are the most important fruit
crop. The industry is chiefly carried on in Georgia, Texas
and S. Carolina, and on a smaller scale in some of the adjoining
states. Peaches thus flourish in regions that are quite un-
suitable for apples or pears. In many orchards in Georgia,
where over 3,000,000 acres have been planted, there are as
many as 100,000 peach trees; while some of the large fruit
companies grow as many as 365,000. In one place in West
Virginia there is, however, a peach orchard containing 175,000
trees, and in Missouri another company has 3 sq. m. devoted
to peach culture. As a rule the crops do well. Sometimes,
however, a disease known as the " yellows " makes sad havoc
amongst them, and scarcely a fruit is picked in an orchard which
early in the season gave promise of a magnificent crop.
Plums are an important crop in many states. Besides the
European varieties and those that have been raised by crossing
with American forms, there is now a growing trade done in
Japanese plums. The largest of these is popularly known as
' Kelseys," named after John Kelsey, who raised the first fruit
in 1876 from trees brought to California in 1870. Sometimes the
fruits are 3 in. in diameter, and like most of the Japanese
varieties are more heart-shaped and pointed than plums of
European origin. One apparent drawback to the Kelsey plum
is its irregularity in ripening. It has been known in some years
to be quite ripe in June, while in others the fruits are still green
in October.
Pears are much grown in such states as Massachusetts, New
York, Pennsylvania, Missouri and California; while bush fruits
like currants, gooseberries and raspberries find large spaces
devoted in most of the middle and northern states. Naturally a
good deal of crossing and intercrossing has taken place amongst
the European and American forms of these fruits, but so far as
gooseberries are concerned no great advance seems to have been
made in securing varieties capable of resisting the devastating
gooseberry mildew.
Other fruits of more or less commercial value are oranges,
lemons and citrons, chiefly in Florida. Lemons are practically a
necessity to the American people, owing to the heat of the
summers, when cool and refreshing drinks with an agreeable
acidulous taste are in great demand. The pomelo (grape-fruit)
is a kind of lemon with a thicker rind and a more acid flavour.
At one time its culture was confined to Florida, but of recent
years it has found its way into Calif ornian orchards. Notwith-
standing the prevailing mildness of the climate in both California
and Florida, the crops of oranges, lemons, citrons, &c., are
sometimes severely injured by frosts when in blossom.
Other fruits likely to be heard of in the future are the kaki
or persimmon, the loquat, which is already grown in Louisiana,
as well as the pomegranate.
Great aid and encouragement are given by the government to
the progress of American fruit-growing, and by the experiments
that are being constantly carried out and tabulated at Cornell
University and by the U.S.A. department of agriculture.
Flower Culture. So far as flowers are concerned there appears
to be little difference between the kinds of plants grown in the
United States and in England, France, Belgium, Germany,
Holland, &c. Indeed there is a great interchange of new varieties
of plants between Europe and America, and modifications in
systems of culture are being gradually introduced from one side
of the Atlantic to the other. The building of greenhouses for
commercial purposes is perhaps on a somewhat different scale
from that in England, but there are probably no extensive
areas of glass such as are to be seen north of London from
Enfield Highway to Broxburne. Hot water apparatus differs
merely in detail, although most of the boilers used resemble
those on the continent of Europe rather than inEngland. Great
business is done in bulbs mostly imported from Holland stove
and greenhouse plants, hardy perennials, orchids, ferns of the
" fancy " and " dagger " types of Nephrolepis, and incarnations
and roses. Amongst the latter thousands of such varieties as
Beauty, Liberty, Killarney, Richmond and Bride are grown,
and realize good prices as a rule in the markets. Carnations
of the winter-flowering or " perpetual " type have long been
grown in America, and enormous prices have been given for
individual plants on certain occasions, rivalling the fancy prices
paid in England for certain orchids. The American system of
carnation-growing has quite captivated English cultivators,
and new varieties are being constantly raised in both countries.
Chrysanthemums are another great feature of American florists,
and sometimes during the winter season a speculative grower
will send a living specimen to one of the London exhibitions in
the hope of booking large orders for cuttings of it later on. Sweet
2JO
FRUMENTIUS FRY, SIR E.
peas, dahlias, lilies of the valley, arum lilies and indeed every
flower that is popular in England is equally popular in America,
and consequently is largely grown.
Vegetables. So far as these are concerned, potatoes, cabbages,
'cauliflowers, beans of all kinds, cucumbers, tomatoes (already
referred to under fruits), musk-melons, lettuces, radishes, endives,
carrots, &c. ; are naturally grown in great quantities, not only in the
open air, but also under glass. The French system of intensive
cultivation as practised on hot beds of manure round Paris is practi-
cally unknown at present. In the southern states there would be
no necessity to practise it, but in the northern ones it is likely to
attract attention. (J. Ws.)
FRUMENTIUS (c. 300-6. 360), the founder of the Abyssinian
church, traditionally identified in Abyssinian literature with
Abba Salama or Father of Peace (but see ETHIOPIA), was a
native of Phoenicia. According to the 4th-century historian
Rufinus (x. 9), who gives Aedesius himself as his authority, a
certain Tyrian, Meropius, accompanied by his kinsmen Fm-
mentius and Aedesius, set out on an expedition to " India,"
but fell into the hands of Ethiopians on the shore of the Red Sea
and, with his ship's crew, was put to death. The two young men
were taken to the king at Axum, where they were well treated
and in time obtained great influence. With the help of Christian
merchants who visited the country Frumentius gave Christianity
a firm footing, which was strengthened when in 326 he was
consecrated bishop by Athanasius of Alexandria, who in his
Epistola ad Constantinum mentions the consecration, and gives
some details of the history of Frumentius's mission. Later
witnesses speak of his fidelity to the homoousian during the
Arian controversies. Aedesius returned to Tyre, where he was
ordained presbyter.
FRUNDSBER6, GEORG VON (1473-1528), German soldier,
was born at Mindelheim on the 24th of September 1473. He
fought for the German king Maximilian I. against the Swiss
in 1499, and in the same year was among the imperial troops
sent to assist Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan, against theFrench.
Still serving Maximilian, he took part in 1504 in the war over
the succession to the duchy of Bavaria-Landshut, and after-
wards fought in the Netherlands. Convinced of the necessity
of a native body of trained infantry Frundsberg assisted Maxi-
milian to organize the Landsknechte (q.v.), and subsequently at
the head of bands of these formidable troops he was of great
service to the Empire and the Habsburgs. In 1 509 he shared in
the war against Venice, winning fame for himself and his men;
and after a short visit to Germany returned to Italy, where
in 1513 and 1514 he gained fresh laurels by his enterprises
against the Venetians and the French. Peace being made, he
returned to Germany, and at the head of the infantry of the
Swabian league assisted to drive Ulrich of Wurttemberg from
his duchy in 1 5 1 9. At the diet of Worms in 1 5 2 1 he spoke words
of encouragement to Luther, and when the struggle between
France and the Empire was renewed he took part in the invasion
of Picardy, and then proceeding to Italy brought the greater
part of Lombardy under the influence of Charles V. through his
victory at Bicocca in April 1522. He was partly responsible for
the great victory over the French at Paviain February 1 525, and,
returning to Germany, he assisted to suppress the Peasant revolt,
using on this occasion, however, diplomacy as well as force.
When the war in Italy was renewed Frundsberg raised an army
at his own expense, and skilfully surmounting many difficulties,
joined the constable de Bourbon near Piacenza and marched
towards Rome. Before he reached the city, however, his unpaid
troops showed signs of mutiny, and their leader, stricken with
illness and unable to pacify them, gave up his command.
Returning to Germany, he died at Mindelheim on the 2oth of
August 1528. He was a capable and chivalrous soldier, and a
devoted servant of the Habsburgs. His son Caspar ( 1 500-1 536)
and his grandson Georg (d. 1586) were both soldiers of some
distinction. With the latter's death the family became extinct.
See Adam Reissner, Historia Herrn Georgs und Herrn Kaspars
von Frundsberg (Frankfort, 1568). A German translation of this
work was published at Frankfort in 1572. F. W. Barthold, Georg
von Frundsberg (Hamburg, 1833); J. Heilmann, Kriegsgeschichte
von Bayern, Franken, Pfatz und Schwaben (Munich, 1868).
FRUSTUM (Latin for a " piece broken off "), a term in geo-
metry for the part of a solid figure, such as a cone or pyramid,
cut off by a plane parallel to the base, or lying between two
parallel planes; and hence in architecture a name given to the
drum of a column.
FRUYTIERS, PHILIP (1627-1666), Flemish painter arid
engraver, was a pupil of the Jesuits' college at Antwerp in 1627,
and entered the Antwerp gild of painters without a fee in 1631.
He is described in the register of that institution as "illuminator,
painter and engraver." The current account of his life is " that
he worked exclusively in water colours, yet was so remarkable
in this branch of his art for arrangement, drawing, and especially
for force and clearness of colour, as to excite the admiration of
Rubens, whom he portrayed with all his family." The truth
is that he was an artist of the most versatile talents, as may be
judged from the fact that in 1646 he executed an Assumption
with figures of life size, and four smaller pictures in oil, for the
church of St Jacques at Antwerp, for which he received the
considerable sum of 1150 florins. Unhappily no undoubted
production of his hand has been preserved. All that we can
point to with certainty is a series of etched plates, chiefly por-
traits, which are acknowledged to have been powerfully and
skilfully handled. If, however, we search the portfolios of art
collections on the European continent, we sometimes stumble
upon miniatures on vellum, drawn with great talent and
coloured with extraordinary brilliancy. In form they quite
recall the works of Rubens, and these, it may be, are the work
of Philip Fruytiers.
FRY, the name of a well-known English Quaker family,
originally living in Wiltshire. About the middle of the i8th
century JOSEPH FRY (1728-1787), a doctor, settled in Bristol,
where he acquired a large practice, but eventually abandoned
medicine for commerce. He became interested in china-making,
soap-boiling and type-founding businesses in Bristol, and in a
chemical works at Battersea, all of which ventures proved very
profitable. The type-founding business was subsequently re-
moved to London and conducted by his son Edmund. Joseph
Fry, however, is best remembered as the founder of the great
Bristol firm of J. S. Fry & Sons, chocolate manufacturers.
He purchased the chocolate-making patent of William Church-
man and on it laid the foundations of the present large business.
After his death the Bristol chocolate factory was carried on with
increasing success by his widow and by his son, JOSEPH STORKS
FRY (1767-1835).
In 1795 a new and larger factory was built in Union Street,
Bristol, which still forms the centre of the firm's premises, and
in 1798 a Watt's steam-engine was purchased and the cocoa-
beans ground by steam. On the death of Joseph Storrs Fry his
three sons, Joseph (1795-1879), Francis, and Richard (1807-1878)
became partners in the firm, the control being mainly in the
hands of FRANCIS FRY (1803-1886). Francis Fry was in every
way a remarkable character. The development of the business
to its modern enormous proportion was chiefly his work, but
this did not exhaust his activities. He took a principal part in
the introduction of railways to the west of England, and in 1852
drew up a scheme for a general English railway parcel service.
He was an ardent bibliographer, taking a special interest in
early English Bibles, of which he made in the course of a long
life a large and striking collection, and of the most celebrated
of which he published facsimiles with bibliographical notes.
Francis Fry died in 1886, and his son Francis J. Fry and nephew
Joseph Storrs Fry carried on the business, which in 1896 was
for family reasons converted into a private limited company,
Joseph Storrs Fry being chairman and all the directors members
of the Fry family.
FRY, SIR EDWARD (1827- ), English judge, second son
of Joseph Fry (1795-1879), was born at Bristol on the 4th of
November 1827, and educated at University College, London,
and London University. He was called to the bar in 1854 and
was madeaQ.C. in 1869, practising in the rolls court and becoming
recognized as a leading equity lawyer. In 1877 he was raised
to the bench and knighted. As chancery judge he will be
FRY, ELIZABETH FUCHOW
271
remembered for his careful interpretations and elucidations of
the Judicature Acts, then first coming into operation. In 1883
be was made a lord justice of appeal, but resigned in 1892; and
subsequently his knowledge of equity and talents for arbitration
were utilized by the British government from time to time in
various special directions, particularly as chairman of many
commissions. He was also one of the British representatives
at the Paris North Sea Inquiry Commission (1005), and was
appointed a member of the Hague Permanent Arbitration Court.
He wrote A Treatise on the Specific Performance of Public Contrails
(London, 1858, and many subsequent editions).
FRY, ELIZABETH (1780-1845), English philanthropist, and,
after Howard, the chief promoter of prison reform in Europe,
was born in Norwich on the list of May 1780. Her father,
John Gurney, afterwards of Earlham Hall, a wealthy merchant
and banker, represented an old family which for some generations
had belonged to the Society of Friends. While still a girl she
gave many indications of the benevolence of disposi I ion.clca rtu'ss
and independence of judgment , and strength of purpose, for which
she was afterwards so distinguished; but it was not until after
she had entered her eighteenth year that her religion assumed
a decided character, and that she was induced, under the preach-
ing of the American Quaker, William Sa very , to become an earnest
and enthusiastic though never fanatical " Friend." In August
1800 she became the wife of Joseph Fry, a London merchant.
Amid increasing family cares she was unwearied in her attention
to the poor and the neglected of her neighbourhood; and in
181 1 she was acknowledged by her co-religionists as a " minister,"
an honour and responsibility for which she was undoubtedly
qualified, not only by vigour of intelligence and warmth of heart,
but also by an altogether unusual faculty of clear, fluent and
persuasive speech. Although she had made several visits to
Newgate prison as early as February 1813, it was not until
nearly four years afterwards that the great public work of her
life may be said to have begun. The association for the Improve-
ment of the Female Prisoners in Newgate was formed in April
1817. Its aim was the much-needed establishment of some of
what are now regarded as the first principles of prison discipline,
such as entire separation of the sexes, classification of criminals,
female supervision for the women, and adequate provision for
their religious and secular instruction, as also for their useful
employment. The ameliorations effected by this association,
and largely by the personal exertions of Mrs Fry, sooji became
obvious, and led to a rapid extension of similar methods to other
places. In 1818 she, along with her brother, visited the prisons
of Scotland and the north of England; and the publication
(1819) of the notes of this tour, as also the cordial recognition
of the value of her work by the House of Commons committee
on the prisons of the metropolis, led to a great increase of her
correspondence, which now extended to Italy, Denmark and
Russia, as well as to all parts of the United Kingdom. Through
a visit to Ireland, which she made in 1827, she was led to direct
her attention to other houses of detention besides prisons; and
her observations resulted in many important improvements
in the British hospital system, and in the treatment of the insane.
In 1838 she visited France, and besides conferring with many
of the leading prison officials, she personally visited most of the
houses of detention in Paris, as well as in Rouen, Caen and some
other places. In the following year she obtained an official
permission to visit all the prisons in that country; and her tour,
which extended from Boulogne and Abbeville to Toulouse and
Marseilles, resulted in a report which was presented to the
minister of the interior and the prefect of police. Before returning
to England she had included Geneva, Zurich, Stuttgart and
Frankfort-on-Main in her inspection. The summer of 1840
found her travelling through Belgium, Holland and Prussia
on the sam- mission; and in 1841 she also visited Copenhagen.
In 1842, through failing health, Mrs Fry was compelled to forgo
her plans for a still more widely extended activity, but had the
satisfaction of hearing from almost every quarter of Europe
that the authorities were giving increased practical effect to her
suggestions. In 1844 the was seized with a lingering illness, of
which she died on the uth of October 1845. She was survived
by a numerous family, the youngest of whom was born in 1822.
Two interesting volumes of Memoirs, with Extracts from Her
Journals and Letters, edited- by two of her daughters, were published
in 1847. See also Elizabeth fry, by G. King Lewis (1910).
FRYXELL, ANDERS (1795-1881), Swedish historian, was
born at Hesselskog, Dalsland, Sweden, on the 7th of February
1795. He was educated at Upsala, took holy orders in 1820,
was made a doctor of philosophy in 1821, and in 1823 began to
publish the great work of his life, the Stories from Swedish
History. He did not bring this labour to a close until, fifty-six
years later, he published the forty-sixth and crowning volume
of his vast enterprise. Fryxell, as a historian, appealed to every
class by the picturesquencss of his style and the breadth of his
research; he had the gift of awakening to an extraordinary
degree the national sense in his readers. In 1824 he published
his Swedish Grammar, which was long without a rival. In 1833
he received the title of professor, and in 1835 he was appointed
to the incumbency of Sunne, in the diocese of Karlstad, where
he resided for the remainder of his life. In 1840 he was elected
to the Swedish Academy in succession to the poet Wallin (1779-
1839). In 1847 Fryxell received from his bishop permission to
withdraw from all the services of the Church, that he might devote
himself without interruption to historical investigation. Among
his numerous minor writings are prominent his Characteristics
of Sweden between 1592 and 1600 (1830), his Origins of the In-
accuracy with which the History of Sweden in Catholic Times has
been Treated (1847), and his Contributions to the Literary History
of Sweden. It is now beginning to be seen that the abundant
labours of Fryxell were rather of a popular than of a scientific
order, and although their influence during his lifetime was
unbounded, it is only fair to later and exacter historians to
admit that they threaten to become obsolete in more than one
direction. On the aist of March 1881 Anders Fryxell died at
Stockholm, and in 1884 his daughter Eva Fryxell (born 1829)
published from his MS. an interesting History of My History,
which was really a literary autobiography and displays the
persistency and tirelessness of his industry. (E. G.)
FUAD PASHA (1815-1869), Turkish statesman, was the son
of the distinguished poet Kechji-zad Izzet Molla. He was
educated at the medical school and was at first an army surgeon.
About 1836 he entered the civil service as an official of the
foreign ministry. He became secretary of the embassy in
London; was employed on special missions in the principalities
and at St Petersburg (1848), and was sent to Egypt as special
commissioner in 1851. In that year he became minister for
foreign affairs, a post to which he was appointed also on four
subsequent occasions and which he held at the time of his death.
During the Crimean War he commanded the troops on the
Greek frontier and distinguished himself by his bravery. He
was Turkish delegate at the Paris conference of 1856; was
charged with a mission to Syria in 1860; grand vizier in 1860
and 1861, and also minister of war. He accompanied the
sultan Abd-ul-Aziz on his journey to Egypt and Europe, when
the freedom of the city of London was conferred on him. He
died at Nice (whither he had been ordered for his health) in
1869. Fuad was renowned for his boldness and promptness
of decision, as well as for his ready wit and his many bans mots.
Generally regarded as the partisan of a pro-English policy,
he rendered most valuable service to his country by his
able management of the foreign relations of Turkey, and not
least by his efficacious settlement of affairs in Syria after the
massacres of 1860.
FUCHOW, FU-CHAD, FOOCHOW, a city of China, capital of
the province of Fu-kien, and one of the principal ports open to
foreign commerce. In the local dialect it is called Hokchiu.
It is situated on the river Min, about 35 m. from the sea, in
36 5' N. and 119 20' E., 140 m. N. of Amoy and 280 S. of
Hang-chow. The city proper, lying nearly 3 m. from the north
bank of the river, is surrounded by a wall about 30 ft. high and
12 ft. thick, which makesacircuitofupwardsof 5m. and is pierced
by seven gateways surrounded by tall fantastic watch-towers.
272
FUCHS, J. N. FUCHSIA
The whole district between the city and the river, the island of
Nantai, and the southern banks of the Min are occupied by
extensive suburbs; and the river itself bears a large floating
population. Communication from bank to bank is afforded
by a long stone bridge supported by forty solid stone piers in its
northern section and by nine in its southern. The most remark-
able establishment of Fuchow is the arsenal situated about
3 m. down the stream at Pagoda Island, where the sea-going
vessels usually anchor. It was founded in 1867, and is conducted
under the direction of French engineers according to European
methods. In 1870 it employed about 1000 workmen besides
fifty European superintendents, and between that date and
1880 it turned out about 20 or 30 small gunboats. In 1884 it
was partially destroyed by the French fleet, and for a number of
years the workshops and machinery were allowed to stand idle
and go to decay. On the ist 9f August 1895 an attack was
made on the English mission near the city of Ku-chang, 120 m.
west of Fuchow, on which occasion nine missionaries, of whom
eight were ladies, were massacred. The port was opened to
European commerce in 1842; and in 1853 the firm of Russell
and Co. shipped the first cargoes of tea from Fuchow to Europe
and America. The total trade in foreign vessels in 1876 was
imports to the value of 1,531,617, and exports to the value
of 3,330,489. In 1904 the imports amounted to 1,440,351,
and the exports to 1,034,436. The number of vessels that
entered in 1876 was 275, and of these 211 were British, 27
German, n Danish and 9 American. While in 1904 480
vessels entered the port, 216 of which were British. A large
trade is carried on by the native merchants in timber, paper,
woollen and cotton goods, oranges and olives; but the foreign
houses mainly confine themselves to opium and tea. Commercial
intercourse with Australia and New Zealand is on the increase.
The principal imports, besides opium, are shirtings, T-cloths,
lead and tin, medicines, rice, tobacco, and beans and peas.
Two steamboat lines afford regular communication with Hong-
Kong twice a month. The town is the seat of several important
missions, of which the first was founded in 1846. That supported
by the American board had in 1876 issued 1,3000,000 copies of
Chinese books and tracts.
FUCHS, JOHANN NEPOMUK VON (1774-1856), German
chemist and mineralogist, was born at Mattenzell, near Bfennberg
in the Bavarian Forest, on the isth of May 1774. In 1807 he
became professor of chemistry and mineralogy at the university
of Landshut, and in 1823 conservator of the mineralogical
collections at Munich, where he was appointed professor of
mineralogy three years later, on the removal thither of the
university of Landshut. He retired in 1852, was ennobled by
the king of Bavaria in 1854, and died at Munich on the sth of
March 1856. His name is chiefly known for his mineralogical
observations and for his work on soluble glass.
His collected works, including ffber den Einflass der Chemie und
Mineralogie (1824), Die Naturgeschichte des Mineralreichs (1842),
Vber die Theorien der Erde (1844), were published at Munich in 1856.
FUCHS, LEONHARD (1501-1566), German physician and
botanist, was born at Wembdingen in Bavaria on the i7th
of January 1501. He attended school at Heilbronn and Erfurt,
and in 1521 graduated at the university of Ingolstadt. About
the same time he espoused the doctrines of the Reformation.
Having in 1524 received his diploma as doctor of medicine, he
practised for two years in Munich. He became in 1 526 professor
of medicine at Ingolstadt, and in 1528 physician to the margrave
of Anspach. In Anspach he was the means of saving the lives
of many during the epidemic locally known as the " English
sweating-sickness." By the duke of Wiirttemberg he was, in
I 535i appointed to the professorship of medicine at the university
of Tubingen, a post held by him till his death on the loth of May
1566. Fuchs was an advocate of the Galenic school of medicine,
and published several Latin translations of treatises by its
founder and by Hippocrates. But his most important publica-
tion was De historic stirpium commentarii insignes (Basel, 1542),
a work illustrated with more than five hundred excellent putline
illustrations, including figures of the common foxglove and of
another species of the genus Digitalis, which was so named by
him.
FUCHSIA, so named by Plumier in honour of the botanist
Leonhard Fuchs, a genus of plants of the natural order Onagraceae,
characterized by entire, usually opposite leaves, pendent flowers,
a funnel-shaped, brightly coloured, quadripartite, deciduous
calyx, 4 petals, alternating with the calycine segments, 8, rarely
10, exserted stamens, a long filiform style, an inferior ovary,
and fruit, a fleshy ovoid many-seeded berry. All the members
of the genus, with the exception of the New Zealand species,
F. excorticate,, F. Colensoi and F. procumbens, are natives of
Central and South America occurring in the interior of forests
or in damp and shady mountainous situations. The various
species differ not a little in size as well as in other characters;
some, as F. verrucosa, being dwarf shrubs; others, as F. arbo-
rescens and F. apetala, attaining a height of 1 2 to 16 f t. , and having
stems several inches in diameter. Plumier, in his Nova plan-
tarum Americanarum genera (p. 14, tab. 14, Paris, 1703), gave
a description of a species of fuchsia, the first known, under the
name of Fuchsia triphylla, ftore coccineo, and a somewhat con-
ventional outline figure
of the same plant was
published at Amster-
dam in 1757 by Bur-
mann. In the Histoire
des plantes medicinales
of the South American
traveller Feuillee (p. 64,
pi. XLVII.), written in
1700-1711, and pub-
lished by him with his
Journal, Paris, 1725,
the name T/iilca is
applied to a species of
fuchsia from Chile,
which is described,
though not evidently
so figured, as having
a pentamerous calyx.
The F. coccinea of Aiton
(fig.) (see J. D Hooker,
in Journal Linnean Soc.,
Botany, vol. x. p. 458,
1867), the first species
of fuchsia cultivated in
England, where it was
long confined to the
greenhouse, was brought
from South America by
Fuchsia coccinea, J nat. size,
i, Flower cut open after removal of
sepals; 2, fruit; 3, floral diagram.
Captain Firth in 1788 and placed in Kew Gardens. Of this
species Mr Lee, a nurseryman at Hammersmith, soon after-
wards obtained an example, and procured from it by means
of cuttings several hundred plants, which he sold at a guinea
each. In 1823 F. maerostemma and F. gracilis, and during
the next two or three years several other species, were intro-
duced into England; but it was not until about 1837, or
soon after florists had acquired F. julgens, that varieties of
interest began to make their appearance. The numerous
hybrid forms now existing are the result chiefly of the
intercrossing of that or other long-flowered with globose-
flowered plants. F. Venus-victrix, raised by Mr Gulliver,
gardener to the Rev. S. Marriott of Horsemonden, Kent, and sold
in 1822 to Messrs Cripps, was the earliest white-sepalled fuchsia.
The first fuchsia with a white corolla was produced about 1853
by Mr Storey. In some varieties the blossoms are variegated,
and in others they are double. There appears to be very little
limit to the number of forms to be obtained by careful cultivation
and selection. To hybridize, the flower as soon as it opens is
emasculated, and it is then fertilized with pollen from some
different flower.
Ripe seed is sown either in autumn or about February or March
in light, rich, well-drained mould, and is thinly covered with
FUCHSINE FUCINO
273
sandy soil and watered. A temperature of 70 to 75 Fahr. has
been found suitable for raising. The seedlings are pricked oil
into shallow pots or pans, and when 3 in. in height are transferred
to j-in. pots, and are then treated the same as plants from
cuttings. Fuchsias may be grafted as readily as camellias,
preferably by the splice or whip method, the apex of a young
shoot being employed as a scion; but the easiest and most usual
method of propagation is by cuttings. The most expeditious
way to procure these is to put plants in heat in January, and to
take their shoots when 3 in. in length. For summer flowering
in England they are best made about the end of August, and
should be selected from the shortest-jointed young wood. They
root readily in a compost of loam and silver-sand if kept close
and sprinkled for a short time. In from two to three weeks they
may be put into j-in. pots containing a compost of equal parts of
rich loam, silver-sand and leaf-mould. They are subsequently
moved from the frame or bed. first to a warm and shady, and
then to a more airy pan of the greenhouse. In January a little
artificial heat may be given, to be gradually increased as the
days lengthen. The side-shoots are generally pruned when they
have made three or four joints, and for bushy plants the leader is
stopped soon after the first potting. Care is taken to keep the
plants as near the glass as possible, and shaded from bright
sunshine, also to provide them plentifully with water, except
at the time of shifting, when the roots should be tolerably dry.
For the second potting a suitable soil is a mixture of well-rotted
cow-dung or old hotbed mould with leaf-mould and sandy peat,
and to promote drainage a little peat-moss may be placed
immediately over the crocks in the lower part of the pot. Weak
liquid manure greatly promotes the advance of the plants, and
should be regularly supplied twice or thrice a week during the
flowering season. After this, water is gradually withheld from
them, and they may be placed in the open air to ripen their wood.
Among the more hardy or half-hardy plants for inside borders
are varieties of the Chilean species, F. macrostemma (or F.
magcllanica), a shrub 6 to 12 ft. high with a scarlet calyx, such
as F. m. globosa, F. m. gracilis; one of the most graceful and
hardy of these, a hybrid P. riccartoni, was raised at Riccarton,
near Edinburgh, in 1830. For inside culture may be mentioned
F. boliviano (Bolivia), 2 to 4 ft. high, with rich crimson flowers
with a trumpet-shaped tube; F. corymbiflora (Peru), 4 to 6 ft.
high, with scarlet flowers nearly 2 in. long in long terminal
clusters; P. fulgent (Mexico), 4 to 6 ft., with drooping apical
clusters of scarlet flowers; F. microphylla (Central America),
with small leaves and small scarlet funnel-shaped flowers, the
petals deep red ; P. procumbent (New Zealand), a pretty little
creeper, the small flowers of which are succeeded by oval magenta-
crimson berries which remain on for months; and P. splendent
(Mexico), 6 ft. high, with very showy scarlet and green flowers.
But these cannot compare in beauty or freedom of blossom with
the numerous varieties raised by gardeners. The nectar of
fuchsia flowers has been shown to contain nearly 78% of cane
sugar, the remainder being fruit sugar. The berries of some
fuchsias are subacid or sweet and edible. From certain species
a dye is obtainable. The so-called " native fuchsias " of southern
and eastern Australia are plants of the genus Correa, natural
order Rutaceae.
FUCHSINB, or MAGENTA, a red dyestuff consisting of a mixture
of the hydrochlorides or acetates of pararosaniline and rosaniline.
It was obtained in 1856 by J. Natanson (Ann., 1856, 98, p. 297)
by the action of ethylene chloride on aniline, and by A. W.
Hofmann in 1858 from aniline and carbon tetrachloride. It
is prepared by oxidizing " aniline for red " (a mixture of aniline
and ortho-and para-toluidine) with arsenic acid (H. Medlock,
Dingltr't Paly. Jour., 1860, 158, p. 14(6); by heating aniline
for red with nitrobenzene, concentrated hydrochloric acid and
iron (Coupier, Ber., 1873, 6, p. 423); or by condensing formalde-
hyde with aniline and ortho-toluidine and oxidizing the mixture.
It forms small crystal.', showing a brilliant green reflex, and is
soluble in water and alcohol with formation of a deep red solution.
It dyes silk, wool and leather direct, and cotton after mordanting
with tannin and tartar emetic (see DYEING). An aqueous solu-
tion of fuchsine is decolorized on the addition of sulphurous
acid, the easily soluble fuchsine sulphurous acid being formed.
This solution is frequently used as a test reagent for the detection
of aldehydes, giving, in most cases, a red coloration on the
addition of a small quantity of the aldehyde.
The constitution of the fuchsine bases (pararosaniline and ros-
aniline) was determined by E. and O. Fischer in 1878 (Ann., 1878,
194, p. 242); A. W. Hofmann having previously shown that oxi-
dation of pure aniline alone or of pure toluidine yielded no fuchsine,
whilst oxidation of a mixture of aniline and para-toluidinc gave
rise to the fine red dycstuff para-fuchsine (pararosaniline hydro-
chloride)
CH,-<^4NH,+2C,H,NH,+3O-HO-C(C,H 4 NH,),+2H,O.
Colour base (pararosaniline).
HO-C(C,H 4 NH 1 ),.HC1-H 1 KD+(H,N.C.H4),C : CiH. : NH.Cl.
Pararosaniline hydrochloride.
A. Rosenstiehl (Jahres., 1869, p. 693) found also that different ros-
anilines were obtained according to whether ortho- or para-toluidinc
was oxidized with aniline ; and he gave the name rosaniline to the
one obtained from aniline and ortho-toluidine, reserving the term
pararosaniline for the other. E. and O. Fischer showed that these
compounds were derivatives of triphenylmethane and tolyldi-
phenylmethane respectively. Pararosaniline was reduced to the
corresponding leuco compound (paraleucaniline), from which by
diazotization and boiling with alcohol, the parent hydrocarbon was
obtained
Pararosaniline hydrochloride. Paraleucaniline.
HHC(C,H,),.
Triphenylmethane.
The reverse series of operations was also carried out by the Fischers,
triphenylmethane being nitrated, and the nitro compound then
reduced to triaminotriphenylmethane or paraleucaniline, which on
careful oxidation is converted into the dyestuff. A similar series of
reactions was carried out with rosaniline, which was shown to be
the corresponding derivative of tolyldiphenylmethane.
The free pararosaniline, Ci 9 Hi,N|O, and rosaniline, Ci H,iNO,
may be obtained by precipitating solution? of their salts with a
caustic alkali, colourless precipitates being obtained, which crystal-
lize from hot water in the form of needles or plates. The position
of the amino
of H. Caro
Fischer (Ber., 1880, 13,
pararosaniline into aurin, which when superheated with water yields
para-dioxybenzophenone. As the hydrpxyl groups in aurin corre-
spond to the amino groups in pararosaniline, two of these in the latter
compound must be in the para position. The third is also in the
para position; for if benzaldehyde be condensed with aniline,
condensation occurs in the para position, for the compound formed
may be converted into para-dioxybenzophenone,
-CO(C.H,OH),;
but if para-nitrobenzaldehyde be used in the above reaction and the
resulting nitro compound NOj-CeH4-CH(CH4NH,)j be reduced,
then pararosaniline is the final product, and consequently the third
amino group occupies the para position. Many derivatives of para-
rosanilme and rosaniline are known, in which the hydrogen atoms of
the amino groups are replaced by alkyl groups; this has the effect
of producing a blue or violet shade, which becomes deeper as the
number of groups increases (see DYEING).
FUCINO, LAGO DI [Lat. Locus Fucinus], a lake bed of the
Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Aquila, 2 m. E. of the town of '
Avezzano. The lake was 37 m. in circumference and 65 ft. deep.
From the lack of an outlet, the level of the lake was subject to
great variations, often fraught with disastrous consequences.
As early as A.D. 52 the emperor Claudius, realizing a project of
Julius Caesar, constructed a tunnel 3} m. long, with 40 shafts at
intervals, by which the surplus waters found an outlet to the
Liris (or Garigliano). No less than 30,000 workmen were em-
ployed for eleven years in driving this tunnel. In the following
reign the tunnel was allowed to fall into disrepair, but was
repaired by Trajan. When, however, it finally went out of use is
uncertain. The various attempts made to reopen it from 1 240
onwards were unsuccessful. By 1852 the lake had gradually
risen until it was 30 ft. above its original level, and had become a
source of danger to the surrounding countryside. A company
undertook to drain it on condition of becoming proprietors of the
site when dry; in 1854, however, the rights and privileges were
purchased by Prince Giulio Torlonia (d. 1886), the great Roman
ranker, who carried on the work at his own expense until, in 1876,
the lake was finally drained at the cost of some f,i, 700,000. The
274
FUEL
[SOLID
Wood
reclaimed area is i2 m. long, 7 m. broad, and is cultivated by
families from the Torlonia estates. The outlet by which it was
drained is 4 m. long and 24 sq. yds. in section.
See A. Brisse and L. de Rotron, Le Dessechement du lac Fucin,
execute par S. E. le Prince A. Torlonia (Rome, 1876). (T. As.)
FUEL (O. fi.feuaile, popular La,t. focalia, horn focus, hearth,
fire), a term applicable to all substances that can be usefully
employed for the production of heat by combustion. Any
element or combination of elements susceptible of oxidation may
under appropriate conditions be made to burn; but only those
that ignite at a moderate initial temperature and burn with com-
parative rapidity, and, what is practically of more importance,
are obtainable in quantity at moderate prices, can fairly be
regarded as fuels. The elementary substances that can be so
classed are primarily hydrogen, carbon and sulphur, while others
finding more special applications are silicon, phosphorus, and the
more readily oxidizable metals, such as iron, manganese, alu-
minium and magnesium. More important, however, than the
elements are the carbohydrates or compounds of carbon, oxygen
and hydrogen, which form the bulk of the natural fuels, wood,
peat and coal, as well as of their liquid and gaseous derivatives-
coal-gas, coal-tar, pitch, oil, &c., which have high values as fuel.
Carbon in the elementary form has its nearest representative in
the carbonized fuels, charcoal from wood and coke from coal.
Solid Fuels.
Wood may be considered as having the following average
composition when in the air-dried state: Carbon, 39-6; hydro-
gen ' I' 8 ' Oxv 8 en . 34'8; ash, i-o; water, 20%.
When it is freshly felled, the water may be from 18 to
50% . Air-dried or even green wood ignites readily when a con-
siderable surface is exposed to the kindling flame, but in large
masses with regular or smooth surfaces it is often difficult to get
it to burn. When previously torrefied or scorched by heating to
a temperature of about 200, at which incipient charring is set up,
it is exceedingly inflammable. The ends of imperfectly charred
boughs from the charcoal heaps in this condition are used in Paris
and other large towns in France for kindling purposes, under the
name of fumerons. The inflammability, however, varies with
the density, the so-called hard woods, oak, beech and maple,
taking fire less readily than the softer, and, more especially,
the coniferous varieties rich in resin. The calorific power of
absolutely dry woods may as an average be taken at about 4000
units, and when air-dried, i.e. containing 25% of water, at 2800
to 3000 units. Their evaporative values, i.e. the quantities of
water evaporated by unit weight, are 3-68 and 4-44.
Wood being essentially a flaming fuel is admirably adapted for
use with heat-receiving surfaces of large extent, such as loco-
motive and marine boilers, and is also very clean in use. The
absence of all cohesion in the cinders or unburnt carbonized
residue causes a large amount of ignited particles to be projected
from the chimney, when a rapid draught is used, unless special
spark-catchers of wire gauze or some analogous contrivance are
used. When burnt in open fireplaces the volatile products given
off fn the apartment on the first heating have an acrid penetrat-
ing odour, which is, however, very generally considered to be
agreeable. Owing to the large amount of water present, no very
high temperatures can be obtained by the direct combustion of
wood, and to produce these for metallurgical purposes it is
necessary to convert it previously either into charcoal or into
inflammable gas.
Peat includes a great number of substances of very unequal
fuel value, the most recently formed spongy light brown kind
approximating in composition to wood, while the
dense pitchy brown compact substance, obtained from
the bottom of bogs of ancient formation, may be compared with
lignite or even in some instances with coal. Unlike wood, how-
ever, it contains incombustible matter in variable but large
quantity, from 5 to 15% or even more. Much of this, when the
amount is large, is often due to sand mechanically intermixed;
when air-dried the proportion of water is from 8 to 20%. When
these constituents are deducted the average composition may
Peat.
be stated to be carbon, 52 to 66; hydrogen, 4-7 to 7-4; oxygen,
28 to 39; and nitrogen, 1-5 to 3%. Average air-dried peat may
be taken as having a calorific value of 3000 tO35oounits, and when
dried at 100 C., and with a minimum of ash (4 to 5%), at about
5200 units, or from a quarter to one- third more than that of an
equal weight of wood. The lighter and more spongy varieties of
peat when air-dried are exceedingly inflammable, firing at a
temperature of 200 C. ; the denser pulpy kinds ignite less readily
when in the natural state, and often require a still higher tempera-
ture when prepared by pulping and compression or partial
carbonization. Most kinds burn with a red smoky flame, develop-
ing a very strong odour, which, however, has its admirers in the
same way that wood smoke has. This arises from the destructive
distillation of imperfectly carbonized organic matter. The ash,
like that of wood, is light and powdery, except when much sand
is present, when it is of a denser character.
Peat is principally found in high latitudes, on exposed high
tablelands and treeless areas in more temperate climates, and
in the valleys of slow-flowing rivers, as in Ireland, the west of
Scotland, the tableland of Bavaria, the North German plain,
and parts of the valleys of the Somme, Oise and a few other
rivers in northern France. A principal objection to its use is its
extreme bulk, which for equal evaporative effect is from 8 to 18
times that of coal. Various methods have been proposed, and
adopted more or less successfully, for the purpose of increasing
the density of raw peat by compression, either with or without
pulping; the latter process gives the heaviest products, but the
improvement is scarcely sufficient to compensate for the cost.
Lignite or brown coal is of intermediate character between
peat and coal proper. The best kinds are undistinguishable in
quality from free-burning coals, and the lowest earthy
kinds are not equal to average peat. When freshly
raised, the proportion of water may be from 45 to 50% and
even more, which is reduced from 28 to 20% by exposure to
dry air. Most varieties, however, when fully dried, break up
into powder, which considerably diminishes their utility as fuel,
as they cannot be consolidated by coking. Lignite dust may,
however, be compacted into serviceable blocks for burning, by
pressure in machines similar to those used for brick-making,
either in the wet state as raised from the mines or when kiln-
dried at 200 C. This method was adopted to a very large extent
in Prussian Saxony. The calorific value varies between 3500
and 5000 units, and the evaporative factor from 2-16 when freshly
raised to 5-84 for the best kinds of lignite when perfectly dried.
Of the other natural fuels, apart from coal (g.v.), the most
important is so-called vegetable refuse, such as cotton stalks,
brushwood, straw, and the woody residue of sugar-cane
after the extraction of the saccharine juice known as Other
megasse or cane trash. These are extensively used in
countries where wood and coal are scarce, usually for
providing steam in the manufactures where they arise, e.g.
straw for thrashing, cotton stalks for ploughing, irrigating, or
working presses, and cane trash for boiling down sugar or driving
the cane mill. According to J. Head (Proc. Inst. of Civil En-
gineers, vol. xlviii. p. 75), the evaporative values of i Ib of these
different articles when burnt in a tubular boiler are coal, 8 ft> ;
dry peat, 4 ft; dry wood, 3-58-3-52 Ib; cotton stalks or
megasse, 3-2-2-7 Ib; straw, 2-46-2-30 Ib. Owing to the
siliceous nature of the ash of sraw, it is desirable to have a
means of clearing the grate bars from slags and clinkers at short
intervals, and to use a steam jet to clear the tubes from similar
deposits.
The common fuel of India and Egypt is derived from the
dung of camels and oxen, moulded into thin cakes, and dried
in the sun. It has a very low heating power, and in burning
gives off acrid ammoniacal smoke and vapour.
Somewhat similar are the tan cakes made from spent tanners'
bark, which are used to some extent in eastern France and in
Germany. They are made by moulding the spent bark into cakes,
which are then slowly dried by exposure to the air. Their effect
is about equivalent to 80 and 30% of equal weights of wood and
coal respectively.
SOLID]
FUEL
275
Sulphur, phosphorus and silicon, the other principal com-
bustible elements, are only of limited application as fuels. The
first is used in the liquidation of sulphur-bearing rocks. The ore
is piled into large heaps, which are ignited at the bottom, a
certain proportion, from one-fourth to one-third, of the sulphur
content being sacrificed, in order to raise the mass to a sufficient
temperature to allow the remainder to melt and
run down to the collecting basin. Another applica-
tion is in the so-called " pyritic smelting," where
OKI of copper (?..) containing iron pyrites, FeSt,
are smelted with appropriate fluxes in a hot blast,
without preliminary roasting, the sulphur and iron
of the pyrites giving sufficient heat by oxidation to
liquefy both slag and metal. Phosphorus, which is
of value from its low igniting point, receives its only
application in the manufacture of lucifer matches.
The high temperature produced by burning phosphorus is in
part due to the product of combustion (phosphoric acid) being
solid, and therefore there is less heat absorbed than would be the
case with a gaseous product. The same effect is observed in a
still more striking manner with silicon, which in the only special
case of its application to the production of heat, namely, in the
Bessemer process of steel-making, gives rise to an enormous
increase of temperature in the metal, sufficient indeed to keep
the iron melted. The absolute calorific value of silicon is lower
than that of carbon, but the product of combustion (silica)
being non-volatile at all furnace temperatures, the whole of
the heat developed is available for heating the molten iron,
instead of a considerable part being consumed in the work of
volatilization, as is the case with carbonic oxide, which burns
to waste in the air.
Assay and Valuation of Carbonaceous Fuels. The utility or value
of a fuel depends upon two principal factors, namely, its calorific
._- power ana its calorific intensity or pyrometric effect, that
is, the sensible temperature of the products of combustion.
The first of these is constant for any particular product of
combustion independently of the method by which the burning is
effected, whether by oxygen, air or a reducible metallic oxide. It
is most conveniently determined in the laboratory by measuring
the heat evolved during the combustion of a given weight of the f ui-l.
The method of Lewis Thompson is one of the most useful. The
calorimeter consists of a copper cylinder in which a weighed quantity
of coal intimately mixed with 10-12 parts of a mixture of 3 parts
of potassium chlorate and I of potassium nitrate is deflagrated
under a copper case like a diving-bell, placed at the bottom of a deep
glass jar filled with a known weight of water. The mixture is fired
by a fuse of lamp-cotton previously soaked in a nitre solution and
dried. The gases produced by the combustion rising through the
water are cooled, with a corresponding increase of temperature in
the latter, so that the difference between the temperature observed
before and after the experiment measures the heat evolved. The
instrument is so constructed that 30 grains (2 grammes) of coal are
burnt in 29,010 grains of water, or in the proportion of I to 937,
these numbers being selected that the observed rise of temperature
in Fahrenheit degree* corresponds to the required evaporative value
in pounds, subject only to a correction for the amount of heat
absorbed by the mass of the instrument, for which a special coefficient
it required and must be experimentally determined. The ordinary
bomb calorimeter is also used. An approximate method is based
upon the reduction of lead oxide by the carbon and hydrogen of the
coal, the amount of lead reduced affording a measure of the oxygen
expended, whence the heating power may be calculated, I part of
pure carbon being capable of producing 34) times its weight of lead.
The operation is performed by mixing the weighed sample with a
brae excess of litharge in a crucible, and exposing it to a bright
fed beat for a short time. After cooling, the crucible is broken and
the reduced button of lead is cleaned and weighed. The results
obtained by this method are less accurate with coals containing
much disposable hydrogen and iron pyrites than with those approxi-
mating to anthracite, as the heat equivalent of the hydrogen in
excess of that required to form water with the oxygen of the coal
is calculated as carbon, while it is really about four times as great.
Sulphur in iron pyrites also acts as a reducing agent upon litharge,
and increases the apparent effect in a similar manner.
The evaporative power of a coal found by the above methods,
and also by calculating the separate calorific factors of the com-
ponents as determined by the chemical analysis, is always consider-
ably above that obtained by actual combustion under a steam boiler,
as in the Utter case numerous sources of loss, such as imperfect
combustion of gases, low of unburnt coal in cinders, &c., come into
pby, which cannot be allowed for in laboratory experiments. It U
usual, therefore, to determine the value of a coal by the combustion
of a weighed quantity in the furnace of a boiler, and measuring the
amount of water evaporated by the heat developed.
In a research upon the heating power and other properties of coal
for naval use, carried out by the German admiralty, the results
tabulated below were obtained with coals form different localities.
The heats of combustion of elements and compounds will be
found in most of the larger works on physical and chemical constants;
Slag left
in Orate.
Ashes in
Ashpit.
Soot in
Flues.
Water eva-
porated by
i Ib of Coal
Westphalian gas coals .
Do. bituminous coals
Do. dry coals
Silosian coals .
Welsh steam coals
Newcastle coals .
0-33-6-42
0-98-9-10
"93-5-70
0-92-1-30
1-20-4-07
1-92
2-83- 6-53
1-97- 9-63
4-37-10-63
3->5- 3-50
4-07
2-57
0-32-0-46
0-24-0-88
0-24-0-48
0-24-0-30
0-32
o-35
6-60-7-45 N>
7-30-8-66
7-03-8-51
6-73-7-10
8-41
7-28
a convenient series is given in the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes,
appearing in alternate years. The following figures for the principal
fuel elements are taken from the issue for 1908 ; they are expressed
jn gramme " calories " or heat units, signifying the weight of water
in grammes that can be raised I C. in temperature by the combustion
of i gramme of the substance, when it is oxidized to the condition
shown in the second column:
Element.
Product of Combustion.
Calories.
Hydrogen .
\ Water, HrO, condensed to liquid
( as vapour
34.500
29,650
Carbon
Diamond
Carbon dioxide, CO .
7,868
Graphite .
,, ...
7,900
Amorphous
ii ii ...
8,133
Silicon
Amorphous
Silicon dioxide, SiOi .
6,414
Crystallized
ii ti
6,57O
Phosphorus .
Sulphur
Phosphoric pentoxide, PiO
Sulphur dioxide, SO-.., gaseous
5-958
2,165
The results may also be expressed in terms of the atomic equivalent
of the combustible by multiplying the above values by the atomic
weight of the substance, 12 for carbon, 28 for silicon, &c.
In all fuels containing hydrogen the calorific value as found by
the calorimeter is higher than that obtainable under working; con-
ditions by an amount equal to the latent heat of volatilization of
water which reappears as heat when the vapour is condensed,
though under ordinary conditions of use the vapour passes away un-
condensed. This gives rise to the distinction of higher and lower
calorific values for such substances, the latter being those generally
used in practice. The differences for the more important compound
gaseous fuels are as follows :
Calorific Value.
Higher. Lower.
Acetylene, CH| .... 11,920 11,500
Ethylene, CjH 4 .... 1 1, 880 11,120
Methane, CH_ .... 13,240 11,910
Carbon monoxide, CO . . 2,440 2,440
The calorific intensity or pyrometric effect of any particular fuel
depends upon so many variable elements that it cannot be deter-
mined except by actual experiment. The older method
was to multiply the weight of the products of combustion '
by their specific neats, but th's gave untrustworthy latea *"y-
results as a rule, on account of two circumstances the great increase
in specific heat at high temperatures in compound gases such as
water and carbon dioxide, and their instability when heated to
1800 or 2000. At such temperatures dissociation to a notable
extent takes place, especially with the latter substance, which is also
readily reduced to carbon monoxide when brought in contact with
carbon at a red heat a change which is attended with a large
heat absorption. This effect is higher with soft kinds of carbon,
such as charcoal or soft coke, than with dense coke, gas retort
carbon or graphite. These latter substances, therefore, are used
when an intense local heat is required, as for example, in the Deville
furnace, to which air is supplied under pressure. Such a method is,
however, only of very special application, the ordinary method being
to supply air to the fire in excess of that required to burn the fuel
to prevent the reduction of the carbon dioxide. The volume of
flame, however, is increased by inert gas, and there is a proportionate
diminution of the heating effect. Under the most favourable con-
ditions, when the air employed has been previously raised to a high
temperature and pressure, the highest attainable name temperature
from carbonaceous fuel seems to be about 2loo-2;}oo C.; this is
realized in the bright spots or " eyes " of the tuyeres of blast furnaces.
Very much higher temperatures may be reached when the products
of combustion are not volatile, and the operation can be effected
by using the fuel and oxidizing agent in the proportions exactly
276
FUEL
[LIQUID
required for perfect combustion and intimately mixed. These
conditions are met in the " Thermit " process of Goldschmidt,
where finely divided aluminium is oxidized by the oxide of some
similar metal, such as iron, manganese or chromium, the reaction
being started by a primer of magnesium and barium peroxide.
The reaction is so rapidly effected that there is an enormous rise in
temperature, estimated to be 5400 F. (3000 C.), which is sufficient
to melt the most refractory metals, such as chromium. The slag
consists of alumina which crystallizes in the forms of corundum and
ruby, and is utilized as an abrasive under the name of corubin.
The chemical examination includes the determination of (l)
moisture, (2) ash, (3) coke, (4) volatile matter, (5) fixed carbon in
coke, (6) sulphur, (7) chlorine, (8) phosphorus. Moisture is deter-
mined by noting the loss in weight when a sample is heated at 1 00
for about one hour. The ash is determined by heating a sample
in a muffle furnace until all the combustible matter has been burnt
off. The ash, which generally contains silica, oxides of the alkaline
earths, ferric oxide (which gives the ash a red colour), sulphur, &c.,
is analysed by the ordinary gravimetric methods. The determination
of coke is very important on account of the conclusions concerning
the nature of the coal which it permits to be drawn. A sample is
finely powdered and placed in a covered porcelain crucible, which
is surrounded by an outer one, the space between them being packed
with small coke. The crucibles are heated in a wind furnace for
I to ij hours, then allowed to cool, the inner crucible removed,
and the coke weighed. The coke may be (i) pulverulent, (2)
slightly fritted, (3) spongjy and swelled, (4) compact. Pulverulent
cokes indicate a non-caking bituminous coal, rich in oxygen if the
amount be below 60%, but if the amount be very much less it
generally indicates a lignite; if the amount be above 80% it indi-
cates an anthracite containing little oxygen or hydrogen. A fritted
coke indicates a slightly coking coal, while the spongy appearance
points to a highly coking coal which has been partly fused in the
furnace. A compact coke is yielded by good coking coals, and is
usually large in amount. The volatile matters are determined as the
loss of weight on coking less the amount of moisture. The " fixed
carbon " is the carbon retained in the coke, which contains in addition
the ash already determined. The fixed carbon is therefore the differ-
ence between the coke and the ash, and may be determined from
these figures; or it may be determined directly by burning off the
coke in a muffle and noting the loss in weight. Sulphur may be
present as (l) organic sulphur, (2) as iron pyrites or other sulphides,
(3) as the sulphates of calcium, aluminium and other metals; but
the amount is generally so small that only the total sulphur is
determined. This is effected by heating a mixture of the fuel
with lime and sodium carbonate in a porcelain dish to redness in a
muffle until all the carbonaceous matter has been burnt off. The
residue, which contains the sulphur as calcium sulphate, is trans-
ferred to a beaker containing water to which a little bromine has
been added. Hydrochloric acid is carefully added, the liquid
filtered and the residue washed. To the filtrate ammonia is added,
and then barium chloride, which precipitates the sulphur as barium
sulphate. Sulphur existing in the form of sulphates may be removed
by washing a sample with boiling water and determining the sulphuric
acid in the solution. The washed sample is then fused in the usual
way to determine the proportion of sulphur existing as iron pyrites.
The distinction between sulphur present as sulphate and sulphide
is of importance in the examination of coals intended for iron
smelting, as the sulphates of the earthy metals are reduced by the
gases of the furnace to sulphides, which pass into the slag without
affecting the quality of the iron produced, while the sulphur of the
metallic sulphides in the ash acts prejudicially upon the metal.
Coals for gas-making should contain little sulphur, as the gases
produced in the combustion are noxious and have very corrosive
properties. Chlorine is rarely determined, but when present in
quantity it corrodes copper and brass boiler tubes, with which conse-
quently chlorine-bearing coals cannot be used. The element is
determined by fusing with soda lime in a muffle, dissolving the residue
in water and precipitating with silver nitrate. Phosphorus is
determined in the ash by fusing it with a mixture of sodium and
potassium carbonates, extracting the residue with hydrochloric acid,
and twice evaporating to dryness with the same acid. The residue
is dissolved in hydrochloric acid, a few drops of ferric chloride added,
and then ammonia in excess. The precipitate of ferric phosphate
is then treated as in the ordinary estimation of phosphates. If it be
necessary to determine the absolute amount of carbon and hydrogen in
a fuel, the dried sample is treated with copper oxide as in the ordinary
estimation of these elements in organic compounds. (H. B.)
Liquid Fuel.
Vegetable oil is not used for fuel except for laboratory pur-
poses, partly because its constituent parts are less adaptable
for combustion under the conditions necessary for steam-raising,
but chiefly because of the commercial difficulty of producing it
with sufficient economy to compete with mineral fuel either solid
or liquid.
The use of petroleum as fuel had long been recognized as a
scientific possibility, and some attempts had been made to adopt
it in practice upon a commercial scale, but the insufficiency,
and still more the irregularity, of the supplies prevented it from
coming into practical use to any important extent until about
1898, when discoveries of oil specially adapted by chemical
composition for fuel purposes changed the aspect of the situation.
These discoveries of special oil were made first in Borneo and
later in Texas, and experience in treating the oils from both
localities has shown that while not less adapted to produce
kerosene or illuminating oil, they are better adapted to produce
fuel oil than either the Russian or the Pennsylvanian products.
Texas oil did not hold its place in the market for long, because
the influx of water into the wells lowered their yield, but dis-
coveries of fuel oil in Mexico have come later and will help to
maintain the balance of the world's supply, although this is still
a mere fraction of the assured supply of coal.
With regard to the chemical properties of petroleum, it is not
necessary to say more in the present place than that the lighter
and more volatile constituents, known commercially as naphtha
and benzene, must be removed by distillation in order to leave
a residue composed principally of hydrocarbons which, while
containing the necessary carbon for combustion, shall be suffi-
ciently free from volatile qualities to avoid premature ignition
and consequent danger of explosion. Attempts have been made
to use crude oil for fuel purposes, and these have had some
success in the neighbourhood of the oil wells and under boilers
of unusually good ventilation both as regards their chimneys
and the surroundings of their stokeholds; but for reasons both
of commerce and of safety it is not desirable to use crude oil
where some distillation is possible. The more complete the
process of distillation, and the consequent removal of the volatile
constituents, the higher the flash-point, and the more turgid
and viscous is the fuel resulting; and if the process is carried to
an extreme, the residue or fuel becomes difficult to ignite by the
ordinary process of spraying or atomizing mechanically at the
moment immediately preceding combustion. The proportions
which have been found to work efficiently in practice are as
follows:
Carbon 88-00 %
Hydrogen 10-75 %
Oxygen . 1-25 %
Total . . 100
The standards of safety for liquid fuel as determined by
flash-point are not yet finally settled, and are changing from time
to time. The British admiralty require a flash-point of 270 F.,
and to this high standard, and the consequent viscosity of the
fuel used by vessels in the British fleet, may partly be attributed
the low rate of combustion that was at first found possible in
them. The German admiralty have fixed a flash-point of 187 F.,
and have used oil of this standard with perfect safety, and at the
same time with much higher measure of evaporative duty than
has been attained in British war-vessels. In the British mer-
cantile marine Lloyd's Register has permitted fuel with a flash-
point as low as 150 F. as a minimum, and no harm has resulted.
The British Board of Trade, the department of the government
which controls the safety of passenger vessels, has fixed a higher
standard upon the basis of a minimum of 185. In the case of
locomotives the flash-point as a standard of safety is of less
importance than in the case of stationary or marine boilers,
because the storage is more open, and the ventilation, both of the
storage tanks and the boilers during combustion, much more
perfect than in any other class of steam-boilers.
The process of refining by distillation is also necessary to
reduce two impurities which greatly retard storage and com-
bustion, i.e. water and sulphur. Water is found in all crude
petroleum as it issues from the wells, and sulphur exists in
important quantities in oil from the Texas wells. Its removal
was at first found very expensive, but there no longer exists
difficulty in this respect, and large quantities of petroleum fuel
practically free from sulphur are now regularly exported from
Texas to New York and to Europe.
LIQIIDI
FUEL
277
Water mixed with fuel is in intimate mechanical relation, and
frequently so remains in considerable quantities even after the
process of distillation. It is in fact so thoroughly mixed as to
form an emulsion. The effect of feeding such a mixture into a
furnace is extremely injurious, because the water must be decom-
posed chemically into its constituents, hydrogen and oxygen,
thus absorbing a large quantity of heat which would otherwise
be utilized for evaporation. Water also directly delays com-
bustion by producing from the jet a long, dull, red flame instead
of a short bright, white flame, and the process of combustion,
which should take place by vaporization of the oil near the
furnace mouth, is postponed and transferred to the upper part of
the combustion-box, the tubes, and even the base of the chimney,
producing loss of heat and injury to the boiler structure. The
most effective means of ridding the fuel of this dangerous
impurity is by heat and set tlcment . The coefficients of expansion
of water and oil by heat are substantially different, and a
moderate rise of temperature therefore separates the particles
and precipitates the water, which is easily drawn off leaving
the oil available for use. The heating and precipitation are
usually performed upon a patented system of settling tanks
and heating apparatus known as the Flannery-Boyd system,
which has proved itself indispensable for the successful use at
tea of petroleum fuel containing any large proportion of water.
The laboratory and mechanical use of petroleum for fuel has
already been referred to, but it was not until the year 1870 that
petroleum was applied upon a wider and commercial
scale. In the course of distillation of Russian crude
petroleum for the production of kerosene or lamp oil,
large quantities of refuse were produced known by
the Russian name of astatki and these were found an incum-
brance and useless for any commercial purpose. To a Russian
oil-refiner gifted with mechanical instinct and the genius for
invention occurred the idea of utilizing the waste product as
fuel by spraying or atomizing it with steam, so that, the thick
and sluggish fluid being broken up into particles, the air
necessary for combustion could have free access to it. The
earliest apparatus for this
purpose was a simple piece
of gas-tube, into which the
thick oil was fed; by
another connexion steam
at high pressure was ad-
mitted to an inner and
**n*xi*r tube, and, the end
of the tube nearest to the
furnace being open, the
pressure of the steam blew
the oil into the furnace,
and by its velocity broke
it up into spray. The ap-
paratus worked with
success from the first. Ex-
perience pointed out the
proper proportionate sizes
for the inlets of steam and
oil, the proper pressure for
the steam, and the propor-
tionate sizes for the orifices
of admission to the fur-
naces, as well as the sizes of
air-openings and best arrangements of fire-bricks in the furnaces
themselves; and what had been a waste product now became
a by-product of great value. Practically all the steam power
in South Russia, both for factories and navigation of the inland
ems and rivers, is now raised from astatki fuel.
In the Far East, including Burma and parts of China and
JP*, the use of liquid fuel spread rapidly during the years
1809, 1900 and 1901, owing entirely to the development of the
Borneo oil-fields by the enterprise of Sir Marcus Samuel and the
large British corporation knoWh as the Shell Transport and
Trading Company, of which he is the head. This corporation
has since amalgamated with the Royal Dutch Petroleum Com-
pany controlling the extensive wells in Dutch Borneo, and
together they supply large quantities of liquid fuel for use in the
Far East. In the United States of America liquid fuel is not
only used for practically the whole of the manufacturing and
locomotive purposes of the state of Texas, but factories in New
York, and a still larger number in California, are now discarding
the use of coal and adopting petroleum, because it is more
economical in its consumption and also more easily handled in
transit, and saves nearly all the labour of stoking. So far the
supplies for China and Japan have been exported from Borneo,
but the discoveries of new oil-fields in California, of a character
specially adapted for fuel, have encouraged the belief that it may
be possible to supply Chile and Peru and other South American
countries, where coal is extremely expensive, with Californian
fuel; and it has also found its way across the Pacific to Japan.
There are believed to be large deposits in West Africa, but in the
meantime the only sources of supply to those parts of Africa
where manufacture is progressing, i.e. South Africa and Egypt,
are the oil-fields of Borneo and Texas, from which the import
has well begun, from Texas to Alexandria via the Mediterranean,
and from Borneo to Cape Town via Singapore.
In England, notwithstanding the fact that there exist the
finest coal-fields in the world, there has been a surprising develop-
ment of the use of petroleum as fuel. The Great Eastern railway
adapted 1 20 locomotive engines to its use, and these ran with
regularity and success both on express passenger and goods
trains until the increase in price due to short supply compelled
a return to coal fuel. The London, Brighton & South Coast
railway also began the adaptation of some of their locomotive
engines, but discontinued the use of liquid fuel from the same
cause. Several large firms of contractors and cement manu-
facturers, chiefly on the banks of the Thames, made the same
adaptations which proved mechanically successful, but were
not continued when the price of liquid fuel increased with the
increased demand.
The chief factors of economy are the greater calorific value
FIG. i. Holden Burner.
of oil than coal (about 16 Ib of water per Ib of oil fuel evaporated
from a temperature of 212 F.), not only in laboratory practice,
but in actual use on a large scale, and the saving of labour both
in transit from the source of supply to the place of use and in
the act of stoking the furnaces. The use of cranes,
hand labour with shovels, wagons and locomotives,
horses and carts, is unavoidable for the transit of
coal; and labour to trim the coal, to stoke it when
under combustion, and to handle the residual ashes, are all
indispensable to steam-raising by coal. On the other hand, a
system of pipes and pumps, and a limited quantity of skilled
of liquid
AM/.
28o
FUEL
[LIQUID
ships, whilst considerable additional speed
is obtainable. The cost of the installa-
tion, however, is very considerable, as
it includes not only burners and pipes for
the furnaces, but also the construction of
oil-tight tanks, with pumps and numerous
valves and pipe connexions.
Fig. 2 shows a burner of Rusderi and
Eeles' patent as generally used on board
ships' for the purpose of injecting the oil.
A is a movable cap holding the packing B,
which renders the annular spindle M oil and
steam tight. E is the outer casing contain-
ing the steam jacket from which the steam,
after being fed through the steam-supply
pipe G, passes into the annular space sur-
rounding the spindle P. It will be seen that
if the spindle P be travelled inwards by
turning the handle N, the orifice at the
nozzle RR will be opened so as to allow
the steam to flow out radially. If at the
same time the annular spindle M be drawn
inwards by revolving the handle L, the oil
L-^"^? ""^l^tTl^b'L ^toS^^rS^^fc! which pasL through" the supply pi^ F will
(K- i n .
of brickwork as being useless ; B, it is proposed to fill this space up, thus continuing lining
of furnace to combustion chamber, and also to fit protection bricks in way of saddle plate.
at RR, and, coming in
outflowing steam, will be
FIG. 8. Fuel Tanks, &c., of ss. " Murex."
medium-sized Atlantic steamer, and a collateral gain of about
100,000 cub. ft. of measurement cargo, by reason of the ordinary
bunkers being left quite free, and the oil being stored in the double
bottom spaces hitherto unutilized except for the purpose qf
water ballast. The cleanliness and saving of time from bunkering
by the use of oil fuel is also an important factor in passenger
pulverized and sprayed into the furnace. Fig. 3 is a profile and
plan of a steamer adapted for carrying oil in bulk, and showing
all the storage arrangements for handling liquid fuel. Fig. 4 shows
the interior arrangement of the boiler furnace of the steamship
" Trocas." A is broken fire-brick resting on the ordinary
fire-bars, B is a brick bridge, C a casing of fire-brick intended
to protect the riveted seam immediately above it from the direct
FIG. 9. Furnace Gear of as. " Murex. "
LIQUID]
FUEL
279
potability of supply from sources within the regions of the
British empire. There is an enormous supply of shale under the
north-eastern countiA of England, but no oil that can be pumped
still less oil with a pressure above it so as to " gush " like the
wells in America and the only sources of liquid supply under the
British flag appear to be in Burma and Trinidad. The Borneo
FIG. 4. Installation on ss. " Trocas."
fields are not under British control, although developed
entirely by British capital. The Italian admiralty have fitted
several large warships with boiler apparatus to burn petroleum.
The German admiralty are regularly using liquid fuel on the
China station. The Dutch navy have fitted coal fuel and liquid
fuel furnaces in combination, so that the smaller powers required
-_ >
Fie. 5. Details of Furnace, Meyer System.
may be developed by coal alone, and the larger powers by
supplementing coal fuel with oil fuel. The speeds of some
vessels of the destroyer type have by this means been accelerated
nearly two knots.
The questions which govern the use of fuel in warships are
more largely those of strategy and fighting efficiency than
economy of evaporation. Indeed, the cost of construct-
ing and maintaining in fighting efficiency a modern
warship is so great that the utmost use strategically
must be obtained from the vessel, and in this compari-
son the cost of fuel is relatively so small an item that its increase
FIG. 6. Details of Exterior Elongation of Furnace, Meyer System.
or decrease may be considered almost a negligible quantity.
The desideratum in a warship is to obtain the greatest fighting
efficiency based on the thickest armour, the heaviest and most
numerous guns, the highest maximum speed, and, last and not
least, the greatest range of effective action based upon the
maximum supplies of fuel, provisions and other consumable
stores that the ship can carry. Now, if by changing the type
of fuel it be possible to reduce its weight by 30% , and to abolish
the stokers, who are usually more than half the ship's
company, the weight saved will be represented not
merely by the fuel, but by the consumable stores
otherwise necessary for the stokers. Conversely, the
radius of effective action of the ship will be doubled
as regards consumable stores if the crew be halved, and
will be increased by 50% if the same weight of fuel be
carried in the form of liquid instead of coal. In space
the gain by using oil fuel is still greater, and 36 cubic
feet of oil as stored arc equal in practical calorific value
to 67 cubic feet of coal according to the allowance usual
for ship's bunkering. On the other hand, coal has
been relied upon, when placed in the side bunkers of
unarmoured ships, as a protection against shot and
shell, and this advantage, if it really exists, could not
be claimed in regard to liquid fuel.
Recent experiments in coaling warships at sea have
not been very successful, as the least bad weather has
prevented the safe transmission of coal bags from the collier to
the ship. The same difficulty does not exist for oil fuel, which
has been pumped through flexible tubing from one ship to the
other even in comparatively rough weather. Smokelessness,
so important a feature of sea strategy, has not always been
attained by liquid fuel, but where the combustion is complete,
by reason of suitable furnace arrangements and
careful management, there is no smoke. The
great drawback, however, to the use of liquid
fuel in fast small vessels is the confined space
allotted to the boilers, such confinement being
unavoidable in view of the high power con-
centrated in a small hull. The British ad-
miralty's experiments, however, have gone far
to solve the problem, and the quantity of oil
which can be consumed by forced draught in
confined boilers now more nearly equals the
quantity of coal consumed under similar con-
ditions. All recent vessels built for the British
navy are so constructed that the spaces between
their double bottoms are oil-tight and capable
of storing liquid fuel in the tanks so formed. Most recent battle-
ships and cruisers have also liquid fuel furnace fittings, and in
1910 it already appeared probable that the use of oil fuel in war-
ships would rapidly develop.
In view of recent accusations of insufficiency of coal storage in
foreign naval depots, by reason of the allegation that coal so
stored quickly perishes, it is interesting to note that liquid fuel
may be stored in tanks for an indefinite time without any
deterioration whatever.
In the case of merchant steamers large progress has also been
made. The Shell Transport and Trading Company have twenty-
one vessels successfully navigating in all parts of the xrfran-
world and using liquid fuel. The Hamburg-American tage la
Steamship Company have four large vessels similarly merchant
fitted for oil fuel, which, however, differ in furnace *****
arrangements, as will be hereafter described, although using
coal when the fluctuation of the market renders that the more
economical fuel. One of the large American transatlantic
lines is adopting liquid fuel, and French, German, Danish and
American mercantile vessels are also beginning to use it in
considerable amounts.
In the case of very large passenger steamers, such as those
of 20 knots and upwards in the Atlantic trade, the saving in cost
of fuel is trifling compared with the advantage arising from the
greater weight and space available for freight. Adopting a basis
of 3 to 2 as between coal consumption and oil consumption,
there is an increase of 1000 tons of dead weight cargo in even a
FUEL
[LIQUID
FIG. 7. Furnace on ss. " Ferdinand Laeisz." A, it is proposed to do away with this ring
of brickwork as being useless ; B, it is proposed to fill this space up, thus continuing lining
of furnace to combustion chamber, and also to fit protection bricks in way of saddle plate.
ships, whilst considerable additional speed
is obtainable. The cost of the installa-
tion, however, is v*ery considerable, as
it includes not only burners and pipes for
the furnaces, but also the construction of
oil-tight tanks, with pumps and numerous
valves and pipe connexions.
Fig. 2 shows a burner of Rusderi and
Eeles' patent as generally used on board
ships' for the purpose of injecting the oil.
A is a movable cap holding the packing B,
which renders the annular spindle M oil and
steam tight. E is the outer casing contain-
ing the steam jacket from which the steam,
after being fed through the steam-supply
pipe G, passes into the annular space sur-
rounding the spindle P. It will be seen that
if the spindle P be travelled inwards by
turning the handle N, the orifice at the
nozzle RR will be opened so as to allow
the steam to flow out radially. If at the
same time the annular spindle M be drawn
inwards by revolving the handle L, the oil
which passes through the supply pipe F will
also have emission at RR, and, coming in
contact with the outflowing steam, will be
FIG. 8. Fuel Tanks, &c., of ss. " Murex."
medium-sized Atlantic steamer, and a collateral gain of about
100,000 cub. ft. of measurement cargo, by reason of the ordinary
bunkers being left quite free, and the oil being stored in the double
bottom spaces hitherto unutilized except for the purpose o,f
water ballast . The cleanliness and saving of time from bunkering
by the use of oil fuel is also an important factor in passenger
pulverized and sprayed into the furnace. Fig. 3 is a profile and
plan of a steamer adapted for carrying oil in bulk, and showing
all the storage arrangements for handling liquid fuel. Fig. 4 shows
the interior arrangement of the boiler furnace of the steamship
" Trocas." A is broken fire-brick resting on the ordinary
fire-bars, B is a brick bridge, C a casing of fire-brick intended
to protect the riveted seam immediately above it from the direct
FIG. 9. Furnace Gear of ss. " Murex. "
FUEL
281
impact of the fame, and D is a lining of fire-brick at the back of the
ctxnbiution-box. also intended to protect the plating from the direct
impact of the petroleum flame. The arrangement of the furnace on
the Meyer system is shown in fig. 5, where E is an annular pro-
tection built at the mouth of the furnace, and BB are spiral passages
for heating the air before it passes into the furnace. Fig. 6 shows
the ring* CC and details of the casting which forms the projection
or exterior elongation of the furnace. The brickwork arrangement
adopted for the double-ended boilers on the Hamburg-American
Steamship Company's " Ferdinand Laeisz " is represented in fig. 7.
The whole furnace is lined with fire-brick, and the burner is mounted
upon a circular disk plate which covers the mouth of the furnace.
The oil is injected not by steam pulverization, but by pressure due
to a steam-pump. The oil is heated to about 6o a C. before entering
the pump, and further heated to 90* C. after leaving the pump. It
is then filtered, and passes
to the furnace injector C at
about 30- Ib pressure; and
its passage through this in-
jector and the spiral pass-
age* of which it consists
pulverizes the oil into spray,
in which form it readily
ignites on reaching the
interior of the furnace. The
injector is on the K&rting
principle, that is, it atomizes
by fracture of the liquid oil
arising from its own mo-
mentum under pressure.
The advantage of this
system as compared with
FIG. 10. Section through Furnace the steam-jet system is the
of ss. " Murex. saving of fresh water, the
abstraction of which is so
injurious to the boiler by the formation of scale.
The general arrangement of the fuel tanks and filling pipes on the
ss. " Murex " is shown in fie. 8 ; and fig. 9 represents the furnace
gear of the same vessel, A being the steam-pipe, B the oil-pipe,
C the injector, D the swivel upon which the injector is hung so that
it may be swung clear of the furnace, E the fire-door, and F the
handle for adjusting the injector. In fig. 10, which represents a
section of the furnace, H is a fire-brick pier and K a fire-brick
baffling bridge.
It is found in practice that to leave out the fire-bars ordinarily
used for coal produces a better result with liquid fuel than the
alternative system of keeping them in place and protecting them
by a layer of broken fire-brick.
Boilers fitted upon all the above systems have been run for
thousands of miles without trouble. In new construction it is
desirable to give larger combustion chambers and longer and narrower
boiler tubes than in the case. of boilers intended for the combustion
of coal alone. (F. F.*)
Caseous Pud.
Strictly speaking, much, and sometimes even most, of the
heating effected by solid or liquid fuel is actually performed by
the gases given off during the combustion. We speak, however,
of gaseous fuel only in those cases where we supply a combustible
gas from the outset, or where we produce from ordinary solid
(or liquid) fuel in one place a stream of combustible gas which
is burned in another place, more or less distant from that where
it has been generated.
The various descriptions of gaseous fuel employed in practice
nay be classified under the following heads:
I. Natural Gas.
II. Combustible Gates obtained as by-products in various
technical operations.
III. Coal Gas (Illuminating Gas).
IV. Combustible Gases obtained by the partial combustion of
coal. Ac.
I. Natural Cos. From time immemorial it has been known
that in some parts of the Caucasus and of China large quantities
of gases issue from the soil, sometimes under water, which can
be lighted and bum with a luminous flame. The "eternal
fires " of Baku belong to this class. In coal-mines frequently
similar streams of gas issue from the coal ; these are called
" blowers," and when they are of somewhat regular occurrence
are sometimes conducted away in pipes and used for underground
lighting. As a regular source of heating power, however, natural
ps is employed only in some parts of the United States, especially
in Pennsylvania, Kansas, Ohio and West Virginia, where it
always occurs in the neighbourhood of coal and petroleum
fields. The first public mention of it was made in 1775, but it was
not till iSai that it was turned to use at Fredonia, N.Y. In
Pennsylvania natural gas was discovered in 1859, but at first
very little use was made of it. Its industrial employment dates
only from 1874, and became of great importance about ten
years later. Nobody ever doubted that the gas found in these
localities was an accumulation of many ages and that, being
tapped by thousands of bore-holes, it must rapidly come to an
end. This assumption was strengthened by the fact that the
" gas-wells," which at first gave out the gas at a pressure of 700
or 800, sometimes even of 1400 Ib per sq. in., gradually showed
a more and more diminishing pressure and many of them ceased
to work altogether. About the year 1890 the belief was fairly
general that the stock of natural gas would soon be entirely
exhausted. Indeed, the value of the annual production of natural
gas in the United States, computed as its equivalent of coal,
was then estimated at twenty-one million dollars, in 1895 at
twelve millions, in 1899 at eleven and a half millions. But the
output rose again to a value of twenty-seven millions in 1901,
and to fifty million dollars in 1907. Mostly the gas, derived
from upwards of 10,000 gas-wells, is now artificially compressed
to a pressure of 300 or 400 Ib per sq. in. by means of steam-
power or gas motors, fed by the gas itself, and is conveyed over
great distances in iron pipes, from 9 or 10 to 36 in. in diameter.
In 1004 nearly 30,000 m. of pipe lines were in operation. In
1907 the quantity of natural gas consumed in the United States
(nearly half of which was in Pennsylvania) was 400,000 million
cub. ft., 9r nearly 3 cub. m. Canada (Ontario) also produces
some natural gas, reaching a maximum of about $746,000 in
1907.
The principal constituent of natural gas is always methane,
ill,, of which it contains from 68-4 to 94-0% by volume. Those
gases which contain less methane contain all the more hydrogen,
viz. 2-9 to 29-8%. There is also some ethylene, ethane and
carbon monoxide, rarely exceeding 2 or 3%. The quantity
of incombustible gases oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
ranges from mere traces to about 5 %. The density is from
0-45 to 0-55- The heating power of 1000 cub. ft. of natural gas
is equal to from 80 to 120 Ib, on the average 100 Ib, of good
coal, but it is really worth much more than this proportion
would indicate, as it burns completely, without smoke or ashes,
and without requiring any manual labour. It is employed for
all domestic and for most industrial purposes.
The origin of natural gas is not properly understood, even
now. The most natural assumption is, of course, that its forma-
tion is connected with that of the petroleum always found in
the same neighbourhood, the latter principally consisting of the
higher-boiling aliphatic hydrocarbons of the methane series.
But whence do they both come ? Some bring them into con-
nexion with the formation of coal, others with the decomposition
of animal remains, others with that of diatomaceae, &c., and
even an inorganic origin of both petroleum and natural gas has
been assumed by chemists of the rank of D. I. Mendeldeff and
H. Moissan.
II. Gases obtained as By-products. There are two important
cases in which gaseous by-products are utilized as fuel; both
are intimately connected with the manufacture of iron, but in
a very different way, and the gases are of very different
composition.
(a) Blast-furnace Gases. The gases issuing from the mouths
of blast-furnaces (see IRON AND STEEL) were first utilized in
1837 by Faber du Faur, at Wasseralfingen. Their use became
more extensive after 1860, and practically universal after 1870.
The volume of gas given off per ton of iron made is about 158,000
cub. ft. Its percentage composition by volume is:
Carbon monoxide
Hydrogen
Methane
21-6 to 29-0, m<
1-8 6-3,
O-l 0-8,
6 12,
5' .. 60.
5 .. 12.
e amount of mec
>stly about 26 %
ii 3 %
' 5 o4
9-5%
:: 1 1
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Steam
There is always a larg
100%
hanically suspended
282
FUEL
[GASEOUS
flue-dust in this gas. It is practically equal to a poor producer-
gas (see below), and is everywhere used, first for heating the blast
in Cowper stoves or similar apparatus, and secondly for raising
all the steam required for the operation of the blast-furnace,
that is, for driving the blowing-engines, hoisting the materials,
&c. Where the iron ore is roasted previously to being fed into
the furnace, this can also be done by this gas, but in some cases
the waste in using it is so great that there is not enough left for
the last purpose. The calorific power of this gas per cubic foot
is from 80 to 120 B.Th.U.
Since about 1900 a great advance has been made in this field.
Instead of burning the blast-furnace gas under steam boilers
and employing the steam for producing mechanical energy, the
gas is directly burned in gas-motors on the explosion principle.
Thus upwards of three times the mechanical energy is obtained
in comparison with the indirect way through the steam boiler.
After all the power required for the operations of the blast-
furnace has been supplied, there is a surplus of from 10 to
20 h.p. for each ton of pig-iron made, which may be applied
to any other purpose.
(b) Coke-oven Gases. Where the coking of coal is performed
in the old beehive ovens or similar apparatus the gas issuing
at the mouth of the ovens is lost. The attempts at utilizing the
gases in such cases have not been very successful. It is quite
different where coke is manufactured in the same way as illumin-
ating gas, viz. by the destructive dis-
tillation of coal in closed apparatus
(retorts), heated from the outside.
This industry, which is described in
detail in G. Lunge's Coal-Tar and
Ammonia (4th ed., 1009), origin-
ated in France, but has spread far
more in Germany, where more than
half of the coke produced is made
by it; in the United Kingdom and the
United States its progress has been
much slower, but there also it has long
been recognized as the only proper
method. The output of coke is
increased by about 15% in comparison with the beehive ovens,
as the heat required for the process of distillation is not produced
by burning part of the coal itself (as in the beehive ovens), but
by burning part of the gas. The quality of the coke for iron-
making is quite as good as that of beehive coke, although it
differs from it in appearance. Moreover, the gases can be made
to yield their ammonia, their tar, and even their benzene vapours,
the value of which products sometimes exceeds that of the coke
itself. And after all this there is still an excess of gas available
for any other purpose.
As the principle of distilling the coal is just the same, whether
the object is the manufacture of coal gas proper or of coke as the
main product, although there is much difference in the details
of the manufacture, it follows that the quality of the gas is very
similar in both cases, so far as its heating value is concerned.
Of course this heating value is less where the benzene has been
extracted from coke-oven gas, since this compound is the richest
heat-producer in the gas. This is, however, of minor importance
in the present case, as there is only about i % benzene in these
gases.
The composition of coke-oven gases, after the extraction of
the ammonia and tar, is about 53% hydrogen, 36% methane,
6% carbon monoxide, 2^ ethylene and benzene, 0-5% sul-
phuretted hydrogen, 1-5% carbon dioxide, i% nitrogen.
III. Coal Gas (Illuminating Gas). Although ordinary coal gas
is primarily manufactured for illuminating purposes, it is also
extensively used for cooking, frequently also for heating domestic
rooms, baths, &c., and to some extent also for industrial opera-
tions on a small scale, where cleanliness and exact regulation of
the work are of particular importance. In chemical laboratories
it is preferred to every other kind of fuel wherever it is available.
The manufacture of coal gas being described elsewhere in this
work (see GAS, Manufacture), we need here only point out that
it is obtained by heating bituminous coal in fireclay retorts and
purifying the products of this destructive distillation by cooling,
washing and other operations. The residual gas, the ordinary
composition of which is given in the table below, amounts to
about 10,000 cub. ft. for a ton of coal, and represents about
21% of its original heating value, 56-5% being left in the coke,
5- 5% in the tar and 17% being lost. As we must deduct from
the coke that quantity which is required for the heating of the
retorts, and which, even when good gas producers are employed,
amounts to 12% of the weight of the coal, or 10% of its heat
value, the total loss of heat rises to 27%. Taking, further, into
account the cost of labour, the wear and tear, and the capital
interest on the plant, coal gas must always be an expensive fuel
in comparison with coal itself, and cannot be thought of as a
general substitute for the latter. But in many cases the greater
expense of the coal gas is more than compensated by its easy
distribution, the facility and cleanliness of its application, the
general freedom from the mechanical loss, unavoidable in the
case of coal fires, the prevention of black smoke and so forth.
The following table shows the average composition of coal gas
by volume and weight, together with the heat developed by
its single constituents, the latter being expressed in kilogram-
calories per cub. metre (0-252 kilogram-calories = i British heat
unit; i cub. metre = 35-3 cub. ft; therefore 0-1123 calories per
cub. metre=i British heat unit per cub. foot).
Constituents.
Volume
per cent.
Weight
per cent.
Heat-value
per Cubic
Metre
Calories.
Heat-value
per Quantity
contained in
i Cub. Met.
Heat-value
per cent,
of Total.
Hydrogen, H 8
47
7'4
2,582
1213
22-8
Methane, CH< .
Carbon monoxide, CO
34
9
42-8
19-9
8,524
3-043
2898
273
54-5
5'i
Benzene vapour, CjH
1-2
7-4
33,8i5
405
7'7
Ethylene, C 2 H 4 .
3-8
8-4
13,960
53
9.9
Carbon dioxide, COz .
2-5
8-6
Nitrogen, N s
2-5
5-5
Total .
IOO-O
100-0
5319
IOO-O
One cubic metre of such gas weighs 568 grammes. Rich gas,
or gas made by the destructive distillation of certain bituminous
schists, of oil, &c., contains much more of the heavy hydrocarbons,
and its heat-value is therefore much higher than the above.
The carburetted water gas, very generally made in America, and
sometimes employed in England for mixing with coal gas, is
of varying composition; its heat- value is generally rather less
than that of coal gas (see below).
IV. Combustible Gases produced by the Partial Combustion of
Coal, &c. These form by far the most important kind of gaseous
fuel. When coal is submitted to destructive distillation to
produce the illuminating gas described in the preceding para-
graph, only a comparatively small proportion of the heating
value of the coal (say, a sixth or at most a fifth part) is obtained
in the shape of gaseous fuel, by far the greater proportion remain-
ing behind in the shape of coke.
An entirely different class of gaseous fuels comprises those
produced by the incomplete combustion of the total carbon
contained in the raw material, where the result is a mixture of
gases which, being capable of combining with more oxygen, can
be burnt and employed for heating purposes. Apart from some
descriptions of waste gases belonging to this class (of which the
most notable are those from blast-furnaces), we must distinguish
two ways of producing such gaseous fuels entirely different in
principle, though sometimes combined in one operation. The
incomplete .combustion of carbon may be brought about by
means of atmospheric oxygen, by means of water, or by a
simultaneous combination of these two actions. In the first
case the chemical reaction is
C+O=CO (a);
the nitrogen accompanying the oxygen in the atmospheric air
necessarily remains mixed with carbon monoxide, and the result-
ing gases, which always contain some carbon dioxide, some
GASEOUS]
FUEL
283
products of the destructive distillation of the coal, &c., are known
a* prodtutr gas or Siemens gas. In the second case the chemical
reaction is mainly
C+H.O-CO+H, . . . (6);
that is to say, the carbon is converted into monoxide and the
hydrogen is set free. As both of these substances can combine
with oxygen, and as there is no atmospheric nitrogen to deal
with, the resulting gas (voter gas) is, apart from a few impurities,
entirely combustible. Another kind of water gas is formed by
the reaction
C+2H,O-CO,-2H, . . . (c),
but this reaction, which converts all the carbon into the incom-
bustible form of COi, is considered as an unwelcome, although
never entirely avoidable, concomitant of (6).
The reaction by which water gas is produced being endothermic
(as we shall see), this gas cannot be obtained except by introducing
the balance of energy in another manner. This might be done
by heating the apparatus from without, but as this method would
be uneconomical, the process is carried out by alternating the
endothermic production of water gas with the exothermic
combustion of carbon by atmospheric air. Pure water gas is
not, therefore, made by a continuous process, but alternates
with the production of other gases, combustible or not. But
instead of constantly interrupting the process in this way, a
continuous operation may be secured by simultaneously carrying
on both the reactions (a) and (6) in such proportions that the heat
generated by (a) at least equals the heat absorbed by (6). For
this purpose the apparatus is fed at the same time with atmo-
spheric air and with a certain quantity of steam, preferably
in a superheated state. Gaseous mixtures of this kind have been
made, more or less intentionally, for a long time past. One of
the best known of them, intended less for the purpose of serving
as ordinary fuel than for that of driving machinery, is the
Dowson gas.
An advantage common to all kinds of gaseous fuel, which
indeed forms the principal reason why it is intentionally pro-
duced from solid fuel, in spite of inevitable losses in the course
of the operation, is the following. The combustion of solid fuel
(coal, &c.) cannot be carried on with the theoretically necessary
quantity of atmospheric air, but requires a considerable excess
of the latter, at least 50%, sometimes 100% and mere. This is
best seen from the analyses of smoke gases. If all the oxygen
of the air were converted into COj and HjO, the amount of COi
in the smoke gases should be in the case of pure carbon nearly
21 volumes %, as carbon dioxide occupies the same volume as
oxygen; while ordinary coal, where the hydrogen takes up a
certain quantity of oxygen as well, should show about 18-5%
COj. But the best smoke gases of steam boilers show only 12
or 13%, much more frequently only io%COi, and gases from
reverberatory furnaces often show less than 5%. This means
that the volume of the smoke gases escaping into the air is
from 1 1 to 2 times (in the case of high-temperature operations
often 4 times) greater than the theoretical minimum; and as
these gases always carry off a considerable quantity of heat,
the loss of heat is all the greater the less complete is the utilization
of the oxygen and the higher the temperature of the operation.
This explains why, in the case of the best-constructed steam-
boiler fires provided with beat economizers, where the smoke
gases are deprived of most of their heat, the proportion of the
heat value of the fuel actually utilized may rise to 70 or even 75 %,
while in some metallurgical operations, in glass-making and
similar cases, it may be below 5 %.
One way of overcoming this difficulty to a certain extent is
to reduce the solid fuel to a very fine powder, which can be
intimately mixed with the air so that the consumption of the
latter is only very slightly in excess of the theoretical quantity;
but this process, which has been only recently introduced on a
somewhat extended scale, involves much additional expense and
trouble, and cannot as yet be considered a real success. Generally,
too, it is far less easily applied than gaseous fuel. The latter
can be readily and intimately mixed with the exact quantity of
air that it required and distributed in any suitable way, and
much of the waste heat can be utilized for a preliminary heating
of the air and the gas to be burned by means of " recuperators."
We shall now describe the principal classes of gaseous fuel,
produced by the partial combustion of coal.
A. Producer Gas, Siemens Gas. As we have seen above, this
gas is made by the incomplete combustion of fuel. The materials
generally employed for its production are anthracite, coke or
other fuels which are not liable to cake -during the operation,
and thus stop the draught or otherwise disturb the process, but
by special measures also bituminous coal, lignite, peat and other
fuel may be utilized for gas producers. The fuel is arranged in
a deep layer, generally from 4 ft. up to 10 ft., and the air is
introduced from below, either by natural draught or by means of
a blast, and either by a grate or only by a slit in the wall of the
" gas producer." Even if the primary action taking place at
the entrance of the air consisted in the complete combustion of
the carbon to dioxide, COj, the latter, in rising through the high
column of incandescent fuel, must be reduced to monoxide:
COi+C = 2CO. But as the temperature in the producer rises
rather high, and as in ordinary circumstances the action of
oxygen on carbon above 1000 C. consists almost entirely in
the direct formation of CO, we may regard this compound as
primarily formed in the hotter parts of the gas-producer. It is
true that ordinary producer gas always contains more or less
COj, but this may be formed higher up by air entering through
leakages in the apparatus. If we ignore the hydrogen contained
in the fuel, the theoretical composition of producer gas would
be 33-3% CO and 66-7% N, both by volume and weight. Its
weight per cubic metre is 1-251 grammes, and its heat value 1013
calories per cubic metre, or less than one-fifth of the heat-value
of coal gas. Practically, however, producer gas contains a small
percentage of gases, increasing its heat-value, like hydrogen,
methane, &c., but on the other hand it is never free from carbon
dioxide to the extent of from 2 to 8%. Its heat-value may
therefore range between 800 and 1 100 calories per cubic metre.
Even when taking as the basis of our calculation a theoretical gas
of 33 4 3% CO, we find that there is a great loss of heat-value in
the manufacture of this gas. Thermochemistry teaches us that
the reaction C+O develops 29-5% of the heat produced by the
complete oxidation of C to COj, thus leaving only 70-5% for
the stage CO+O = COj. If, therefore, the gas given off in the
producer is allowed to cool down to ordinary temperature,
nearly 30% of the heat-value of the coal is lost by radiation.
If, however, the gas producer is built in close proximity to the
place where the combustion takes place, so that the gas does not
lose very much of its heat, the loss is correspondingly less. Even
then there is no reason why this mode of burning the fuel, i.e.
first with " primary air " in the producer (C+O = CO), then with
"secondary air" in the furnace (CO+O = COi), should be
preferred to the direct complete burning of the fuel on a grate,
unless the above-mentioned advantage is secured, viz. reduction
of the smoke gases to a minimum by confining the supply of air
as nearly as possible to that required for the formation of CO*,
which is only possible by producing an intimate mixture of the
producer gas with the secondary air. The advantage in question
is not very great where the heat of the smoke gases can be very
fully utilized, e.g. in well-constructed steam boilers, salt-pans
and the like, and as a matter of fact gas producers have not
found much use in such cases. But a very great advantage is
attained in high-temperature operations, where the smoke
gases escape very hot, and where it is on that account all-
important to confine their quantity to a minimum.
It is precisely in these cases that another requirement frequently
comes in, viz. the production at a given point of a higher tempera-
ture than is easily attained by ordinary fires. Gas-firing lends
itself very well to this end, as it is easily combined with a pre-
liminary heating up of the air, and even of the gas itself, by
means of " recuperators." The original and best-known form
of these, due to Siemens Brothers, consists of two brick chambers
filled with loosely stacked fire-bricks in such manner that any
gases passed through the chambers must seek their way through
the interstices left between the bricks, by which means a thorough
284
FUEL
[GASEOUS
interchange of temperature takes place. The smoke gases,
instead of escaping directly into the atmosphere, are made to
pass through one of these chambers, giving up part of their
heat to the brickwork. After a certain time the draught is
changed by means of valves, the smoke gases are passed through
another chamber, and the cold air intended to feed the com-
bustion is made to pass through the first chamber, where it
takes up heat from the white-hot bricks, and is thus heated up
to a bright red heat until the chamber is cooled down too far,
when the draughts are again reversed. Sometimes the producer
gas itself is heated up in this manner (especially when it has
been cooled down by travelling a long distance); in that case
four recuperator chambers must be provided instead of two.
Another class of recuperators is not founded on the alternating
system, but acts continuously; the smoke gases travel always
in the same direction in flues contiguous to other flues or pipes
in which the air flows in the opposite direction, an interchange
of heat taking place through the walls of the flues or pipes. Here
the surface of contact must be made very large if a good effect
is to be produced. In both cases not merely is a saving effected
of all the calories which are abstracted by the cold air from the
recuperator, but as less fuel has to be burned to get a given
effect, the quantity of smoke gas is reduced. For details and
other producer gases, see GAS, II. For Fuel and Power.
Gas-firing in the manner just described can be brought about
by very simple means, viz. by lowering the fire-grate of an
ordinary fire-place to at least 4 ft. below the fire-bridge, and by
introducing the air partly below the grate and partly behind
the fire-place, at or near the point where the greatest heat
is required. Usually, however, more elaborate apparatus is
employed, some of which we shall describe below. Gas-firing
has now become universal in some of the most important in-
dustries and nearly so in others. The present extension of
steel-making and other branches of metallurgy is intimately
connected with this system, as is the modern method of glass-
making, of heating coal gas retorts and so forth.
The composition of producer gas differs considerably, princi-
pally according to the material from which it is made. Analyses
of ordinary producer gas (not such as falls under the heading of
"semi-water gas," see sub C) by volume show 22 to 33% CO,
i to 7% CO 2 , 0-5 to 2% H 2 , 0-5 to 3% hydrocarbons, and
6 4 to68%N 2 .
B. Water Gas. The reaction of steam on highly heated
carbonaceous matter was first observed by Felice Fontana in
1780. This was four years before Henry Cavendish isolated
hydrogen from water, and thirteen years before William Murdoch
made illuminating gas by the distillation of coal, so that it was
no wonder that Fontana's laboratory work was soon forgotten.
Nor had the use of carburetted water gas, as introduced by
Donovan in 1830 for illuminating purposes, more than a very
short life. More important is the fact that during nine years
the illumination of the town of Narbonne was carried on by
incandescent platinum wire, heated by water gas, where also
internally heated generators were for the first time regularly
employed. The Narbonne process was abandoned in 1865, and
for some time no real progress was made in this field in Europe.
But in America, T. S. C. Lowe, Strong.Tessifi du Motay and others
took up the matter, the first permanent success being obtained
by the introduction (1873) of Lowe's system at Phoenixville, Pa.
In the United States the abundance of anthracite, as well as of
petroleum naphtha, adapted for carburetting the gas, secures a
great commercial advantage to this kind of illuminant over coal
gas, so that now three-fourths of all American gas-works employ
carburetted water gas. In Europe the progress of this industry
was naturally much less rapid, but here also since 1882, when
the apparatus of Lowe and Dwight was introduced in the town
of Essen, great improvements have been worked out, principally
by E. Blass, and by these improvements water gas obtained a
firm footing also for certain heating purposes. The American
process for making carburetted water gas, as an auxiliary to
ordinary coal gas, was first introduced by the London Gas Light
and Coke Company on a large scale in 1890.
Water gas in its original state is called " blue gas," because it
burns with a blue, non-luminous flame, which produces a very
high temperature. AccordingtotheequationC+H 2 O = CO+H 2 ,
this gas consists theoretically of equal volumes of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. We shall presently see why it is
impossible to avoid the presence of a little carbon dioxide and
other gases, but we shall for the moment treat of water gas as
if it were composed according to the above equation. The
reaction C+H 2 O = CO+H 2 is endothermic, that is, its thermal
value is negative. One gram-molecule of carbon produces 97
great calories (i great calorie or kilogram-calorie =1000 gram-
calories) when burning to CO 2 , and this is of course the maximum
effect obtainable from this source. If the same gram-molecule
of carbon is used for making water gas, that is, CO+H 2 , the
heat produced by the combustion of the product is 68-4+
57-6=126 great calories, an apparent surplus of 29 calories,
which cannot be got out of nothing. This is made evident by
another consideration. In the above reaction C is not burned
to CO 2 , but to CO, a reaction which produces 28-6 calories per
gram-molecule. But as the oxygen is .furnished from water,
which must first be decomposed by the expenditure of energy,
we must introduce this amount, 68-5 calories, in the case of
liquid water, or 57-6 calories in the case of steam, as a negative
quantity, and the difference, viz. +28-6- 57-6= 29 great calories,
represents the amount of heat to be expended from another
source in order to bring about the reaction of one gram-molecule
of carbon on one gram-molecule of H 2 O in the shape of steam.
This explains why steam directed upon incandescent coal will
produce water gas only for a very short time: even a large
mass of coal will quickly be cooled down so much that at first a
gas of different composition is formed and soon the process will
cease altogether. We can avoid this result by carrying on the
process in a retort heated from without by an ordinary coal fire,
and all the early water gas apparatus was constructed in this
way; but such a method is very uneconomical, and was long ago
replaced by a process first patented by J. and T. N. Kirkham
in 1854, and very much improved by successive inventors. This
process consists in conducting the operation in an upright brick
shaft, charged with anthracite, coke or other suitable fuel. This
shaft resembles an ordinary gas producer, but it differs in being
worked, not in a continuous manner, which, as shown above,
would be impossible, but by alternately blowing air and steam
through the coal for periods of a few minutes each. During the
first phase, when carbon is burned by atmospheric oxygen, and
thereby heat is produced, this heat, or rather that part of it
which is not carried away by radiation and by the products
of combustion on leaving the apparatus, is employed in raising
the temperature of the remaining mass of fuel, and is thus
available for the second phase, in which the reaction (b)
C+H 2 O = CO+H 2 goes onwiththe abstraction of a correspon ding
amount of heat from the incandescent fuel, so that the latter
rapidly cools down, and the process must be reversed by blowing
in air and so forth. The formation of exactly equal volumes
of carbon monoxide and hydrogen goes on only at temperatures
over 1 200 C., that is, for a very few minutes. Even at 1 100 C.
a little CO 2 can be proved to exist in the gas, and at 900 its
proportion becomes too high to allow the process to go on.
About 650 C. the CO has fallen to a minimum, and the reaction
is now essentially (c) C+2H 2 O = CO 2 +2H 2 ; soon after the
temperature of the mass will have fallen to such a low point
that the steam passes through it without any perceptible action.
The gas produced by reaction (c) contains only two-thirds of
combustible matter, and is on that account less valuable than
proper water gas formed by reaction (b) ; moreover, it requires
the generation of twice the amount of steam, and its presence is
all the less desirable since it must soon lead to a total cessation
of the process. In ordinary circumstances it is evident that the
more steam is blown in during a unit of time, the sooner reaction
(c) will set in; on the other hand, the more heat has been
accumulated in the producer the longer can the blowing-in of
steam be continued.
The process of making water gas consequently comprises
GASEOUS;
FUEL
285
two alternating operations, viz. first " blowing-up " by means
of a current of air, by which the heat of the mass of fuel is raised
to about 1200 C.; and, secondly " steaming," by injecting a
current of (preferably superheated) steam until the temperature
of the fuel had fallen to about 900 C., and too much carbon
dioxide appears in the product. During the steaming the gas
is carried off by a special conduit into a scrubber, where the dust
mechanically carried away in the current is washed out, and the
gas is at the same time cooled down nearly to the ordinary
temperature. It is generally stored in a gas-holder, from which
it is conducted away as required. It is never quite free from
nitrogen, as the producer at the beginning of steaming contains
much of this gas, together with CO or CO* The proportion of
hydrogen may exceed 50%, in consequence of reaction (r)
setting in at the close of the steaming. Ordinary " blue " water
gas, if, as usual, made from coke or anthracite, contains 48-52%
H,. 40-41% CO, 1-5% CO,, 4-5% N,, and traces of hydro-
carbons, especially methane. If made from bituminous coal,
it contains more of the latter. ' If " carburetted " (a process
which increases its volume 50% and more) by the vapours from
superheated petroleum naphtha, the proportion of CO ranges
about 15%, with about as much methane, and from 10 to 15%
of " illuminants " (heavy hydrocarbons). The latter, of course,
greatly enhance the fuel-value of the gas. Pure water gas would
p Mir m the following fuel- value per cubic metre:
0-5 cub. met. HI 1291 calories
0-5 CO -i 523
3813
Ordinary "blue" water gas has a fuel-value of at least 2500
calories. Carburetted water gas, which varies very much in
its percentage of hydrocarbons, sometimes reaches nearly the
heat-value of coal gas, but such gas is only in exceptional cases
used for heating purposes.
We must now turn to the " blowing-up " stage of the process.
Until recently it was assumed that during this stage the combus-
tion of carbon cannot be carried on beyond the formation of
carbon monoxide, for as the gas-producer must necessarily
contain a deep layer of fuel (generally about 6 to 10 ft.), any CO 2
formed at first would be reduced to CO; and it was further
assumed that hardly any CO, would be formed from the outset,
as the temperature of the apparatus is too high for this reaction
to take place. But as the combustion of C to CO produces only
about 30% of the heat produced when C is burned into CO],
the quantity of fuel consumed for " blowing-up " is very large,
and in fact considerably exceeds that consumed in "steaming."
There is, of course, a further loss by radiation and minor sources,
and the result is that I kilogram of carbon yields only about
1-2 cub. met. of water gas. Each period of blowing-up generally
occupies from 8 to 12 mirtites, that of steaming only 4 or 5
minutes. This low yield of water gas until quite recently appeared
to be unavoidable, and the only question seemed to be whether
and to what extent the gas formed during blowing-up, which
is in fact identical with ordinary producer gas (Siemens gas),
could be utilized. In America, where the water gas is mostly
employed for illuminating purposes, at least part of the blowing-
up gas is utilized for heating the apparatus in which the naphtha
is volatilized and the vapours are " fixed " by superheating.
This process, however, never utilizes anything like the whole
of the blowing-up gas, nor can this be effected by raising and
superheating the steam necessary for the second operation;
indeed, the employment of this gas for raising steam is not very
easy, owing to the irregularities of and constant interruptions
in the supply. In some systems the gas made during the blowing-
up stage is passed through chambers, loosely filled with bricks,
like Siemens recuperators, where it is burned by " secondary "
air: the heat thus imparted to the brickwork is utilized by passing
through the recuperator, and thus superheating, the steam
required for the next steaming operation. In many cases,
principally where no carburetting is practised, the blowing-up
gas is simply burned at the mouth of the producer, and is thus
altogether lost; and in no case can it be utilized without great
waste. A very important improvement in this respcci was
effected by C. Dellwik and E. Fleischer. They found that the
view that it is unavoidable to burn the carbon to monoxide
during the blowing-up holds good only for the pressure of blast
formerly applied. This did not much exceed that which is
required for overcoming the frictional resistance within the
producer. If, however, the pressure is considerably increased,
and the height of the column of fuel reduced, both of these
conditions being strictly regulated in accordance with the result
desired, it is easy to attain a combustion of the carbon to dioxide,
with only traces of monoxide, in spite of the high temperature.
Evidently the excess of oxygen coming into contact with each
particle of carbon in a given unit of time produces other conditions
of chemical equilibrium than those existing at lower pressures. At
any rate, experience has shown that by this process, in which the
full heat-value of carbon is utilized during the blowing-up stage,
the time of heating-up can be reduced from 10 to i J or 2 minutes,
and the steaming can be prolonged from 4 or 5 to 8 or 10 minutes,
with the result that twice the quantity of water gas is obtained,
viz. upwards of 2 cub. metres from i kilogram of carbon.
The application of water gas as a fuel mainly depends upon
the high temperatures which it is possible to attain by its aid,
and these are principally due to the circumstance that it forms
a much smaller flame than coal gas, not to speak of Siemens gas,
which contains at most 33% of combustible matter against
90% or more in water gas. The latter circumstance also allows
the gas to be conducted and distributed in pipes of moderate
dimensions. Its application, apart from its use as an illuminant
(with which we are not concerned here), was formerly retarded
by its high cost in comparison with Siemens gas and other
sources of heat, but as this state of affairs has been changed by
the modern improvements, its use is rapidly extending, especially
for metallurgical purposes.
C. Mixed Gas (Semi-Water Gas). This class is sometimes
called Dowson gas, irrespective of its method of production,
although it was made and extensively used a long time before
J. E. Dowson constructed his apparatus for generating such a
gas principally for driving gas-engines. By a combination of
the processes for generating Siemens gas and water gas, it is
produced by injecting into a gas-producer at the same time a
certain quantity of air and a corresponding quantity of steam,
the latter never exceeding the amount which can be decomposed
by the heat-absorbing reaction, C-f HiO = CO+Hi, at the ex-
pense of the heat generated by the action of the air in the
reaction C+O = CO. Such gas used to be frequently obtained in
an accidental way by introducing liquid water or steam into
an ordinary gas-producer for the purpose of facilitating its
working by avoiding an excessive temperature, such as might
cause the rapid destruction of the brickwork and the fusion of
the ashes of the fuel into troublesome cakes. It was soon found
that by proceeding in this way a certain advantage could be
gained in regard to the consumption of fuel, as the heat abstracted
by the steam from the brickwork and the fuel itself was usefully
employed for decomposing water, its energy thus reappearing
in the shape of a combustible gas. It is hardly necessary to
mention explicitly that the total heat obtained by any such
process from a given quantity of carbon (or hydrogen) can in
no case exceed that which is generated by direct combustion;
some inventors, however, whether inadvertently or intentionally,
have actually represented this to be possible, in manifest violation
of the law of the conservation of energy.
Roughly speaking, this gas may be said to be produced by
the combination of the reactions, described sub A and B, to the
joint reaction: 2C+O+HjO = 2CO+H,. The decomposition
of HjO (applied in the shape of steam) absorbs 57 -6 gram calories,
the formation of 2CO produces 59 gram calories; hence there is
a small positive excess of i -4 calories at disposal. This in reality
would not be sufficient to cover the loss by radiation, &c.;
hence rather more free oxygen (i.e. atmospheric air) must be
employed than is represented by the above equation. All this
free oxygen is, of course, accompanied by nearly four times
its volume of nitrogen.
2 86
FUENTE OVEJUNA FUERO
The mixed gas thus obtained differs very much in composition,
but is always much richer in hydrogen (of which it contains
sometimes as much as 20%) and poorer in carbon monoxide
(sometimes down to 20%) than Siemens gas ; generally it
contains more of COz than the latter. The proportion of nitrogen
is always less, about 50%. It is therefore a more concentrated
fuel than Siemens gas, and better adapted to the driving of gas-
engines. It scarcely costs more to make than ordinary Siemens
gas, except where the steam is generated and superheated in
special apparatus, as is done in the Dowson producer, which,
on the other hand, yields a correspondingly better gas. As is
natural, its properties are some way between those of Siemens
gas and of water gas; but they approach more nearly the
former, both as to costs and as to fuel-value, and also as to the
temperatures reached in combustion. This is easily understood
if we consider that gas of just the same description can be
obtained by mixing one volume of real water gas with the four
volumes of Siemens gas made during the blowing-up stage an
operation which is certainly too expensive for practical use.
A modification of this gas is the Mond gas, which is made,
according to Mond's patent, by means of such an excess of steam
that most of the nitrogen of the coke is converted into ammonia
(Grouven's reaction). Of course much of this steam passes on
undecomposed, and the quantity of the gas is greatly increased
by the reaction C+2H 2 O = CO 2 -|-2H 2 ; hence the fuel-value
of this gas is less than that of semi-watei gas made in other ways.
Against this loss must be set the gain of ammonia which is
recovered by means of an arrangement of coolers and scrubbers,
and, except at very low prices of ammonia, the profit thus made
is probably more than sufficient to cover the extra cost. But
as the process requires very large and expensive plant, and its
profits would vanish in the case of the value of ammonia becoming
much lower (a result which would very probably follow if it were
somewhat generally introduced), it cannot be expected to sup-
plant the other descriptions of gaseous fuel to more than a
limited extent.
Semi-water gas is especially adapted for the purpose of driving
gas-engines on the explosive principle (gas-motors). Ordinary
producer-gas is too poor for this purpose in respect of heating
power; moreover, owing to the prevalence of carbon monoxide,
it does not light quickly enough. These defects are sufficiently
overcome in semi-water gas by the larger proportion of hydrogen
contained in it. For the purpose in question the gas should be
purified from tar and ashes, and should also be cooled down before
entering the gas-engine. The Dowson apparatus and others
are constructed on this principle.
Air Gas. By forcing air over or through volatile inflammable
liquids a gaseous mixture can be obtained which burns with a
bright flame and which can be used for illumination. Its employ-
ment for heating purposes is quite exceptional, e.g. in chemical
laboratories, and we abstain, therefore, from describing any of the
numerous appliances, some of them bearing very fanciful names,
which have been devised for its manufacture. (G. L.)
FUENTE OVEJUNA [Fuenteovejuna], a town of Spain, in the
province of Cordova; near the sources of the river Guadiato,
and on the Fuente del Arco-Belmez-Cordova railway. Pop.
(1900) 11,777. Fuente Ovejuna is built on a hill, in a well-
irrigated district, which, besides producing an abundance of
wheat, wine, fruit and honey, also contains argentiferous lead
mines and stone quarries. Cattle-breeding is an important
local industry, and leather, preserved meat, soap and flour
are manufactured. The parish church formerly belonged to
the knights of Calatrava (c. 1163-1486).
FUENTERRABIA (formerly sometimes written Fontarabia;
Lat. Fans Rapidus), a town of northern Spain, in the province
of Guipuzcoa; on the San Sebastian-Bayonne railway; near
the Bay of Biscay and on the French frontier. Pop. (1870)
about 750; (1900) 4345. Fuenterrabia stands on the slope of a
hill on the left bank of the river Bidassoa, and near the point
where its estuary begins. Towards the close, of the igth century
the town became popular as a summer resort for visitors from
the interior of Spain, and, in consequence, its appearance under-
went many changes and much of its early prosperity returned.
Hotels and villas were built in the new part of the town that
sprang up outside the picturesque walled fortress, and there is
quite a contrast between the part inside the heavy, half -ruined
ramparts, with its narrow, steep streets and curious gable-roofed
houses, its fine old church and castle and its massive town hall,
and the new suburbs and fishermen's quarter facing the estuary
of the Bidassoa. Many industries flourish on the outskirts of
the town, including rope and net manufactures, flour mills, saw
mills, mining railways, paper mills.
Fuenterrabia formerly possessed considerable strategic im-
portance, and it has frequently been taken and retaken in
wars between France and Spain. The rout of Charlemagne in
778, which has been associated with Fontarabia, by Milton
(Paradise Lost, i. 587), is generally understood to have taken
place not here but at Roncesvalles (q.v.), which is nearly 40 m.
E.S.E. Unsuccessful attempts to seize Fuenterrabia were
made by the French troops in 1476 and again in 1503. In a
subsequent campaign (1521) tBese were more successful, but the
fortress was retaken in 1524. The prince of Conde sustained a
severe repulse under its walls in 1638, and it was on this occasion
that the town received from Philip IV. the rank of city (muy
noble, muy leal, y muy iialerosa ciudad, " most noble, most loyal,
and most valiant city "), a privilege which involved some
measure of autonomy. After a severe siege, Fuenterrabia
surrendered to the duke of Berwick and his French troops in
1719; and in 1794 it again fell into the hands of the French,
who so dismantled it that it has never since been reckoned by
the Spaniards among their fortified places. It was by the ford
opposite Fuenterrabia that the duke of Wellington, on the 8th of
October 1813, successfully forced a passage into France in the
face of an opposing army commanded by Marshal Soult. Severe
fighting also took place here during the Carlist War in 1837.
FUERO, a Spanish term, derived from the Latin forum. The
Castilian use of the word in the sense of a right, privilege or
charter is most probably to be traced to the Roman conventus
juridici, otherwise known as jurisdictiones or fora, which in
Pliny's time were already numerous in the Iberian peninsula. In
each of these provincial fora the Roman magistrate, as is well
known, was accustomed to pay all possible deference to the
previously established common law of the district; and it was
the privilege of every free subject to demand that he should be
judged in accordance with the customs and usages of his proper
forum. This was especially true in the case of the inhabitants of
those towns which were in possession of the jus italicum. It is
not, indeed, demonstrable, but there are many presumptions,
besides some fragments of direct evidence, which make it more
than probable that the old administrative arrangements both of
the provinces and of the towns, but especially of the latter,
remained practically undisturbed at the period of the Gothic
occupation of Spain. 1 The Theodosian Code and the Breviary
of Alaric alike seem to imply a continuance of the municipal
system which had been established by the Romans; nor does the
later Lex Visigothorum, though avowedly designed in some
points to supersede the Roman law, appear to have contemplated
any marked interference with the former fora, which were still to
a large extent left to be regulated in the administration of justice
by unwritten, immemorial, local custom. Little is known of the
condition of the subject populations of the peninsula during the
Arab occupation; but we are informed that the Christians were,
sometimes at least, judged according to their own laws in
separate tribunals presided over by Christian judges; 2 and the
mere fact of the preservation of the name alcalde, an official
whose functions corresponded so closely to those of the judex or
defensor civitatis, is fitted to suggest that the old municipal fora,
if much impaired, were not even then in all cases wholly destroyed.
At all events when the word forum 3 begins to appear for the first
time in documents of the loth century in the sense of a liberty or
1 The nature of the evidence may be gathered from Savigny, Getch.
d. rom. Rechts. See especially i. pp. 154, 259 seq.
1 Compare Lembke u. Schafer, Geschichte von Spanien, i. 314; ii. 117.
' Or rather fortis. See Ducange, s.v.
FUERTEVENTURA FUGGER
287
privilege, it is generally implied that the thing so named is
nothing new. The earliest extant written fuero is probably that
which was granted to the province and town of Leon by Alphonso
V. in io.'o. It emanated from the king in a general council of the
kingdom of Leon and Castile, and consisted of two separate
parts; in the first 19 chapters were contained a series of statutes
which were to be valid for the kingdom at large, while the rest of
the document was simply a municipal charter. 1 But in neither
portion does it in any sense mark a new legislative departure,
unless in so far as it marks the beginning of the era of written
charters for towns. The " fuero general " does not profess to
supersede the consueiudines aniiquorum jurium or Chindaswint's
codification of these in the Lex Visigothorum; the " fuero
municipal " is really for the most part but a resuscitation of
usages formerly established, a recognition and definition of
liberties and privileges that had long before been conceded or
taken for granted. The right of the burgesses to self-government
and self-taxation is acknowledged and confirmed, they, on the
other hand, being held bound to a constitutional obedience and
subjection to the sovereign, particularly to the payment of
definite imperial taxes, and the rendering of a certain amount of
military service (as the ancient municipia had been). Almost
contemporaneous with this fuero of Leon was that granted to
Najera (Naxera) by Sancho el Mayor of Navarre (ob. 1035), and
confirmed, in 1076, by Alphonso VI.* Traces of others of perhaps
even an earlier date are occasionally t be met with. In the fuero
of Cardena, for example, granted by Ferdinand I. in 1039,
reference is made to a previous forum Burgense (Burgos), which,
however, has not been preserved, if, indeed, it ever had been
reduced to writing at all. The phraseology of that of Sepulveda
(1076) in like manner points back to an indefinitely remote
antiquity.' Among the later fueros of the nth century, the
most important are those of Jaca (1064) and of Logrono (1095).
The former of these, which was distinguished by the unusual
largeness of its concessions, and by the careful minuteness of its
details, rapidly extended to many places in the neighbourhood,
while the latter charter was given also to Miranda by Alphonso
VI., and was further extended in 1181 by Sancho el Sabio of
Navarre to Vitoria, thus constituting one of the earliest written
fora of the " Provincias Vascongadas. " In the course of the 1 2th
and 13th centuries the number of such documents increased very
rapidly; that of Toledo especially, granted to the Mozarabic
population in noi, but greatly enlarged and extended by
Alphonso VII. (1118) and succeeding sovereigns, was used as a
basis for many other Castilian fueros. Latterly the word fuero
came to be used in Castile in a wider sense than before, as mean-
ing a general code of laws; thus about the time of Saint Ferdi-
nand the old Lex Visigothorum, then translated for the first
time into the vernacular, was called the Fuero Juzgo, a name
which was soon retranslated into the barbarous Latin of the period
as Forum Judicum; 4 and among the compilations of Alphonso
the Learned in like manner were an Espejo de Fueros and also the
Fuero de lot leyes, better known perhaps as the Fuero Real. The
famous code known as the Ordtnamiento Real de AlcalA, or Fuero
Viejo de Castilla, dates from a still later period. As the power of
the Spanish crown was gradually concentrated and consolidated,
royal pragmaticas began to take the place of constitutional laws;
'Cap. xx. begins: " Constituimus ctiam ut Legionensis civitas,
qiue depopulata fuit a SarracenU in diebus patris mei Veremundi
regii, repopulatur per hot forot ittbtcriptos."
" Mando et concede et confirmo ut ista civitas cum sua plcbe et
cum omnibus uis pertinentiis sub tali lege et sub tali foro maneat
per Mecula cuncta. Amen. Isti sunt fueros quae habuerunt in
Naxera in diebus Sanctii regis et Gartiani rcgis."
" Ego A Wcfonsu* rex et uxpr roea Agnes cpnfirmamus ad Septem-
puWica mo foro quod habuit in tcmporc antique de avolo mco et in
tempore comitum Ferrando Gonzalez et comite Garcia Ferclinamlcz
et comite Domno Santio."
This Latin is later even than that of Ferdinand, whose words are :
Statue et mando quod Liber Judicum, quo ego misi Cordubam.
trajttlatetur in vulgarem et vocetur forum de Corduba . . . et quod
Pf taecuta cuncta tit pro foro et nullus sit ausus istud forum alitcr
appellate nki forum de Corduba. et jubco et mando quod omnis
orator et populator . . . veniet ad judicium et ad forum de
Corduba."
the local fueros of the various districts slowly yielded before the
superior force of imperialism ; and only those of Navarre and the
Basque provinces (sec Basques) have had sufficient vitality to
enable them to survive to comparatively modern times. While
actually owning the lordship of the Castilian crown since about the
middle of the I4th century, these provinces rigidly insisted upon
compliance with their consuetudinary law, and especially with
that which provided that the senor, before assuming the govern-
ment, should personally appear before the assembly and swear
to maintain the ancient constitutions. Each of- the provinces
mentioned had distinct sets of fueros, codified at different periods,
and varying considerably as to details; the main features, how-
ever, were the same in all. Their rights, after having been re-
cognized by successive Spanish sovereigns from Ferdinand the
Catholic to Ferdinand VII., were, at the death of the latter in
1833, set aside by the government of Castaflos. The result was a
civil war, which terminated in a renewed acknowledgment of the
fueros by Isabel II. (1839). The provisional government of 1868
also promised to respect them, and similar pledges were given
by the governments which succeeded. In consequence, however,
of the Carlist rising of 1873-1876, the Basque fueros were finally
extinguished in 1876. The history of the Foraes of the Portu-
guese towns, and of the For s du Btarn, is precisely analogous to
that of the fueros of Castile.
Among the numerous works that more or less expressly deal with
this subject, that of Marina (Ensayo historico-critico sobre la antigua
legislation y principals cuerpos legates de los reynos de Leon y
Castilla) still continues to hold a high place. Reference may also
be made to Colmeiro's Cursp de derecho politico segun la historia de
Leon y de Castilla (Madrid, 1873); to Schafers Geschichte von
Spanien, ii. 418-428, iii. 293 seq.; and to Hallam's Middle Ages,
c. iv.
FUERTEVENTURA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming
part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.).
Pop. (1900) 11,669; area 665 sq. m. Fuerteventura lies between
Lanzarote and Grand Canary. It has a length of 52 m., and an
average width of 1 2 m. Though less mountainous than the other
islands, its aspect is barren. There are only two springs of fresh
water, and these are confined to one valley. Lava streams and
other signs of volcanic action abound, but there has been no
igneous activity since the Spaniards took possession. At each
extremity of the island are high mountains, which send off
branches along the coast so as to enclose a large arid plain.
The highest peak reaches 2500 ft. In external appearance,
climate and productions, Fuerteventura greatly resembles
Lanzarote. An interval of three years without rain has been
known. Oliva (pop. 1900, 2464) is the largest town. A smaller
place in the centre of the island named Betancuria (586) is the
administrative capital. Cabras (1000) on the eastern coast is
the chief port. Dromedaries are bred here.
FUGGER, the name of a famous German family of merchants
and bankers. The founder of the family was Johann Fugger,
a weaver at Graben, near Augsburg, whose son, Johann, settled
in Augsburg probably in 1367. The younger Johann added the
business of a merchant to that of a weaver, and through his
marriage with Clara Widolph became a citizen of Augsburg.
After a successful career he died in 1408, leaving two sons,
Andreas and Jakob, who greatly extended the business which
they inherited from their father. Andreas, called the " rich
Fugger," had several sons, among them being Lukas, who was
very prominent in the municipal politics of Augsburg and who
was very wealthy until he was ruined by the repudiation by the
town of Lou vain of a great debt owing to him, and Jakob, who
was granted the right to bear arms in 1452, and who founded the
family of Fugger vom Reh so called from the first arms of the
Fuggers, a roe (Reh) or on a field azure which became extinct
on the death of his great-grandson, Ulrich, in 1583. Johann
Fugger's son, Jakob,, died in 1469, and three of his seven sons,
Ulrich (1441-1510), Georg (1453-1506) and Jakob (1459-1525),
men of great resource and industry, inherited the family business
and added enormously to the family wealth. In 1473 Ulrich
obtained from the emperor Frederick III. the right to bear arms
for himself and his brothers, and about the same time he began
288
FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS
to act as the banker of the Habsburgs, a connexion destined to
bring fame and fortune to his house. Under the lead of Jakob,
who had been trained for business in Venice, the Fuggers were
interested in silver mines in Tirol and copper mines in Hungary,
while their trade in spices, wool and silk extended to almost
all parts of Europe. Their wealth enabled them to make large
loans to the German king, Maximilian I., who pledged to them
the county of Kirchberg, the lordship of Weissenhorn and other
lands, and bestowed various privileges upon them. Jakob
built the castle of Fuggerau in Tirol, and erected the Fuggerei
at Augsburg, a collection of 106 dwellings, which were let at low
rents to poor people and which still exist. Jakob Fugger and
his two nephews, Ulrich (d. 1525) and Hieronymus (d. 1536),
the sons of Ulrich, died without direct heirs, and the family was
continued by Georg's sons, Raimund (1480-1535) and Anton
(1493-1560), under whom the Fuggers attained the summit of
their wealth and influence.
Jakob Fugger's florins had contributed largely to the election
of Charles V. to the imperial throne in 1519, and his nephews
and heirs maintained close and friendly relations with the great
emperor. In addition to lending him large sums of money, they
farmed his valuable quicksilver mines at Almaden, his silver
mines at Guadalcanal, the great estates of the military orders
which had passed into his hands, and other parts of his revenue
as king of Spain; receiving in return several tokens of the
emperor's favour. In 1530 Raimund and Anton were granted
the imperial dignity of counts of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn,
and obtained full possession of these mortgaged properties;
in 1534 they were given the right of coining money; and in 1541
received rights of jurisdiction over their lands. During the diet
of Augsburg in 1530 Charles V. was the guest of Anton Fugger
at his house in the Weinmarkt, and the story relates how the
merchant astonished the emperor by lighting a fire of cinnamon
with an imperial bond for money due to him. This incident
forms the subject of a picture by Carl Becker which is in the
National Gallery at Berlin. Continuing their mercantile career,
the Fuggers brought the new world within the sphere of their
operations, and also carried on an extensive and lucrative
business in farming indulgences. Moreover, both brothers
found time to acquire landed property, and were munificent
patrons of literature and art. When Anton died he is said to
have been worth 6,000,000 florins, besides a vast amount of
property in Europe, Asia and America; and before this time
the total wealth of the family had been estimated at 63,000,000
florins. The Fuggers were devotedly attached to the Roman
Catholic Church, which benefited from their liberality. Jakob
had been made a count palatine (Pfalzgraf) and had received
other marks of favour from Pope Leo X., and several members
of the family had entered the church; one, Raimund 's son,
Sigmund, becoming bishop of Regensburg.
In addition to the bishop, three of Raimund Fugger's sons
attained some degree of celebrity. Johann Jakob (1516-1575),
was the author of Wahrhaftigen Beschreibung des osterreichischen
und habsburgischen Nahmens, which was largely used by S. von
Bircken in his Spiegel der Ehren des Erzhauses Osterreich (Nurem-
berg, 1 668) , and of a Geheim Ernbuch des Fuggerischen GesMechtes.
He was also a patron of art, and a distinguished counsellor of
Duke Albert IV. of Bavaria. After the death of his son Kon-
stantin, in 1627, this branch of the family was divided into three
lines, which became extinct in 1738, 1795 and 1846 respectively.
Another of Raimund's sons was Ulrich (1526-1584), who, after
serving Pope Paul III. at Rome, became a Protestant. Hated
on this account by the other members of his family, he took
refuge in the Rhenish Palatinate; greatly interested in the
Greek classics, he occupied himself in collecting valuable manu-
scripts, which he bequeathed to the university of Heidelberg.
Raimund's other son was Georg (d. 1579), who inherited the
countships of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn, and founded a branch
of the family which still exists, its present head being Georg,
Count Fugger of Kirchberg and Weissenhorn (b. 1850).
Anton Fugger left three sons, Marcus (1529-1597), Johann
(d. 1598) and Jakob (d. 1598), all of whom left male issue.
Marcus was the author of a book on horse-breeding, Wie und
wo man ein Gestiil von guten edeln Kriegsrossen aufrichten soil
(1578), and of a German translation of the Historia ecclesiastica
of Nicephorus Callistus. He founded the Nordendorf branch
of the family, which became extinct on the death of his grandson,
Nicolaus, in 1676. Another grandson of Marcus was Franz
Fugger (1612-1664), who served under Wallenstein during the
Thirty Years' War, and was afterwards governor of Ingolstadt.
He was killed at the battle of St Gotthard on the ist of August
1664.
Johann Fugger had three sons, Christoph (d. 1615) and
Marcus (d. 1614), who founded the families of Fugger-Glott and
Fugger- Kirchheim respectively, and Jakob, bishop of Constance
from 1604 until his death in 1626. Christoph's son, Otto Hein-
rich (1592-1644), was a soldier of some distinction and a knight
of the order of the Golden Fleece. He was one of the most
active of the Bavarian generals during the Thirty Years' War,
and acted as governor of Augsburg, where his rule aroused
much discontent. The family of Kirchheim died out in 1672.
That of Glott was divided into several branches by the sons
of Otto Heinrich and of his brother Johann Ernst (d. 1628).
These lines, however, have gradually become extinct except the
eldest line, represented in 1909 by Karl Ernst, Count Fugger of
Glott (b. 1859). Anton Fugger's third son Jakob, the founder of
the family of Wellenburg, had two sons who left issue, but in 1777
the possessions of this branch of the family were again united by
Anselm Joseph (d. 1793),, Count Fugger of Babenhausen. In
1803 Anselm's son, Anselm Maria (d. 1821), was made a prince of
the Holy Roman Empire, the title of Prince Fugger of Baben-
hausen being borne by his direct descendant Karl (b. 1861). On
the fall of the empire in 1806 the lands of the Fuggers, which
were held directly of the empire, were mediatized under Bavaria
and Wurttemberg. The heads of the three existing branches
of the Fuggers are all hereditary members of the Bavarian
Upper House.
Augsburg has many interesting mementoes of the Fuggers,
including the family burial-chapel in the church of St Anna;
the Fugger chapel in the church of St Ulrich and St Afra; the
Fuggerhaus, still in the possession of one branch of the family;
and a statue of Johann Jakob Fugger.
In J593 a collection of portraits of the Fuggers, engraved by
Dominique Custos of Antwerp, was issued at Augsburg. Editions
with 127 portraits appeared in 1618 and 1620, the former accom-
panied by a genealogy in Latin, the latter by one in German. Another
edition of this Pinacotheca Fuggerorum, published at Vienna in 1754,
includes 139 portraits. See Chronik der Familie Fugger vom Jahre
1500, edited by C. Meyer (Munich, 1902) ; A. Geiger, Jakob Fugger,
l-r** ' *,* ..' . . " p .
<te rugger in Rom,
Zeitalter der Fugger
ggerschen Handlung
in Spanien (Weimar, 1897); A. Stauber, Das Haus Fugger (Augs-
burg, 1900); and M. Jansen, Die Anfange der Fugger (Leipzig,
1907).
FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS, a term applied in the United
States to the Statutes passed by Congress in 1793 and 1850 to
provide for the return of negro slaves who escaped from one
state into another or into a public territory. A fugitive slave
clause was inserted in the Articles of Confederation of the New
England Confederation of 1643, providing for the return of the
fugitive upon the certificate of one magistrate in the jurisdiction
out of which the said servant fled no trial by jury being provided
for. This seems to have been the only instance of an inter-
colonial provision for the return of fugitive slaves; there were,
indeed, not infrequent escapes by slaves from one colony to
another, but it was not until after the growth of anti-slavery
sentiment and the acquisition of western territory, that it
became necessary to adopt a uniform method for the return of
fugitive slaves. Such provision was made in the Ordinance of
1787 (for the Northwest Territory), which in Article VI. provided
that in the case of " any person escaping into the same [the
Northwest Territory] from whom labor or service is lawfully
claimed in any one of the original states, such fugitive may be
lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claiming his or
her labor or service as aforesaid." An agreement of the sort was
FUGLEMAN FUGUE
289
necessary to persuade the slave-holding states to union, and in
the Federal Constitution, Article IV., Section II., it is provided
that " no person held to service or labor in one state, under the
laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any
law or regulation therein, be discharged from such -service or
labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom
such service or labour may be due."
The first specific legislation on the subject was enacted on the
1 2th of February 1793, and like the Ordinance for the Northwest
Territory and the section of the Constitution quoted above, did
not contain the word " slave "; by its provisions any Federal
district or circuit judge or any state magistrate was authorized
to decide finally and without a jury trial the status of an alleged
fugitive. The measure soon met with strong opposition in the
northern states, and Personal Liberty Laws were passed to hamper
officials in the execution of the law; Indiana in 1824 and Con-
necticut in 1828 providing jury trial for fugitives who appealed
from an original decision against them. In 1840 New York and
Vermont extended the right of trial by jury to fugitives and
provided them with attorneys. As early as the first decade of
the 1 9th century individual dissatisfaction with the law of 1793
had taken the form of systematic assistance rendered to negroes
escaping from the South to Canada or New England the
so-called " Underground Railroad." 1 The decision of the
Supreme Court of the United States in the case of Prigg v.
Pennsylvania in 1842 (16 Peters 539), that state authorities
could not be forced to act in fugitive slave cases, but that
national authorities must carry out the national law, was
followed by legislation in Massachusetts (1843), Vermont (1843),
Pennsylvania (1847) and Rhode Island (1848), forbidding state
officials to help enforce the law and refusing the use of state
gaols for fugitive slaves. The demand from the South for more
effective Federal legislation was voiced in the second fugitive slave
law, drafted by Senator J. M. Mason of Virginia, and enacted on
the i8th of September 1850 as a part of the Compromise Measures
of that year. Special commissioners were to have concurrent
jurisdiction with the U.S. circuit and district courts and the
inferior courts of Territories in enforcing the law; fugitives could
not testify in their own behalf; no trial by jury was provided;
1 The precise amount of organization in the Underground Railroad
cannot be definitely ascertained because of the exaggerated use of
the figure of railroading in the documents of the " presidents " of
the road. Robert Purvis and Levi Coffin, and of its many " con-
ductors," and their discussion of the " packages " and " freight "
shipped by them. The system reached from Kentucky and Virginia
across Ohio, and from Maryland across Pennsylvania ai.d New
York, to New England and Canada, and as early as 1817 a group of
anti-slavery men in southern Ohio had helped to Canada as many as
looo slaves. The Quakers of Pennsylvania possibly began the
work of the mysterious Underground Railroad ; the best known of
them was Thomas Garrett (1789-1871), a native of Pennsylvania,
who, in 1822, removed to Wilmington, Delaware, where he was
convicted in 1848 on four counts under the Fugitive Slave Law and
was fined $8000; he is said to have helped 2700 slaves to freedom.
The most picturesque figure of the Underground Railroad was
Harriet Tubman (c. 1820), called by her friend, John Brown,
" General " Tubman, and by her fellow negroes " Moses." She
about a score of trips into the South, bringing out with her
negroes altogether. At one time a reward of 40,000 was offered
her capture. She was a mystic, with remarkable clairvoyant
and did great service as a nurse, a spy and a scout in the
r ar. Levi Coffin (1798-1877), a native of North Carolina
cousin. Vestal Coffin, had established before 1819 a " station "
Underground near what is now Guilford College, North Caro-
in 1826 settled in Wayne County, Ohio; his home at New
n (now Fountain City) was the meeting point of three " lines "
Kentucky; and in 1847 he removed to Cincinnati, where his
s in bringing slaves out of the South were even more successful .
been argued that the Underground Railroad delayed the final
of the slavery question, inasmuch as it was a " safety
, for, without it, the more intelligent and capable of the
fro slaves would, it is asserted, have become the leaders of in-
jmctioos in the South, and would not have been removed from
phcti where they could have done most damage. Consult
WWasB Still. The Underground Railroad (Philadelphia. i872),acollec-
gosi of anecdotes by a negro agent of the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery
Society, and of the Philadelphia branch of the Railroad ; and the
wportant and scholarly work of Wilbur H. Siebert. The Underground
RmilroaJ from Slavery to Freedom (New York. 1898).
XI. 10
penalties were imposed upon marshals who refused to enforce the
law or from whom a fugitive should escape, and upon individuals
who aided negroes to escape; the marshal might raise a posse
comitatus; a fee of $10 was paid to the commissioner when his
decision favoured the claimant and only $5 when it favoured the
fugitive; and both the fact of the escape and the identity of the
fugitive were to be determined on purely ex parte testimony.
The severity of this measure led to gross abuses and defeated its
purpose; the number of abolitionists increased, the operations
of the Underground Railroad became more efficient, and new
Personal Liberty Laws were enacted in Vermont (1850), Con-
necticut (1854), Rhode Island (1854), Massachusetts (1855),
Michigan (1855), Maine (1855 and 1857), Kansas (1858) and
Wisconsin (1858). These Personal Liberty Laws forbade justices
and judges to take cognizance of claims, extended the habeas
corpus act and the privilege of jury trial to fugitives, and
punished false testimony severely. The supreme court of
Wisconsin went so far (1859) as to declare the Fugitive Slave Law
unconstitutional. These state laws were one of the grievances
officially referred to by South Carolina (in Dec. 1860) as justifying
her secession from the Union. Attempts to carry into effect the
law of 1850 aroused much bitterness. The arrests of Sims and
of Shadrach in Boston in 1851; of "Jerry" M'Henry, in
Syracuse, New York, in the same year; of Anthony Burns in
1854, in Boston; and of the two Garner families in 1856, in
Cincinnati, with other cases arising under the Fugitive Slave
Law of 1850, probably had as much to do with bringing on the
Civil War as did the controversy over slavery in the Territories.
With the beginning of the Civil War the legal status of the
slave was changed by his master's being in arms. General B. F.
Butler, inMay 1861, declared negro slaves contraband of war.
A confiscation bill was passed in August 1861 discharging from
his service or labour any slave employed in aiding or promoting
any insurrection against the government of the United States.
By an act of the I7th of July 1862 any slavp of a disloyal master
who was in territory occupied by northern troops was declared
ipso facto free. But for some time the Fugitive Slave Law was
considered still to hold in the case of fugitives from masters in
the border states who were loyal to the Union government, and
it was not until the 28th of June 1864 that the Act of 1850 was
repealed.
See J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise
of 1850, vols. i. and ii. (New York, 1893); and M. G. M'Dougall,
Fugitive Slaves, 1619-1865 (Boston, 1891).
FUGLEMAN (from the Ger. FlUgelmann, the man on the
Fliigel or wing), properly a military term for a soldier who is
selected to act as " guide," and posted generally on the flanks
with the duty of directing the march in the required line, or of
giving the time, &c., to the remainder of the unit, which conforms
to his movements, in any military exercise. The word is then
applied to a ringleader or one who takes the lead in any move-
ment or concerted movement.
FUQUE (Lat. fuga, flight), in music, the mutual " pursuit "
of voices or parts. It was, up to the end of the i6th century,
if not later, the name applied to two art-forms. (A) Fuga
ligala was the exact reproduction by one or more voices of the
statement of a leading part. The reproducing voice (comes)
was seldom if ever written out, for all differences between it
and the dux were rigidly systematic; e.g. it was an exact inversion,
or exactly twice as slow, or to be sung backwards, &c. &c.
Hence, a rule or canon was given, often in enigmatic form, by
which the comes was deduced from the dux: and so the term
canon became the appropriate name for the form itself, and is
still retained. (B) A composition in which the canonic style
was cultivated without canonic restriction was, in the i6th
century, called fuga ricercata or simply a ricercare, a term which
is still used by Bach as a title for the fugues in Das musikalische
Opfer.
The whole conception of fugue, rightly understood, is one of
the most important in music, and the reasons why some con-
trapuntal compositions are called fugues, while others are not,
are so trivial, technically as well as aesthetically, that we have
290
FUHRICH FU-KIEN
preferred to treat the subject separately under the general
heading of CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS, reserving only technical
terms for definition here.
(i.) If in the beginning or " exposition " the material with which
the opening voice accompanies the answer is faithfully reproduced
as the accompaniment to subsequent entries of the subject, it
is called a counter subject (see COUNTERPOINT, under sub-heading
Double Counterpoint). Obviously the process may be carried
further, the first countersubject going on to a second when the
subject enters in the third part and so on. The term is also
applied to new subjects appearing later in the fugue in combina-
tion (immediate or destined) with the original subject. Cherubini,
holding the doctrine that a fugue cannot have more than one
subject, insists on applying the term to the less prominent of
the subjects of what are commonly called double fugues, i.e.
fugues which begin with two parts and two subjects simultan-
eously, and so also with triple and quadruple fugues.
(ii.) Episodes are passages separating the entries of the subject. 1
Episodes are usually developed from the material of the subject
and countersubjects ; they are very rarely independent, but
then conspicuously so.
(iii.) Stretto, the overlapping of subject and answer, is a resource
the possibilities of which may be exemplified by the setting of
the words omnes generationes in Bach's Magnificat (see BACH).
(iv.) The distinction between real and tonal fugue, which is
still sometimes treated as a thing of great historical and technical
importance, is really a mere detail resulting from the fact that
a violent oscillation between the keys of tonic and dominant
is no part of the function of a fugal exposition, so that the answer
is (especially in its first notes and in points that tend to shift the
key) not so much a transposition of the subject to the key of
the dominant as an adaptation of it from the tonic part to the
dominant part of the scale, or vice versa; in short, the answer
is as far as possible on the dominant, not in the dominant. The
modifications this principle produces in the answer (which have
been happily described as resembling " fore-shortening ") are
the only distinctive marks of tonal fugue; and the text-books
are half filled with the attempt to reduce them from matters
of ear to rules of thumb, which rules, however, have the merit
(unusual in those of the academic fugue) of being founded on
observation of the practice of great masters. But the same
principle as often as not produces answers that are exact trans-
positions of the subject; and so the only kind of real fugue
(i.e. fugue with an exact answer) that could rightly be contrasted
with tonal fugue would be that in which the answer ought to
be tonal but is not. It must be admitted that tonal answers are
rare in the modal music of the i6th century, though their melodic
principles are of yet earlier date; still, though tonal fugue does
not become usual until well on in the lyth century, the idea
that it is a separate species is manifestly absurd, unless the term
simply means " fugue in modern tonality or key," whatever the
answer may be.
The term " answer " is usually reserved for those entries of
the subject that are placed in what may be called the " comple-
mentary " position of the scale, whether they are " tonally "
modified or not. Thus the order of entries in the exposition of
the first fugue of the Wohltemp. Klav. is subject, answer, answer,
subject; a departure from the usual rule according to which
subject and answer are strictly alternate in the exposition.
In conclusion we may remind the reader of the most accurate
as well as the most vivid description ever given of the essentials
of a fugue, in the famous lines in Paradise Lost, book xi.
" His volant touch,
Instinct through all proportions, low and high,
Fled and pursued transverse the resonant fugue."
It is hard to realize that this description of organ-music was
written in no classical period of instrumental polyphony, but
just half-way between the death of Frescobaldi and the birth
'An episode occurring during the exposition is sometimes called
codetta, a distinction the uselessness of which at once appears on
an analysis of Bach's 2nd fugue in the Wohltemp. Klav. (the term
codetta is more correctly applied to notes filling in a gap between
subject and itx first answer, but such a gap is rare in good examples).
of Bach. Every word is a definition, both retrospective and
prophetic; and in "transverse" we see all that Sir Frederick
Gore Ouseley expresses in his popular distinction between the
" perpendicular " or homophonic style in which harmony is
built up in chords, and the " horizontal " or polyphonic style in
which it is woven in threads of independent melody. (D. F. T.)
FUHRICH, JOSEPH VON (1800-1876), Austrian painter, was
born at Kratzau in Bohemia on the gth of February 1800. Deeply
impressed as a boy by rude pictures adorning the wayside chapels
of his native country, his first attempt at composition was a
sketch of the Nativity for the festival of Christmas in his father's
house. He lived to see the day when, becoming celebrated as
a composer of scriptural episodes, his sacred subjects were
transferred in numberless repetitions to the roadside churches of
the Austrian state, where humble peasants thus learnt to admire
modern art reviving the models of earlier ages. Fiihrich has
been fairly described as a " Nazarene," a romantic religious artist
whose pencil did more than any other to restore the old spirit
of Durer and give new shape to countless incidents of the gospel
and scriptural legends. Without the power of Cornelius or the
grace of Overbeck, he composed with great skill, especially in
outline. His mastery of distribution, form, movement and
expression was considerable. In its peculiar way his drapery
was perfectly cast. Essentially creative as a landscape
draughtsman, he had still no feeling for colour; and when
he produced monumental pictures he was not nearly so
successful as when designing subjects for woodcuts. Fiihrich's
fame extended far beyond the walls of the Austrian capital,
and his illustrations to Tieck's Genofeva, the Lord's Prayer,
the Triumph of Christ, the Road to Bethlehem, the Succession
of Christ according to Thomas a Kempis, the Prodigal
Son, and the verses of the Psalter, became well known. His
Prodigal Son, especially, is remarkable for the fancy with which
the spirit of evil is embodied in a figure constantly recurring,
and like that of Mephistopheles exhibiting temptation in a human
yet demoniacal shape. Fiihrich became a pupil at the Academy
of Prague in 1816. His first inspiration was derived from the
prints of Durer and the Faust of Cornelius, and the first fruit of
this turn of study was the Genofeva series. In 1826 he went to
Rome, where he added three frescoes to those executed by
Cornelius and Overbeck in the Palazzo Massimi. His subjects
were taken from the life of Tasso, and are almost solitary examples
of his talent in this class of composition. In 1831 he finished
the Triumph of Christ now in the Raczynski palace at Berlin.
In 1834 he was made custos and in 1841 professor of composition
in the Academy of Vienna. After this he completed the monu-
mental pictures of the church of St Nepomuk, and in 1854-1861
the vast series of wall paintings which cover the inside of the
Lerchenfeld church at Vienna. In 1872 he was pensioned and
made a knight of the order of Franz Joseph; 187513 the date of his
illustrations to the Psalms. He died on the i3th of March 1876.
His autobiography was published in 1875, and a memoir by his
son Lucas in 1886.
FUJI (Fuji-san, Fujiyama, Fusiyama), a celebrated mountain
of Japan, standing W.S.W. of Tokyo, its base being about 70 m.
by rail from that city. It rises to a height of 12,395 ft. and its
southern slopes reach the shore of Suruga Bay. It is a cone of
beautifully simple form, the more striking to view because it
stands isolated; but its summit is not conical, being broken by
a crater some 2000 ft. in diameter, for Fuji is a quiescent volcano.
Small outbursts of steam are still to be observed at some points.
An eruption is recorded so lately as the first decade of the i8th
century. The mountain is the resort of great numbers of pilgrims
(see also JAPAN).
FU-KIEN (formerly MIN), a south-eastern province of China,
bounded N. by the province of Cheh-kiang, S. by that of Kwang-
tung, W. by that of Kiang-si and E. by the sea. It occupies an
area of 53,480 sq. m. and its population is estimated at 20,000,000.
The provincial capital is Fuchow Fu, and it is divided into eleven
prefectures, besides that ruled over by the prefect of the capital
city. Fu-kien is generally mountainous, being overspread by the
Nan-shan ranges, which run a general course of N.E. and S.W.
FUKUI FULA
291
The principal river is the Min, which is formed by the junction,
in the neighbourhood of the city of Yen-p'ing Fu, of three rivers,
namely, the Nui-si, which takes its rise in the mountains on the
western frontier in the prefecture of Kien-ning Fu, the Fuh-tun
Ki, the source of which is found in the district of Kwang-tsih in
the north-west of the province, and the Ta-shi-ki (Shao Ki), which
rises in the mountains in the western district of Ning-hwa. From
Yen-p'ing Fu the river takes a south-easterly course, and after
passing along the south face of the city of Fuchow Fu, empties
itself into the sea about jo m. below that town. Its upper course
is narrow and rocky and abounds in rapids, but as it approaches
r ui how Fu the channel widens and the current becomes slow
and even. Its depth is very irregular, and it is navigable only by
native boats of a small class. Two other rivers flow into the sea
near Amoy, neither of which, however, is navigable for any
distance from its mouth owing to the shallows and rapids with
which they abound. Thirty-live miles inland from Amoy stands
the city of Chang Chow, famous for the bridge which there spans
the Kin-lung river. This bridge is 800 ft. long, and consists of
granite monoliths stretching from one abutment to another. The
soil of the province is, as its name, " Happy Establishment,"
indicates, very productive, and the scenery is of a rich and varied
character. Most of the hills are covered with verdure, and the
less rugged are laid out in terraces. The principal products of
the province are tea, of which the best kind is that known as
Bohea, which takes its name, by a mispronunciation, from the
Wu-e Mountains, in the prefecture of Kien-ning Fu, where it is
grown; grains of various kinds, oranges, plantins, lichis, bamboo,
ginger, gold, silver, lead, tin, iron, salt (both marine and rock),
deers' horns, beeswax, sugar, fish, birds' nests, medicine, paper,
doth, timber, Sic. Fu-kien has three open ports, Fuchow Fu
opened in 1842, Amoy opened to trade in the same year and
Funing. The latter port was only opened to foreign trade in
1898, but in 1904 it imported and exported goods to the value of
7668 and 278,160 respectively.
FUKUI. a town of Japan in the province of Echizen, Nippon,
near the west coast, 20 m. N. by E. of Wakasa Bay. It lies in
a volcanic district much exposed to earthquakes, and suffered
severely during the disturbances of 1891-1892, when a chasm over
40 m. long was opened across the Neo valley from Fukui to
Katabira. But Fukui subsequently revived, and is now in a
flourishing condition, with several local industries, especially the
manufacture of paper, and an increasing population exceeding
50,000. Fukui has railway communication. There are ruins of
a castle of the Daimios of Echizen.
PUKUOKA. a town on the north-west coast of the island of
Kiushiu, Japan, in the province of Chikuzcn, 90 m. N.N.E. of
Nagasaki by rail. Pop. about 72,000. With Hakata, on the
opposite side of a small coast stream, it forms a large centre of
population, with an increasing export trade and several local
industries. Of these the most important is silk-weaving, and
Hakata especially is noted for its durable silk fabrics. Fukuoka
was formerly the residence of the powerful daimio of Chikuzen,
and played a conspicuous pan in the medieval history of Japan;
the renowned temple of Yeiyas in the district was destroyed by
fire during the revolution of 1868. There are several other places
of this name in Japan, the most important being Fukuoka in the
province of Mutsu, North Nippon, a railway station on the main
line from Tokyo to Aimori Ura Bay. Pop. about 5000.
FULA (FCLBE. FELLATAH or PEULS), a numerous and powerful
African people, spread over an immense region from Senegal
nearly to Darf ur. Strictly they have no country of their own, and
nowhere form the whole of the population, though nearly always
the dominant native race. They are most numerous in Upper
Senegal and in the countries under French sway immediately
oath of Senegambia, notably Futa Jallon. Farther east they
rule, subject to the control of the French, Segu and Massena,
countries on both banks of the upper Niger, to the south-west of
Timbuktu. The districts within the great bend of the Niger
have a large Fula population. East of that river Sokoto and its
tributary emirates are ruled by Fula princes, subject to the
control of the British Nigerian administration. Fula are settled
in Bornu, Bagirmi, Wadai and the upper Nile Valley, 1 but have
no political power in those countries. Their most southerly
emirate is Adamawa, the country on both sides of the upper
Benue. In this vast region of distribution the Fula populations
are most dense towards the west and north, most scattered
towards the east and south. Originally herdsmen in the western
and central Sudan, they extended their sway east of the Niger,
under the leadership of Othman Dan Fodio, during the early
years of the igth century, and having subdued the Hausa states,
founded the empire of Sokoto with the vassal emirates of Kano,
Gando, Nupe, Adamawa, &c.
The question of the ethnic affinities of the Fula has given rise
to an enormous amount of speculation, but the most reasonable
theory is that they are a mixture of Berber and Negro. This is
now the most generally accepted theory. Certainly there is no
reason to connect them with the ancient Egyptians. In the
district of Senegal known as Fuladugu or " Fula Land," where
the purest types of the race are found, the people are of a reddish
brown or light chestnut colour, with oval faces, ringlety or even
smooth hair, never woolly, straight and even aquiline noses,
delicately shaped lips and regular features quite differentiating
them from the Negro type. Like most conquering races the
Fula are, however, not of uniform physique, in many districts
approximating to the local type. They nevertheless maintain
throughout their widespread territory a certain national solid-
arity, thanks to common speech, traditions and usages. The
ruling caste of the Fula differs widely in character from the
herdsmen of the western Sudan. The latter are peaceable,
inoffensive and abstemious. They are mainly monogamous,
and by rigidly abstaining from foreign marriages have preserved
racial purity. The ruling caste in Nigeria, on the other hand,
despise their pastoral brethren, and through generations of
polygamy with the conquered tribes have become more Negroid
in type, black, burly and coarse featured. -Love of luxury,
pomp and finery is their chief characteristic. Taken as a whole,
the Fula race is distinguished by great intelligence, frankness of
disposition and strength of character. As soldiers they are
renowned almost exclusively as cavalry; and the race has
produced several leaders possessed* of much strategical skill.
Besides the ordinary Negro weapons, they use iron spears with
leatherbound handles and swords. They are generally excellent
rulers, stern but patient and just. The Nigerian emirs acquired,
however, an evil reputation during the igth century as slave
raiders. They have long been devout Mahommedans, and
mosques and schools exist in almost all their towns. Tradition
says that of old every Fula boy and girl was a scholar; but
during the decadence of their power towards the close of the igth
century education was not highly valued. Power seems to have
somewhat spoilt this virile race, but such authorities as Sir
Frederick Lugard believe them still capable of a great future.
The Fula language has as yet found no place in any African
linguistic family. In its rudiments it is akin to the Hamito-
Semitic group. It possesses two grammatical genders, not
masculine and feminine, but the human and the non-human;
the adjective agrees in assonance with its noun, and euphony
plays a great part in verbal and nominal inflections. In some
ways resembling the Negro dialects, it betrays non-Negroid
influences in the use of suffixes. The name of the people has many
variations. Fulbe or Fula (sing. Pullo, Peul) is the Mandingan
name, Follani the Hausa, Fellatah the Kanuri, Fullan the
Arab, and Fulde on the Benue. Like the name Abate, " white,"
given them in Kororofa, all these seem to refer to their light
reddish hue. ,
See F. Ratzcl, Hislorv of Mankind (English ed., London, 1896-
1898); Sir F. Lugard, " Northern Nigeria, in Geographical Journal
(July 1904): Gnmal de Guirodon, Les Puts (1887); E. A. Bracken-
bury, A Short Vocabulary of the Fuiani Language (Zungeru, 1907);
the articles NIGERIA ana SOKOTO and authorities there cited.
1 Sir Wm. Wallace in a report on Northern Nigeria (" Colonial
Office " series, No. 51, 1907) calls attention to the exodus "of
thousands of Fuiani of all sorts, but mostly Mellawa, from the
French Middle Niger," and states that the majority of the emigrants
are settling in the Nile valley.
292
FULCHER FULGENTIUS
FULCHER (or FOUCHER) OF CHARTRES (1058-6. 1130),
French chronicler, was a priest who was present at the council
of Clermont in 1095, and accompanied Robert II., duke of
Normandy, on the first crusade in 1096. Having spent some
time in Italy and taken part in the fighting on the way to the
Holy Land, he became chaplain to Baldwin, who was chosen
king of Jerusalem in noo, and lived with Baldwin at Edessa
and then at Jerusalem. He accompanied this king on several
warlike expeditions, but won more lasting fame by writing his
Historia Hierosolymitana or Gesta Francorum Jerusalem ex-
pugnanlium, one of the most trustworthy sources for the history
of the first crusade. In its final form it is divided into three
books, and covers the period between the council of Clermont
and 1127, and the author only gives details of events which he
himself had witnessed. It was used by William of Tyre. Fulcher
died after 1127, probably at Jerusalem. He has been confused
with Foucher of Mongervillier (d. 1171), abbot of St-Pere-en-
Vallee at Chartres, and also with another person of the same
name who distinguished himself at the siege of Antioch in
1098.
The Historia, but in an incomplete form, was first published by
J. Bpngars in the Gesta Dei per Francos (Hanover, 1611). The best
edition is in tome iii. of the Recueil des historiens des croisades,
Historiens occidentaux (Paris, 1866); and there is a French transla-
tion in tome xxiv. of Guizot's Collection des memoires relatifs a
I'histoirede France (Paris, 1823-1835).
See H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1881) ;
and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome ii. (Paris,
1902).
FULDA, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau, between the Rhon and the Vogel-
Gebirge, 69 m. N.E. from Frankfort-on-Main on the railway
to Bebra. Although irregularly built the town is pleasantly
situated, and contains two fine squares, on one of which stands a
fine statue of S Boniface. The present cathedral was built
at the beginning of the i8th century on the model of St Peter's
at Rome, but it has an ancient crypt, which contains the bones
of St Boniface and was restored in 1892. Opposite the cathedral
is the former monastery of St Michael, now the episcopal palace.
The Michaelskirche, attached to it, is a small round church built,
in imitation of the Holy Sepulchre, in 822 and restored in 1853.
Of other buildings may be mentioned the Library, with upwards
of 80,000 printed books and many valuable MSS., the stately
palace with its gardens and orangery, the former Benedictine
nunnery (founded 1625, and now used as a seminary), and the
Minorite friary (1238) now used as a furniture warehouse. Among
the secular buildings are the fine Schloss, the Bibliothek, the
town hall and the post office. There are several schools, a hospital
founded in the i3th century, and some new artillery barracks.
Many industries are carried on in Fulda. These include weaving
and dyeing, the manufacture of linen, plush and other textiles
and brewing. There are also railway works in the town. A
large trade is done in cattle and grain, many markets being held
here. Fine views are obtained from several hills in the neighbour-
hood, among these being the Frauenberg, the Petersberg and
the Kalvarienberg.
Fulda owes its existence to its famous abbey. It became a
town in 1208, and during the middle ages there were many
struggles between the abbots and the townsfolk. During the
Peasants' War it was captured by the rebels and during the
Seven Years' War by the Hanoverians. It came finally into the
possession of Prussia in 1866. From 1734 to 1804 Fulda was
the seat of a university, and latterly many assemblies of German
bishops have been held in the town.
The great Benedictine abbey of Fulda occupies the place in
the ecclesiastical history of Germany which Monte Cassino holds
in Italy, St Gall in South Germany, Corvey in Saxony, Tours
in France and lona in Scotland. Founded in 744 at the instiga-
tion of St Boniface by his pupil Sturm, who was the first abbot,
it became the centre of a great missionary work. It was liberally
endowed with land by the princes of the Carolingian house and
others, and soon became one of the most famous and wealthy
establishments of its kind. About 968 the pope declared that
its abbot was primate of all the abbots in Germany and Gaul,
and later he became a prince of the Empire. Fulda was specially
famous for its school, which was the centre of the theological
learning of the early middle ages. Among the teachers here
were Alcuin, Hrabanus Maurus, who was abbot from 822 to 842,
and Walafrid Strabo. Early in the loth century the monastery
was reformed by introducing monks from Scotland, who were
responsible for restoring in its old strictness the Benedictine rule.
Later the abbey lost some of its lands and also its high position,
and some time before the Reformation the days of its glory
were over. Johann von Henneberg, who was abbot from 1529
to 1541, showed some sympathy with the teaching of the re-
formers, but the Counter-Reformation made great progress here
under Abbot Balthasar von Dernbach. Gustavus Adolphus
gave the abbey as a principality to William, landgrave of Hesse,
but William's rule only lasted for ten years. In 1752 the abbot
was raised to the rank of a bishop, and Fulda ranked as a prince-
bishopric. This was secularized in 1802, and in quick succession
it belonged to the prince of Orange, the king of France and the
grand-duchy of Frankfort. In 1816 the greater part of the
principality was ceded by Prussia to Hesse-Cassel, a smaller
portion being united with Bavaria. Sharing the fate of Hesse-
Cassel, this larger portion was annexed by Prussia in 1866. In
1829 a new bishopric was founded at Fulda.
For the town see A. Hartmann, Zeitgeschichte von Fulda (Fulda,
1895); J. Schneider, Fiihrer durch die Stadt Fulda (Fulda, 1899);
and Chronik von Fulda und dessen Umgebungen (1839). For the
history of the abbey see Gegenbaur, Das Kloster Fulda im Karolinger
Zeitalter (Fulda, 1871-1874); Arndt, Geschichte des Hochstifts Fulda
(Fulda, 1860) ; and the Fuldaer Geschichtsbldlter (1902 fol.).
FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLANCIADES. Latin grammarian,
a native of Africa, flourished in the first half of the 6th (or the
last part of the sth) century A.D. He is to be distinguished
from Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe (468-533), to whom he was
probably related, and also from the bishop's pupil and biographer,
Fulgentius Ferrandus. Four extant works are attributed to
him. (i) Mythologiarum libri iii., dedicated to a certain
Catus, a presbyter of Carthage, containing 75 myths briefly told,
and then explained in the mystical and allegorical manner of
the Stoics and Neoplatonists. For this purpose the author
generally invokes the aid of etymologies which, borrowed from
the philosophers, are highly absurd. As a Christian, Fulgentius
sometimes (but less frequently than might have been expected)
quotes the Bible by the side of the philosophers, to give a
Christian colouring to the moral lesson. (2) Expositio VergUianae
continentiae (continentia = con tents), a sort of appendix to (i),
dedicated to Catus. The poet himself appears to the author and
explains the twelve books of the Aeneid as a picture of human
life. The three words arma ( = virtus), iiir ( = sapientia.), t primus
( = princeps) in the first line represent respectively substantia
corporalis, sensualis, ornans. Book i. symbolizes the birth and
early childhood of man (the shipwreck of Aeneas denotes the
peril of birth), book vi. the plunge into the depths of wisdom.
(3) Expositio sermonum antiquorum, explanations of 63 rare and
obsolete words, supported by quotations (sometimes from authors
and works that never existed) . It is much inferior to the similar
work of Nonius, with which it is often edited. (4) Liber absque
litteris de aetatibus mundi et hominis. In the MS. heading of this
work, the name of the author is given as Fabius Claudius
Gordianus Fulgentius (Claudius is the name of the father, and
Gordianus that of the grandfather of the bishop, to whom some
attribute the work). The title Absque litteris indicates that one
letter of the alphabet is wholly omitted in each successive book
(A in bk. i., B in bk. ii.). Only 14 books are preserved. The
matter is chiefly taken from sacred history. In addition to these,
Fulgentius speaks of early poetical attempts after the manner of
Anacreon, and of a work called Physiologus, dealing with medical
questions, and including a discussion of the mystical signification
of the numbers 7 and 9. Fulgentius is a representative of the
so-called late African style, taking for his models Apuleius,
Tertullian and Martianus Capella. His language is bombastic,
affected and incorrect, while the lengthy and elaborate periods
make it difficult to understand his meaning.
FULGINIAE FULK
293
See the edition of the four works by R. Helm (1898, Teubner
rie*): abo M. Zink, Drr Uytkolcf fulfenlius (1867); E. Jung-
nvann. " De Fulgcntii acute ci criptis," in Acta Soeielatis Pkihlogae
Ltfiimni, i. (1871); A. Ebert. AUttmeine GeschUhte der Lilt, del
MOUtalltTi, \. : ankle " Fulnntius by C. F. Bohr in Ersch and
Gruber't AUgemttne Entyuoptdie; Teuffel-Scrwabe, History of
Rsmtm Literature (Eng. trans.).
PULGINIAE (mod. Foligna), an ancient town of Umbria,
Italy, on the later line of the Via Flaminia, 1 5 m. S. of Nuceria.
It appears to have been of comparatively late origin, inasmuch
a* it had no city walls, but, in imperial times especially, owing
to its position on the new line of the Via Flaminia, it must have
increased in importance as being the point of departure of roads
to Perusia and to Picenum over the pass of Plestia. It appears
to have had an amphitheatre, and three bridges over the Topino
are attributed to the Roman period. Three miles to the N. lies
the independent community of Forum Flaminii, the site of
which is marked by the church of S. Giovanni Profiamma, at
or near which the newer line of the Via Flaminia rejoined the
older. It was no doubt founded by the builder of the road,
C. Flaminius, consul in 220 B.C. (See FOLIGNO and FLAMINIA,
VIA.) (T. As.)
FULGURITE (from Lat. fulgur, lightning), in petrology, the
name given to rocks which have been fused on the surface by
lightning, and to the characteristic boles in rocks formed by the
same agency. When lightning strikes the naked surfaces of
rocks, the sudden rise of temperature may produce a certain
amount of fusion, especially when the rocks are dry and the
electricity is not readily conducted away. Instances of this
have been observed on Ararat and on several mountains in the
Alps, Pyrenees, &c. A thin glassy crust, resembling a coat of
varnish, is formed; its thickness is usually not more than one-
eighth of an inch, and it may be colourless, white or yellow. When
examined under the microscope, it usually shows no crystalliza-
tion, and contains minute bubbles due to the expansion of air
or other gases in the fused pellicle. Occasionally small microliths
may appear, but this is uncommon because so thin a film would
cool with extreme rapidity. The minerals of the rock beneath
are in some cases partly fused, but the more refractory often
appear quite unaffected. The glass has arisen from the melting
of the most fusible ingredients alone.
Another type of fulgurite is commonest in dry sands and
takes the shape of vertical tubes which may be nearly half an
inch in diameter. Generally they are elliptical in cross section,
or flattened by the pressure exerted by the surrounding sand on
the fulgurite at a time when it was still very hot and plastic.
These tubes are often vertical and may run downwards for
several feet through the sand, branching and lessening as they
descend. Tubular perforations in hard rocks have been noted
also, but these are short and probably follow original cracks.
The glassy material contains grains of sand and many small
round or elliptical cavities, the long axes of which are radial.
Minerals like felspar and mica are fused more readily than
quartz, but analysis shows that some fulgurite glasses are very
rich in silica, which perhaps was dissolved in the glass rather
than simply fused. The central cavity of the tube and the
bubbles in its walls point to the expansion of the gases
(air, water, &c.) in the sand by sudden and extreme heating.
Very fine threads of glass project from the surface of the tube
as if fused droplets had been projected outwards with con-
siderable force. Where the quartz grains have been greatly
heated but not melted they become white and semi-opaque,
but where they are in contact with the glass they usually show
partial solution. Occasionally crystallization has begun before
the glass solidified, and small microliths, the nature of which is
undeterminable, occur in streams and wisps in the clear hyaline
matrix. (J. S. F.)
PULHAM, a western metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N.W. by Hammersmith, N.E. by Kensington,
E. by Chelsea, and S.E., S. and S.W. by the river Thames.
Pop. (1901) 137,289. The principal thoroughfares are Fulham
Palace Road running S. from Hammersmith, Fulham Road
and Ring's Road, W. from Chelsea, coverging and leading to
Putney Bridge over the Thames; North End Road between
Hammersmith and Fulham Roads; Lillie Road between South
Kensington and Fulhara Palace Road; and Wandsworth Bridge
Road leading S. from New King's Road to Wandsworth Bridge.
In the north Fulham includes the residential district known as
West Kensington, and farther south that of Walham Green.
The manor house or palace of the bishops of London stands in
grounds, beautifully planted and surrounded by a moat, believed
to be a Danish work, near the river west of Putney Bridge. Its
oldest portion is the picturesque western quadrangle, built by
Bishop Fitzjames (1506-1522). The parish church of All
Saints, between the bridge and the grounds, was erected in
i SSi from designs by Sir Arthur Blomfield. The fine old monu-
ments from the former building, dating from the i6th to the
i8th centuries, are mostly preserved, and in the churchyard are
the memorials of several bishops of London and of Theodore Hook
(1841). The public recreation grounds include the embankment
and gardens between the river and the palace grounds, and
there are also two well-known enclosures used for sports within
the borough. Of these Hurlingham Park is the headquarters
of the Hurlingham Polo Club and a fashionable resort; and
Queen's Club, West Kensington, has tennis and other courts
for the use of members, and is also the scene of important
football matches, and of the athletic meetings between Oxford
and Cambridge Universities, and those between the English
and American Universities held in England. In Seagrave Road
is the Western fever hospital. The parliamentary borough of
Fulham returns one member. The borough council consists of
a mayor, 6 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 1 703-5 acres.
Fulham, or in its earliest form Fullanham, is uncertainly
stated to signify " the place " either " of fowls " or " of dirt."
The manor is said to have been given to Bishop Erkenwald
about the year 691 for himself and his successors in the see of
London, and Holinshed relates that the Bishop of London was
lodging in his manor place in 1 141 when Geoffrey de Mandeville,
riding out from the Tower of London, took him prisoner. At
the Commonwealth the manor was temporarily out of the
bishops' hands, being sold to Colonel Edmund Harvey. There
is no record of the first erection of a parish church, but the first
known rector was appointed in 1242, and a church probably
existed a century before this. The earliest part of the church
demolished in 1881, however, did not date farther back than
the 1 5th century. In 879 Danish invaders, sailing up the
Thames, wintered at Fulham and Hammersmith. Near the
former wooden Putney Bridge, built in 1729 and replaced in
1886, the earl of Essex threw a bridge of boats across the river
in 1642 in order to march his army in pursuit of Charles I., who
thereupon fell back on Oxford. Margravine Road recalls the
existence of Bradenburg House, a riverside mansion built by
Sir Nicholas Crispe in the time of Charles I., used as the head-
quarters of General Fairfax in 1647 during the civil wars, and
occupied in 1792 by the margrave of Bradenburg- Anspach
and Bayreuth and his wife, and in 1820 by Caroline, consort of
George IV.
FULK, king of Jerusalem (b. 1092), was the son of Fulk IV.,
count of Anjou, and his wife Bertrada (who ultimately deserted
her husband and became the mistress of Philip I. of France).
He became count of Anjou in 1 109, and considerably added to
the prestige of his house. In particular he showed himself a
doughty opponent to Henry I. of England, against whom he
continually supported Louis VI. of France, until in 1127 Henry
won him over by betrothing his daughter Matilda to Fulk's son
Geoffrey Plantagenet. Already in 1120 Fulk had visited the
Holy Land, and become a close friend of the Templars. On his
return he assigned to the order of the Templars an annual sub-
sidy, while he also maintained two knights in the Holy Land
for a year. In 1128 he was preparing to return to the East,
when he received an embassy from Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem,
who had no male heir to succeed him, offering his daughter
Melisinda in marriage, with the right of eventual succession to
the kingdom. Fulk readily accepted the offer; and in 1129
he came and was married to Melisinda, receiving the towns of
294
FULK FULLEBORN
Acre and Tyre as her dower. In 1 131, at the age of thirty-nine,
he became king of Jerusalem. His reign is not marked by any
considerable events: the kingdom which had reached its zenith
under Baldwin II., and did not begin to decline till the capture
of Edessa in the reign of Baldwin III., was quietly prosperous
under his rule. In the beginning of his reign he had to act as
regent of Antioch, and to provide a husband, Raymund of
Poitou, for the infant heiress Constance. But the great problem
with which he had to deal was the progress of the atabeg Zengi
of Mosul. In 1137 he was beaten near Barin, and escaping into
the fort was surrounded and forced to capitulate. A little
later, however, he greatly improved his position by strengthening
his alliance with the vizier of Damascus, who also had to fear
the progress of Zengi (1140); and in this way he was able to
capture the fort of Banias, to the N. of Lake Tiberias. Fulk
also strengthened the kingdom on the south; while his butler,
Paganus, planted the fortress of Krak to the south of the Dead
Sea, and helped to give the kingdom an access towards the
Red Sea, he himself constructed Blanche Garde and other forts
on the S.W. to overawe the garrison of Ascalon, which was still
held by the Mahommedans, and to clear the road towards Egypt.
Twice in Fulk's reign the eastern emperor, John Comnenus,
appeared in northern Syria (1137 and 1142); but his coming
did not affect the king, who was able to decline politely a visit
which the emperor proposed to make to Jerusalem. In 1 143 he
died, leaving two sons, who both became kings, as Baldwin III.
and Amalric I.
Fulk continued the tradition of good statesmanship and
sound churchmanship which Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. had
begun. William of Tyre speaks of him as a fine soldier, an able
politician, and a good son of the church, and only blames him
for partiality to his friends, and a forgetfulness of names and
faces, which placed him at a disadvantage and made him too
dependent on his immediate intimates. Little, perhaps, need
be made of these censures: the real fault of Fulk was his neglect
to envisage the needs of the northern principalities, and to
head a combined resistance to the rising power of Zengi of
Mosul.
His reign in Jerusalem is narrated by R. Rohricht (Geschichte des
Konigreichs Jerusalem, Innsbruck, 1898), and has been made the
subject of a monograph by G. Dodu (De Fulconis Hierosolymitani
regno, Paris, 1894). (E. BR.)
FULK (d. 900), archbishop of Reims, and partisan of Charles
the Simple in his struggle with Odo, count of Paris, was elected
to the see as archbishop in 883 upon the death of Hincmar.
In 887 he was engaged in a struggle with the Normans who
invaded his territories. Upon the deposition of Charles the Fat
he sided with Charles the Simple in his contest for the West
Prankish dominions against Count Odo of Paris, and crowned
him king in his own metropolitan church at Reims after most
of the nobles had gone over to Odo (893). Upon the death of
Odo he succeeded in having Charles recognized as king by a
majority of the West Prankish nobility. In 892 he obtained
special privileges for his province from Pope Formosus, who
promised that thereafter, when the archbishopric became
vacant, the revenues should not be enjoyed by anyone while
the vacancy existed, but should be reserved for the new incum-
bent, provided the election took place within the canonical
limit of three months. From 898 until his death he held the
office of chancellor, which for some time afterwards was regularly
filled by the archbishop of Reims. In his efforts to keep the
wealthy abbeys and benefices of the church out of the hands
of the nobles, he incurred the hatred of Baldwin, count
of Flanders, who secured his assassination on the I7th of
June 900, a crime which the weak Carolingian monarch left
unpunished.
Fulk left some letters, which are collected in Migne, Patrologia
Latino, vol. cxxxi. 11-14.
FULKE, WILLIAM (1538-1589), Puritan divine, was born
in London and educated at Cambridge. After studying law for
six years, he became a fellow at St John's College, Cambridge,
in 1 564. He took a leading part in the "vestiarian" controversy,
and persuaded the college to discard the surplice. In consequence
he was expelled from St. John's for a time, but in 1567 he became
Hebrew lecturer and preacher there. After standing unsuccess-
fully for the headship of the college in 1569, he became chaplain
to the earl of Leicester, and received from him the livings of
Warley, in Essex, and Dennington in Suffolk. In 1578 he was
elected master of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. As a Puritan
controversialist he was remarkably active; in 1580 the bishop
of Ely appointed him to defend puritanism against the Roman
Catholics, Thomas Watson, ex-bishop of Lincoln (1513-1584),
and John Feckenham, formerly abbot of Westminster, and in
1581 he was one of the disputants with the Jesuit, Edmund
Campion, while in 1582 he was among the clergy selected
by the privy council to argue against any papist. His
numerous polemical writings include A Defense of the sincere
true Translations of the holie Scriptures into the English
long (London, 1583), and confutations of Thomas Staple-
ton (1535-1598), Cardinal Allen and other Roman Catholic
controversialists.
FULK NERRA (c. 970-1040), count of Anjou, eldest son of
Count Geoffrey I., " Grisegonelle " (Grey Tunic) and Adela of
Vermandois, was born about 970 and succeeded his father in
the countship of Anjou on the 2ist of July 987. He was success-
ful in repelling the attacks of the count of Rennes and laying the
foundations of the conquest of Touraine (see ANJOU). In this
connexion he built a great number of strong castles, which has
led in modern times to his being called "the great builder."
He also founded several religious houses, among them the abbeys
of Beaulieu, near Loches (c 1007), of Saint-Nicholas at Angers
(1020) and of Ronceray at Angers (1028), and, in order to expiate
his crimes of violence, made three pilgrimages to the Holy Land
(in 1002-1003, c - I0 8 and in 1039). On his return from the
third of these journeys he died at Metz in Lorraine on the 2ist of
June 1040. By his first marriage, with Elizabeth, daughter of
Bouchard le Venerable, count of Vendome, he had a daughter,
Adela, who married Boon of Nevers and transmitted to her
children the countship of Vendome. Elizabeth having died in
looo, Fulk married Hildegarde of Lorraine, by whom he had a
son, Geoffrey Martel (q.v.), and a daughter Ermengarde, who
married Geoffrey, count of Gatinais, and was the mother of
Geoffrey " le Barbu " (the Bearded) and of Fulk " le Rechin "
(see ANJOU).
See Louis Halphen, Le Comte d' Anjou au XI' sifcle (Paris, 1906).
The biography of Fulk Nerra by Alexandra de Salies, Histoire de
Foulques Nerra (Angers, 1874) is confused and uncritical. A very
summary biography is given by Celestin Port, Dictionnaire historique,
geographique el biographique de Maine-et-Loire (3 vols., Paris- Angers,
1874-1878), vol. ii. pp. 189-192, and there is also a sketch in Kate
Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols., London, 1887),
vol. i. ch. Hi. (L. H.*)
FULLEBORN, GEORG GUSTAV (1769-1803), German philo-
sopher, philologist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Glogau,
Silesia, on the 2nd of March 1769, and died at Breslau on the
6th of February 1803. He was educated at the University of
Halle, and was made doctor of philosophy in recognition of his
thesis De Xenophane, Zenone et Gorgia. He took diaconal orders
in 1791, but almost immediately became professor of classics at
Breslau. His philosophical works include annotations to Garve's
translation of the Politics <3f Aristotle (1799-1800), and a large
share in the Beitrage zur Geschichte der Philosophie (published in
twelve parts between 1791 and 1799), in which he collaborated
with Forberg, Reinhold and Niethammer. In philology he
wrote Encyclopaedia philologica sine primae lineae Isagoges in
antiquorum studia (1798; 2nd ed., 1805); Kurze Theorie des
latcinischen Stils (1793); Lcitfaden der Rhetorik (1802); and an
annotated edition of the Satires of Persius. Under the pseudonym
" Edelwald Justus " he published several collections of popular
tales Bunle Blatter (1795); Kleine Schriften zur Untcrhallung
(1798); Nebenstunden (1799). After his death were published
Taschenbuch fur BrunnengHste (1806) and Kanzelreden (1807).
He was a frequent contributor to the press, where his writings
were very popular.
See Schummel, Geddchlnisrede (1803) and Cane und Fiilltborn;
Meusel, Gelehrtes Teutschland, vol. ii.
FULLER, A. FULLER, MARGARET
295
FULLER. ANDREW (1754-1815), English Baptist divine, was
bora on the 6th of February 1754, at Wicken in Cambridgeshire.
In his boyhood and youth he worked on his father's farm. In his
seventeenth year he became a member of the Baptist church at
Soham, and his gifts as an exhorter met with so much approval
that, in the spring of 1775, he was called and ordained as pastor
of that congregation. In 1782 he removed to Kettcring in
Northamptonshire, where he became friendly with some of the
most eminent ministers of the denomination. Before leaving
Soham he had written the substance of a treatise in which he had
sought to counteract the prevailing Baptist hyper-Calvinism
which, " admitting nothing spiritually good to be the duty
of the unregenerate, and nothing to be addressed to them
in a way of exhortation excepting what related to external
obedience," had long perplexed his own mind. This work he
published, under the title The Gospel worthy of all Acceptation,
soon after his settlement in Kettering; and although it immedi-
ately involved him in a somewhat bitter controversy which lasted
for nearly twenty years, it was ultimately successful in consider-
ably modifying the views prevalent among English dissenters.
In 1703 he published a treatise, The Calvinislic and Socinian
systems examined and compared as to their moral tendency, in which
he rebutted the accusation of antinomianism levelled by the
Socinians against those who over-emphasized the doctrines of
free grace. This work, along with another against Deism,
entitled The Gospel its own Witness, is regarded as the production
on which his reputation as a theologian mainly rests. Fuller
also published an admirable Memoir of the Rev. Samuel Pearce,
of Birmingham, and a volume of Expository Lectures in Genesis,
besides a considerable number of smaller pieces, chiefly sermons
and pamphlets, which were issued in a collected form after his
death. He was a man of forceful character, more prominent on
the practical side of religion than on the devotional, and accord-
ingly not pre-eminently successful in his local ministry. His
great work was done in connexion with the Baptist Missionary
Society, formed at Kettering in 1792, of which he was secretary
until his death on the 7th of May 1815. Both Princeton and
Yale, U.S.A., conferred on him the degree of D. D., but he never
used it.
Several editions of his collected works have appeared, and a
Memoir, principally compiled from his own papers, was published
about a year after his decease by Dr Ryland, his most intimate
friend and coadjutor in the affairs of the Baptist mission. There
i> also a biography by the Rev. I. W. Morris (1816); and his son
prefixed a memoir to an edition of his chief works in Bohn's Standard
Library (1852).
FULLER, GEORGE (1822-1884), American figure and portrait
painter, was born at Deerfield, Massachusetts, in 1822. At the
age of twenty he entered the studio of the sculptor H. K. Brown,
at Albany, New York, where he drew from the cast and modelled
beads. Having attained some proficiency he went about the
country painting portraits, settling at length in Boston, where he
studied the works of the earlier Americans, Stuart, Copley and
Allston. After three years in that city, and twelve in New York,
where in 1857 he was elected a member of the National Academy
of Design, he went to Europe for a brief visit and for study.
During all this time his work had received little recognition and
practically no financial encouragement, and on his return he
settled on the family farm at Deerfield, where he continued to
work in his own way with no thought of the outside world. In
1876, however, he was forced by pressing needs to dispose of
his work, and be sent some pictures to a dealer in Boston, where
be met with immediate success, financial and artistic, and for the
remaining eight years of his life he never lacked patrons. He
died in Boston on the 2ist of March 1884. He was a poetic
painter, and a dreamer of delicate fancies and quaint, intangible
phases of nature, his canvases being usually enveloped in a brown
mist that renders the outlines vague. Among his noteworthy
canvases are: " The Turkey Pasture," " Romany Girl," " And
the was a Witch," " Nydia," " Winifred Dysart " and " The
Quadroon."
FULLER. MARGARET, MARCHIONESS Ossou (1810-1850),
American authoress, eldest child of Timothy Fuller (1778-1835),
a lawyer and politician of some eminence, was born at Cambridge-
port, Massachusetts, on the 2jrd of May 1810. Her education
was conducted by her father, who, she states, made the mistake
of thinking to " gain time by bringing forward the intellect as
early as possible," the consequence being " a premature develop-
ment of brain that made her a youthful prodigy by day, and by
night a victim of spectral illusions, nightmare and somnambul-
ism." At six years she began to read Latin, and at a very early
age she had selected as her favourite authors Shakespeare,
Cervantes and Moliere. Soon the great amount of study
exacted of her ceased to be a burden, and reading became
a habit and a passion. Hav? ig made herself familiar with the
masterpieces of French, Ital an and Spanish literature, she in
1833 began the study of German, and within the year had
read some of the masterpieces of Goethe, Kfirner, Novalis
and Schiller.
After her father's death in 1835 she went to Boston to teach
languages, and in 1837 she was chosen principal teacher in the
Green Street school, Providence, Rhode Island, where she
remained till 1839. From this year until 1844 she stayed at
different places in the immediate neighbourhood of Boston,
forming an intimate acquaintance with the colonists of Brook
Farm, and numbering among her closest friends R. W. Emerson,
Nathaniel Hawthorne and W. H. Channing. In 1839 she
published a translation of Eckermann's Conversations with
Goethe, which was followed in 1842 by a translation of the corre-
spondence between Karoline von GUnderode and Bettina von
Arnim, entitled GUnderode. Aided by R. W. Emerson and
George Ripley, she in 1840 started The Dial, a poetical and
philosophical magazine representing the opinions and aims of
the New England Transcendentalists. This journal she con-
tinued to edit for two years, and while in Boston she also con-
ducted conversation classes for ladies in which philosophical and
social subjects were discussed with a somewhat over-accentuated
earnestness. These meetings may be regarded as perhaps the
beginning of the modern movement in behalf of women's rights.
R. W. Emerson, who had met her as early as 1836, thus describes
her appearance: " She was then twenty-six years old. She had
a face and frame that would indicate fulness and tenacity of life.
She was rather under the middle height; her complexion was
fair, with strong fair hair. She was then, as always, carefully and
becomingly dressed, and of ladylike self-possession. For the
rest her appearance had nothing prepossessing. Her extreme
plainness, a trick of incessantly opening and shutting her eyelids,
the nasal tone of her voice, all repelled; and I said to myself we
shall never get far." On better acquaintance this unprepossessing
exterior seemed, however, to melt away, and her inordinate self-
esteem to be lost in the depth and universality of her sympathy.
She possessed an almost irresistible power of winning the intel-
lectual and moral confidence of those with whom she came in
contact, and " applied herself to her companion as the sponge
applies itself to water." She obtained from each the best they
had to give. It was indeed more as a conversationalist than as a
writer that she earned the title of the Priestess of Transcend-
entalism. It was her intimate friends who admired her most.
Smart and pungent though she is as a writer, the apparent
originality of her views depends more on eccentricity than either
intellectual depth or imaginative vigour. In 1844 she removed
to New York at the desire of Horace Greeley to write literary
criticism for The Tribune, and in 1846 she published a selection
from her articles on contemporary authors in Europe and
America, under the title Papers on Literature and A rl. The same
year she paid a visit to Europe, passing some time in England
and France, and finally taking up her residence in Italy. There
she was married in December 1847 to the marquis Giovanni
Angelo Ossoli, a friend of Mazzini. During 1848-1849 she was
present with her husband in Rome, and when the city was
besieged she, at the request of Mazzini, took charge of one
of the two hospitals while her husband fought on the walls.
In May 1850, along with her husband and infant son, she
embarked at Leghorn for America, but when they had all
but reached their destination the vessel was wrecked on Fire
296
FULLER, M. W. FULLER, THOMAS
Island beach on the i6th of June, and the Ossolis were among
the passengers who perished.
Life Without and Life Within (Boston, 1860) is a collection of
essays, poems, &c., supplementary to her Collected Works, printed
in 1855. See the Autobiography of Margaret Fuller Ossoli, with
additional memoirs by J. F. Clarke, R. W. Emerson and W. H.
Channing (2 vpls., Boston, 1852); also Margaret Fuller (Marchesa
Ossoli), by Julia Ward Howe (1883), in the " Eminent Women "
series; Margaret Fuller Ossoli (Boston, 1884), by Thomas \Yent-
worth Higginson in the " American Men of Letters " series, which is
based largely on unedited material ; and The Love Letters of Margaret
Fuller, 1845-1846 (London and New York, 1903), with an intro-
duction by Julia Ward Howe.
FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910), American jurist,
chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, was born
at Augusta, Maine, on the 1 1 th of February 1833. After graduat-
ing at Bowdoin College in 1853 he spent a year at the Harvard
Law School, and in 1855 began the practice of law at Augusta,
where he was an associate-editor of a Democratic paper, The
Age, and served in the city council and as city attorney. In
1856 he removed to Chicago, Illinois, where he continued to
practise until 1888, rising to a high position at the bar of the
Northwest. For some years he was active in Democratic politics,
being a member of the Illinois Constitutional Convention in
1862 and of the State House of Representatives from 1863 to
1865. He was a delegate to various National conventions of
his party, and in that of 1872 placed Thomas A. Hendricks in
nomination for the presidency. In 1888, by President Cleveland's
appointment, he succeeded Morrison R. Waite as chief-justice
of the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1899 he was
appointed by President McKinley a member of the arbitration
commission at Paris to settle the Venezuela-British Guiana
boundary dispute.
FULLER, THOMAS (1608-1661), English divine and historian,
eldest son of Thomas Fuller, rector of Aldwincle St Peter's,
Northamptonshire, was born at his father's rectory and was
baptized on the igth of June 1608. Dr John Davenant, bishop
of Salisbury, was his uncle and godfather. According to Aubrey,
Fuller was " a boy of pregnant wit." At thirteen he was admitted
to Queens' College, Cambridge, then presided over by Dr John
Davenant. His cousin, Edward Davenant, was a tutor in the
same college. He was apt and quick in study; and in Lent
1624-1625 he became B.A. and in July 1628 M.A. Being over-
looked in an election of fellows of his college, he was removed
by Bishop Davenant to Sidney Sussex College, November 1628.
In 1630 he received from Corpus Christi College the curacy of
St Benet's, Cambridge.
( Fuller's quaint and humorous oratory soon attracted attention.
He published in 1631 a poem on the subject of David and
Bathsheba, entitled David's Hainous Sinne, Heartie Repentance,
Heavie Punishment. In June of the same year his uncle gave him
a prebend in Salisbury, where his father, who died in the following
year, held a canonry. The rectory of Broadwindsor, Dorset-
shire, then in the diocese of Bristol, was his next preferment
(1634); and on the nth of June 1635 he proceeded B.D. At
Broadwindsor he compiled The Historie of the Holy Warre (1639),
a history of the crusades, and The Holy State and the Prophane
State (1642). This work describes the holy state as existing in
the family and in public life, gives rules of conduct, model
" characters " for the various professions and profane bio-
graphies. It was perhaps the most popular of all his writings.
He was in 1640 elected proctor for Bristol in the memorable
convocation of Canterbury, which assembled with the Short
Parliament. On the sudden dissolution of the latter he joined
those who urged that convocation should likewise dissolve as
usual. That opinion was overruled; and the assembly continued
to sit by virtue of a royal writ. Fuller has left in his Church
History a valuable account of the proceedings of this synod,
for sitting in which he was fined 200, which, however, was never
exacted. His first published volume of sermons appeared in
1640 underthe title of Joseph's party-coloured Coat, which contains
many of his quaint utterances and odd conceits. His grosser
mannerisms of style, derived from the divines of the former
generation, disappeared for the most part in his subsequent
discourses.
About 1640 he had married Eleanor, daughter of Hugh
Grove of Chisenbury, Wiltshire. She died in 1641. Their eldest
child, John, baptized at Broadwindsor by his father, 6th
June 1641, was afterwards of Sidney Sussex College, edited
;he Worthies of England, 1662, and became rector of Great
Wakering, Essex, where he died in 1687.
At Broadwindsor, early in the year 1641, Thomas Fuller, his
curate Henry Sanders, the church wardens, and others, nine
persons altogether, certified that their parish, represented by
242 grown-up male persons, had taken the Protestation ordered
iy the speaker of the Long Parliament. Fuller was not formally
dispossessed of his living and prebend on the triumph of the
Presbyterian party, but he relinquished both preferments about
this time. For a short time he preached with success at the Inns
of Court, and thence removed, at the invitation of the master
of the Savoy (Dr Balcanqual) and the brotherhood of that
Foundation, to be lecturer at their chapel of St Mary Savoy.
Some of the best discourses of the witty preacher were delivered
at the Savoy to audiences which extended into the chapel-yard.
In one he set forth with searching and truthful minuteness the
hindrances to peace, and urged the signing of petitions to the
king at Oxford, and to the parliament, to continue their care in
advancing an accommodation. In his A ppeal of Injured Innocence
Fuller says that he was once deputed to carry a petition to the
king at Oxford. This has been identified with a petition entrusted
to Sir Edward Wardour, clerk of the pells, Dr Dukeson, " Dr
Fuller," and four or five others from the city of Westminster
and the parishes contiguous to the Savoy. A pass was granted
by the House of Lords, on the 2nd of January 1643, f r an
equipage of two coaches, four or six horses and eight or ten
attendants. On the arrival of the deputation at Uxbridge, on
the 4th of January, officers of the Parliamentary army stopped
the coaches and searched the gentlemen; and they found upon
the latter " two scandalous books arraigning the proceedings
of the House," and letters with ciphers to Lord Viscount Falkland
and the Lord Spencer. Ultimately a joint order of both Houses
remanded the party; and Fuller and his friends suffered a
brief imprisonment. The Westminster Petition, notwithstanding,
reached the king's hands; and it was published with the royal
reply (see J. E. Bailey, Life of Thomas Fuller, pp. 245 et seq.).
When it was expected, three months later, that a favourable
result would attend the negotiations at Oxford, Fuller preached
a sermon at Westminster Abbey, on the 27th of March 1643, on
the anniversary of Charles I.'s accession, on the text, " Yea, let
him take all, so my Lord the King return in peace." On
Wednesday, the 26th of July, he preached on church reformation,
satirizing the religious reformers, and maintaining that only the
Supreme Power could initiate reforms.
He was now obliged to leave London, and in August 1643 he
joined the king at Oxford. He lived in a hired chamber at
Lincoln College for 17 weeks. Thence he put forth a witty and
effective reply to John Saltmarsh, who had attacked his views
on ecclesiastical reform. Fuller subsequently published by
royal request a sermon preached on the roth of May 1644, at
St Mary's, Oxford, before the king and Prince Charles, called
Jacob's Vow.
The spirit of Fuller's preaching, always characterized by calm-
ness and moderation, gave offence to the high royalists, who
charged him with lukewarmness in their cause. To silence
unjust censures he became chaplain to the regiment of Sir
Ralph Hopton. For the first five years of the war, as he said,
when excusing the non-appearance of his Church History, " I
had little list or leisure to write, fearing to be made a history, and
shifting daily for my safety. All that time I could not live to
study, who did only study to live." After the defeat of Hopton
at Cheriton Down, Fuller retreated to Basing House. He took
an active part in its defence, and his life with the troops caused
him to be afterwards regarded as one of " the great cavalier
parsons." In his marches with his regiment round about Oxford
and in the west, he devoted much time to the collection of details,
FULLER, THOMAS
297
from churches, old buildings, and the conversation of ancient
fOttipt, for his Church- History and Worthies of England. He
compiled in 1645 a small volume of prayers and meditations,
the Good Thoughts in Bad Timfi, which, set up and printed in
the besieged city of Exeter, whither he had retired, was called
by himself " the first fruits of Exeter press." It was inscribed to
Lady Dalkeith, governess to the infant princess, Henrietta Anne
(b. 1644), to whose household he was attached as chaplain. The
corporation gave him the Bodleian lectureship on the list of
March 1645/6, and he held it until the i;th of June following,
soon after the surrender of the city to the parliament. The Fear
0f losing the Old Light (1646) was his farewell discourse to his
Exeter friends. Under the Articles of Surrender Fuller made his
composition with the government at London, bis "delinquency "
being that he had been present in the king's garrisons. In
Andronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician (1646), partly authentic
and partly fictitious, he satirized the leaders of the Revolution;
and for the comfort of sufferers by the war he issued (1647) a
second devotional manual, entitled Good Thoughts in Worse
Times, abounding in fervent aspirations, and drawing moral
lessons in beautiful language out of the events of his life or the
circumstances of the time. In grief over his losses, which included
his library and manuscripts (his " upper and nether millstone "),
and over the calamities of the country, he wrote his work on
the Cause and Cure of a Wounded Conscience (1647). It was
prepared at Boughton House in his native county, where he and
his son were entertained by Edward Lord Montagu, who had
been one of his contemporaries at the university and had taken
the side of the parliament.
For the next few years of his life Fuller was mainly dependent
upon his dealings with booksellers, of whom he asserted that
none had ever lost by him. He made considerable progress in
an English translation from the MS. of the Annales of his friend
Archbishop Ussber. Amongst his benefactors it is curious to
find Sir John Danvers of Chelsea, the regicide. Fuller in 1647
began to preach at St Clement's, Eastcheap, and elsewhere
in the capacity of lecturer. While at St Clement's he was
suspended; but speedily recovering his freedom, he preached
wherever he was invited. At Chelsea, where also he occasionally
officiated, he covertly preached a sermon on the death of Charles
I., but he .did not break with his Roundhead patrons. James
Hay, 2nd earl of Carlisle, made him his chaplain, and presented
him in 1648 or 1649 to the curacy of Waltham Abbey. His
possession of the living was in jeopardy on the appointment of
Cromwell's " Tryers "; but he evaded their inquisitorial ques-
tions by his ready wit. He was not disturbed at Waltham in
'^SS, when the Protector's edict prohibited the adherents of
the late king from preaching. Lionel, 3rd earl of Middlesex,
who lived at Copt Hall, near Waltham, gave him what remained
of the books of the lord treasurer his father; and through the
good offices of the marchioness of Hertford, part of his own
pillaged library was restored to him. Fuller was thus able to
prosecute his literary labours, producing successively his descrip-
tive geography of the Holy Land, called A Pisgah-Sight of
Palestine (1650), and his Church-History of Britain (1655), from
the birth of Jesus Christ until the year 1648. With the Church-
History was printed The History of the University of Cambridge
since the Conquest and The History of Waltham Abbey. These
works were furthered in no slight degree by his connexion with
Sion College, London, where he had a chamber, as well for
the convenience of the press as of his city lectureships. The
Church-History was angrily attacked by Dr P. Heylyn, who, in
the spirit of High-Churchmanahip, wished, as he said, to vindicate
the truth, the church and the injured clergy. About 1652
Fuller married his second wife, Mary Roper, youngest sister of
Thomas, Viscount Baltinglass, by whom he had several children.
At the Oxford Act of 1657, Robert South, who was Terrae fUius,
lampooned Fuller, whom be described in this Oratio as living
in London, ever scribbling and each year bringing forth new
folia like a tree. At length, continues South, the Church-History
came forth with its 166 dedications to wealthy and noble friends;
and with this huge volume under one arm, and his wife (said to
be little of stature) on the other, he ran up and down the streets
of London, seeking at the houses of his patrons invitations to
dinner, to be repaid by his dull jests at table.
His last and best patron was George Berkeley, ist Earl Berkeley
(1628-1698), of Cranford House, Middlesex, whose chaplain he
was, and who gave him Cranford rectory (1658). To this noble-
man Fuller's reply to Heylyn's Examen Hisloricum, called The
Appeal of Injured Innocence (1659), was inscribed. At the end
of the Appeal is an epistle " to my loving friend Dr Peter Heylyn,"
conceived in the admirable Christian spirit which characterized
all Fuller's dealings with controversialists. " Why should
Peter," he asked, " fall out with Thomas, both being disciples
to the same Lord and Master ?. I assure you, sir, whatever you
conceive to the contrary, I am cordial to the cause of the English
Church, and my hoary hairs will go down to the grave in sorrow
for her sufferings."
In .-In Alarum to the Counties of England and Wales (1660)
Fuller argued for a free and full parliament free from force,
as he expressed it, as well as from abjurations or previous
engagements. Mixt Contemplations in Better Times (1660),
dedicated to Lady Monk, tendered advice in the spirit of its
motto, " Let your moderation be known to all men: the Lord
is at hand." There is good reason to suppose that Fuller was at
the Hague immediately before the Restoration, in the retinue
of Lord Berkeley, one of the commissioners of the House of
Lords, whose last service to his friend was to interest himself in
obtaining him a bishopric. A Panegyrick to His Majesty on his
Happy Return was the last of Fuller's verse-efforts. On the
2nd of August, by royal letters, he was admitted D.D. at Cam-
bridge. He resumed his lectures at the Savoy, where Samuel
Pepys heard him preach; but he preferred his conversation or
his books to his sermons. Fuller's last promotion was that of
chaplain in extraordinary to Charles II. In the summer of 1661
he visited the west in connexion with the business of his prebend,
which had been restored to him. On Sunday, the 1 2th of August,
while preaching at the Savoy, he was seized with typhus fever,
and died at his new lodgings in Covent Garden on the i6th of
August. He was buried in Cranford church, where a mural
tablet was afterwards set up on the north side of the chancel,
with an epitaph which contains a conceit worthy of his own pen,
to the effect that while he was endeavouring (viz. in The Worthies)
to give immortality to others, he himself attained it.
Fuller's wit and vivacious good-humour made him a favourite
with men of both sides, and his sense of humour kept him from
extremes. Probably Heylyn and South had some excuse for
their attitude towards his very moderate politics. " By his
particular temper and management," said Echard (Hist, of '
England, iii. 71), " he weathered the late great storm with more
success than many other great men." He was known as " a
perfect walking library." The strength of his memory was
proverbial, and some amusing anecdotes are connected with it.
His writings were the product of a highly original mind. He
had a fertile imagination and a happy faculty of illustration.
Antithetic and axiomatic sentences abound in his pages, embody-
ing literally the wisdom of the many in the wit of one. He was
" quaint," and something more. " Wit," said Coleridge, in a
well-known eulogy, " was the stuff and substance of Fuller's
intellect. It was the element, the earthen base, the material
which he worked in; and this very circumstance has defrauded
him of his due praise for the practical wisdom of the thoughts,
for the beauty and variety of the truths, into which he shaped
the stuff. Fuller was incomparably the most sensible, the least
prejudiced, great man of an age that boasted a galaxy of great
men " (Literary Remains, vol. ii. (1836), pp. 389-390). This
opinion was formed after the perusal of the Church-History.
That work and The History of the Worthies of England are
unquestionably Fuller's greatest efforts. They embody the
collections of an entire life; and since his day they have been
the delight of many readers. The Holy Slate has taken rank
amongst the best books of " characters." Charles Lamb made
some selections from Fuller, and had a profound admiration for
the " golden works " of the " dear, fine, silly old angel." Since
298
FULLER, W. FULLERTON, LADY
Lamb's time, mainly through the appreciative criticisms of
S. T. Coleridge, Robert Southey and others, Fuller's works have
received much attention.
There is an elaborate account of the life and writings of Fuller
by William Oldys in the Biographia Britannica, vol. iii. (1750), based
on Fuller's own works and the anonymous Life of ... Dr Thomas
Fuller (1661 ; reprinted in a volume of selections by A. L. J. Gosset,
1893). The completes! account of him is The Life of Thomas Fuller,
with Notices of his Books, his Kinsmen and his Friends (1874), by
J. E. Bailey, who gives a detailed bibliography (pp. 713-762) of his
works. The Worthies of England was reprinted by John Nichols
(1811) and by P. A. Nuttall (1840). His Collected Sermons were
edited by J. E. Bailey and W. E. A. Axon in 1891. Fuller's quaint
wit lends itself to selection, and there are several modern volumes of
extracts from his works.
FULLER, WILLIAM (i67o-c. 1717), English impostor, was
born at Milton in Kent on the aoth of September 1670. His
paternity is doubtful, but he was related to the family of Herbert.
After 1688 he served James II. 's queen, Mary of Modena, and
the Jacobites, seeking at the same time to gain favour with
William III.; and after associating with Titus Gates, being
imprisoned for debt and pretending to reveal Jacobite plots, the
House of Commons in 1692 declared he was an " imposter,
cheat and false accuser." Having stood in the pillory he was
again imprisoned until 1695, when he was released; and at this
time he took the opportunity to revive the old and familiar
story that Mary of Modena was not the mother of the prince of
Wales. In 1701 he published his autobiographical Life of
William Fuller and some Original Letters of the late King James.
Unable to prove the assertions made in his writings he was put
in the pillory, whipped and fined. He died, probably in prison,
about 1717. Fuller's other writings are Mr William Fuller's
trip to Bridewell, with a full account of his barbarous usage in the
pillory; The sincere and hearty confession of Mr William Fuller
(1704); and An humble appeal to the impartial judgment of all
parlies in Great Britain (1716).
He must be distinguished from WILLIAM FULLER (1608-1675),
dean of St Patrick's (1660), bishop of Limerick (1663), and bishop of
Lincoln (1667), the friend of Samuel Pepys; and also from William
Fuller (c. 1580-1659), dean of Ely and later dean of Durham.
FULLER'S EARTH (Ger. Walkererde, Fr. terre A foulon, argile
smectique) so named from its use by fullers as an absorbent of
the grease and oil of cloth, a clay-like substance, which from
its variability is somewhat difficult to define. In colour it is
most often greenish, olive-green or greenish-grey; on weathering
it changes to a brown tint or it may bleach. As a rule it falls
to pieces when placed in water and is not markedly plastic;
when dry it adheres strongly to the tongue; since, however,
these properties are possessed by many clays that do not exhibit
detergent qualities, the only test of value lies in the capacity
to absorb grease or clarify oil. Fuller's earth has a specific gravity
of 1-7-2-4, and a shining streak; it is usually unctuous to the
touch. Microscopically, it consists of minute irregular-shaped
particles of a mineral that appears to be the result of a chloride
or talcose alteration of a felspar. The small size of most of the
grains, less than -07 mm., makes their determination almost
impossible. Chemical analysis shows that the peculiar properties
of this earth are due to its physical rather than its chemical
nature.
The following analyses of the weathered and unweathered con-
dition of the earth from Nutfield, Surrey, represent the composition
of one of the best known varieties :
Blue Earth (dried at 100 C.).
Insoluble
Fe,O, .
AW,.
CaO
resi
flue
69-96
2-48
3-46
5-87
1-41
0-27
0-05
0-05
0-74
15-57
Insoluble residi
SiO,
AM),
Fe,0,
CaO
MgO
je
62-81
3-46
1-3
1-53
0-86
MgO .
P,0, .
SO, .
NaCl .
K.O .
H,O (com
bin
ed)
69-96
99-86
Yellow Earth (dried at 100 C.).
Insoluble residue
SiO 2
A1 2 3
Fe 2 O 3
CaO
MgO
Insoluble residue
76-13
Fe 2 O s
2-41
A1 2 3 .
1-77
CaO .
4-3i
MgO
1-05
P 2 S .
0-14
S0 3 .
0-07
NaCl.
0-14
K 2 O .
0-84
H 2 O (combined)
I3-I9
100-05
59-37
10-05
3-86
1-86
'04
76-18
(Analysis by P. G. Sanford, Geol. Mag., 1889, 6, pp. 456, 526.)
Of other published analyses, not a few show a lower silica content
(44 % 5 %)> along with a higher proportion of alumina (l I %, 23 %).
Fuller's earth may occur on any geological horizon ; at Nutfield
in Surrey, England, it is in the Cretaceous formations; at Midford
near Bath it is of Jurassic age; at Bala, North Wales, it occurs in
Ordovician strata; in Saxony it appears to be the decomposition
product of a diabasic rock. In America it is found in California
in rocks ranging from Cretaceous to Pleistocene age; in S.
Dakota, Custer county and elsewhere a yellow, gritty earth of
Jurassic age is worked; in Florida and Georgia occurs a brittle,
whitish earth of Oligocene age. Other deposits are worked in
Arkansas, Texas, Colorado, Massachusetts and South Carolina.
Fuller's earth is either mined or dug in the open according to
local circumstances. It is then dried in the sun or by artificial
heat and transported in small lumps in sacks. In other cases it
is ground to a fine powder after being dried; or it is first roughly
ground and made into a slurry with water, which is allowed to
carry off the finer from the coarser particles and deposit them in a
creamy state in suitable tanks. After consolidation this fine
material is dried artificially on drying floors, broken into lumps,
and packed for transport. The use of fuller's earth for cleansing
wool and cloth has greatly decreased, but the demand for the
material is as great or greater than it ever was. It is now used
very largely in the filtration of mineral oils, and also for decolour-
izing certain vegetable oils. It is employed in the formation of
certain soaps and cleansing preparations.
The term " Fuller's Earth " has a special significance in
geology, for it was applied by W. Smith in 1799 to certain clays
in the neighbourhood of Bath, and the use of the expression is
still retained by English geologists, either in this form or in the
generalized " Fullonian." The Fullonian lies at the base of the
Great Oolite or Bathonian series, but its palaeontological
characters place it between that series and the underlying
Inferior Oolite. The zonal fossils are Perisphinctes arbustigerus
and Macrocephalus subcontracts with Ostrea acuminata,
Rhynchonella concinna and Goniomya angulifera. The formation
is in part the equivalent of the " Vesulien " of J. Marcou (Vesoul
in Haute-Sa6ne). In Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, where it
is best developed, it is represented by an Upper Fuller's Earth
Clay, the Fuller's Earth Rock (an impersistent earthy limestone,
usually fossiliferous) , and the Lower Fuller's Earth Clay. Com-
mercial fuller's earth has been obtained only from the Upper
Clay. In eastern Gloucestershire and northern Oxfordshire
the Fuller's Earth passes downwards without break into the
Inferior Oolite; northward it dies out about Chipping Norton
in Oxfordshire and passes laterally into the Stonesfield Slates
series; in the midland counties it may perhaps be represented
by the " Upper Estuarine Series." In parts of Dorsetshire the
clays have been used for brickmaking and the limestone (rock)
for local buildings.
See H. B. Woodward, " Jurassic Rocks of Great Britain," vol.
iv. (1894), Mem. Geol. Survey (London). [J. A. H.]
FULLERTON, LADY GEORGIANA CHARLOTTE (1812-1885),
English novelist and philanthropist, youngest daughter of the
ist Earl Granville, was born at Tixall Hall in Staffordshire on
the 23rd of September 1812. In 1833 she married Alexander
George Fullerton, then an Irish officer in the guards. After
living in Paris for some eight years she and her husband accom-
panied Lord Granville to Cannes and thence to Rome. In 1843
FULMAR FULMINIC ACID
299
her husband entered the Roman Catholic church, and in the
following year Lady Georgiana Fullcrt on published her first novel,
EUfn Uiddltion, which attracted W. E. Gladstone's attention
in the English Renae. In 1846 she entered the Roman Catholic
church. The death of her only son in 1854 plunged her in grief,
and she continued to wear mourning until the end of her life.
In 1856 she became one of the third order of St Francis, and
thenceforward devoted herself to charitable work. In conjunc-
tion with Miss Taylor she founded the religious community
known as " The Poor Servants of the Mother of God Incarnate,"
and she also took an active part in bringing to England the
sisters of St Vincent of Paul. Her philanthropic work is described
in Mrs Augustus Craven's work Lady Georgiana FuUerton, sa
fie el ses tmtres (Paris, 1888), which was translated into English
by Henry James Coleridge. She died at Bournemouth on the ipth
of January 1885. Among her other novels were Grantley Manor
(1*47), Lady Bird (1851), and Too Strange not to be True (1864).
FULMAR, from the Gaelic Ftilmaire, the Fulmants glacialis of
modern ornithologists, one of the largest of the petrels (Procel-
Itiriidae) of the northern hemisphere, being about the size of the
common gull (Larus canus) and not unlike it in general coloration,
except that its primaries are grey instead of black. This bird,
which ranges over the North Atlantic, is seldom seen on the
European side below lat. 53 N., but on the American side comes
habitually to lat. 45oreven lower. In the Pacific it is represented
by a scarcely separable form, F. glupischa. It has been commonly
believed to have two breeding-places in the British Islands,
namely, St Kilda and South Barra; but, according to Robert
Gray (Birds of the West of Scotland, p. 409), it has abandoned
the latter since 1844, though still breeding in Skye. Northward
it established itself about 1838 on Myggenaes Holm, one of the
Faeroes, while it has several stations off the coast of Iceland and
Spitsbergen, as well as at Bear Island. Its range towards the
pole seems to be only bounded by open water, and it is the con-
stant attendant upon all who are employed in the whale and
seal fisheries, showing the greatest boldness in approaching boats
mad ships, and feeding on the offal obtained from them. By
British seamen it is commonly called the " molly mawk " '
(corrupted from Mallemuck) ,and is extremely well known to them ,
its flight, as it skims over the waves, first with a few beats of
the wings and then gliding for a long way, being very peculiar.
It only visits the land to deposit its single white egg, which is
laid on a rocky ledge, where a shallow nest is made in the turf
and lined with a little dried grass. Many of its breeding-places
are a most valuable property to those who live near them and
take the eggs and young, which, from the nature of the locality,
are only to be had at a hazardous risk of life. In St Kilda a
large number of the young are killed in one week of August, the
only time when, by the custom of the community, they are
allowed to be taken. These, after the oil is extracted from them,
serve the islanders with food for the winter. The oil has been
chemically analysed and found to be a fish-oil, and to possess
nearly all the qualities of that obtained from the liver of the cod,
with a lighter specific gravity. It, however, has an extremely
strong scent, which is said by those who have visited St Kilda
to pervade every thing and person on the island, and is certainly
retained by an egg or skin of the bird for many years. Whenever
a live example is seized in the hand it ejects a considerable
quantity of this oil from its mouth.
FULMINIC ACID, HCNO or H,C 2 N",Oj, an organic acid
isomeric with cyanic and cyanuric acids, its salts, termed
fulminates, are very explosive and are much employed as de-
tonators. The free acid, which is obtained by treating the salts
with acids, is an oily liquid smelling like prussic acid; it is very
explosive, and the vapour is poisonous to about the same degree
as that of prussic acid. The first fulminate prepared was the
"fulminating silver "of L. G. Brugnatelli, who found in 1708
that if silver be dissolved in nitric acid and the solution added
to spirits of wine, a white, highly explosive powder was obtained.
This substance is to be distinguished from the black " fulminating
1 A name muapplied in the southern hemisphere to Diomedea
, oat of the albatroe*.
silver" obtained by C. L. Berthollet in 1788 by acting with
ammonia on precipitated silver oxide. The next salt to be
obtained was the mercuric salt, which was prepared in 1799 by
Edward Charles Howard, who substituted mercury for silver in
Brugnatelli's process. A similar method is that of J. von Licbig
(1823), who heated a mixture of alcohol, nitric acid and mercuric
nitrate; the salt is largely manufactured by processes closely
resembling the last. A laboratory method is to mix solutions
of sodium nitromethane, CHj: NO(ONa), and mercuric chloride,
a yellow basic salt being formed at the same time. Mercuric
fulminate is less explosive than the silver salt, and forms white
needles (with JHjO) which are tolerably soluble in water. The
use of mercuric fulminate as a detonator dates from about 1814,
when the explosive cap was invented. It is still the commonest
detonator, but it is now usually mixed with other substances;
the British service uses for percussion caps 6 parts of fulminate,
6 of potassium chlorate and 4 of antimony sulphide, and for
time fuses 4 parts of fulminate, 6 of potassium chlorate and 4
of antimony sulphide, the mixture being damped with a shellac
varnish; for use in blasting, a home office order of 1897 prescribes
a mixture of 4 parts of fulminate and i of potassium chlorate.
In 1000 Bielefeldt found that a fulminate placed on top of an
aromatic nitro compound, such as trinitrotoluene, formed a
useful detonator; this discovery has been especially taken
advantage of in Germany, in which country detonators of this
nature are being largely employed. Tetranitromethylaniline
(tetryl) has also been employed (Brit. Pat. 13340 of 1005).
It has been proposed to replace fulminate by silver azoimide
(Wohler & Matter, Brit. Pat. 4468 of 1908), and by lead azoimide
(Hyronimus, Brit. Pat. 1819 of 1908).
The constitution of fulminic acid has been investigated by many
experimenters, but apparently without definitive results. The
researches of Liebig (1823), Liebig and Gay-Lussac (1824), and of
Liebig again in 1838 showed the acid to be isomeric with cyanic acid,
and probably (HCNO)j, since it gave mixed and acid salts. Kekule,
in 1858, concluded that it was nitrpacetonitrile, NOrCHi-CN, a
view opposed by Steiner (1883), E. Divers and M. Kawakit.c (1884),
R. Scholl (1890), and by J. U. Nef (1894), who proposed the formulae :
C:N-OH .N:CH CH:N-O .. -.
CrN-OH. <N:C.OH. CH-.N-O.
Steiner, Divers, Scholl, Nef.
The formulae of Kekule, Divers and Armstrong haVe been discarded,
and it remains to be shown whether Nef's carbonyloxime formula
(or the bimolecular formula of Steiner) or Scholl's glyoxime peroxide
formula is correct. There is some doubt as to the molecular formula
of fulminic acid. The existence of double salts, and the observations
of L. Wohler and K. Theodorovits (Ber., 1905, 38, p. 345), that only
compounds containing two carbon atoms yielded fulminates, points
to (HCNO)j; on the other hand, Wohler (loc. cit. p. 1351) found
that cryoscopic and electric conductivity measurements showed
sodium fulminate to be NaCNO. Nef based his formula, which
involves bivalent carbon, on many reactions; in particular, that
silver fulminate with hydrochloric acid gave salts of formylchlorid-
oxime, which with water gave hydroxylamine and formic acid, thus
and also on the production from sodium nitromethane and mer-
curic chloride, thus CH, : NO-Qhg->H,O+C : NOhg(hg-jHg). H.
Wieland and F. C. Palazzo (1907) support this formula, finding that
methyl nitrplic acid, NOi-CH : N-OH, yielded under certain con-
ditions fulminic acid, and vice versa (Palazzo, 1907). M. Z. Jowitsch-
itsch (Ann., 1906, 347, p. 233) inclines to Scholl's formula; he
found that the synthetic silver salt of glyoxime peroxide resembled
silver fulminate in yielding hydroxylamine with hydrochloric acid,
but differed in being less explosive, and in being soluble in nitric
acid. II. Wieland and his collaborators regard " glyoxime peroxide "
as an oxide of fur.iz.inc (o.p.),and have shown that a close relationship
exists between the nitnle oxides, furoxane, and fulminic acid (see
Ann. Rep., London Chem. Soc., 1909, p. 84). Fulminuric acid,
(HCNO)i, obtained by Liebig by boiling mercuric fulminate with
water, was synthesized in 1905 by C. Ulpiani and L. Bernardini
(Gatetla, iii. 35, p. 7), who regard it as NO,-CH(CN)-CO-NH. It
deflagrates at 145, and forms a characteristic cuprammonium salt.
The early history of mercuric fulminate and a critical account of its
application as a detonator is (riven in The Rise and Progress of the
British Explosives Industry (International Congress of Applied
Chemistry, 1909). The manufacture and modern aspects are treated
in Oicar Guttmann, The Manufacture of Explosives, and Manu-
facture of Explosives, Twenty Years' Progress (1909). ,
300
FULTON, R. FUMAROLE
FULTON, ROBERT (1765-1815), American engineer, was born
in 1765 in Little Britain (now Fulton, Lancaster county), Pa.
His parents were Irish, and so poor that they could afford him
only a very scanty education. At an early age he was bound
apprentice to a jeweller in Philadelphia, but subsequently
adopted portrait and landscape painting as his profession. In
his twenty-second year, with the object of studying with h^s
countryman, Benjamin West, he went to England, and there
became acquainted with the duke of Bridgewater, Earl Stanhope
and James Watt. Partly by their influence he was led to devote
his attention to engineering, especially in connexion with canal
construction; he obtained an English patent in 1794 for super-
seding canal locks by inclined planes, and in 1796 he published
a Treatise on the Improvement of Canal Navigation. He then took
up his residence in Paris, where he projected the first panorama
ever exhibited in that city, and constructed a submarine boat,
the "Nautilus," which was tried in Brest harbour in 1801 before
a commission appointed by Napoleon I., and by the aid of which
he was enabled to blow up a small vessel with a torpedo. It
was at Paris also in 1803 that he first succeeded in propelling a
boat by steam-power, thus realizing a design which he had
conceived ten years previously. Returning to America he
continued his experiments with submarine explosives, but failed
to convince either the English, French or United States govern-
ments of the adequacy of his methods. With steam navigation
he had more success. In association with Robert R. Livingston
(q.v.), who in 1798 had been granted the exclusive right to
navigate the waters of New York state with steam-vessels, he
constructed the " Clermont," which, engined by Boulton &
Watt of Birmingham, began to ply on the Hudson between
New York and Albany in 1807. The privilege obtained by
Livingston in 1798 was granted jointly to Fulton and Living-
ston in 1803, and by an act passed in 1808 the monopoly was
secured to them and their associates for a period depending on
the number of steamers constructed, but limited to a maximum
of thirty years. In 1814-1815, on behalf of the United States
government, he constructed the " Fulton," a vessel of 38 tons
with central paddle-wheels, which was the first steam warship.
He died at New York on the 24th of February 1815. Among
Fulton's inventions were machines for spinning flax, for making
ropes, and for sawing and polishing marble.
See C. D. Golden, Life of Robert Fulton (New York, 1817) ; Robert
H. Thurston, History of the Growth of the Steam-Engine (New York,
1878); George H. Preble, Chronological History of Steam Navigation
(Philadelphia, 1883) ; and Mrs A. C. Sutcliffe, Robert Fulton and the
Clermont (New York, 1909).
FULTON, a city and the county-seat of Callaway county,
Missouri, U.S.A., 25 m. N.E. of Jefferson City. Pop. (1890)
4314; (1900) 4883 (1167 negroes); (1010) 5228. It is served by
the Chicago & Alton railway. The city has an important stock
market and manufactures fire-brick and pottery. At Fulton
are the Westminster College (Presbyterian, founded in 1853),
the Synodical College for Young Women (Pres., founded in
1871), the William Woods College for Girls (Christian Church,
1890), and'the Missouri school for the deaf (1851). Here, too,
is a state hospital for the insane (1847), the first institution
of the kind in Missouri. The place was laid out as a town in
1825 and named Volney, but in honour of Robert Fulton the
present name was adopted a little later. Fulton was incorporated
in 1859.
FULTON, a city of Oswego county, New York, U.S.A., on the
right bank of the Oswego river, about 10 m. S. by E. of Oswego.
Pop. (1000) 5281; (1905, state census) 8847; (1910) 10,480.
Fulton is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, the
New York Central & Hudson River, and the New York, Ontario
& Western railways, by electric railway to Oswego and Syracuse
and by the Oswego Canal. The city has a Carnegie library.
Ample water-power is furnished by the Oswego river, which here
flows in a series of rapids, and the manufactures are many in
kind. On the 3rd of July 1756, on an island (afterward called
Battle Island) 4 m. N. of the present city of Fulton, a British
force of about 300 under Captainjjohn Bradstreet (1711-1774)
defeated an attacking force of French and Indians (numbering
about 700) under De Villiers. Soon after this, Bradstreet built
a fort within the present limits of Fulton. The first civilian
settler came in 1793, and the first survey (which included only
a part of the subsequent village) was made in 1815. Fulton
was incorporated as a village in 1835, and in April 1902 was
combined with the village of Oswego Falls (pop. in 1900, 2925)
and was chartered as a city.
FUM, or FUNJ HWANG, one of the four symbolical creatures
which in Chinese mythology are believed to keep watch and ward
over the Celestial Empire. It was begotten by fire, was born in
the Hill of the Sun's Halo, and its body bears inscribed on it
the five cardinal virtues. It has the breast of a goose, the hind-
quarters of a stag, a snake's neck, a fish's tail, a fowl's forehead,
a duck's down, the marks of a dragon, the back of a tortoise,
the face of a swallow, the beak of a cock, is about six cubits high,
and perches only on the woo-tung tree. The appearance of Fum
heralds an age of universal virtue. Its figure is that which is
embroidered on the dresses of some mandarins.
FUHARIC AND MALEIC ACIDS, two isomeric unsaturated
acids of composition C 4 H 4 O 4 . Fumaric acid is found in fumitory
(Fumaria officinalis), in various fungi (Agaricus piperatus, &c.),
and in Iceland moss. It is obtained by heating malic acid alone
to 150 C., or by heating it with hydrochloric acid (V. Dessaignes,
Jahresb., 1856, p. 463) or with a large quantity of hydrobromic
acids (A. Kekule, Ann., 1864, 130, p. 21). It may also be obtained
by boiling monobromsuccinic acid with water; by the action of
dichloracetic acid and water on silver malonate (T. Komnenos,
Ann., 1883, 218, p. 169); by the cyanide synthesis from acetylene
di-iodide; and by heating maleic acid to 210 C. (Z. Skraup,
Monats.f. Chemie, 1891, 12, p. 112). It crystallizes in small
prisms or needles, and is practically insoluble in cold water. It
sublimes to some extent at about 200 C., being partially con-
verted into maleic anhydride and water, the reaction becoming
practically quantitative if dehydrating agents be used. Reducing
agents (zinc and caustic alkali, hydriodic acid, sodium amalgam,
&c.) convert it into succinic acid. Bromine converts it into
dibromsuccinic acid. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to
racemic acid (A. KekulS and R. Anschutz, Ber., 1881, 14,
p. 713). By long-continued heating with caustic soda at 100 C.
it is converted into inactive malic acid.
Maleic acid is obtained by distilling malic or fumaric acids;
by heating fumaric acid with acetyl chloride to 100 C.; or by
the hydrolysis of trichlorphenomalic acid (/3-trichloraceto-
acrylic acid) [A. Kekul6, Ann., 1884, 223, p. 185]. It crystallizes
in monoclinic prisms, which are easily soluble in water, melt
at 130 C., and boil at 160 C., decomposing into water and
maleic anhydride. When heated with concentrated hydrobromic
or hydriodic acids, it is converted into fumaric acid. It yields
an anilide; oxidation converts it into mesotartaric acid. Maleic
anhydride is obtained by distilling fumaric acid with phosphorus
pentoxide. It forms triclinic crystals which melt at 60 C. and
boil at 196 C.
Both acids are readily esterified by the action of alkyl halides on
their silver salts, and the maleic ester is readily transformed into the
fumaric ester by warming with iodine, the same result being obtained
by esterification of maleic acid in alcoholic solution by means of
hydrochloric acid. Both acids yield acetylene by the electrolysis
of aqueous solutions of their alkali salts, and on reduction both
yield succinic acid, whilst by the addition of hydrobromic acid they
both yield monobromsuccinic acid (R. Fittig,.4w., 1877, 188, p. 98).
From these results it follows that the two acids are structurally
identical, and the isomerism has consequently to be explained on
other grounds. This was accomplished by W. Wislicenus [" Uber
die raumliche Anordnung der Atome," &c., Trans, of the Saxon Acad.
of Sciences (Math. Phys. Section), 1887, p. 14] by an extension of
the van't Hoff hypothesis (see STEREO-!SOMERISM). The formulae
of the acids are written thus:
HC-CO,H .... . . HC-CO,H
HC.CO,H Malelcac ' d - HO,C.C.H
These account for maleic acid readily yielding an anhydride, whereas
fumaric acid does not, and for the behaviour of the acids towards
bromine, fumaric acid yielding ordinary dibromsuccinic acid, and
maleic acid the isomeric isodibromsuccinic acid.
FUMAROLE, a vent from which volcanic vapours issue,
named indirectly from the Lat. fumariolum, a smoke-hole.
Fumaric acid.
FU MIGATION FUNCTION
301
The vapours from fumaroles were studied first by R. W. Bunsen,
on his visit to Iceland, and afterwards by H. Sainte-CIaire Deville
and other chemists and geologists in France, who examined the
vapours from Santorin, Etna, &c. The hottest vapours issue
from dry fumaroles, at temperatures of at least 500 C., and
consist chiefly of anhydrous chlorides, notably sodium chloride.
The acid fumaroles yield vapours of tower temperature (300 to
400) containing much water vapour, with hydrogen chloride
and sulphur dioxide. The alkaline fumaroles are still cooler,
though above 100*, and evolve ammonium chloride with other
vapours. Cold fumaroles, below 100, discharge principally
aqueous vapour, with carbon dioxide, and perhaps hydrogen
sulphide. The fumaroles of Mont Pete in Martinique during the
eruption of 1002 were examined by A. Lacrolx, and the vapours
analysed by H. Moissan. who found that they consisted chiefly
of water vapour, with hydrogen chloride, sulphur, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, methane, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
argon. These vapours issued at a temperature of about 400.
Annand Gautier has pointed out that these gases are practically
of the same composition as those which he obtained on heating
granite and certain other rocks. (See VOLCANO).
FUMIGATION (from Lat. fumigare, to smoke), the process
of producing smoke or fumes, as by burning sulphur, frankin-
cense, tobacco, &c., whether as a ceremony of incantation, or
for perfuming a room, or for purposes of disinfection or destruc-
tion of vermin. In medicine the term has been used of the ex-
posure of the body, or a portion of it, to fumes such as those of
nitre, sal-ammoniac, mercury, &c.; fumigation, by the injection
of tobacco smoke icto the great bowel, was a recognized procedure
in the iSth century for the resuscitation of the apparently
drowned. " Fumigated " or " fumed " oak is oak which has
been darkened by exposure to ammonia vapour.
FUMITORY, in botany, the popular name for the British
species of Fumaria, a genus of small, branched, often climbing
annual herbs with much-divided leaves and racemes of small
flowers. The flowers are tubular with a spurred base, and in the
British species are pink to purplish in colour. They are weeds of
cultivation growing in fields and waste places. P. capreolata
climbs by means of twisting petioles. In past times fumitory
was in esteem for its reputed cholagogue and other medicinal
properties; and in England, boiled in water, milk or whey, it
was used as a cosmetic. The root of the allied species (Corydaiis
i or luberosa) is known as radix arislolochia, and has been used
lly for various cutaneous and other disorders, in doses
of 10 to 30 grains. Some eleven alkaloids have been isolated
from it. The herbage of Fumaria officinalis and F. racemosa is
used in China under the name of Tae-kwa-ti-ting as an applica-
tion for glandular swellings, carbuncles and abscesses, and was
formerly valued in jaundice, and in cases of accidental swallowing
of the beard of grain (see F. Porter Smith, Contrib. towards the
Mat. liediea . . . of China, p. oo, 1871). The name fumitory,
Latin fumus Urrae, has been supposed to be derived from the
fact that its juice irritates the eyes like smoke (see Fuchs, De
kistoria stirpium, p. 338, 1542); but The Crete Herball, cap.
clxix., 1529, foL, following the De simpliti medicine of Platearius,
fo. wiii. (see in Nicolai Praepositi dispenmtorium ad aromalarios,
1536), says: " It is called Fumus terre fume or smoke of the
erthe bycause it is engendred of a cours fumosyte rysynge frome
the erthe in grete quantyte lyke smoke: this grosse or cours
fumosyte of the erthe wyndeth and wryeth out: and by work-
ynge of the ayre and sonne it turneth into this herbe. "
FUNCHAL. the capital of the Portuguese archipelago of the
Madeiras; on the south coast of Madeira, in 32 37' N. and
1 6* 54' W. Pop. (1000) 20,850. Funchal is the see of a bishop,
in the archiepiscopal province of Lisbon ; it is also the admini-
strative centre of the archipelago, and the residence of the
governor and foreign consuls. The city has an attractive
appearance from the sea. Its whitewashed houses, in their
gardens full of tropical plants, are built along the curving shore
of Funchal Bay, and on the lower slopes of an amphitheatre of
mountains, which form a background 4000 ft. high. Numerous
country bouses (quintal), with terraced gardens, vineyards and
sugar-cane plantations occupy the surrounding heights. Three
mountain streams traverse the city through deep channels,
which in summer are dry, owing to the diversion of the water
for irrigation. A small fort, on an isolated rock off shore,
guards the entrance to the bay, and a larger and more powerfully
armed fort crowns an eminence inland. The chief buildings
include the cathedral, Anglican and Presbyterian churches,
hospitals, opera-house, museum and casino. There are small
public gardens and a meteorological observatory. In the steep
and narrow streets, which are lighted by electricity, wheeled
traffic is impossible; sledges drawn by oxen, and other primitive
conveyances are used instead (see MADEIRA). In winter the fine
climate and scenery attract numerous invalids and other visitors,
for whose accommodation there are good hotels; many foreigners
engaged in the coal and wine trades also reside here permanently.
The majority of these belong to the British community, which
was first established here in the i8th century. Funchal is the
headquarters of Madeiran industry and commerce (see MADEIRA) .
It has no docks and no facilities for landing passengers or goods;
vessels are obliged to anchor in the roadstead, which, however,
is sheltered from every wind except the south. Funchal is
connected by cable with Carcavellos (for Lisbon), Porthcurnow
(for Falmouth, England) and St Vincent in the Cape Verde
Islands (for Pernambuco, Brazil).
FUNCTION, 1 in mathematics, a variable number the value
of which depends upon the values of one or more other variable
numbers. The theory of functions is conveniently divided into
(I.) Functions of Real Variables, wherein real, and only real,
numbers are involved, and (II.) Functions of Complex Variables,
wherein complex or imaginary numbers are involved.
I. FUNCTIONS OF REAL VARIABLES
i. Historical. The word function, defined in the above sense,
was introduced by Leibnitz in a short note of date 1694 con-
cerning the construction of what we now call an " envelope "
(Leibnizens mathematische Schriflen, edited by C. I. Gerhardt,
Bd. v. p. 306), and was there used to denote a variable length
related in a defined way to a variable point of a curve. In 1698
James Bernoulli used the word in a special sense in connexion with
some isoperimetric problems (Joh. Bernoulli, Opera, t. i. p. 255).
He said that when it is a question of selecting from an infinite set
of like curves that one which best fulfils some function, then of
two curves whose intersection determines the thing sought one
is always the "line of the function" (Linea functionis) . In 1718
John Bernoulli (Opera, t. ii. p. 241) defined a " function of a
variable magnitude " as a quantity made up in any way of this
variable magnitude and constants; and in 1730 (Opera, t. iii.
p. 174) he noted a distinction between " algebraic " and " tran-
scendental " functions. By the latter he meant integrals of
algebraic functions. The notation /(x) for a function of a variable
x was introduced by Leonhard Euler in 1734 '(Comm. Acad.
Petropol. t. vii. p. 186), in connexion with the theorem of the
interchange of the order of differentiations. The notion of
functionality or functional relation of two magnitudes was thus
of geometrical origin; but a function soon came to be regarded
as an analytical expression, not necessarily an algebraic expres-
sion, containing the variable or variables. Thus we may have
rational integral algebraic functions such as a* 1 + bx + c, or
rational algebraic functions which are not integral, such as
or irrational algebraic functions, such as V x, or, more generally
the algebraic functions that are determined implicitly by an
algebraic equation, as, for instance,
1 The word " function " (from Lat. fungi, to perform) hag many
uses, with the fundamental sense of an activity special or proper
to an office, business or profession, or to an organ of an animal 01
plant, the definite work for which the organ is an apparatus. From
the use of the word, as in the Italian Junzione, for a ceremony of
the Roman Churchj " function " is often employed for a public
ceremony of any land, and loosely of a social entertainment or
gathering.
302
FUNCTION
where f*(x,y), . . . mean homogeneous expressions in x and y
having constant coefficients, and having the degrees indicated
by the suffixes, and / is a constant. Or again we may have
trigonometrical functions, such as sin x and tan x, or inverse
trigonometrical functions, such as sin" 1 *, orexponential functions,
such as e* and a", or logarithmic functions, such as log * and log
(i+x). We may have these functional symbols combined in
various ways, and thus there arises a great number of functions.
Further we may have functions of more than one variable, as, for
instance, the expression xy/(x? + y 2 ), in which both x and y are
regarded as variable. Such functions were introduced into
analysis somewhat unsystematically as the need for them arose,
and the later developments of analysis led to the introduction
of other classes of functions.
2. Graphic Representation. In the case of a function of one
variable x, any value of x and the corresponding value y of the
function can be the co-ordinates of a point in a plane. To any
value of x there corresponds a point N on the axis of x, in accord-
ance with the rule that x is the abscissa of N. The corresponding
value of y determines a point P in accordance with the rule that
x is the abscissa and y the ordinate of P. The ordinate y gives
the value of the function which corresponds to that value of
the variable x which is specified by N; and it may be described
as " the value of the function at N." Since there is a one-to-one
correspondence of the points N and the numbers x, we may also
describe the ordinate as " the value of the function at x." In
simple cases the aggregate of the points P which are determined
by any particular function (of one variable) is a curve, called
the " graph of the function " (see 14). In like manner a function
of two variables defines a surface.
3. The Variable. Graphic methods of representation, such
as those just described, enabled mathematicians to deal with
irrational values of functions and variables at the time when there
was no theory of irrational numbers other than Euclid's theory
of incommensurables. In that theory an irrational number was
the ratio of two incommensurable geometric magnitudes. In
the modern theory of number irrational numbers are defined in
a purely arithmetical manner, independent of the measurement
of any quantities or magnitudes, whether geometric or of any
other kind. The definition is effected by means of the system
of ordinal numbers (see NUMBER). When this formal system is
established, the theory of measurement may be founded upon it;
and, in particular, the co-ordinates of a point are defined as
numbers (not lengths), which are assigned in accordance with a
rule. This rule involves the measurement of lengths. The theory
of functions can be developed without any reference to graphs, or
co-ordinates or lengths. The process by which analysis has been
freed from any consideration of measurable quantities has been
called the " arithmetization of analysis." In the theory so
developed, the variable upon which a function depends is always
to be regarded as a number, and the corresponding value of the
function is also a number. Any reference to points or co-
ordinates is to be regarded as a picturesque mode of expression,
pointing to a possible application of the theory to geometry.
The development of " arithmetized analysis" in the igth century
is associated with the name of Karl Weierstrass.
All possible values of a variable are numbers. In what
follows we shall confine our attention to the case where the
numbers are real. When complex numbers are introduced,
instead of real ones, the theory of functions receives a wide
extension, which is accompanied by appropriate limitations
(see below, II. Functions of Complex Variables). The set of all
real numbers forms a continuum. In fact the notion of a one-
dimensional continuum first becomes precise in virtue of the
establishment of the system of real numbers.
4. Domain of a Variable. Theory of Aggregates. The notion
of a " variable " is that of a number to which we may assign
at pleasure any one of the values that belong to some chosen set,
or aggregate, of numbers; and this set, or aggregate, is called
the " domain of the variable." This domain may be an
" interval," that is to say it may consist of two terminal numbers,
all the numbers between them and no others. When this is
the case the number is said to be " continuously variable.''
When the domain consists of all real numbers, the variable is
said to be " unrestricted." A domain which consists of all the
real numbers which exceed some fixed number may be described
as an " interval unlimited towards the right "; similarly we
may have an interval " unlimited towards the left."
In more complicated cases we must have some rule or process for
assigning the aggregate of numbers which constitute the domain of
a variable. The methods of definition of particular types of aggre-
gates, and the theorems relating to them, form a branch of analysis
called the " theory of aggregates ' (Mengenlehre, Theorie des ensembles,
Theory of sets of points). The notion of an " aggregate " in general
underlies the system of ordinal numbers. An aggregate is said to
be " infinite " when it is possible to effect a one-to-one correspond-
ence of all its elements to some of its elements. For example, we
may make all the integers correspond to the even integers, by making
I correspond to 2, 2 to 4, and generally n to 2. The aggregate of
positive integers is an infinite aggregate. The aggregates of all
rational numbers and of all real numbers and of points on a line are
other examples of infinite aggregates. An aggregate whose elements
are real numbers is said to extend to infinite values " if, after any
number N, however great, is specified, it is possible to find in the
aggregate numbers which exceed N in absolute value. Such an
aggregate is always infinite. The " neighbourhood of a number
(or point) a for a positive number h " is the aggregate of all numbers
(or points) x for which the absolute value of x a denoted by
I x a\, does not exceed h.
5. General Notion of Functionality. A function of one variable
was for a long time commonly regarded as the ordinate of a
curve; and the two notions (i) that which is determined by a
curve supposed drawn, and (2) that which is determined by an
analytical expression supposed written down, were not for a
long time clearly distinguished. It was for this reason that
Fourier's discovery that a single analytical expression is capable
of representing (in different parts of an interval) what would
in his time have been called different functions so profoundly
struck mathematicians ( 23). The analysts who, in the middle
of the i pth century, occupied themselves with the theory of the
convergence of Fourier's series were led to impose a restriction
on the character of a function in order that it should admit of
such representation, and thus the door was opened for the
introduction of the general notion of functional dependence.
This notion may be expressed as follows: We have a variable
number, y, and another variable number, x, a domain of the
variable *, and a rule for assigning one or more definite values
to y when x is any point in the domain; then y is said to be a
" function " of the variable x, and x is called the " argument "
of the function. According to this notion a function is, as it
were, an indefinitely extended table, like a table of logarithms;
to each point in the domain of the argument there correspond
values for the function, but it remains arbitrary what values the
function is to have at any such point.
For the specification of any particular function two things are
requisite: (i) a statement of the values of the variable, or of the
aggregate of points, to which values of the function are to be made
to correspond, i.e. of the " domain of the argument "; (2) a rule
for assigning the value or values of the function that correspond to
any point in this domain. We may refer to the second of these two
essentials as " the rule of calculation." The relation of functions
to analytical expressions may then be stated in the form that the
rule of calculation is: " Give the function the value of the expression
at any point at which the expression has a determinate value," or
again more generally, " Give the function the value of the expression
at all points of a definite aggregate_ included in the domain of the
argument." The former of these is the rule of those among the
earlier analysts who regarded an analytical expression and a function
as the same thing, and their usage may be retained without causing
confusion and with the advantage of brevity, the analytical expres-
sion serving to specify the domain of the argument as well_ as the
rule of calculation, e.g. we may speak of " the function i/x." This
function is defined by the analytical expression i/x at all points
except the point * = o. But in complicated cases separate state-
ments of the domain of the argument and the rule of calculation
cannot be dispensed with. In general, when the rule of calculation
is determined as above by an analytical expression at any aggregate
of points, the function is said to be " represented " by the expression
at those points.
When the rule of calculation assigns a single definite value tor a
function at each point in the domain of the argument the function
is " uniform " or " one-valued." In what follows it is to be under-
stood that all the functions considered are one- valued, and the values
FUNCTION
303
by the rule of calculation real. In the mcwt important
the domain of the argument of a function of one variable is an
interval. irh the possible exception of isolated point*.
6. Limits. Let /(x) be a function of a variable number A ;
and let a be a point such that there are points of the domain
of the argument i in the neighbourhood of a for any number
A, however small. If there is a number L which has the property
that, after any positive number , however small, has been
specified, it is possible to find a positive number h, so that
\L /(*)| <t for all points x of the domain (other than a) for
which \s <i| <*. then L is the " limit of /(x) at the point a."
The condition for the existence of L is that, after the positive
number has been specified, it must be possible to find a positive
number A, so that |/(x') /(x)|< for all points x and x' of
the domain (other than a) for which \x a|<Aand jx* a\<h.
It is a fundamental theorem tha.t, when this condition is
satisfied, there exists a perfectly definite number L which is the
limit of /(x) at the point a as defined above. The limit otf(x)
at the point a is denoted by Lt,* t f(x), or by lim, = ./(x).
If /(x) is a function of one variable x in a domain which extends
to infinite values, and if, after has been specified, it is possible to
find a number -V. so that | /(*') /(x)| <for all values of x and x'
which are in the domain and exceed N, then there is a number L
which has the property that \f(x) L\ < for all such values of x.
In this case/(x) has a limit L at x. In like manner /(x) may
have a limit at x o. This statement includes the case where
the domain of the argument consists exclusively of positive integers.
The values of the function then form a " sequence," HI, u,, . . .
,,..., and this sequence can have a limit at n oo.
The principle common to the above definitions and theorems is
called, after P. du Bois Reymond, " the general principle of con-
vergence to a limit."
It must be understood that the phrase " x-oo " does not mean
that x takes tome particular value which is infinite. There is no
such value. The phrase always refers to a limiting process in which,
as the process is carried out, the variable number x increases without
limit; it may, as in the above example of a sequence, increase by
taking successively the values of all the integral numbers; in other
cases it may increase by taking the values that belong to any domain
which " extends to infinite values."
A very important type of limits is furnished by infinite series.
When a sequence of numbers ,, ,... , ... is given, we may
form a new sequence s,, s,, . . .s from it by the rules s, = ui,
II-NI + IH. ... *.-i+i+ +., or by the equivalent rules
Ji , *. J-i *(" * 3. ) If the new sequence has a limit
at -*, this limit is called the "sum of the infinite series"
SH-HN+. . -, and the series is said to be "convergent" (see
Scums).
A function which has not a limit at a point a may be such that,
if a certain aggregate of points is chosen out of the domain of the
argument, andthe points x in the neighbourhood of a are restricted
to belong to this aggregate, then the function has a limit at a. For
example. sin(i/x) has limit zero at o if x is restricted to the
aggregate I/, l/2w. . . . l/nv, ... or to the aggregate i/2r,
- ~w . . /(*+!)*, .... but if x takes all values in the neighbour-
hood of o. sin (l/x) has not a limit at o. Again, there may be a limit
at a if the points x in the neighbourhood of a are restricted by the
condition that x o is positive; then we have a " limit on the
right " at a; similarly we may have a " limit on the left " at a
point. Any such limit is described as a " limit for a restricted
domain." The limits on the left and on the right are denoted by
/(-o)and/(a+o).
The limit L of ffx) at a stands in no necessary relation to the value
of /(x) at . If the point a is in the domain of the argument, the
value of /(x) at a is assigned by the rule of calculation, and may be
different from L. In case /(o) L the limit is said to be " attained."
If the point a is not in the domain of the argument, there is no value
for/(x) at o. In the case where /(x) is defined for all points in an
interval containing a, except the point a, and has a limit L at a,
we may arbitrarily annex the point a to the domain of the argument
and assign to /(a) the value L; the function may then be said to
be " extnnsically denned." The so-called " indeterminate forms "
(see IxrixiTCSTMAL CALCULUS) are examples.
7. Superior and Inferior Limits; Infinities. The value of a
function at every point in the domain of its argument is finite,
since, by definition, the value can be assigned, but this does not
necessarily imply that there is a number ff which exceeds all
the values (or is less than all the values). It may happen that,
however great a number N we Uke, there are among the values
of the function numbers which exceed .V (or are less than - N).
If a number can be found which is greater than every value
of the function, then either (a) there is one value of the function
which exceeds all the others, or (/3) there is a number S which
exceeds every value of the function but is such that, however
small a positive number* we take, there are values of the function
which exceed 5 -. In the case (a) the function has a greatest
value; in case (0) the function has a " superior limit " 5, and
then there must be a point a which has the property that there
are points of the domain of the argument, in the neighbourhood
of a for any h, at which the values of the function differ from
5 by less than . Thus S is the limit of the function at a, either
for the domain of the argument or for some more restricted
domain. If a is in the domain of the argument, and if, after
omission of a, there is a superior limit 5 which is in this way the
limit of the function at a, if further/(o) -5, then 5 is the greatest
value of the function; in this case the greatest value is a limii
(at any rate for a restricted domain) which is attained; it may
be called a " superior limit which is attained." In like manner
we may have a " smallest value " or an " inferior limit," and a
smallest value may be an "inferior limit which is attained."
All that has been said here may be adapted to the description of
greatest values, superior limits, &c., of a function in a restricted
domain contained in the domain of the argument. In particular,
the domain of the argument may contain an interval; and therein
the function may have a superior limit, or an inferior limit, which
is attained. Such a limit is a maximum value or a minimum value
of the function.
Again, if, after any number N, however great, has been specified,
it is possible to find points of the domain of the argument at which
the value of the function exceeds N, the values of the function are
said to have an " infinite superior limit," and then there must be
a point o which has the property that there are points of the domain,
in the neighbourhood of o for any h, at which the value of the function
exceeds N. If the point a is in the domain of the argument the
function is said to " tend to become infinite " at a; it has of course
a finite value at a. It the point a is not in the domain of the argu-
ment the function is said to " become infinite " at a; it has of
course no value at a. In like manner we may have a (negatively)
infinite inferior limit. Again, after any number N, however great,
has been specified and a number h found, so that all the values of
the function, at points in the neighbourhood of a for h, exceed TV in
absolute value, all these values may have the same sign; the function
is then said to become, or to tend to become, determinately
(positively or negatively) infinite "; otherwise it is said to become
or to tend to become, " indeterminately infinite."
All the infinities that occur in the theory of functions are of the
nature of variable finite numbers, with the single exception of the
infinity of an infinite aggregate. The latter is described as an
" actual infinity," the former as " improper infinities." There is no
" actual infinitely small " correspondine to the actual infinity.
The only " infinitely small " is zero. All " infinite values " are of
the nature of superior and inferior limits which are not attained.
8. Increasing and Decreasing Functions. A f unction /(x) of one
variable x, defined in the interval between a and b, is " increasing
throughout the interval " if, whenever x and x' are two numbers
in the interval and x'>x, then f(x') >/(*); the function "never
decreases throughout the interval " if, x' and x being as before,
/(x') >/(x). Similarly for decreasing functions, and for functions
which never increase throughout an interval. A function which
either never increases or never diminishes throughout an interval
is said to be " monotonous throughout " the interval. If we take
in the above definition b > a, the definition may apply to a function
under the restriction that y! is not b and * is not a; such a
function is " monotonous within " the interval. In this case we
have the theorem that the function (if it never decreases) has
a limit on the left at b and a limit on the right at a, and these are
the superior and inferior limits of its values at all points within
the interval (the ends excluded) ; the like holds mutatis mutandis
if the function never increases. If the function is monotonous
throughout the interval, /(ft) is the greatest (or least) value
of /(x) in the interval; and if /(ft) is the limit of /(x) on the left
at ft, such a greatest (or least) value is an example of a superior
(or inferior) limit which is attained. In these cases the function
tends continually to its limit.
These theorems and definitions can be extended, with obvious
modifications, to the cases of a domain which is not an interval, or
extends to infinite values. By means of them we arrive at sufficient,
but not necessary, criteria for the existence of a limit; and these
are frequently easier to apply than the general principle of conver-
gence to a limit ( 6), of which principle they are particular cases.
For example, the function represented by x log (I'x) continually
FUNCTION
diminishes when i/e>x>o and x diminishes towards zero, and it
never becomes negative. It therefore has a limit on the right at
x o. This limit is zero. The function represented by x sin (i/x)
does not continually diminish towards zero as x diminishes towards
zero, but is sometimes greater than zero and sometimes less than
zero in any neighbourhood of x = o, however small. Nevertheless,
the function has the limit zero at * =o.
9. Continuity of Functions. A function /(*) of one variable x
is said to be continuous at a point a if (i) f(x) is defined in an
interval containing a; (2) /(*) has a limit at a; (3) /(a) is
equal to this limit. The limit in question must be a limit for
continuous variation, not for a restricted domain. If f(x) has
a limit on the left at a and /(a) is equal to this limit, the function
may be said to be " continuous to the left " at a; similarly the
function may be " continuous to the right " at a.
A function is said to be " continuous throughout an interval "
when it is continuous at every point of the interval. This implies
continuity to the right at the smaller end-value and continuity
to the left at the greater end- value. When these conditions at the
ends are not satisfied the function is said to be continuous
" within " the interval. By a " continuous function " of one
variable we always mean a function which is continuous through-
out an interval.
The principal properties of a continuous function are:
1. The function is practically constant throughout sufficiently
small intervals. This means that, after any point a of the interval
has been chosen, and any positive number t, however small, has
been specified, it is possible to find a number h, so that the difference
between any two values of the function in the interval between
a ft and a+ft is less than e. There is an obvious modification if a
is an end-point of the interval.
2. The continuity of the function is " uniform." This means
that the number h which corresponds to any t as in (i) may be the
same at all points of the interval, or, in other words, that the numbers
ft which correspond to e for different values of a have a positive
inferior limit.
3. The function has a greatest value and a least value in the
interval, and these are superior and inferior limits which are attained.
4. There is at least one point of the interval at which the function
takes any value between its greatest and least values in the interval.
5. If the interval is unlimited towards the right (or towards the
left), the function has a limit at (or at oo).
10. Discontinuity of Functions. The discontinuities of a
function of one variable, defined in an interval with the possible
exception of isolated points, may be classified as follows:
(i) The function may become infinite, or tend to become
infinite, at a point.
(i) The function may be undefined at a point.
(3) The function may have a limit on the left and a limit on
the right at the same point; these may be different from each
other, and at least one of them must be different from the value
of the function at the point.
(4) The function may have no limit at a point, or no limit on
the left, or no limit on the right, at a point.
In case a function /(*), defined as above, has no limit at a point a,
there are four limiting values which come into consideration. What-
ever positive number ft we take, the values of the function at points
between a and a+h (a excluded) have a superior limit (or a greatest
value), and an inferior limit (or a least value) ; further, as ft decreases,
the former never increases and the latter never decreases; accordingly
each of them tends to a limit. We have in this way two limits on
the right the inferior limit of the superior limits in diminishing
neighbourhoods, and the superior limit of the inferior limits in
diminishing neighbourhoods. These are denoted by /(a+o) and
/(a+o), and they are called the " limits of indefiniteness " on the
right. Similar limits on the left are denoted by /(a o) and /(a o).
Unless /(x) becomes, or tends to become, infinite at a, all these must
exist, any two of them may be equal, and at least one of them must
be different from /(a), if /(a) exists. If the first two are equal there
is a limit on the right denoted by /(a+o) ; if the second two are
equal, there is a limit on the left denoted by /(a o). In case the
function becomes, or .tends to become, infinite at a, one or more of
these limits i.s infinite in the sense explained in 7 ; and now it is
to be noted that, e.g. the superior limit of the inferior limits in
diminishing neighbourhoods on the right of a may be negatively
infinite; this happens if, after any number N, however great, has
been specified, it is possible to find a positive number ft, so that all
the values of the function in the interval between a and a+ft (a
excluded) are less than N; in such a case /(x) tends to become
negatively infinite when * decreases towards a; other modes of
tending to infinite limits may be described in similar terms.
11. Oscillation of Functions. The difference between the
greatest and least of the numbers /(a), /(a+o),/(o+o),/(a-o),
f(a-o), when they are all finite, is called the " oscillation " or
" fluctuation " of the function/(z) at the point a. This difference
is the limit for &=o of the difference between the superior and
inferior limits of the values of the function at points in the
interval between a-h and a+h. The corresponding difference
for points in a finite interval is called the " oscillation of the
function in the interval." When any of the four limits of
indefiniteness is infinite the oscillation is infinite in the sense
explained in 7.
For the further classification of functions we divide the domain
of the argument into partial intervals by means of points between
the end-points. Suppose that the domain is the interval between a
and b. Let intermediate points x\, % ... x^-i, be taken so that
6>*n-i>*_2 >xi>a. We may devise a rule by which, as n
increases indefinitely, all the differences 6 *_!, x n _i x^-i, . . . Xia
tend to zero as a limit. The interval is then said to be divided
into " indefinitely small partial intervals."
A function defined in an interval with the possible exception of
isolated points may be such that the interval can be divided into a
set of finite partial intervals within each of which the function is
monotonous ( 8). When this is the case the sum of the oscillations
of the function in those partial intervals is finite, provided the
function does not tend to become infinite. Further, in such a case
the sum of the oscillations will remain below a fixed number for any
mode of dividing the interval into indefinitely small partial intervals.
A class of functions may be defined by the condition that the sum
of the oscillations has this property, and such functions are said
to have " restricted oscillation. Sometimes the phrase " limited
fluctuation " is used. It can be proved that any function with
restricted 6scillation is capable of being expressed as the sum of
two monotonous functions, of which one never increases and the other
never diminishes throughout the interval. Such a function has a
limit on the right and a limit on the left at every point of the interval.
This class of functions includes all those which have a finite number
of maxima and minima in a finite-interval, and some which have an
infinite number. It is to be noted that the class does not include all
continuous functions.
12. Differentiate Function. The idea of the differentiation
of a continuous function is that of a process for measuring the
rate of growth; the increment of the function is compared with
the increment of the variable. If f(x) is defined in an interval
containing the point a, and a-k and a-\-k are points of the
interval, the expression
/(a+ft) -/(a) (I)
ft
represents a function of h, which we may call <t>(h), defined at all
points of an interval for h between -k and k except the point o.
Thus the four limits </>(+o), <ft(+o), <j>(-o), <t>( o) exist, and two
or more of them may be equal. When the first two are equal
either of them is the " progressive differential coefficient " of
f(x) at the point a; when the last two are equal either of them
is the " regressive differential coefficient " of f(x) at a; when all
four are equal the function is said to be " differentiate " at a,
and either of them is the " differential coefficient " of f(x) at a,
or the " first derived function " of f(x) at a. It is denoted by
-^ or by f'(x). In this case 4>(h) has a definite limit at A=o,
or is determinately infinite at h = o ( 7) . The four limits here in
question are called, after Dini, the " four derivates " of f(x) at a.
In accordance with the notation for derived functions they may
be denoted by
/V(a7, A(a), n^f'-(a)..
A function which has a finite differential coefficient at all points
of an interval is continuous throughout the interval, but if the
differential coefficient becomes infinite at a point of the interval
the function may or may not be continuous throughout the interval ;
on the other hand a function may be continuous without being
differentiable. This result, comparable in importance, from the
point of view of the general theory of functions, with the discovery
of Fourier's theorem, is due to G. F. B. Riemann; but the failure
of an attempt made by Ampere to prove that every continuous
function must be differentiable may be regarded as the first step in
the theory. Examples of analytical expressions which represent
continuous functions that are not differentiable have been given by
Riemann, Weierstrass, Darboux and Dini (see 24). The most
important theorem in regard to differentiable functions is the
"theorem of intermediate value." (See INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.)
FUNCTION
305
15. Analytic Function. II /() and its first n differential
coefficients, denoted by f(x),J"(x), . . . /(") (x), are continuous
in the interval between a and o+k, then
where R. may have various forms, some of which are given in
the article INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS. This result is known as
" Taylor's theorem."
When Talyor's theorem leads to a representation of the
function by means of an infinite series, the function is said to be
"analytic" (d. { ai).
14. Ordinary Function. The idea of a curve representing a
continuous function in an interval is that of a line which has the
following properties: (i) the co-ordinates of a point of the curve
are a value x of the argument and the corresponding value y of
the function; (2) at every point the curve has a definite tangent;
(j) the interval can be divided into a finite number of partial
intervals within each of which the function is monotonous;
(4) the property of monotony within partial intervals is retained
after interchange of the axesof co-ordinates x and y. According
to condition (2) y is a continuous and differentiable function
of x, but this condition does not include conditions (3) and (4):
there are continuous partially monotonous functions which are
not differentiable, there are continuous differentiable functions
which are not monotonous in any interval however small; and
there are continuous, differentiable and monotonous functions
which do not satisfy condition (4) (cf. 24). A function which
can be represented by a curve, in the sense explained above, is
said to be " ordinary," and the curve is the graph of the function
(| ). All analytic functions are ordinary, but not all ordinary
functions are analytic.
15. Integrate Function. The idea of integration is twofold.
We may seek the function which has a given function as its
differential coefficient, or we may generalize the question of
finding the area of a curve. The first inquiry leads directly to the
indefinite integral, the second directly to the definite integral.
Following the second method we define " the definite integral
of the function /(x) thfough the interval between a and 6 " to be
the limit of the sum
when the interval is divided into ultimately indefinitely small
partial intervals by points x\, x-,, . . . x-\. Here x', denotes
any point in the rth partial interval, x<> is put for a, and x, for b.
It can be shown that the limit in question is finite and inde-
pendent of the mode of division into partial intervals, and of the
choice of the points such as x',, provided (i) the function is
defined for all points of the interval, and does not tend to become
infinite at any of them; (2) for any one mode of division of the
interval into ultimately indefinitely small partial intervals, the
sum of the products of the oscillation of the function in each
partial interval and the difference of the end-values of that
partial interval has limit zero when n is increased indefinitely.
When these conditions are satisfied the function is said to be
" integrable " in the interval. The numbers a and b which limit
the interval are usually called the " lower and upper limits."
We shall call them the " nearer and further end-values." The
above definition of integration was introduced by Riemann in
his memoir on trigonometric series (1854). A still more general
definition has been given by Lebesgue. As the more general
definition cannot be made intelligible without the introduction
of some rather recondite notions belonging to the theory of
aggregates, we shall, in what follows, adhere to Riemann's
definition.
We have the following theorem*:
1. Any continuous function is integrable.
2. Any function with restricted oscillation is integrable.
3- A discontinuous function is integrable if it does not tend to
become infinite, and if the points at which the oscillation of the
fraction ncttdt a given number , however small, can be enclosed
in partial intervals the sum of whose breadths can be diminished
indefinitely.
These partial intervals must be a set chosen out of some complete
set obtained by the process used in the definition of integration.
4. The sum or product of two integrable functions is integrable.
As regards integrable functions we have the following theorems:
I. If 5 and / are the superior and inferior limits (or greatest and
least values) of f(x) in the interval between a and b, ( f(x)dx is
intermediate between 5(6 a) and 7(6 a).
3. The integral is a continuous function of each of the end-values.
3. If the further end-value ft is variable, and if C'f(x)dx-F(x),
then if /(*) is continuous at b, F(x) is differentiable at 6, and
f 4. In case/(x) is continuous throughout the interval F(x) is con-
tinuous and differentiable throughout the interval, and r'(x) f(x)
throughout the interval.
5. In case /(x) is continuous throughout the interval between a
and ft,
\J(x)dx-!(b)-f(a).
6. In case/(x) is discontinuous at one or more points of the interval
between a and ft, in which it is integrable,
'/M*
is a function of x, of which the four derivates at any point of the
interval are equal to the limits of indefiniteness of /(x) at the point.
7. It may be that there exist functions which are differentiable
throughout an interval in which their differential coefficients are
not integrable; if, however, F(x) is a function whose differential
coefficient, F'(x), is integrable in an interval, then
*)<fx-f const.,
where a is a fixed point, and x a variable point, of the interval.
Similarly, if any one of the four derivates of a function is integrable
in an interval, all are integrable, and the integral of either differs from
the original function by a constant only.
The theorems (4), (6), (7) show that there is some discrepancy
between the indefinite integral considered as the function which has
a given function as its differential coefficient, and as a definite
integral with a variable end-value.
We have also two theorems concerning the integral of the product
of two integrable functions /(x) and <t>(x); these are known as " the
first and second theorems of the mean.' The first theorem of the
mean is that, if <t>(x) is one-signed throughout the interval between
a and 6, there is a number M intermediate between the superior
and inferior limits, or greatest and least values, of /(x) in the interval,
which has the property expressed by the equation
6
The second theorem of the mean is that, if f(x) is monotonous
throughout the interval, there is a number { between a and ft which
has the property expressed by the equation
(See FOURIER'S SERIES.)
16. Improper Definite Integrals. We may extend the idea of
integration to cases of functions which are not defined at some
point, or which tend to become infinite in the neighbourhood of
some point, and to cases where the domain of the argument
extends to infinite values. II c is a. point in the interval between
a and b at which /(*) is not defined, we impose a restriction on
the points x', of the definition: none of them is to be the point c.
This comes to the same thing as definingj^ J(x)dx to be
ftodx, (i)
where, to fix ideas, ft is taken > a, and t and k are positive. The
same definition applies to the case where /(x) becomes infinite, or
tends to become infinite, at c, provided both the limits exist.
This definition may be otherwise expressed by saying that a
partial interval containing the point c is omitted from the
interval of integration, and a limit taken by diminishing the
breadth of this partial interval indefinitely; in this form it
applies to the cases where c is a or b.
Again, when the interval of integration is unlimited to the
right, or extends to positively infinite values, we have as a
definition
306
FUNCTION
provided this limit exists. Similar definitions apply to
(~~ f(.x)dx, and to f" }(x)dx.
J* J-<0
All such definite integrals as the above are said to be " improper."
f ^sin x
For example, I - dx is improper in two ways. It means
Lt Lt
in which the positive number t is first diminished indefinitely,
and the positive number h is afterwards increased indefinitely.
The " theorems of the mean " ( 15) require modification when
the integrals are improper (see FOURIER'S SERIES).
When the improper definite integral of a function which
becomes, or tends to become, infinite, exists, the integral is said
to be " convergent." If /(*) tends to become infinite at a point
c.in the interval between a and b, and the expression (i) does not
exist, then the expression f f(x)dx, which has no value, is called
a " divergent integral," and it may happen that there is a definite
value for
provided that t and e are connected by some definite relation,
and both, remaining positive, tend to limit zero. The value of
the above limit is then called a " principal value " of the divergent
integral. Cauchy's principal value is obtained by making e=e,
i.e. by taking the omitted interval so that the infinity is at
its middle point. A divergent integral which has one or more
principal values is sometimes described as " semi-convergent."
17. Domain of a Set of Variables. The numerical continuum
of M dimensions (C n ) is the aggregate that is arrived at by attribut-
ing simultaneous values to each of n variables *i, * 2 , . . *n,
these values being any real numbers. The elements of such an
aggregate are called " points," and the numbers x\, X 2 , . . . x n
the " co-ordinates " of a point. Denoting in general the points
(*i, X 2 , . . . x n ) and (yfi, x'^ . . . x' n ) by x and x', the sum of
the differences |*i *'i| + |* 2 x\ |+ . . .+ | *#' | may
be denoted by \x x'\ and called the "difference of the two
points." We can in various ways choose out of the continuum
an aggregate of points, which may be an infinite aggregate, and
any such aggregate can be the " domain " of a " variable point."
The domain is said to " extend to an infinite distance " if, after
any number N, however great, has been specified, it is possible
to find in the domain points of which one or more co-ordinates
exceed N in absolute value. The " neighbourhood " of a point
a for a (positive) number h is the aggregate constituted of all the
points x, which are such that the " difference " denoted by
[* a\<h. If an infinite aggregate of points does not extend
to an infinite distance, there must be at least one point a, which
has the property that the points of the aggregate which are in
the neighbourhood of a for any number h, however small, them-
selves constitute an infinite aggregate, and then the point a is
called a " limiting point " of the aggregate; it may or may not
be a point of the aggregate. An aggregate of points is " perfect "
when all its points are limiting points of it, and all its limiting
points are points of it; it is " connected " when, after taking
any two points a, b of it, and choosing any positive number e,
however small, a number m and points x 1 , x", . . . x (m) of the
aggregate can be found so that all the differences denoted by
I*' a|,|*" x'\, . . . 1 6 - ac (m) | are less than e. A perfect con-
nected aggregate is a continuum. This is G. Cantor's definition.
The definition of a continuum in C n leaves open the question of
the number of dimensions of the continuum, and a further explana-
tion is necessary in order to define arithmetically what is meant by a
" homogeneous part " H, of C n . Such a part would correspond to
an interval in C\, or to an area bounded by a simple closed contour
in C t ; and, besides being perfect and connected, it would have the
following properties: (i) There are points of C, which are not points
of H,; these form a complementary aggregate H',. (2) There are
points " within " H,; this means that .for any such point there is
a neighbourhood consisting exclusively of points of H,. (3) The
points of H n which do not lie " within " H, are limiting points of
'.; they are not points of H', but the neighbourhood of any such
point for any number h, however small, contains points within //
and points of H' m : the aggregate of these points is called the
" boundary " of H,. (4) When any two points a, b within H n are
taken, it is possible to find a number e and a corresponding number
m, and to choose points *', x*, . . .*<">, so that the neighbourhood
of a for ( contains x', and consists exclusively of points within H n ,
and similarly for x' and x", x" and x",. . .**") and b. Condition
(3) would exclude such an aggregate as that of the points within and
upon two circles external to each other and a line joining a point on
one to a point on the other, and condition (4) would exclude such
an aggregate as that of the points within and upon two circles which
touch externally.
18. Functions of Several Variables. A function of several
variables differs from a function of one variable in that the
argument of the function consists of a set of variables, or is a
variable point in a C n when there are n variables. The function
is definable by means of the domain of the argument and the
rule of calculation. In the most important cases the domain of
the argument is a homogeneous part H n of C n with the possible
exception of isolated points, and the rule of calculation is that
the value of the function in any assigned part of the domain
of the argument is that value which is assumed at the point by
an assigned analytical expression. The limit of a function at a
point o is defined in the same way as in the case of a function of
one variable.
We take a positive fraction e and consider the neighbourhood of a
for h, and from this neighbourhood we exclude the point a, and we
also exclude any point which is not in the domain of the argument.
Then we take x and x' to be any two of the retained points in the
neighbourhood. The function/ has a limit at a if for any positive e,
however small, there is a corresponding h which has the property
that I f(x') f(x) | < , whatever points x, x' in the neighbourhood
of a for h we take (a excluded). For example, when there are two
variables xi, * 2 , and both are unrestricted, the domain of the argu-
ment is represented by a plane, and the values of the function are
correlated with the points of the plane. The function has a limit
at a point a, if we can mark out on the plane a region containing
the point a within it, and such that the difference of the values of
the function which correspond to any two points of the region
(neither of the points being o) can be made as small as we please
in absolute value by contracting all the linear dimensions of the
region sufficiently. When the domain of the argument of a function
of n variables extends to an infinite distance, there is a " limit at
an infinite distance " if, after any number , however small, has been
specified, a number N can be found which is such that !/(*') /(*) | < f,
for all points x and x' (of the domain) of which one or more co-
ordinates exceed N in absolute value. In the case of functions of
several variables great importance attaches to limits for a restricted
domain. The definition of such a limit is verbally the same as the
corresponding definition in the case of functions of one variable
( 6). For example, a function of x\ and xt may have a limit at
(xi = o, Xz = o) if we first diminish x\ without limit, keeping #2 con-
stant, and afterwards diminish x% without limit. Expressed in
geometrical language, this process amounts to approaching the
origin along the axis of X 2 . The definitions of superior and inferior
limits, and of maxima and minima, and the explanations of what
is meant by saying that a function of several variables becomes
infinite, or tends to become infinite, at a point, are almost identical
verbally with the corresponding definitions and explanations in the
case of a function of one variable ( 7). The definition of a continuous
function ( q) admits of immediate extension; but it is very im-
portant to observe that a function of two or more variables may be
a continuous function of each of the variables, when the rest are kept
constant, without being a continuous function of its argument.
For example, a function of x and y may be defined by the conditions
that when x = o it is zero whatever value y may have, and when
x=t=o it has the value of sin (4 tan~ l (y/x)}. When yhasanyparticular
value this function is a continuous function of x, and, when x has
any particular value this function is a continuous function of y;
but the function of x and y is discontinuous at (x = o, y = o).
19. Differentiation and Integration. The definition of partial
differentiation of a function of several variables presents no
difficulty. The most important theorems concerning differ-
entiable functions are the " theorem of the total differential,"
the theorem of the interchangeability of the order of partial
differentiations, and the extension of Taylor's theorem (see
INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS).
With a view to the establishment of the notion of integration
through a domain, we must define the " extent " of the domain.
Take first a domain consisting of the point a and all the points *
for which |x-a|<P, where h is a chosen positive number;
the extent of this domain is h n ,n being the number of variables;
such a domain may be described as " square," and the number h
may be called its " breadth "; it is a homogeneous part of the
FUNCTION
307
numerical continuum of dimensions, and its boundary consists
of all the points for which \x a\ -}A. Now the points of
any domain, which does not extend to an infinite distance, may
be assigned to a finite number m of square domains of finite
breadths, so that every point of the domain is either within one
of these square domains or on its boundary, and so that no point
is within two of the square domains; also we may devise a rule
by which, as the number m increases indefinitely, the breadths
of all the square domains are diminished indefinitely. When
this process is applied to a homogeneous pan, //, of the numerical
continuum d, then, at any stage of the process, there will be
some square domains of which all the points belong to H, and
there will generally be others of which some, but not all, of the
points belong to H. As the number m is increased indefinitely
the sums of the extents of both these categories of square
domains will tend to definite limits, which cannot be negative;
when the second of these limits is zero the domain // is said to
be " measurable," and the first of these limits is its " extent ";
it is independent of the rule adopted for constructing the square
domains and contracting their breadths. The notion thus intro-
duced may be adapted by suitable modifications to continua of
lower dimensions in C,.
The jntegral of a function /(z) through a measurable domain H,
which is a homogeneous pan of the numerical continuum of H
dimensions, is denned in just the same way as the integral through
an interval, the extent of a square domain taking the place of the
difference of the end-values of a panial interval ; and the condition
of integrability takes the same form as in the simple case. In par-
ticular, the condition is satisfied when the function is continuous
throughout the domain. The definition of an integral through a
domain may be adapted to any domain of measurable extent. The
extensions to " improper " definite integrals may be made in the
ane way as for a function of one variable; in the particular case
of a function which tends to become infinite at a point in the domain
of integration, the point is enclosed in a panial domain which is
omitted from the integration, and a limit is taken when the extent
of the omitted panial domain is diminished indefinitely ; a divergent
integral may have different (principal) values for different modes
of contracting the extent of the omitted panial domain. In applica-
tions to mathematical physics great importance attaches to con-
vergent integrals and to principal values of divergent integrals.
For example, any component of magnetic force at a point within a
magnet, and the corresponding component of magnetic induction
at the same point are expressed by different principal values of the
ame divergent integral. Delicate questions arise as to the possibility
of representing the integral of a function of n variables through a
domain H*. as a repeated integral, of evaluating it by successive
integrations with respect to the variables one at a time and of inter-
changing the order of such integrations. These questions have been
diicuMed very completely by C. Jordan, and we may quote the
mult that all the transformations in question are valid when the
function is continuous throughout the domain.
. Representation of Functions in General. We have seen
that the notion of a function is wider than the notion of an
analytical expression, and that the same function may be
" represented " by one expression in one pan of the domain of
the argument and by some other expression in another part of
the domain (f 5). Thus there arises the general problem of the
representation of functions. The function may be given by
specifying the domain of the argument and the rule of calcula-
tion, or else the function may have to be determined in accord-
ance with certain conditions; for example, it may have to
satisfy in a prescribed domain an assigned differential equation.
In either case the problem is to determine, when possible, a
single analytical expression which shall have the same value as
the function at all points in the domain of the argument. For
the representation of most functions for which the problem can
be solved recourse must be had to limiting processes. Thus we
may utilize infinite series, or infinite products, or definite in-
tegrals; or again we may represent a function of one variable
as the limit of an expression containing two variables in a domain
in which one variable remains constant and another varies.
An example of this process is afforded by the expression
Lt,syl(&y+\), which represents a function of * vanishing at
* o and at all other values of * having the value of ifx. The
method of series falls under this more general process (cf. f 6).
When the terms MI. -.... of a series are functions of a variable
x, the sum s, of the first n terms of the series is a function of x
and n; and, when the scries is convergent, its sum, which is
Li, -..<, can represent a function of x. In most cases the series
converges for some values of x and not for others, and the values
for which it converges form the " domain of convergence."
The sum of the series represents a function in this domain.
The apparently more general method of representation of a
function of one variable as the limit of a function of two variables
has been shown by R. Baire to be identical in scope with the method
of series, and it has been developed by him so as to give a very
complete account of the possibility of representing functions by
analytical expressions. For example, he has shown that Riemann s
totally discontinuous function, which is equal to I when x is rational
and to o when x is irrational, can be represented by an analytical
expression. An infinite process of a different kind has been adapted
to the problem of the representation of a continuous function by
T. Broaen. He begins with a function having a graph in the form
of a regular polygon, and interpolates additional angular points in
an ordered sequence without limit. The representation of a function
by means of an infinite product falls clearly under Baire's method,
while the representation by means of a definite integral is analogous
to Broden's method. As an example of these two latter processes
we may cite the Gamma function \T(x)} defined for positive values
of x by the definite integral
or by the infinite product
LU-. n-/x(l +x)(l + Jx) . . (l + jji-j) .
The second of these expressions avails for the representation of the
function at all points at which * is not a negative integer.
21. Power Series. Taylor's theorem leads in certain cases
to a representation of a function by an infinite series. We have
under certain conditions ( 13)
and this becomes
provided that (a) a positive number k can be found so that at
all points in the interval between a and a+k (except these points)
f(x) has continuous differential coefficients of all finite orders,
and at a has progressive differential coefficients of all finite
orders; (ft) Cauchy's form of the remainder R*, viz.
''-a)), has the limit zero when n in-
creases indefinitely, for all values of between o and i, and for
all values of x in the interval between a and a+k, except possibly
a+k. When these conditions are satisfied, the series (i) repre-
sents the function at all points of the interval between a and a+k,
except possibly a+k, and the function is " analytic " ( 13) in
this domain. Obvious modifications admit of extension to an
interval between a and a k, or between a k and a+k. When
a series of the form (i) represents a function it is called " the
Taylor's series for the function."
Taylor's series is a power series, i.e. a series of the form
'
-
As regards power series we have the following theorems :
I. If the power series converges at any point except a there is a
number k which has the property that the series converges absolutely
in the interval between a k and a+k, with the possible exception
of one or both end-points.
a. The power series represents a continuous function in its domain
of convergence (the end-points may have to be excluded).
3. This function is analytic in the domain, and the power series
representing it is the Taylor's series for the function.
The theory of power series has been developed chiefly from the
point of view of the theory of functions of complex variables.
22. Uniform Convergence. We shall suppose that the domain
of convergence of an infinite series of functions is an interval with
the possible exception of isolated points. Let f(x) be the sum
of the series at any point x of the domain, and /.(*) the sum of
the first n+i terms. The condition of convergence at a point
a is that, after any positive number , however small, has been
specified, it must be possible to find a number n so that
!/() /,(a)|< for all values of m and p which exceed n.
The sum, /(a), is the limit of the sequence of numbers /.(a) at
3 o8
FUNCTION
n = w . The convergence is said to be " uniform " in an interval
if, after specification of , the same number n suffices at all
points of the interval to make | /(*)-/(*) |< e for all values of
m which exceed n. The numbers n corresponding to any e,
however small, are all finite, but, when e is less than some fixed
finite number, they may have an infinite superior limit (7);
when this is the case there must be at least one point, a, of the
interval which has the property that, whatever number N we
take, e can be taken so small that, at some point in the neigh-
bourhood of a, n must be taken > N to make \f(x) f m (x) \ < e
when m>n ; then the series does not converge uniformly in the
neighbourhood of a. The distinction may be otherwise expressed
thus : Choose a first and afterwards, then the number n is
finite; choose e first and allow a to vary, then the number n
beconjes a function of a, which may tend to become infinite, or
may remain below a fixed number; if such a fixed number
exists, however small e may be, the convergence is uniform.
For example, the series sin x } sin 2x+J sin 3* . . .is conver-
gent for all real values of x, and, when *>*> its sum is J x;
but, when * is but a little less than IT, the number of terms which
must be taken in order to bring the sum at all near to the value of
\x is very large, and this number tends to increase indefinitely as
* approaches *-. This series does not converge uniformly in the
neighbourhood of x=-r. Another example is afforded by the series
v nx (n-f-i)* , , . , ., . , ,
n*on 1 x* + i~(n + l\*x i +l' which the remainder after n terms
is nx/(nV+l)._ If we put x = i/n, for any value of n, however
great, the remainder is J ; and the number of terms required to be
taken to make the remainder tend to zero depends upon the value of
x when * is near to zero it must, in fact, be large compared with
i/x. The series does not converge uniformly in the neighbourhood
of *=o.
As regards series whose terms represent continuous functions
we have the following theorems:
(1) If the series converges uniformly in an interval it represents
a function which is continuous throughout the interval.
(2) If the series represents a function which is discontinuous
in an interval it cannot converge uniformly in the interval.
(3) A series which does not converge uniformly in an interval
may nevertheless represent a function which is continuous
throughout the interval.
(4) A power series converges uniformly in any interval con-
tained within its domain of convergence, the end-points being
excluded.
(5) If S /r(*)=/(*) converges uniformly in the interval
r-O
between a and b
or a series which converges unformly may be integrated term by
term.
(6) If 2 / r(x) converges uniformly in an interval, then
_ '-o
S f r (x) converges in the interval, and represents a continuous
r-O
differentiable function, <(*) ; in fact we have
*'(*)-, ! /V(*>.
or a series can be differentiated term by term if the series of
derived functions converges uniformly.
A series whose terms represent functions which are not con-
tinuous throughout an interval may converge uniformly in the
interval. If * fr(x),-f(x), is such a series, and if all the
r-O
functions f r (x) have limits at a, then /(a;) has a limit at a, which
is f Ltf r (x). A similar theorem holds for limits on the left
r-Ox-a
or on the right.
23. Fourier's Series. An extensive class of functions admit
of being represented by series of the form
i Z / n * x i i n*X\ .. .
*>+ B Jj (an cos +& sin J , (i.)
and the rule for determining the coefficients a,, b, of such a
scries, in order that it may represent a given function f(x) in
the interval between - c and c, was given by Fourier, viz. we
have
The interval between - c and c may be called the " periodic
interval," and we may replace it by any other interval, e.g. that
between o and i, without any restriction of generality. When
this is done the sum of the series takes the form
Lt f V/(z)cos(2nr(2-*)}<fe,
n a>JQr = -n
and this is
It rVf1 S ' n \( 2n + l)(z-x)r\ , ... .
,-J /C - sin ((z-x)*} *
Fourier's theorem is that, if the periodic interval can be divided
into a finite number of partial intervals within each of which the
function is ordinary ( 14), the series represents the function
within each of those partial intervals. In Fourier's time a
function of this character was regarded as completely arbitrary.
By a discussion of the integral (ii.) based on the Second Theorem
of the Mean ( 15) it can be shown that, if f(x) has restricted oscilla-
tion in the interval ( n), the sum of the series is equal to i|/(*+o) +
f(x o)} at any point * within the interval, and that it is equal to
\ l/(+o)+/(i-o)| at each end of the interval. (See the article
FOURIER'S SERIES.) It therefore represents the function at any
point of the periodic interval at which the function is continuous
(except possibly the end-points), and has a definite value at each
point of discontinuity. The condition of restricted oscillation
includes all the functions contemplated in the statement of the
theorem and some others. Further, it can be shown that, in any
partial interval throughout which f(x) is continuous, the series
converges uniformly, and that no series of the form (i), with co-
efficients other than those determined by Fourier's rule, can represent
the function at all points, except points of discontinuity, in the same
periodic interval. The result can be extended to a function f(x)
which tends to become infinite at a finite number of points o of the
interval, provided (i) f(x) tends to become determmately infinite
at each of the points o, (2) the improper definite integral of /(*)
through the interval is convergent, (3)f(x) has not an infinite number
of discontinuities or of maxima or minima in the interval.
24. Representation of Continuous Functions by Series. If the
series for /(*) formed by Fourier's rule converges at the point
a of the periodic interval, and if f(x) is continuous at a, the
sum of the series is /(a) ; but it has been proved by P. du Bois
Reymond that the function may be continuous at a, and yet the
series formed by Fourier's rule may be divergent at a. Thus
some continuous functions do not admit of representation by
Fourier's series. All continuous functions, however, admit of
being represented with arbitrarily close approximation in either
of two forms, which may be described as " terminated Fourier's
series " and " terminated power series," according to the two
following theorems:
(1) If }(x) is continuous throughout the interval between o and
2ir, and if any positive number however small is specified,
it is possible to find an integer , so that the difference between
the value of f(x) and the sum of the first n terms of the series
for /(*), formed by Fourier's rule with periodic interval from
o to 27r, shall be less than e at all points of the interval. This
result can be extended to a function which is continuous in any
given interval.
(2) If f(x) is continuous throughout an interval, and any
positive number however small is specified, it is possible to
find an integer n and a polynomial in x of the nth degree, so
that the difference between the value oif(x) and the value of the
polynomial shall be less than at all points of the interval.
Again it can be proved that, if f(x) is continuous throughout
a given interval, polynomials in x of finite degrees can be found,
so as to form an infinite series of polynomials whose sum is equal
to f(x) at all points of the interval. Methods of representation
of continuous functions by infinite series of rational fractional
functions have also been devised.
Particular interest attaches to continuous functions which are
not differentiable. Weierstrass gave as an example the function
represented by the series 2 a" cos (b'xv), where a is positive and less
than unity, and 6 is an odd integer exceeding (i +jir)/a. It can be
shown that this series is uniformly convergent in every interval,
FUNCTION
309
and that the continuous function f(x) represented by it has the
property that there i, in the neighbourhood of any point x, an
infinite aggregate of point* *', having x, as a limiting point, for
I tj^t\ /,' -- v ' it -t -- \ - i- -.- i - __*.._ ;*t-
_ . . -/(*s)|/(x / x,) tend* to become infinite with one
sign when * x approaches xero through positive values, and
infinite with the opposite sign when x'-xc approaches zero through
negative value*. Accordingly the function is not differentiate at
any point. The definite integral of such a f unction /(x) through the
interval between a fixed point and a variable point x, is a continuous
differentiate function AX), for which f*(x)-/(x); and, if /(x) is
one-signed throughout any interval F(x) is monotonous throughout
that interval, but yet f(x) cannot be represented by a curve. In
any interval, however small, the tangent would have to take the
same direction for infinitely many points, and yet there is no interval
in which the tangent has everywhere the same direction. Further,
it can be shown that all functions which are everywhere continuous
and nowhere differentiable are capable of representation by series of
the form Za.+.(x), where -a, is an absolutely convergent series of
numbers, and +.(x) is an analytic function whose absolute value
never exceed* unity.
25. Calculations with Divergent Series. When the series
described in (i) and (2) of 5 4 diverge, they may, nevertheless,
be used for the approximate numerical calculation of the values
of the function, provided the calculation is not carried beyond a
certain number of terms. Expansions in series which have the
property of representing a function approximately when the
expansion is not carried too far are called " asymptotic expan-
sions." Sometimes they are called " semi-convergent series ";
but this term is avoided in the best modern usage, because
it is often used to describe series whose convergence depends
upon the order of the terms, such as the series i -J + J-. . .
In general, let /t(x)+/i(x)-f-. . . be a series of functions which
doe* not converge in a certain domain. It may happen that, if any
number , however small, is first specified, a number n can after-
ward* be found so that, at a point a of the domain, the value /(a) of
a certain function /(x) is connected with the sum of the first n + i
terms of the series by the relation |/(o) Z/,(a)|<. It must
M)
Uo happen that, if any number N, however great, is specified, a
number '(>*) can be found so that, for all values of m which exceed
', |2/,(o)|>N. The divergent series / (x) +/i (x) + ... is then an
asymptotic expansion for the function /(x) in the domain.
The best known example of an asymptotic expansion is Stirling's
formula for n\ when n is large, viz.
where t is some number lying between 6 and i. This formula is
included in the asymptotic expansion for the Gamma function.
We have in fact
log |r(x)|-(x-J) log x-x+J log 2+(x),
where (x) i* the function defined by the definite integral
The multiplier of e~" under the sign of integration can be expanded
in the power tenet
BI
where B,. B. are " Bernoulli'* numbers " given by the formula
B-2.2m! (2r)-*-~
When the series is integrated term by term, the right-hand member
of the equation for (x) takes the form
Si J_L ' + B '
1.2 x 3.4 x 11 " 5.6 x 1
3-4
This teries is divergent ; but, if it is stopped at any term, the difference
between the sum of the series so terminated and the value of ffl(x) is
lew than the last of the retained terms. Stirling's formula is obtained
by retaining the first term only. Other well-known examples of asymp-
totic expansions are afforded by the descending series for Bessel's
function*. Method* of obtaining such expansions for the solutions of
linear differential equations of the second order were investigated by
G. G. Stoke* (Math, and Pkyi. Papers, vol. ii. p. 329), and a general
theory of asymptotic expansions has been developed by H. Poincare.
A still more general theory of divergent series, and of the conditions
in which they can be used, as above, for the purpose* of approximate
calculation ha* been worked out by C. Borel. The great merit of
asymptotic expansions is that they admit of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, term by term, in the same way as
absolutely convergent series, and they admit also of integration
term by term; that is to say, the results of such operations are
asymptotic expansions for the sum, difference, product, quotient,
or integral, as the case may be.
36. Interchange of the Order of Limiting Operations. When
we require to perform any limiting operation upon a function
which is itself represented by the result of a limiting process,
the question of the possibility of interchanging the order of the
two processes always arises. In the more elementary problems
of analysis it generally happens that such an interchange is
possible; but in general it is not possible. In other words, the
performance of the two processes in different orders may lead
to two different results; or the performance of them in one of the
two orders may lead to no result. The fact that the interchange
is possible under suitable restrictions for a particular class of
operations is a theorem to be proved.
Among examples of such interchanges we have the differentiation
and integration of an infinite series term by term ({ 22), and the
differentiation and integration of a definite integral with respect to
a parameter by performing the like processes upon the subject of
integration ( 19). As a last example we may take the limit of the
sum of an infinite series of functions at a point in the domain of
convergence. Suppose that the series 2/ r (x) represents a function
r x) in an interval containing a point a, and that each of the functions
J,(x) has a limit at a. If we first put x a, and then sum the series,
we have the value /(a) ; if we first sum the series for any x, and
afterwards take the limit of the sum at x-o, we have the limit of
/(x) at a; if we first replace each f unction f,(x) by its limit at a, and
then sum the series, we may arrive at a value different from either
of the foregoing. If the function /(x) is continuous at a, the first and
second results are equal; if the f unctions f,(x) are all continuous at
a, the first and third results are equal; if the series is uniformly
convergent, the second and third results are equal. This last case
is an example of the interchange of the order of two limiting opera-
tions, and a sufficient, though not always a necessary, condition,
for the validity of such an interchange will usually be found in some
suitable extension of the notion of uniform convergence.
AUTHORITIES. Among the more important treatises and memoirs
connected with the subject are: R. Baire, Fonctions discontinues
(Paris, 1905); O. Biermann, Analytische Functionen (Leipzig, 1887);
E. Borel, Theorie des fonctions (Paris, 1898) (containing an intro-
ductory account of the Theory of Aggregates), and Series divergentes
(Paris, 1901), also Fonctions de variables reelles (Paris, 1905); T. J.
I'A. Bromwich, Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series (London,
1908); H. S. Carslaw, Introduction to the Theory of Fourier's Series
and Integrals (London, 1906); U. Dini, Functionen e. reellen Griissr
(Leipzig, 1892), and Serie di Fourier . (Pisa, 1880); A. Genocchi
u. G. Peano, Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung (Leipzig, 1809); J. Darkness
and F. Morley, Introduction to the Theory of Analytic Functions
(London, 1898); A. Harnack, Diff. and Int. Calculus (London, 1891);
E. W. Hobson, The Theory of functions of a real Variable and the
Theory of Fourier's Series (Cambridge, 1907); C. Jordan, Cours
d' analyse (Paris, 1893-1896); L. Kronecker, Theorie d. einfachen
u. vielfachen Integrale (Leipzig, 1894); H. Lebesgue, Lemons sur
I'inUgration (Pans, 1904); M. Pasch, Diff.- u. Int.-Rechnung
(Leipzig, 1882); E. Picard, Traiti d'analyse (Paris, 1891); O.
Stolz, Allgemeine Arithmetik (Leipzig, 1885), and Diff.- u. Int.-
Rechnung (Leipzig, 1893-1899); J. Tannery, Theorie aes fonctions
(Paris, 1886); W. H. and G. C. Young, The Theory of Sets of Points
(Cambridge, 1906) ; Brodn," Stetige Functionen e. reellen Verander-
lichen," Crelle, Bd. cxviii. ; G. Cantor, A series of memoirs on the
" Theory of Aggregates " and on " Trigonometric series " in Acta
Math. tt. ii., vii., and Math. Ann. Bde. iv.-xxiii. ; Darboux, " Fonctions
discontinues," Ann. Sci. 6cole normale sup. (2), t. iv. ; Dedekind,
Was sind u. was sollen d. Zahlen? (Brunswick, 1887), and SMigkeit
u. irrationale Zahlen (Brunswick, 1872); Dirichlet, "Convergence
des series trigonornetriques," Crelle, Bd. iv. ; P. Du Bois Reymond,
Allgemeine Funclionentheorie (Tubingen, 1882), and many memoirs
in Crelle and in Math. Ann.; Heine, "Functionenlehre," Crelle,
Bd. Ixxiv. ; J. Pierpont, The Theory of Functions of a real Variable
(Boston, 190^); F. Klein, "Allgemeine Functionsbegriff," Math.
Ann. Bd. xxii. ; W. F. Osgood, "On Uniform Convergence," Amer.
J. of Math. vol. xix. ; rincherlc, " Funzioni analitiche secondo
Weierstrass," Giorn. di mat. t. xviii. ; Pringsheim, " Bedingungen
d. Taylorschen Lehrsatzes," Math. Ann. Bd. xliv. ; Riemann,
" Trigonometrische Reihe," Ges. Werke (Leipzig, 1876); Schoenflies,
" Entwickelung d. Lehre v. d. Punktmannigfaltigkeitcn," Jahresber.
d. deutschen Math.-Vereinieung, Bd. viii. ; Study, Memoir on
"Functions with Restricted Oscillation," Math. Ann. Bd. xlvii. ;
Weierstrass, Memoir on " Continuous Functions that are not Differ-
entiable," Ges. math. Werke, Bd. ii. p. 71 (Berlin, 1895), and on the
" Representation of Arbitrary Functions," ibid. Bd. iii. p. i ; W. H.
Young, " On Uniform and Non-uniform Convergence," Proc. London
Math. Soc. (Ser. a) t. 6. Further information and very full references
will be found in the articles by Pringsheim, Schoenflies and Voss in
the Encyclopddie der moth. Wissenschaften, Bde. i., ii. (Leipzig, 1898,
1899). (A. rf. L.)
310
FUNCTION
II.-FUNCTIONS OF COMPLEX VARIABLES
In the preceding section the doctrine of functionality is dis-
cussed with respect to real quantities; in this section the theory
when complex or imaginary quantities are involved receives
treatment. The following abstract explains the arrangement
of the subject matter: ( i), Complex numbers, states what a
complex number is; ( 2), Plotting of simple expressions involving
complex numbers, illustrates the meaning in some simple cases,
introducing the notion of conformal representation and proving
that an algebraic equation has complex, if not real, roots; (3),
Limiting operations, defines certain simple functions of a complex
variable which are obtained by passing to a limit, in particular
the exponential function, and the generalized logarithm, here
denoted by X(z); (4), Functions of a complex variable in general,
after explaining briefly what is to be understood by a region of
the complex plane and by a path, and expounding a logical
principle of some importance, gives the accepted definition of a
function of a complex variable, establishes the existence of a
complex integral, and proves Cauchy's theorem relating thereto;
( 5)i Applications, considers the differentiation and integration
of series of functions of a complex variable, proves Laurent's
theorem, and establishes the expansion of a function of a complex
variable as a power series, leading, in ( 6), Singular points, to
a definition of the region of existence and singular points of a
function of a complex variable, and thence, in ( 7), Monogenic
Functions, to what the writer believes to be the simplest definition
of a function of a complex variable, that of Weierstrass; ( 8),
Some elementary properties of single valued functions, first discusses
the meaning of a pole, proves that a single valued function with
only poles is rational, gives Mittag-Leffler's theorem, and Weier-
strass's theorem for the primary factors of an integral function,
stating generalized forms for these, leading to the theorem of
(9), The construction of a monogenic function with a given region of
existence, with which is connected ( 10), Expression of a monogenic
function by rational functions in a given region, of which the
method is applied in ( n), Expression of (Ti-z)~ l by polynomials,
to a definite example, used here to obtain ( 12), An expansion
of an arbitrary function by means of a series of polynomials, over
a star region, also obtained in the original manner of Mittag-
Leffler; (13), Application of Cauchy's theorem to the determination
of definite integrals, gives two examples of this method; ( 14),
Doubly Periodic Functions, is introduced at this stage as furnish-
ing an excellent example of the preceding principles. The
reader who wishes to approach the matter from the point of view
of Integral Calculus should first consult the section ( 20) below,
dealing with Elliptic Integrals; ( 15), Potential Functions,
Conformal representation in general, gives a sketch of the con-
nexion of the theory of potential functions with the theory of
conformal representation, enunciating the Schwarz-Christoffel
theorem for the representation of a polygon, with the application
to the case of an equilateral triangle; ( 16), Multiple-valued
Functions, Algebraic Functions, deak for the most part with
algebraic functions, proving the residue theorem, and establishing
that an algebraic function has a definite Order; ( 17), Integrals
of Algebraic Functions, enunciating Abel's theorem; ( 18),
Indelerminateness of Algebraic Integrals, deals with the periods
associated with an algebraic integral, establishing that for an
elliptic integral the number of these is two; ( 19), Reversion of
an algebraic integral, mentions a problem considered below in
detail for an elliptic integral; ( 20), Elliptic Integrals, considers
the algebraic reduction of any elliptic integral to one of three
standard forms, and proves that the function obtained by
reversion is single- valued; ( 21), Modular Functions, gives a
statement of some of the more elementary properties of some
functions of great importance, with a definition of Automorphic
Functions, and a hint of the connexion with the theory of linear
differential equations; ( 22), A property of integral functions,
deduced from the theory of modular functions, proves that there
cannot be more than one value not assumed by an integral
function, and gives the basis of the well-known expression of
the modulus of the elliptic functions in terms of the ratio of the
periods; ( 23), Geometrical applications of Elliptic Functions,
shows that any plane curve of deficiency unity can be expressed
by elliptic functions, and gives a geometrical proof of the addition
theorem for the function $(); ( 24), Integrals of Algebraic
Functions in connexion with the theory of plane curves, discusses
the generalization to curves of any deficiency; ( 25), Monogenic
Functions of several independent variables, describes briefly the
beginnings of this theory, with a mention of some fundamental
theorems: ( 26), Multiply-Periodic Functions and the Theory
of Surfaces, attempts to show the nature of some problems now
being actively pursued.
Beside the brevity necessarily attaching to the account here
given of advanced parts of the subject, some of the more ele-
mentary results are stated only, without proof, as, for instance:
the monogeneity of an algebraic function, no reference being
made, moreover, to the cases, of differential equations whose
integrals are monogenic; that a function possessing an algebraic
addition theorem is necessarily an elliptic function (or a particular
case of such) ; that any area can be conformally represented on
a half plane, a theorem requiring further much more detailed
consideration of the meaning of area than we have given; while
the character and properties, including the connectivity, of a
Riemann surface have not been referred to. The theta functions
are referred to only once, and the principles of the theory of
Abelian Functions have been illustrated only by the develop-
ments given for elliptic functions.
i. Complex Numbers. Complex numbers are numbers of
the form x+iy, where x, y are ordinary real numbers, and i is a
symbol imagined capable of combination with itself and the
ordinary real numbers, by way of addition, subtraction, multi-
plication and division, according to the ordinary commutative,
associative and distributive laws; the symbol i is further such
that 2 =-i.
Taking in a plane two rectangular axes 0*, Oy, we assume that
every point of the plane is definitely associated with two real numbers
x, y (its co-ordinates) and conversely ; thus any point of the plane is
associated with a single complex number; in particular, for every
point of the axis Ox, for which y = O, the associated number is an
ordinary real number; the complex numbers thus include the real
numbers. The axis Ox is often called the real axis, and the axis Oy
the imaginary axis. If P be the point associated with the complex
variable z = x+iy, the distance OP be called r, and the positive
angle less than 2ir between Ox and OP be called 6, we may write
z = r(cos 0-{-i sin 9); then r is called the modulus or absolute value
of z and often denoted by | z | and 6 is called the phase or amplitude
of z, and often denoted by ph (z) ; strictly the phase is ambiguous
by additive multiples of 2ir. If z' = x'+iy' be represented by P',
the complex argument z'+z is represented by a point P* obtained
by drawing from P' a line equal to and parallel to OP; the geo-
metrical representation involves for its validity certain properties
of the plane; as, for instance, the equation z +z = z-|-z involves
the possibility of constructing a parallelogram (with OP'asdiagonal).
It is important constantly to bear in mind, what is capable of easy
algebraic proof (and geometrically is Euclid's proposition III. 7),
that the modulus of a sum or difference of two complex numbers is
generally less than (and is never greater than) the sum of their
moduli, and is greater than (or equal to) the difference of their
moduli ; the former statement thus holds for the sum of any number
of complex numbers. We shall write E(t0) for cos 9+i sin 9; it is
at once verified that E(ia). E(t/3) = E[t(a+/3)], so that the phase of a
product of complex quantities is obtained by addition of their
respective phases.
2. Plotting and Properties of Simple Expressions involving
a Complex Number. If we put f = (z-i)/(z+i), and, putting
f = -H?7, take a new plane upon which , 17 are rectangu-
lar co-ordinates, the equations ^ = (x 2 -r-y z -i)/[* 2 -|-(3'+i) 2 J,
TJ = 2xy/[x i +(y+i)^] will determine, corresponding to any
point of the first plane, a point of the second plane. There is
the one exception of z= i, that is, x=o, y= i, of which the
corresponding point is at infinity. It can now be easily proved
that as z describes the real axis in its plane the point f describes
once a circle of radius unity, with centre at f = o, and that there
is a definite correspondence of point to point between points
in the z-plane which are above the real axis and points of the
f -plane which are interior to this circle; in particular z=t
corresponds to f =o.
Moreover, f being; a rational function of z, both { and ij are con-
tinuous differentiable functions of x and y, save when f is infinite ;
FUNCTION
writing f -/I*, y) -f(t-iy. y). the fact that this is really independent
ot y leads at once to df!9x+ifly-o, and hence to
to that { is not any arbitrary function of x. y, and when ( is known
is determinate save for an additive constant. Also, in virtue of
these equations, if f, f be the values of f corresponding to two
near values of s. say i and *'. the ratio (f-f)/(i'-) has a definite
limit when '-s, independent of the ultimate phase of s f, this
limit being therefore equal to df/dx, that is, df/dx+*i/dx. Geo-
metrically this fact is interpreted by saying that if two curves in the
j-plane intersect at a point P, at which both the differential co-
efficient* dj'dx. dvldx are not icro, and P', P' be two points near
to Pon these curves respectively, and the corresponding points of the
r-pUne be Q. Q', Q'. then (l) the ratios PP V /PP', QQ'/QQ' are
ultimately equal, (l) the angle P'PP* is equal to Q'QQ*. (3) he
rotation from PF to PP* is in the same sense as from QQ' to QQ'<
it being understood that the axes of {, * in the one plane are related
as are the axes of x, y. Thus any diagram of the (-plane becomes a
diagram of the f -plane with the same angles; the magnification,
however, which is equal to I (A) + (g|) I * varies from point to
point. Conversely, it appears subsequently that the expression
of any copy of a diagram (say, a map) which preserves angles requires
the intervention of the complex variable.
As another illustration consider the case when f is a polynomial
H being an arbitrary real positive number, it can be shown that a
radius K can be found such for every | s | > R we have I f | > H ;
consider the lower limit of | f I for | ij < R; as ?+if is a real
continuous function of x. y for | ( | < R, there is a point (x, y),
say (x, >), at which | f | is least, say equal to p, and therefore
within a circle in the f-pbne whose centre is the origin, of radius p,
there are no points f representing values corresponding to 1 1 \ < R.
But if f be the value of f corresponding to (xo, y), and the expres-
sion of f ft near s,-x+>, in terms of s *>, be A( o)" +
B(i *)**' + .. ..where A is not icro, to two points near to (x, yo),
* " n wil1 corre-
y (*ii yO <* i and *-+(*i-*)
spond two points near to f, say fi, and 2f -f'i, situated so that fo
is between them. One of these must be within the circle (/>). We
infer then that p-o, and have proved that every polynomial in
s vanishes for some value of z, and can therefore be written as a
product of factors of the form a, where a denotes a complex
number. This proposition alone suffices to suggest the importance
of complex numbers.
| 3. Limiting Operations. In order that a complex number
f {+ ni may have a limit it is necessary and sufficient that each
of { and * has a limit. Thus an infinite series TOJ+K>I+U>I+ . . .,
w4iose terms are complex numbers, is convergent if the real
series formed by taking the real parts of its terms and that
formed by the imaginary terms are both convergent. The
aeries is also convergent if the real series formed by the moduli
of its terms is convergent; in that case the series is said to be
absolutely convergent, and it can be shown that its sum is
unaltered by taking the terms in any other order. Generally
the necessary and sufficient condition of convergence is that,
for a given real positive , a number m exists such that for every
n>m, and every positive p, the batch of terms
. . . +*W+* is lest than in absolute value. If the terms depend
upon a complex variable t, the convergence is called uniform
for a range of values of *, when the inequality holds, for the
same and m, for all the points t of this range.
The infinite series of most importance are those of which the
general term is <u**, wherein a. is a constant, and * is regarded as
variable, o, I. 2, 3, . . . Such a series is called a power series.
If a real and positive number M exists such that for i z and every
*. [f*| <M, a condition which is satisfied, for instance, if the
series converges for z s, then it is at once proved that the series
converges absolutely for every * lor which \t\ < I z, |, and con-
verges uniformly over every range 1 1 1 <r' for which r'< 1 1, | .
To every power series there belongs then a circle of convergence
within which it converges absolutely and uniformly; the function
of f represented by it is thus continuous within the circle (this being
the result of a general property of uniformly convergent series ol
continuous functions) ; the sum for an interior point z is, however
continuous with the sum for a point < on the circumference, as s
approaches to * provided the series converges for *-U, as can be
shown without much difficulty. Within a common circle of con-
vergence two power series tojf, ZA.z* can be multiplied together
according to the ordinary rule, this being a consequence of a theorem
for absolutely convergent series. If r t be less than the radius o
convergence of a series Z<ut* and for | z \ -fi, the sum of the series
>e in absolute value less than a real positive quantity M, it can be
hown that for |s| -fit-very term is also k-ss than M in absolute value,
namely, |a.l <MlV m . If in every arbitrarily small neighbourhood of
-o there be a point for which two converging power scries 2az",
;/>,,:" agree in value, then the series are identical, or a. 6. ; thus also
f Saz* vanish at z -o there is a circle of finite radius about z -o as
centre within which no other points are found for which the sum of
he series is zero. Considering a power series /(z) 2oz" of radius of
onvergence R, if |zo|<R and we put ZD+< with |/| <R |zo|,
he resulting scries Za,(z>+l)* may be regarded as a double scries
n s and /, which, since |zo|+R, is absolutely convergent;
t may then be arranged according to powers of t. Thus we may
write /(i)ZA.f; hence Ao /(), and we have (/(zo+/) /(zo)]/<
2 A,/"" 1 , wherein the continuous scries on the right reduces to Ai
or / o; thus the ratio on the left has a definite limit when t - ,
equal namely to Ai or 2na.Zo*~'. In other words, the original series
may legitimately be differentiated at any interior point Zo of its circle
of convergence. Repeatingthisprocesswefind/(z-M) 2Pj**>(*t)ln\,
where f-*'(zv) is the nth differential coefficient. Repeating for this
xi WIT series, in t, the argument applied about z = o for 2o*t", we
nfer that for the series /(z) every point which reduces it to zero is
an isolated point, and of such points only a finite number lie within
a circle which is within the circle of convergence of /(z).
Perhaps the simplest possible power series'ise* exp (z) i +z*/2! +
V3!+-'. of which the radius of convergence is infinite. By
multiplication we have exp (z).exp (z 1 ) exp (z+z 1 ). In particular
when x, y are real, and z-x+iy, exp (z) -exp (x) exp (iy). Now the
"unctions
Uo=sin y, Vo= i cos y, Uiy sin y,
Vi-Jy 1 i+cosy, U-}y' y+sin y, ViAy 4 }y*+i cos y,. . .
all vanish for y = o, and the differential coefficient of any one after
lir first is the preceding one; as a function (of a real variable) is
ncreasing when its differential coefficient is positive, we infer, for
y positive, that each of these functions is positive; proceeding to a
limit we hence infer that
cos y-i-iy'+Ay*- -. sin y-y-ly'+iiiry 1 -. . -,
Tor positive, and hence, for all values of y. We thus have exp (iy)
cos y+i sin y, and exp (z) =exp (x). (cos y+i sin y). In other words,
the modulus of exp (z) is exp (x) and the phase is y. Hence also
exp (z+2')=exp (x)[cos (y+2ir)+ sin (y+2-)],
which we express by saying that exp (z) has the period 2ri,
and hence also the period 3Kri, where k is an arbitrary integer.
From the fact that the constantly increasing function exp (x) can
vanish only for x = o, we at once prove that exp (z) has no other
periods.
Taking in the plane of z an infinite strip lying between the lines
y = o, y = 2r and plotting the function f=exp (z) upon a new plane,
it follows at once from what has been said that every complex value
of f arises when z takes in turn all positions in this strip, and that
no value arises twice over. The equation f =-exp (z) thus defines z,
regarded as depending upon f, with only an additive ambiguity
3kri, where k is an integer. We write z X(f); when f is real this
becomes the logarithm of f; in general X(f)log |f| +i ph (f) +
2kii, where k is an integer; and when f describes a closed circuit
surrounding the origin the phase of f increases by 2r, or k increases
by unity. Differentiating the series for f we have df/dz"f, so
that z, regarded as depending upon f, is also diflerentiable, with
dz/df"t~ l . On the other hand, consider the series f i i(f 1)' +
i )...; it converges when f~2 and hence converges for
il< i; its differential coefficient is, however, i (f 1) +
-i) 1 ..., that is, (i+f i)" 1 . Wherefore if $(f) denote this
series, for | f I I <l, the difference X(f) ^(f), regarded as a
function of t ana -n, has vanishing differential coefficients; if we
take the value of X(f) which vanishes when f i we infer thence
thatfor|f-l|<i,
(f-i)". It is to be remarked
_
that it is impossible for f while subject to | f I | <i to make a
circuit about the origin. For values of f for which |f i|<i, we
can also calculate X(f) with the help of infinite scries, utilizing the
fact that Mff)-Mr)+X(rO.
The function X(f ) is required to define f when f and a are complex
numbers; this is denned as exp [aX(f)j, that is as 2 a*[\(f)]*/n\.
=o
When o is a real integer the ambiguity of X(f) is immaterial here,
since exp l<jX(f)+2fajiri'J-exp laX(f)]; when a is of the form 1/9,
where { is a positive integer, there are q values possible for f"*, of
the form exp [j x (f)] ejt p(^p') with *"- .-'. H other
values of k leading to one of these; the </th power of any one of
these values is (; when o-p/y. where p, q are integers without
common factor, } being positive, we have *' ~ (f ")*. The
definition of the symbol f* is thus a generalization of the ordinary
definition of a power, when the numbers are real. As an example,
let it be required to find the meaning of i'; the number i is of
modulus unity and phase }* ; thus X(0 i(lr+akr) ; thus
i' exp ( } akr)" exp ( J) exp ( akv),
is always real, but has an infinite number of values.
312
FUNCTION
The function exp (z) is used also to define a generalized form of
the cosine and sine functions when z is complex ; we write, namely,
cos z = J[exp (iz) + exp ( iz)] and sinz = Ji[exp (iz) exp (iz)].
It will be found that these obey the ordinary relations holding when
z is real, except that their moduli are not inferior to unity. For
example, cos = l + i/2! + i/4!+. . .is obviously greater than unity.
4. Of Functions of a Complex Variable in General. We have
in what precedes shown how to generalize the ordinary rational,
algebraic and logarithmic functions, and considered more
general cases, of functions expressible by power series in z.
With the suggestions furnished by these cases we can frame a
general definition. So far our use of the plane upon which z is
. represented has been only illustrative, the results being capable
of analytical statement. In what follows this representation is
vital to the mode 1 of expression we adopt; as then the properties
of numbers cannot be ultimately based upon spatial intuitions,
it is necessary to indicate what are the geometrical ideas requiring
elucidation.
Consider a square of side o, to whose perimeter is attached a
definite direction of description, which we take to be counter-
clockwise ; another square, also of side a, may be added to this, so
that there is a side common; this common side being erased we
have a composite region with a definite direction of perimeter;
to this a third square of the same size may be attached, so
that there is a side common to it and one of the former squares,
and this common side may be erased. If this process be continued
any number of times we obtain a region of the plane bounded by one
or more polygonal closed lines, no two of which intersect; and at
each portion of the perimeter there is a definite direction of descrip-
tion, which is such that the region is on the left of the describing
point. Similarly we may construct a region by piecing together
triangles, so that every consecutive two have a side in common,
it being understood that there is assigned an upper limit for the
greatest side of a triangle, and a lower limit for the smallest angle.
In the former method, each square may be divided into four others
by lines through its centre parallel to its sides ; in the latter method
each triangle may be divided into four others by lines joining the
middle points of its sides; this halves the sides and preserves the
angles. When we speak of a region of the plane in general, unless
the contrary is stated, we shall suppose it capable of being generated
in this latter way by means of a finite number of triangles, there
being an upper limit to the length of a side of the triangle and a
lower limit to the size of an angle of the triangle. We shall also
require to speak of a path in the plane; this is to be understood as
capable of arising as a limit of a polygonal path of finite length,
there being a definite direction or sense of description at every point
of the path, which therefore never meets itself. From this the
meaning of a closed path is clear. The boundary points of a region
form one or more closed paths, but, in general, it is only in a limiting
sense that the interior points of a closed path are a region.
There is a logical principle also which must be referred to. We
frequently have cases where, about every, interior or boundary,
point ZD of a certain region a circle can be put, say of radius fo, such
that for all points z of the region which are interior to this circle,
for which, that is, |z zo|<r , a certain property holds. Assuming
that to r is given the value which is the upper limit for Zo, of the
possible values, we may call the points |z zo|<ro, the neighbour-
hood belonging to or proper to z<>, and may speak of the property
as the property (z,Zo). The value of ro will in general vary with Zo;
what is in most cases of importance is the question whether the
lower limit of r c for all positions is zero or greater than zero. (A)
This lower limit is certainly greater than zero provided the property
(Z,ZD) is of a kind which we may call extensive; such, namely, that
if it holds, for some position of Zo and all positionsof z, within a certain
region, then the property (z,Zi) holds within a circle of radius R
about any interior point Zi of this region for all points z for which
the circle fz zi| = R is within the region. Also in this case r<s
varies continuously with z<>. (B) Whether the property is of this
extensive character or not we can prove that the region canbedivided
into a finite number of sub-regions such that, for every oneof these,
the property holds, (i) for some point Zo within or upon the boundary
of the sub-region, (2) for every point z within or upon the boundary
of the sub-region.
We prove these statements (A), (B) in reverse order. To prove
(B) let a region for which the property (z,Zo) holds for all points z and
some point zof the region, be called suitable: if each of the triangles
of which the region is built up be suitable, what is desired is proved ;
if not let an unsuitable triangle be subdivided into four, as before
explained ; if one of these subdivisions is unsuitable let it be again
subdivided; and so on. Either the process terminates and then
what is required is proved; or else we obtain an indefinitely con-
tinued sequence of unsuitable triangles, each contained in the
preceding, which converge to a point, say f ; after a certain stage
all these will be interior to the proper region of f ; this, however, is
contrary to the supposition that they are all unsuitable.
We now make some applications of this result (B). Suppose a
definite finite real value attached to every interior or boundary
point of the region, say/(jc,y)._ It may have a finite upper limit H
for the region, so that no point (x,y) exists for which f(x,y) > H,
but points (x,y) exist for which f(x,y) > H , however small e may
be; if not we say that its upper limit is infinite. There is then at
least one point of the region such that, for points of the region within
a circle about this point, the upper limit of }(x,y) is H, however
small the radius of the circle be taken; for if not we can put about
every point of the region a circle within which the upper limit of
f(x,y) is less than H; then by the result (B) above the region
consists of a finite number of sub-regions within each of which the
upper limit is less than H ; this is inconsistent with the hypothesis
that the upper limit for the whole region is H. A similar statement
holds for the lower limit. A case of such a function f(x,y) is the
radius r of the neighbourhood proper to any point z e , spoken of
above. We can hence prove the statement (A) above.
Suppose the property (z,z ) extensive, and, if possible, that the
lower limit of r a is zero. Let then f be a point such that the lower
limit of r is zero for points Zo within a circle about f however small ;
let r be the radius of the neighbourhood proper to f ; take z so
that |zo f|<ir; the property (z,zo), being extensive, holds
within a circle, centre Z , of radius r jzo f|, which is greater
thanlzo f | , and increases to r as |z f | diminishes; this being
true for all points Zo near f, the lower limit of r c is not zero for the
neighbourhood of f, contrary to what was supposed. This proves
(A). Also, as_ is here shown that r^r | z f | , may similarly be
shown thatr^ro | z f | . Thus r differs arbitrarily little from
r when Jzo ?| is sufficiently small; that is, r varies continu-
ously with Z . Next suppose the function f(x,y), which has a
definite finite value at every point of the region considered, to be
continuous but not necessarily real, so that about every point z<>,
within or upon the boundary of the region, rj being an arbitrary real
positive quantity assigned beforehand, a circle is possible, so that
for all points z of the region interior to this circle, we have
\f(x,y) /(*o,yo)| <frj, and therefore (*',/) being any other point
interior to this circle, I /(*',/) .f(x,y) | < ij. We can then apply
the result (A) obtained above, taking for the neighbourhood proper
to any point Z the circular area within which, for any two points
(x,y), (x',y'), we have !/(*',/) -/(*,>) |<j. This is clearly an
extensive property. Thus, a number r is assignable, greater than
zero, such that, for any two points (x,y), (x,y') within a circle
| z Zo| =r about any point Zo, we have \f{x',y') f(x,y) [ <;,
and, in particular, | f(x,y) f(x<,,y ) \ < i>, where 17 is an arbitrary
real positive quantity agreed upon beforehand.
Take now any path in the region, whose extreme points are Zo, z,
and let z\, . . . z_i be intermediate points of the path, in order;
denote the continuous function f(x,y) by/(z), and let / r denote any
quantity such that | f r f(z,) \ 5 |/(ZT+I) /(ZT) I; consider the sum
(Zl-Zo)/0+(Z2-Zi)/i+ . . . + (z-Z-l)/-l.
By the definition of a path we can suppose, n being large enough,
that the intermediate points zi,...z._i are so taken that if z,-,
z,-+i be any two points intermediate, in order, to z, and ZT+I, we have
|Zi+i Zi | <|z r+ i ZT |; we can thus suppose! Z;Zo |, | ZjZi |, ...
j z z_i | all to converge constantly to zero. This being so, we can
show that the sum above has a definite limit. For this it is sufficient,
as in the case of an integral of a function of one real variable, to
prove this to be so when the convergence is obtained by taking new
points of division intermediate to the former ones. If, however,
Zr,i, Zr.a, . . . Zr, m _i be intermediate in order to z, and z,+\, and
I /!, /(ZM) | < | /(ZT,.-+I) /(ZM) l> the difference between 2(zr + i z,)/,
and
2|(Zr,l-!!r)/r,0+(Zr, J -2 r ,i)/ M -f . . . + (Sr+l -Zr,m-l)/r,m-ll,
which is equal to
22 (Zr.i+i-Zr.i) (/;,.' ~/r),
ri
is, Vhen \Z, + IZT] is small enough, to ensure |/(ZT+I) /(ZT) I < n.
less in absolute value than
S2l,S|z r , < +i-Z r ,i|,
which, if S be the upper limit of the perimeter of the polygon from
which the path is generated, is < 2ijS, and is therefore arbitrarily
small.
The limit in question is called
C'f(z)dz.
JlQ
In particular when
is obvious from the definition that its value is Z-"-ZD;
z, by taking /r = i(z*fi Zr), it is equally clear that its
/()-!, i
when/(z) . , _.. ... f
value is $( z2 Zo 2 ); these results will be applied immediately.
Suppose now that to every interior and boundary point z of a
certain region there belong two definite finite numbers /(zo), F(zo),
such that, whatever real positive quantity ij may be, a real positive
number e exists for which the condition
which we describe as the condition (z,Zo), is satisfied for every point s,
within or upon the boundary of the region, satisfying the limitation
|z ZDJ < . Then /(zo) is called a differentiable function of the
complex variable zo over this region, its differential coefficient being
F(zo). The function /(z) is thus a continuous function of the real
FUNCTION
variables JE*. j* where -*+!>. over the rrgion; it will appear
that F(*) U also continuous and in fact also a diffrri-ntidble function
of*.
Supposing ^ to be retained the tame for all points * of the region,
and to be the upper limit of the possible value* of for the point it,
it n to be proumed that will vary with *, and it is not obvious
aa yet that the lower limit of the values of at as s, varies over the
reftoo mav not be Mro. We can, however, show that the region
can be divided into a finite number of sub-regions for each of which
:he condition (, *,). above, is satisfied for all points i, within or upon
the boundary of this sub-region, for an appropriate position of o.
within or upon the boundary of this sub-region. This is proved
above as result (B).
Hence it can be proved that, for a differentiable function /(z),
tike integral C', f(*)d* has the same value by whatever path within
the region we pass from , to . This we prove by showing that when
taken round a closed path in the region the integral ff(t)dt vanishes.
Consider first a triangle over which the condition (z, *> holds, for
some position of s and every position of i, within or upon the
boundary of the triangle. Then as
we have
which, as the path is closed, is if(*-i,)d*. Now, from the theorem
that the absolute value of a sum is less than the sum of the absolute
values of the terms, this last is less, in absolute value, than ijo/>,
where a is the greatest side of the triangle and p is its perimeter; if
A be the area of the triangle, we have A - Jo* sin C> (o/ir)6a, where
is the least angle of the triangle, and hence a(o+b+c)<3a(b+c)
<4A/; the integral //(i)<fc round the perimeter of the triangle
is thus<4rA/- Now consider any region made up of triangles,
as before explained, in each of which the condition (s, *) holds, as
in the triangle just taken. The integral ff(*)d* round the boundary
of the region is equal to the sum of the values of the integral round
the component triangles, and thus less in absolute value than
4i^K/, where K U the whole area of the region, and a is the smallest
angle of the component triangles. However small q be taken,
such a division of the region into a finite number of component
triangles has been shown possible; the integral round the perimeter
of the region is thus arbitrarily small. Thus it is actually zero,
which it was desired to prove. Two remarks should be added :
(t) The theorem is proved only on condition that the closed path of
integration belongs to the region at every point of which the con-
ditions are satisfied, (i) The theorem, though proved only when
the region consists of triangles, holds also when the boundary points
of the region consist of one or more closed paths, no two of which
Hence we can deduce the remarkable result that the value of /(:)
at any interior point of a region is expressible in terms of the value
of f(t) at the boundary points. For consider in the original region
the function /(z)/(z 1), where tt is an interior point: this satisfies
tile same conditions as /(z) except in the immediate neighbourhood
of s>- Talcing out then from the original region a small regular
polygonal region with it as centre, the theorem holds for the remain-
ing portion. Proceeding to the limit when the polygon becomes a
circle, it appears that the integral f 2fl2 round the boundary of
the original region is equal to the same integral taken counter-
clockwise round a small circle having it as centre; on this circle,
however, if z-s,-rE() f <fc/(i -*,)-, and/() differs arbitrarily
little from /(s) if r is sufficiently small; the value of the integral
round this circle is therefore, ultimately, when r vanishes, equal to
/(,). Hence /(,) -S?/^. where this integral is round the
boundary of the original region. From this it appears that
round the boundary of the original region. This form shows,
however, that F(s) is a continuous, finite, differentiable function of zc,
over the whole interior of the original region.
f 5. Applications. The previous results have manifold appli-
cations.
(i) If an infinite series of differentiable functions of z be
uniformly convergent along a certain path lying with the region
of definition of the functions, so that S(z)-ft(z)+iii(z) + . . .+
i^-,(i)-r-R.(i), where | R.(z) | < for all points of the path, we have
PS<S)*- fWi)<ii-t- f',(z)<fe+ . . + fVi (z)<fr + f 'R.(z)<fe.
J^ J ^ J^ /"B J *0
wherein, in absolute value, J R.(z)dz<L, if L be the length of thi
path. Thus the series may be integrated, and the resulting series
also uniformly convergent.
(a) If /(*, 7) be definite, finite and continuous at every point of a
region, and over any closed path in the region //(x, y)dt-o, then
) f *f(s, y)dz, for interior points io, z, is a differentiable function
of i, having for its differential coefficient the function / (x, y), which
therefore also a differentiable function of i at interior points,
(j) Hence if the series o(z)+i(z) + . .. to op be uniformly con-
vergent over a region, its terms being differentiable functions of t,
then its sum S(i) is a differentiable function of r, whose differential
coefficient, given by -i-> J TJ~(I' '* obtainable by differentiating the
series. This theorem, unlike (i), docs not hold for functions of a
real variable.
(4) If the region of definition of a differentiable function /(a)
include the region bounded by two concentric circles of radii r, R,
with centre at the origin, and g be an interior point of this region,
/(,) --L ffi^j_-i, (y^, where the integrals are both counter-
2 WtJ K * *0 W JT* """ *0
clockwise round the two circumferences respectively; putting in the
first (/-a,)" 1 - Z lo'/r* 1 , and in the second (t-t*)- 1 -- Z/"/zo" +l ,
n-0 . -0
we find /(so) -JS^A.*", wherein A. -j^jj $<*' tolcen round an y
circle, centre the origin, of radius intermediate between r and R.
Particular cases are: (a) when the region of definition of the
function includes the whole interior of the outer circle; then we
may take r-o, the coefficients A. for which n<o all vanish, and
the function (s) is expressed for the whole interior |io| <R by a
power series 2 A.ZO". In other words, about every interior point c of
the region of Definition a differentiable function oftis expressible by a
power series in zc; a very important result.
(tfi If the region of definition, though not including the origin,
extends to within arbitrary nearness uf this on all sides, and at the
same time the product 1*7(1) has a finite limit when |z| diminishes
to zero, all the coefficients A. for which n < m vanish, and we have
/(a,) - A_wBo-"+A_ + i-" M + . . . +A_is,- t +A-l-A,zo. . . to oo .
Such a case occurs, for instance, when/(z) - cosec z, the number m
being unity.
6. Singular Points. The region of existence of a differentiable
function of z is an unclosed aggregate of points, each of which
is an interior point of a neighbourhood consisting wholly of
points of the aggregate, at every point of which the function is
definite and finite and possesses a unique finite differential
coefficient. Every point of the plane, not belonging to the
aggregate, which is a limiting point of points of the aggregate,
such, that is, that points of the aggregate lie in every neighbour-
hood of this, is called a singular point of the function.
About every interior point z of the region of existence the function
may be represented by a power series in z Zt, and the series con-
verges and represents the function over any circle centre at z>
which contains no singular point in its interior. This has been
proved above. And it can be similarly proved, putting z-l/f,
that if the region of existence of the function contains all points of
the plane for which |z|>R, then the function is representable for
all such points by a power series in f\ or f ; in such case we say
that the region of existence of the function contains the point z oo .
A series in z~ l has a finite limit when |z| oo ; a series in z cannot
remain finite for' all points z for which ]z|>R; for if, for lz| = R,
the sum of a power series 2oz" in z is in absolute value less than M,
we have |o| <Mr~, and therefore, if M remains finite for all values
of r however great, a. o. Thus the region of existence of a function
if it contains all finite points of the plane cannot contain the point
t oo ; such is, for instance, the case of the function exp (z) = 2z"/!.
This may be regarded as a particular case of a well-known result
( 7), that the circumference of convergence of any power series
representing the function contains at least one singular point. As
an extreme case functions exist whose region of existence is circular,
there being a singular point yi every arc of the circumference,
however small; for instance, this is the case for the functions repre-
sented for Izl < I by the series 2 z", where m = n*, the series 2 z
*-0 =0
where m=-n!, and the series 2 z"V(m-f l)(w+2) where m-o",
1
a being a positive integer, although in the last case the series actually
converges for every point of the circle of convergence |z| i. If z
be a point interior to the circle of con vergence of a series representing
the function, the series may be rearranged in powers of z ZD; as zo
approaches to a singular point of the function, lying on the circle
of convergence, the radii of convergence of these derived series in
z zo diminish to zero; when, however, a circle can be put about z,
not containing any singular point of the function, but containing
points outside the circle of convergence of the original series, then
the series in z z gives the value of the function for these external
points. If the function be supposed to be given only for the interior
of the original circle, by the original power series, the series in z Zo
converging beyond the original circle gives what is known as an
analytical continuation of the function. It appears from what has
3H
FUNCTION
been proved that the value of the function at all points of its region
of existence can be obtained from its value, supposed given by a
series in one original circle, by a succession of such processes of
analytical continuation.
7. Monogenic Functions. This suggests an entirely different
way of formulating the fundamental parts of the theory of
functions of a complex variable, which appears to be preferable
to that so far followed here.
Starting with a convergent power series, say in powers of z, this
series can be arranged in powers of z Zo, about any point Zo interior
to its circle of convergence, and the new series converges certainly for
|z Zo|<r |zo|, if r be the original radius of convergence. If for
every position of Zo this is the greatest radius of convergence of the
derived series, then the original series represents a function existing
only within its circle of convergence. If for some position of 2o
the derived series converges for |z Zo| <f |zo|+D, then it can be
shown that for points z, interior to the original circle, lying in the
annulus r |zo| <|z Zo| <r |zo|-(-D, the value represented by the
derived series agrees with that represented by the original series.
If for another point Zi interior to the original circle the derived series
converges for z Zi| <r |zi|+E, and the two circles |z Zo| =
r |zo|+D, |z Zi| =r |zi|+E have interior points common, lying
beyond |z| =r, then it can be shown that the values represented by
these series at these common points agree. Either series then can
be used to furnish an analytical continuation of the function as
originally denned. Continuing this process of continuation as far
as possible, we arrive at the conception of the function as denned
by an aggregate of power series of which every one has points of
convergence common with some one or more others; the whole
aggregate of points of the plane which can be so reached constitutes
the region of existence of the function ; the limiting points of this
region are the points in whose neighbourhood the derived series have
radii of convergence diminishing indefinitely to zero; these are the
singular points. The circle of convergence of any of the series has
at least one such singular point upon its circumference. So regarded
the function is called a monogenic function, the epithet having refer-
ence to the single origin, by one power series, of the expressions
representing the function; it is also sometimes called a monogenic
analytical function, or simply an analytical function; all that is
necessary to define it is the value of the function and of all its
differential coefficients, at some one point of the plane ; in the method
previously followed here it was necessary to suppose the function
differentiable at every point of its region of existence. The theory
of the integration of a monogenic function, and Cauchy's theorem,
tha.tff(z)dz = o over a closed path, are at once deducible from the
corresponding results applied to a single power series for the interior
of its circle of convergence. There is another advantage belonging
to the theory of monogenic functions: the theory as originally given
here applies in the first instance only to single valued functions; a
monogenic function is by no means necessarily single valued it may
quite well happen that starting from a particular power series,
converging over a certain circle, and applying the process of analytical
continuation over a closed path back to an interior point of this circle,
the value obtained does not agree with the initial value. The
notion of basing the theory of functions on the theory of power
series is, after Newton, largely due to Lagrange, who has some
interesting remarks in this regard at the beginning of his Theorie
des functions analytiques. He applies the idea, however, primarily
to functions of a real variable for which the expression by power
series is only of very limited validity; for functions of a complex
variable probably the systematization of the theory owes most to
Weierstrass, whose use of the word monogenic is that adopted above.
In what follows we generally suppose this point of view to be regarded
as fundamental.
8. Some Elementary Properties of Single Valued Functions.
A pole is a singular point of the function /(z) which is not a
singularity of the function i //(z); this latter function is therefore,
by the definition, capable of representation about this point,
z , by a series [/(z)]~'=Za n (z z ) n . If herein a is not zero we
can hence derive a representation for/(z) as a power series about
Zo, contrary to the hypothesis that z is a singular point for this
function. Hence a =o; suppose also Oi=o, 02=0, . . . a m _i = o,
buto m o. Then [/(a)]" 1 = (z-z ) m [a m +a m+ i(z-z )+ . . .], and
hence (z Zo)/(z)=ai 1 +2b n (z z ) n , namely, the expression of
/(z) about z=z a contains a finite number of negative powers
of z Zo and a (finite or) infinite number of positive powers.
Thus a pole is always an isolated singularity.
The integral ff(z)dz taken by a closed circuit about the pole not
containing any other singularity is at once seen to be 2TtAi, where
AI is the coefficient of (z zo)" 1 in the expansion of /(z) at the pole;
this coefficient has therefore a certain uniqueness, and it is called
the residue of f(z) at the pole. Considering a region in which there
are no other singularities than poles, all these being interior points,
the integral I f(z)dz round the boundary of this region is equal to
the sum of the residues at the included poles, a very important result.
Any singular point of a function which is not a pole is called an
essential singularity; if it be isolated the function is capable, in the
neighbourhood of this point, of approaching arbitrarily near to any
assigned value. For, the point being isolated, the function can be
represented, in its neighbourhood, as we have proved, by a series
2 a n (z zo) n ; it thus cannot remain finite in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the point. The point is necessarily an isolated essential
singularity also of the function j/(z) A)" 1 , for if this were expressible
by a power series about the point, so would also the function /(z)
be; as (/(z) A)" 1 approaches infinity, so does /(z) approach the
arbitrary value A. Similar remarks apply to the point z = o , the
function being regarded as a function of f z~ l . In the neighbour-
hood of an essential singularity, which is a limiting point also of
poles, the function clearly becomes infinite. For an essential singu-
larity which is not isolated the same result does not necessarily
hold.
A single valued function is said to be an integral function
when it has no singular points except z = oo. Such is, for
instance, an integral polynomial, which has z = oo for a pole, and
the functions exp (z) which has z = oo as an essential singularity.
A function which has no singular points for finite values of
z other than poles is called a meromorphic function. If it also
have a pole at z = oo it is a rational function; for then, if
oj, . . . a, be its finite poles, of orders mi, m^, . . . m,, the
product (z ai) m i . . . (z <z,) m ,/(z) is an integral function with
a pole at infinity, capable therefore, for large values of z, of an
expression (z" 1 )"" 1 S a^z" 1 )'; thus (z ai) m i . . . (z a,) m ,Hz)
r-O
is capable of a form 2 bj, r , but z~ m IS bj? remains finite for
r_0 rwO
z = oo. Therefore b r+ i = b r+2 = ... =o, and /(z) is a rational
function.
If for a single valued function F(z) every singular point in the
finite part of the plane is isolated there can only be a finite
number of these in any finite part of the plane, and they can be
taken to be 01, 02, a 3 , . . . with |ai|? \Ot\iS \a>\ . . . and limit
|a n |=co. About a, the function is expressible as 2 A n (z a.)";
let /(z) = 2 A"(z ,)" be the sum of the negative powers in this
expansion. Assuming z = p not to be a singular point, let /.(z) be
expanded in powers of z, in the form 2 Cz n , and it, be chosen so
c-l , -0
that F,(z) -/,(*) - 2 C n z" = 2 C n z"is, for |z| <r, < a,\, less in absolute
1 c
value than the general term e, of a fore-agreed convergent series of
real positive terms. Then the series <i>(z) = 2 F,(z) converges uni-
fc.1
formly in any finite region of the plane, other than at the points a,,
and is expressible about any point by a power series, and near
a,, <t>(z)f,(z) is expressible by a power series in z a,. Thus
F(z) 4>(z) is an integral function. In particular when all the finite
singularities of F(z) are poles, F(z) is hereby expressed as the sum
of an integral function and a series of rational functions. The
condition |F,(z)|<, is imposed only to render the series 2F,(z)
uniformly convergent; this condition may in particular cases be
fi-1
satisfied by a series 2G.(z) where G,(z)=/.(z) 2 Cz" and K,<MJ.
An example of the theorem is the function -IT cot irz z" 1 for which,
taking at first only half the poles, /,(z) = l/(zs); in this case the
series 2F,(z) where F,(z) = (zs)~ 1 +s' 1 is uniformly convergent:
thus jr cot irz z~' 2 [(z $)"'+$"'], where s = o is excluded froti
00
the summation, is an integral function. It can be proved that this
integral function vanishes.
Considering an integral function /(z), if there be no finite positions
of z for which this function vanishes, the function X[/(z)] is at once
seen to be an integral function, <t>(z], or/(z) =exp [<Hz)I; if however
great R may be there be only a finite number of values of z for which
/(z) vanishes, say z = Oi, . . .o m , then it is at once seen that /(z) =
exp [4>(z)]. (z ai) M . . .(z a m )*m, where <t>(z) is an integral function,
and AI, . . . h m are positive integers. If, however,/(z) vanish for z = a>,
at,. .where l<ii|;5|as| . . . and limit a n | = w, and if for simplicity
we assume that z o is not a zero and all the zeros a\, oj,. . . are
of the first order, we find, by applying the preceding theorem to
the function J^ d ^&, that/(z) =exp [<t>(z)\ 5 |(i -z/o.) exp <t>n(z)},
where <t>(z) is an integral function, and <(z) is an integral polynomial
of the form * n (z) = j-+^+ +JJJ Tne number i may be the
same for all values of n, or it may increase indefinitely with n ; it is
sufficient in any case to take $=. In particular for the function
FUNCTION
in
-. we have
where -o U excluded from the product. Or again we have
-*JU HMHOi
where C b a constant, and T(x) U a function expressible when x is
real and positive by the integral J e 'I'-'dt.
There exist interesting investigations as to the connexion of the
value of i above, the law of increase of the modulus of the integral
function /(i). and the law of increase of the coefficients in the scries
/(>)- Id.** a* increases (sec the bibliography below under Integral
Function}). It can be shown, moreover, that an integral function
actually assumes every finite complex value, save, in exceptional
cases, one value at most. For instance, the function exp (s) assumes
every finite value except zero (see below under $ 21, Modular
Functions).
The two theorems given above, the one, known as Mittag-
Leffler's theorem, relating to the expression as a sum of simpler
functions of a function whose singular points have the point
i- oo as their only limiting point, the other, Weierstrass's
factor theorem, giving the expression of an integral function as
a product of factors each with only one zero in the finite part of
the plane, may be respectively generalized as follows:
I. If <ii, a*, a t . ... be an infinite series of isolated points having
the points of the aggregate (c) as their limiting points, so that in
any neighbourhood of a point of (c) there exists an infinite number
of the points Oi, a,, . . ., and with every point a. there be associated
a polynomial in (,)-*, say (. ; then there exists a single valued
function whose region of existence excludes only the points (a) and
the points (c), having in a point a. a pole whereat the expansion
consists of the terms g,, together with a power series in z-a,;
the function is expressible as an infinite series of terms g,/,,
where 7, U also a rational function.
II. With a similar aggregate (a), with limiting points (c), suppose
with every point a, there is associated a po'sitive integer n. Then
there exists a single valued function whose region of existence
excludes only the points (r). vanishing to order r, at the point <;.,
but not elsewhere, expressible in the form
where with ever)- point a, is associated a proper point c, of (c), and
v. being a properly chosen positive integer.
If it should happen that the points (c) determine a path dividing
the plane into separated regions, as, for instance, if a.-R(i-n- J )
exp (i'V 3.n), when(c) consists of the points of the circle | z | = R, the
product expression above denotes different monogenic functions in
the different regions, not continuable into one another.
{ 9. Construction of a Monogenic Function vrith a given Region
of Existence. A series of isolated points interior to a given
region can be constructed in infinitely many ways whose limiting
points are the boundary points of the region, or are boundary
points of the region of such denseness that one of them is found
in the neighbourhood of every point of the boundary, however
small. Then the application of the last enunciated theorem
gives rise to a function having no singularities in the interior of
the region, but having a singularity in a boundary point in every
small neighbourhood of every boundary point; this function
has the given region as region of existence.
i 10. Expression of a Monogenic Function by means of Rational
Functions in a given Region. Suppose that we have a region R
of the plane, as previously explained, for all the interior or
boundary points of which z is finite, and let its boundary points,
consisting of one or more closed polygonal paths, no two of
which have a point in common, be called C* Further suppose
that all the points of this region, including the boundary points,
are interior points of another region R, whose boundary is
denoted by C. Let z be restricted to be within or upon the
boundary of C; let a, b, ... be finite points upon C or outside
R. Then when 6 is near enough to o, the fraction (a-b)/(z-b)
h arbitrarily small for all positions of z; say
the rational function of the complex variable /,
in which n is a positive integer, is not infinite at / a, but has a
pole at f 6. By taking n large enough, the value of this function,
for all positions z of / belonging to R, differs as little as may be
desired from (/-u)~ ! . By taking a sum of terms such as
we can thus build a rational function differing, in value, in
Ro, as little as may be desired from a given rational function
/-2A,-o)-'.
and differing, outside R or upon the boundary of R, from /,
in the fact that while / is infinite at l = a, F is infinite only at
t b. By a succession of steps of this kind we thus have the
theorem that, given a rational function of / whose poles are
outside R or upon the boundary of R, and an arbitrary point c
outside R or upon the boundary of R, which can be reached by a
finite continuous path outside R from all the poles of the rational
function, we can build another rational function differing in R
arbitrarily little from the former, whose poles are all at the
point (
Now any monogenic function /(/) whose region of definition includes
C and the interior of R can be represented at all points I in 84 by
* raa*
JW 2*lJ t-1'
where the path of integration is C. This integral is the limit of a
sum
o_
5
/.-z
where the points /, are upon C ; and the proof we have given of the
existence of the limit shows that the sum S converges to f(z) uni-
formly in regard to z, when z is in R, so that we can suppose, when
the subdivision of C into intervals <i+i -/, has been carried sufficiently
far, that
|S-/(z)|<,
for all points z of Ro, where is arbitrary and agreed upon beforehand.
The function S is, however, a rational function of z with poles upon C,
that is external to Ro. We can thus find a rational function differing
arbitrarily little from S, and therefore arbitrarily little from f(z),
for all points z of Ro, with poles at arbitrary positions outside Ro
which can be reached by finite continuous curves lying outside R
from the points of C.
In particular, to take the simplest case, if Co, C be simple closed
polygons, and T be a path to which C approximates by taking the
number of sides of C continually greater, we can find a rational
function differing arbitrarily little from /(z) for all points of R whose
poles are at one finite point c external to r. By a transformation
of the form t-c = r- 1 , with the appropriate change in the rational
function, we can suppose this point c to be at infinity, in which case
the rational function becomes a polynomial. Suppose 4, j, . . .
to be an indefinitely continued sequence of real positive numbers,
converging to zero, and P r to be the polynomial such that, within
Co, |Pr-/(z)l r; then the infinite series of polynomials
PiW +{?.() - P,(z)|+|P,(z) - P.WI+. ,
whose sum to n terms is P(z), converges for all finite values of z and
represents f(z) within Co.
When C consists of a series of disconnected polygons, some of
which may include others, and, by increasing indefinitely the number
of sides of the polygons C, the points C become the boundary points
T of a region, we can suppose the poles of the rational function,
constructed to approximate to/(z) within Ro, to be at points of T.
A series of rational functions of the form
then, as before, represents /(z) within Ro. And Ro may be taken to
coincide as nearly as desired with the interior of the region bounded
by F.
$ ii. Expression of (i-z)- 1 by means of Polynomials. Appli-
cations. We pursue the ideas just cursorily explained in some
further detail.
Let c be an arbitrary real positive quantity; putting the com-
plex variable f {+'), enclose the points fl, f l+c by means
of (i.) the straight lines ij- *a, from {-I to {-I+c, (ii.) a semi-
circle convex to f o of equation (-i) t +if*>a t , (iii.) a semicircle
concave to f-o of 'equation (f-i-cy+if -a*. The quantities
c and o are to remain fixed. Take a positive integer r so that
- ( j is less than unity, and put <r=- ( - j . Now take
ci-i+c/r, c,-i+2c/r,...e,-i-K;
3i6
if HI, fit, ... r be positive integers, the rational function
FUNCTION
is finite at f=l, and has a pole of order MI at f = Ci; the rational
function
is thus finite except for f =e 2 , where it has a pole of order MiM 2 ;
finally, writing
the rational function
U = (l-f)- 1 (l .
has a pole only at ?= i +c, of order MIJ . . . M,.
The difference (i-fl-'-U is of the form (i-f)- l P, where P, of
the form
I-(l-pl)(l-pl)...(l-Pt),
in which there are equalities among pi, &, . . . pt , is of the form
i- j2
therefore, if | r,- | = |pi |, we have
I P| <Zr,+2r,r 2 +2rir 2 r,+ . . . < (i +r,) (i +r 2 ) . . . t -
now, so long as f is without the closed curve above described round
f=i, f=l+c, we have
and hence
i(i +0-1)-,-,. .
Take an arbitrary real positive , and p, a positive number, so that
"-!< ca, then a value of MI such that o-"i<,i/(l+M) and therefore
<r"i/(i-<7 1 ) </, and values for M 2 , M, . . . such that <r"2 < o* 1 !,
MI
crVi ; then, as i+x<e t , we have
... -\~n\ni . . , Mr ic
and therefore less, than
a
which is less than
and therefore less than t.
The rational function U, with a pole at f=i+c, differs therefore
from (i-f)" 1 , for all points outside the closed region put about
f = i, f=l+c, by a quantity numerically less than e. So long as
a remains the same, r and a will remain the same, and a less value
of t will require at most an increase of the numbers MI, M S , . . . n, ; but
if o be taken smaller it may be necessary to increase r, and with this
the complexity of the function U.
Nowput z
thereby the points f=o, i, i+c become the points z=o, i, oo, the
function (i-z)~ l being given by (i-z)- 1 =e(c + i)- 1 (i-f)- 1 + (c+i)~ 1 ;
the function U becomes a rational function of z with a pole only at
z = oo , that is, it becomes a polynomial in z, say^-^H -, where H
c c
is also a polynomial in z, and
_! _ H= __r_
h '-
_
the lines ij= become the two circles expressed, if z = x+iy, by
the points (i = o, =i-a), ())=o, = i+c+a) become respectively
the points (y = o, x = c(i-a)/(c+a),(y = o, x = -c(i+c+a)/a), whose
limiting positions for = are respectively (y = o, * = i), (y o,
x = oo). The circle (*+c) 2 +y 2 = c(c-j-i)3i/o can be written
where /j = Jc(c+i)/a; its ordinate y, for a given value of x, can
therefore be supposed arbitrarily small by taking a sufficiently small.
We have thus proved the following result ; taking in the plane of z
any finite region of which every interior and boundary point is at a
finite distance, however short, from the points of the real axis for
which i^i^co, we can take a quantity a, and hence, with an
arbitrary c, determine a number r; then corresponding to an arbi-
trary 4, we can determine a polynomial P., such that, for all points
interior to the region, we have
thus the series of polynomials
constructed with an arbitrary aggregate of real positive numbers
ii <s, <s, . . . with zero as their limit, converges uniformly and
represents (i-z)~ l for the whole region considered.
12. Expansion of a Monogenic Function in Polynomials, over a
Star Region. Now_consider any monogenic function /(z) of which
the origin is not a singular point ; joining the origin to any singular
point by a straight line, let the part of this straight line, produced
beyond the singular point, lying between the singular point and z = oo ,
be regarded as a barrier in the plane, the portion of this straight line
from the origin to the singular point being erased. Consider next
any finite region of the plane, whose boundary points constitute a
path of integration, in a sense previously explained, of which every
point is at a finite distance greater than zero from each of the barriers
before explained; we suppose this region to be such that any line
joining the origin to a boundary point, when produced, does not
meet the boundary again. For every point x in this region R we
can then write
where f(x) represents a monogenic branch of the function, in case it
be not everywhere single valued, and t is on the boundary of the
region. Describe now another region R, lying entirely within R,
and let * be restricted to be within R,, or upon its boundary ; then
for any point t on the boundary of R, the points z of the plane for
which zt~ l is real and positive and equal to or greater than I, being
points for which |z| = |<l or|z|>|<|, are without the region R , and
not infinitely near to its boundary points. Taking then an arbitrary
real positive e we can determine a polynomial in xt~ l , say P(xt~ l ),
such that for all points x in R we have
the form of this polynomial may be taken the same for all points t
on the boundary of R, and hence, if E be a proper variable quantity
of modulus not greater than t,
af(*) -J
| /I/WE
where L is the length of the path of integration, the boundary of R,
and M is a real positive quantity such that upon this boundary
|r'/(0|<M. If now
and
this gives
!/(*) - koW+ClMX + .-.+Wtm*" 1 ! I ?LM/2lT,
where the quantities i^, m, M 2 , . . . are the coefficients in the ex-
pansion of f(x) about the origin.
If then an arbitrary finite region be constructed of the kind
explained, excluding the barriers joining the singular points of /(*)
to x = 00, it is possible, corresponding to an arbitrary real positive
number a, to determine a number m, and a polynomial Q(#), of
order m, such that for all interior points of this region
. \J(x)-Q(x) | O.
Hence as before, within this^region /(*) can be represented by a
series of polynomials, converging uniformly; when f(x) is not a
single valued function the series represents one branch of the function.
The same result can be obtained without the use of Cauchy'a
integral. We explain briefly the character of the proof. If a
monogenic function of /, <t>(t) be capable of expression as a power
series in /-# about a point x, for |i-*|^p, and for all points of this
circle \<i>(t)\<g, we know that \<t><"'>(x)\<gp- n (n\). Hence, taking
|z|<ip, and, for any assigned positive integer it, taking m so that
for n>m we have (M+)' i <(D"> we have
'<*
and therefore
where
rt=0
00 T
2
Now draw barriers as before, directed from the origin, joining the
singular point of <t>(z) to z = oo, take a finite region excluding all
these barriers, let p be a quantity less than the radii of convergence
of all the power series developments of <t>(z) about interior points of
this region, so chosen moreover that no circle of radius p with centre
at an interior point of the region includes any singular point of<(z),
let g be such that | ^(z) | <g for all circles of radius p whose centres are
interior points of the region, and, * being any interior point of the
region, choose the positive integer M so that- 1 x \ < Jp ; then take the
points ai==*/M, a, = 2x/n, at = 3x/n, . . . a,=x; it is supposed that
the region is so taken that, whatever x may be, all these are interior
points of the region. Then by what has been said, replacing x, 8
respectively by o and x/n, we have
FUNCTION
with
provided {>+ii + l)<(|)i* 1 ; M fct for M^*"*""* ' sufficient
to take !-*; by another application of the same inequality,
replacing x. s respectively by a, and x n, we have
(+s.+ l)<(|)-t-M; w* toke "^""JlrJ' 8U PP. sm S
. loi MMe-JiV*- 1 "d "< 1 - 4 we have
,-. and%* caif use the previous inequality to substitute
here for *0-*V(i)- When thi is done we find
V
+/V
where | fr \ < aj/^a-H. the numbers i, m being respectively n"
and *".
Applying then the original inequality to ^(a t )-
and then using the series just obtained, we find a series
This process being continued, we finally obtain
where* -X.+M-...+A., K-X,! X,!. .. X.!, *,-", m,-
By thi formula *(x) is represented, with any required degree of
accuracy, by a polynomial, within the region in Question; and
thence can be expressed as before by a series of polynomials con-
verging uniformly (and absolutely) within this region.
| I3 . Application of Caucky's Theorem to the Determination of
Definite Integrals. Some reference must be made to a method
whereby real definite integrals may frequently be evaluated by
use of the theorem of the vanishing of the integral of a function
of a complex variable round a contour within which the function
is single valued and non singular.
We are to evaluate an integral \ f(x)dx; we form a closed contour
of which the portion of the real axis from x-a to x-6 forms a part,
and consider the integral ff(t)d* round this contour, supposing
that the value of this integral can be determined along the curve
forming the completion of the contour. The contour being supposed
such that, within it,/(s) is a single valued and finite function of the
complex variable s save at a finite number of isolated interior points,
the contour integral is equal to the sum of the values of ff(t)dt taken
round these points. Two instances will suffice to explain
the
method, (l) The integral j ^~** >s convergent if it be under-
stood to mean the limit when , f, <r, . . . all vanish of the sum of the
integrals
n- tanxj ft^f tan x . ft*-' tan x .
J. T~'" > J-M ~x Jj*+r ~x~"
Now draw a contour consisting in part of the whole of the positive
and negative real axis from x - -n* to x 4-nr, where n is a positive
integer, broken by semicircles of small radius whose centres are the
points x * i, x !,..., the contour containing also the lines
X-T and x --nr for values of 7 between o and nr tan a, where a
is a small fixed angle, the contour being completed by the portion
of a semicircle of radius nr sec a which lies in the upper half of the
plane and is terminated at the points x * nr, y - nr tan a. Round
this contour the integral J a " *dt has the value zero. The contri-
butions to this contour integral arising from the semicircles of centres
-J(2j-t)r, -t-|(2J-i)r, supposed of the same radius, are at once
seen to have a sum which ultimately vanishes when the radius of the
semicircles diminishes to zero. Toe part of the contour lying on
the real axis gives what is meant by 2J^ dx. The contri-
bution to the contour integral from the two straight portions at
x *nr is
nr+ty -nr+iyf
wnere tan iy, |exp (^V-exp (-yMexp (jr)+exp (-?)]. is a real
quantity which is numerically less than unity, so that the contri-
bution in question is numerically less than
-., that is than 2a.
Finally, for the remaining part of the contour, for which, with
R - nr sec o, we have z - R(cos 0+i sin 9) RE(t8), we have
d* . fr . exp(-Rsing)E(>Rcos> -exp(Rsin9)E(-t'Rcosg^
~" W> ' tanI "exp(-Rsinfl)E(Rcos)-(-exp(Rsin9)E(-Rcos9) :
when n and therefore R is very large, the limit of this contribution
to the contour integral is thus
-/:
Making n very large the result obtained for the whole contour is
^
where f is numerically less than unity. Now supposing a to diminish
to zero we finally obtain
ox 2
(a) For another case, to illustrate a different point, we may take the
integral
^""<fc,
/
J
wherein a is real quantity such that o<o< I, and the contour con-
sists of a small circle, z rE(t), terminated at the points x r cos a,
*r sin a, where a is small, of the two lines y *r sin a for
cos atix^R cos 0, where R sin r sin a, and finally of a large
circle s - RE(i, terminated at the points x - R cos 0, y - * R sin 0.
We suppose a and both zero, and that the phase of * is zero for
r cos o^x^R cos 0, y = r sin a = R sin 0. Then on r cos a^x^R cos 0,
y=-r sin a, the phase of s will be it, and t~ l will be equa) to
x*- 1 exp [zirt(a-i)], where x is real and positive. The two straight
portions of the contour will thus together give a contribution
It can easily be shown that if the limit of z/(z) for z-o is zero, th
integral //(z)dz taken round an arc, of given angle, of a small circle
enclosing the origin is ultimately zero when the radius of the circle
diminishes to zero, and if the limit of zf (s) for z = <*> is zero, the same
integral taken round an arc, of given angle, of a large circle whose
centre is the origin is ultimately zero when the radius of the circle
increases indefinitely; in our case with f(z)=z- l /(i+t), we have
z/(z)-z/(i-)-z) > which, for o <o<i, diminishes to zero both for z-o
and for s - . Thus, finally the limit of the contour integral when
r o,
oo is
[i-exp
Within the contour /(z) is single valued, and has a pole at z I ; at
this point the phase of z is T and z " 1 is exp [(o-l)l or - exp(tTo);
this is then the residue of /(z) at z--l ; we thus have
[i-exp (2Tto)]
.
14. Doubly Periodic Functions. An excellent illustration
of the preceding principles is furnished by the theory of single
valued functions having in the finite part of the plane no
singularities but poles, which have two periods.
Before passing to this it may be convenient to make here a few
remarks as to the periodicity of (single valued) monogenic functions.
To say that /(z) is periodic is to say that there exists a constant
such that for every point z of the interior of the region of existence
of /(z) we have/(z+w) -/(z). This involves, considering all existing
periods w = p+<r, that there exists a jower limit of p'+o* other than
zero ; for otherwise all the differential coefficients of /(z) would be
zero, and /(z) a constant; we can then suppose that not both p
and a are numerically less than e, where t>o. Hence, if g be any
real quantity, since the range (-g, . . . g) contains only a finite
number of intervals of length , and there cannot be two periods
u-p-HV such that itt^p<(ji+i)t, rt^<r<(t>+l)t, where M, ".are
integers, it follows that there is only a finite number of periods
for which both p and a are in the interval (-g . . .g). Considering
then all the periods of the function which are real multiples of one
period a, and in particular those periods Xwhereino<X^i, there is
a lower limit for X, greater than zero, and therefore, since there is
only a finite number of such periods for which the real and imaginary
parts both lie between -g and g, a least value of X, say Xo. If
i!-Xoo> and X-MXo+X', where M is an integer ando^X'<Xo, any
period X is of the form MO+X'w; since, however, 0, MQ and X
are periods, to also is X'u, and hence, by the construction of X,
we have X'-o; thus all periods which are real multiples of u are
expressible in the form MQ, where M is an integer, and: Q a period.
If beside u the functions have a period <>' which is not a real
multiple of u, consider all existing periods of the form iua-\-ru'
wherein M, r are real, and of these those for which O^M^I,
FUNCTION
as before there is a least value for v, actually occurring in one or
more periods, say in the period n'=w+iW; now take, if iua-\-vw'
be a period, N'+', where N' is an integer, and o^v'<v ;
thence lua+vw' =ju*> +N'(Q / MOW) -fVu' ; take then M NV = NXo+X',
where N is an integer and Ac is as above, and og=X'<Xo; we
thus have a period Nj)+N'n'-|-X'+''<</, and hence a period
X'ai-fVw', wherein X'<\o, v' <o; hence >'=o and X' = o. All
periods of the form nu+va' are thus expressible in the form
Nfl+N'iJ', where fi, fi* are periods and N, N' are integers. But
in fact any complex quantity, P+iQ, and in particular any other
possible period of the function, is expressible, with ft, v real, in the
form fua+vui'; for if w = p+itr, u'=p'+ia', this requires only
P=HP+vp', Q =//<f +"', equations which, since u'/u is not real,
always give finite values for n and v.
It thus appears that if a single valued monogenic function of z
be periodic, either all its periods are real multiples of one of them,
and then all are of the form MSJ, where fi is a period and M is an
integer, or else, if the function have two periods whose ratio is not
real, then all its periods are expressible in the form NQ+N'Q',
where fl, & are periods, and N, N' are integers. In the former case,
putting f = 27MZ/B, and the function /(z) =<(f), the function 4>(f)
has, like exp (f), the period 2iri, and if we take 2 = exp (f) or f = X(/)
the function is a single valued function of /. If then in particular/(z)
is an integral function, regarded as a function of t, it has singularities
only for / = o and t = oo , and may be expanded in the form 2 aj, n .
Taking the case when the single valued monogenic function has
two periods to, u whose ratio is not real, we can form a network
of parallelograms covering the plane of z whose angular points are
the points c+mta+m'a', wherein c is some constant and m, m' are
all possible positive and negative integers; choosing arbitrarily
one of these parallelograms, and calling it the primary parallelogram,
all the values of which the function is at all capable occur for points
of this primary parallelogram, any point, z', of the plane being,
as it is called, congruent to a definite point, z, of the primary parallelo-
gram, z'-z being of the form mu-\-m'u>', where m, m' are integers.
Such a function cannot be an integral function, since then, if, in the
primary parallelogram |/(z)| <M, it would also be the case, on a circle
of centre the origin and radius R, that |/(z)| <M, and therefore, if
SonZ" be the expansion of the function, which is valid for an integral
function for all finite values of z, we should have |a n | < MR~", which
can be made arbitrarily small by taking R large enough. The
function must then have singularities for finite values of z.
We consider only functions for which these are poles. Of these
there cannot be an infinite number in the primary parallelogram,
since then those of these poles which are sufficiently near to one
of the necessarily existing limiting points of the poles would be
arbitrarily near to one another, contrary to the character of a pole.
Supposing the constant c used in naming the corners of the parallelo-
grams so chosen that no pole falls on the perimeter of a parallelogram,
it is clear that the integral 2jrjf/( 2 X z round the perimeter of the
primary parallelogram vanishes; for the elements of the integral
corresponding to two such opposite perimeter (points as z, z-\-o>
(or as z, z+o>') are mutually destructive. This integral is, however,
equal to the sum of the residues of /(z) at the poles interior to the
parallelogram. Which sum is therefore zero. There cannot there-
fore be such a function having only one pole of the first order in
any parallelogram; we shall see that there can be such a function
with two poles only in any parallelogram, each of the first order,
with residues whose sum is zero, and that there can be such a function
with one pole of the second order, having an expansion near this pole
of the form (z-a)~ t + (power series in z-a).
Considering next the function (z) = [f(z)\- 1 -fa-, it is easily seen
that an ordinary point of /(z) is an ordinary point of 4>(z), that a
zero of order m for /(z) in the neighbourhood of which /(z) has a form,
(z a) multiplied by a power series, is a pole of <t>(z) of residue m,
and that a pole of /(z) of order n is a pole of <t>(z) of residue -n ;
manifestly <t>(z) has the two periods of /(z). We thus infer, since the
sum of the residues of </>(z) is zero, that for the function /(z), the
sum of the orders of its vanishing at points belonging to one parallelo-
ram, 2m, is equal to the sum of the orders of its poles, 2n ; which is
riefly expressed by saying that the number of its zeros is equal to
the number of its poles. Applying this theorem to the function
/(z)-A, where A is an arbitrary constant, we have the result, that
the function /(z) assumes the value A in one of the parallelograms
as many times as it becomes infinite. Thus, by what is proved above,
every conceivable complex value does arise as a value for the doubly
periodic function /(z) in any one of its parallelograms, and in fact
at least twice. The number of times it arises is called the order of the
function ; the result suggests a property of rational functions.
g
b
Consider further the integralj z>|</z, where /'(z) = -"^, taken
round the perimeter of the primary parallelogram ; the contribution
to this arising from two opposite perimeter points such as z and z+w
is of the form-w I e7\d*t which, as z increases from ZD to ZO+M', gives,
if X denote the generalized logarithm, -u|X[/(z -fu')]-X[/(zo)]|, that
is, since /(zo+u ) =/(zo), gives 2'Nu, where N is an integer; similarly
the result of the integration along the other two opposite sides is of
the form 2NV, where N' is an integer. The integral, however,
is equal to 2iri times the sum of the residues of zf (z)//(z) at the poles
interior to the parallelogram. For a zero, of order m, of /(z) at z = o,
the contribution to this sum is 2irima, for a pole of order n at z = 6
the contribution is -2-irinb; we thus infer that 2ma-26 = Nu+NV;
this we express in words by saying that the sum of the values of z
where /(z)=o within any parallelogram is equal to the sum of the
values of z where /(z) = oo save for integral multiples of the periods.
By considering similarly the function /(z)-A where A is an arbitrary
constant, we prove that each of these sums is equal to the sum of
the values of z where the function takes the value A in the paral-
lelogram.
We pass now to the construction of a function having two
arbitrary periods u, o>' of unreal ratio, which has a single pole
of the second order in any one of its parallelograms.
For this consider first the network of parallelograms whose corners
are the points l = mu+m'w', where m, m' take all positive and
negative integer values; putting a small circle about each corner
of this network, let P be a point outside all these circles ; this will
be interior to a parallelogram whose corners in order may be denoted
by Zo, Zo+w, Zo+>+a>', Zo+w'; we shall denote Zo, Zo+w by A , B ;
this parallelogram Ho is surrounded by eight other parallelograms,
forming with Do a larger parallelogram Hi, of which one side, for
instance, contains the points Zo a <a', Zo &>', Zo u'+oi, Zo-o)'+2a>,
which we shall denote by AI, BI, Ci, DL This parallelogram U, is
surrounded by sixteen of the original parallelograms, forming with
IIi a still larger parallelogram n 2 of which one side, for instance,
contains the points Zo 2to 2', Zo-w 2ta', Zo2u>', Zo+w 2w',
zo+2u-2o>', zo+3o> 201', which we shall denote by A 2 , B 2 , C 2 , D 2 ,
E 2 , F. And so on. Now consider the sum of the inverse cubes of
the distances of the point P from the corners of all the original
parallelograms. The sum will contain the terms
s = FA1+ VPA1 +FE1 +FC|) + (pAl +FB1 + +FE|) +
and three other sets of terms, each infinite in number, formed in a
similar way. If the perpendiculars from P to the sides A Bo,
AiBiCi, A 2 B 2 C 2 D 2 E 2 , and so on, be p, p+q, p+2q and so on, the
sum So is at most equal to
f f>Mm _1_ V
,+ ..-.
+<Z) 3T (+22) 3 ~ r
of which the general term is ultimately, when n is large, in a ratio of
equality with 2g~ 3 n~ s , so that the series So is convergent, as we know
the sum Sn" 2 to be; this assumes that p*o; if P be on AoB
the proof for the convergence of So-i/PAf is the same. Taking
the three other sums analogous to So we thus reach the result that
the series
0(z) = -22(z-Q)-',
where fi is mta+m'ia', and m, m' are to take all positive and negative
integer values, and z is any point outside small circles described with
the points S2 as centres, is absolutely convergent. Its sum is therefore
independent of the order of its terms. By the nature of the proof,
which holds for all positions of z outside the small circles spoken of,
the series is also clearly uniformly convergent outside these circles.
Each term of the series being a monogenic function of z, the series may
therefore be differentiated and integrated outside these circles, and
represents a monogenic function. It is clearly periodic with the
periods a>, w'; for <t>(z+ta) is the same sum as <t>(z) with the terms
in a slightly different order. Thus<(z+u) =<(z) and <t>(z+a') = <t>(z).
Consider now the function
_
where, for the subject of integration, the area of uniform convergence
clearly includes the point z = o; this gives
*
wherein 2' is a sum excluding the term for which m=o and m' = o.
Hence /(z+w)-/(z) and f(z+u')-f(z) are both independent of z.
Noticing, however, that, by its form, /(z) is an even function of z,
and putting z=-jco, z = -Jw' respectively, we infer that also /(z)
has the two periods <o and &>'. In the primary parallelogram n ,
however, /(z) is only infinite at z = o in the neighbourhood of which
its expansion is of the form z~*+ (power series in z). Thus^(z) is
such a doubly periodic function as was to be constructed, having in
any parallelogram of periods only one pole, of the second order.
It can be shown that any single valued meromorphic function
of z with o> and oo' as periods can be expressed rationally in terms
of /(z) and </>(z), and that [</>(a)] ! is of the form 4[/(z)]'+A/(z)+B,
where A, B are constants.
FUNCTION
To prove the last of the* results, we write, (of |i| < |Q|.
2S
nd hence, if Z'O"** -.. since Z'Q-***" 11 -o, we have, for sufficiently
small t greater than WTO,
-
these series we find that the function
contains no negative powers of s, being equal to a power series in i*
beginning with a term in . The function F(i) is, however, doubly
periodic, with periods u. a', and can only be infinite when cither
/(i) or *(s) is infinite; this follows from its form in/(i) and (z);
thus in one parallelogram of periods it can be infinite only when
j-o; we have proved, howrvrr, that it is not infinite, but, on the
contrary, vanishes, when s-o. Being, therefore, never infinite for
finite values of i it is a constant, and therefore necessarily always
lero. Putting therefore /(i) - f and *(z) -d{ldt we see that
Historically it was in the discussion of integrals such as
regarded as a branch of Integral Calculus, that the doubly periodic
functions arose. As in the familiar case
where f -sin s, it has proved finally to be simpler to regard f as a
function of *. We shall come to the other point of view below,
under | 20, Elliptic InUtrals.
To prove that any doubly periodic function F(z) with periods
u. w', having poles at the points z = ai, . . . s a m of a parallelo-
gram, these being, for simplicity of explanation, supposed to be
all of the first order, is rationally expressible in terms of 4>(z)
and /'sV and we proceed as follows:
Consider the expression
...
* W " (f-A,) (f-A,)... (f-A.)
where A. -/(a.), f is an abbreviation for f(t) and i for (z), and
(f.i). (f.t)--i. denote integral polynomials in f, of respective orders
and m-2, so that there are 2m unspecified, homogeneously
entering, constants in the numerator. It is supposed that no one
of the points a ..... o_ is one of the pointsm+mV where /(z) <*> .
The function *(z) is a monogenic function of t with the periods u, ',
becoming infinite (and having singularities) only when (i) f = x or
(2) one of the factors f-A. is zero. In a period parallelogram
including i-o the first arises only for z o; since for f = 00, q is in
a finite ratio to f 3 / 2 ; the function *(z) for f is not infinite
provided the coefficient of fin (f,i) is not zero; thus *(z) is
regular about t-o. When f-A.-o. that is /(*)-/(.), we have
i- *o.-f-w-(-m'w', and no other values of z, m and m' being
integers; suppose the unspecified coefficients in the numerator so
taken that the numerator vanished to the first order in each of the
m points a,, -a,, . . . a.; that is, if 4(0.) -B., and therefore
) -B M so that we have the m relations
then the function *(z) will only have the m poles a\, . . . a m . De-
noting further the m zeros of F(z) by a,', . . . a m ', putting /(a.') A.',
*<.') - B/. suppose the coefficients of the numerator of *(2) to
satisfy the funnier m-I conditions
for J-l. 2, ... (m-l). The ratios of the 2m coefficients in the
numerator of +(z) can always be chosen so that the m + (m- 1 ) linear
conditions are all satisfied. Consider then the ratio
it
one
i a doubly periodic function with no singularity other than the
pole dm It is therefore a constant, the numerator of 4>(z)
vanishing spontaneously in a.'. We have
F(*)-A*(i).
where A is a constant; by which F(z) is expressed rationally in
terms of /(z) and *(i), as was desired.
When z -o is a pole of F(z), say of order r, the other poles, each of
the first order, being a,, ... a,, similar reasoning can be applied to
a function
(f-A,> . .
where *. k are such that the greater of 2*-2m, zt+j-zm is equal
to r; the case where some of the poles a,, ... a., are multiple is
to be met by introducing corresponding multiple factors in the de-
nominator and taking a corresponding numerator. We give a
solution of the general problem below, of a different form.
One important application of the result is the theorem that the
functions/(z-H). *(+/), which are such doubly periodic function of
s as have been discussed, can each be expressed, so far as they depend
on f, rationally in terms of /(i) and *(f), and therefore, so far as they
depend on : and /, rationally in terms of /(z), /(<). *(*) and *(/).
It can in fact be shown, by reasoning analogous to that given above,
that
This shows that if F(z) be any single valued monogenic function
which is doubly periodic and of mcromorphic character, then
F(z-M) is an algebraic function of F(z) and F(0- Conversely any
single valued monogenic function of meromorphic character, F(z),
which is such that F(z+0 is an algebraic function of F(z) and F(<),
can be shown to be a doubly periodic function, or a function obtained
from such by degeneration (in virtue of special relations connecting
the fundamental constants).
The functions /(z), $(z) above are usually denoted by 'iUz), $'(*);
further the fundamental differential equation is usually written
and the roots of the cubic on the right are denoted by e\, tt, e;
for the odd function, $'z, we have, for the congruent arguments
-iuand |,*'(M --'(-*) --*'(!), and hence $'(J)-o;
hence we can take ei-$(M,i-$(i<i>-;-iw'), i-lJJ(i')- It can
then be proved that l$(z)-eil{S(z + J)-*if-(ei-i) (ci-e,), with
similar equations for the other half periods. Consider more particu-
larly the function ^(:) cr, like $(z) it has a pole of the second
order at z o, its expansion in its neighbourhood being of the form
z~*(l-iZ l -|-Az 4 -r-. . .); having no other pole, it has therefore either
two zeros, or a double zero in a period parallelogram (u, '). In fact
near its zero J its expansion is (x-jai)^5'(Jw) + |(z-Jw) 8 '(J a ') +
. . . ; we have seen that ^S'(Jw) =-o; thus it has a zero of the second
order wherever it vanishes. Thus it appears that the square root
($(z) ri]', if we attach a definite sign to it for some particular value
of z, is a single valued function of z; for it can at most have two
values, and the only small circuits in the plane which could lead
to an interchange of these values are those about cither a pole or a
zero, neither of which, as we have seen, has this effect; the function
is therefore single valued for any circuit. Denoting the function,
for a moment, by /i(z), we have /i(z+u) = */Ci}iA(+/) = */i(z) ;
it can be seen by considerations of continuity that the right sign
in either of these equations does not vary with z; not both these
signs can be positive, since the function has only one pole, of the first
order, in a parallelogram (a, u>'); from the expansion of ^i(z) about
z = o, namely z~ l ( ! li**+ ), it follows that f\(z) is an odd
function, and hence /i( Ju') = /i(J')i which is not zero since
i, so that we have/i(z+o)')- /i(2); an equation
[/,
f,(
The function /i(z) is thus doubly periodic with the periods a and
2o)'; in a parallelogram of which two sides are u and 2u' it has
poles at z = o, z = w each of the first order, and zeros of the first
poles ,
order at z = Jw, z = }u+o/; it is thus a doubly periodic function
of the second order with two different poles of the first order in its
parallelogram (, 2u). We may similarly consider the functions
1Hz)-<r,]4,/.(z) -H}()-eil: they give
- /(z-rV) - ~/t(z).
Taking =z(i-)*, with a definite determination of the constant
( ei _;,)j i it i g usual, taking the preliminary signs so that for z = o
each of z/i(z), z/i(z), z/i(z) is equal to +i. to put
K - i
thus sn() is an odd doubly periodic function of the second order
with the periods 4K, 2K, having poles of the first order at K',
u = 2K-fK', and zeros of the first order at u o, = 2K; similarly
cn(u), dn (tt)are even doubly periodic functions whose periods can be
written down, and sn() +cn t () - 1 , fc l sn'()+dn'() -i ; if *-
sn(u) we at once find, from the relations given here, that
if we put x = sin <t> we have
and if we call $the amplitude of u, we may write $-am(), x-sin.
am(u), which explains the origin of the notation sn(). Similarly
cn(tt) is an abbreviation of cos. am(u), and dn(u) of A am(u), where
A(^) meant (l-k* sin* *)1. The addition equation for each of the
f unctions /i(z),/>(z),/i(z) is very simple, being
where //(z) means df,(z)/dt, which is equal to - fi(f)./i(z), and /"(z)
320
FUNCTION
means [/(*)]*. This may be verified directly by showing, if R denote
the right side of the equation, that dR/dz = dR/dl ; this will require
the use of the differential equation
and in fact we fin
(S - S) log [/
[/.'<"]' = [/!(*)
d
(JJ - J5 log [/
hence it will follow that R is a function of z-\-t, and R is at once seen
to reduce to /(z) when t = o. From this the addition equation for
each of the functions sn(tt), cn(), dn() can be deduced at once;
if si, Ci, di, sj, c, d s denote respectively sn(wi), cn(i), dn(tti), sn^),
), dn(Mj), they can be put into the forms
) = (did 2 -A 2 s lS2 cic 2 )/D,
where D = i-#s? s|.
The introduction of the function fi(z) is equivalent to the intro-
duction of the function $(z; w, 2w ) constructed from the periods
w, 2<a' as was 55(z) from u and u'; denoting this function by iJ5i(z)
and its differential coefficient by $'i(z), we have in fact
as we see at once by considering the zeros and poles and the limit of
(z) when z = o. In terms of the function $1 (z) the original function
(z) is expressed by
as a consideration of the poles and expansion near z = o will show.
A function having w,w for periods, with poles at two arbitrary
points a, b and zeros at a', b', where a'+6' = 0+6 save for an expres-
sion ma+m'w', in which m, m' are integers, is a constant multiple of
if the expansion of this function near z a be
X(z-<j)-'+ ' ~ '
his function near z a be
X(z-a)-'+ M +Wz-a)",
n-l
the expansion near z = b is
2 (-l
n-l
as we see by remarking that if z'-fr=-(z-o) the function has the
same value at z and z ; hence the differential equation satisfied
by the function is easily calculated in terms of the coefficients in
the expansions.
From the function $(z) we can obtain another function, termed the
Zeta-f unction ; it is usually denoted by f(z), and defined by
for which as before we have equations
where 2?), 21)' are certain constants, which in this case do not both
vanish, since else f (z) would be a doubly periodic function with only
one pole of the first order. By considering the integral
ft(z)dz
round the perimeter of a parallelogram of sides u, w' containing
z = o in its interior, we find IJO>'-T;'U = I , so that neither of ij, if
is zero. We have {'(z) =-'$(z). From f(z) by means of the equation
we determine an integral function a(z), termed the Sigma-function,
having a zero of the first order at each of the points z = Q; it can be
seen to satisfy the equations
(Z+< ^=-exp[2V(2+J')l-
By means of these equations, if
+a' m , it is readily shown that
<r(z-a'i)<r(z-q' a ) . . . <r(z-o' m )
o-(z-0i)o-(z-0a) . . . a(z-a m )
is a doubly periodic function having a lt . . . a m as its simple poles,
and a'i, . . . a'm as its simple zeros. Thus the function <r(z) has the
important property of enabling us to write any meromorphic doubly
periodic function as a product of factors each having one zero in the
parallelogram of periods; these form a generalization of the simple
factors, z-a, which have the same utility for rational functions of z.
We have f(z) = <r'(z)/<7(z1.
The functions f(z), v(z) may be used to write any meromorphic
doubly periodic function F(z) as a sum of terms having each only one
pole; for if in the expansion of F(z) neara pole z = o the terms with
negative powers of z-a be
A,(z-a)-'+A 2 (z-a)-'+ . . .
then the difference
will not be infinite at z o. Adding to this a sum of further terms
of the same form, one for each of the poles in a parallelogram of
periods, we obtain, since the sum of the residues A is zero, a doubly
periodic function without poles, that is, a constant; this gives the
expression of F(z) referred to. The indefinite integral JTF(z)dz can
then be expressed in terms of z, functions SjB(z-o) and their differential
coefficients, functions f(z-o) and functions log <r(z-o).
15. Potential Functions. Conformal Representation ' in
General. Consider a circle of radius a lying within the region
of existence of a single valued monogenic function, u+iv, of
the complex variable z, =x+iy, the origin z = o being the centre
of this circle. If z=rE(t<) =r(cos<+ i sin<) be an internal point
of this circle we have
where U+tV is the value of the function at a point of the cir-
cumference and / = oE(j'0); this is the same as
4-,=JL
...
aa '
)> - 2(r/a) cos (B - <t>)
If in the above formula we replace z by the external point
(a 2 /r)E(i<#>) the corresponding contour integral will vanish, so that
also
'
hence by subtraction we have .
i f _ U(o*-r')'
u I - - - -
2*J a'
- - - - -
+r 2 - 2 ar cos (6 -<f>) '
and a corresponding formula for v in terms of V. If O be the
centre of the circle, Q be the interior point 2, P the point aE(0)
of the circumference, and co the angle which QP makes with OQ
produced, this integral is at once found to be the same as
of which the second part does not depend upon the position of z,
and the equivalence of the integrals holds for every arc of
integration.
Conversely, let U be any continuous real function on the circum-
ference, Uo being the value of it at a point P of the circumference,
and describe a small circle with centre at P cutting the given circle in
A and B, so that for all points P of the arc AP B we have|U-U | <e,
where is a given small real quantity. Describe a further circle,
centre P within the former, cutting the given circle in A' and B',
and let Q be restricted to lie in the small space bounded by the arc
A'P B' and this second circle; then for all positions of P upon the
greater arc AB of the original circle QP 2 is greater than a definite
finite quantity which is not zero, say QP> D 2 . Consider now the
integral
which we evaluate as the sum of two, respectively along the small arc
AP B and the greater arc AB. It is easy to verify that, for the
whole circumference,
Hence we can write
If the finite angle between QA and QB be called * and the finite
angle AOB be called 6, the sum of the first two components is
numerically less than
If the greatest value of I (U-U ) I on the greater arc AB be called H,
the last component is numerically less than
of which, when the circle, of centre P , passing through A'B' is
sufficiently small, the factor o L r 2 is arbitrarily small. Thus it
appears that u' is a function of the position of Q whose limit, when Q,
interior to the original circle, approaches indefinitely near to P , is
U . From the form
since the inclination of QP to a fixed direction is, when Q varies, P
remaining fixed, a solution of the differential equation
where z, x+iy, is the point Q, we infer that u' is a differentiate
FUNCTION
321
function satisfying this equation; indeed, when r<a, we can write
IwJ a*+r*-2arc((t-+)
i f T r r> "I
-jjj U I i +a-co(-*)+*^ (-*)+. . -\dt
In this series the terms of order n are sums, with real coefficients,
of the various integral polynomials of dimension n which satisfy
the equation aV/Jx*-(-aV/d/; the series is thus the real part of
a power series in i, and is capable of differentiation and integration
within its region of convergence.
Conversely we may suppose a function, P, defined for the interior
of a finite region R of the plane of the real variables x, y, capable
of expression about any interior point x*. y. of this region by a power
series in xx, y-y*. with real coefficients, these various series being
obtainable from one of them by continuation. For any region R
interior to the region specified, the radii of convergence of these
power series will then have a lower limit greater than zero, and
hence a finite number of these power series suffice to specify the
function for all points interior to R*. Each of these series, and
therefore the function, will be different iable; suppose that at all
points of R the function satisfies the equation
#p , ap_ o
we then call it a monogenic potential function. From this, save
for an additive constant, there is defined another potential function
by means of the equation
The functions P, Q, being given by a finite number of power series,
will be single valued in R, and P+iQ will be a monogenic function of
s within R*- In drawing this inference it is supposed that the region
R* a such that every closed path drawn in it is capable of being
deformed continuously to a point lying within R , that is, is simply
Suppose in particular, c being any point interior to R , that P
approaches continuously, as s approaches to the boundary of R,
to the value log r. where r is the distance of c to the points of the
perimeter of R. Then the function of z expressed by
r-(-<)exp(-P-Q)
will be developable by a power series in (z-z) about every point Zt
interior to R*. and will vanish at fc; while on the boundary of R
it will be of constant modulus unity. Thus if it be plotted upon a
plane of f the boundary of R will become a circle of radius unity
with centre at f-o. this latter point corresponding to t-c. A
closed path within R*. passing once round i = c, will lead to a closed
path passing once about f-o. Thus every point of the interior of
R will give rise to one point of the interior of the circle. The con-
vene is also true, but is more difficult to prove; in fact, the differ-
ential coefficient d{[d* does not vanish for any point interior to R.
This beinz assumed, we obtain a conformal representation of the
interior of the region R upon the interior of a circle, in which the
arbitrary interior point c of R corresponds to the centre of the circle,
and. by utilizing the arbitrary constant arising in determining the
function Q. an arbitrary point of the boundary of R corresponds to
an arbitrary point of the circumference of the circle.
There thus arises the problem of the determination of a real mono-
genic potential function, single valued and finite within a given
arbitrary region, with an assigned continuous value at all points
of the boundary of the region. When the region is circular this
problem is solved by the integral - j Vdu-~ Cvd$ previously
given. When the region is bounded by the outermost portions
of the circumferences of two overlapping circles, it can hence be
proved that the problem also has a solution ; more generally, con-
sider a finite simply connected region, whose boundary we suppose
to consist of a single closed path in the sense previously explained,
ABCD; joining A to C by two non-intersecting paths AEC, AFC
lying within the region, so that the original region may be supposed
to be generated by the overlapping regions AECD, CFAB, of which
the common part is AECF; suppose now the problem of determining
a single valued finite monogenic potential function for the region
AECD with a given continuous boundary value can be solved, and
also the same problem for the region CFAB; then it can be shown
that the same problem can be solved for the original area. Taking
indeed the values assigned for the original perimeter ABCD, assume
arbitrarily values for the path AEC, continuous with one another
and with the values at A and C ; then determine the potential function
for the interior of AECD; this will prescribe values for the path
CFA which will be continuous at A and C with the values originally
XL n.
proposed for ABC ; we can then determine a function for the interior
of ( FAB with the boundary values so prescribed. This in its turn
will give values for the path AEC, so that we can determine a new
function for the interior of AECD. With the values which this
assumes along CFA we can then again determine a new function for
the interior of CFAB. And so on. It can be shown that these
functions, so alternately determined, have a limit representing
such a potential function as is desired for the interior of the original
region ABCD. There cannot be two functions with the given
perimeter values, since their difference would be a monogenic
potential function with boundary value zero, which can easily be
shown to be everywhere zero. At least two other methods have
been proposed for the solution of the same problem.
A particular case of the problem is that of the conformal repre-
sentation of the interior of a closed polygon upon the upper half
of the plane of a complex variable /. It can be shown without much
difficulty that if a, b, c, ... be real values of /. and a, 0, y, ... be
real numbers, whose sum is n-2, the integral
z-/(/-o) (/-6)/M. ..dl,
as / describes the real axis, describes in the plane of z a polygon of n
sides with internal angles equal to air, /3r, . . ., and, a proper sign
being given to the integral, points of the upper half of the plane of /
give rise to interior points of the polygon. Herein the points a, 6, ...
of the real axis give rise to the corners of the polygon ; the condition
So -2 ensures merely that the point < oo does not correspond
to a corner; if this condition be not regarded, an additional corner
and side is introduced in the polygon. Conversely it can be shown
that the conformal representation of a polygon upon the half plane
can be effected in this way; for a polygon of given position of more
than three sides it is necessary for this to determine the positions
of all but three of a, b,c, . . . ; three of them may always be supposed
to be at arbitrary positions, such as / = <>, / = i, / = .
As an illustration consider in the plane of z, =x+iy, the portion
of the imaginary axis from the origin to z = A, where h is positive
and less than unity ;_ let C be this point je = 'A; let BA be of length
unity along the positive real axis, B being the origin and A the
point z= i ; let DE l>e of length unity along the negative real axis,
D being also the origin and E the point z~ i; let EFA be a
semicircle of radius unity, F being the point z**i. If we put
f = [(z'+A*)/(i +*')]*, with f=i when * i, the function is single
valued within the semicircle, in the plane of z, which is slit along the
imaginary axis from the origin to z>t7t; if we 'plot the value of f
upon another plane, as z describes the continuous curve ABCDE,
f will describe the real axis from f I to f I, the point C giving
f =o, and the points B, D giving the points f = *A. Near z = o
the expansion of f is f-A-
or f+h=-i
in either case an increase of {T in the phase of z gives an increase
of ic in the phase of f-h or f+h. Near z iA the expansion of fis
f = (z-A)'[2*fc/(i-A 4 )]'+. . ., and an increase of 2ir in the phase of
z-ih also leads to an increase of T in the phase of f. Then as z
describes the semicircle EFA, f also describes a semicircle of radius
unity, the point z = becoming f = . There is thus a conformal
representation of the interior of the slit semicircle in the z-plane,
upon the interior of the whole semicircle in the f -plane, the function
being single valued in the latter semicircle. By means of a trans-
formation <-(f+i)V(f-i) s . the semicircle in the plane of f can
further be conformably represented upon the upper half of the whole
plane of /.
As another illustration we may take the conformal representation
of an equilateral triangle upon a half plane. Taking the elliptic
function $() for which $'() -4^()~4. so that, with = exp ('),
we have e t - 1 , e, - *, e, - , the half periods may be taken to be
, C"> dt , , (<*> dt ,
JO 1 I i, J*> I - r=t(w:
Ji 2 7 l) 1 Je, 2(/-i)
drawing the equilateral triangle whose vertices are O, of argument O,
A of argument u, and B of argument +<>' -*, and the equi-
lateral triangle whose angular points are O, B and C, of argument a',
let E, of argument J(2<i>-f '), and D, of argument l(a>-)-2'), be the
centroids of these triangles respectively, and let BE, OE, AE cut
OA, AB, BOin K, L, H respectively, and BD, OD, CD cut OC, BC,
OB in F, G, H respectively; then if -{+*') be any point of the
interior of the triangle OEM and r-o-f(-iij) be any point of the
interior of the triangle OHD, the points respectively of the ten
triangles OEK, EKA, EAL, ELB, EBH, DHB, DBG, DGC, DCF,
DFO are at once seen to be given by -to, +, u-A>, a+u'+Ju,
a+a'-v, u+u'-u, u+a'+tv, u'-tu, ' +*, -*. Further, when
u is real, since the term -2(+m+mVa>)~ 1 , which is the con-
jugate complex of -2(tf+m-f m'fw)~', arises in the infinite sum
which expresses '(). namely as -2(u+iiu+n'tu)~', where
/ m-m', n'-m, it follows that ?}'() is real; in a similar
way we prove that $'() is pure imaginary when u is pure imaginary,
and that $'()- 9J'() -V), as also that for v-tu,, $'(v) is the
conjugate complex of $'(). Hence it follows that the variable
322
FUNCTION
takes each real value once as u passes along the perimeter of the
triangle ODE, being as can be shown respectively oo , i, o, I at O,
D, H, E, and takes every complex value of imaginary part positive
once in the interior of this triangle. This leads to
in accordance with the general theory.
It can be deduced that T =<* represents the triangle ODH on the
upper half plane of T, and f=(i T" 1 )* represents similarly the
triangle OBD.
16. Multiple valued Functions. Algebraic Functions. The
explanations and definitions of a monogenic function hitherto
given have been framed for the most part with a view to single
valued functions. But starting from a power series, say in
zc, which represents a single value at all points of its circle
of convergence, suppose that, by means of a derived series in
zc,' where c' is interior to the circle of convergence, we can
continue the function beyond this, and then by means of a series
derived from the first derived series we can make a further
continuation, and so on; it may well be that when, after a
closed circuit, we again consider points in the first circle of
convergence, the value represented may not agree with the
original value. One example is the case z*, for which two values
exist for any value of z; another is the generalized logarithm
X(z), for which there is an infinite number of values. In such
cases, as before, the region of existence of the function consists
of all points which can be reached by such continuations with
power series, and the singular points, which are the limiting
points of the point-aggregate constituting the region of existence,
are those points in whose neighbourhood the radii of convergence
of derived series have zero for limit, in this description the
point z=oo does not occupy an exceptional position, a power
series in zc being transformed to a series in i/z when z is near
enough to c by means of z c = c(i cz~ l )[i (i cz" 1 )]" 1 , and a
series in i/z to a series in zc, when z is near enough to c, by
means of - = -[i-\ T
The commonest case of the occurrence of multiple valued functions
is that in which the function s satisfies an algebraic equation f(s,z) =
pns*+pis"~ 1 + . . . -\-p n =o, wherein p a , pi, ... p are integral poly-
nomials in z. Assuming f(s,z) incapable of being written as a proauct
of polynomials rational in i and z, and excepting values of z for
which the polynomial coefficient of s" vanishes, as also the values
of z for which beside f(s,z) =o we have also df(s,z)/ds=o, and also
in general the point z = oo , the roots of this equation about any point
z = c are given byn power series in zc. About a finite point z = c
for which the equation df(s,z)/ds = o is satisfied by one or more of the
roots i of f(s,z) =o, the n roots break up into a certain number of
cycles, the r roots of a cycle being given by a set of power series in
a radical (zc) 1 /', these series of the cycle being obtainable from
one another by replacing (zc) 1 /' by w(z f) 1 /', where w, equal to
exp (2rih/r), is one of the rth roots of unity. Putting then zc = F
we may say that the r roots of a cycle are given by a single power
series in /, an increase of 2-r in the phase of/ giving an increase of
2rr in the phase of zc. This single series in t, giving the values of
s belonging to one cycle in the neighbourhood olz = c when the phase
of zc varies through 2*r, is to be looked upon as defining a single
place among the aggregate of values of z and s which satisfy f(s,z) = o ;
two such places may be at the same point (z = c, s = d) without
coinciding, the corresponding power series for the neighbouring
points being different. Thus for an ordinary value of z, z=c, there
are places for which the neighbouring values of i are given by n
power series in zc; for a value of z for which df(s,z)/ds = o there
are less than n places. Similar remarks hold for the neighbourhood
of z = oo ; there may be n places whose neighbourhood is given by n
power series in z~ l or fewer, one of these being associated with a
series in /, where / = (z~ 1 )V; the sum of the values of r which thus
arise is always n. In general, then, we may say, with t of one of
the forms (zc), (zc) 1 /', z~S (z"') 1 /', that the neighbourhood of
any place (c,d) for which f(c,d) =o is given by a pair of expressions
z=c+P(/), s = d+Q(t), where P(0 is a (particular case of a) power
series vanishing for / = o, and Q(<) is a ^ower series vanishing for
< = o, and / vanishes at (c,d), the expression zc being replaced by
e~ l when c is infinite, and similarly the expression s a by s~ l when
d is infinite. The last case arises when we consider the finite values
of z for which the polynomial coefficient of s n vanishes. Of such a
pair of expressions we may obtain a continuation by writing < = /o+
XiT-f-Xjr'-f- . . ., where r is a new variable and Xi is not zero;
in particular foran ordinary finite place this equation simply becomes
< fc+T. It can be shown that all the pairs of power series z = c +
P(/), i d+O(t) which are necessary to represent all pairs of values
of z, s satisfying the equation /(s,z)=o can be obtained from one
of them by this process of continuation, a fact which we express by
saying that the equation J(s,z)=o defines a monogenic algebraic
construct. With less accuracy we may say that an irreducible
algebraic equation f(s,z) =o determines a single monogenic function
i of z.
Any rational function of z and s, where f(s,z) = o, may be considered
in the neighbourhood of any place (c,d) by substituting therein
z = c+P(0, s = d+Q(t) ; the result is necessarily of the form t"H(t),
where H(0 is a power series in t not vanishing for t = o and m is an
integer. If this integer is positive, the function is said to vanish
to order m at the place; if this integer is negative, = ^, the function
is infinite to order it at the place. More generally, if A be an
arbitrary constant, and, near (c,d), R(s,z)-A is of the form /"HW,
where m is positive, we say that R(s,z) becomes m times equal to A
at the place; if R(s,z) is infinite of order jx at the place, so also is
R(s,z) A. It can be shown that the sum of the values of m at all
the places, including the places z = oo , where R(s,z) vanishes, which
we call the number of zeros of R(s,z) on the algebraic construct, is
finite, and equal to the sum of the values of ju where R (s,z) is infinite,
and more generally equal to the sum of the values of m where
R(s,z)=A; this we express by saying that a rational function
R(i,z) takes any value (including oo ) the same number of times on
the algebraic construct; this number is called the order of the
rational function.
That the total number of zeros of R (s,z) is finite is at once obvious,
these values being obtainable by rational elimination of s between
f(s,z) =p, R(s,z) =o. That the number is equal to the total number
of infinities is best deduced by means of a theorem which is also of
more general utility. Let R(s,z) be any rational function of s, z,
which are connected by f(s,z) =o; about any place (c,d) for which
z = c+P(0, s = d+Q(t), expand the product
in powers of / and pick out the coefficient of t~ l . There is only a
finite number of places of this kind. The theorem is that the sum
of these coefficients of t~ l is zero. This we express by
[R( $ ,Z)|
The theorem holds for the case n = i , that is, for rational functions
of one variable z; in that case, about any finite point we have
z-c = t, and about z = oo we have z~ 1= =/, and therefore dz/dt^-tr*;
in that case, then, the theorem is that in any rational function of z,
the sum SAi of the sum of the residues at the finite poles is equal
to the coefficient of I/z in the expansion, in ascending powers of I/z,
about z = oo ; an obvious result. In general, if for a finite place
of the algebraic construct associated with/(s,z) =o, whose neighbour-
hood is given by z = c+F,s = d+Q(t), there be a coefficient of t~ l in
R(s,z)dzldt, this will be r times the coefficient of f in R(i,z) or
R[d+Q(t), c+F], namely will be the coefficient of r'in the sum of
the r series obtainable from R[d+Q(t), c+F] by replacing / by at,
where u is an rth root of unity ; thus the sum of the coefficients of
t~ l in R(s,z)dz/dt for all the places which arise for z=c, and the corre-
sponding values of s, is equal to the coefficient of (zc)" 1 in R(JI,Z) -f-
R(SS,Z)+ . . . 4-R(s,z), where $1, . . . s n are the n values of s for a
value of z near to z c; this latter sum ZR(s,, z) is, however, a
rational function of z only. Similarly, near z = oo , for a place given
by z~' = r , s = d+Q(t), or s~ l = Q(t), the coefficient of r 1 inR(s,z)dz/dt
is equal to r times the coefficient of F in R[d+Q(t), /"'I, that is
equal to the negative coefficient of z~ l in the sum of the r series
R[d+Q(ut), tr*], so that, as before, the sum of the coefficients of
f* in R(s,z)dz/dt at the various places which arise for z = 00 is equal
to the negative coefficient of z~ l in the same rational function of z,
SR(s<,z). Thus.from the corresponding theorem for rational functions
of one variable, the general theorem now being proved is seen to
follow.
Apply this theorem now to the rational function of s and z,
i dR(s,z).
R(s,z) dz
at a zero of R(s,z) near which R(s,z) =/ m H(<), we have
i dR(s, z) dz_t'
R(s,z) dz dt~c
where X denotes the generalized logarithmic function, that is equal
to mt~*-\- power series in /;
similarly at a place for which R(i,z)=r>K(/); the theorem
dR(i^ dz-]
thus gives 2m =Zju, or, in words, the total number of zeros of R(s, z)
on the algebraic construct is equal to the total number of its poles.
The same is therefore true of the function R(i,z) A, where A is an
arbitrary constant ; thus the number in question, being equal to the
number of poles of R(j,z) A, is equal also to the number of times
that R(s,z) = A on the algebraic construct.
FUNCTION
323
We have teen above that all single valued doubly periodic mero-
morphic function*, with the same period*, are rational (unctions of
two variable* s,t connected by an equation of the form i* 4**-f-
Ai + B. Taking account of the relation . nnr> ting these variable* i,t
with the argument of the doubly periodic function* (which wa* above
denoted by f). it can then easily be seen that the theorem now proved
is a generalization of the theorem proved previously establishing for
a doubly periodic function a definite order. There exists a general-
ization of another theorem also proved above for doubly periodic
functions, namely, that the sum of the values of the argument in one
parallelogram of periods for which a doubly periodic function takes
a given value is independent of that value; this generalization,
known a* Abel's Theorem, is given \ 17 below.
1 17. Integrals of Algebraic Functions. In treatises on Integral
Calculus it is proved that if R(s) denote any rational function,
an indefinite integral /R(z)rfz can be evaluated in terms of
rational and logarithmic functions, including the inverse trigono-
metrical functions. In generalization of this it was long ago
discovered that if s*~aP+bz+c and R(*,>) be any rational
function of J, z any integral / V.(sf) d* can be evaluated in terms
of rational functions of s, s and logarithms of such functions;
the simplest case is fs~*dt or /(<M t +ta-K)-<fe. More generally
if f(s, i) o be such a relation connecting s, z that when 6 is an
appropriate rational function of s and i both s and z are rationally
expressible, in virtue of f(s,z) o in terms of 0, the integral
/R(;,z)<b is reducible to a form /H(0)<#, where H(0) is rational
in 9, and can therefore also be evaluated by rational functions
and logarithms of rational functions of s and z. It was natural
to inquire whether a similar theorem holds for integrals
/R(*,z)ds wherein ** is a cubic polynomial in z. The answer is
in the negative. For instance, no one of the three integrals
Cdt fab
can be expressed by rational and logarithms of rational functions
of * and i; but it can be shown that every integral fR(s,z)dz
can be expressed by means of integrals of these three types
together with rational and logarithms of rational functions of
* and t (see below under 20, Elliptic Integrals). A similar
theorem is true when j*-quartic polynomial in z; in fact when
j*-A(i-o)(i-6)(-c)(*-rf), putting y = s(z-af, x=(z-a)~*,
we obtain y* cubic polynomial in x. Much less is the theorem
true when the fundamental relation f(s,z)=o is of more general
type. There exists then, however, a very general theorem,
known as Abel's Theorem, which may be enunciated as follows:
Beside the rational function R(, z) occurring in the integral
/R(j,i)dz, consider another rational function H(s.z); let
(a,),.'., (a.) denote the places of the construct associated
with the fundamental equation /(*,) = o, for which H (s, z) is
equal to one value A, each taken with its proper multiplicity,
and let (fri), . . . (ft.) denote the places for which H(;,z) = B,
where B is another value; then the sum of the m integrals
I ' . R(*, i) dz is equal to the sum of the coefficients of r ' in the
J (.*)
expansions of the function
where X denotes the generalized logarithmic function, at the
various places where the expansion of R(s,z)dz/dt contains
negative powers of /. This fact may be obtained at once from
the equation
wherein M is a constant. (For illustrations see below, under
{ 20, Elliptic Integrals.)
| 18. Indeterminatenest of Algebraic Integrals. The theorem
that the integral J *J(z)di is independent of the path from a to
i, holds only on the hypothesis that any two such paths are
equivalent, that is, taken together from the complete boundary
of a region of the plane within which /(z) is finite and single
valued, besides being differentiable. Suppose that these con-
ditions fail only at a finite number of isolated points in the finite
part of the plane. Then any path from a to z is equivalent,
in the sense explained, to any other path together with closed
paths beginning and ending at the arbitrary point a each enclosing
one or more of the exceptional points, these closed paths being
chosen, when /(:) is not a single valued function, so that the final
value of /(z) at a is equal to its initial value. It is necessary for
the statement that this condition may be capable of being
satisfied.
For instance, the integral J V'dz is liable to an additive indeter-
minatcness equal to the value obtained by a closed path about z=-o,
.which is equal to 7*1'; if we put u J z~~ l dz and consider z as a
function of , then we must regard this function as unaffected by
the addition of art to its argument ; we know in fact that
z-exp (u) and is a single valued function of u, with the period 2ri.
Or again the integral I (i+f)~ l dz is liable to an additive indeter-
Jo
minateness equal to the value obtained by a closed path about
either of the points z *'; thus if we put w I (i+z*)~ l dt, the
function z of u is periodic with period *, this being the function
tan (u). Next we take the integral u ( (i-z*)-ldz, agreeing that
the upper and lower limits refer not only to definite values of z, but
to definite values of z each associated with a definite determination
of the sign of the associated radical (l-z*)~i. We suppose I +z,
i-z each to have phase zero for zp; then a single closed circuit
of z*-l will lead back to z = o with (i-z*)l=-i; the additive
indeterminatencss of the integral, obtained by a closed path which
restores the initial value of the subject of integration, may be
obtained by a closed circuit containing both the points ' I in its
interior; this gives, since the integral taken about a vanishing
l has ultimately
circle whose centre is either of the points z
the value zero, the sura
f-' dz r> dz n dz
J, =
where, in each case, (i-z*)l is real and positive
r dz
- 4 J. TT-.
r dz
*" J, rr
that is, it gives
or IT. Thus the additive indeterminateness of the integral is of the
form 2kr, where k is an integer, and the function z of u, which is
sin (u), has 2r for period. Take now the case
dz
u=C (z)
adopting a definite determination for the phase of each of the
factors z-o, z b, z-c, zd at the arbitrary point z,,, and supposing
the upper limit to refer, not only to a definite value of z, but also
to a definite determination of the radical under the sign of integration.
From Zo describe a closed loop about the point z a, consisting,
suppose, of a straight path from z<> to a, followed by a vanishing
circle whose centre is at o, completed by the straight path from a
to Zo. Let similar loops be imagined for each of the points b, c, d,
no two of these having a point in common. Let A denote the value
obtained by the positive circuit of the first loop; this will be in fact
equal to twice the integral taken from z along the straight path
to a; for the contribution due to the vanishing circle is ultimately
zero, and the effect of the circuit of this circle is to change the sign
of the subject of integration. After the circuit about a, we arrive
back at z with the subject of integration changed in sign; let
B, C, D denote the values of the integral taken by the loops en-
closing respectively b, c and d when in each case the initial deter-
mination of the subject of integration is that adopted in calculating
A. If then we take a circuit from Zo enclosing both a and b but
not either c or d, the value obtained will be_ A-B, and on returning
to 2,1 the subject of integration will have its initial value. It appears
thus that the integral is subject to an additive indeterminateness
equal to any one of the six differences such as A-B. Of these
there are only two linearly independent; for clearly only A-B,
A-C, A-D are linearly independent, and in fact, as we see by
taking a closed circuit enclosing all of a, b, c, d, we have A H f
C-D o; for there is no other point in the plane beside a, 6, c, d
about which the subject of integration suffers a change of sign, and a
circuit enclosing all of o, 6, c, d may by putting z - i /f be reduced to a
circuit about f-o about which the value of the integral is zero.
The general value of the integral for any position of z and the associ-
ated sign of the radical, when we start with a definite determination
of the subject of integration, is thus seen to be of the form
, + m(A-B)+(A-C), where m and n are integers. The value of
A-B is independent of the position of z,, being obtainable by a single
closed positive circuit about a and 6 only; it is thus equal to twice the
integral taken once from a to 6, with a proper initial determination
of the radical under the sign of integration. Similar remarks to the
above apply to any integral /H(z)dz, in which H(z) is an algebraic
function of z; in any such case H(z) is a rational function of z and a
quantity s connected therewith by an irreducible rational algebraic
324
FUNCTION
equation f(s, z) =o. Such an integral /K(z, s)dz is called an Abelian
Integral.
19. Reversion of an Algebraic Integral. In a limited number of
cases the equation u = (, H (z)dz, in which H (z) is an algebraic function
of z, defines z as a single valued function of w. Several cases of this
have been mentioned in the previous section ; from what was
previously proved under 14, Doubly Periodic Functions, it appears
that it is necessary for this that the integral should have at most
two linearly independent additive constants of indeterminateness ;
for instance, for an integral
=p o [(z-a) (z-6) (z-c) (z-d) (z-e) (z-/)H<fe.
there are three such constants, of the form A B, A C, A D,
which are not connected by any linear equation with integral co-
efficients, and z is not a single valued function of u.
20. Elliptic Integrals. An integral of the form $~R.(z,s)dz,
where 5 denotes the square root of a quartic polynomial in z,
which may reduce to a cubic polynomial, and R denotes a
rational function of z and s, is called an elliptic integral.
To each value of z belong two values of s, of opposite sign; start-
ing, for some particular value of z, with a definite one of these two
values, the sign to be attached to s for any other value of z will be
determined by the path of integration for z. When z is in the neigh-
bourhood of any finite value ZQ for which the radical $ is not zero,
if we put z-Zo = t, we can find J s> = a power series in /, say
s = io+Q(') I when z is in the neighbourhood of a value, a, for which
s vanishes, if we put z = a-\-P, we shall obtain s = tQ(t), where Q(t) is a
power series in / ; when z is very large and i 2 is a quartic polynomial
in z, if we put z^ t, we shall find f^ l fQ(t)', when z is very large
and s* is a cubic polynomial in z, if we put z- l = P, we shall find
s~ 1 = '*QW- By means of substitutions of these forms the character
of the integral fR(z,s)dz may be investigated for any position of z;
inanycaseittakesaform/[Hr lB +Kr m+1 -f. . .+P^+R+S*+. . .]dt
involving only a finite number of negative powers of t in the subject
of integration. Consider first the particular case fs~ l dz; it is easily
seen that neither for any finite nor for infinite values of z can negative
powers of / enter; the integral is everywhere finite, and is said to be
of the first kind ; it can, moreover, be shown without difficulty that
no integral /R(z, s)dz, save a constant multiple of fs~ l dz, has this
property. Consider next, s 2 being of the form OoZ*+4OiZ*-t- . . .,
wherein at, may be zero, the integral /(aos*+2aiz)i r ~ 1 <fe; for any finite
value of z this integral is easily proved to be everywhere finite;
but for infinite values of z its value is of the form AJr l +Q(t), where
Q(/) is a power series; denoting by V Oo a particular square root of do
when at, is not zero, the integral becomes infinite for z = 00 for both
signs of 5, the value of A being + Voo or V<Jo according as s is
.z 2 (l H -- 'z~ 1 + ) or is the negative of this; hence the integral
Ji= J ( - -j -+Vo<>) dz becomes infinite when z is infinite, for
the former sign of s, its infinite term being 2ijao.t~ l or 2V<Jo.z,
but does not become infinite for z infinite for the other sign of s.
When Oo = o the signs of s for z = o are not separated, being obtained
one from the other by a circuit of z about an infinitely large circle,
and the form obtained represents an integral becoming infinite as
before forz = o, its infinite part beingaVai.^oraVoi-Vz. Similarly
if z<> be any finite value of z which is not a root of the polynomial
/(z) to which i 2 is equal, and SQ denotes a particular one of the deter-
minations of i for z = Zo, the integral
wherein /'(z) = <f/(z)/a"z, becomes infinite for Z = ZQ, s = St>, but not for
z = Zo, s = Jo, its infinite term in the former case being the negative of
2s<>/(z Zo). For no other finite or infinite value of z is the integral
infinite. If z=9 be a root of f(z), in which case the corresponding
value of s is zero, the integral
becomes infinite for z=0, its infinite part being, if z8 = P, equal to
[/'(0)]"" 1 : and this integral is not elsewhere infinite. In each
of these cases, of the integrals Ji, J 2 , J, the subject of integration
has been chosen so that when the integral is written near its point of
infinity in the form f[Ar 1 +Br*+Q(t)]dt, the coefficient B is zero,
so that the infinity is of algebraic kind, and so that, when there are
two signs distinguishable for the critical value of z, the integral
becomes infinite tor only one of these. An integral having only
algebraic infinities, for finite or infinite values of z, is called an
integral of the second kind, and it appears that _ such an integral
can be formed with only one such infinity, that is, for an infinity
arising only for one particular, and arbitrary, pair of values (s, z)
satisfying the equation s t = f(z), this infinity being of the first order.
A function having an algebraic infinity of the mth order (m> i),
only for one sign of s when these signs are separable, at (i) z = ,
(2) z-zo, (3) z = o, is given respectively by ( sjj J 1( ( sjj Ji,
(d\ m ~ 1
s Tz) J 3 ' as we eas 'ly see - M tnen we nave an V elliptic integral
having algebraic infinities we can, by subtraction from it of an
appropriate sum of constant multiples of Ji, J 2 , Js and their differ-
ential coefficients just written down, obtain, as the result, an integral
constants. For the rational function
S + Sp
z^F + zVfl
is at once found to become infinite for (zo, J ), not for (zo, s ), its
infinite part for the first point being 2s/(z Zo), and to become
infinite for z infinitely large, and one sign of s only when these are
separable, its infinite part there being 2zV do or 2V<ZiVz when 00 = 0.
It does not become infinite for any other pair (z, s) satisfying the
relation s*=f(z); this is in accordance with the easily verified
equation
and there exists the analogous equation
Consider now the integral
this is at once found to be infinite, for finite values of z, only for
(zo.Jo), its infinite part being log (z Zo), and for z = o, for one sign
of s only when these are separable, its infinite part being log /,
that is log z when OD^O, and log (z') when o<> = o. And, if
/(0)=o, the integral
isinfiniteat z =0, s=O with an infinite part log/, that" is log (z 0)',
is not infinite for any other finite value of z, and is infinite Tike P for
z = w. An integral possessing such logarithmic infinities is said
to be of the third kind.
Hence it appears that any elliptic integral, by subtraction from
it of an appropriate sum formed with constant multiples of the
(d\ m ~ 1
S 5~) J 1 '
with constant multiples of integrals such as P or Pi, with constant
multiples of the integral u=fs~ 1 dz, and with rational functions, ,
can be reduced to an integral H becoming infinite only for z = o ,
for one sign of s only when these are separable, its infinite part being
of the form A log t, that is, A log z or A log (z*). Such an integral
H =JR(z,s)dz does not exist, however, as we at once find by writing
R(z,s) = P(z)+sQ(z), where P(z), Q(z) are rational functions of z,
and examining the forms_possible for these in order that the integral
may have only the specified infinity. An analogous theorem holds
for rational functions of z and s; there exists no rational function
which is finite for finite values of z and is infinite only for z = oo
for one sign of i and to the first order only; but there exists a
rational function infinite in all to the first order for each of two or
more pairs (z, s), however they may be situated, or infinite to the
second order for an arbitrary pair (z,s) ; and any rational function
may be formed by a sum of constant multiples of functions such as
> . :
+zV floor
zV 00
Z 2o
and their differential coefficients.
The consideration of elliptic integrals is therefore reducible to
that of the three t
'dz . C /aoz'+2Oiz , \ , _ f /s+st,
, J= I I hzVfloloz, P= I I
J \ s I J \z-zo
respectively of the first, second and third kind. Now the equation
J 2 = doz 4 + . . .=flo(z 0)(z 4>)(z <l/)(z x). by putting
is at once reduced to the form y 2 = 4* 3 g 2 * g s = 4(x i)(* e 2 (x ;),
say; and these equations enable us to express s and z rationally
in terms of x and y. It is therefore sufficient to consider three
elliptic integrals
f L
x-x<>2y
Of these consider the first, putting
f(1dx
u I '
where the limits involve not only a value for x, but a definite sign
for the radical y. When x is very large, if we put x~ l =f,y~ l =
we have
FUNCTION
325
whereby a definite power series in H, valid for sufficiently small value
of H, is found for I, and hence a definite power series for x, of the form
Let this expression be valid for o< | u| < R, and the function defined
thereby, which has a pole of the second order for -o, be denoted
by *(). In the range in question it is single valued and satisfies the
differential equation
in terms of it we can write -(). y- -*'(). "d. *'() beingan
odd function, the sign attached to y in the original integral for x -co
is immaterial. Now for any two values u, r in the range in question
consider the function
it is at once seen, from the differential equation, to be such that
dF,dtt-dF/d; it is therefore a function of u+v; supposing
|+r|<R we infer therefore, by putting f-o, that
By repetition of this equation we infer that if HI, . . . u, be any argu-
ments each of which is in absolute value less than R.whoscsumisalso
in absolute value less than R, then *(KI + . . . +) is a rational
function of the in functions (.). *'(.); and hence, if ]u|<K,
>-[.. *]-
where H is some rational function of the arguments <t>(u/n), $'(/).
In fact, however, so long as |/n|< R, each of the functions <t>(u/n),
'(/) is single valued and without singularity save for the pole at
o; and a rational function of single valued functions, each of
which has no singularities other than poles in a certain region, is
also a single valued function without singularities other than poles in
this region. We infer, therefore, that the function of u expressed by
H I 4 (-) , f (-) I is single valued and without singularities other
L V/ \/ J
than poles so long as |u| < R ; it agrees with 4>(u) when |u| < R, and
hence furnishes a continuation of this function over the extended
range ||<nR. Moreover, from the method of its derivation, it
satisfies the differential equation [<l>'(u)]' = 4\<j>(u)\' g,<t>(u)gi. This
equation has therefore one solution which is a single valued mono-
genie function with no singularities other than poles for any finite
part of the plane, having in particular for u =o, a pole of the second
order; and the method adopted for obtaining this near o shows
that the differential equation has no other such solution. This,
however, i* not the only solution which is a single valued mcro-
morphic function, al! the functions 4(K+a), wherein a is arbitrary,
being such. Talcing now any range of values of u, from u=o,
and putting for any value of u, X-*(M), y<t>(u), so that
> 4** 4>* fi, we clearly have
conversely if i -*(,). > - -*'(,) and f, if be any values satisfying
V~ 4l* tt ft. which are sufficiently near respectively to x<>, yo,
while > is defined by
then t. * are respectively f () and -+'() ; for this equation leads
to an expansion for | x in terms of **, and only one such ex-
pansion, and this is obtained by the same work as would be necessary
to expand *(r) when is near to u,; the function <t>(u) can therefore
be continued by the help of this equation, from v-, provided
the lower limit of |f-x) necessary for the expansions is not zero
in the neighbourhood of any value (x,yo). In fact the function <f(u)
can have onlv a finite number of poles in any finite part of the plane
of ; each of these can be surrounded by a small circle, and in the
portion of the finite part of the plane of u which is outside these
circles, the lower limit of the radii of convergence of the expansions
of () is greater than zero; the same will therefore be the case
for the lower limit of the radii |{ x| necessary for the continuations
spoken of above provided that the values of (t, ij) considered do not
lead to infinitely increasing values of v; there does not exist, how-
r, any definite point (.%) in the neighbourhood of which the
integral I " increases indefinitely, it is only by a path of infinite
J (*frr*i) ^
length that the integral can so increase. We infer therefore that
if (|.f) be any point, where V-4f'-tt-i,andbe defined by
f- f-> dx
J if.i) y '
then ((t) and i- -*'(f). Thus this equation determines (f, it)
without ambiguity. In particular the additive indeterminate-nesses
of the integral obtained by closed circuits of the point of integration
are periods of the function +() ; by considerations advanced above
it appears that these periods are sums of integral multiples of two
which may be taken to be
" dx . /- dx
these quantities cannot therefore have a real ratio, for else, being
periods of a monogenic function, they would, as we have previously
seen, be each integral multiples of another period; there would
then be a closed path for u, v). starting from an arbitrary point
(*o,yo), other than one enclosing two of the points (i,o), (i,oj,
('i.o), (>, ), which leads back to the initial point (xo.yo), which is
impossible. On the whole, therefore, it appears that the function
<t>(u) agrees with the function $() previously discussed, and the
discussion of the elliptic integrals can be continued in the manner
given under 14, Doubly Periodic Functions.
ai. Modular Functions. One result of the previous theory
is the remarkable fact that if
where y*=4(*i)(* )(* e$), then we have
and a similar equation for e it where the summation refers to
all integer values of m and ;' other than the one pair m*o,
m'=o. This, with similar results, has led to the consideration
of functions of the complex ratio '/w.
It is easy to see that the series for $(), -'+Z'[(+m-f; mV)*~
(ma+m'u )'], is unaffected by replacing u, u' by two quantities I), ft*
equal respectively to pu+qu', p'u+g'u', where p, g, p',g' are any
integers for whicn pq'p'q~ *i ; further it can be proved that all
substitutions with integer coefficients fl +?<>', Of^p'u+g'a',
wherein pg'p'q~i, can be built up by repetitions of the two par-
ticular substitutions (Jl a', Gf = u),(n-*u, H 7 u+u'). Consider
the function of the ratio w'/u expressed by
it is at once seen from the properties of the function ??() that by
the two particular substitutions referred to we obtain the corre-
sponding substitutions for h expressed by
ft'- I/A, A'- 1-*;
thus, by all the integer substitutions fl pu+gw', Q' =p'a+q'u', in
which pg'p'q=i, the function h can only take one of the six values
A, i/A, i A. i/(l A), A/(A i), (A i)/A, which are the roots of an
equation in 0,
) A s (i-A)'
the function of r, =<//, expressed by the right side, is thus
unaltered by every one of the substitutions T> AA. wherein
p, q, P', 9' are integers having pq'p'g-*l. If the imaginary part
<r, of T, wjiich we may write T=p+V, is positive, the imaginary part
of T', which is equal to <r(pq' p'q)/[(p+qp)*+g t o 1 ], is also positive ;
suppose a to be positive; it can be shown that the upper half of the
infinite plane of the complex variable T can be divided into regions,
all bounded by arcs of circles (or straight lines), no two of these
regions overlapping, such that any substitution of the kind under
consideration, T'"(p'+q'T)/(p+qT) leads from an arbitrary point r,
of one of these regions, to a point T' of another; taking r=p+t'<r,
one of these regions may be taken to be that for which J<p< J,
p*+o*>i, together with the points for which p is negative on the
curves limiting this region; then every other region U obtained
from this so-called fundamental region by one ana only one of the
substitutions r = (p'+q'r)/(p+gT), and hence by a definite combina-
tion of the substitutions T' i/r, T' i -\-r. Upon the infinite half
plane of r, the function considered above,
is a single valued monogenic function, whose only essential singu-
larities are the points T' - (p'+q'rJKp+qr) for which T = oo , namely
those for which T' is any real rational value; the real axis is thus a
line over which the function Z(T) cannot be continued, having an
essential singularity in every arc of it, however short ; in the funda-
mental region, z(r) has thus only the single essential singularity,
T p+io, where o- cc ; in this fundamental region z(r) takes any
assigned complex value just once, the relation Z(T')-Z(T) requiring,
as can be shown, that r' is of the form (p'+g'^Kp+qr), in which
P- ?. P.'- / are integers with pq'-p'q = i ; the function (T) has thus
a similar behaviour in every other of the regions. The division of
the plane into regions is analogous to the division of the plane,
in the case of doubly periodic functions, into parallelograms; in that
case we considered only functions without essential singularities,
and in each of the regions the function assumed every complex value
twice, at least. Putting, as another function of r. ](r)-t(r)\z(r)-l\,
it can be shown that J(T)-O for r-exp (jirt), that j(r)-l forr-*,
these being values of T on the boundary of the fundamental region;
likez(r) it has an essential singularity forT-p+tV, -+. In the
326
FUNCTION
theory of linear differential equations it is important to consider the
inverse function r(J) ; this is infinitely many valued, having a cycle
of three values for circulation of J about J =o (the circuit of this
point leading to a linear substitution for T of period 3, such as
T'=-(I+T)~*), having a cycle of two values about J = i (the circuit
leading to a linear substitution for r of period 2, such as T'=^T~ I ),
and having a cycle of infinitely many values about J = oo (the circuit
leading to a linear substitution for T which is not periodic, such as
T' = I+T). These are the only singularities for the function r(J).
Each of the functions
IN* I'"-"'
beside many others (see below), is a single valued function of T,
and is expressible without ambiguity in terms of the single valued
function of T,
li -exp (2wnr)],
=exp
It should be remarked, however, that TJ(T) is not unaltered by all
the substitutions we have considered ; in fact
The aggregate of the substitutions r' = (p'+q'T)l(p-\-qr}, wherein
P> 2. P't 2' are integers with pq'-p'q = l, represents a Group; the
function J (r), unaltered by all these substitutions, is called a Modular
Function. More generally any function unaltered by all the sub-
stitutions of a group of linear substitutions of its variable is called an
Automorphic Function. A rational function, of its variable h, of this
character, is the function (i-h+h^'h^fa-h)^ presenting itself
incidentally above; and there are other rational functions with a
similar property, the group of substitutions belonging to any one
of these being, what is a very curious fact, associable with that of
the rotations of one of the regular solids, about an axis through its
centre, which bring the solid into coincidence with itself. Other
automorphic functions are the double periodic functions already
discussed; these, as we have seen, enable us to solve the algebraic
equation y*=4x*-f>ix-gi (and in fact many other algebraic equa-
tions, see below, under 23, Geometrical Applications of Elliptic
Functions) in terms of single valued functions x= $(M), y= ty'(u).
A similar utility, of a more extended kind, belongs to automorphic
functions in general; but it can be shown that such functions
necessarily have an infinite number of essential singularities except
for the simplest cases.
The modular function J(r) considered above, unaltered by the
group of linear substitutions T r = (p'+q'T)/(p+qT), where p, q, p', q'
are integers with pq'-p'q = l, may be taken as the independent
variable x of a differential equation of the third order, of the form
S' 2\S'J 2(x-l)*' 2X 2 2x(x-l)
where s' =ds/dx, &c., of which the dependent variable s is equal to T.
A differential equation of this form is satisfied by the quotient of
two independent integrals of the linear differential equation of the
second order satisfied by the hypergeometric functions. If the
solution of the differential equation for s be written s(a,0,y,x),
we have in fact r = s(J, }, o, J). If we introduce also the function
of T given by
we similarly have T =s(o, o, o, X) ; this function X is a single valued
function of T, which is also a modular function, being unaltered by a
group of integral substitutions also of the form T' = (p'+q'T)/(p+qr),
with Pq'-p'q = i, but with the restriction that p' and q are even
integers, and therefore p and q' are odd integers. This group is
thus a subgroup of the general modular group, and is in fact of the
kind called a self-conjugate subgroup. As in the general case this
subgroup is associated with a subdivision of the plane into regions
of which any one is obtained from a particular region, called the
fundamental rejgion, by a particular one of the substitutions of the
subgroup. This fundamental region, putting T=p+tV, may be
taken to be that given by-i<p<i, (p+i)*+<r ! >i- 0-i) 2 +<r 2 > J,
and is built up of six of the regions which arose for the general
modular group associated with J(r). Within this fundamental
region, X takes every complex value just once, except the values
X = o, i, oo, which arise only at the angular points T=O, T = OO, T = -I
and the equivalent point T = I ; these angular points are essential
singularities for the function X(r). For X(r)as for J(r),the region of
existence is the upper half plane of T, there being an essential singu-
larity in every length of the real axis, however short.
If, beside the plane of T, we take a plane to represent the values of
X, the function T =1(0, o, o, X) being considered thereon, the values of
T belonging to the interior of the fundamental region of the r-plane
considered above, will require the consideration of the whole of the
X-plane taken once with the exception of the portions of the real
axis lying between -oo and o and between I and +00, the two
sides of the first portion corresponding to the circumferences of the
r-plane expressed by (p+D'+o* 3 *, (r~$) t + " l = \< while the two
sides of the latter portion, for which X is real and > I , correspond
to the lines of the T-plane expressed by p = I . The line for
which X is real, positive and less than unity corresponds to the
imaginary axis of the T-plane, lying in the interior of the funda-
mental region. All the values of r = s(o, o, o, X) may then be derived
from those belonging to the fundamental region of the T-plane by
making X describe a proper succession of circuits about the points
X=o, X = l; any such circuit subjects r to a linear substitution
of the subgroup of T considered, and corresponds to a change of T
from a point of the fundamental region to a corresponding point
of one of the other regions.
22. A Property of Integral Functions deduced from the Theory
of Modular Functions. Consider now the function exp(z),
for finite values of z; for such values of z, exp (z) never vanishes,
and it is impossible to assign a closed circuit for z in the finite
part of the plane of z which will make the function X = exp(z)
pass through a closed succession of values in the plane of X
having X=o in its interior; the function s[o,o,o, exp (z)],
however z vary in the finite part of the plane, will therefore never
be subjected to those linear substitutions imposed upon
s(o,o,o,\) by a circuit of X about X = o; more generally, if
<j>(z) be an integral function of z, never becoming either zero or
unity for finite values of z, the function X = <(z), however z vary
in the finite part of the plane, will never make, in the plane of X,
a circuit about either X=o or X=i, and s(o,o,o,X), that is
s[o,o,o,<j>(z)], will be single valued for all finite values of z;
it will moreover remain finite, and be monogenic. In other
words, s[o,o,o,<t>(z)] is also an integral function whose imaginary
part, moreover, by the property of 5(0,0,0, X), remains positive
for all finite values of z. In that case, however, exp { is[o,o,o,<t> (z)]}
would also be an integral function of 2 with modulus less than
unity for all finite values of z. If, however, we describe a circle
of radius R in the z plane, and consider the greatest value of the
modulus of an integral function upon this circle, this certainly
increases indefinitely as R increases. We can infer therefore
that an integral function <f>(z) which does not vanish for any finite
value of z, takes the value unity and hence (by considering the
function A J <Kz)) takes every other value for some definite value
of z; or, an integral . function for which both the equations
<t>(z) = A,<(z) = B are unsatisfied by definite values of z,does not
exist, A and B being arbitrary constants.
A similar theorem can be proved in regard to the values assumed
by the function <t>(z) for points z of modulus greater than R, however
great R may be, also with the help of modular functions. In general
terms it may be stated that it is a very exceptional thing for an
integral function not to assume every complex value an infinite
number of times.
Another application of modular functions is to prove that the
function s(a, f>, y, X) is a single valued function of T=J(O, o, o, X);
for, putting T' = (T *)/(T-H). the values of T' which correspond to the
singular points X = o, I, oo of s(a, /J,-y, X), though infinite in number,
all Re on the circumference of the circle |T'| = I, within which therefore
s(a, j3, 7, *) is expressible in a form S a^r'". More generally any
n=0
monogenic function of X which is single valued save for circuits of
the points X=o, I, oo, is a single valued function of T = S(O, o, o, X).
Identifying X with the square of the modulus in Legendre's form of
the elliptical integral, we have T =K'/K, where
it .
functions such as X 1 , (i-X) 1 , [X(i-X)] 1 , which have only X = o, I, oo
as singular points, were expressed by Jacobi as power series in q = &**,
and therefore, at least for a limited range of values of T, as single
valued functions of T; it follows by the theorem given that any
product of a root of X and a root of i-X is a single valued function
of T. More generally the differential equation
may be solved by expressing both the independent and dependent
variables as single valued functions of a single variable T, the expres-
sion for the independent variable being *>=X(T).
23. Geometrical Applications of Elliptic Functions. Consider
any irreducible algebraic equation rational in x,y,f(x,y)=o, of
such a form that the equation represents a plane curve of order
n with $n(-3) double points; taking upon this curve n-j
arbitrary fixed points, draw through these and the double
points the most general curve of order - 2; this will intersect
FUNCTION
327
/ in n( ) (* 3) (H 3) - 3 other points, and will contain
homogeneously at least J( i)w 1( 3> ( 3)"3
irary constants, and so will be of the formX*-|-X 1
... o, wherein Xj, X, ... are in general zero. Put now
( - 41/4. < ~ 4i/ 4 And eliminate *,y between these equations and
/(*>>) ~o, so obtaining a rational irreducible equation F({,rj) o,
representing a further plane curve. To any point (x,y) of f will
then correspond a definite point ({,tj) of F.
For a general position of (x.y) upon / the equations
f.lr'y)/**'./) - +(*.y)l*(x.y). tiOr'o'OMf'oO - *(*.y)/<k(x.y).
subject to/(x ./) -o, will have the same number of solutions (x ,y ) ;
if their only solution is x' -x, v'-y, then to any position (.f.ij) of F
will conversely correspond only one position (x,j>) of /. If these
equations have another solution beside (x,y), then any curve
A*+Xt*+A4io which passes (through the double points of /
and) through the ua points of / constituted by the fixed n 3
points and a point (x.>), will necessarily pass through a further
point, smy (x',v')' *d will have only one further intersection with
/; such a curve, with the n 2 assigned points, beside the double
points, of /.will be of the form M^+MI^I+ ~o, where MI. MI,
are generally zero; considering the curves ^+Ah o, for variable /,
one of these passes through a further arbitrary point of/, by choosing
/ properly, and conversely an arbitrary value of / determines a single
further point of /; the co-ordinates of the points of / are thus
rational functions of a parameter t. which is itself expressible ration-
ally by the co-ordinates of the point ; it can be shown algebraically
that such a curve has not J( 3)a but l(* 3)11+1 douole points.
We may therefore assume that to every point of F corresponds
only one point off, and there is a birational transformation between
these curve*; the coefficients in this transformation will involve
rationally the co-ordinates of the n 3 fixed points taken upon /,
that is, at the least, by taking these to be consecutive points, will
involve the co-ordinates of one point of /, and will not be rational
in the coefficients of / unless we can specify a point of / whose co-
ordinates are rational in these. The curve F is intersected by a
straight line a{-t-&t+co in as many points as the number of
win ifirrl intersections of/ with a^+ofi+c*i o, that is, 3; or F
will be a cubic curve, without double points.
Such a cubic curve has at least one point of inflection Y, and if a
variable line YPQ be drawn through Y to cut the curve again in P
and Q, the locus of a point R such that YR is the harmonic mean of
YP and YQ. is easily proved to be a straight line. Take now a
triangle of reference for homogeneous co-ordinates XYZ, of which
this straight line is Yp, and the inflexional tangent at Y is Zo;
the equation of the cubic curve will then be of the form
ZY - oX 1 +MZ +cXZ* +dZ* ;
by putting X equal to XX+MZ, that is, choosing a suitable line
through Yto be X-o. and choosing X properly, this is reduced to
the form
of which a representation is given, valid for every point, in terms of
the effintk functions *().*%). by taking XZ*(). Y-Z$'().
The value of si belonging to any point is definite save for sums of
integral multiples of the periods of the elliptic functions, being
given by
*> ZK-XdZ
"f
J (
where (x ) denotes the point of inflection.
It thus appears that the co-ordinates of any point of a plane curve,
/, of order * with K 3) double points are expressible as elliptic
functions, there being, save for periods, a definite value of the argu-
ment * belonging to every point of the curve. It can then be shown
that if a variable curve, *. of order m be drawn, passing through
tike doable points of the curve, the values of the argument u at the
remaining intersections of * with /, have a sum which is unaffected
by variation of the coefficients of +, save for additive aggregates
of the periods. In virtue of the birational transformation this
theorem can be deduced from the theorem that if any straight line
cat the cubic y*-4x*t>xgt, in points (u,), (,), (u,), the sum
SH+*t+s)t is zero, or a period; or the general theorem is a corollary
from Abel's theorem proved under | 17, Integrals of Algebraic
fumfkomt. To prove the result directly for the cubic we remark
that the variation of one of the intersections (x,y) of the cubic
with the straight line y mx+n. due to a variation tm, tn in m
and . is obtained by differentiation of the equation for the three
bscissat, namely the equation
xtm+i*
and is thus given by
and the sum of three such fractions as that on the right for the three
roots of F(x)-o is zero; hence , -f-* + i is independent of the
straight line considered ; if in particular this become the inflexional
tangent each of %, *, vanishes. It may be remarked in passing
that xi+xt+x.-Jm'.and hence is \\(yi-yi)l(xi-x,)p\ so that we
have another proof of the addition equation for the function ().
From this theorem for the cubic curve many of its geometrical
properties, as for example those of its inflections, the properties of
inscribed polygons, of the three kinds of corresponding points, and
the theory of residuation, are at once obvious. And similar results
hold for the curve of order n with J(n 3) double points.
14. Integrals of Algebraic Functions in Connexion with the
Theory of Plane Curries. The developments which have been
explained in connexion with elliptic functions may enable the
reader to appreciate the vastly more extensive theory similarly
a rising for any algebraical irrationality, /(ac,y)o.
The algebraical integrals fR(x,y)dx associated with this may as
before be divided into those of the first kind, which have no in-
finities, those of the second kind, possessing only algebraical infinities,
and those of the third kind, for which logarithmic infinities enter.
Here there is a certain number, p, greater than unity, of linearly
independent integrals of the first kind ; and this number p is un-
altered by any birational transformation of the fundamental equation
}(*>y) ~: a rational function can be constructed with poles of the
first order at +1 arbitrary positions (x,y), satisfying f(x,y)o,
but not with a fewer number unless their positions are chosen
properly, a property we found for the case p I ; and p is the number
of linearly independent curves of order n 3 passing through the
double points of the curve of order n expressed by f(x,y) =o. Again
any integral of the second kind can be expressed as a sum of p
integrals of this kind, with poles of the first order at arbitrary
positions, together with rational functions and integrals of the first
kind; and an integral of the second kind can be found with one
pole of the first order of arbitrary position, and an integral of the
third kind with two logarithmic infinities, also of arbitrary position;
the corresponding properties for p = I are proved above.
There is, however, a difference of essential kind in regard to the
inversion of integrals of the first kind; if u=fR(x,y)dx l>c such an
integral, it can be shown, in common with all algebraic integrals
associated with f(x,y) >o, to have 26 linearly independent additive
constants of indeterminatencss ; the upper limit of the integral
cannot therefore, as we have shown, be a single valued function
of the value of the integral. The corresponding theorem, iffRi(x,y)dx
denote one of the integrals of the first kind, is that the p equations
determine the rational symmetric functions of the p positions (*i,yi),
. . . (x r ,y r ) as single valued functions of the p variables, ,,... p .
It is thus necessary to enter into the theory of functions of several
independent variables; and the equation /(*,?) =0 is thus not,
in this way, capable of solution by single valued functions of one
variable. That solution in fact is to be sought with the help of
automorphic functions, which, however, as has been remarked,
have, for p> I, an infinite number of essential singularities.
25. Monogenic Functions of Several Independent Variables.
A monogenic function of several independent complex variables
i,... u r is to be regarded as given by an aggregate of power
series all obtainable by continuation from any one of them in a
manner analogous to that before explained in the case of one
independent variable. The singular points, defined as the
limiting points of the range over which such continuation is
possible, may either be poles, or polar points of indetermination,
or essential singularities.
A pole is a point ( ( J>, . . . <J?) in the neighbourhood of which the
function is expressible as a quotient of converging power series in
I-M^ . . . u r '*?; of these the denominator series D must
vanish at (u'J', . . . ,), since else the fraction is expressible as a
power series and the point is not a singular point, but the numerator
series N must not also vanish at ("'J 1 , . . . *'),orif itdoes.it must
be possible to write D MDo, N~MNo, where M is a converging
power scries vanishing at (,, . . .tt^),and No is a converging power
series, in (!,, . .. p ( 0, not so vanishing. A polar point
of indetermination is a point about which the function can be
expressed as a quotient of two converging power series, both of
which vanish at the point. As in such a simple case as (Ax+By)/
(ax+by), about xo, y o, it can be proved that then the function
can be made to approach to any arbitrarily assigned value by
making the variables Ui,.. .u p approach tow, , . . . u p by a proper
path. It is the necessary existence of such polar points of in-
determination, which incase p> 2 are not merely isolated points,
which renders the theory essentially more difficult than that of
functions of one variable. An essential singularity is any which
does not come under one of the two former descriptions and includes
very various possibilities. A point at infinity in this theory is one
for which any one of the variables u\, . . . , is indefinitely great;
such points are brought under the preceding definitions by means
FUNCTION
of the convention that for M ( J } = oo , the difference Ui-v (< ? is to be
understood to stand for u 4 l . This being so.'a single valued function
of i, . . . u p without essential singularities for infinite or finite values
of the variables can be shown, by induction, to be, as in the case of
* = i, necessarily a rational function of the variables. A function
having no singularities for finite values of all the variables is as before
called an integral function; it is expressible by a power series
converging for all finite values of the variables; a single valued
function having for finite values of the variables no singularities
other than poles or polar points of indetermination is called a
meromorphic function; as for *= I such a function can be expressed
as a quotient of two integral functions having no common zero
point other than the points of indetermination of the function;
but the proof of this theorem is difficult.
The single valued functions which occur, as explained above, in
the inversion of algebraic integrals of the first kind, for p>i, are
meromorphic. They must also be periodic, unaffected that is when
the variables i, . . . Up are simultaneously increased each by a
proper constant, these being the additive constants of indeterminate-
ness for the p integrals JRi(x,y)dx arising when (x,y) makes a closed
circuit, the same for each integral. The theory of such single valued
meromorphic periodic functions is simpler than that of meromorphic
functions of several variables in general, as it is sufficient to consider
only finite values of the variables; it is the natural extension of
the theory of doubly periodic functions previously discussed. It
can be shown to reduce, though the proof of this requires considerable
developments of which we cannot speak, to the theory of a single
integral function of i, . . . u r , called the Theta Function. This is
expressible as a series of positive and negative integral powers of
quantities exp (cii), exp (c 2 ttj), . . . exp (c p u p ), wherein c\, . . . c p are
proper constants; for p = l this theta function is essentially the
same as that above given under a different form (see 14, Doubly
Periodic Functions), the function a(u). In the case of p = i, all
meromorphic functions periodic with the same two periods have
been shown to be rational functions of two of them connected by a
single algebraic equation ; in the same way all meromorphic functions
of p variables, periodic with the same sets of simultaneous periods,
2p sets in all, can be shown to be expressible rationally in terms of
f +l such periodic functions connected by a single algebraic equation.
Let xi, . . . x p , y denote p + l such functions; then each of the partial
derivatives dxi/duj will equally be a meromorphic function of the
same periods, and so expressible rationally in terms of *i, . . . x p ,y;
thus there will exist p equations of the form
dxt = Ridui + . . . -\-Rpdup,
and hence p equations of the form
dui =Ht,idxi-^- . . . -f-Ht,p<fXp,
wherein Hi, ,- are rational functions of x it . . . x f , y, these being con-
nected by a fundamental algebraic(rational)equation,say/(*i,. . . x p ,y)
= o. .This then is the generalized form of the corresponding equation
for p = l.
26. Multiply-Periodic Functions and the Theory of Surfaces.
The theory of algebraic integrals fR(x,y)dx, wherein x,y are
connected by a rational equation f(x,y) = o, has developed
concurrently with the theory of algebraic curves; in particular
the existence of the number p invariant by all birational trans-
formations is one result of an extensive theory in which curves
capable of birational correspondence are regarded as equivalent;
this point of view has made possible a general theory of what
might otherwise have remained a collection of isolated theorems.
In recent years developments have been made which point to
a similar unity of conception as possible for surfaces, or indeed for
algebraic constructs of any number of dimensions. These develop-
ments have been in two directions, at first followed independently,
but now happily brought into the most intimate connexion. On the
analytical side, E. Picard has considered the possibility of classify-
ing integrals of the (ormJ(Rds+Sdy), belonging to a surface f{x,y,z)
= o, wherein R and S are rational functions of x, y, z, according as
they are (i) everywhere finite, (2) have poles, which then lie along
curves upon the surface, or (3) have logarithmic infinities, also then
lying along curves, and has brought the theory to a high degree
of perfection. On the geometrical side A. Clebsch and M.
Noether, and more recently the Italian school, have considered the
geometrical characteristics of a surface which are unaltered by bi-
rational transformation. It was first remarked that for surfaces of
order n there are associated surfaces of order ~4, having properties
in relation thereto analogous to those of curves of order ~3 for a
plane curve of order n; if such a surface f(x,y,z) =o have a double
curve with triple points triple also for the surface, and <t>(x,y,z)=o
be a surface of order n~4 passing through the double curve, the
double integral
is everywhere finite; and, the most general everywhere finite
integral of this form remains invariant in a birational transformation
of the surface /, the theorem being capable of generalization to
algebraic constructs of any number of dimensions. The number of
linearly independent surfaces of order ~4, possessing the requisite
particularity in regard to the singular lines and points of the surface,
is thus a number invariant by birational transformation, and
the equality of these numbers for two surfaces is a necessary con-
dition of their being capable of such transformation. The number
of surfaces of order m having the assigned particularity in regard to
the singular points and lines of the fundamental surface can be given
by a formula for a surface of given singularity ; but the value of this
formula for m = n-4 is not in all cases equal to the actual number
of surfaces of order 71-4 with the assigned particularity, and for a
cone (or ruled surface) is in fact negative, being the negative of the
deficiency of the plane section of the cone. Nevertheless this
number for m = n-^ is also found to be invariant for birational
transformation. This number, now denoted by p a , is then a second
invariant of birational transformation. The former number, of
actual surfaces of order n-4 with the assigned particularity in regard
to the singularities of the surface, is now denoted by p,. The
difference -<., which is never negative, is a most important
characteristic of a surface. When it is zero, as in the case of the
general surface of order n, and in a vast number of other ordinary
cases, the surface is called regular.
On a plane algebraical curve we may consider linear series of sets
of points, obtained by the intersection with it of curves X<+Xi<h +
. . .=o, wherein X, Xi, . . . are variable coefficients; such a series
consists of the sets of points where a rational function of given poles,
belonging to the construct f(x,y) = o, has constant values. And we
may consider series of sets of points determined by variable curves
whose coefficients are algebraical functions, not necessarily rational
functions, of parameters. Similarly on a surface we may consider
linear systems of curves, obtained by the intersection with the
given surface of variable surfaces Xc+Xi<fr+ . . .=o, and may
consider algebraic systems, of which the individual curve is given
by variable surfaces whose coefficients are algebraical, not necessarily
rational, functions of parameters. Of a linear series upon a plane
curve there are two numbers manifestly invariant in birational
transformation, the order, which is the number of points forming a
set of the series, and the dimension, which is the number of para-
meters Xi/X,X 2 /X, . . . entering linearly in the equation of the series.
The series is complete when it is not contained in a series of the same
order but of higher dimension. So for a linear system of curves
upon a surface, we have three invariants for birational transforma-
tion ; the order, being in the number of variable intersections of two
curves of the system, the dimension, being the number of linear
parameters Xi/X, Xj/X, ... in the equation for the system, and the
deficiency of the individual curves of the system. Upon any curve
of the linear system the other curves of the system define a linear
series, called the characteristic series; but even when the linear
system is complete, that is, not contained in another linear system
of the same order and higher dimension, it does not follow that the
characteristic series is complete ; it may be contained in a series whose
dimension is greater by p a -pn than its own dimension. When this
is so it can be shown that the linear system of curves is contained
in an algebraic system whose dimension is greater by p g pathan the
dimension of the linear system. The extra p = p<,-p* variable para-
meters so entering may be regarded as the independent co-ordinates
of an algebraic construct f(y,Xi, . . . x f )=o; this construct has the
property that its co-ordinates are single valued meromorphic
functions of * variables, which are periodic, possessing 2p systems
of periods; the p variables are expressible in the forms
<=/Ri(*,y)<tei+ . . . +R p (x,y)dx p ,
wherein Rj(x,y) denotes a rational function of Xi, . . . x p and y.
The original surface has correspondingly p integrals of the form
f(Rdx-{-Sdy), wherein R, S are rational in x, y, z, which are every-
where finite ; and it can be shown that it has no other such integrals.
From this point of view, then, the number p,=papn is, for a sur-
face, analogous to the deficiency of a plane curve ; another analogy
arises in the comparison of the theorems: for a plane curve of zero
deficiency there exists no algebraic series of sets of points which
does not consist of sets belonging to a linear series; for a surface for
which p s -pa=o there exists no algebraic system of curves not
contained in a linear system.
But whereas for a plane curve of deficiency zero, the co-ordinates
of the points of the curve are rational functions of a single parameter,
it is not necessarily the case that for a surface having -/> = o the
co-ordinates of the points are rational functions of two parameters;
it is necessary that p a po = o, but this is not sufficient. For sur-
faces, beside the p a linearly independent surfaces of order n-4
having a definite particularity at the singularities of the surface, it is
useful to consider surfaces of order k(n~4), also having each a
definite particularity at the singularities, the number of these, not
containing the original surface as component, which are linearly
independent, is denoted by P*. It can then be stated that a sufficient
condition for a surface to be rational consists of the two conditions
/> = o, Pj = o. More generally it becomes a problem to classify
surfaces according to the values of the various numbers which are
invariant under birational transformation, and to determine for
each the simplest form of surface to which it is birationally equivalent.
Thus, for example, the hyperelliptic surface discussed by Humbert,
FUNDY, BAY OF FUNERAL RITES
329
of which the co-ordinate* are meromorphic functions of two variables
of the simplest kiiul, with four sett of periods, i* characterized by
p,-\, f" I ; or again, any surface possessing a linear system of
curve* of which the order exceeds twice the deficiency of the in-
dividual curve* diminished by two, is reducible by bir.ition.il trans-
formation to a ruled surface or U a rational surface. But beyond
the general statement that much progress has already been made
in this direction, of great interest to the student of the theory of
functions, nothing further can be added here.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The learner will find a lucid introduction to the
theory in E. Goureat, Court d'analyse mathematique, t. ii. (Paris,
1005), or, with much greater detail, in A. R. Forsyth, Theory of
functions t/ a Complex Variable (2nd ed., Cambridge, 1900) ; for
logical rigour in the more difficult theorems, he should consult
W. F. Osgood. Lehrbuch der Functionentheorie, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1906-
1007); for greater precision in regard to the necessary quasi-
geometrical aginm^ beside the indications attempted here, he should
consult W. H. Young, The Theory of Sets of Points (Cambridge,
1006), chs. viii.-xiii., and C. Jordan, Court d'analyse, t. i. (Pans,
1803), chs. i., ii. ; a comprehensive account of the Theory of Functions
of Real Variables it by E. W. Hobson (Cambridge, 1907). Of the
theory regarded as based after Weierstrass upon the theory of power
series, there is I. Harkness and F. Morley, Introduction to the Theory
of Analytic functions (London, 1898), an elementary treatise;
for the theory of the convergence of series there is also T. J. 1'A.
Bromwkh, An Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series (London,
1908) ; but the student should consult the collected works of Weier-
*trass( Berlin. 1894 ff.), and the writings of Mittag-Leffler intheearly
volumes of the Acta mathematical earlier expositions of the theory
of functions on the basis of power series are in C. Meray, Lemons
mtmtUis sur V analyst infiniUnmale (Paris, 1894), and in Lagrange's
books on the Theory of Functions. An account of the theory of
potential in its applications to the present theory is found in most
treatises; in particular consult E. Picard, Traite d'analyse, t. ii.
(Pan*, 1893). For elliptic functions there is an introductory book,
P. Appell and E. Lacour, Principes de la thtoriedesjonctionstlliptiques
et applications (Paris, 1897), beside the treatises of G. H. Halphen,
Traiit des fonctions eUiptiques et de leurs applications (three parts,
Paris, 1886 ff.), and J. Tannery et J. Molk, Elements de la (Marie
des fonctions eUipticrues (Paris, 1893 ff.); a book, A. G. Greenhill,
Th Applications -of Elliptic Functions (London, 1892), shows how
the functions enter in problems of many kinds. For modular
function* there is an extensive treatise, F. Klein and R. Fricke,
Theorie der eUiptischen Modulfunctionen (Leipzig, 1890); see also
the most interesting smaller volume, F. Klein, Ober das Ikosaeder
(Leipzig, 1884) (also obtainable in English). For the theory of
Riemann's surface, and algebraic integrals, an interesting intro-
duction is P. Appell and E. Gpursat, Theorie des fonctions algebriqves
ft de leurs integrates; for Abelian functions see also H. Stahl, Theorie
der Abefschen Functionen (Leipzig, 1806), and H. F. Baker, An
Introduction to the Theory of Multiply Periodic Functions (Cambridge,
1907). and H. F. Baker, Abel's Theorem and the Allied Theory, in-
cfudini the Theory of the Theta Functions (Cambridge, 1897); for
theta functions of one variable a standard work is C. G. Jacobi,
Funaamtnla uota, ore. (Konigsberg, 1828); for the general theory
of theta functions, consult W. Wirtinger, Untersuchungen iiber Theta-
Functionen (Leipzig, 1895). For a history of the theory of algebraic
functions consult A. Brill and M. Noether, Die Entwicklung der
Theorie der mlgebmischen Functionen in alterer und neuerer Zeit,
Bericht der deutschtn Mathematiker-Vereinigung (1894); and for a
special theory of algebraic functions, K. HenseT and G. Landsberg,
Theorie der algebraischen Function u.s.w. (Leipzig. 1902). The
student will, of course, consult also Riemann's and Weierstrass's
Ces. Werke. For the applications to geometry in general an im-
portant contribution, of permanent value, is E. Picard and G. Simart,
Theorie des fonctions algebriques de deux variables indfpendantes
(Pan*. 1897-1906). This work contains, a* Note v. t. ii. p. 485, a
valuable summary by MM. Castelnuovo and Enriques, Sur quelques
resullatt ncuveaux dans la theorie des surfaces algtbriques, containing
many reference* to the numerous memoirs to be found, for the most
part, in the transactions of scientific societies and the mathematical
journals of Italy.
Beside the books above enumerated there exists an unlimited
number of individual memoirs, often of permanent importance
and only imperfectly, or too elaborately, reproduced in toe pages
of the volumes in which the student will find references to them.
The German Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, and the Royal Society's
lalogue of Current Scientific Literature, Pure Mathematics,
Cola
yearly, should also be consulted.
(H. F. BA.)
FUVDT. BAY OP. an inlet of the North Atlantic, separating
New Brunswick from Nova Scotia. It is 145 m. long and 48 m.
wide at the mouth, but gradually narrows towards the head,
where it divides into Chignecto Bay to the north, which sub-
divides into Shepody Bay and Cumberland Basin (the French
Beaubassin), and Minas Channel, leading into Minas Basin, to
the east and south. Off its western shore opens Passamaquoddy
Bay, a magnificent sheet of deep water with good anchorage,
receiving the waters of the St Croix river and forming part of
the boundary between New Brunswick and the state of Maine.
The Bay of 1 un.lv is remarkable for the great rise and fall of
the tide, which at the head of the bay has been known to reach
62 ft. In Passamaquoddy Bay the rise and fall is about 25 ft.,
which gradually increases toward the narrow upper reaches.
At spring tides the water in the Bay of Fundy is 19 ft. higher
than it is in Bay Verte, in Northumberland Strait, only ism.
distant. Though the bay is deep, navigation is rendered
dangerous by the violence and rapidity of the tide, and in summer
by frequent fogs. At low tide, at such points as Moncton or
Amherst, only an expanse of red mud can be seen, and the tide
rushes in a bore or crest from 3 to 6 ft. in height. Large areas
of fertile marshes are situated at the head of the bay, and the
remains of a submerged forest show that the land has subsided
in the latest geological period at least 40 ft. The bay receives
the waters of the St Croix and St John rivers, and has numerous
harbours, of which the chief are St Andrews (on Passamaquoddy
Bay) and St John in New Brunswick, and Digby and Annapolis
(on an inlet known as Annapolis Basin) in Nova Scotia. It was
first explored by the Sieur de Monts (d. r. 1628) in 1604 and
named by him La Baye Francaise.
FUNERAL RITES, the ceremonies associated with different
methods of disposing of the dead. (See also BURIAL AND BURIAL
ACTS; CEMETERY; and CREMATION.) In general we have little
record, except in their tombs, of races which, in a past measured
not merely by hundreds but by thousands of years, occupied
the earth; and exploration of these often furnishes our only
clue to the religions, opinions, customs, institutions and arts of
long vanished societies. In the case of the great culture folks
of antiquity, the Babylonians, Egyptians, Hindus, Persians,
Greeks and Romans, we have, besides their monuments, the
evidence of their literatures, and so can know nearly as much of
their rites as we do of our own. The rites of modern savages
not only help us to interpret prehistoric monuments, but explain
peculiarities in our own rituals and in those of the culture folks
of the past of which the significance was lost or buried under
etiological myths. We must not then confine ourselves to the
rites of a few leading races, neglecting their less fortunate
brethren who have never achieved civilization. It is better to
try to classify the rites of all races alike according as they embody
certain leading conceptions of death, certain fears, hopes, beliefs
entertained about the dead, about their future, and their relations
with the living.
The main ideas, then, underlying funeral rites may roughly be
enumerated as follows:
1. The pollution or taboo attaching to a corpse.
2. Mourning.
3. The continued life of the dead as evinced in the housing and
equipment of the dead, in the furnishing of food for them, and in the
orientation and posture assigned to the body.
4. Communion with the dead in a funeral feast and otherwise.
5. Sacrifice for the dead and expiation of their sins.
6. Death witchery.
7. Protection of the dead from ghouls.
8. Fear of ghosts.
i. A dead body is unclean, and the uncleanness extends
to things and persons which touch it. Hence the Jewish law
(Num. v. 2) enacted that " whoever is unclean by the dead
shall be put outside the camp, that they defile not the camp
in the midst whereof the Lord dwells." Such persons were
unclean until the even, and might not eat of the holy things
unless they bathed their flesh in water. A high priest might on
no account " go in to any dead body " (Lev. xan. 1 1). Why
a corpse is so widely tabooed is not certain ; but it is natural to
see one reason in the corruption which in warm climates soon
sets in. The common experience that where one has died
another is likely to do so may also have contributed, though, of
course, there was no scientific idea of infection. The old Persian
scriptures are full of this taboo. He who has touched a corpse is
" powerless in mind, tongue and hand " (Zend A vest a in Sacred
Books of the East, pt. i. p. 120), and the paralysis is inflicted by
the innumerable drugs or evil spirits which invest a corpse.
Fire and earth, being alike creations of the good and pure god
330
FUNERAL RITES
Ahuramazda, a body must not be burned or buried; and so the
ancient Persians and their descendants the Parsees build Dakmas
or " towers of silence " on hill-tops far from human habitations.
Inside these the corpses are laid on a flagged terrace which
drains into a central pit. Twice a year the bones, picked clean
by dogs and birds of prey, are collected in the pit, and when it
is full another tower is built. In ancient times perhaps the
bodies of the magi or priests alone were exposed at such expense;
the common folk were covered with wax and laid in the earth,
the wax saving the earth from pollution. In Rome and Greece
the corpse was buried by night, lest it should pollute the sunlight ;
and a trough of water was set at the door of the house of death
that men might purify themselves when they came out, before
mixing in general society. Priests and magistrates in Rome
might not meet or look on a corpse, for they were thereby
rendered unclean and incapable of fulfilling their official duties
without undergoing troublesome rites of purification. At a
Roman funeral, when the remains had been laid in the tomb,
all present were sprinkled with lustral water from a branch of
olive or laurel called aspergillum; and when they had gone
home they were asperged afresh and stepped over a fire. The
house was also swept out with a broom, probably lest the ghost
of the dead should be lying about the floor. Many races, to
avoid pollution, destroy the house and property of the deceased.
Thus the Navahos pull down the hut in which he died, leaving its
ruins on the ground ;^but if it be an expensive hut, a shanty
is extemporized alongside, into which the dying man is trans-
ferred before death. No one will use the timbers of a hut so
ruined. A burial custom of the Solomon Islands, noted by
R. H. Codrington (The Melanesians, p. 255), may be dictated
by the same scruple. There " the mourners having hung up a
dead man's arms on his house make great lamentations; all
remains afterwards untouched, the house goes to ruin, mantled,
as time goes on, with the vines of the growing yams, a picturesque
and indeed, perhaps, a touching sight; for these things are not
set up that they may in a ghostly manner accompany their
former owner." H. Oldenberg (Religion des Veda, p. 426) describes
how Hindus shave themselves and cut off their nails after a
death, at the same time that they wash, renew the hearth fire,
and furnish themselves with new vessels. For the hair and
nails may harbour pollution, just as the medieval Greeks believed
that evil spirits could lurk in a man's beard (Leo Allatius, De
opinionibus quorundam Graecorum). The dead man's body
is shorn and the nails cut for a kindred reason; for it must be
purified as much as can be before it is burned as an offering on
the pyre and before he enters on a new sphere of existence.
2. We are accustomed to regard mourning costume as primarily
an outward sign of our grief. Originally, however, the special
garb seems to have been intended to warn the general public
that persons so attired were unclean. In ancient Rome mourners
stayed at home and avoided all feasts and amusements; laying
aside gold, purple and jewels, they wore black dresses called
lugubria or even skins. They cut neither hair nor beard, nor
lighted fire. Under the emperors women began to wear white.
On the west coast of Africa negroes wear white, on the Gold
Coast red. The Chinese wear hemp, which is cheap, for mourning
dress must as a rule be destroyed when the season of grief is
past to get rid of the taboo. Among the Aruntas of Australia
the wives of a dead man smear themselves with white pipe-clay
until the last ceremonies are finished, sometimes adding ashes
this not to conceal themselves from the ghost (which may partly
be the aim of some mourning costumes), but to show the ghost
that they are duly sorrowing for their loss. These widows must
not talk except on their hands for a whole year. " Among the
Maoris," says Frazer (Golden Bough, i. 323), " anyone who had
handled a corpse, helped to convey it to the grave, or touched a
dead man's bones, was cut off from all intercourse and almost
all communication with mankind. He could not enter any
house, or come into contact with any person or thing, without
utterly bedevilling them. He might not even touch food with
his hands, which had become so frightfully tabooed or unclean
as to be quite useless. Food would be set for him on the ground,
and he would then sit or kneel down, and, with his hands carefully
held behind his back, would gnaw at it as best he could." Often
a degraded outcast was kept in a village to feed mourners. Such
a taboo is strictly similar to those which surround a sacred chief
or his property, a menstruous woman or a homicide, rendering
them dangerous to themselves and to all who approach them.
3. Primitive folk cannot conceive of a man's soul surviving
apart from his body, nor of another life as differing from this,
and the dead must continue to enjoy what they had here.
Accordingly the Patagonians kill horses at the grave that the
dead may ride to Alhuemapu, or country of the dead. After a
year they collect a chief's bones, arrange them, tie them together
and dress them in his best garments with beads and feathers.
Then they lay him with his weapons in a square pit, round
which dead horses are placed set upright on their feet by stakes.
As late as 1781 in Poland F. Casimir's horse was slain and buried
with him. In the Caucasus a Christian lady's jewels are buried
with her. The Hindus used to burn a man's widow on his pyre,
because he could not do without her; and St Boniface commends
the self-sacrifice of the Wend widows who in his day burned
themselves alive on their husbands' pyres.
The tumuli met with all over the north of Europe (in the
Orkneys alone 2000 remain) are regular houses of the dead,
models of those they occupied in life. The greater the dignity
of the deceased, the loftier was his barrow. Silbury hill is
170 ft. high; the tomb of Alyattes, father of Croesus, was a
fourth of a league round; the Pyramids are still the largest
buildings in existence; at Oberea in Tahiti is a barrow 267 ft.
long, 87 wide and 44 high. Some Eskimo just leave a de?d
man's body in his house, and shut it up, often leaving by his
side a dog's head to guide him on his last journey, along with
his tools and kayak. The Sea Dyaks set a chief adrift in his war
canoe with his weapons. So in Norse story Hake " was laid
wounded on a ship with the dead men and arms; the ship was
taken out to sea and set on fire." The Viking was regularly
buried in his ship or boat under a great mound. He sailed
after death to Valhalla. In the ship was laid a stone as anchor
and the tools, clothes, weapons and treasures of the dead. The
Egyptians, whose land was the gift of the river Nile, equally
believed that the dead crossed over water, and fashioned the
hearse in the form of a boat. Hence perhaps was derived the
Greek myth of Charon and the Styx, and the custom, which still
survives in parts of Europe, of placing a coin in the mouth of the
dead with which to pay the ferryman. The Egyptians placed
in the tomb books of a kind to guide the dead to the next world.
The Copts in a later age did the same, and to this custom we owe
the recovery in Egypt of much ancient literature. The Armenians
till lately buried with a priest his missal or gospel.
In Egyptian entombments of the Xllth to the XI Vth dynasties
were added above the sepulchres what Professor Petrie terms soul-
houses, viz. small models of houses furnished with couch and
table, &c., for the use of the ka or double whenever it might wish
to come above ground and partake of meats and drinks. They
recall, in point of size, the hut-urns of the Etruscans, but the
latter had another use, for they contain incinerated remains.
Etruscan tombs, like those of Egypt and Asia Minor, were made
to resemble the dwelling-houses of the living, and furnished with
coffered ceilings, panelled walls, couches, stools, easy chairs with
footstools attached, all hewn out of the living rock (Dennis,
Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, vol i. p. Ixx.).
Of the old Peruvian mummies in the Kircherian Museum at
Rome, several are of women with babies in their arms, whence
it is evident that a mother had her suckling buried with her;
it would console her in the next world and could hardly survive
her in this. The practice of burying ornaments, tools and
weapons with the dead characterizes the inhumations of the
Quaternary epoch, as if in that dim and remote age death was
already regarded as the portal of another life closely resembling
this. The cups, tools, weapons, ornaments and other articles
deposited with the dead are often carefully broken or turned
upside down and inside out; for the soul or manes of objects is
liberated by such fracture or inversion and so passes into the
FUNERAL RITES
dead nun's use and possession. For the same reason where the
dead are burned, their properties are committed to the flames.
The (host of the warrior has a ghostly sword and buckler to
fight with and a ghostly cup to drink from, and he is also nourished
by the impalpable odour and reek of the animal victims sacrificed
over his grave. Instead of valuable objects cheap images and
models are often substituted; and why not, if the mere ghosts
of the things are all that the wraith can enjoy ? Thus Marco
Polo (ii. 76) describes how in the land of Kinsay (Hang-chau)
the friends and relations make a great mourning for the
deceased, and clothe themselves in hempen garments, and follow
the corpse, playing on a variety of instruments and singing
hymns to their idols. And when they come to the burning place
they take representations of things cut out of parchment, such
as caparisoned horses, male and female slaves, camels, armour,
suits of doth of gold (and money), in great quantities, and these
things they put on the fire along with the corpse so that they
are all burned with it. And they tell you that the dead man
hall have all these slaves and animals of which the effigies are
burned, alive in flesh and blood, and the money in gold, at his
disposal in the next world; and that the instruments which
they have caused to be played at his funeral, and the idol hymns
that have been chaunted shall also be produced again to welcome
him in the next world." The manufacture of such paper simu-
lacra for consumption at funerals is still an important industry
in Chinese cities. The ancient Egyptians, assured that a man's
ka or double shall revivify his body, took pains to guard the
flesh from corruption, steeping the corpse in natron and stuffing
it with spices. A body so prepared is called a mummy (q.v.),
and the custom was already of a hoary antiquity in 3200 B.C.,
when the oldest dated mummy we have was made. The bowels,
removed in the process, were placed in jars over the corpse in the
tomb, together with writing tablets, books, musical instruments,
&c., of the dead. Cemeteries also remain full of mummies of
crocodiles, cats, fish, cows and other sacred animals. The
Greeks settled in Egypt learned to mummify their dead, but
the custom was abhorrent to the Jews, although the Christian
belief in the resurrection of the flesh must have been formed to
a Urge extent under Egyptian influence. Half the superiority of
the Jewish to other ancient religions lay in this, that it prescribed
no funeral rites other than the simplest inhumation.
The dead all over the world and from remote antiquity have
been laid not anyhow in the earth, but with the feet and face
towards the region in which their future will be spent; the
Ufiwn and Fijians towards the far west whither their souls
have preceded them; the Guarayos with head turned eastwards
because their god Tamoi has in that quarter " his happy hunting
grounds where the dead will meet again " (Tylor, Prim. Cult.
ii. 422). The legend is that Christ was buried with His bead Jo
the west, and the church follows the custom, more ancient than
itself, of laying the dead looking to the East, because that is
the attitude of prayer, and because at the last trump they will
hurry eastwards. So in Eusebius (Hist. Red. 430. 19) a martyr
explains to his pagan judge that the heavenly Jerusalem, the
fatherland of the pious, lay exactly in the east at the rising place
of the sun. Where the body is laid out straight it is difficult to
discern the presence of any other idea than that it is at rest. In
Scandinavian barrows, e.g. in the one opened at Goldhavn in
1830, the skeletons have been found seated on a low stone bench
round the wall of the grave chamber facing its opening, which
always looks south or east, never north. Here the dead were
continuing the drinking bouts they enjoyed on earth.
The Peruvians mummified their dead and placed them jointed
and huddled up with knees to chin, looking toward the sunset,
with the hands held before the face. In the oldest prehistoric
tomb* along the Nile the bodies are doubled up in the same
position. It would seem as if in these and numerous other
similar cases the dead were deliberately given in their graves
the attitude of a foetus in the womb, and, as Dr Budge remarks
(Egyptian Ideas of Ike Future Life, London, 1809, p. 162), " we
may perhaps be justified in seeing in this custom the symbol
of a hope that, as the child is born from this position into the
world, so might the deceased be born into the life beyond the
grave." The late Quaternary skeletons of the Mentone cave
were laid in a layer of ferrugineous earth specially laid down for
them, and have contracted a red colour therefrom. Many other
prehistoric skeletons found in Italy have a reddish colour, perhaps
for the same reason, or because, as often to-day, the bones were
stripped of flesh and painted. Ambrose relates that the skeletons
of the martyrs Gervasius and Protasius, which he found and
deposited A.D. 386 under the altar of his new basilica in Milan,
were mime magniludinis ut prisca aetas ferebat, and were also
coloured red. He imagined the red to be the remains of the
martyrs' blood I Hie sanguis clamat coloris indicia. Salomon
Reinach has rightly divined that what Ambrose really hit upon
was a prehistoric tomb. Red earth was probably chosen as a
medium in which to lay a corpse because demons flee from red.
Sacred trees and stones are painted red, and for the most solemn
of their rites savages bedaub themselves with red day. It is
a favourite taboo colour.
4. A feast is an essential feature of every, primitive funeral,
and in the Irish " wake " it still survives. A dead man's soul
or double has to be fed at the tomb itself, perhaps to keep it
from prowling about the homes of the survivors in search of
victuals; and such food must also be supplied to the dead at
stated intervals for months or years. Many races leave a
narrow passage or tube open down to the cavity in which the
corpse lies, and through it pour down drinks for the dead.
Traces of such tubes are visible in the prehistoric tombs of the
British Isles. However, such provision of food is not properly
a funeral feast unless the survivors participate. In the Eastern
churches and in Russia the departed are thus fed on the ninth,
twelfth and fortieth days from death. " Ye appease the shades
of the dead with wine and meals," was the charge levelled at
the Catholics by the 4th-century Manichaeans, and it has hardly
ceased to be true even now after the lapse of sixteen centuries.
The funeral feast proper, however, is either a meal of communion
with or in the dead, which accompanies interment, or a banquet
off the flesh of victims slain in atonement of the dead man's
sins. Some anthropologists see in the common meal held at the
grave " the pledge and witness of the unity of the kin, the chief
means, if not of making, at least of repairing and renewing it." *
The flesh provided at these banquets is occasionally that of the
dead man himself; Herodotus and Strabo in antiquity relate
this of several half-civilized races in the East and West, and a
similar story is told by Marco Polo of certain Tatars. Nor
among modern savages are funeral feasts off the flesh of the dead
unknown, and they seem to be intended to effect and renew a
sacramental union or kinship of the living with the dead. The
Uaupes in the Amazons incinerate a corpse a month after death,
pound up the ashes, and mix them with their fermented drink.
They believe that the virtues of the dead will thus be passed on
to his survivors. The life of the tribe is kept inside the tribe
and not lost. Such cannibal sacraments, however, are rare, and,
except in a very few cases, the evidence for them weak. The
slaying and eating of animal victims, however, at the tomb is uni-
versal and bears several meanings, separately or all at once. The
animals may be slain in order that their ghosts may accompany
the deceased in his new life. This significance we have already
dwelt upon. Or it is believed that the shade feeds upon them,
as the shades came up from Hades and lapped up out of a trench
the blood of the animals slain by Ulysses. The survivors by
eating the flesh of a victim, whose blood and soul the dead thus
consume, sacramentally confirm the mystic tie of blood kinship
with the dead. Or lastly, the victim may be offered for the sins
of the dead. His sins are even supposed to be transferred into
it and eaten by the priest. Such expiatory sacrifices of animals
for the dead survive in the Christian churches of Armenia, Syria
and of the East generally. Their vicarious character is emphasized
in the prayers which accompany them, but the popular under-
standing of them probably combines all the meanings above
enumerated. It has been suggested by Robertson Smith
(Religion of the Semites, 336) that the world-wide customs of
1 E. S. Hartlaml, Legend of Perseus (1895), ii. 278.
332
FUNERAL RITES
tearing the hair, rending the garments, and cutting and wounding
the body were originally intended to establish a life-bond between
the dead and the living. The survivors, he argues, in leaving
portions of their hair and garments, and yet more by causing
their own blood to stream over the corpse from self-inflicted
wounds, by cutting off a finger and throwing it into the grave,
leave what is eminently their own with the dead, so drawing
closer their tie with him. Conversely, many savages daub them-
selves with the blood and other effluences of their dead kinsmen,
and explain their custom by saying that in this way a portion
of the dead is incorporated in themselves. Often the survivors,
especially the widows, attach the bones or part of them to their
persons and wear them, or at least keep them in their houses.
The retention of the locks of the deceased and of parts of his
dress is equally common. There is also another side to such
customs. Having in their possession bits of the dead, and being
so far in communion with him, the survivors are surer of his
friendship. -They have ensured themselves against ghosts who
are apt to be by nature envious and mischievous. But whatever
their original significance, the tearing of cheeks and hair and
garments and cutting with knives are mostly expressions of real
sorrow, and, as Robertson Smith remarks, of deprecation and
supplication to an angry god or spirit. It must not be supposed
that the savage or ancient man feels less than ourselves the
poignancy of loss.
6. Death-witchery has close parallels in the witch and heretic
hunts of the Christians, but, happily for us, only flourishes
to-day among savages. Sixty % of the deaths which occur in
West Africa are, according to Miss Mary Kingsley a credible
witness believed to be due to witchcraft and sorcery. The
blacks regard old age or effusion of blood as the sole legitimate
causes of death. All ordinary diseases are in their opinion due
to private magic on the part of neighbours, just as a widespread
epidemic marks the active hatred " of some great outraged nature
spirit, not of a mere human dabbler in devils." ' Similarly in
Christian countries an epidemic is set down to the wrath of a God
offended by the presence of Jews, Arians and other heretics.
The duty of an African witch-doctor is to find out who bewitched
the deceased, just as it was of an inquisitor to discover the
heretic. Every African post-mortem accordingly involves the
murder of the person or persons who bewitched the dead man
and caused him to die. The death-rate by these means is nearly
doubled; but, since the use of poison against an obnoxious
neighbour is common, the right person is occasionally executed.
It is also well for neighbours not to quarrel, for, if they do and
one of them dies of smallpox, the other is likely to be slain as
a witch, and his lungs, liver and spleen impaled on a pole at the
entrance of the village. It is the same case with the Australian
blacks: " no such thing as natural death is realized by the
native; a man who dies has of necessity been killed by some
other man, or perhaps even by a woman, and sooner or
later that man or woman will be attacked. In the normal
condition of the tribe every death meant the killing of another
individual." *
7. Lastly, a primitive interment guards against the double
risk of the ghost haunting the living and of ghouls or vampires
taking possession of the corpse. The latter end is likely to be
achieved if the body is cremated, for then there is no nidus to
harbour the demon; but whether, in the remote antiquity to
which belong many barrows containing incinerated remains,
this motive worked, cannot be ascertained. The Indo-European
race seems to have cremated at an early epoch, perhaps before
the several races of East and West separated. In Christian
funeral rites many prayers are for the protection of the body
from violation by vampires, and it would seem as if such a motive
dictated the architectural solidity of some ancient tombs.
Christian graves were for protection regularly sealed with the
cross; and the following is a characteristic prayer from the old
Armenian rite for the burial of a layman:
1 Mary Kingsley, West African Studies (1901), p. i?8.
1 B. Spencer and F. J. Giflen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia
(1899). p. 48.
" Preserve, Almighty Lord, this man's spirit with all saints and
with all lovers of Thy holy name. And do Thou seal and guard the
sepulchre of Thy servant, Thou who shuttest up the depths and
sealest them with Thy almighty right hand ... so let the seal of
Thy Lordship abide unmoved upon this man's dwelling-place and
upon the shrine which guards Thy servant. And let not any filthy
and unclean devil dare to approach him, such as assail the body arid
souls of the heathen, who possess not the birth of the holy font, and
have not the dread seal laid upon their graves."
A terrible and revolting picture of the superstitious belief in
ghouls which violate Christian tombs is given by Leo Allatius
(who held it) in his tract De opinionibus quorundam Graecorum
(Paris, 1646). It was probably the fear of such demonic assaults
on the dead that inspired the insanitary custom of burying the
dead under the floors of churches, and as near as possible to the
altar. In the Greek Church this practice was happily forbidden
by the code of Justinian as well as by the older law in the case of
churches consecrated with Encaenia and deposition of relics.
In the Armenian Church the same rule holds, and Ephrem Syrus
in his testament particularly forbade his body to be laid within
a church. Such prohibitions, however, are a witness to the
tendency in question.
The custom of lighting candles round a dead body and watching
at its side all night was originally due to the belief that a corpse,
like a person asleep, is specially liable to the assaults of demons.
The practice of tolling a bell at death must have had a similar
origin, for it was a common medieval belief that the sound of a
consecrated bell drives off the demons which when a man dies
gather near in the air to waylay his fleeting soul. For a like
reason the consecrated bread of the Eucharist was often buried
with believers, and St Basil is said to have specially consecrated
a Host to be placed in his coffin.
8. Some of the rites described under the previous heads may be
really inspired by the fear of the dead haunting the living, but
it must be kept in mind that the taboo attaching to a dead body
is one thing and fear of a ghost another. A corpse is buried or
burned, or scaffolded on a tree, a tower or a house-top, in order
to get it out of the way and shield society from the dangerous
infection of its taboo; but ghosts qud ghosts need not be feared
and a kinsman's ghost usually is not. On the contrary, it is fed
and consoled with everything it needs, is asked not to go away
but to stay, is in a thousand ways assured of the sorrow and
sympathy of the survivors. Even if the body be eaten, it is
merely to keep the soul of the deceased inside the circle of
kinsmen, and Strabo asserts that the ancient Irish and Massagetae
regarded it as a high honour to be so consumed by relatives.
In Santa Cruz in Melanesia they keep the bones for arrow heads
and store a skull in a box and set food before it " saying that
this is the man himself " (R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians,
p. 264), or the skull and jaw bone are kept and " are
called mangite, which are saka, hot with spiritual power, and by
means of which the help of the lio'a, the powerful ghost of the
man whose relics these are, can be obtained" (ibid. p. 262).
Here we have the savage analogue to Christian relics. So the
Australian natives make pointing sticks out of the small bones of
the arm, with which to bewitch enemies.
We may conclude then that in the most primitive societies,
where blood-kinship is the only social tie and root of social custom
it is the shades, not of kinsmen, but of strangers, who as such
are enemies, that are dangerous and uncanny. In more developed
societies, however, all ghosts alike are held to be so; and if a
ghost walks it is because its body has not been properly interred
or because its owner was a malefactor. Still, even allowing for
this, it remains true that for a friendly ghost the proper place is
the grave and not the homes of the living, and accordingly the
Aruntas with cries of Wah 1 Wahl with wearing of fantastic
head-dresses, wild dancing and beating of the air with hands and
weapons " drive the spirit away from the old camp which it is
supposed to haunt," and which has been set fire to, and hunt
it at a run into the grave prepared, and there stamp it down into
the earth. " The loud shouting of the men and women shows him
that they do not wish to be frightened by him in his present
state, and that they will be angry with him if he does not rest."
FUNGI
333
(Spencer and Gillen, Natitt Tribes of Central Australia, p. 508).
In Mesopotamia cemeteries have been discovered where the
sepulchral jars were set upside down, clearly by way of hindering
the ghosts from escaping into the upper world. In the Dublin
museum we see specimens of ancient Celtic tombs showing the
same peculiarity. For a like reason perhaps the name of the
dead must among the Aruntas not be uttered, nor the grave
approached, by certain classes of kinsmen. The same repugnance
to naming the dead exists all over the world, and leads survivors
who share the dead man's name to adopt another, at least for a
time. If the dead man's name was that of a plant, tree, animal
or stream, that too is changed. Here is a potent cause of linguistic
change, that also renders any historical tradition impossible.
The survivors seem to fear that the ghost will come when he
bean his name called; but it also hangs together with the taboo
which hedges round the dead as it does kings, chieftains and
priests.
AUTHORITIES. B. Spencer and F. I. Gillen, The Native Tribes
of Central Australia (London, 1890); F. B. Jcvons, Introduction to
History of Relt&on (London. 1896); E. S. Hartland, The Legend of
Perseus, vol. ii.; 1. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (London, 1900);
L. W. Faraday, Custom and Belief in the Icelandic Sagas," in
Folk-lore, vol. xvii. No. 4; E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (London,
1903); E. A. W. Budge, The Mummy (Cambridge, 1893); C. Rover,
" Le Rites funfraire* aux 6poques prtfhistoriques," Revue d'anlnro-
polotit (1876); Ferrer, Cher die Totenbeitattung bet den Pfahlbauern
(Ausland, 1885); J. Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation (London, 1875)
and Prehistoric Times (London, 1865) ; L. A. Muratori, " De antiquis
Christianorum scpulchris," Anted. Graeca (Padua, 1709); Onaphr.
Panvinius, De ritu sepeliendi mortuos apud veteres Christianas, re-
printed in Volbeding's Thesaurus (Leipzig, 1841). (F. C. C.)
FUNGI (pi. of Lat. fungus, a mushroom), the botanical name
covering in the broad sense all the lower cellular Cryptogams
devoid of chlorophyll, which arise from spores, and the thallus
of which is either unicellular or composed of branched or un-
branched tubes or cell-filaments (hyphae) with apical growth,
or of more or less complex wefted sheets or tissue-like masses
of such (mycelium). The latter may in certain cases attain large
dimensions, and even undergo cell-divisions in their interior,
resulting in the development of true tissues. The spores, which
may be uni- or multi-cellular, are either abstricted free from
the ends of hyphae (acrogenous), or formed from segments in
their course (chlamydos pores) or from protoplasm in their interior
(endogenous). The want of chlorophyll restricts their mode of
life which is rarely aquatic since they are therefore unable
to decompose the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere, and renders
them dependent on other plants or (rarely) animals for their
carbonaceous food-materials. These they obtain usually in the
form of carbohydrates from the dead remains of other organisms,
or in this or other forms from the living cells of their hosts;
in the former case they are termed saprophytes, in the latter
parasites. While some moulds (Penicillium, Aspergillus) can
utilize almost any organic food-materials, other fungi are more
restricted in their choice e.g. insect -parasites, horn- and
feather - destroying fungi and parasites generally. It was
formerly the custom to include with the Fungi the Schizomycetes
or Bacteria, and the Myxomycetes or Mycetozoa; but the
peculiar mode of growth and division, the cilia, spores and other
peculiarities of the former, and the emission of naked amoeboid
masses of protoplasm, which creep and fuse to streaming plas-
modia, with special modes of nutrition and spore-formation of
the latter, have led to their separation as groups of organisms
independent of the true Fungi. On the other hand, lichens,
previously regarded as autonomous plants, are now known to
be dual organisms fungi symbiotic with algae.
The number of species in 1889 was estimated by Saccardo at
about 32,000, but of these 8 500 were so-called Fungi imperfecti
i.e. forms of which we only know certain stages, such as conidia,
pycnidia, tec., and which there are reasons for regarding as merely
the corresponding stages of higher forms. Saccardo also included
about 400 species of Myxomycetes and 650 of Schizomycetes.
Allowing for these and for the cases, undoubtedly not few,
where one and the same fungus has been described under different
BUMS, we obtain Schroder's estimate (in 1892) of 20,000 species.
In illustration of the very different estimates that have been
made, however, may be mentioned that of De Bary in 1872 of
150,000 species, and that of Cooke in 1895 of 40,000, and Massee
in 1809 of over 50,000 species, the fact being that no sufficient
data are as yet to hand for any accurate census. As regards their
geographical distribution, fungi, like flowering plants, have no
doubt their centres of origin and of dispersal; but we must not
forget that every exchange of wood, wheat, fruits, plants,
animals, or other commodities involves transmission of fungi
from one country to another; while the migrations of birds and
other animals, currents of air and water, and so forth, are particu-
larly efficacious in transmitting these minute organisms. Against
this, of course, it may be argued that parasitic forms can only go
where their hosts grow, as is proved to be the case by records
concerning the introduction of Puccinia malvacearum, Perono-
spora viticola, Hemileia vastatrix, &c. Some fungi e.g. moulds
and yeasts appear to be distributed all over the earth. That
the north temperate regions appear richest in fungi may be due
only to the fact that North America and Europe have been
much more thoroughly investigated than other countries; it is
certain that the tropics are the home of very numerous species.
Again, the accuracy of the statement that the fleshy Agaricini,
Polyporei, Pezizae, &c., are relatively rarer in the tropics may
depend on the fact that they are more difficult to collect and
remit for identification than the abundantly recorded woody
and coriaceous forms of these regions. When we remember
that many parts of the world are practically unexplored as
regards fungi, and that new species are constantly being dis-
covered in the United States, Australia and northern Europe
the best explored of all it is clear that no very accurate census
of fungi can as yet be made, and no generalizations of value as
to their geographical distribution arc possible.
The existence of fossil fungi is undoubted, though very few
of the identifications can be relied on as regards species or genera.
They extend back beyond the Carboniferous, where they occur
as hyphae, &c., preserved in the fossil woods, but the best speci-
mens are probably those in amber and in siliceous petrifactions
of more recent origin.
Organs. Individual hyphae or their branches often exhibit
specializations of form. In many Basidiomycetes minute branches
arise below the septa; their tips curve over the outside of the latter,
and fuse with the cell above just beyond it, forming a clamp-con-
nexion. Many parasitic hyphae put out minute lateral branches,
which pierce the cell-wall of the host and form a peg-like (Tricho-
sphaerta), sessile (Cystopus), or stalked (Hemileia), knot-like, or. a
FIG. I. i, Peronosfora parasitica (De Bary). Mycelium with
haustoria (h); 3, Erysiphe; A and B, mycelium (m), with haustoria
(h). (After De Bary.)
more or lei* branched (Peronospora) or coiled (fro<omyci)haustorium.
In Rhitopus certain hyphae creep horizontally on the surface of the
substratum, and then anchor their tips to it by means of a tuft of
short branches (appressorium), the walls of which soften and gum
334
FUNGI
themselves to it, then another branch shoots out from the tuft and
repeats the process, like a strawberry-runner. Appressoria are
also formed by some parasitic fungi, as a minute flattening of the tip
of a very short branch (Erysiphe), or the swollen end of any hypha
which comes in contact with the surface of the host (Piptocephalis,
Syncephalis) , haustoria piercing in each case the cell-wall below.
In Botrytis the appressona assume the form of dense tassels of short
branches. In Arthrobotrys side-branches of the mycelium sling them-
selves around the host (Tylenchus) much as tendrils round a support.
Many fungi (Phallus, Agaricus, Fumago, &c.) when strongly
growing put out ribbon-like or cylindrical cords, or sheet-like
mycelial plates of numerous parallel hyphae, all growing together
equally, and fusing by anastomoses, and in this way extend long
distances in the soil, or over the surfaces of leaves, branches, &c.
These mycelial strands may be white and tender, or the outer
hyphae may be hard and black, and very often the resemblance of
the subterranean forms to a root is so marked that they are termed
rhizomorphs. The outermost hyphae may even put forth thinner
hyphae, radiating into the soil like root-hairs, and the convergent
tips may be closely appressed and so divided by septa as to resemble
the root-apex of a higher plant (Armillaria mellea).
Sclerotia. Fungi, like other plants, are often found to store up
large quantities of reserve materials (oil, glycogen, carbohydrates,
&c.) in special parts of their vegetative tissues, where they lie
accumulated between a period of active assimilation and one of
renewed activity, forming reserves to be consumed particularly
during the formation of large fructifications. These reserve stores
may be packed away in single hyphae or in swollen cells, but the
hyphae containing them are often gathered into thick cords or
mycelial strands (Phallus, mushroom, &c.), or flattened and anasto-
mosing ribbons and plates, often containing several kinds of hyphae
(Merulius lacrymans). In other cases the strands undergo differ-
entiation into an outer layer with blackened, hardened cell-walls
and a core of ordinary hyphae, and are then termed rhizomorphs
(Armillaria mellea), capable not only of extending the fungus in
the soil, like roots, but also of lying dormant, protected by the
outer casing. Such aggregations of hyphae frequently become
knotted up into dense masses of interwoven and closely packed
hyphae, varying in size from that of a pin's head or a pea (Peziza,
Coprinus) to that of a man's fist or head, and weighing 10 to 25 ft
or more (Polyporus Mylittae, P. tumulus us, Lentinus Woermanni,
P. Sapurema, &c.). The interwoven hyphae fuse and branch
copiously, filling up all interstices. They also undergo cutting
up by numerous septa into short cells, and these often divide again
in all planes, so that a pseudoparenchyma results, the walls of
which may be thickened and swollen internally, or hardened and
black on the exterior. In many cases the swollen cell-walls serve
as reserves, and sometimes the substance is so thickly deposited in
strata as to obliterate the lumen, and the hyphae become nodular
(Polyporus sacer, P. rhinoceros, Lentinus Woermanni). The various
sclerotia, if kept moist, give rise to the fructifications of the fungi
concerned, much as a potato tuber does to a potato plant, and in
the same way the reserve materials are consumed. They are
principally Polyporei, Agaricini, Pezizae; none are known among
the Phycomycetes, Uredineae or Ustilagineae. The functions of
mycelial strands, rhizomorphs and sclerotia are not only to collect
and store materials, but also to extend the fungus, and in many
cases similar strands act as organs of attack. The same functions
of storage in advance of fructification are also exercised by the
stromata so common in Ascomycetes.
Tissue Differentiations. The simpler mycelia consist of hyphae
all alike and thin-walled, or merely differing in the diameter of the
branches of various orders, or in their relations to the environment,
some plunging into the substratum like roots, others remaining on
its surface, and others (aerial hyphae) rising into the air. Such
hyphae may be multicellular, or they may consist of simple tubes
with numerous nuclei and no septa (Phycomycetes), and are then
non-cellular. In the more complex tissue-bodies of higher fungi,
however, we find considerable differences in the various layers or
strands of hyphae.
An epidermis-like or cortical protective outer layer is very common ,
and is usually characterized by the close septation of the densely
interwoven hyphae and the thickening and dark colour of their
outer walls (sclerotia, Xylaria, &c.). Fibre-like hyphae with
the lumen almost obliterated by the thick walls occur in mycelial
cords (Merulius). Latex-tubes abound in the tissues of Lactarius,
Stereum, Mycena, Fistulina, filled with white or coloured milky
fluids, and Istvanffyi has shown that similar tubes with fluid or
oily contents are widely spread in other Hymenomycetes. Some-
times fatty oil or watery sap is found in swollen hyphal ends, or
such tubes contain coloured sap. Cystidia and paraphyses may be
also classed here. In Merulius lacrymans Hartie has observed
thin-walled hyphae with large lumina, the septa of which are per-
forated like those of sieve-tubes.
As regards its composition, the cell-wall of fungi exhibits varia-
tions of the same kind as those met with in higher plants. While
the fundamental constituent is a cellulose in many Mucorini and
other Phycomycetes, in others bodies like pectose, callose, &c.,
commonly occur, and Wisselingh's researches show that chitin, a
jjluco-proteid common in animals, forms the main constituent in
many cases, and is probably deposited directly as such, though, like
the other substances, it may be mixed with cellulose. As in other
cell-walls, so here the older membranes may be altered by deposits
of various substances, such as resin, calcium oxalate, colouring
matters; or more profoundly altered throughout, or in definite
layers, by lignification, suberization (Trametes, Daedalea), or swelling
to a gelatinous mucilage (Tremella, Cymnosporangium) , while cutin-
ization of the outer layers is common. . One of the most striking
alterations of cell-walls is that termed carbonization, in which the
substance gradually turns black, hard and brittle, as if charred
e.g. Xylaria, Ustulina, some sclerotia. At the other extreme the
cell-walls of many lichen-fungi are soft and colourless, but turn
blue in iodine, as does starch. The young cell-wall is always tenuous
and flexible, and may remain so throughout, but in many cases
thickenings and structural differentiations, as well as the changes
referred to above, alter the primary wall considerably. Such
thickening may be localized, and pits (e.g. Uredospores, septa of
Basidiomycetes), spirals, reticulations, rings, &c. (capillitium fibres
of Podaxon, Calostoma, Battarrea), occur as in the vessels of higher
plants, while sculptured networks, pittings and so forth are as
common on fungus-spores as they are on pollen grains.
Cell-Contents. The cells of fungi, in addition to protoplasm,
nuclei and sap-vacuoles, like other vegetable cells, contain formed
and amorphous bodies of various kinds. Among those directly
visible to the microscope are oil drops, often coloured (Uredineae)
crystals of calcium oxalate (Phallus, Russula), proteid crystals
(Mucor, Pilobolus, &c.) and resin (Polyporei). The oidia of Ery-
sipheae contain fibrosin bodies and the hyphae of Saprolegnieae
cellulin bodies, but starch apparently never occurs. Invisible to the
microscope, but rendered visible by reagents, are glycogen, Mucor,
Ascomycetes, yeast, &c. In addition to these cell-contents we
have good indirect evidence of the existence of large series of other
bodies, such as proteids, carbohydrates, organic acids, alkaloids,
enzymes, &c. These must not be confounded with the numerous
substances obtained by chemical analysis of masses of the fungus,
as there is often no proof of the manner of occurrence of such bodies,
though we may conclude with a good show of probability that
some of them also exist preformed in the living cell. Such are
sugars (glucose, mannite, &c.), acids (acetic, citric and a whole series
of lichen-acids), ethereal oils and resinous bodies, often combined
with the intense colours of fungi and lichens, and a number of
powerful alkaloid poisons, such as muscarin (Amanita), ergotin
(Claviceps), &c.
Among the enzymes already extracted from fungi are invertases
(yeasts, moulds, &c.), which split cane-sugar and other complex
sugars with hydrolysis into simpler sugars such as dextrose and
levulose; diastases, which convert starches into sugars (Aspergillus,
&c.) ; cytases, which dissolve cellulose similarly (Botrytis, &c.) ;
peptases, using the term as a general one for all enzymes which
convert proteids into peptones and other bodies (Peniculium, &c.);
Upases, which break up fatty oils (Empusa, Phycomyces, &c.);
oxydases, which bring about the oxidations and changes of colour
observed in Boletus, and zymase, extracted by Buchner from yeast,
which brings about the conversion of sugar into alcohol and carbon-
dioxide. That such enzymes are formed in the protoplasm is
evident from the behaviour of hyphae, which have been observed
to pierce cell-membranes, the chitinous coats of insects, artificial
collodion films and layers of wax, &c. That a fungus can secrete
more than one enzyme, according to the materials its hyphae
have to attack, has been shown by the extraction of diastase,
inulase, trehalase, invertase, maltase, raffinase, malizitase, emulsin,
trypsin and lipase from Aspergillus by Bourquelot, and similar
events occur in other fungi. The same fact is indicated by the wide
range of organic substances which can be utilized by Penicillium
and other moulds, and by the behaviour of parasitic fungi which
destroy various cell-contents and tissues. Many of the coloured
pigments of fungi are fixed in the cell-walls or excreted to the out-
side (Peziza aeruginosa). Matruchpt has used them for staining
the living protoplasm of other fungi by growing the two together.
Striking instances of coloured mycelia are afforded by Corticium
sanguineum, blood -red; Elaphomyces Leveillei, yellow - green ;
Chlorosplenium aeruginosum, verdigris green; and the Dematei,
brown or black.
Nuclei. Although many fungi have been regarded as devoid of
nuclei, and all have not as yet been proved to contain them, the
numerous investigations of recent years have revealed them in the
cells of all forms thoroughly examined, and we are justified in
concluding that the nucleus is as essential to the cell of a fungus
as to that of other organisms. The hyphae of many contain
numerous, even hundreds of nuclei (Phycomycetes) ; those of others
have several (Aspergillus) in each segment, or only two (Exoascus)
or one (Erysiphe) in each cell. Even the isolated cells of the yeast
plant have each one nucleus. As a rule the nuclei of the mycelium
are very minute (1-5-2 M in Phycomyces), but those of many asci
and spores are large and easily rendered visible. As with other
plants, so in fungi the essential process of fertilization consists in the
fusion of two nuclei, but owing to the absence of well-marked sexual
organs from many fungi, a peculiar interest attaches to certain
nuclear fusions in the vegetative cells or in young spores of many
forms. Thus in Ustilagineae the chlamydospores, and in Uredineae
FUNGI
335
the tcleutospore*. each contain two nuclei when young, which
fuse as the pom mature. In young a>ci a similar fusion of two
nuclei occurs, and also in basidia, in each case the nucleus of the
ascus or of the basidium resulting from the fusion subsequently
giving rise by division to the nuclei of the ascospores and basiclio-
pores respectively. The significance of these fusions will be dis-
cussed under the various groups. Nuclear division is usually
accompanied by all the essential features of karyokinesi*.
Spent. No agreement has ever been arrived at regarding the
consistent use of the term spore. This is apparently owing to the
facts that top much has been attempted in the definition, and that
differences arise according as we aim at a morphological or a physio-
logical definition. Physiologically, any cell or group of cells sepa-
rated off from a hypha or unicellular fungus, and capable of itself
growing out germinating to reproduce the fungus, is a spore; but
it is evident that so wide a definition does not exclude the ordinary
vegetative cells of sprouting fungi, such as yeasts, or small sclerotium
like cell-aggregates of forms like Contotkecium. Morphologically
considered, spores are marked by peculiarities of form, size, colour,
place of origin, definitenes* in number, mode of preparation, and so
forth, such that they can be distinguished more or less sharply from
the hyphae which produce them. The only physiological peculiarity
exhibited in common by all spores is that they germinate and
initiate the production of a new fungus-plant. Whether a spore
results from the sexual union of two similar gametes (zygospore)
or from the fertilization of an egg-cell by the protoplasm of a
male organ (oospore); or is developed asexuaHy as a motile
faoospore) or a quiescent body cut off from a hypha (conidium) or
developed along it* course (oidium or chlamydospore), or in its
protoplasm (endospore), are matters of importance which have their
uses in the classification and terminology of spores, though in many
respects they are largely of academic interest.
Klebs has attemped to divide spores into three categories as
follows: (ij kinospores, arising by relatively simple cell-divisions
and subserving rapid dissemination and propagation, e.g. zoosporcs,
cpoidia, endogbnidia, stylospores, &c. ; (2) paulospores, due to
simple rearrangement of cell-contents, and subserving the persistence
of the fungus through periods of exigency, e.g. gemmae, chlamydo-
spore*, rating-cells, cysts. Sec.; (3) carpospores, produced by a
more or lea* complex formative process, often in special fructifica-
tion*, and subserving either or both multiplication and persistence,
e.g. zygospores, oospores, brand-spores, aecidiospores, ascospores,
basidiospores. &c. Little or nothing is gained by these definitions,
however, which are especially physiological. In practice these
I kind* of spores of fungi receive further special names in the
separate groups, and names, more-
over, which will appear, to those
unacquainted with the history,
to have been given without any
consistency or regard to general
principles; nevertheless, for ordi-
nary purposes these names are far
more useful in most cases, owing
to their descriptive character, than
the proposed new names, which
have been only partially accepted.
Sporophoref. In some of the
simpler fungi the spores are not
borne on or in hyphae which can
be distinguished from the vege-
tative parts or mycelium, but in
the vast majority of cases the
sporogenous hyphae either ascend
free into the air or radiate into
the surrounding water as distinct
branches, or are grouped into
special columns, cushions, layers
or complex masses obviously
different in colour, consistency,
shape and other characters from
the parts whkh gather up and
assimilate the food-materials. The
term " receptacle " sometimes
applied to these spore-bearing
hyphae is better replaced by sporo-
phore. The sporophore is obsolete
when the spore-bearing hyphae
stituent hyphae are isolated, and
compound when the latter are
conjoined. The chief distinctive characters of the sporogenous
hyphae are their orientation, usually vertical; their limited apical
growth; their peculiar branching, form, colour, contents, con-
sistency; and their spore-production. According to the characters
of the last, we might theoretically divide them into conidiophores,
sporangiophores, gametophores. oidiophores, &c. ; but since the two
latter rarely occur, and more than one kind of spore or spore-case
may occur on a sporophore, it is impossible to carry such a scheme
fully into practice.
A simple sporophore may be merely a single short hypha, the end
of which stops growing and becomes cut on as a conidium by the
formation of a septum, which then splits and allows the conidium
to fall. More generally the hypha below the septum grown forward*
again, and repeats this process several times before the terminal
conidium falls, and so a chain of conidia results, the oldest of which
terminates the series (Erysiphe) \ when the primary branch has
thus formed a basipctal scries, branches may arise from below and
again repeat this process, thus forming a tuft (PmitiUium). Or the
primary hypha nv y first swell at its apex, and put forth a series of
short peg-like branches (sterirmata) from the increased surface thus
provided, each of which develops a similar basipctal chain of conidia
(Aspergillus), and various combinations of these processes result in
the development of numerous varietie* of exquisitely branched
sporophorcs of this type (Botrylis, Botryosporium, Vertictllium, &c.).
A second type is developed as follows: the primary hypha forms
a septum below its apex as before, and the terminal conidium, thus
abstricted, puts out a branch at its apex, which starts as a mere
point and rapidly swells to a second conidium; this repeats the
process, and so on, so that we now have a chain of conidia developed
in acropetal succession, the oldest being below, and, as in Penicillium,
&c., branches put forth lower down may repeat the process (Hormo-
dendron). In all these' cases we may speak of simple conidiophores.
The simple sporophore does not necessarily terminate in conidia,
however. In Mucor, for example, the end of the primary hypha
swells into a spheroidal head (sporangium), the protoplasm of which
Fie. 3. Cystopus candidus.
A. a, Conidia. os, Oosphere.
b, Conidiophores. an, Antheridium.
i , Conidium emitting zoo- C.
spores.
d. Free zoospore. t,
B.og, Oogonium.
Formation of zoospores by
oospores.
Free zoospores. (After De
Bary.) (X 400.)
undergoes segmentation into more or less numerous globular masses,
each of which secretes an enveloping cell-wall and becomes a spore
(endosporc), and branched systems of sporangia may arise as before
(Thamnidium). Such may be termed sporangiophores. In Sporo-
dinia the branches give rise also to short branches, which meet and
fuse their contents to form zygospores. In Peronospora, Saprolegnia,
&c., the ends of the branches swell up into sporangia, which develop
zoospores in their interior (zoosporangia), or their contents become
oospheres, which may be fertilized by the contents of other branches
(antheridia) and so form egg-cases (oogonia). Since in such cases
the sporophore bears sexuafcells, they may be conveniently termed
gametophores.
Compound sporophores arise when any of the branched or un-
branched types of spore-bearing hyphae described above ascend
into the air in consort, and are more or less crowded into definite
layers, cushions, columns or other complex masses. The same laws
apply to the individual hyphae and their branches as to simple
gporophores, and as long as the conidia, sporangia, gametes, &c.,
are borne on their external surfaces, it is quite consistent to speak
of these as compound sporophores, &c., in the sense described, how-
ever complex they may become. Among the simplest cases are
the sheet-like aggregates of sporogenous hyphae in Puccinia, Uro-
myces, Sec., or ofbasidia in Exobasidium, Corticium, &c., or of asci in
Exnascus, Ascocorticium, &c. In the former, where the layer is small,
it is often termed a sorus, but where, as in the latter, the sporo-
genous layer is extensive, and spread out more or less sheet-like on
the supporting tissues, it is more frequently termed a hymenium.
Another simple case is that of the columnar aggregates of sporo-
genous hyphae in forms like Stilbum, Coremium, &c. These lead
33^
FUNGI
us to cases where the main mass of the sporophore forms a supporting
tissue of closely cfowded or interwoven hyphae, the sporogenpus
terminal parts of the hyphae being found at the periphery or apical
regions only. Here we have the cushion-like type (stroma) of
Nectria and many Pyrenomycetes, the clavate receptacle " of
Clavaria, &c., passing into the complex forms met with in Sparassis,
Xylaria, Polyporei, and Agaricini, &c. In these cases the compound
sporophore is often termed the hymenophore, and its various parts
demand special names (pileus, stipes, gills, po r es, &c.) to denote
peculiarities of distribution of the hymenium over the surface.
Other series of modifications arise in which the tissues correspond-
ing to the stroma invest the sporogenous hyphal ends, and thus
enclose the spores, asci, basidia, &c., in a cavity. In the simplest
case the stroma, after bearing its crop of conidia or oidia, develops
ascogenous branches in the loosened meshes of its interior (e.g.
Onygena). Another simple case is where the plane or slightly convex
surface of the stroma rises at its margins and overgrows the sporo-
genous hyphal ends, so that the spores, asci, &c., come to lie in the
depression of a cavity e.g. Solenia, Cyphella and even simpler
cases are met with in Mortierella, where the zygospore is invested by
the overgrowth of a dense mat of closely branching hyphae, and in
Gymnoascus, where a loose mat of similarly barren hyphae covers
in the tufts of asci as they develop.
In such examples as the above we may regard the hymenium
(Solenia, Cyfhella), zygosppres, or asci as truly invested by later
growth, but in the vast majority of cases the processes which result
in the enclosure of the spores, asci, &c., in a " fructification " are
much more involved, inasmuch as the latter is developed in the
interior of hyphal tissues, which are by no means obviously homo-
logous with a stroma. Thus in Pemcillium, Eurotium, Erysiphe,
&.c., hyphal ends which are the initials of ascogenous branches, are
invested by closely packed branches at an early stage of develop-
ment, and the asci develop inside what has by that time become
a complete investment. Whether a true sexual process precedes
these processes or not does not affect the present question, the
point being that the resulting spheroidal " fructification " (cleisto-
carp, perithecium) has a definite wall of its own not directly com-
parable with a stroma. In other cases (Hypomyces, Nectria) the
perithecia arise on an already mature stroma, while yet more numer-
ous examples can be given (Poronia, Hypoxylon, Glaviceps, &c.)
where the perithecia originate below the surface of a stroma formed
long before. Similarly with the various types of conidial or oidial
" fructifications," termed pycnidia, spermogonia, aecidia, &c. In
the simplest of these cases e.g. Fumago a single mycelial cell
divides by septa in all three planes until a more or less solid clump
results. Then a hollow appears in the centre owing to the more
rapid extension of the outer parts, and into this hollow the cells
lining it put forth short sporogenous branches, from the tips of
which the spores (stylospores, conidia, spermatia) are abstricted. In
a similar way are developed the pycnidia of Cicinnobolus. Pleospora,
Cucurbitaria, Leptosphaeria and others. In other cases (Diplodia,
Aecidium, &c.) conidial or oidial " fructifications " arise by a number
of hyphae interweaving themselves into a knot, as if they were
forming a sclerotium. The outer parts of the mass then differentiate
as a wall or investment, and the interior becomes a hollow, into
which hyphal ends grow and abstrict the spores. Much more
complicated are the processes in a large series of " fructifications,"
where the mycelium first develops a densely packed mass of hyphae,
all alike, in which labyrinths of cavities subsequently form by
separation of hyphae in the previously homogeneous mass, and the
hymenium covers the walls of these cavities and passages as with a
lining layer. Meanwhile differences in consistency appear in various
strata, and a dense outer protective layer (peridium), soft gelatinous
layers, and so on are formed, the whole eventually attaining great
complexity e.g. puff-balls, earth-stars and various Phalloideae.
Spore-Distribution. Ordinary conidia and similarly abstricted
dry spores are so minute, light and numerous that their dispersal
is ensured by any current of air or water, and we also know that
rats and other burrowing animals often carry them on their fur;
similarly with birds, insects, slugs, worms, &c., on claws, feathers,
proboscides, &c., or merely adherent to the slimy body. In addition
to these accidental modes of dispersal, however, there is a series of
interesting adaptations on the part of the fungus itself. Passing
over the locomotor activity of zoospores (Pywium, Peronospora,
Saprolegnia) we often find spores held under tension in sporangia
(Pilobolus) or in asci (Peziza) until ripe, and then forcibly shot out
By the sudden rupture of the sporangia! wall under the pressure of
liquid behind mechanism comparable to that of a pop-gun, if we
suppose air replaced by watery sap. Even a single conidium, held
tense to the last moment by the elastic cell-wall, may be thus shot
forward by a spurt of liquid under pressure in the hypha abstrict-
ing it (e.g. Empusa), and similarly with basidiospores (Coprinus,
Agaricus, &c.). A more complicated case is illustrated by Sphaero-
bolus, where the entire mass of spores, enclosed in its own peridium,
is suddenly shot up into the air like a bomb from a morfar by the
elastic retroversion of a peculiar layer which, up to the last moment,
surrounded the bomb, and then suddenly splits above, turns inside
out, and drives the former as a projectile from a gun. Gelatinous
or mucilaginous degenerations of cell-walls are frequently em-
ployed in the interests of spore dispersal. The mucilage surrounding
endospores of Afucor, conidia of Empusa, &c., serves to gum the spore
to animals. Such gums are formed abundantly in pycnidia, and,
absorbing water, swell and carry out the spores in long tendrils,
which emerge for days and dry as they reach the air, the glued spores
gradually being set free by rain, wind, &c. In oidial chains (Sclero-
tinia) a minute double wedge of wall-substance arises in the middle
lamella between each pair of contiguous pidia, and by its enlargement
splits the separating lamella. These disjunctors serve as points of
application for the elastic push of the swelling spore-ends, and as
the connecting outer lamella of cell-wall suddenly gives way, the
spores are jerked asunder. In many cases the slimy masses of
spermatia ( Uredineae), conidia (Clamceps) , basidiospores (Phallus,
Coprinus), &c., emit more or less powerful odours, which attract
flies or other insects, and it has been shown that bees carry the
fragrant oidia of Sclerotinia to the stigma of Vaccinium and infect
it, and that flies carry away the foetid spores of Phallus, just as
pollen is dispersed by such insects. Whether the strong odour of
trimethylamme evolved by the spores of Tilletia attracts insects is
not known.
The recent observations and exceedingly ingenious experiments of
Falck have shown that the sporophores of the Basidiomycetes
especially the large sporophores of such forms as Boletus, Polyporus
contain quantities of reserve combustible material which are burnt
up by the active metabolism occurring when the fruit-body is ripe.
By this means the temperature of the sporophore is raised and the
difference between it and the surrounding air may be one of several
degrees. As a result convection currents are produced in the air
which are sufficient to catch the basidiospores in their fall and carry
them, away from the regions of comparative atmospheric stillness
near the ground, to the upper air where more powerful air-currents
can bring about their wide distribution.
Classification. It has been accepted for some time now that
the majority of the fungi proper fall into three main groups,
the Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, the
Schizomycetes and Myxomycetes (Mycetozoa) being considered
as independent groups not coming under the true fungi.
The chief schemes of classification put forward in detail have
been those of P. A. Saccardo (1882-1892), of Oskar Brefeld and
Von Tavel (1892), of P. E. L. Van Tieghem (1893) and of J.
Schroeter (1892). The scheme of Brefeld, which was based on
the view that the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes were com-
pletely asexual and that these two groups had been derived
from one division (Zygomycetes) of the Phycomycetes, has been
very widely accepted. The recent work of the last twelve years
has shown, however, that the two higher groups of fungi exhibit
distinct sexuality, of either a normal or reduced type, and has
also rendered very doubtful the view of the origin of these two
groups from the Phycomycetes. The real difficulty of classifica-
tion of the fungi lies in the polyphyletic nature of the group.
There is very little doubt that the primitive fungi have been
derived by degradation from the lower algae. It appears,
however, that such a degradation has occurred not only once
in evolution but on several occasions, so that we have in the
.Phycomycetes not a series of naturally related forms, but groups
which have arisen perfectly independently of one another from
various groups of the algae. It is also possible in the absence
of satisfactory intermediate forms that the Ascomycetes and
Basidiomycetes have also been derived from the algae indepen-
dently of the Phycomycetes, and perhaps of one another.
A natural classification on these lines would obviously be very
complicated, so that in the present state of our knowledge it
will be best to retain the three main groups mentioned above,
bearing in mind that the Phycomycetes especially are far from
being a natural group. The following gives a tabular survey of
the scheme adopted in the present article:
A. PHYCOMYCETES. Alga-like fungi with unicellular thallus
and well-marked sexual organs.
CLASS I. Oomycetes. Mycelium usually well developed, but
sometimes poor or absent. Sexual reproduction by oogonia
and antheridia; asexual reproduction by zoospores or
conidia.
1. Monoblepharidineae. Mycelium present, antheridia with
antherozoids, oogonium with single oosphere: Mono-
blepharidaceae.
2. Peronosporineae. Mycelium present; antheridia but no
antherozoids; oogonia with one or more oospheres:
Peronosporaceae, Saprolegniaceae.
3. Chytridineae. Mycelium poorly developed or absent;
oogonia and antheridia (without antherozpids) known in
some cases; zoospores common: Chytridiaceae. An-
cylistaceae.
FUNGI
337
CLAM II. Zyfomycete*. Mycelium well developed; sexual re-
production by *ygopore*: Mexual reproduction by sporangia
and coniilu.
I. Mucorineae. Sexual reproduction as above, asexual by
sporangia or conidia or both: Mucoraceae. Mortierel-
laceae. Chaetocladiaceae, Piptocephalidaceae.
3. Entumophthorineae. Sexual reproduction typical but
with sometime* inequality of the fusing gametes (game-
tangia ?): Entomophthoraceae.
B. HIGHER FUNGI. Fungi with segmental thallus; sexual
reproduction sometimes with typical antheridia and oogonia
(ascogooia) but usually much reduced.
CLASS I. L'itiUginales. Forms with septate thallus. and re-
production by chlamydospores which on germination produce
sporidia ; sexuality doubtful.
CLASS II. Ascoraycetes. Thallus septate; spores developed
in special type of sporangium, the ascus, the number of spores
being usually eight. Sexual reproduction sometimes typical,
usually reduced.
Exoascineae, Saccharomycetineae, Perisporinea. Disco-
mycetes, Pyrenomycete*, Tuberineae, Laboulbeniineae.
CLASS III. Basidiales. Thallus septate. Conidia (basidio-
spores) borne in fours on a special conidiophore, the basidium.
Sexual reproduction always much reduced.
I. Uredineae. Life-history in some cases very complex and
with well-marked sexual process and alternation of genera-
tions, in others much reduced ; basidium (promycelium)
derived usually from a thick-walled spore (teleutospore).
a. Basidiomycetes. Life-history always very simple, no well-
marked alternation of generations; basidium borne
directly on the mycelium.
(A) Protobmsidiomycetes. Basidia septate.
Auricutariaccae, Pilacreaceae, Tremellinaceae.
(B) Autobasidiomycetcs. Basidia non-septate.
Hymenomycetes, Gasteromycetes.
A. PHYCOJTYCETES. Most of the recent work of importance
in this group deals with the cytology of sexual reproduction and
of spore-formation, and the effect of external conditions on the
production of reproductive organs.
tfonoblfpharidofeoe consists of a very small group of aquatic
forms living on fallen twigs in ponds and ditches. Only one genus,
UonobUpkaru, can certainly be placed here, though a somewhat
similar genus. HyriobUpkaris, with a peculiar multiciliatc zoospore
like that of Vaufheria, is provisionally placed in the same group.
UonMepkaris was first described by Cornu in 1871, but from that
time until 1895 when Roland Thaxter described several species
from America the genus was completely lost sight of. Monoblepharis
ha* oogonia with single oospheres and anthendia developing a few
amoeboid uniciliate antherozoids; these creep to the opening of the
OTgowrm and then swim in. The resemblance between this genus
and Otdtmmimm among the algae is very striking, as is also that of
UynoMepluHs and Vaucheria.
are a group of endophytic parasites about 100
\ great importance as comprising the agents of " damping
disease (Pythium). vine-mildew (Plasmoparj) , potato disease
(Phytfpktkora). onion-mildew (Peronospora). Pythium is a semi-
aquatic form attacking seedlings which are too plentifully supplied
with water; its hyphae penetrate the cell-walls and rapidly destroy
the watery tissues of the living plant; then the fungus lives in the
dead remains. When the free ends of the hyphae emerge again into
the air they swell up into spherical bodies which may either fall
off and behave as conidia, each putting out a germ-tube and infecting
the host; or the germ-tube itself swells up into a zoosporangium
which develop* a number of zoospores. In the rotting tissues
branches of the older mycelium similarly swell up and form antheridia
and oogonia (fig. 4). The contents of the antheridium are not set
free, but that organ penetrates the oogonium by means of a narrow
outgrowth, the fertilizing tube, and a male nucleus then passes over
into the single oosphere, which at first multinucleate becomes uni-
nucleate before fertilization. Pythium is of interest as illustrating
the dependence of zoospore- format ion on conditions and the in-
determinate nature of conidia. The other genera are more purely
parasitic; the mycelium usually sends haustoria into the cells of
the host and put* out branched, aerial conidiophores through the
stomata, the branches of which abstrict numerous "conidia";
these either germinate directly or their contents break up into
zoo*pores (fig. 5). The development of the " conidia " as true
spores or a* zoosporangia may occur in one and the same
(Cyslapus candidta. Phytophthora infestans) as in Pythium
above: in other case* the direct conidial germination is
characteristic of genera e.g. Peronospora; while others emit
zoosporcs t.r. Pltumopara, &c. In Cystopus (Albugo) the " conidia "
are abstrictedin basipctal chain-like series from the ends of hyphae
which come to the surface in tufts and break through the epidermis
a* white pustule*. Each " conidium " contains numerous nuclei
and is really a zoosporangium, as after dispersal it breaks up into a
number of axupore*. The Peronosporaceae reproduce themselves
sexually by means of antheridia and oogonia a* described in Pythium.
In Cystopus Bliti the oosphere contains numerous nuclei, and all
the male nuclei from the antheridium pass into it, the male and
female nuclei then fusing in pairs. We thus have a process of
"multiple fertilization"; the oosphere really represents a large
From Struburger's f*rt* der Katamk, by permission of Gusuv Fischer.
FIG. 4. Fertilization of the Peronosporeae. (After Wager, X 666.)
1 , Peronospora parasitica. _ Young
multinucleate oogonium (og)
and antheridium (an).
2, Albugo Candida. Oogonium
with the central uninucjeate
oosphere and the fertilizing
tube (a) of the antheridium
which introduces the male
nucleus.
The same. Fertilized egg-
cell (o) surrounded by the
periplasm (p).
number of undifferentiated gametes and has been termed a coeno-
eamete. Between Cystopus Bliti on the one hand and Pythium de
Baryanum on the other a number of cytplogically intermediate
forms are known. The oospore on germination usually gives origin
FIG. 5. Phytophthora infeslans. Fungus of Potato Disease.
A, B, Section of Leaf of Potato
with sporangiophorcs of Phy-
tophthora tnfestanj passing
through the stomata D, on
the under surface of the leaf.
E, Sporangia.
F, G, H, J, Further development
of the sporangia.
K, Germination of the zoospores
formed in the sporangia.
L, M, N, Fertilization of the
oogonium and development of
the oospore in Peronospora.
to a zoosporangium, but may form directly a germ tube which infects
the host.
Saprolefniaceae are aquatic forms found growing usually on dead
insects lying in water but occasionally on living fish (e.g. the salmon
disease associated with SaproUgnia ferax). The chief genera arc
338
FUNGI
Saprolegnia, A My a, Pythiopsis, Dictyuchus, A planes. Motile zoospores
which escape from the zoosporangium are present except in Aplanes.
The sexual reproduction shows all transitions between forms which
are normally sexual, like the Peronosporaceae, to forms in which
no antheridium is developed and the oospheres develop partheno-
genetically. The oogonia, unlike the Peronosporaceae, contain more
than one oosphere. Klebs has shown that the development of
zoosporangia or of oogonia and pollinodia respectively in Saprolegnia
is dependent on the external conditions; so long as a continued
stream of suitable food-material is ensured the mycelium grows on
without forming reproductive organs, but directly the supplies of
nitrogenous and carbonaceous food fall below a certain degree of
concentration sporangia are developed. Further reduction of the
supplies of food effects the formation of oogonia. This explains the
sequence of events in the case of a Sa^ro/egnt'a-mycelium radiating
from a dead fly in water. Those parts nearest the fly and best
supplied develop barren hyphae only; in a zone at the periphery,
where the products of putrefaction dissolved in the water form a
dilute but easily accessible supply, the zoosporangia are developed
in abundance ; oogonia, however, are only formed in the depths of
this radiating mycelium, where the supplies of available food
materials are least abundant.
Chytridineae. These parasitic and minute, chiefly aquatic, forms
may be looked upon as degenerate Oomycetes, since a sexual process
and feeble unicellular mycelium occur in some; or they may be
regarded as series of primitive forms leading up to higher members.
There is no means of deciding the question. They are usually
included in Oomycetes, but their simple structure, minute size,
usually uniciliate zoospores, and their negative characters would
justify their retention as a separate group. It contains less than
200 species, chiefly parasitic on or in algae and other water-plants
or animals, of various kinds, or in other fungi, seedlings, pollen and
higher plants. They are often devoid of hyphae, or put forth fine
protoplasmic filaments into the cells of their hosts. After absorbing
the cell-contents of the latter, which it does in a few hours or days,
the fungus puts out a sporangium, the contents of which break up
into numerous minute swarm-spores, usually one-ciliate, rarely
two-ciliate. Any one of these soon comes to rest on a host-cell,
and either pierces it and empties its contents into its cavity, where
the further development occurs (Olpidium), or merely sends in
delicate protoplasmic filaments (Rhizophydium) or a short hyphal
tube of, at most, two or three cells, which acts as a haustonum,
the further development taking place outside the cell-wall of the
host (Chytridium). In some cases resting spores are formed inside
the host (Chytridium), and give rise to zoosporangia on germina-
tion. In a few species a sexual process is described, consisting in
the conjugation of similar cells (Zygochytrium) or the union of
two dissimilar ones (Polyphagus). In the development of dis-
tinct antheridial and pogonial cells the allied Ancylistineae show
close alliances to Pythium and the Oomycetes. On the other hand,
the uniciliate zoospores of Polyphagus have slightly amoeboid
movements, and in this and the pseudopodium-like nature of the
protoplasmic processes, such forms suggest resemblances to the
Myxomycetes. Opinions differ as to whether the Chytridineae are de-
graded or primitive forms, and the group still needs critical revision.
Many new forms will doubtless be discovered, as they are rarely
collected on account of their minuteness. Some forms cause damping
off of seedlings -e.g. Olpidium Brassicae; others discoloured spots
and even tumour-like swellings e.g. Synchytium Scabiosae, S.
Succisae, Urophlyctis, &c., on higher plants. Analogies have been
pointed out between Chytridiaceae and unicellular algae, such as
Chlorosphaeraceae, Protococcaceae, " Palmellaceae," &c., some of
which are parasitic, and suggestions may be entertained as to
possible origin from such algae.
The Zygpmycetes, of which about 200 species are described, are
especially important from a theoretical standpoint, since they fur-
nished the series whence Brefeld derived the vast majority of the
fungi. They are characterized especially by the zygospores, but
the asexual organs (sporangia) exhibit interesting series of changes,
beginning with the typical sporangium of Mucor containing numerous .
endospores, passing to cases where, as in Thamnidium, these are
accompanied with more numerous small sporangia (sporangioles)
containing few spores, and thence to Chaetocladium and Piptocephalis,
where the sporangioles form but one spore and fall and germinate
as a whole; that is to say, the monosporous sporangium has become
a conidium, and Brefeld regarded these and similar series of changes
as explaining the relation of ascus to conidium in higher fungi.
According'to his view, the ascus is in effect the sporangium with
several spores, the conidium the sporangiole with but one spore,
and that not loose but fused with the sporangiole wall. On this
basis, with other interesting morphological comparisons, Brefeld
erected his hypothesis, now untenable, that the Ascomycetes and
Basidiomycetes diverge from the Zygomycetes, the former having
particularly specialized the ascus (sporangial) mode of reproduction,
the latter having specialized the conidial (indehiscent one-spored
sporangiole) mode. In addition to sporangia and the conidial spores
referred to, some Mucorini show a peculiar mode of vegetative
reproduction by means of gemmae or chlamydospores i.e. short
segments of the hyphae become stored with fatty reserves and act
as spores. The gemmae formed on submerged Mucors may bud like
a yeast, and even bring about alcoholic fermentation in a saccharine
solution.
The segments of the hyphae in this group usually contain several
nuclei. At the time of sporangial formation the protoplasm with
numerous nuclei streams into the swollen end of the sporangiophore
and there becomes cut off by a cell-wall to form the sporangium.
The protoplasm then becomes cut up by a series of clefts into a
number of smaller and smaller pieces which are unicellular in
Pilobolus, multicellular in Sporodinia. These then become sur-
rounded by a cell-wall and form the spores. This mode of spore-
formation is totally different from that in the ascus; hence one of
the difficulties of the acceptance of Brefeld's view of the homology
of ascus and sporangium. The cytology of zygospore-formation is
not known in detail;
the so-called gametes
which fuse are multi-
nucleate and are no doubt
of the nature of game-
tangia. The fate of these
nuclei is doubtful, prob-
ably they fuse in pairs
(fig. 6).
Blakeslee has lately
made some very import-
ant observations of the
Zygomycetes. It is well
known that while in some
forms, e.g. Spordinia,
zygospores are easily ob-
tained, in others, e.g. most
species of Mucor, they
are very erratic in their
appearance. This has now
been explained by
Blakeslee, who finds that
the Mucorinae can be
divided into two groups,
termed homothallic and
heterothallic respectively.
In the first group zygo-
spores can arise by the
union of branches from
the same mycelium and
so can be produced by the
growth from a single spore ;
this group includes Spor-
j- K j- c>.- ;; From Strasburger's Lehrbuch der Bolanik, by
dtma grandtS, Sptnellus permission of Gustkv Fischer.
M'^ some species of FlG . 6 . Mucor Mucedo. Different
Mucor, &c. The majority th formation and ger mina-
of forms, however all J of ^ ore . (After Brefeld,
"roup, inUicnTeafJo- j^f'S, 5Xcirca 60, from v. Tave.,
ciation of branches from
two mycelia different in L Two conjugating branches m contact.
nature is necessary for the 2 - Septation of the conjugating cells (a)
formation of zygospores. from the suspensors (6)
These structures cannot 3, More advanced stage, the conjugat-
then be produced from the ln S cells (a) are still distinct from
product of a single spore J>e another ; the warty thickenings
nor even from the thalli f their walls have commenced to
derived from any two _.. rm-
spores. The two kinds of 4. Ripe zygospore (6) between the sus-
thalli Blakes'.ee considers pensprs (a).
to have a differentiation 5, Germinating zygospore with a germ-
of the nature of sex and tube bearing a sporangium.
he distinguishes them as (+) and ( ) forms; the former being
usually distinguished by a somewhat greater luxuriance of growth.
The classification of the Mucorini depends on the prevalence and
characters of the conidia, and of the sporangia and zygospores e.g.
the presence or absence of a columella in the former, the formation
of an investment round the latter. Most genera are saprophytes,
but some Chaetocladium, Piptocephalis are parasites on other
Mucorini, and one or two are associated casually with the rotting
of tomatoes and other fruits, bulbs, &c., the fleshy parts of which
are rapidly destroyed if once the hyphae gain entrance. Even more
important is the question of mycosis in man and other animals,
referred to species of Mucor, and investigated by Lucet and Co-
stantin. Klebs has concluded that transpiration is the important
factor in determining the formation of sporangia, while zygote-
development depends on totally different conditions; these results
have been called in question by Falck.
The Entomophthoraceae contain three genera, Empusa, Ento-
mophthora and Basidiobolus. The two first genera consist of forms
which are parasitic on insects. Empusa Muscae causes the well-
known epidemic in house-flies during the autumn; the dead, affected
flies are often found attached to the window surrounded by a white
halo of conidia. B. ranarum is found in the alimentary canal of the
frog and growing on its excrement. In these three genera the conidia
are cast off with a jerk somewhat in the same way as the sporangium
of Pilobolus.
FUNGI
339
B. HIGHU FUNCI. Now that Brefeld's view of the origin
of these forms from the Zygomycetes has been overthrown,
the relationship of the higher and lower forms of fungi is left
in obscurity. The term Eumytrtts is sometimes applied to this
group to distinguish them from the Phycomycetes, but as the
same name is also applied to the fungi as a whole to differentiate
them from the Mycetozoa and Bacteria, the term had best be
dropped. The Higher Fungi fall into three groups: the Usti-
lafinaits, of doubtful position, and the two very sharply marked
groups Basiditiks and Ascomyretes.
I. I'stilaginaJes. This includes two families Ustilaginaceae
(smuts) and Tilletiaceae (bunts). The .bunts and smuts which
damage our grain and fodder plants comprise about 400 species of
internal parasites, found in all countries on herbaceous plants, and
especially on Monocotyledons. They are remarkable for their dark
spores developed in gall-like excrescences on the leaves, stems, &c.,
or in the fruits of the host. The discovery of the yeast-conidia of
these fungi, and their thorough investigation by Brcfeld, have
thrown new lights on the group, as also have the results elucidating
the nature of the ordinary dark spores smuts, bunt, &c. which by
their mode of origin and development are chlamydospores. When
the latter germinate a slender " promycelium ' is put out ; in
L'itilago and its allies this is transversely septate, and bears lateral
conidia (sporidui); in TiUetia and its allies non-septate, and bears
a terminal tuft of conidia (sporidia) (fig. 7). Brefeld regarded the
promycelium as a kind of basidium, bearing lateral or terminal
conidia (comparable to basidio-
spores), but since the number of
basidiospores is not fixed, and the
j basidium has not yet assumed very
definite morphological characters,
Brefeld termed the group Hemi-
basidii, and regarded them as a half-
way stage in the evolution of the
true Basidiomycetes from Phyco-
mycetes, the TiUetia type leading
to the true basidium (Autobasidium),
the Ustilagp type to the proto-
basidium, with lateral spores; but this
view is based on very poor evidence,
so that it is best to place these forms
as a separate group, the Ustilaginales.
The yeast-conidia, which bud off
from the conidia or their resulting
mycelium when sown in nutrient
solutions, are developed in succes-
sive crops by budding exactly as
in the yeast plant, but they cannot
FIG. 7. Germinating rest- ferment sugar solutions. It is the
ing-gonidia. A. of Ustilago rapid spread of these yeast-conidia
rteeplaeuUrnm-B. of TiUetia ' J -"
Ctnu (X 460).
tp. The gonidium.
The promycelium.
The spondia: in B the
sporidia have coalesced
in pairs at .
meet, and the infecting hypha having entered the plant goes on living
in it and growing up with it as if it had no parasitic action at all. When
the Bowers form, however, the mycelium sends hyphae into the young
ovaries and rapidly replaces the stores of sugar and starch, &c.,
which would have gone to make the grain, by the soot-like mass of
spores so well known as smut, &c. These spores adhere to the grain,
and unless destroyed, by " steeping " or other treatment, are sown
with it. and again produce sporidia and yeast-conidia which infect
the seedlings. In other species the infection occurs through the
style of the flower, but the fungus after reaching the ovule develops
no further during that year but remains dormant in the embryo
of the seed. On germination, however, the fungus behaves in tin-
same way as one which has entered in the seedling stage. The
cytology of these forms is very little known; Dangeard states that
there is a fusion of two nuclei in the chlamydospore, but this requires
confirmation. Apart from this observation there is no other trace
of sexuality in the group.
II. Atfomycetes. This, except in the case of a few of the simpler
forms, is a very sharply marked group characterized by a special
type of sporangium, the ascus. In the development of the ascus we
find two nuclei at the base whkh fuse together to form the single
rodeos of the young ascus. The single nucleus divides by three
ucreive divisions to form eight nuclei lying free in the protoplasm
of the ascus. Then by a special method, described first by Harper,
a mass of protoplasm is cut out round each nucleus; thus eight
uninucleate ascosppres are formed by free-cell formation. The
protoplasm remaining over is termed epiplasm and often contains
glycogeu (fig. 8). In some case* nuclear division is carried further
before spore-formation occur*, and the number of spores is then 16,
from Vac i AW/.' Tta Be* !
i oi Swu Sonnen-
pm
4,
in manure and soil waters which
makes it so difficult to get rid of
smuts, &c., in the fields, and they,
like the ordinary conidia, readily
infect the seedling wheat, oats,
barley or other cereals. Infection
in these cases occurs in the seedling
at the place where root and shoot
32 and 64, &c.; in a few cases the number of spores is less than
eight by abortion of some of the eight nuclei. The ascus is thus one
of the most sharply characterized structures among the fungi.
In some forms we find definite male and female sexual organs
(Sphaerotkeca, Pyronema, &c.), in others the antheridium is abortive
or absent, but the ascogonium (oogonium) is still present and the
female nuclei fuse in pairs (Lachnea
slercorea, Humaria granuiata, Aico-
bolus furfuracftis); while in other
forms ascogonium and antheridium
are both absent and fusion occurs
between vegetative nuclei (Humaria
rutilans, and probably the majority
of other forms). In other cases the
sexual fusion is apparently absent
altogether, as in Exoascus. In the first
case (fig. 9) we have a true sexual
process, while in the second and third
cases we have a reduced sexual process
in which the fusion of other nuclei
has replaced the fusion of the normal
male and female nuclei. It is to be
noted that all the forms exhibit the
fusion of nuclei in the ascus, so that
those with the normal or reduced
sexual process described above have
two nuclear fusions in their life-
history. The advantage or signifi- tic. 8. Development of the
B
From Slrartmriter's Lthrburh der
?* 1 "'*' J*l'on * GUUT
Ascus.
A-C, Pyronema confluent.
(After Harper.)
Young ascus of Bou-
diera with eight spores.
(After Claussen.)
cance of the second (ascus) fusion is
not clearly understood.
The group of the Hemiasci was
founded by Brefeld to include forms "
which were supposed to be a connect-
ing link between Phycomycetes and
Ascomycetes. As mentioned before,
the connexion between these two groups is very doubtful, and the de-
rivation of the ascus from an ordinary sporangium of the Zygomycetes
cannot be accepted. The majority of the forms which were formerly
included in this group have been shown to be either true Phycomycetes
(tike Ascoidea) or true Ascomycetes (like Thdebolus). Eremascus and
Dipodascus, which are often placed among the Hemiasci, possibly do
not belong to the Ascomycetes series at all.
Exoascaceae are a small group of doubtful extent here used to
include Exoascus, Taphrina, Ascorticium and Endomyces. The
From Struburger's Lehrbuch der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FlG. 9. Sphaerotheca Castagnei. Fertilization and Development
of the Perithecium. (After Harper.)
1, Oogonium (og) with the an- 5, Fertilized oogonium sur-
thi-riili.il branch (at) applied rounded by two layers of
to its surface. hyphae derived from the
2, Separation of antheridium stalk-cell (st).
(an). 6, The multicellular ascogonium
3, Passage of the antheridial derived by division from the
nucleus towards that of the oogonium; the terminal cell
oogonium. with the two nuclei (as)
4, Union of the nuclei. gives rise to the ascus.
mycelium is very much reduced in extent. The asci are borne
directly on the mycelium and are therefore fully exposed, being
devoid from the beginning of any investment. The Taphrinear,
which include Exoascus and Taphrina, are important parasites
e.g. pocket-plums and witches' brooms on birches, &c., are due to
their action (fig. 10). Exoascus and Ascorticium present interesting
parallels to Exobastdium and Corticium among the Basidiomycetes.
Saccharomycelaceae include the well-known yeasts which belong
mainly to the genus Saccharomyces. They are characterized by
their unicellular nature, their power of rapid budding, their capacity
for fermenting various sugars, and their power of forming endogenous
340
FUNGI
spores. The sporangium with its endogenous spores has been
compared with an ascus, and on these grounds the group is placed
among the Ascomycetes a very doubtful association. The group
has attained an importance of late even beyond that to which it was
brought by Pasteur's researches on alcoholic fermentation, chiefly
owing to the exact results of the investigations of Hansen, who
first applied the methods of pure cultures to the study of these
organisms, and showed that many of the inconsistencies hitherto
existing in the literature were
due to the coexistence in the
cultures of several species or
races of yeasts morphologically
almost indistinguishable, but
physiologically very different.
About fifty species of Saccharo-
myces are described more or less
completely, but since many of
these cannot be distinguished
by the microscope, and some
have been found to develop
physiological races or varieties
under special conditions of
growth, the limits are still far
too ill-defined for complete
botanical treatment of the genus.
A typical yeast is able to develop
new cells by budding when sub-
merged in a saccharine solution,
atld * f* the BU
From Strasburger's Lehrbuch d,r a "? 'f" 16 " 1 the . SU f f
Bottmtk, by permission of Gustav Fischer. so to break up Its molecules
, . . apart from small quantities used
FIG. io.Taphrina Prunt. {or its own subs tance, masses of
Transverse section through the it out of all proportion to the
epidermis of an infected plum. mass of yeast used become
Four npe asci, ai, oj, with eight res olved into other bodies, such
spores, 03, 04, with yeast-like as carbon dioxide and alcohol,
conidiaabstricted from the spores. the proces s requiring little or
(After Sadebeck, X6oo.) no oxygen. Brefeld regards the
st, Stalk-cells of the asci. budding process as the forma-
m, Filaments of the mycelium t i on o f con idia. Under other
cut transversely. conditions, of which the tempera-
cut, Cuticle. ture j s an important one, the
ep. Epidermis. nucleus in the yeast-cell divides,
and each daughter-nucleus again,
and four spores are formed in the mother cell, a process obviously com-
parable to the typical development of ascospores in an ascus. Under
yet other conditions the quiescent yeast-cells floating on the surface
of the fermented liquor grow out into elongated sausage-shaped or
cylindrical cells and branching cell-series, which mat together into
mycelium-like veils. At the bottom of the fermented liquor the
cells often obtain fatty contents and thick walls, and behave as
resting cells (chlamydospores). The characters employed by experts
for determining a species of yeast are the sum of its peculiarities as
regards form and size: the shapes, colours, consistency, &c., of
the colonies grown on certain definite media; the optimum tem-
perature for spore-formation, and for the development of the
' veils " ; and the behaviour as regards the various sugars.
The following summary of some of the principal characteristics
of half-a-dozen species will serve to show how such peculiarities can
be utilized for systematic purposes:
and others have shown that a ferment (zymase) can be extracted
from yeast-cells which causes sugar to break up into carbon dioxide
and alcohol. It has since been shown by Buchner and Albert that
yeast-cells which have been killed by alcohol and ether, or with
acetone, still retain the enzyme. Such material is far more active
than the zymase obtained originally by Buchner from the expressed
juice of yeast-cells. Thus alcoholic fermentation is brought into line
with the other fermentations.
Schizosaccharomyces includes a few species in which the cells do
not " bud " but become elongated and then divide transversely.
In the formation of sporangia two cells fuse together by means of
outgrowths, in a manner very similar to that of Spirogyra ; sometimes,
however, the wall between two cells merely breaks down. The
fused cell becomes a sporangium, and in it eight spores are developed.
In certain cases single Cells develop parthenogenetically, without
fusion, each cell producing, however, only four spores. In Zygo-
saccharomyces described by Barker (1901) we have a form of the
usual sprouting type, but here again there is a fusion of two cells to
form a sporangium.
Cytology. The study of the nucleus of yeast-cells is rendered
difficult by the presence of other deeply staining granules termed by
Guillermond metachromatic granules. These have often been mis-
taken for nuclei and have to be carefully distinguished by differential
stains. In the process of budding the nucleus divides apparently
by a process of direct division. In the formation of spores the nucleus
of the cell divides, the protoplasm collects round the nuclei to form
the spores by free-cell formation; the protoplasm (epiplasm) not
used in this process becomes disorganized. A fusion of nuclei was
originally described by Jansens and Leblanc, but it was observed
neither by Wager nor Guillermond and is probably absent. In
Schizosaccharomyces and Zygosaccharomyces, however, we have a
fusion of nuclei in connexion with the conjugation of cells which
precedes sporangium-formation. The theory may be put forward
that the ordinary forms have been derived from sexual forms like
Schizosaccharomyces and Zygosaccharomyces by a loss of sexuality,
the sporangium being formed parthenogenetically without any
nuclear fusion. This suggests a possible relationship to Eremascus,
which can only doubtfully be placed in the Ascomycetes (vide supra).
Carpoascomycetes. The other divisions of the Ascomycetes may
be distinguished as Carpoascomycetes because they do not bear
the asci free on the mycelium but enclosed in definite fruit bodies
or ascocarps. The ascocarps can be distinguished into two portions,
a mass of sterile or vegetative hyphae forming the main mass of the
fruit body, and surrounding the fertile ascogenous hyphae which
bear at their ends the asci. When the ascogonium (female organ)
is present the ascogenous hyphae arise from it, with or without its
previous fusion with an antheridium. In other cases the ascogenous
hyphae arise directly from the vegetative hyphae. In connexion
with this condition of reduction a fusion of nuclei has been observed
in Humaria rutilans and is probably of frequent occurrence. The
asci may be derived from the terminal cell of the branches of the
ascogenous hyphae, but usually they are derived from the pen-
ultimate cell, the tip curving over to form the so-called crozier. By
this means the ascus cell is brought uppermost, and after the fusion
of the two nuclei it develops enormously and produces the ascospores.
The ascospores escape from the asci in various ways, sometimes by
a special ejaculation-mechanism. The Ascomycetes, at least the
Carpoascomycetes, exhibit a well-marked alternation of sexual and
asexual generations. The ordinary mycelium is the gametophyte
since it bears the ascogonia and antheridia when present; the
Species.
Optimum Temperature for
Characters of
Sugars Fermented and
Products, &c.
Spores.
Veils.
Fermentation.
Cells.
Spores.
5. cereviseae 7. ...
30
20-28
High
Rounded
Globoid
f Inverts maltose and sac-
S. Pastorianus I. .
27-5
26-28
Low
Rounded
Globoid
i charose and form alcohol
S. ellipsoideus .
25
33-34
Low
Rounded
Globoid
( 4-6 vol. %.
S. anomalus
28- 3 i
? .
High
Elliptical
Hat-shaped
! Ditto, and evolves a fra-
grant ether.
S. Ludwigii
3o'- 3 i
?
?
Elongated
Globoid
Will not invert maltose.
S. membranaefaciens .
30
?
High
Elongated
Globoid
( Inverts neither maltose nor
7 saccharose.
Two questions of great theoretical importance have been raised
over and over again in connexion with yeasts, namely, (i) the
morphological one as to whether yeasts are merely degraded forms
of higher fungi, as would seem implied by their tendency to form
elongated, hypha-like cells in the veils, and their development
of " ascospores " as well as by the wide occurrence of yeast-like
" sprouting forms " in other fungi (e.g. Mucor, Exoasci, Ustilagineae,
higher Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes) ; and (2) the question as
to the physiological nature and meaning of fermentation. With
regard to the first question no satisfactory proof has as yet been
given that Saccharomycetes are derivable ty culture from any
higher form, the recent statements to that effect not having been
confirmed. At the same time there are strong grounds for insisting
on the resemblances between Endomyces, a hyphal fungus bearing
yeast-like asci, and such a form as Saccharomyces anomalus. Con-
cerning the second question, the recent investigations of Buchner
ascogenous hyphae with their asci represent the sporophyte since
they are derived from the fertilized ascogonium. The matter is
complicated by the apogamous transition from gametophyte to
sporophyte in the absence of the ascogonium; also by the fact that
there are normally two fusions in the life-history as mentioned
earlier. If there are two fusions one would expect two reductions,
and Harper has suggested that the division of the nuclei into eight
in the ascus, instead of into four spores as in most reduction pro-
cesses, is associated with a double reduction process in the ascus.
Miss Fraser in Humaria rutilans finds two reductions: a normal
synaptic reduction in the first nuclear division of the ascus, and a
peculiar reduction division termed brachymeiosis in the third ascus
division.
Various types of ascocarp are characteristic of the different
divisions of the Carpoascomycetes: the cleistothecium, apothecium
and perithecium.
FUNGI
34-1
. This include* two chief families, Erysiphaccae
and Pensporiaceae. They are characterized by an ascocarp without
may opening to the exterior, the ascospores being set free by the
decay or rupture of the ascocarp wall ; such a fruit-body is tcrnuti
ctfiilotkecium (cleUtocarp). The Erysiphaccae are a sharply
marked group of forms which live as parasites. They form a super-
nci.il mycelium on the surface of the plant, the hyphae not usually
penetrating the tissues but merely sending haustpria into the epi-
dermal cells- Only in rare cases is the mycelium intem-UuLir.
Owing to their appearance they go by the popular name of mildews.
Spkaerrtktfa Hummli is the well known hop-mildew, Sphatrotheca
Mors-Vtae is the gooseberry mildew, the recent advent of which
has ted to special legislation in Great Britain to prevent its spreading,
as when rampant it makes the culture of gooseberries impossible.
Erytiphe, 1'ixintda and PkyUacttnia are other well-known genera.
The form of the fruit body, the difference and the nature of special
outgrowths upon it the appendage* arc characteristic of the
various genera. Besides peritheca the members of the Erysiphaceae
pattern conidia borne in simple chains. De Bary brought forward
very strong evidence for the origin of the ascocarp in Sphaerotheca
and Eryripke by a sexual process, but Harper in 1895 was the first
to prove conclusively, by the observation of the nuclear fusion, that
there was a definite fertilization in Sphatrotheca Humuti by the
fusion of a male (antheridial) nucleus with a female, ascogonial
(oogonial) nucleus. Since then Harper has shown that the same
process occurs in Eryiiphe and Phyllactinia.
The Perisporiaceae are saprophytic forms, the two chief genera
being AsptrgiUtu and PenicMium. The blue-green mould P.
cmOactnm and the green mould A. heritor ionum ("Eurotium
ktrbarierum) are extraordinarily widely distributed, moulds being
found on almost any food-material which is exposed to the air.
They have characteristic conidiophoros bearing numerous conidia,
and also cleistothecia which are spherical in form and yellowish in
colour. The Utter arise from the crown of a spirally coiled archicarp
(bearing an ascogonium at its end) and a straight antheridium.
Vegetative hyphae then grow up and surround these and enclose
them in a continuous sheath of plectenchyma (fig. 1 1 ). It has lately
been shown by Fraser and Chambers that in Eurotium both
I
FlG. II. Development of Eurotium repent. (After De Bary.)
A, Small portion of mycelium D, The perithecium.
with conidiophore (c), and
young archicarp (of).
B, The spiral archicarp (01),
with the antheridium (p).
D, The same, beginning to be
surrounded by the hyphae
forming the perithecium wall.
E, F, Sections of young pcri-
thecia.
, Parietal cells.
/, Pseudo-parenchyma.
at, Ascogonium.
G, An ascus.
H, An ascosporc.
ascogonium and antheridium contain a number of nuclei (i.e. are
unetes), but that the antheridium disorganizes without
its contents into the ascogonium. There is apparently a
process by the fusion of the ascogonial (female)
in pairs. Aiperfiuut Oryiae plays an important part in
saccharifying the starch of rice, maize, Ac., by means of the abundant
diastase it secretes, and, in symbiosis with a yeast which ferments
the sugar formed, has long been used by the Japanese for the pre-
paration of the alcoholic liquor sake. The process has now been
successfully introduced into European commerce.
Dixcmytetes. Used in its widest sense this includes the
Hysteriaceae, Phacidiaceae, Hetvellaceae, &c. The group is
characterized in general by the possession of an ascocarp which,
though usually a completely closed structure during the earlier
stages of development, at maturity opens out to form a bowl or
saucer-shaped organ, thus completely exposing the layer of asci
which forms the hymenium. Such an ascocarp goes by the name of
apothecium. Owing to the shape of the fruit-body many of these
forms are known as cup-fungi, the cup or apothecium often attaining
a large size, sometimes several inches across (fig. 12). Functional
male and female organs have been shown to exist in Pyroncmo, and
Boudiera; in Lachnea stercorea
both ascogonia and anthcridia
are present, but the antheridium
is non-functional, the ascogonial
(female) nuclei fusing in pairs;
this is also the case in Humaria
[raiiulata and Ascobolus ftirjur-
aceus, where the antheridium is
entirely absent. In H. rutilans,
however, both sexual organs arc
absent and the ascogenous
hyphae arise apoeambusly from
the ordinary hyphae of the my-
celim. In all these cases tnce
From Strasburger's Lchr-
bwch der Botanik, by permis-
sion of GusUv Fischer.
FIG. 12. Pezizaaur-
antiaca. (After Kromb-
holz, nat. size.)
FIG. 13. Ascobolus furfuraceus.
Diagrammatic section of the fruc-
tification. (After Janczewski.)
m, Mycelium.
c, Archicarp.
/, Pollinodium.
s, Ascogenous filaments,
a, Asci.
r, p, The sterile tissue from which
the paraphyses h spring.
ascogonium and antheridium contain numerous nuclei; they are
to be looked upon as gametangia in which there is no differentiation
of gametes, and since they act as single gametes they are termed
coenogametes. In some forms as in Ascobolus the ascogonium is
multiccllular, the various cells
communicating by pores in
the transverse waifs (fig. 13).
In the Helvellaceae there is
no apothecium but a large
irregular fruit body which at
maturity bears the asci on its
surface. The development is
only slightly known, but there
is some evidence for believing
that the fruit-body is closed in
its very early stages.
The genus Peziza (in its
widest sense) may be taken as
the type of the group. Most
of them grow on living plants
or on dead vegetable remains,
very often on fallen wood; a
number, however, are found
growing on earth which is rich
in humus. The genus Sclero-
tinia may be mentioned here;
a number of forms have been
investigated by Woronin. The
conidia are. fragrant and are
carried by bees to the stigma
of the bilberry; here they
germinate with the pollen and
fhe hyphae pass with the pollen
ducine the fruits to a mum-
mified condition. From the
sclerotia later the apothecium "
develops. One species, S. '
heteroua, is heteroe&us; the
,,
hyphae.
ascospores infecting the leaves of Vaccinium ulirinosum, while the
conidia which then arise infect only Lcdum palustre. This is the
only case of heteroecism known in the vegetable kingdom outside
the Uredineae.
Pyrenomycetes. This is an extraordinarily large and varied group
of forms which mostly live parasiticallv or saprophytically on
vegetable tissue, but a few are parasitic on insect-larvae. The group
342
FUNGI
is characterized by a special type of ascocarp, the perithecium.
This is typically of a flask-shaped form opening with a small pore at
the top. The asci live at the bottom often mixed with paraphyses,
while the upper " neck " of the flask is lined with special hyphae,
the periphyses, which aid in the ejection of the spores (fig. 14).
The simpler forms bear the perithecia directly on the mycelium, but
the more highly developed forms often bear them on a special
mycelial development the stroma, which is often of large size and
special shape and colour, and of dense consistence. The cytological
details of development of the perithecia are not well known ; most
of them appear to develop their ascogenous hyphae in an apogamous
way without any connexion with an ascogonium. Besides the
special ascocarps, accessory reproductive organs are known in the
majority of cases in the form of conidia.
Tuberineae. These are a small group of fungi including the well-
known truffles. They are found living saprophytically (in part
parasitically) underground in forests. The asci are developed in
the large dense fruit bodies (cleistothecia) and the spores escape by
the decay of the wall. The fruit-body is of complicated structure,
but its early stages of development are not known. Many of the
fruit-bodies have a pleasant flavour and are eaten under the name of
truffles (Tuber brumale and other species). The exact life-history
of the truffle is not known.
Laboulbeniineae are a group of about 150 species of fungi found
on insects, especially beetles, and principally known from the re-
searches of Thaxter in America. The plant is a small, dark brown,
erect structure (receptacle) of a few cells, and l-io mm. high, attached
to the insect by the lowermost end (foot), and easily mistaken for a
hair or similar appendage of the insect. The receptacle ends above
in appendages, each consisting of one or a few cells, some of which
are the male organs, others the female organs, and others again may
be barren hairs. The male organ (antheridium) consists of a few
cells, the terminal one of which either abstricts from its end, or emits
from its interior the non-motile spermatia, reminding us of those
of the Florideae. The female organ is essentially a flask-shaped
structure; the neck of the flask growing out as the trichogyne, and
the belly composed of an axial carpogenic cell surrounded by invest-
ing cells, and with one cell (trichophoric) between it and the tricho-
gyne. These three elements trichogyne, trichophoric cell, and
carpogenic cell are regarded as the procarp. The spermatia have
been shown by Thaxter to fuse with the trichogyne, after which the
axial cell below (carpogenic cell) undergoes divisions, and ultimately
forms asci containing ascospores, while cells investing this form a
perithecium, the whole structure reminding us essentially of the
fructification of a Pyrenomycete. Many modifications in details
occur, and the plants may be
dioecious. No injury is done to
the infested insects. It has lately
been shown that there is a fusion
of nuclei in connexion with ascus
formation, so that there can be
no doubt of the position of this
extraordinary group of plants
among the Ascomycetes. The
various cells of these organisms
are connected by large pits
which are traversed by thick
protoplasmic threads connecting
one cell with the next. In this
point and in their method ol
fertilization theLaboulbeniineae
suggest a possible relationship
of Ascomycetes and the Red
From Strasburger's Lchrbuch der Botanik, A i
by permission of Gustav Fischer.
FIG. 15. Armillaria mellea. (After
Ruhland.) h^t^
A, Young basidium with the two ?* ,
type of comaiopnore me uas-
B, A P f SoTof W two nuclei. |f m - which fr^dtZ %
in the formation of four nuclei
which later migrate respectively into the four basidiospores (fig. 15).
The Basidiales are further characterized by the complete loss of
normal sexuality, but at some time or other in the life-history
there takes place an association of two nuclei in a cell ; the two
nuclei are derived from separate cells or possibly in some cases are
sister nuclei of the same cell. The two nuclei when once associated
are termed " conjugate" nuclei, and they always divide at the same
time, a half of each passing into each cell. This conjugate condition
is finally brought to a close by the nuclear fusion in the basidium.
Between the nuclear association and the nuclear fusion in the
basidium many thousands of cell generations may be intercalated.
This nuclear association of equivalent nuclei apparently represents
a reduced sexual process (like the fusion of female nuclei in Humana
granulata and of vegetative nuclei in H. rutilans, among the Asco-
mycetes) in which, however, the actual fusion (normally, in a sexual
process, occurring immediately after association) is delayed until
the formation of the basidium. During the tetrad division in the
basidium nuclear reduction occurs. There is thus in all the Basidiales
an alternation of generations, obscured, however, by the apogamous
transition from the gametophyte to sporophyte. The sporophyte
may be considered to begin at the stage of nuclear association and
end with the nuclear reduction in the basidium.
Uredineae. This is a large group of about 2000 forms. They are
all intercellular parasites living mostly on the leaves of higher
plants. Owing to the presence of oily globules of an orange-yellow
or rusty-red colour in their hyphae and spores they are termed
Rust-Fungi. They are distinguished from the other fungi and the
rest of the Basidiales by the great variety of the spores and the
great elaboration of the life-history to be found in many cases.
Five different kinds of spores may be present teleutospores,
sporidia ( = basidiospores), aecidiospores, spermatia and uredospores
(fig. 16). The teleutospore, with the sporidia which arise from it,
is always present, and the division into genera is based chiefly on
FIG. 1 6. Puccinia graminis.
A, Mass of teleutospores (t) on a
leaf of couch-grass.
e, Epidermis ruptured.
b. Sub-epidermal fibres.
De Bary.)
B, Part of vertical
through leaf of
vulgaris, with a, aecidium
fruits, p, peridium, and sp,
spermogonia. (After Sachs.)
(After C, Mass of uredospores (ur),
with one teleutospore (t).
sh, Sub-hymenial hyphae. (After
De Bary.)
section
Berberis
its characters. The teleutospore puts forth on germination a four-
celled structure, the promycelium or basidium, and this bears later
four sporidia or basidiospores, one on each cell. When the sporidia
infect a plant the mycelium so produced gives origin to aecidiospores
and spermatia ; the aecidiospores on infection produce a mycelium
which bears uredospores and later teleutospores. This is the life-
history of the most complicated forms, of the so-called eu forms.
Intheopsis forms the uredospores areabsent, the mycelium from the
aecidiospores producing directly the teleutospores. In brachy and
hemi the aecidiospores are absent, the mycelium from the sporidia
giving origin directly to the uredospores; the former possess sper-
matia, in the latter they are absent. In lepto and micro forms both
aecidiospores and uredospores are absent, the sporidia producing a
mycelium which gives rise directly to teleutospores; in the lepto
forms the teleutospores can germinate directly, in the micro forms
only after a period of rest. We have thus a series showing a progres-
sive reduction in the complexity of the life-history, the lepto and
micro forms having a life-history like that of the Basidiomycetes.
The eu and opsis forms may exhibit the remarkable phenomenon
of heteroecism, i.e. the dependence of the fungus on two distinct
host-plants for the completion of the life-history. Heteroecism
is very common in this group and is now known in over one hundred
and fifty species. In all cases of heteroecism the sporidia infect
one host leading to the production of aecidiospores and spermati^
(if present), while the aecidiospores are only able to infect another
FUNGI
343
on which the uredospores (if present) and the teleutospores
are developed. A few example* are appended :
Species.
Teleutospores on
Aecidiospores on
Cfhfifffritm Smteimtj
Finns
Stiucio
tftUmfion Rastnpi
Pwccimastmm Gofpferttana
PoptUus
Vaccimium
ittcurialis
Gymnosporanpum Sabintu
i'nrmycts Ptsi
Junspents
Pisum. Sfc.
Pyrui
Euphorbia
PtuctHU gramimis
TrUicum, Sfc.
Herberts
P. duptrsa
Secalt.&c.
Anchusa
P. ctirtmtta
AffOSnS
Rkamnus
P. Ari-Pkalandu
Pnoloris
Arum
P. Condi
Caret
Urtica
Crouartium RMcola
MM
Piitus
Ckrysomyxa Rkododtndri
Rhododendron
Picea
Some of the Uredineae ajso exhibit the peculiarity of the develop-
ment of biologic forms within a single morphological species, some-
times termed specialization of parasitism; this will be dealt with
later under the section Physiology.
Cytology of Undineae. The study of the nuclear behaviour of
the cells of the Uredineae has thrown great light on the question of
sexuality. This group like the rest of the Basidiales exhibits an
association of nuclei at some
point in its life-history, but
unlike the case of the Basidio-
mycetes the point of association
in the Uredineae is very well
defined in all those forms which
IKISM-..S ueridiospurr*. \\V find
thus that in the eu and apsis
forms the association of nuclei
takes place at the base of the
aecidium which produces the
aecidiospores. Them we find
an association of nuclei either
by the fusion of two similar cells
as described by Christmann or
by the migration of the nucleus
of a vegetative cell into a special
cell of the aecidium. After this
association the nuclei continue
in the conjugate condition so
that the aecidiospores, the uredo-
spore-bearing mycelium, the
uredospores and the young
teleutospores all contain two
paired nuclei in their cells (fig.
17). Before the teleutospore
reaches maturity the nuclei fuse,
and the uninucleate condition
then continues again until aeci-
dium formation. In the hcmi,
\*ttt(r't LtMmtkiltr Beanit. bra'.ky, micro and lepto forms,
which possess no aecidium, we
find that the association takes
place at various points in the
ordinary mycelium but always
before the formation of the
uredospores in the hemi and
the brachy forms, and before the
formation of teleutospores in
micro and lepto form. Whether
the association of nuclei in the
mother-cell (m), from the ordinary mycelium takes place
basal cell (a) of one of the by the migration of a nucleus
from one cell to another or
which whether two daughter nuclei
become conjugate in one cell,
not yet clear. The most
FlC. 17. Phragmidium Via-
lacettm, (After Blackman.)
A. Portion of a young aecidium.
it. Sterile cell.
a. Fertile ceils; at a,
passage of a nucleus from
the adjoining cell is seen.
B, Formation of the first spore-
" -
C, A further stage in
from *OTI the first aecidio-
spore (a) and the intercalary is
cell (i) have arisen. reasonable interpretation of the
Mil. The second spore- mother-cell, spcrmatia is that they are
D. Ripe aecidiospore. abortive male cells. They have
never been found to cause in-
fection, and they have not the characters of conidia; the large
size of their nuclei, the reduction of their cytoplasm and the
absence of reserve material and their thin cell wall all point to their
being male gametes. Although in the forms without aecidia the
two generations are not sharply marked off from one another, <
may look up the generation with single nuclei in the cells as the
gametophyte and that with conjugate nuclei as the sporophyte.
The subjoined diagram will indicate the relationship of the forms.
BojidiomyttUi. This group is characterized by its greatly reduced
life-history as compared with that of the eu forms among the L'rc-
dineae. All the forms have the same life-history as the lepto forms
of that group, so that there is no longer any trace of sexual organs.
There is also a further reduction in that the basidium is not derived
from a teleutospore but is borne directly on the mycelium. Formerly,
before the relationship of promycelium and basidium were under-
stood, the Uredineae were considered as quite independent of the
Basidiomycetes. Later, however, these Uredineae were placed as a
mere subdivision of the Basidiomycetes. Although the Uredineae
clearly lead on to the Basidiomycetes, yet owing to their retaining
in many cases definite traces of sexual organs they are clearly a more
primitive group. Their marked parasitic habit also separates them
off, so that they are best included with the Basidiomycetes in a larger
cohort which may
be called Basidi-
ales. Most of
Basidiomycetes
are characterized
by the large sporo-
pnore on which the
basidia with its mywii^
basidiospores are f
borne. undotpom
It must be
clearly borne in
mind that though
the Basidiomy-
cetes show no
traces of differ-
entiated sexual
organs yet, like
the micro and lepto
forms of the Ure-
dineae, they still
show (in the as-
sociation of nuclei
and later fusion of Fron) Annal , of
nuclei in the bas-
idium), a reduced
fertilization which denotes their derivation, through the Uredineae,
from more typically sexual forms. No one has yet made out in any
form the exact way in which the association of nuclei takes place in the
group. The mycelium is always found to contain conjugate nuclei
before the formation of basidia, but the point at which the conjugate
condition arises seems very variable. Miss Nichols finds that it
occurs_very soon after the germination of the spore in Coprinus, but
no fusion of cells or migration of nuclei was to be observed.
Protobasidiomycetes. This, by far the smaller division of Basidio-
mycetes, includes those forms which have a septate basidium. There
are three families Auricula riaceae, Pilacreaceae and Tremellinaceae.
by penninion ai , he Clarendon Prat.
IG> I8>
FlG. 19. Amanila muscaria.
A, The young plant. a, The annulus, or remnant of
B, The mature plant, (plant.
C, Longitudinal section of mature
p. The pileus.
g, The gills.
velum partiale.
v, Remains of volva or velum
universale.
s. The stalk.
The first named contains a small number of forms with the basidium
divided like the promycelium of the Uredineae. They are charac-
terized by their gelatinous consistence and large size of their sporo-
phore. Hirneola (Auricularia) Auricula- Judat is the well-known
Jew's Ear, so named from the resemblance of the sporophore to a
human ear.
The Pilacreaceae are a family found by Brefeld to contain the genus
Pilacre. P. Petersii has a transversely divided basidium as in
Aurifulariaceae, but the basidia are surrounded with a peridium-like
sheath. The Tremellinaceae are characterized by the possession of
basidia which are divided by two vertical walls at right angles to
one another. From each of the four segments in the case of Tremella
a long outgrowth arises which reaches to the surface of the hymenium
344
FUNGI
and bears the basidiospores. In Dacryomyces only two outgrowths
and two spores are produced.
Autpbasidiomycetes. In this by far the larger division of the
Basidiomycetes the basidia are undivided and the four basidiospores
are borne on short sterigmata nearly always at the apex of the
basidiura. The group may be divided into two main divisions,
Hymenomycetes and Gasteromycetes.
Hymenomycetes are a very large group containing over 11,000
species, most of which live in soil rich in humus or on fallen wood
or stems, a few only being parasites. In the simplest forms (e.g.
Exobasidium) the basidia are borne directly on the ordinary
mycelium, but in the majority of cases the basidia are found de-
veloped in layers (hymenium) on special sporophores of char-
acteristic form in the various groups. In these sporophores (such
as the well-known toadstools and mushrooms where the ordinary
vegetative mycelium is underground) we have structures specially
developed for bearing the basidiospores and protecting them from
rain, &c., and for the distribution of the spores see earlier part of
article on distribution of spores (figs. 19 and 20). The underground
mycelium in many cases
spreads wider and wider
each year, often in a
circular manner, and the
sporophores springing
from it appear in the
form of a ring the so-
called fairy rings. Ar-
millaria melleus and
Polyporus annosus are
examples of parasitic
forms which attack and
destroy living trees,
while Merulius lacry-
a ' mans is the well-known
W - G ' S - " dry rot " fungus.
FIG. 20. Agaricus mucidus. Portion Gasteromycetes are
of hymenium (X35O). s, Sporidia; st, characterized by having
sterigmata; g, sterile cells; c, cystidium, closed sporophores or
with operculum o. fruit-bodies which only
open after the spores are
ripe and then often merely by a small pore. The fruit-bodies are of
very various shapes, showing a differentiation into an outer peridium
and an inner spore-bearing mass, the gleba. The gleba is usually
differentiated into a number of chambers which are lined directly
by the hymenium (basidial layer), or else the chambers contain an
interwoven mass of hyphae, the branches of which bear the basidia.
By the breaking down of the inner tissues the spores often come
to lie as a loose powdery mass in the interior of the hollow fruit-
body, mixed sometimes with a capillitium. The best-known genera
are Bovista, Lycoperdon (puff-ball) Scleroderma, Geasler (earth-star,
g.v.). In the last-named genus the peridium is double and the outer
layer becomes ruptured and spreads out in the form of star-shaped
pieces; the inner layer, however, merely opens at the apex by a
small pore.
The most complex members of the Gasteromycetes belong to the
Phalloideae, which is sometimes placed as a distinct division of the
Autobasidiomycetes. Phallus impudicus, the stink-horn, is occasion-
ally found growing in woods in Britain. The fruit-body before it
ruptures may reach the size of a hen's egg and is white in colour;
from this there grows out a hollow cylindrical structure which can
be distinguished at the distance of several yards by its disgusting
odour. It is highly poisonous.
Physiology. The physiology of the fungi comes under the
head of that of plants generally, and the works of Pfeffer, Sachs,
Vines, Darwin and Klebs may be consulted for details. But
we may refer generally here to certain phenomena peculiar to
these plants, the life-actions of which are restricted and specialized
by their peculiar dependence on organic supplies of carbon and
nitrogen, so that most fungi resemble the colourless cells of higher
plants in their nutrition. Like these they require water, small
but indispensable quantities of salts of potassium, magnesium,
sulphur and phosphorus, and supplies of carbonaceous and
nitrogenous materials in different stages of complexity in the
different cases. Like these, also, they respire oxygen, and are
independent of light; and their various powers of growth,
secretion, and general metabolism, irritability, and response to
external factors show similar specific variations in both cases.
It is quite a mistake to suppose that, apart from the chlorophyll
function, the physiology of the fungus-cell is fundamentally
different from that of ordinary plant-cells. Nevertheless,
certain biological phenomena in fungi are especially pronounced,
and of these the following require particular notice.
Parasattsm. Some fungi, though able to live as saprophytes,
occasionally enter the body of living plants, and are thus termed
facultative parasites. The occasion may be a wound (e.g. Nectria,
Dasyscypha, &c.), or the enfeeblement of the tissues of the host, or
invigoration of the fungus, the mycelium of which then becomes
strong enough to overcome the host's resistance (Botrytis). Many
fungi, however, cannot complete their life-history apart from the
host-plant. Such obligate parasites may be epiphytic (Erysipheae) ,
the mycelium remaining on the outside and at most merely sending
haustoria into the epidermal cells, or endophytic (Uredineae,
Ustilagineae, &c.), when the mycelium is entirely inside the organs
of the host. An epiphytic fungus is not necessarily a parasite,
however, as many saprophytes (moulds, &c.) germinate and develop
a loose mycelium on living leaves, but only enter and destroy the
tissues after the leaf has fallen; in some cases, however, these
saprophytic epiphytes can do harm by intercepting light and air
from the leaf (Fumago, &c.), and such cases make it difficult to
draw the line between saprophytism and parasitism. Endophytic
parasites may be intracellular, when the fungus or its mycelium
lunges into the cells and destroys their contents directly (Olpidium,
agenidium, Sclerotinia, &c.), but they are far more frequently
intercellular, at any rate while young, the mycelium growing in the
lacunae between the cells (Peronospora, Uredineae) into which it
may send short (Cystopus), or long and branched (Peronospora
Calotheca) haustoria, or it extends in the middle lamella (Ustilago),
or even in the solid substance of the cell- wall (Botrytis). No sharp
lines can be drawn, however, since many mycelia are intercellular at
first and subsequently become intracellular (Ustilagineae), and the
various stages doubtless depend on the degrees of resistance which
the host tissues are able to offer. Similar gradations are observed
in the direct effect of the parasite on the host, which may be local
(Hemileia) when the mycelium never extends far from the point of
infection, or general (Phytophthora) when it runs throughout the
plant. Destructive parasites rapidly ruin the whole plant-body
(Pythium), whereas restrained parasites only tax the host slightly,
and ill effects may not be visible for a long time, or only when the
fungus is epidemic (Rhytisma). A parasite may be restricted during
a long incubation-period, however, and rampant and destructive
later (Ustilago). The latter fact, as well as the extraordinary
fastidiousness, so to speak, of parasites in their choice of hosts or of
organs for attack, point to reactions on the part of the host-plant,
as well as capacities on that of the parasite, which may be partly
explained in the light of what we now know regarding enzymes and
chemotropism. Some parasites attack many hosts and almost any
tissue or organ (Botrytis cinerea), others are restricted to one family
(Cystopus candidus) or genus (Phytophthora infestans) or even
species (Pucciniastrum Padi), and it is customary to speak of root-
parasites, leaf -parasites, &c., in expression of the fact that a given
parasite occurs only on such organs e.g. Dematophora necatrix on
roots, Calyptospora Goeppertiana on stems, Ustilago Scabiosae in
anthers, Glaviceps purpurea in ovaries, &c. Associated with these
relations are the specializations which parasites show in regard to
the age of the host. Many parasites can enter a seedling, but are
unable to attack the same host when older e.g. Pythium, Phyto-
phthora omnivora.
Chemotropism. Taken in conjunction with Pfeffer's beautiful dis-
covery that certain chemicals exert a distinct attractive influence
on fungus hyphae (chemotropism), and the results of Miyoshi's
experimental application of it, the phenomena of enzyme-secretion
throw considerable light on the processes of infection and parasitism
of fungi. Pfeffer showed that certain substances in definite concen-
trations cause the tips of hyphae to turn towards them; other
substances, though not innutritions, repel them, as also do nutritious
bodies if too highly concentrated. Marshall Ward showed that the
hyphae ot Botrytis pierce the cell-walls of a lily by secreting a cytase
and dissolving a hole through the membrane. Miyoshi then demon-
strated that if Botrytis is sown in a lamella of gelatine, and this
lamella is superposed on another similar one to which a chemotropic
substance is added, the tips of the hyphae at once turn from the
former and enter the latter. If a thin cellulose membrane is inter-
posed between the lamellae, the hyphae nevertheless turn chemo-
tropically from the one lamella to the other and pierce the cellulose
membrane in the process. The hyphae will also dissolve their way
through a lamella of collodion, paraffin, parchment paper, elder-pith
or even cork or the wing of a fly, to do which it must excrete very
different enzymes. If the membrane is of some impermeable
substance, like gold leaf, the hyphae cannot dissolve its way through,
but the tip finds the most minute pore and traverses the barrier
by means of it, as it does a sterna on a leaf We may hence conclude
that a parasitic hyphae pierces some plants or their stomata and
refuses to enter others, because in the former case there are chemo-
tropically attractive substances present which are absent from the
latter, or are there replaced by repellent poisonous or protective
substances such as enzymes or antitoxins.
Specialization of Parasitism. The careful investigations of recent
years have shown that in several groups of fungi we cannot be
content to distinguish as units morphologically different species,
but we are compelled to go deeper and analyse further the species.
It has been shown especially in the Uredineae and Erysiphaceae that
many forms which can hardly be distinguished morphologically,
or which cannot be differentiated at all by structural characters, are
not really homogeneous but consist of a number of forms which are
FUNGI
345
sharply distinguishable by their infecting power. Eriksson found,
for example, that the well-known species Puccinia graminis could be
split up into a number of forma which though morphoIoKicajly
similar were physiologically distinct. He found that the species
really consisted of six distinct races, each having a more or less
narrow range of gtassts on which it can live. The ux races he named
P. fnimiMu Secalis, Tritici, Avenae, Airae, Agroslis, Poae. The
first named will grow on rye and barley but not on wheat or oat.
The form Tritici is the least sharply marked and will grow on wheat,
barley, rye and oat but not on the other grasses. The form Avenae
will grow on oat and many grasses but not on the other three cereals
mentioned. The last three forms grow only on the genera /lira,
Atrostu and Poa respectively. All these forms have of course their
aecidium-sta^e on the barberry. The terms biologic forms, biological
tptttM, physiological species, physiological races, specialized forms
have all been applied to these; perhaps the term biologic forms is
the most satisfactory. A similar specialization has been observed
by Marshall Ward in the Puccinia parasitic on species of Bromus,
and by Neger, Marchal and especially Salmon in the Erysiphaceae.
In the last-named family the single morphological species Erysiphe
graminis U found growing on the cereals, barley, oat, wheat, rye
and a number of wild grasses (such as Poa, Bromus, Dactylis). On
each of these host-plants the fungus has become specialized so that
the form on barley cannot infect the other three cereals or the wild
grasses and so on. Just as the uredospores and aecidiospores both
show these specialized characters in the case of Puccinia graminis
to we find that both the conidia and ascospores of . graminis show
this phenomenon. Salmon has further shown in investigating the
relation of . graminis to various species of the genus, Bromus, that
certain specie* may act as " bridging species," enabling the transfer
of a biologic form to a host-plant which it cannot normally infect.
Thus the biologic form on B. racemosus cannot infect B. commutatus.
If, however, conidia from B. racemosus are sown on B. hordaceus,
thie conidia which develop on that plant are now able to infect
B. commutatui ; thus B. hordaceus acts as a bridging species. Salmon
also found that injury of a leaf by mechanical means, by heat, by
anaesthetics, &c., would affect the immunity of the plant and allow
infection by conidia which was not able to enter a normal leaf. The
effect of the abnormal conditions is probably to stop the production
of, or weaken or destroy the protective enzymes or antitoxins, the
presence of which normally confers immunity on the leaf.
Symbiosis. The remarkable case of life in common first observed
in lichens, where a fungus and an alga unite to form a compound
organism the lichen totally different from either, has now been
proved to be universal in these plants, and lichens are in all cases
merely algae enmeshed in the interwoven hyphae of fungi (see
LICHENS). This dualism, where the one constituent (alga) furnishes
carbohydrates, and the other (fungus) ensures a supply of mineral
matters, shade and moisture, has been termed symbiosis. Since
then numerous other cases of symbiosis have been demonstrated.
Many tree* are found to have their smaller roots invaded by fungi
and deformed by their action, but so far from these being injurious,
experiments go to show that this mycorhiza (fungus-root) is
necessary for the well-being of the tree. This is also the case with
numerous other plants of moors and woodlands e.g. Ericaceae,
Pyrolaceae, Gentianaceae, Orchidaceae, ferns, etc. Recent
riments have shown that the difficulties of getting orchid
> to germinate are due to the absence of the necessary fungus,
h must be in readiness to infect the young seedling immediately
it emerge* from the seed. The well-known failures with rhododen-
drons, heath*, &c., in ordinary garden soils are also explained by
the need of the fungus-infected peat for their roots. The r&le of the
fungus appears to be to supply materials from the leaf-mould around,
in forms which ordinary root-hairs are incapable of providing for
the plant ; in return the Utter supports the fungus at slight expense
from its abundant stores of reserve materials. Numerous other
case* of symbiosis have been discovered among the fungi of fer-
mentation, of which those between Aspergilius and yeast in sake
manufacture, and between yeasts and bacteria in kepnir and in the
Bnger-beer plant are best worked out. For case* of symbiosis see
ACTE BIOLOGY.
fiUTo*mts. General: Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen
PflantenfamUien, i. Teil (1892 onwards); Zopf, Die Pilte (Breslau,
1890); De Bary, Comparative Morphology of Fungi, &c. (Oxford,
1887); von Tafel, Vergleickende Morpkologie der Ptize (Jena, 1892);
Brefeld, Unlers. aus dem Gesamlrebiete der Mykologie, Heft i. 13
(1872-1905); Lotsy, Vortrdge uber botanische Stammesgeschichte
(Jena, 1907). Distribution, Sec. : Cooke, Introduction to the Study
of Funn (London. 1895); Felix in Zeitschr. d. deulsch. geologisch.
GeseUsck. (1894-1896); Staub, Sittungtber. d. bot. Sec. d. Kgl.
ungariicken natuneits. Gesellsch. tu Budapest (1897). Anatomy,
Ac.: Bommer, " Sclerote* et cordons myceliens," item, de I'Acad.
Roy. de Belt. (1894); Mangin, " Observ. sur la membrane des
mocorinees,' Journ. de Bot. (1899); Zimmermann, Die Morph.
ud PkysioUgie da PjlantenteUkemes (Jena, 1896); Wissclingh,
" Microchem. Unters. Uber die Zellwande d. Fungi," Pringsh.
Jahrb. B. jl. p. 610 (1808); Istvanffvi, " Unters. Ober die phys.
Aoat. der filze," Pnngi. Jakrb. (1896). Spore Distribution: Fulton,
" Dispersal of the Spores of Fungi by Insects," Ann. Bol. (1889);
Falck. " Die Sporenverbreitung bei den Basidiomyceten," Beitr.
sur Biol. d. Pflansen, ix. (1904). Spores and Sporophores: Zopf,
Die Pilte; also the works of von Tafel and Brefeld. Classification:
van Tieghem, Journ. de bot. p. 77 (1893), and the works of Brefeld,
cent-sis and Fertilization in Albugo, ibid. vol. 32 (1901);
Miyake, " The Fertilization of Pythium de Baryanum," Ann. of Bot,
vol. xv. (1901); Trow, "On Fertilization in the Saprolegmeae,"
Ann. of Bot. vol. xviii. (1904); Thaxter, " New and Peculiar Aquatic
Fungi,' Bot. Gat. vol. 20 (1895); Lagerheim, "Unters. uber die
Monoblepharideae," Bik. Svenska Vet. Akad. Handlingar, 25.
Afd. iii. (1900); Woronin, " Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Monoble-
pharideen," Mem. de I'Acad. Imp. d. Sc. de St-Petersbourg, 8 ser.
vol. 16 (1902). Zygomycetes: Harper, " Cell-division in Sporangia
and Asci,' Ann. Bot. vol. xiii. (1899); Klebs, Die Bedingungen der
Fortpflantung, &c. (Jena, 1896), and " Zur Physiologic der Fprt-
pflanzung " Prings. Jakr. (1898 and 1899), Ober Sporodinia
grandis,' Bot. Zeit. (1902); Falck, " Die Beaingungen der Zygoten-
Inlilung bei Sporodinia grandis," Cohn's Beitr. t. Biol. d. Pflanzen,
Bd. 8 (1902); Gruber "verhalten der Zellkerne in den Zygosporen
von Sporodinia grandis," Ber. d. deutschen bot. Ges. Bd. 19 (1901);
Blakeslee, " Sexual Reproduction in the Mucorineae," Proc. Am.
Acad. (1004) ; " Zygospore germination in the Mucorineae," Annales
mycologici (1906). Ustilagineae: Plowright, British Uredineae and
Ustilagineae (London, 1889); Massee, British Fungi (Phycomycetes
and Ustilagineae) (London, 1891); Brefeld, Unters. aus dem
Gesamtgeb. der Mykol. Hefte xi. and xii. ; and Falck, " Die Bluten-
infektion bei den Brandpilzen," ibid. Heft xiii. 1905; Dangeard, " La
Reproduction sexuelle des Ustilaginees," C.R., Oct. 9, 1803;
Maire, " Recherches cytologiques et taxonomiques sur les Basidio-
myceten," Annexi au Bull, de la Soc. Mycol. de France (1902).
Saccharomycetaceae: Jorgensen, The Micro-organisms of Fermenta-
tion (1899); Barker, Ann. of Bot. vol. xiv. (1901); f ' On Spore-
formation among the Saccharomycetes," Journ. of the Fed. Institute
of Brewing, vol. 8 (1902); Guillermond, Recherches cytologiques
sur les levures (Paris, 1902); Hansen, Centralbl. f. Bakt. u. Para-
sitenp. Abt. ii. Bd. 12 (1904). Exoascaceae: Giesenhagen, " Ta-
phrina, Exoascus, Magnusiella " (complete literature given), Bot.
Zeit. Bd. 7 (1901). Erysiphaceae: Harper, " Die Entwicklung des
Perithecium bei Sphaerotheca castagnei," Ber. d. deut. bot. Ges. (1896) ;
" Sexual Reproduction and the Organization of the Nucleus in certain
Mildews," Publ. Carnegie Institution (Washington, 1906) ; Blackman
& Fraser, " Fertilization in Sphaerotheca," Ann. of Bot. (1905).
Perisporiaceae: Brefeld, Untersuchungen aus dem Gesamtgeb. der
Mykol. Heft 10 (1891); Fraser and Chamber, Annales mycologici
(1907). Discomycetes: Harper, " Ober das Verhalten der Kerne bei
Ascomyceten," Jahr. f. vriss. Bot. Bd. 29 (1890) ; " Sexual Repro-
duction in Pyronema confluens," Ann. of Bot. 14 (1900); Claussen,
" Zur Entw. der Ascomyceten," Boudiera, Bot. Zeit. Bd. 63 (1905) ;
Dangeard, " Sur le Pyronema confluens," Le Botaniste, 9 serie (1903)
(and numerous papers in same journal earlier and later) ; Ramlow,
" Zur Entwick. von Thelebolus stercoren," Bot. Zeit. (1906) ; Woronin,
" Ober die Sclerotienkrankheit der Vaccineen Beeren," Mem. de
I'Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St-Pftersbourg, 7 serie, 36 (1888);
Dittrich, " Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Helvellineen," Cohn's
Beitr. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen (1892). Pyrenomycetes: Fisch, " Beitr.
z. Entwickelungsgeschichte einiger Ascomyceten," Bot. Zeit.
(1882); Frank, "Ober einige neue u. weniger bekannte Pflanz-
krankh.," Landw. Jahrb. Bd. 12 (1883); Ward, " Onygena
equina, a horn-destroying fungus," Phil. Trans, vol. 191
(1899); Dawson, "On the Biology of Poroniapunctata," Ann. of
Bot. 14 (1900). Tuberineae: Buchholtz, "Zur Morphologic u.
Systematik der Fungi hypogaei," Ann. Mycol. Bd. i (1903);
Fischer in Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien
(1896). Laboulbeniineae: Thaxter, " Monograph of the Laboul-
beniaceae," Mem. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences, vol. 12 (1895).
Uredineae: Eriksson and Henning, Die Getreideroste (Stockholm,
1806); Eriksson, Rotan. Gaz. vol. 25 (1896); "On the Vegetative
Lite of some Uredineae," Ann. of Bot. (1905); Klebahn, Die wirt-
wechselnden Rostpilze (Berlin, 1904); Sapm-Trouffy, " Recherches
histologiques sur la famille des Urcdinees, Le Botaniste (1896-1897) ;
Blackman, " On the Fertilization, Alternation of Generations and
General Cytology of the Uredineae," Ann. of Bot. vol. 18 (1904);
Blackman and Fraser, " Further Studies on the Sexuality of Ure-
dineae," Ann. of Bol. vol. 20 (1906); Christman, " Sexual Repro-
duction of Rusts," Ann. of Bot. vol. 20 (1906); Ward, "The
Brooms and their Rust Fungus," Ann. of Bot. vol. 15 (1901)-
Basidiomycetes: Dangeard, " La Reprod. sexuelle des Basidio-
mycetes," Le Botaniste (1894 and iQoo); Maire, "Recherches
cytologiques et taxonomiques sur les Basidiomycetes," Annexe du
Bull, de la Soc. Mycol. de France (1902); Moller, " Protobasidio-
myceten," Schimper's Mitt, aus den Tropen, Heft 8 (Jena, 1895);
Nichols, " The Nature and Origin of the Binucleated Cells in certain
Basidiomycetes," Trans. Wisconsin Acad. of Sciences, vol. 15
(1905); Wager, "The SexuaHty of the Fungi," Ann. of Bot. 13
(1899); Woronin, " Exobasidium Vaccinii," Verh. Naturf. Ges. tu
Freiburg, Bd. 4 (1867). Fermentation : Buchner, " Gahrungohne Hefe-
zellen/'Bo/. Zeit. Bd. 18 (1898); Albert, Cent.f. Bakt. Bd. 17 (I9);
FUNJ FUR
Green, The Soluble Ferments and Fermentation (Cambridge, 1899).
Parasitism: "On some Relations between Host and Parasite,"
Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. 47 (1890); " A Lily Disease," Ann. of Botany,
vol. 2 (1888); Eriksson & Hennings, Die Getreideroste (vide supra);
Ward, " On the Question of Predisposition and Immunity in Plants,"
Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. vol. n (1902); also Annals of Bot.
vol. 16 (1902) and vol. 19 (1905) ; Neger, " Beitr. z. Biol. d.
Erysipheen " Flora, Bde. 88 and 90 (1901-1902) ; Salmon, " Cultural
Experiments with ' Biologic Forms ' of the Erysiphaceae," Phil.
Trans. (1904) ; " On Erysiphe graminis and its adaptative parasitism
within the genus, Bromus," Ann. Mycol. vol. n (1904), also Ann.
of Bot. vol. 19 (1905). Symbiosis: Ward, "The Ginger-Beer
Plant," Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (1892) ; " Symbiosis," Ann. of Bot. 13
(1899); Shalk, " Der Sinn der Mykorrhizenbildung," Jahrb. f.
ittiss. Bot. Bd. 34 (1900); Bernard, "On some Different Cases of
Germination," Gardener's Chronicle (1900); Pierce, Publ. Univ.
California (1900). (H. M. W.; V. H. B.)
FUNJ (FUNNIYEH, FUNG, FUNGHA), a very mixed negroid
race, occupying parts of Sennar and the hilly country to the
south between the White and Blue Niles. They traditionally
come from west of the White Nile and are affiliated by some to
the Kordofan Nubas, by others, more justifiably, to the negro
Shilluks. These Funj, who became the dominant race in Sennar
in the isth century, almost everywhere assimilated the speech,
religion and habits of the Arabs settled in that region. Until
the igth century they were one of the most powerful of African
peoples in the eastern Sudan. About the end of the i $th century
they overthrew the kingdom of Aloa, between the two Niles,
and conquered the neighbouring peoples of the Sudan, Nubia
and even Kordofan. The Funj had mixed much with the Arabs
before their conquests, and had been converted to Islam. But
they were still in many ways savages, for James Bruce (who
traversed the district in 1772) says that their most famous
king, Malek-el-Gahman, preferred human liver to any other
food, and the Belgian traveller E. Pruyssenaere. (1826-1864)
found them still performing pagan rites on their sacred Mount
Gula. Ernst Marno declared that as late as 1870 the most
southern branch of the race, the Boruns, a non-Arabic speaking
tribe, were cannibals. The Funj kings were content with
levying tribute on their neighbours, and in this loose way Shendi,
Berber and Dongola were once tributary. The Arab viziers
gradually absorbed all power, the Funj sovereignty becoming
nominal; and in 1821 the Egyptians easily destroyed the Funj
domination. To-day the Funj are few, and represent no real
type. They are a bright, hospitable folk. Many of them are
skilful surgeons and go far afield in their work. The fellahin,
indeed, call surgeons " Senaari " (men of Sennar). See further
SENNAR and SUDAN (Anglo- Egyptian).
FUNKIA, in botany, a genus of rather handsome, hardy,
herbaceous plants belonging to the natural order Liliaceae,
and natives of China and Japan. They are tuberous, with
broadly ovate or heart-shaped leaves and racemes of white or
pale lilac, drooping, funnel-shaped flowers. They are useful
for the borders of a shrubbery, the lawn or rock-work, or may
be grown in pots for the greenhouse. The plants are propagated
by dividing the crowns in autumn or when growth begins in
spring.
FUNNEL (through an O. Fr. founil, found in Breton, from
Lat. infundibulum, that through which anything is poured,
tiom fundere, to pour), a vessel shaped like a cone having a small
tube at the apex through which powder, liquid, &c., may be
easily passed into another vessel with a small opening. The
term is used in metal-casting of the hole through which the
metal is poured into a mould, and in anatomy and zoology of an
infundibulum or funnel-shaped organ. The word is thus used
generally of any shaft or passage to convey light, air or smoke,
as of the chimney of an engine or a steam-boat, or the flue of an
ordinary chimney. It is also used of a shaft or channel in rocks,
and in the decoying of wild-fowl is applied to the cone-shaped
passage leading from a pond and covered with a net, a " funnel-
net," into which the birds are decoyed.
FUR (connected with 0. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an
outer covering "), the name specially given to the covering of
the skin in certain animals which are natives of the colder
climates, lying alongside of another and longer covering, called
the overhair. The fur differs from the overhair, in that it is
soft, silky, curly, downy and barbed lengthwise, while the
overhair is straight, smooth and comparatively rigid. These
properties of fur constitute its essential value for felting purposes,
and mark its difference from wool and silk; the first, after some
slight preparation by the aid of hot water, readily unites its
fibres into a strong and compact mass; the others can best be
managed by spinning and weaving.
On the living animal the overhair keeps the fur filaments
apart, prevents their tendency to felt, and protects them from
injury thus securing to the animal an immunity from cold and
storm; while, as a matter of fact, this very overhair, though of
an humbler name, is most generally the beauty and pride of the
pelt, and marks its chief value with the furrier. We arrive
thus at two distinct and opposite uses and values of fur. Re-
garded as useful for felt it is denominated staple fur, while with
respect to its use with and on the pelt it is called fancy fur.
History. The manufacture of fur into a felt is of comparatively
modern origin, while the use of fur pelts as a covering for the
body, for the couch, or for the tent is coeval with the earliest
history of all northern tribes and nations. Their use was not
simply a barbarous expedient to defend man from the rigours
of an arctic winter; woven wool alone cannot, in its most perfect
form, accomplish this. The pelt or skin is requisite to keep out
the piercing wind and driving storm, while the fur and overhair
ward off the cold; and " furs " are as much a necessity to-day
among more northern peoples as they ever were in the days of
barbarism. With them the providing of this necessary covering
became the first purpose of their toil; subsequently it grew
into an object of barter and traffic, at first among themselves,
and afterwards with their neighbours of more temperate climes;
and with the latter it naturally became an article of fashion,
of ornament and of luxury. This, in brief, has been the history
of its use in China, Tatary, Russia, Siberia and North America,
and at present the employment of fancy furs among civilized
nations has grown to be more extensive than at any former period.
The supply of this demand in earlier times led to such severe
competition as to terminate in tribal pillages and even national
wars; and in modern times it has led to commercial ventures
on the part of individuals and companies, the account of which,
told in its plainest form, reads like the pages of romance. Furs
have constituted the price of redemption for royal captives,
the gifts of emperors and kings, and the peculiar badge of state
functionaries. At the present day they vie with precious gems
and gold as ornaments and garniture for wealth and fashion;
but by their abundance, and the cheapness of some varieties,
they have recently come within the reach of men of moderate
incomes. The history of furs can be read in Marco Polo, as
he grows eloquent with the description of the rich skins of the
khan of Tatary; in the early fathers of the church, who lament
their introduction into Rome and Byzantium as an evidence of
barbaric and debasing luxury; in the political history of Russia,
stretching out a powerful arm over Siberia to secure her rich
treasures; in the story of the French occupation of Canada,
and the ascent of the St Lawrence to Lake Superior, and the
subsequent contest to retain possession against England; in
the history of early settlements of New England, New York
and Virginia; in Irving's Astoria; in the records of the Hudson's
Bay Company; and in the annals of the fairs held at Nizhniy
Novgorod and Leipzig. Here it may suffice to give some account
of the present condition of the trade in fancy furs. The collection
of skins is now chiefly a matter of private enterprise. Few, if
any, monopolies exist.
Natural Supplies. We are dependent upon the Carnivora,
Rodentia, Ungulata and Marsupialia for our supplies of furs,
the first two classes being by far of the greatest importance. The
Carnivora include bears, wolverines, wolves, raccoons, foxes,
sables, martens, skunks, kolinskis, fitch, fishers, ermines, cats,
sea otters, fur seals, hair seals, lions, tigers, leopards, lynxes,
jackals, &c. The Rodentia include beavers, nutrias, musk-rats
or musquash, marmots, hamsters, chinchillas, hares, rabbits,
squirrels, &c. TheUngulataincludePersian,Astrachan,Crimean,
FUR
347
Chinese and Tibet lambs, mouflon, guanaco, goats, ponies, &c.
The Manupialia include opossums, wallabies and kangaroos.
These, of course, could be subdivided, but for general purposes
of the fur trade the above is deemed sufficient.
The question frequently arises, not only for those interested
in the production of fur apparel, but for those who derive so
much comfort and pleasure from its use, whether the supply of
fur-bearing animals is likely to be exhausted. Although it is
a fact that the demand is ever increasing, and that some of the
rarer ftfiwl* are decreasing in numbers, yet on the other hand
some kinds of fun are occasionally neglected through vagaries of
fashion, which give nature an opportunity to replenish their
source. These respites are, however, becoming fewer every day,
and what were formerly the most neglected kinds of furs arc
becoming more and more sought after. The supply of some of
the most valuable, such as sable, silver and natural black fox,
sea otter and ermine, which are all taken from animals of a more
or less shy nature, does very gradually decrease with persistent
hunting and the encroachment of man upon the districts where
they live, but the climate of these vast regions is so cold and
inhospitable that the probabilities of man ever permanently
inhabiting them in numbers sufficient to scare away or exter-
minate the fur-bearing wild animals is unlikely. Besides these
there are many useful, though commonplace, fur-bearing animals
like mink, musquash, skunk, raccoon, opossum, hamster, rabbit,
hares and moles, that thrive by depredations upon cultivated
land. Some of these are reared upon extensive wild farms.
In addition there are domestic fur-bearing animals, such as
Persian, Astrachan and Chinese lambs, and goats, easily bred
and available.
With regard to the rearing of the Persian lamb, there is a
prevalent idea that the skins of the unborn lamb are frequently
used; this, however, is a mistake. A few such skins have been
taken, but they are too delicate to be of any service. The youngest,
known as " broadtails," are killed when a few days old, but for
the well-developed curly fur, the lambs must be six or seven weeks
old. During these weeks their bodies are covered with leather
so that the fur may develop in close, light and clean curls. The
experiment has been' tried of rearing rare, wild, fur-bearing
?niml in captivity, and although climatic conditions and food
have been precisely as in their natural environment, the fur has
been poor in quality and bad in colour, totally unlike that taken
from animals in the wild state. The sensation of fear or the re-
striction of movement and the obtaining of food without exertion
evidently prevent the normal development of the creature.
In mountainous districts in the more temperate zones some
good supplies are found. Chinchillas and nutrias are obtained
from South America, whence come also civet cats, jaguars,
ocelots and puma*. Opossums and wallabies, good useful furs,
come from Australia and New Zealand. The martens, foxes
and otters imported from southern Europe and southern Asia,
are very mixed in quality, and the majority are poor compared
with those of Canada and the north.
Certain characteristics in the skin reveal to the expert from
what section of territory they come, but in classifying them it
is considered sufficient to mention territories only.
Some of the poorer sorts of furs, such as hamster, marmot,
Chinese goats and lambs, Tatar ponies, weasels, kaluga, various
monkeys, antelopes, foxes, otters, jackals and others from the
warmer zones, which until recently were neglected on account
of their inferior quality of colour, by the better class of the trade,
are now being deftly dressed or dyed in Europe and America,
and good effects are produced, although the lack of quality when
compared with the better furs from colder climates which possess
full top hair, close undenrool and supple leathers, is readily
manifest. It is only the pressure of increasing demand that makes
marketable hard pelts with harsh brittle hair of nondescript
hue, and these would, naturally, be the last to attract the notice
of dealers.
As it is impossible that we shall ever discover any new fur-
bearing animals other than those we know, it behoves responsible
authorities to enforce close seasons and restrictions, as to the
sex and age, in the killing for the purpose of equalizing the
numbers of the catches. As evidence of indiscriminate slaughter
the case of the American buffaloes may be cited. At one time
thousands of buflalo skins were obtainable and provided material
for most useful coats and rugs for rough wear in cold regions,
but to-day only a herd or so of the animals remain, and in
captivity.
The majority of animals taken for their fur are trapped or
snared, the gun being avoided as much as possible in order that
the coat may be quite undamaged. Many weary hours are
spent in setting baits, traps and wires, and, frequently, when
the hunter retraces his steps to collect the quarry it is only to
find it gone, devoured by some large animal that has visited
his traps before him. After the skins have been carefully
removed the sooner after death the better for the subsequent
condition of the fur they are lightly tacked out, pelt outwards,
and, without being exposed to the sun or close contact with a
fire, allowed to dry in a hut or shady place where there is some
warmth or movement of air. With the exception of sealskins,
which are pickled in brine, all raw skins come to the various
trade markets simply dried like this.
Quality and Colour. The best fur is obtained by killing
animals when the winter is at its height and the colder the season
the better its quality and colour. Fur skins taken out of season
are indifferent, and the hair is liable to shed itself freely; a
good furrier will, however, reject such faulty specimens in the
manufacturing. The finest furs are obtained from the Arctic
and northern regions, and the lower the latitude the less full and
silky the fur, till, at the torrid zone, fur gives place to harsh hair
without any underwool. The finest and closest wools are
possessed by the amphibious Carnivora and Rodentia, viz. seals,
otters, beavers, nutrias and musquash, the beauty of which is
not seen until after the stiff water or top hairs are pulled out
or otherwise removed. In this class of animal the underneath
wool of the belly is thicker than that of the back, while the
opposite is true of those found on the land. The sea otter, one
of the richest and rarest of furs, especially for men's wear, is an
exception to this unhairing process, which it does not require,
the hair being of the same length as the wool, silky and bright,
quite the reverse of the case of other aquatic animals.
Of sealskins there are two distinct classes, the fur seals and the
hair seals. The latter have no growth of fur under the stiff top
hair and are killed, with few exceptions (generally of the marbled
seals), on account of the oil and leather they yield. The best
fur scab are found off the Alaska coast and down as far south
as San Francisco.
It is found that in densely wooded districts furs arc darker in
colour than in exposed regions, and that the quality of wool and
hair is softer and more silky than those from bare tractsof country,
where nature exacts from its creatures greater efforts to secure
food, thereby developing stronger limbs and a consequently
coarser body covering.
As regards density of colour the skunk or black marten has
the blackest fur, and some cats of the domestic kind, specially
reared for their fur, are nearly black. Black bears have occasion-
ally very black coats, but the majority have a brownish under-
wool. The natural black fox is a member of the silver fox
family and is very rare, the skins bringing a high price. Most
silver foxes have dark necks and in some the dark shade runs a
quarter, half-way, or three-quarters, or even the whole length
of the skin, but it is rather of a brownish hue. Some Russian
sables are of a very dense bluish brown almost a black, which is
the origin undoubtedly of the term " sables," while some, from
one district in particular, have a quantity of silver hairs, evenly
interspersed in the fur, a peculiarity which has nothing to do
with age. The best sea otters have very dark coats which are
highly esteemed, a few with silver hairs in parts; where these
are equally and evenly spread the skins are very valuable. Otters
and beavers that run dark in the hair or wool are more valuable
than the paler ones, the wools of which are frequently touched
with a chemical to produce a golden shade. This is also done
with nutrias after unhairing. The darker sorts of mink,
FUR
musquash, raccoon and wolverine are more valuable than the
paler skins.
Collective Supplies and Sales. There are ten large American
and Canadian companies with extensive systems for gathering
the annual hauls of skins from the far-scattered trappers. These
are the Hudson's Bay Co., Russian Fur Co., Alaska Commercial
Co., North American Commercial Co., Russian Sealskin Co.,
Harmony Fur Co., Royal Greenland Fur Co., American Fur Co.,
Missouri Co. and Pacific Co. Most of the raw skins are forwarded
to about half-a-dozen brokers in London, who roughly sort them
in convenient lots, issuing catalogues to the traders of the world,
and after due time for examination of the goods by intending
purchasers, the lots are sold by public auction. The principal
sales of general furs are held in London in January and March,
smaller offerings being made in June and October; while the
bulk of fur sealskins is sold separately in December. The
Hudson's Bay Co.'s sales take place before the others, and, as
no reserves are placed on any lot, the results are taken as exactly
indicating current values. While many buyers from America
and Russia are personally in attendance at the sales, many more
are represented by London and Leipzig agents who buy for them
upon commission. In addition to the fur skins coming from
North America vast numbers from Russia, Siberia, China, Japan,
Australia and South America are offered during the same periods
at public auction. Fairs are also held in Siberia, Russia and
Germany for the distribution of fur skins as follows:
January :
February :
Easter:
August :
August :
December :
Frankfort-on-the-
Oder
Irbit, Siberia
Leipzig, Germany
Small collection of pro-
vincial produce, such
as otter, fox, fitch and
marten.
General Russian furs.
, ., General furs.
Nizhniy Novgorod, Persian lamb and general
Russia furs.
Kiakhta, Siberia . Chinese furs and ermine.
Ishim, Siberia . Chiefly squirrels.
Of course there are many transactions, generally in the cheaper
and coarser kinds of furs, used only in central Europe, Russia
and Asia which in no way interest the London market, and there
are many direct consignments of skins from collectors in America
and Russia to London, New York and Leipzig merchants. But
the bulk of the fine furs of the world is sold at the large public
trade auction sales in London. The chief exceptions are the
Persian and Astrachan lambs, which are bought at the Russian
fairs, and are dressed and dyed in Leipzig, and the ermine and
Russian squirrels, which are dressed and manufactured into
linings either in Russia or Germany before offered for sale to the
wholesale merchants or manufacturers.
The annual collection of fur skins varies considerably in
quantity according to the demand and to the good or bad climatic
conditions of the season; and it is impossible to give a complete
record, as many skins are used in the country of their origin or
exported direct to merchants. But a fairly exact statement of
the numbers sold in the great public trade auction sales in
London during the year 1905-1906 is herewith set out.
Year ending jist of March igo6. Total Number
of Skins.
28,634
6,026
18,576
80,514
157,915
126,703
32-253
Bastard 43,578
5,603
124,355
40,641
5-949
77,578
i,893
10,276
59,56i
81,429
4-023
158,961
2,510
27.463
uyu
adger, Japanese .
ear
eaver
at, Civet
at, House
Wild
hinchilla (La Plata), 1
now
n ah
o as
Peruvian fin
;st
eer, Chinese
rmine .
sher
tch
ox, Blue.
Cross
Grey
Japanese
Kit .
Red
Silver
White
Goats, Chinese
Hares
Kangaroo
Kid, Chinese linings and skins equal to
Kolinsky . ... .
Lamb, Mongolian linings and skins equal to
. Slink
-. Tibet
Leopard
Lynx
Marmot, linings and skins equal to
Marten, Baum
Japanese .
Stone
Mink, Canadian and American
,, Japanese
Mouflon
Musk-rat or Musquash, Brown
Black
Nutria
Opossum, American 902,065
Australian 4,161,685
261,190
41,256
7,"5
5,080,047
"4,251
214,072
167,372
794,130
3,574
88,822
1,600,600
4,573
16,461
12,939
299.254
360,373
23,594
5,126,339
41,788
82,474
Otter, River
Sea ....
Raccoon .....
Sable, Canadian and American
,, Japanese
Russian
Seals, Fur
Hair . . . ,
Skunk 1.068408
Squirrel 194,596
21,235
522
310,712
97,282
, 556
26,399
77,000
31,943
Linings each averaging 126 skins
Tiger
Wallaby
Wolf.
Wolverine
1,982,736
392
60,956
56,642
1,726
Wombat 193,625
A brief account of the different qualities of the pelts, with
some general remarks as to their customary uses, follows. The
prices quoted are subject to constant fluctuation and represent
purely trade prices for bulk, and it should be explained that the
very great variations are due to different sizes, qualities and
colours, and moreover are only first cost, before skins are dressed
and prepared. These preparations are in some cases expensive,
and there is generally a considerable percentage of waste. The
prices cannot be taken as a guide to the wholesale price of a
single and finished skin, but simply as relative value.
The fullest and darkest skins of each kind are the most valu-
able, and, in cases of bluish grey or white, the fuller, clearer and
brighter are the more expensive. A few albinos are found in
every species, but whatever their value to a museum, they are of
little commercial importance. Some odd lots of skins arrive
designated simply as " sundries," so no classification is possible,
and this will account for the absence of a few names of skins of
which the imports are insignificant in quantity, or are received
direct by the wholesale merchants.
Names, Qualities and Uses of Pelts. 1
ASTRACHAN. See Lambs, below.
BADGER. Size 2X1 ft. American sorts have coarse thick under-
wool of a pale fawn or stone colour with a growth of longer black
and white hairs, 3 or 4 in. long; a very durable but clumsy fur.
The best skins are exported to France, Spain and Italy, and used for
carriage rugs and military purposes. Asiatic, including Japanese,
skins are more woolly. Russian and Prussian kinds are coarser and
darker, and used mostly for brush trade. Value 6d. to 193.
BEAR, AUSTRALIAN. See Wombat, below.
BEAR, BLACK. Size 6X3 ft. Fine dark brown underwool with
bright black and flowing top hair 4 in. long. Cubs are nearly as long
in the hair although only about half the size and not only softer and
better, but have the advantage of being very much lighter in pelt.
Widely distributed in North America, the best come from Canada,
are costly and are used for military caps, boas, muffs, trimmings,
carriage rugs and coachmen's capes, and the fur wears exceedingly
well. Value 175. 6d. to 86s. Those from East India and warm
climates are harsh, poor and only fit for floor rugs.
BEAR, BROWN. Size 6X3 ft. Similar in quality to the black,
but far more limited in number; the colours range from light yellow
to a rich dark brown. The best come from Hudson Bay territory
and are valuable. Used for muffs, trimmings, boas, and carriage
1 The measurements given are from nose to root of tail of average
large sizes after the dressing process, which has a shrinking tendency.
The depths of fur quoted are the greatest, but there are plenty of
good useful skins possessing a lesser depth.
FUR
349
rugs. Inferior sorts, almost grizzly in effect and some very pale,
are found in Europe and Asia and are mostly used locally. In India
there is a species called Isabelline bear, which was formerly imported
to Great Britain, but does not now arrive in any quantity worth
mentioning. Value los. 6d. to 6os., Isabelline sort los. 6d. to 788.
BEAR. GRIZZLY. Size 8X4 ft. Coarse hair, heavy pelt, mostly
dark yellowish and brown colours, only found in western parts of
I'nited States, Russia and Siberia. Used as carriage rugs and floor
rugs, most durable for latter purpose and of fine effect. They are
about half the value of brown bear. Value i$s. to 548.
HEAR, ISABELLINE. See Bear, Brawn, above.
BEAR. WHITE. Sue 10X5 ft. The largest of all bears. Short
close hair except on flanks, colour white to yellow. An inhabitant
of the Arctic circle, best from Greenland. Used for floor rugs, very
durable ; and very white specimens are valuable. Value 20*. to 5203.
BEAVER. Size 3X2 ft. The largest of rodents, it possesses a
dose underwool of bluish-brown hue, nearly an inch in depth, with
coarse, bright, black or reddish-brown top hair, 3 in. long. Found
widely in North America. After being unhaired the darkest wools
are the most valuable, although many people prefer the bright,
lighter brown tone*. Used for collars, cuffs, boas, muffs, trimmings,
coat linings and carriage aprons, and is of a most durable nature, in
addition to having a rich and good appearance. Value los. to
395. 6d.
BROADTAIL. See Lambs, below.
CARACAL. A small lynx from India, the fur very poor, seldom
(ported.
CARACUL. See Coats and Lambs, below.
CAT, CIVET. Size 9X4$ in., short, thick and dark underwool
with silky black top hair with irregular and unique white markings.
It is similar to skunk, but is much lighter in weight, softer and less
full, without any disagreeable odour. Used for coat linings it is
very warm and durable. A few come from China, but the fur is
yellowish-grey, slightly spotted and worth little. Value is. id.
to is. i id.
CAT, HOUSE, &c. 18X9 in., mostly black and dark brown,
imported from Holland, Bavaria, America and Russia, where they
are reared for their coats. The best, from Holland, are used for coat
linings. Although in colour, weight and warmth they are excellent,
the fur is apt to become loose and to fall off with friction of wear.
The black are known as genet, although the true genet is a spotted
wild cat. Wild sorts of the tabby order are coarser, and not so good
and silky in effect as when domestically reared. Value of the
black sort* ad. to 35. Wild od. to 148. Some small wild cats, very
poor Bat fur of a pale fawn colour with yellow spots, are imported
from Australia and used for linings. Value $J<1. to is. id.
CHEETAH. Size of a small leopard and similar in colour, but has
black spots in lieu of rings. Only a few are now imported, which arc
used for mats. Value 2s. 6d. to i8s.
CHINCHILLA, PERUVIAN and BOLIVIAN. Size 12X7 '"- fur I to
I i in. deep. Delicate blur-grey with black shading*, one of nature's
most beautiful productions, though not a durable one. Used for
ladies' coats, stoles, muffs, hats and trimmings. Yearly becoming
scarcer and most costly. Value 8s. 6d. to 568. 8d.
CHINCHILLA, LA PLATA, incorrectly named and known in the trade
a* " bastard chinchilla," size 9X4 in., in a similar species, but owing
to lower altitudes and warmer climatic conditions of habitation
it smaller, with shorter and less beautiful fur, the underwool colour
being darker and the top colour less pure. Used exactly as the
better kind} and the picked skin* are most effective. As with the
bat son it b not serviceable for constant wear. Value 4. 2il. to
2?s.6d.
CHISCHILLONE. Size 13X8 in., obtained also from South America.
Fur is longer and weaker and poorer and yellower than chinchilla.
Probably a crossbred animal, very limited importation. Value
3*. 6d. to 16s. 8d.
DEER, CHINESE and EAST INDIAN. Small, light, pelted skins,
the majority of which are used for mats. Reindeer and other
varieties are of little interest for use other than trophy mats.
Thousands are taken for the leather trade. Value of Chinese is. 2d.
to is. 6d. each.
Doc. The only dogs that are used in the fur trade in civilized
countries are those imported from China, which are heavy and
coarse, and only used in the cheaper trade, chiefly for rugs. Value
6d. to is.
Doc WOLF. See Wolf, below.
ERMINE. Size 12X2) in. Underwool short and even, with a shade
longer top hair. Pelt light and close in texture, and durable. In
the height of winter the colour is pure white with exception of the
tip of tail, which is quite black. Supplies are obtained from Siberia
and America. Best are from Ishim in Siberia. Used for cloak
linings, stoles, muffs and trimmings, also for embellishment of
British state, parliamentary and legal robes. When this fur is
symmetrically spotted with Mack lamb pieces it is styled miniver,
m which form it is used at the grand coronation functions of British
sovereigns. Value is. 3d. to 8s. 6d.
FISHER. Size 3oX 12 in., tail 12 to 18 in. long, the largest of the
martens; has a dark shaded deep underwool with fine, glossy, dark
and strong top hair 2 in. or more long. Best obtained from British
The tails are almost Mack and make up most handsomely
into trimmings, muffs, &c. Tails worked separately in these forms are
as rich and fine and more durable than any other fur suitable for a
like purpose. The fur of the skin itself is something like a dark
silky raccoon, but is not as attractive as the tails. Value I2s. to 468.
FITCH. Size 12X3 in., of the marten species, also known as the
pole cat. Yellow underwool j in. deep, black top hair, 1 1. to if in.
long, very fine and open in growth, and not close as in martens.
Largest skins come from Denmark, Holland and Germany. The
Russian are smaller, but more silky and, as now dyed, make a cheap
and fair substitute for sable. They are excellent for linings of
ladies' coats, being of light weight and fairly strong in the pelt.
English mayors' and civic officials' robes are frequently trimmed
with this fur in lieu of sable. Value of the German variety 2s. to
53. 6d. and of the Russian 7<1. to is. 4d.
Fox, BLUB. Size 24X8 in. Underwool thick and long. Top
hair fine and not so plentiful as in other foxes. Found in Alaska,
Hudson Bay territory. Archangel and Greenland. Although called
blue, the colour is a slaty or drab tone. Those from Archangel are
more silky and of a smoky bluish colour and arc the most valuable.
These are scarce and consequently dear. The white foxes that are
dyed smoke and celestial blue are brilliant and totally unlike the
browner shades of this fox. Value 343. to I95s.
Fox, COMMON. The variation of size and quality is considerable,
and the colour is anything from grey to red. In Great Britain the
animal is now only regarded for the sport it provides. On the
European continent, however, some hundreds of thousands of skins,
principally German, Russian and Norwegian, are sold annually,
for home use, and for dyeing and exportation, chiefly to the United
States. The qualities do not compare with those species found in
North America and the Arctic circle. The Asiatic, African and
South American varieties are, with the exception of those taken in
the mountains, poorly furred and usually brittle and therefore of no
great service. No commercial value can be quoted.
Fox, CROSS. Size 20X7 in., are about as large as the silver and
generally have a pale yellowish or orange tone with some silvery
points and a darkish cross marking on the shoulders. Some are very
similar to the pale red fox from the North-West of America and a
few are exceptionally large. The darkest and best come from
Labrador and Hudson Bay, and the ordinary sorts from the north-
west of the United States and, as with silver and other kinds, the
quality is inferior when taken from warmer latitudes. Value los. 6d.
to 6os.
Fox, GREY. Size 27X10 in. Has a close dark drab underwool
with yellowish grizzly, grey, regular and coarse top hair. The
majority used for the trade come from Virginia and the southern
and western parts of the United States. Those from the west are
jarger than the average, with more fur of a brighter tone. The fur
is fairly serviceable for carriage rug_s, the leather being stout, but its
harshness of quajity and nondescript colour does not contribute to
make it a favourite. Value <>d. to 43. o<l.
Fox, JAPANESE. See Fox, Red, and Raccoon, below.
Fox, KIT. Size 20X6 in. The underwool is short and soft, as
is also the top hair, which is of very pale grey mixed with some
yellowish-white hair. It is the smallest of foxes, and is found in
Canada and the northern section of the United States. It is similar
in colour and quality to the prairie fox and to many kinds from the
warmer zones, such as from Turkey, eastern Asia and elsewhere.
Value is. 3d. to 5s. 6d.
Fox, RED. Size 24X8 in., though a few kinds are much larger.
The underwool is long and soft and the hair plentiful and strong.
It is found widely in the northern parts of America and in smaller
numbers south of the United States, also in China, Japan and
Australia. The colours vary from pale yellowish to a dark red,
some being very brilliant. Those of Kamschatka are rich and fine in
quality. Farther north, especially near the sea, the fur is coarse.
Where the best coloured skins are not used for carriage rugs they are
extensively dyed, and badger and other white hairs arc inserted
to resemble silver fox. They are also dyed a sable colour. The
skins, being the strongest of foxes', both in the fur and pelt, are
serviceable. The preparations in imitation of the natural black and
silver sorts are very good and attractive. Value is. to 4is.
Fox, SILVER. Size 30X10 in. Underwool close ana fine. Top
hair black to silvery, 3 in. long. The fur upon the necks usually
runs dark, almost black, and in some cases the fur is black halfway
down the length of the skin, in rarer cases three-quarters of the
length and, in the most exceptional instances, the whole length,
and! when this is the case they are known as " Natural Black Foxes "
and fetch enormous prices. The even silvery sorts are highly
esteemed, and the fur is one of the most effective and precious.
The finest are taken in Labrador. The farther south they are found,
the poorer and coarser the fur. The brush has invariably a white
tip. Value l to 320.
Fox, WHITE. Size 20X7 in. Animals of this species are generally
small in size and inhabit the extreme northern sections of Hudson
Bay, Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador and Siberia. The
Canadian are silky in nature and inclined to a creamy colour, while
the Siberian are more woolly and rather whiter. Those taken in
central Asia near or in Chinese territory are poorer and yellowish.
The underwool in all sorts is generally of a bluish-grey tone, but the
top hair in the depth of winter is usually full enough in quantity to
35
FUR
hide any such variation. Those skins in which the underwool is
quite white are rare and much more expensive. In summer speci-
mens of this species, as with other white furred animals, have slightly
discoloured coats. The skins that are not perfectly white are dyed
jet black, dark or light smoke, violet-blue, blue-grey, and also in
imitation of the drab shades of the natural blue. Value i8s. to 66s.
GENET. Size 10X4 in. The genet proper is a small whitespotted
cat found in Europe, but the quantity is too small to be of commercial
interest. The name has been adopted for the black cats used so
much in the trade. (See Cats, above.) Value is. to 6s. 6d.
GOATS. Size varies greatly. The European, Arabian and East
Indian kinds are seldom used for rugs, the skins are chiefly dressed
as leather for books and furniture, and the kids for boots and gloves,
and the finer wool and hair are woven into various materials. Many
from Russia are dyed black for floor and carriage rugs ; the hair is
brittle, with poor underwool and not very durable ; the cost, however,
is small. The Chinese export thousands of similar skins in black,
grey and white, usually ready dressed and made into rugs of two
skins each. A great many are dyed black and brown, in imitation
of bear, and are used largely in the western parts of the United
States and Canada for sleigh and carriage rugs. Many are used for
their leather. Thousands of the kids are also dyed black and worked
into cross-shaped pieces, in which shape they are largely exported
to Germany, France, Great Britain and America, and sold by the
retail as caracal, kid or caracul. The grey ones are in good demand
for motor coats. The word caracul has been adopted from the
Turkish and signifies black-eared. See also Lambs, caracul. Value
of Chinese white 35. 6d. to 6s. 6d. ; grey, 43. to 6s. o.d.
The Angora from the heights of central Asia Minor has curly,
fleecy, silky, white wool, 4 to 7 in. long. The fur is not used in Great
Britain, as formerly, and the greater quantity, known as mohair,
is now imported for purposes of weaving. This species of goat was
some years since introduced into Cape Colony, but its wool is not
so good as the Asiatic breed. Good business, however, is done with
the product, but chiefly for leather. Value 45. to I2s. 6d.
The Mongolian goat has a very soft silk underwool, and after the
long top hair is removed it is dressed and imported and erroneously
named mouflon. The colour is a light fawn, but it is so pale that it
lends itself to be dyed any colour. It was popular some years since
in the cheaper trade, but it is not now much seen in England. Value
2S. tO 6s.
The Tibet goat is similar to the Angora in the fineness of its wool,
and many are used in the making of cashmere shawls. The Tibet
lamb so largely imported and used for children's wear is often mis-
called Tibet goat. Value 35. to 73. 6d.
GUANACO. Size 30X15 in. Is a species of goat found in Pata-
gonia and other parts of South America. It has a very long neck and
exceedingly soft woolly fur of a light reddish-fawn colour with very
white flanks. It is usually imported in small quantities, native
dressed, and ready made into rugs. The dressing is hard and
brittle. If the skins are dressed in Europe they afford a very com-
fortable rug, though a very marked one in effect. They have a
simitar wool to the vicuna, but coarser and redder; both are largely
used in South America. Value is. to 43. 6d.
HAMSTER. Size 8X3i in. A destructive rodent, is found in
great numbers in Russia and Germany. The fur is very flat and poor,
of a yellowish pale brown with a little marking of black. Being
of a light weight it is used for linings. Value 3d. to is.
HARE. Size 24X9 in. The common hare of Europe does not
much interest the furrier, the fur being chiefly used by makers of
hatters' felt. The white hares, however, of Russia, Siberia and other
regions in the Arctic circle are very largely used in the cheaper trade
of Europe, America and the British colonies. The fur is of the
whitest when killed in winter, and that upon the flanks of the animal
is very much longer than that upon its back. The flanks are usually
cut off and made into muffs and stoles. The hair is, however, brittle
and is not at all durable. This fur is dyed jet black and various
shades of brown and grey, and manufactured into articles for the
small drapers and for exportation. The North American hares
are also dyed black and brown and used in the same way. Value
of white ad. to sd.
JACKAL. Size 2 to 3 ft. long. Is found in India and north and
south Africa. Indian are light brown and reddish, those from the
Cape are dark grey and rather silvery. Few are imported. Fur
generally poor and harsh, only suitable for carriage rugs. Value
is. to 33. 6d.
JAGUAR. Size 7 to 10 ft. long. Is found in Mexico and British
Honduras. The markings are an irregular ring formation with a
spot in the centre. Leopards have rings only and cheetahs solid
spots. Suitable only for hearthrugs. Supply very limited. Value
53. to 453.
KALUGA. See Souslik, below.
KANGAROO. The sizes vary considerably, some being huge,
others quite small. The larger varieties, viz. the red and the great,
do not usually interest furriers, the fur being harsh and poor without
underwool. They are tanned for the leather trade. The sorts used
for carriage aprons, coat linings and the outside of motor coats
include: blue kangaroo, bush kangaroo, bridled kangaroo, wallaroo,
yellow kangaroo, rock wallaby, swamp wallaby and short-tailed
wallaby. Many of the swamp sort are dyed to imitate skunk and
look well. Generally the colours are yellowish or brown. Some are
dark brown as in the swamp, which being strong are suitable for
motor coats. The rock wallabies are soft and woolly and often of a
pretty bluish tone, and make moderately useful carriage rugs and
perambulator aprons. The redder and browner sorts are also good
for rugs as they are thick in the pelt. On the European continent
many of these are dyed. The best of the lighter weights are fre-
quently insufficiently strong in the hair to stand the friction of wear
in a coat lining. Value, kangaroo gd. to 33., wallaby ijd. to 53. 3d.,
wallaroo is. to 53. 6d.
KIDS. See Coats, above.
KOLINSKY. Size 12X2^ in. Is one of the marten tribe. The
underwool is short and rather weak, but regular, as is also the top
hair; the colour is usually yellow. They have been successfully
dyed and used as a substitute for sable. They are found in Siberia,
Amoor, China and Japan, but the best are from Siberia. They are
light in weight and therefore suitable for linings of coats. The tails
are used for artists' " sable " brushes. The fur has often been
designated as red or Tatar sable. Value Is. 6d. to 43. 6d.
LAMBS. The sorts that primarily interest the fur trade in Europe
and America are those from south Russia, Persia and Afghanistan,
which are included under the following wholesale or retail com-
mercial terms: Persian lamb, broadtail, astrachan, Shiraz, Bokharan
and caracul lamb. With the public the general term astrachan is an
old one, embracing all the above curly sorts ; the flatter kinds, asbroad-
tail and caracul lamb, have always been named separately. The
Persian lambs, size 18X9 in-, are the finest and the best of them.
When dressed and dyed they should have regular, close and bright
curl, varying from a small to a very large one, and if of equal size,
regularity, tightness and brightness, the value is comparatively a
matter of fancy. Those that are dull and loose, or very coarse and
flat in the curl, are of far less market value.
All the above enumerated lambs are naturally a rusty black or
brown, and with very few exceptions are dyed a jet black. Lustre,
however, cannot be imparted unless the wool was originally of a
silky nature. Broadtails, size 10X5 in., are the very young of the
Persian sheep, and are killed before the wool has time to develop
beyond the flat wavy state which can be best compared to a piece
of moire silk. They are naturally exceedingly light in weight, and
those that are of an even pattern, possessing a lustrous sheen, are
costly. There is, notwithstanding, a great demand for these from
the fashionable world, as not only are they very effective, but being
so flat in the wool the figure of the wearer can be shown as perfectly
as in a garment made of silk. It cannot be regarded as an economical
fur, as the pelt is too delicate to resist hard wear.
Persian Lamb price I2s. 6d. to 253.
Broadtail los. 353.
Astrachan, Shiraz and Bokharan lambs, size 22 by 9 in., are of a
coarser, looser curl, and chiefly used for coat linings, while the
Persians are used for outside of garments, collars, cuffs, stoles, muffs,
hats and trimmings and gloves. The so-called caracul lambs, size
12X6 in., are the very young of the astrachan sheep, and the pick
of them are almost as effective as broadtails, although less fine in the
texture. See also remarks as to caracul kid under Coats, above.
Astrachan price is. to 53. 6d.
Caracul Lamb ,, 2s. 6d ,, los. 6d.
Shiraz 45. 6d los.
Bokharan ,, is. 6d ,, 33. 6d.
Grey lambs, size 24 X 10 in., are obtained from the Crimea and known
in the trade as " crimmers." They are of a similar nature to the
caracul lambs, but looser in curl, ranging from a very light to a
dark grey. The best are the pale bluish greys, and are chiefly used
for ladies' coats, stoles, muffs and hats. Price 2s. to 6s. Mongolian
lambs, size 24X15 in., are of a short wavy loose curl, creamy white
colour, and are usually exported from China dressed, the majority
being ready-made into cross-shaped coats or linings. They are used
principally for linings of good evening wraps for ladies. Price is.
to 2s. 6d. Slink lambs come from South America and China. The
former are very small and generally those that are stillborn. They
have a particularly thin pelt with very close wool of minute curl.
The China sorts are much larger. The smallest are used for glove
linings and the others for opera cloak linings. Price is. to 6s. 6d.
LEOPARD. Size 3 to 6 ft. long. There are several kinds, thechief
being the snow or ounce, Chinese, Bengal, Persian, East Indian and
African. The first variety inhabit the Himalayas and are beautifully
covered with a deep soft fur quite long compared to the flat harsh
hair of the Bengal sort. The colours are pale orange and white with
very dark markings, a strong contrast making a fine effect. Most
artists prize these skins above all others. The Chinese are of a
medium orange brown colour, but full in fur. The East Indian are
less full and not so dark. The Bengal are dark and medium in colour,
short and hard hair, but useful for floor rugs, as they dp not hold the
dust like the fuller and softer hair of the kinds previously named.
They are also used for drummers' aprons and saddle cloths in the
Indian army. The African are small with pale lemon colour grounds
very closely marked with black spots on the skin, the strong con-
trast making a pleasing effect. Occasionally, where something very
marked is wanted, skating jackets and carriage aprons are made
FUR
from the softest and flattest of skins, but usually they are made into
settee covers, floor rugs and foot muffs. Value 2s. to 40*.
Laos. Six 5 to 6 ft. long. These skins are found in Africa,
Arabia aad pan of India, and are C\<T> scar becoming scarcer.
They are only used for floor rugs, and the males are more highly
esteemed on account of the set-off of the mane. Value, lions' 10
to 100; lionesses' 5 to 25.
LYNX. Size 45X20 in. The underwool is thinner than fox, but
the top hair is toe, silky and flowing, 4 in. long, of a pale grey,
slightly mottled with fine streaks and dark spots. The fur upon the
rUnka is longer and white with very' pronounced markings of dark
spots, and this part of the skin is generally worked separately from
the rest and is very effective for gown trimmings. Where the colour
is of a sandy and reddish hue the value is far less than where it is
of a bluish tone. They inhabit North America as far south as
California, also Norway and Sweden. Those from the Hudson Bay
district and Sweden are the best and are very similar. Those taken
in Central Asia are mostly used locally. For attire the skins manu-
factured in Europe are generally dyed black or brown, in which
state it has a similar appearance to dyed fox. but haying less thick
underwool- and finer hair flows freely. The finest skins when dyed
black are used very largely in America in place of the dyed black
fox so fashionable lor mourning wear in Great Britain and France.
The British Hussar busbies are made of the dark brown lynx, and it
is the free silky easy movement of the fur with the least disturbance
in the atmosphere that gives it such a pleasing effect. It is used
for rugs in its natural state and also in Turkey as trimmings for
garments. Value 133. 6d. to 56*.
LYNX CAT or BAY LYNX. Is about half the size and depth of fur
of a lynx proper, and inhabits the central United States. It is a
flat and reddish fur compared to the lynx and is suitable for cheap
carriage aprons. A few come from Canada and are of better quality.
Value 5*. to iss.
MARMOT. -Size 18X12 in. Is a rodent and isfound inconsiderable
numbers in the south of Prussia. The fur is a yellowish brown and
rather harsh and brittle and has no underwool. Since, however,
the value of all good furs has advanced, dyers and manufacturers
have made very successful efforts with this fur. The Viennese have
been particularly successful, and their method has been to dye the
i a good brown and then not put in the dark stripes, which
: in sable and mink, until the garment or article is finished, thus
. ining as perfectly symmetrical effects as if the articles were
made of small skins instead of large ones. Marmots are also found
in North America, Canada and China ; the best, however, come from
Russia. It should always be a cheap fur, having so few good qualities
to recommend it. Value od. to 2s. 6d.
MARTEN, AMERICAN. See Sable, below.
MARTEN, BAUM. Size 16X5 in. Is sometimes called the pine
marten, and is found in quantity in the wooded and mountainous
districts of Russia, Norway, Germany and Switzerland. It possesses
a thick underwool with strong top hair, and ranges from a pale to a
dark bluish brown. The best, from Norway, are very durable and
of good appearance and an excellent substitute for American sable.
The tails when split into two or three, with small strips of narrow
tape so as to separate the otherwise dense fur, formerly made very
handsome sets of trimmings, ties and muffs, and the probabilities
are, as with other fashions, such use will have its period of revival.
Value 6s. to 85s.
MARTEN, BLACK. See Skunk, below.
MARTEN, JAPANESE. Size 16X5 in. Is of a woolly nature with
rather coarse top hair and quite yellow in colour. It is dyed for
the cheap trade for boas and muffs, but it is not an attractive fur
at the best of times. It lacks a silky, bright and fresh appearance,
and therefore is unlikely to be in great demand, except where economy
is an object. Value 6s. 6d. to i8. 6d.
MARTEN, STONE. Size and Quality similar to the baum; the
colour, however, of the underwool is a stony white and the top hair
is very dark, almost black. They live in rocky and stony districts.
Skins of a pale bluish tone are generally used in their natural state
for stoles, boas and muffs, but the less clear coloured skins are dyed
in beautiful shades similar in density to the dark and valuable sables
from Russia, and are the most effective skins that can be purchased
at a reasonable price. The tails have also been worked, in the
manner explained with regard to the baum marten, as sets of trim-
mings and in other forms. Stone martens are found in Russia,
Bosnia, Turkey, Greece, Germany, the Alps and France. The
Bosnian and the French are the best in colour. The Asiatic sorts are
less woolly, but being silky are useful when dyed. There are many
from Afghanistan and India which are too poor to interest the
European markets. Value 7s. 6d. to 26s.
MINK. Size 16X5 in. Is of the amphibious class and is found
throughout North America and in Russia, China and Japan. The
underwool is short, close and even, as is also the top hair, which is
very strong.
Nova Scot u.
top 1.. ...
The best skins are very dark and are obtained from
In the central states of America the colour is a good
brown, but in the north-west and south-west the fur is coarse and
generally pale. It is very durable for linings, and is an economical
substitute for sable for coats, capes, boas arid trimmings. Values
*ave greatly increased, and the fur possessing good qualities as to
a and durability will doubtless always be in good request.
1 IK- Russian species is dark but flat and poor in quality, and the
Chinese and Japanese are so pale that they are invariably dyed.
These, however, are of very inferior nature. Value of American
3s. 3d. to 4Os., Japanese 3d. to 2s. 3d.
MOLE. Size 3JXiJ in. Moles are plentiful in the British Isles
and Europe, and owing to their lovely velvety coats of exquisite
blue shade and to the dearncss of other furs are much in demand.
Though the fur is cheap in itself, the expense of dressing and working
up these little skins is considerable, and they possess the unique
charm of an exceptional colour with little weight of pelt; the quality
of resistance to friction is, however, so slight as to make them expen-
sive in wear. The best are the dark blue from the Fen district of
Cambridgeshire in England. Value }d. to ad.
MONGOLIAN LAMBS. See Lambs, above.
MONKEY, BLACK. Size 18 X 10 in. Among the species of monkeys
only one interests to any extent the fur trade, and that is the black
monkey taken on the west coast of Africa (Colobus satanas). The
li.iii is very long, very black and bright with no underwool, and the
white pelt of the base of the hair, by reason of the great contrast of
colour, is very noticeable. The skins were in 1850 very fashionable
in England for stoics, muffs and trimmings, and in America also as
recently as 1890. They arc now mostly bought for Germany and
the continent. Value 6d. to is. 6d.
MOUFLON. Size 30X15 in. Is a sheep found in Russia and
Corsica and now very little in demand, and but few are imported
into Great Britain. Many Mongolian goats with the long hairs
pulled out are sold as mounon. Value 45. to IDS. 6d.
MusK-Ox. Size 6X3 ft. These animals have a dense coat of
fine, long brown wool, with very long dark brown hair on the head,
flanks and tail, and, in the centre, a peculiar pale oval marking.
There is no other fur that is so thick, and it is eminently suitable
for sleighing rugs, for which purpose it is highly prized in Canada.
The musk-ox inhabits the north part of Greenland and part of
Canada, but in very limited numbers. Value log. to 1303.
MUSQUASH or MUSK-RAT, BROWN and BLACK RUSSIAN. Size
12X8 in. A very prolific rodent of the amphibious class obtained
from Canada and the United States, similar in habit to the English
vole, with a fairly thick and even brown underwool and rather
strong top dark hair of medium density. It is a very useful fur for
men's coat linings and ladies' driving or motoring coats, being
warm, durable and not too heavy. If the colour were less motley
and the joins between the skins could be made less noticeable, it
would be largely in demand for stoles, ties and muffs. As it is, this
fur is only used for these smaller articles for the cheaper trade. It
has, however, of later years been " unhaired," the underwool clipped
very even and then dyed seal colour, in which way very useful and
attractive garments are supplied at less than half the cost of the
cheaper sealskins. They do not wear as well, however, as the pelt
and the wool are not of a strength comparable to those of sealskin.
With care, however, such a garment lasts sufficiently long to warrant
the present outlay. Value 5d. to is. od.
There is a so-called black variety found in Delaware and New
Jersey, but the number is very small compared to the brown species.
They are excellent for men's coat linings and the outside of ladies'
coats, for stoles, muffs, collars and cuffs. Value lod. to 33. yd.
The Russian musquash is very small, 7X4 in., and is limited in
numbers compared to the brown. Only a few thousands are im-
ported to London. It is of a very pretty silvery-blue shade of even
wool with very little silky top hair, having silvery-white sides and
altogether a very marked effect. The odour, however, even after
dressing is rather pungent of musk, which is generally an objection.
Value 4s. to 6s. 6d.
NUTRIA. Size 20X12 in. Is a rodent known in natural history
as the coypu, about half the size of a beaver, and when unhaired has
not more than half, generally less, the depth of fur, which is also
not so close. Formerly the fur was only used for hatters' felt, but
with the rise in prices of furs these skins have been more carefully
removed and with improved dressing, unhairing and silvering
processes the best provides a very effective and suitable fur for
ladies' coats, capes, stoles, muffs, hats and gloves, while the lower
qualities make very useful, light-weighted and inexpensive linings
for men's or women's driving coats. It is also dyed sealskin colour,
but its woolly nature renders it less effective than the more silky
musquash. They are obtained from the northern part of South
America. Value is. 6d. to 6s. 6d.
OCELOT. Size 36X13 in. Is of the nature of a leopard and
prettily marked with stripes and oblong spots. Only a few are now
imported from South America for carriage aprons or mats. The
numbers are very limited. Value is. to 2s. 6d.
OPOSSUM, AMERICAN. Size 18X10 in. Is a marsupial, a class
with this exception not met with out of Australia. The underwool
is of a very close frizzy nature, and nearly white, with long bluish
grey mixed with some black top hair. It is only found in the central
sections of the United States. About 1870 in England it was dyed
dark brown or black and used for boas, muffs and trimmings, but
until recently has been neglected on the continent. With, however,
recent experiments in brown and skunk coloured dyes, it bids fair
to become a popular fur. Value 2 j<l. to $s. 6d.
OPOSSUM, AUSTRALIAN. Size 16X8 in. Is a totally different
nature of fur to the American. Although it has wool and top hair,
352
FUR
the latter is so sparse and fine that the coat may be considered as
one of close even wool. The colour varies according to the district
of origin, from a blue grey to yellow with reddish tones. Those
from the neighbourhood of Sydney are light clear blue, while those
from Victoria are dark iron grey and stronger in the wool. These
animals are most prolific and evidently increasing in numbers.
Their fur is pretty, warm and as yet inexpensive, and is useful for
rugs, coat linings, stoles, muffs, trimmings and perambulator aprons.
The worst coloured ones are frequently dyed black and brown.
The most pleasing natural grey come from Adelaide. The reddest
are the cheapest. Value 3! d. to 33. 6d.
O POSSUM, RINGTAILED. Size 7 X 4 in. Has a very short close and
dark grey wool, some being almost black. There are but a few
thousands imported, and being so flat they are only of use for coat
linings, but they are very warm and light in weight. Value 6d.
to lod.
OPOSSUM, TASMANIAN (grey and black). Size 20X10 in. Is of a
similar description, but darker and stronger in the wool and larger.
Besides these there are some very rich brown skins which were
formerly in such request in Europe, especially Russia, that undue
killing occurred until 1899, when the government stopped for a time
the taking of any of this class. They are excellent for carriage
aprons, being not only very light in weight and warm, but handsome.
Value as. 6d. to 8s. 6d.
OTTER, RIVER. The size varies considerably, as does the under-
wool and the top hair, according to the country of origin. There
are few rivers in the world where they do not live. But it is in the
colder northern regions that they are found in the greatest numbers
and with the best fur or underwool, the top hair, which, with the
exception of the scarce and very rich dark brown specimens they
have in common with most aquatic animals, is pulled out before the
skins are manufactured. Most of the best river otter comes from
Canada and the United States and averages 36X18 in. in size. Skins
from Germany and China are smaller, and snorter in the wool. The
colours of the under wools of river otters vary, some being very
dark, others almost yellow. Both as a fur and as a pelt it is extremely
strong, but owing to its short and close wool it is usually made up
for the linings, collars and cuffs of men's coats. A large number of
skins, after unhairing, is dyed seal colour and used in America.
Those from hot climates are very poor in quality. Value 28s. to I i8s.
OTTER, SEA. Size 50X25 in. Possesses one of the most beautiful
of coats. Unlike other aquatic animals the skin undergoes no process
of unhairing, the fur being of a rich dense silky wool with the softest
and shortest of water hairs. The colours vary from pale grey brown
to a rich black, and many have even or uneven sprinkling of white
or silvery-white hairs. The blacker the wool and the more regular
the silver points, the more valuable the skin. Sea otters are, un-
fortunately, decreasing in numbers, while the demand is increasing.
The fur is most highly esteemed in Russia and China ; in the latter
country it is used to trim mandarins' state robes. In Europe and
America it is much used for collar, long facings and cuffs of a gentle-
man's coat; such a set may cost from 200 to 600, and in all prob-
ability will soon cost more. Taking into consideration the size,
it is not so costly as the natural black fox, or the darkest Russian
sable, which is now the most expensive of all. The smaller and young
sea otters of a grey or brown colour are of small value compared to
the large dark and silvery ones. Value 10 to 220. A single skin
has been known to fetch 400.
OUNCE. See Leopard, above.
PERSIAN LAMBS. See Lambs, above.
PLATYPUS. Size 12X8 in. One of the most singular of fur-
bearing animals, being the link between bird and. beast. It has fur
similar to otter, is of aquatic habits, being web-footed with spurs of
a cock and the bill of a duck. The skins are not obtained in any
numbers, but being brought over by travellers as curiosities and
used for muffs, collars and cuffs, &c., they are included here for
reference. Value 2s. to 35. 6d.
PONY or TATAR FOAL. Size 36X20 in. These skins are of
comparatively recent importation to the civilized world. They are
obtained from the young of the numerous herds of wild horses that
roam over the plains of Turkestan. The coat is usually a shade of
brown, sometimes greyish, fairly bright and with a suggestion of
waviness. Useful for motor coats. Value 33. to ics. 6d.
PUMA. Size 4JX3 ft. Is a native of South America, similar to
a lion in habits and colour of coat. The hair and pelt is, however, of
less strength, and only a few are now used for floor rugs. Value
53. to i os.
RACCOON. Size 20X12 in. Is an animal varying considerably
in size and in quality and colour of fur, according to the part of
North America in which it is found. In common parlance, it may
be described as a species of wild dog with close affinity to the bear.
The underwool is I to ij in. deep, pale brown, with long top hairs
of a dark and silvery-grey mixture of a grizzly type, the best having
a bluish tone and the cheapest a yellowish or reddish-brown. A
limited number of very dark and black sorts exist and are highly
valued for trimmings. The very finest skins are chiefly used for
stoles and muffs, and the general run for coachmen's capes and
carriage rugs, which are very handsome when the tails, which are
marked with rings of dark and light fur alternately, are left on.
Raccoons are used in enormous quantities in Canada for men's
coats, the fur outside. The poorer qualities are extensively bought
and made up in a similar way for Austria-Hungary and Germany.
These make excellent linings for coats or footsacks for open driving
in very cold climates. The worst coloured skins are dyed black or
brown and are used for British military busbies, or caps, stoles,
boas, muffs and coachmen's capes. The best skins come from the
northern parts of the United States. A smaller and poorer species
inhabits South America, and a very few are found in the north of
India, but these do not interest the European trade. From Japan
a similar animal is obtained in smaller quantities with very good
but longer fur, of yellowish motley light-brown shades. It is more
often imported and sold as Japanese fox, but its resemblance to
the fur of the American raccoon is so marked as to surely identify
it. When dyed dark blue or skunk colour it is good-looking and is
sold widely in Europe. Raccoon skins are also frequently unhaired,
and if the underwool is of good quality the effect is similar to beaver.
It is the most useful fur for use in America or Russia, having a full
quantity of fur which will retain heat. Value lod. to 26s.
SABLE, AMERICAN and CANADIAN. Size 1 7 X 5 in. The skins are
sold in the trade sale as martens, but as there are many that are of a
very dark colour and the majority are almost as silky as the Russian
sable, the retail trade has for generations back applied the term of
sable to this fur. The prevailing colour is a medium brown, and
many are quite yellow. The dyeing of these very pale skins has
been for so long well executed that it has been possible to make
very good useful and effective articles of them at a moderate price
compared to Russian sable. The finest skins are found in the East
Main and the Esquimaux Bay, in the Hudson's Bay Company's
districts, and the poorest in Alaska. They are not found very far
south of the northern boundary of the United States. The best
skins are excellent in quality, colour and effect, and wear well.
Value 273. 3d. to 2903.
SABLE, CHINESE and JAPANESE. Size 14X4! in. These are
similar to the Amur skins previously referred to, but of much poorer
quality and generally only suitable for linings. The very palest
skins are dyed and made by the Chinese into mandarins' coats, in
which form they are found in the London trade sales, but being
overdressed they are inclined to be loose in the hair and the colour
of the dye is not good. The Japanese kind are imported raw, but
are few in numbers, very pale and require dyeing. Value 155. to
1505.
SABLE, RUSSIAN. Size 15X5 in. These skins belong to a species
of marten, very similar to the European and American, but much
more silky in the nature of their fur. They have long been known
as " sables," doubtless owing to the density of colour to which
many of them attain, and they have always been held in the highest
esteem by connoisseurs as possessing a combination of rare qualities.
The underwool is close, fine and very soft, the top hair is regular,
fine, silky and flowing, varying from ij to 2$ in. in depth. In
colour they range from a pale stony or yellowish shade to a rich dark
brown, almost black with a bluish tone. The pelts are exceedingly
fine and close in texture and, although of little weight, are very
durable, and articles made of them produce a sensation of warmth
immediately they are put upon the body.
The Yakutsk, Okhotsk and Kamschatka sorts are good, the last
being the largest and fullest furred, but of less density of colour than
the others. Many from other districts are pale or yellowish brown,
and those from Saghalien are poor in quality. The most valuable
are the darkest from Yakutsk in Siberia, particularly those that have
silvery hairs evenly distributed over the skin. These however are
exceedingly scarce, and when a number are required to match for
a large garment, considerable time may be necessary to collect them.
This class of skin is the most expensive fur in the world, reckoning
values by a square foot unit.
The Amur skins are paler, but often of a pretty bluish stony tone
with many frequently interspersed silvery hairs. The quality
too is lower, that is, the fur is not so close or deep, but they are very
effective, particularly for close-fitting garments, as they possess the
least appearance of bulk. The paler skins from all districts in Siberia
are now cleverly coloured or " topped," that is, just the tips of the
hair are stained dark, and it is only an expert who can detect them
from perfectly natural shades. If this colouring process is properly
executed it remains fairly fast. Notwithstanding the reported
rights of the Russian imperial authorities over some regions with
respect to these and other valuable fur-bearing animals, there are in
addition to the numbers regularly sent to the trade auction sales
in London many good parcels of raw skins to be easily bought direct,
provided price is not the first consideration. Value 253. to q8os.
SEAL, FUR. Sizes range from 24 X 15 in. to 55X25 in., the width
being taken at the widest part of the skin after preparation. The
centre of the skin between the fins is very narrow and the skins taper
at each end, particularly at the tail. The very small pups are of a
beautiful quality, but too tiny to make into garments, and, as the aim
of a good furrier is to avoid all lateral or cross seams, skins are
selected that are the length of the garment that is to be made. The
most useful skins for coats are the large pups 42 in. long, and the
quality is very good and uniform. The largest skins, known in the
trade as " wigs, which range up to 8 ft. in length, are uneven and
weak in the fur, and hunters do not seek to obtain them. The supply
of the best sort is chiefly from the North Pacific, viz. Pribilof
FUR
353
Island*. Alaska, north-west coast of America, Copper Island of the
Aleutian group near to Kanuchatka, Robben Island and Japan.
Other kinds are taken from the South Pacific and South Atlantic
Oceans, around Cape Horn, the Falkland Islands up to Lobos
Islands at the entrance of the La Plata river, off the Cape of Good
Hope and Crozet Isles. With, however, the exception of the pick
of the Lobos Island seals the fur of the southern sea seals is very
poor and only suitable for the cheapest market. Formerly many
skins were obtained from New Zealand and Australia, but the
importation is now small and the quality not good. The preparation
of seal skin occupies a longer time than any other fur skin, but its
fine rich effect when finished and its many properties of warmth
and durability well repay it. Value ips. to 2321.
SEAL. HAIR. There are several varieties of these seals in the seas
stretching north from Scotland, around Newfoundland, Greenland
and the north-west coast of America, and they are far more numerous
than fur seals. Generally they have coarse rigid hair and none
possess any underwool. They are taken principally for the oil and
leather they yield. Some of the better haired sorts are dyed black
and brown and used for men's motor coats when quite a waterproof
garment is wanted, and they are used also for this quality in China.
The young of the Greenland seals are called whitecoats on account
of the early growth being of a yellowish white colour; the hair is
| to l in. long, and at this early stage of their life is soft compared to
that of the older seals. These fur skins are dyed black or dark brown
and are used for military caps and hearth-rugs. Value 2s. to 153.
There are fewer hair seals in the southern than in the northern seas.
SHEEP. Vary much in size and in quality of wool. Many of the
domestic kind in central and northern Europe and Canada are used
for drivers' and peasants' coat linings, &c. In Great Britain many
coats of the home-reared sheep, having wools two and a half to five
inches long, are dyed various colours and used as floor rugs. Skins
with veryshort wool are dyed black and used for military saddle-
cloths. The bulk, however, is used in the wool trade. The Hun-
garian peasants are very fond of their natural brown sheep coats,
the leather side of which is not lined, but embellished by a very close
fancy embroidery, worked upon the leather itself; these garments
are reversible, the fur being worn inside when the weather is cold.
Chinese sheep are largely used for cheap rugs. Value of English
sheep from 35. to ios.
SKUNK or BLACK MARTEN. Size 15X8 in. The underwool is
full and fairly close with glossy, flowing top hair about 2} in. long.
The majority have two stripes of white hair, extending the whole
length of the skin, but these are cut out by the manufacturing
furrier and sold to the dealers in pieces for exportation. The animals
are found widely spread throughout North and South America.
The skins whkb are of the greatest interest to the European trade
are those from North America, the South American species being
small, coarse and generally brown. The best skins come from Ohio
and New York. If it were not for its disagreeable odour, skunk
would be worth much more than the usual market value, as it is
naturally the blackest fur, silky in appearance and most durable.
The improved dressing processes have to a large extent removed the
naturally pungent scent. The fur is excellent for stoles, boas,
collars, cuffs, muffs and trimmings. Value is. 6d. to us.
SOCHJK. Size 7 in.X2j. Is a small rodent found in the south
of Russia and also in parts of America. It has very short hair and is
a poor fur even for the cheapest linings, which is the only use to
which the skin could be put. It is known as kaluga when imported
in ready-made linings from Russia where the skins are dressed and
worked in an inferior way. Value id. to 3d.
SQUIRREL. Size 10X5 in. This measurement refers to the
Russian and Siberian sorts, which are the only kind imported for
the fur. The numerous other species are too poor in their coats
to attract notice from fur dealers. The back of the Russian squirrel
has an even close fur varying from a clear bluish-grey to a reddish-
brown, the bellies in the former being of a flat quality and white
in the latter yellowish. The backs are worked into linings separately
as are the bellies or " locks." The pelts, although very light are
tough and durable, hence their good reputation for linings for
ladies' walking or driving coats. The best skins also provide excellent
material for coats, capes, stoles, ties, collars, cuffs, gloves, muffs,
hoods and light-weight carriage aprons. The tails are dark and very
nan. and when required for ends of boas three or four are made as
one. Value per skin from 2}d. to is. id.
TIMT LAMB. Size 27 X 13 in. These pretty animals have a long,
very fine, silky and curly fleece of a creamy white. The majority
S^!?257? to trade '"rtion aJe in London ready dressed
and worked into cross-shaped coats, and the remainder, a fourth of
the total, come as dressed skins. They are excellent for trimmings
' evemngmantles and for children's ties, muffs and perambulator
The fur is too long and bulky for linings. Value per skin
from 4*. 6d. to 8s. 6d.
*;7~!'? ^-P** conji<1 7 ab| y/ Direst about 10 ft. from nose
to root of tail. Tigers are found throughout India. Turkestan,
rhina Mongolia and the East Indies. The coats of the Bengal kind
* ihort and of a dark orange brown with black stripes, those
'. < ?!L r / urthCT J ^ V* ." Im1mr in colour - bu ' longer in the hair.
those from north of the Himalayas and the mountains of China
< only huge in size, but have a very long soft hair of delicate
XI. 12
orange brown with very white flanks, and marked generally with the
blackest of stripes. The last are of a noble appearance and exceed-
ingly scarce. They all make handsome floor rugs.
Value of the Indian . . . from ?3 to 15.
-t , ,, Chinese . . . io to 65.
VICUNA is a species of long-necked sheep native to South America,
bearing some resemblance to the guanaco, but the fur is shorter,
closer and much finer. The colour is a pale golden-brown and the
fur is held in great repute in South America for carriage rugs. The
supply is evidently small as the prices are high. There is scarcely
a commercial quotation in London, few coming in except from
private sources. 2s. 6d. to 53. 6d. may be considered as the average
value.
WALLABY. See Kangaroo, above.
WALLAROO. See Kangaroo, above.
WOLF. Size 50X25 in. Is closely allied to the dog tribe and,
like the jackals, is found through a wide range of the world, North
and South America, Europe and Asia. Good supplies are available
from North America and Siberia and a very few from China. The
best are the full furred ones of a very pale bluish-grey with fine
flowing black top hair, which are obtained from the Hudson Bay
district. Those from the United States and Asia are harsher in
quality and browner. A few black American specimens come into
the market, but usually the quality is poor compared to the lighter
furred animal. The Siberian is smaller than the North American
and the Russian still smaller. Besides the wolf proper a large number
of prairie or dog wolves from America and Asia arc used for cheaper
rugs. In size they are less than half that of a large wolf and are of
a motley sandy colour. Numbers of the Russian are retained for
home use. The finest wolves are very light weighted and most
suitable for carriage aprons, in fact, ideal for the purpose, though
lacking the strength of some other furs.
Wolves . . . value 2s. 6d. to 643.
Dog wolves ..... is. to 2s. 6d.
WOLVERINE. Size 16X18 in. Is native to America, Siberia,
Russia and Scandinavia and generally partakes of the nature of a
bear. The underwool is full and thick with strong and bright top
hair about 2 J in. long. The colour is of two or three shades of brown
in one skin, the centre being an oval dark saddle, edged as it were
with quite a pale tone and merging to a darker one towards the
flanks. This peculiar character alone stamps it as a distinguished
fur, in addition to which it has the excellent advantage of being the
most durable fur for carriage aprons, as well as the richest in colour.
It is not prolific, added to which it is very difficult to match a number
of skins in quality as well as colour. Hence it is an expensive fur,
but its excellent qualities make it valuable. The darkest of the
least coarse skins are worth the most. Prices from 6s. to 378.
WOMBAT, KOALA or AUSTRALIAN BEAR. Size 20X12 in. Has
light grey or brown close thick wool half an inch deep without any top
hair, with a rather thick spongy pelt. It is quite inexpensive and
only suitable for cheap rough coats, carriage rugs, perambulator
aprons and linings for footbags. The coats are largely used in
western America and Canada. Value 3d. to is. KJ.d.
Preparing and Dressing. A furrier or skin merchant must
possess a good eye for colour to be successful, the difference in
value on this subtle matter solely (in the rarer precious sorts,
especially sables, natural black, silver and blue fox, sea otters,
chinchillas, fine mink, &c.) being so considerable that not only a
practised but an intuitive sense of colour is necessary to accur-
ately determine the exact merits of every skin. In addition to
this a knowledge is required of what the condition of a pelt
should be; a good judge knows by experience whether a skin
will turn out soft and strong, after dressing, and whether the
hair is in the best condition of strength and beauty. The dressing
of the pelt or skin that is to be preserved for fur is totally different
to the making of leather; in the latter tannic acid is used, but
never should be with a fur skin, as is so often done by natives of
districts where a regular fur trade is not carried on. The results
of applying tannic acid are to harden the pelt and discolour
and weaken the fur. The best methods for dressing fur skins
are those of a tawer or currier, the aim being to retain all the
natural oil in the pelt, in order to preserve the natural colour
of the fur, and to render the pelt as supple as possible. Generally
the skins are placed in an alkali bath, then by hand with a blunt
wooden instrument the moisture of the pelt is worked out and
it is drawn carefully to and fro over a straight, dull-edged knife
to remove any superfluous flesh and unevenness. Special grease
is then rubbed in and the skin placed in a machine which softly
and continuously beats in the softening mixture, after which it
is put into a slowly revolving drum, fitted with wooden paddles,
partly filled with various kinds of fine hard sawdust according
to the nature of the furs dealt with. This process with a moderate
degree of heat thoroughly cleans it of external greasy matter,
.354
FUR
and all that is necessary before manufacturing is to gently tap
the fur upon a leather cushion stuffed with horsehair with smooth
canes of a flexibility suited to the strength of the fur. After
dressing most skins alter in shape arid decrease in size.
With regard to the merits of European dressing, it may be
fairly taken that English, German and French dressers have
specialities of excellence. In England, for instance, the dressing
of sables, martens, foxes, otters, seals, bears, lions, tigers and
leopards is first rate; while with skunk, mink, musquash,
chinchillas, beavers, lambs and squirrels, the Germans show
better results, particularly in the last. The pelt after the German
dressing is dry, soft and white, which is due to a finishing process
where meal is used, thus they compare favourably with the
moister and consequently heavier English finish. In France they
do well with cheaper skins, such as musquash, rabbit and hare,
which they dye in addition to dressing. Russian dressing is
seldom reliable; not only is there an unpleasant odour, but in
damp weather the pelts often become clammy, which is due to
the saline matter in the dressing mixture. Chinese dressing is
white and supple, but contains much powder, which is disagree-
able and difficult to get rid of, and in many instances the skin
is rendered so thin that the roots of the fur are weakened, which
means that it is liable to shed itself freely, when subject to
ordinary friction in handling or wearing. American and Canadian
dressing is gradually improving, but hitherto their results have
been inferior to the older European methods.
In the case of seal and beaver skins the process is a much more
difficult one, as the water or hard top hairs have to be removed
by hand after the pelt has been carefully rendered moist and
warm. With seal skins the process is longer than with any other
fur preparation and the series of processes engage many
specialists, each man being constantly kept upon one section of
the work. The skins arrive simply salted. After being purchased
at the auction sales they are washed, then stretched upon a
hoop, when all blubber and unnecessary flesh is removed, and
the pelt is reduced to an equal thickness, but not so thin as it is
finally rendered. Subsequently the hard top hairs are taken out
as in the case of otters and beavers and the whole thoroughly
cleaned in the revolving drums. The close underwool, which is
of a slightly wavy nature and mostly of a pale drab colour, is
then dyed by repeated applications of a rich dark brown colour,
one coat after another, each being allowed to thoroughly dry
before the next is put on, till the effect is almost a lustrous black
on the top. The whole is again put through the cleaning process
and evenly reduced in thickness by revolving emery wheels,
and eventually finished off in the palest buff colour.
The English dye for seals is to-day undoubtedly the best; its
constituents are more or less of a trade secret, but the principal in-
gredients comprise gall nuts, copper dust, camphor and antimony,
and it would appear after years of careful watching that the
atmosphere and particularly the water of London are partly
responsible for good and lasting results. The Paris dyers do
excellent work in this direction, but the colour is not so durable,
probably owing to a less pure water. In America of late, strides
have been made in seal dyeing, but preference is still given to
London work. In Paris, too, they obtain beautiful results in the
" topping " or colouring Russian sables and the Germans are
particularly successful in dyeing Persian lambs black and foxes
in all blue, grey, black and smoke colours and in the insertion of
white hairs in imitation of the real silver fox. Small quantities
of good beaver are dyed in Russia occasionally, and white hairs
put in so well that an effect similar to sea otter is obtained.
The process of inserting white hairs is called in the trade
" pointing," and is either done by stitching them in with a needle
or by adhesive caoutchouc.
The Viennese are successful in dyeing marmot well, and their
cleverness in colouring it with a series of stripes to represent the
natural markings of sable which has been done after the garments
have been made, so as to obtain symmetry of lines, has secured
for them a large trade among the dealers of cheap furs in England
and the continent.
Manufacturing Methods and Specialities. In the olden times
the Skinners' Company of the city of London was an association
of furriers and skin dressers established under royal charter
granted by Edward III. At that period the chief concern of
the body was to prevent buyers from being imposed upon by
sellers who were much given to offering old furs as new; a century
later the Skinners' Company received other charters empowering
them to inspect not only warehouses and open markets, but
workrooms. In 1667 they were given power to scrutinize the
preparing of rabbit or cony wool for the wool trade and the
registration of the then customary seven years' apprenticeship.
To-day all these privileges and powers are in abeyance, and the
interest that they took in the fur trade has been gradually
transferred to the leather-dressing craft.
The work done by English furriers was generally good, but
since about 1865 has considerably improved on account of the
influx of German workmen, who have long been celebrated
for excellent fur work, being in their own country obliged to
satisfy officially appointed experts and to obtain a certificate
of capacity before they can be there employed. The French
influence upon the trade has been, and still is, primarily one of
style and combination of colour, bad judgment in which will mar
the beauty of the most valuable furs. It is a recognized law
among high-class furriers that furs should be simply arranged,
that is, that an article should consist of one fur or of two furs
of a suitable contrast, to which lace may be in some cases added
with advantage. As illustrative of this, it may be explained that
any brown tone of fur such as sable, marten, mink, black marten,
beaver, nutria, &c., will go well upon black or very dark-brown
furs, while those of a white or grey nature, such as ermine, white
lamb, chinchilla, blue fox, silver fox, opossum, grey squirrel, grey
lamb, will set well upon seal or black furs, as Persian lamb,
broadtail, astrachan, caracul lamb, &c. White is also permissible
upon some light browns and greys, but brown motley colours
and greys should never be in contrast. One neutralizes the other
and the effect is bad. The qualities, too have to be considered
the fulness of one, the flatness of the other, or the coarseness or
fineness of the furs. The introduction of a third fur in the same
garment or indiscriminate selection of colours of silk linings,
braids, buttons, &c., often spoils an otherwise good article.
With regard to the natural colours of furs, the browns that
command the highest prices are those that are of a bluish rather
than a reddish tendency. With greys it is those that are bluish,
not yellow, and with white those that are purest, and with black
the most dense, that are most esteemed and that are the rarest.
Perhaps for ingenuity and the latest methods of manipulating
skins in the manufacturing of furs the Americans lead the way,
but as fur cutters are more or less of a roving and cosmopolican
character the larger fur businesses in London, Berlin, Vienna,
St Petersburg, Paris and New York are guided by the same
thorough and comparatively advanced principles.
During the period just mentioned the tailors' methods of
scientific pattern cutting have been adopted by the leading
furriers in place of the old chance methods of fur cutters, so that
to-day a fur garment may be as accurately and gracefully fitted
as plush or velvet, and with all good houses a material pattern
is fitted and approved before the skins are cut.
Through the advent of German and American fur sewing-
machines since about 1890 fur work has been done better and
cheaper. There are, however, certain parts of a garment, such as
the putting in of sleeves and .placing on of collars, &c., that can
only be sewn by hand. For straight seams the machines are
excellent, making as neat a seam as is found in glove work, unless,
of course, the pelts are especially heavy, such as bears and sheep
rugs.
A very great feature of German and Russian work is the fur
linings called rotondes, sacques or plates, which are made for
their home use and exportation chiefly to Great Britain, America
and France.
In Weissenfels, near Leipzig, the dressing of Russian grey
squirrel and the making it into linings is a gigantic industry, and
is the principal support of the place. After the dressing process
the backs of the squirrels are made up separately from the under
FUR
355
and thinner white and grey parts, the first being known as squirrel-
back and the other as squirrel-lock linings. A few linings are
made from entire skins and others are made from the quite white
pieces, which in some instances are spotted with the black ear
tips of the animals to resemble ermine. The smaller and uneven
pieces of heads and legs are made up into linings, so there is
absolutely no waste. Similar work is done in Russia on almost
a* extensive a scale, but neither the dressing nor the work is
so good as the German.
The majority of heads, gills or throats, sides or flanks, paws
and pieces of skins cut up in the fur workshops of Great Britain,
America and France, weighing many tons, are chiefly exported
to Leipzig, and made up in neighbouring countries and Greece,
where labour can be obtained at an alarmingly low rate. Al-
though the sewing, which is necessarily done by hand, the sections
being of so unequal and tortuous a character, is rather roughly
executed, the matching of colours and qualities is excellent.
The enormous quantities of pieces admit of good selection and
where odd colours prevail in a lining it is dyed. Many squirrel-
lock linings are dyed blue and brown and used for the outside
of cheap garments. They are of little weight , warm and effective,
but not of great durability.
The principal linings are as follows: Sable sides, sable heads
and paws, sable gills, mink sides, heads and gills, marten sides,
beads and gills, Persian lamb pieces and paws, caracul lamb
pieces or paws, musquash sides and heads, nutria sides, genet
pieces, raccoon sides or flanks, fox sides, kolinski whole skins, and
small rodents as kaluga and hamster. The white stripes cut out
of skunks are made into rugs.
Another great source of inexpensive furs is China, and for
many years past enormous quantities of dressed furs, many of
which are made up in the form of linings and Chinese loose-
shaped garments, have been imported by England, Germany
and France for the lower class of business; the garments are only
regarded as so much fur and are reworked. With, however, the
exception of the best white Tibet lambs, the majority of Chinese
fun can only be regarded as inferior material. While the work
is often cleverly done as to matching and manipulation of the
pelt which is very soft, there are great objections in the odour
and the brittlencss or weakness of the fur. One of the most
remarkable results of the European intervention in the Boxer
rising in China (1900) was the absurd price paid for so-called
" loot " of furs, particularly in mandarins' coats of dyed and
natural fox skins and pieces, and natural ermine, poor in quality
and yellowish in colour; from three to ten times their value
was paid for them when at the same time huge parcels of similar
quality were warehoused in the London docks, because purchasers
could not be found for them.
With regard to Japanese furs, there is little to commend them.
The best are a species of raccoon usually sold as fox, and, being
of close long quality of fur, they are serviceable for boas, collars,
muffs and carriage aprons. The sables, martens, minks and
otters are poor in quality, and all of a very yellow colour and
they are generally dyed for the cheap trade. A small number
of very pretty guanaco and vicuna carriage rugs are imported
into Europe, and many come through travellers and private
sources, but generally they are so badly dressed that they arc
quite brittle upon the leather side. Similar remarks are ap-
plicable to opossum rugs made in Australia. From South
Africa a quantity of jackal, hyena, fox, leopard and sheep
karosses, i.e. a peculiarly shaped rug or covering used by native
chiefs, is privately brought over. The skins are invariably tanned
and beautifully sewn, the furs are generally flat in quality and
not very strong in the hair, and are retained more as curiosities
than for use as a warm covering.
Hatters' Furs and Cloths and Shawls. The hat trade is largely
interested in the fur piece trade, the best felt hats being made
from beaver and musquash wool and the cheaper sorts from nutria,
hare and rabbit wools. For weaving, the most valuable pieces
are mohair taken from the angora and vicuna. They arc limited
in quantity and costly, and the trade depends upon various
sorts of other sheep and goat wools for the bulk of its productions.
Frauds and Imitations. The opportunities for cheating in
the fur trade are very considerable, and most serious frauds
have been perpetrated in the selling of sables that have been
coloured or " topped "; that is, just the tips of the hairs stained
dark to represent more expensive skins. It is only by years of
experience that some of these colourings can be detected. Where
the skins are heavily dyed it is comparatively easy to see the
difference between a natural and a dyed colour, as the underwool
and top hair become almost alike and the leather is also dark,
whereas in natural skins the base of the underwool is much
paler than the top, or of a different colour, and the leather is
white unless finished in a pale reddish tone as is sometimes
the case when mahogany sawdust is used in the final cleaning.
As has been explained, sable is a term applied for centuries past
to the darker sorts of the Russian Siberian martens, and for years
past the same term has been bestowed by the retail trade upon
the American and Canadian martens. The baum and stone
martens caught in France, the north of Turkey and Norway
are of the same family, but coarser in underwool and the top
hair is less in quantity and not so silky. The kolinski, or as it
is sometimes styled Tatar sable, is the animal, the tail of which
supplies hair for artists' brushes. This is also of the marten
species and has been frequently offered, when dyed dark, as have
baum and stone martens, as Russian sables. Hares, too, are
dyed a sable colour and advertised as sable. The fur, apart
from a clumsy appearance, is so brittle, however, as to be of
scarcely any service whatever.
Among the principal imitations of other furs is musquash,
out of which the top hair has been pulled and the undergrowth
of wool clipped and dyed exactly the same colour as is used for
seal, which is then offered as seal or red river seal. Its durability,
however, is far less than that of seal. Rabbit is prepared and
dyed and frequently offered as " electric sealskin." Nutria also
is prepared to represent sealskin, and in its natural colour, after
the long hairs are plucked out, it is sold as otter or beaver. The
wool is, however, poor compared to the otter and beaver, and the
pelt thin and in no way comparable to them in strength. White
hares are frequently sold as white fox, but the fur is weak, brittle
and exceedingly poor compared to fox and possesses no thick
underwool. Foxes, too, and badger are dyed a brownish black,
and white hairs inserted to imitate silver fox, but the white hairs
are too coarse and the colour too dense to mislead any one who
knows the real article. But if sold upon its own merits, pointed
fox is a durable fur.
Garments made of sealskin pieces and Persian lamb pieces
are frequently sold as if they were made of solid skins, the term
" pieces " being simply suppressed. The London Chamber of
Commerce have issued to the British trade a notice that any
misleading term in advertising and all attempts at deception are
illegal, and offenders are liable under the Merchandise Marks
Act 1887.
The most usual misnaming of manufactured furs is as follow:
Musquash, pulled and dyed
Nutria, pulled and dyed
Nutria, pulled and natural
Rabbit, sheared and dyed
Otter, pulled and dyed.
Sold as seal.
Sold as seal.
Sold as beaver.
Sold as seal or electric seal.
Sold as seal.
Marmot, dyed Sold as mink or sable.
Fitch, dyed
Rabbit, dyed
Hare, dyed .
Musquash, dyed
Wallaby, dyed .
White Rabbit .
White Rabbit, dyed
White Hare, dyed or natural
Sold as sable.
Sold as sable or French sable.
Sold as sable, or fox, or lynx.
Sold as mink or sable.
Sold as skunk.
Sold as ermine.
Sold as chinchilla.
Sold as fox, foxaline, and
other similar names.
Sold as bear, leopard, &c.
Goat, dyed
Dyed manufactured articles of
all kinds. ...... Sold as " natural."
White hairs inserted in foxes
and sable* Sold as real or natural furs.
Kids Sold as lamb or broadtails.
American sable Sold as real Russian sable.
Mink Sold as sable.
The Preservation of Furs. For many years raw sealskins
356
FUR
have been preserved in cold storage, but it is only within a
recent period, owing to the difficulty there was in obtaining
the necessary perfectly dry atmosphere, that dressed and made-
up furs have been preserved by freezing. Furs kept in such a con-
dition are not only immune from the ravages of the larvae of
moth, but all the natural oils in the pelt and fur are conserved,
so that its colour and life are prolonged, and the natural deteriora-
tion is arrested. Sunlight has a tendency to bleach furs and to
encourage the development of moth eggs, therefore continued
exposure is to be avoided. When furs are wetted by rain they
should be well shaken and allowed to dry in a current of air
without exposure to sun or open fire.
Where a freezing store for furs is not accessible, furs should be
well shaken and afterwards packed in linen and kept in a per-
fectly cool dry place, and examined in the summer at periods of
not less than five weeks. Naphthalene and the usual malodorous
powders are not only very disagreeable, but quite useless. Any
chemical that is strong enough to destroy the life in a moth egg
would also be sufficiently potent to injure the fur itself. In
England moth life is practically continuous all the year round,
that is, as regards those moths that attack furs, though the
destructive element exists to a far greater extent during spring
and summer.
Comparative Durability of Various Furs and Weight of Unlined
Skins per Square Foot.
The following estimates of durability refer to the use of fur when
made up " hair outside " in garments or stoles, not as a lining.
The durability of fur used as linings, .which is affected by other
conditions, is set forth separately. Otter, with its water hairs
removed, the strongest of furs for external use, is, in this table, taken
as the standard at 100 and other furs marked accordingly :
The Precious Furs.
Points of
Durability.
1 Weight
in oz. per
sq. ft.
Sable .
60
2i
Seal
75
7
Fox, Silver or Black
White
40
2O
3
i
Ermine
25
i J
Chinchilla
je
I 3
Sea-otter (for stoles or collars)
IOO
4i
The Less Valuable Furs.
Points of
Durability.
Weight
in oz. per
sq. ft.
Sable " topped," i.e. top hairs coloured
tinted, i.e. fur all coloured
Baum Marten, natural ...
tinted ...
Stone Marten
55
50
65
45
40
27
37
33
70
70
25
20
10
25
20
37
IOO
95
90
85
65
30
15
10
15
25
5
1
2
2
2
2'
3
3 J
2
3:
2:
2;
3
3
3
3
4
3!
*]
i
3
3
2
3
3
i
I
2
t
:
t
i
Nutria
Musquash, natural ....
water hairs removed , sheared
and seal finished.
Skunk
Mink
Lynx, natural
tinted black
Marmot, tinted
Fox, tinted black ....
blue
Otter (with water hairs) ....
(water hairs removed) .
Beaver (water hairs cut level with fur)
(water hairs removed) .
Caracul Kid
,, Lamb
Squirrel
Hare
Rabbit
1 Stout, old-fashioned'"'boxcloth is almost the only cloth that
(after a soft, heavy lining has been added to it) affords even two-
Quantities of Fur needed, in Square Feet.
The Pans Model figure is the basis of these estimates for
ladies garments, the standard measurements being height 5 ft.
6 in., waist 23 in., bust 38 in.
Sq. Ft.
(approximate).
Straight stole i length (just below the waist line) . 2j
Straight stole f length (just below the knee) . . 3}
Stole, broad enough at the neck to cover the top of
arm f length 5
The same, full length (to hem of skirt) .... 6
Eton jacket, without collar 13
Plain cape, 15 in. long 6J
Deep cape, 30 in. long 15
Full cape with broad stole front, J length . . .15
Inverness cape (to knee) 25
Double-breasted, straight, semi-fitting coat, covering
hips 16
Double-breasted sacque jacket, 36 in. long, full sleeves 20
Same, 30 in. long 18
Same, 22 in. long 15
Long, full, shawl cape with points at back and front,
well below knee 15
Shorter shawl cape 16
Motoring or driving coat, f length 22
Motoring or driving coat, full length . . . .27
Weight and Durability of Furs for Men's Coat Linings.
Otter _with the water hairs removed, the strongest fur suited for
linings, is here taken as the standard.
Points of
Durability.
Weight
in oz. per
sq. ft.
Otter (the water hairs removed) .
Beayer ...
Mink
IOO
90
90
75
75
70
65
55
40
40
30
30
IS
10
31
11
3
4
3
2:
3:
3
1
2;
^
:
Sealskin
Raccoon
Persian lamb or astrachan .
Sable
Musquash
Nutria
Grey Opossum .
Wallaby
Rabbit
Durability and Weight of Linings for Ladies' Coats or Wraps.
Sable gills, the strongest fur suited for ladies' linings, is taken ;
the standard.
Points of
Durability.
Weight
in oz. per
sq. ft.
Sable gills
IOO
2t
Sable
Sable paws
Ermine
Squirrel back
85
64
57
so
2|
Squirrel heads
36
2 J
Squirrel lock
21
Hamster
IO
Rabbit
7
-.
Durability and Weight of Motoring Furs made up with Fur outside.
Otter with the water hairs, the strongest fur suited for motoring
garments, is taken as the standard.
Points of
Durability.
Weight
in oz. per
sq. ft.
Otter (with water hairs) ....
Sealskin, marble
" Hair Sealskin " (tinted) with water
hairs (a special variety of seal) .
Raccoon
IOO
do
75
65
4
3
3i
M
Russian Pony
35
2f
thirds as much protection against cold as does fur. It weighs
4-273 oz. per sq. ft. more than the heaviest of coat-furs, and is so
rigid as to be uncomfortable, while the subtileness of fur makes it
"kind " to the body.
FURAZANES FURFURANE
357
Durability and Wtigkl of Furs for Rugs and Fool-sacks.
Points of
Durability.
Weight
in oz. per
q. ft.
Wolverine
100
6
Bear (black or brown natural) .
94
7
Bear (tinted bUck)
88
7l
Beaver . . . .
88
4
Raccoon . .
77
4i
Opossum . . . .
61
3
Wolf ... ...
5
6)
Jackal . . . .
27
41
Australian Bear ....
16
6
Goat ... ....
II
4i
Wolverine, the strongest fur suited for rugs and foot-sacks, is
taken as the standard.
For a rug about 20 to 25 sq. ft. of fur are needed, for a foot-sack
I 4 |. (W. S. P.)
FURAZANES (furo a.a' diazolrs), organic compounds ob-
tained by heating the glyoximes (dioximes of ortho-diketones)
with alkalis or ammonia. Dimethylfurazane is prepared by
beating dimethylglyoxime with excess of ammonia for six hours
at 165 C. (L. Wolff, Ber., 1805, 28, p. 70). It is a liquid (at
ordinary temperature) which boils at 156 C. (744 mm.).
Potassium permanganate oxidizes it first to methylfurazane-
carboxylic acid and then to furazanedicarboxylic acid. Methyl-
ethylfurazane and diphenylfurazane are also known. By
warming oxyfurazane acetic acid with excess of potassium per-
manganate to 100 C. oxyfurazanecarboxylic acid is obtained
(A. Hantzach and J. Urbahn, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 764). It crys-
tallizes in prisms, which melt at 175 C. Furazanecarboxylic
acid is prepared by the action of a large excess of potassium
permanganate on a hot solution of furazanepropionic acid.
It melts at 107 C., and dissolves in caustic soda, with a deep
yellow colour and formation of nitrosocyanacetic acid (L. Wolff
and P. F. Ganz, Ber., 1891, 24, p. 1167). Furoxane is an oxide
of furazane, considered by H. Wieland to be identical with
glyoxime peroxide; Kekul6's dibromnitroacetonitrile is dibrom-
furoxane.
The formulae of the compounds above mentioned are:
Furoxane.
Dimethyl- Furazane-
furazane. carboxylic acid.
FURETIERE, ANTOINE (1610-1688), French scholar and
miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris on the 28th of December
1619. He first studied law, and practised for a time as an
advocate, but eventually took orders and after various prefer-
ments became abbe of Chalivoy in the diocese of Bourges in
1662. In his leisure moments he devoted himself to letters, and
in virtue of his satires Nouvelle AUtgorique, ou kistoirc des
derniers troubles arrives au royaume d 'eloquence (1658); Voyage de
Uercure (1653) he was admitted a member of the French
Academy in 1662. That learned body had long promised a
complete dictionary of the French tongue; and when they
heard that Furetie're was on the point of issuing a work of a
similar nature, they interfered, alleging that he had purloined
from their stores, and that they possessed the exclusive privilege
of publishing such a book. After much bitter recrimination
on both sides the offender was expelled in 1685; but for this
act of injustice he took a severe revenge in his satire, Couches
de Facademie (Amsterdam, 1687). His Dictionnaire universel
was posthumously published in 1600 (Rotterdam, 2 vols.).
It was afterwards revised and improved by the Protestant
jurist, Henri Basnage de Beauval (1656-1710), who published his
edition (3 vols.) in 1701; and it was only superseded by the
compilation known as the Dictionnaire de Trevoux (Paris, 3 vols.,
1704; 7th ed., 8 vols., 1771), which was in fact little more than a
reimpression of Basnage's edition. Furetiere is perhaps even
better known as the author of Le Roman bourgeois (1666). It
cast ridicule on the fashionable romances of Mile de Scudery
and of La Calprenede, and is of interest as descriptive of the
everyday life of his times. There is no element of burlesque,
as in Scarron's Roman comique, but the author contents himself
with stringing together a number of episodes and portraits,
obviously drawn from life, without much attempt at sequence.
The book was edited in 1854 by Edward Fournier and Charles
Assclineau and by P. Jannet.
The fr'urrtrriana, which appeared in Paris eight years after
Furetiire's death, which took place on the 141 li of May 1688, is a
collection of but little value.
FURFOOZ, a village some 10 m. from Dinant in the Ardennes,
Belgium. Three caves containing prehistoric remains were here
excavated in 1872. Of these the Trou de Frontal is the most
famous. In it were found human skeletons with brachyccphalic
skulls, associated with animal bones, those of the reindeer being
particularly plentiful. Among the skeletons was discovered
an oval vase of pottery. The Furfooz type of mankind is believed
to date from the close of the Quaternary age. G. de Mortillet
dates the type in the Robcnhausen epoch of the Neolithic
period. His theory is that the bones are those of men of that
period buried in what had been a cave-dwelling of the Madelcnian
epoch.
FURFURANE, or FURANE, CHO, a colourless liquid boiling
at 32 C., found in the distillation products of pine wood. It
was first synthetically prepared by H. Limpricht (Ann., 1873,
165, p. 281) by distilling barium mucate with soda lime, pyro-
mucic acid C 4 HaO-COjH being formed, which, on further loss
of carbon dioxide, yielded furfurane. A. Henniger (Ann. chim.
phys., 1886 [2], 7, p. 220), by distilling erthyrite with formic
acid, obtained a dihydrofuriurane
C4H,(OH)4+2H,CO,-CH,0+CO+CO,+4H J 0,
which, on treatment with phosphorus pentachloride, yielded
furfurane. Furfurane is insoluble in water and possesses a
characteristic smell. It does not react with sodium or with
phenylhydrazine, but yields dye-stuffs with isatin and phenan-
threnequinone. It reacts violently with hydrochloric acid,
producing a brown amorphous substance. Methyl and phenyl
derivatives have been prepared by C. Paal (Ber., 1884, 17, p.
915). Paal prepared acetonyl acetophenone by condensing
sodium acetoacetate with phenacylbromide, and this substance
on dehydration yields oa'-phenylmethylfurfurane, the acetonyl
acetophenone probably reacting in the tautomeric " enolic " form,
CH,-CO-CHNa-COOR+C,H,-CO-CH,Br-
CH,-CO-CH(CH,COC,H,).COOR.
This ester readily hydrolyses, and the acid formed yields acetonyl
acetophenone (by loss of carbon dioxide), which then on de-
hydration yields the furfurane derivative, thus
H CH CH f*H
L. Knorr (Ber., 1889, 23, p. 158) obtained diacetosuccinic ester
by condensing sodium acetoacetate with iodine, and by de-
hydrating the ester he prepared aa'-dimethylfurfurane /3/3 1 -
dicarboxylic acid (carbopyrotritaric acid), which on distillation
yields aa'-dimethylfurfurane as a liquid boiling at 94 C. Paal
also obtained this compound by using monochloracetone in the
place of phenacylbromide. By the distillation of mucic acid
or isosaccharic acid, furfurane-a-carboxylic acid (pyromucic
acid), CJIiO-COjH, is obtained; it crystallizes in needles or
leaflets, and melts at 134 C.
Furfural (furol), C^O-CHO, is the aldehyde of pyromucic
acid, and is formed on distilling bran, sugar, wood and most
carbohydrates with dilute sulphuric acid, or by distilling
the pentoses with hydrochloric acid. It is a colourless liquid
which boils at 162 C., and is moderately soluble in water;
it turns brown on exposure to air and has a characteristic
aromatic smell. It shows all the usual properties of an aldehyde,
forming a bisulphite compound, an oxime and a hydrazone;
whilst it can be reduced to the corresponding furfuryl alcohol by
means of sodium amalgam, and oxidized to pyromucic acid by
means of silver oxide. It also shows all the condensation re-
actions of benzaldehyde (9.11.); condensing with aldehydes
and ketones in the presence of caustic soda to form more
complex aldehydes and ketones with unsaturated side chains,
FURIES FURNACE
such as furfuracrolein, C 4 H 3 O-CH:CH-CHO, and furfuracetone,
C 4 H3O-CH:CH-CO-CH 3 . With alcoholic potassium cyanide
it changes to furoin, C^OCHOH-CO-C^jO, which can be
oxidized to furil, C^sOCO-CO-C^aO, whilst alcoholic potash
converts it into furfuryl alcohol. With fatty acids and acid
anhydrides it gives the " Perkin " reaction (see CINNAMIC ACID).
Furfurol is shown to have its aldehydic group in the a position,
by conversion into furfurpropionic acid, C4H3O-CH 2 'CH 2 -CO2H,
which on oxidation by bromine water and subsequent reduction
of the oxidized product is converted into -pimelic acid,
HO 2 C(CH 2 ) 5 CO 2 H. Furfurol in minute quantities can be
detected by the red colour it forms with a solution of aniline
acetate.
Furfurane-aa'-dicarboxylic acid or dehydromucic acid,
CiHiO(COtH)i, is formed when mticic acid is heated with hydro-
chloric acid at 100 C. On being heated, it loses carbon dioxide
and gives pyromucic acid. By digesting acetoacetic ester with
sodium succmate and acetic anhydride, methronic acid, C 8 H S O S ,
is obtained; for the constitution of this acid, see L. Knorr, Ber.,
1889, 22, p. 152, and R. Fittig, Ann., 1889, 250, p. 166.
Di- and tetrahydrofurfurane compounds are also known (see
A. Lipp, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1196; W. H. Perkin, junr. Journ. Chem.
Soc., 1890, 57, p. 944; and S. Ruhemann, ibid., 1896, 69, p. 1383).
FURIES (Lat. Furiae, also called DIRAE), in Roman mythology
an adaptation of the Greek Erinyes (q.v.), with whom they
are generally identical. A special aspect of them in Virgil is
that of agents employed by the higher gods to stir up mischief,
strife and hatred upon earth. Mention may here be made of
an old Italian deity Furina (or Furrina), whose worship fell
early into disuse, and who was almost forgotten in the time of
Varro. By the mythologists of Cicero's time the name was
connected with the verb furere and the noun furia, which in the
plural (not being used in the singular in this sense) was accepted
as the equivalent of the Greek Erinyes. But it is more probably
related to furvus, fuscus, and signifies one of the spirits of dark-
ness, who watched over men's lives and haunted their abodes.
This goddess had her own special priest, a grove across the Tiber
where Gaius Gracchus was slain, and a festival on the 25th of
July. Authorities differ as to the existence of more than one
goddess called Furina, and their identity with the Forinae
mentioned in two inscriptions found at Rome (C.I.L. vi.
422 and 10,200).
FURLONG (from the O. Eng. furlang, i.e. " furrow-long "),
a measure of length, originally the length of a furrow in the
" common field " system. As the field in this system was
generally taken to be a square, 10 acres in extent, and as the
acre varied in different districts and at different times, the
" furlong " also varied. The side of a square containing 10
statute acres is 220 yds. or 40 poles, which was the usually
accepted length of the furlong. This is also the length of |th of
the statute mile. " Furlong " was as early as the gth century
used to translate the Latin stadium, |th of the Roman mile.
FURNACE, a contrivance for the production and utilization
of heat by the combustion of fuel. The word is common to all
the Romance tongues, appearing in more or less modified forms
of the Latin fornax. But in all those languages the word has a
more extended meaning than in English, as it covers every
variety of heating apparatus; while here, in addition to furnaces
proper, we distinguish other varieties as ovens, stoves and kilns.
The first of these, in the form Of en, is used in German as a general
term like the French four; but in English it has been restricted
to those apparatus in which only a moderate temperature,
usually below a red heat, is produced in a close chamber. Our
bakers' ovens, hot-air ovens or stoves, annealing ovens for glass
or metal, &c., would all be called fours in French and Ofen in
German, in common with furnaces of all kinds. Stove, an
equivalent of oven, is from the German Stube, i.e. a heated room,
and is commonly so understood; but is also applied to open
fire-places, which appears to be somewhat of a departure from
the original signification.
Furnaces are constructed according to many different patterns
with varying degrees of complexity in arrangement; but all
may be considered as combining three essential parts, namely,
the fire-place in which the fuel is consumed, the heated chamber,
laboratory, hearth or working bed, as it is variously called,
where the heat is applied to the special work for which the furnace
is designed, and the apparatus for producing rapid combustion
by the supply of air under pressure to the fire. In the simplest
cases the functions of two or more of these parts may be combined
into one, as in the smith's forge, where the fire-place and heating
chamber are united, the iron being placed among the coals, only
the air for burning being supplied under pressure from a blowing
engine by a second special contrivance, the tuyere, tuiron,
twyer or blast-pipe; but in the more refined modern furnaces,
where great economy of fuel is an object, the different functions
are distributed over separate and distinct apparatus, the fuel
being converted into gas in one, dried in another, and heated
in a third, before arriving at the point of combustion in the
working chamber of the furnace proper.
Furnaces may be classified according as the products of com-
bustion are employed (i) only for heating purposes, or (2) both for
heating and bringing about some chemical change. The furnaces
employed for steam-raising or for heating buildings are invariably
of the first type (see BOILER and HEATING), while those employed
in metallurgy are generally of the second. The essential difference
in construction is that in the first class the substances heated do
not come into contact with either the fuel or the furnace gases,
whereas in the second they do. Metallurgical furnaces of the first
class are termed crucible, muffle or retort furnaces, and of the
second shaft and reverberatory furnaces. The following is a detailed
subdivision :
(1) Fuel and substance in contact.
(a) Height of furnace greater than diameter = shaft furnaces.
(a) No blast = kilns.
(/3) With blast = blast furnaces.
(b) Height not much greater than diameter = hearth furnaces.
(2) Substance heated by products of combustion = reverberatory
furnaces.
(a) Charge not melted = roasting or calcining furnaces.
(b) Charge melted = melting furnaces.
(3) Substance is not directly heated by the fuel or by the products
of combustion.
(a) Heating chamber fixed and forming part of furnace =
muffle furnaces.
(b) Crucible furnaces.
(c) Retort furnaces.
Another classification may be based upon the nature of the heating
agent, according as it is coal (or some similar combustible) oil, gas
or electricity. In this article the general principles of metallurgical
furnaces will be treated ; the subject of gas- and oil-heated furnaces
is treated in the article FUEL, and of the electric furnace in the
article ELECTROMETALLURGY. For special furnaces reference should
be made to the articles on the industry concerned, e.g. GLASS, GAS,
Manufacture, &c.
Shaft, Blast and Hearth Furnaces. The blast furnace in its
simplest form is among the oldest, if not the oldest, of metal-
lurgical contrivances. In the old copper-smelting district of
Arabia Petraea, clay blast-pipes dating back to the earlier
dynasties of ancient Egypt have been found buried in slag heaps;
and in India the native smiths and iron-workers continue to use
furnaces of similar types. These, when reduced to their most
simple expression, are mere basin-shaped hollows in the ground,
containing ignited charcoal and the substances to be heated,
the fire being urged by a blast of air blown in through one or
more nozzles from a bellows at or near the top. They are
essentially the same as the smith's forge. This class of furnace
is usually known as an open fire or hearth, and is represented in
a more advanced stage of development by the Catalan, German
and Walloon forges formerly used in the production of malleable
ML
Fig. i represents a Catalan forge. The cavity in the ground is
represented by a pit of square or rectangular section lined with
brick or stone of a kind not readily acted on by heat, about ij or
2 ft. deep, usually somewhat larger above than below, with a tuyere
or blast-pipe of copper penetrating one of the walls near the top,
with a considerable downward inclination, so that the air meets
the fuel some way down. In iron-smelting the ore is laid in a heap
upon the fuel (charcoal) filling up the hearth, and is gradually brought
to the metallic state by the reducing action of the carbon monoxide
formed at the tuyere. The metal sinks through the ignited fuel,
forming, in the hearth, a spongy mass or ball, which is lifted out by
the smelters at the end of each operation, and carried to the forge
hammer. The earthy matters form a fusible glass or slag melt, and
FURNACE
359
FIG. I. Elevation of Catalan
Forge.
collect at the lowest point of the hearth, whence they are removed
by opening a hole pierced through the front wall at the bottom.
The active portion of such a furnace is essentially that above the
blast-pipr . the function of the lower pan being merely the collection
of the reduced metal; the fire may therefore be regarded as burning
in an unconnned space, with the waste of a large amount of its
heating power. By continuing the walls of the hearth above the
tuyere, into a shaft or stack eiilu-r
of the same or some other section,
we obtain a furnace of increased
capacity, but with no greater
power of consuming fuel, in which
the material to be treated can be
heated up gradually by loading it
into the stack, alternately with
Livers of fuel, the charge descend-
ing regularly to the point of com-
bustion, and absorbing a pro-
portion of the heat of the flame
that went to waste in the open
fire. This principle is capable of
very wide extension, the blast
furnace being mainly limited in
height by the strength the column
of materials or " burden " has to
mitt crushing, under the weight due to the head adopted, and the
power of the blowing engine to supply blast of sufficient density
to overcome the resistance of the closely packed materials to the
free passage of the spent gases. The consuming power of the
furnace or the rate at which it can burn the fuel supplied is measured
by the number of tuyeres and their section.
The development of blast furnaces is practically the develop-
ment of iron-smelting. The profile has been very much varied
at different times. The earliest examples were square or rect-
angular in horizontal section, but the general tendency of modern
practice is to substitute round sections, their construction being
facilitated by the use of specially moulded bricks which have
entirely superseded the sandstone blocks formerly used. The
vertical section, on the other hand, is subject to considerable
variation according to the work to which the furnace is applied.
Where the operation is simply one of fusion, as in the iron-
founder's cupola, in which there is no very great change in volume
in the materials on their descent to the tuyeres, the stack is nearly
or quite straight-sided; but when, as is the case with the smelting
of iron ores with limestone flux, a large proportion of volatile
matter has to be removed in the process, a wall of varying
inclination is used, so that the body of the furnace is formed of
two dissimilar truncated cones, joined by their bases, the lower
one passing downwards into a short, nearly cylindrical,
position. For further consideration of this subject see IKON
AND STEEL.
Hearth furnaces are employed in certain metallurgical opera-
tions, e.g. in the air-reduction process for smelting lead ores.
The principle is essentially that of the Catalan forge. Such
furnaces are very wasteful, and have little to recommend them
(lee Schnabel. Metallurgy, 1005, vol. i. p. 409).
Reterberatory Furnaces. Blast furnaces arc, from the intimate
contact between the burden to be smelted and the fuel, the least
wasteful of heat; but their use supposes the possibility of obtain-
ing fuel of good quality and free from sulphur or other substances
likely to deteriorate the metal produced. In all cases, therefore,
where it is desired to do the work out of contact with the solid
fuel, the operation of burning or heat-producing must be per-
formed in a special fire-place or combustion chamber, the body
of flame and heated gas being afterwards made to act upon the
surface of the material exposed in a broad thin layer in the
working bed or laboratory of the furnace by reverberation from
the low vaulted roof covering the bed. Such furnaces are known
by the general name of reverberatory or reverbatory furnaces,
also as air or wind furnaces, to distinguish them from those
worked with compressed air or blast.
Originally the term cupola was used for the reverberatory
furnace, but in the course of time it has changed its meaning,
and is now given to a small blast furnace such as that used by
iron-founder* reverberatory smelting furnaces in the same
trade being called air furnaces.
Fin. 2, 3 and 4 re present a reverberatory furnace such as is used
for the fusion of copper ores for regulu*. and may be taken as gener-
ally representing its class. The fire-place A is divided from the
working bed U by a low wall C known as the fire bridge, and at the
opposite end there is sometimes, though not invariably, a second
bridge of less height called the flue bridge D. A short diagonal flue
FIG. 2. Longitudinal section of Reverberatory Furnace.
or up-takc E conveys the current of spent flame to the chimney
F, which is of square section, diminishing by steps at two or three
different heights, and provided at the top with a covering plate or
FIG. 3. Reverberatory Furnace (horizontal section).
damper G, which may be raised or lowered by a chain reaching to
the ground, and serves for regulating the speed of the exhaust gases,
and thereby the draught of air through the fire. Where several
FIG. 4. Reverberatory Furnace (elevation at flue end).
furnaces are connected with the same chimney stack, the damper
takes the form of a sliding plate in the mouth of the connecting flue,
so that the draught in one may be modified without affecting the
other*. The fire bridge is partially protected against the intense
3 6
FURNACE
heat of the body of flame issuing through the fire arch by a passage
to which the air has free access. The material to be melted is
introduced into the furnace from the hoppers HH through the
charging holes in the roof When melted the products separate on
the bed (which is made of closely packed sand or other infusible
substances), according to their density; the lighter earthy matters
forming an upper layer of slag are drawn out by the slag hole K at
the flue end into an iron wagon or bogie, while the metal subsides
to the bottom of the bed, and at the termination of the operation
is run out by the tap hole L into moulds or granulated into water.
The opposite opening M is the working door, through which the tool
for stirring the charge is introduced. It is covered by a plate
suspended to a lever, similar to that seen in the end elevation (fig. 4)
in front of the slag hole.
According to the purposes to which they are applied, rever-
beratory furnaces may be classed into two groups, namely, fusion
or melting furnaces, and calcining or wasting furnaces, also
called calciners. The former have a very extended application
in many branches of industry, being used by both founders and
smelters in the fusion of metals; in the concentration of poor
metallic compounds by fusion into regulus; in the reduction
of lead and tin ores; for refining copper and silver; and for
making malleable iron by the puddling processes and welding.
Calcining furnaces have a less extended application, being
chiefly employed in the conversion of metallic sulphides into
oxides by continued exposure to the action of air at a temperature
far below that of fusion, or into chlorides by roasting with common
salt. As some of these substances (for example, lead sulphide
and copper pyrites) are readily fusible when first heated, but
become more refractory as part of the sulphur is dissipated and
oxygen takes its place, it is important that the heat should be
very carefully regulated at first, otherwise the mass may become
clotted or fritted together, and the oxidizing effect of the air soon
ceases unless the fritted masses be broken small again. This is
generally done by making the bed of the furnace very long in
proportion to its breadth and to the fire-grate area, which may
be the more easily done as a not inconsiderable amount of heat
is given out during the oxidation of the ore such increased
length being often obtained by placing two or even three working
beds one above the other, and allowing the flame to pass over them
in order from below upwards. Such calciners are used especially
in roasting zinc blende into zinc oxide, and in the conversion of
copper sulphides into chlorides in the wet extraction process. In
some processes of lead-smelting, where the minerals treated
contain sand, the long calciner is provided with a melting bottom
dose to the fire-place, so that the desulphurized ore leaves the
furnace as a glassy slag or silicate, which is subsequently reduced
to the metallic state by fusion with fluxes in blast furnaces.
Reverberatory furnaces play an important part in the manu-
facture of sodium carbonate; descriptions and illustrations are
given in the article ALKALI MANUFACTURE.
Muffle, Crucible and Retort Furnaces. A third class of furnaces
is so arranged that the work is done by indirect heating; that
is, the material under treatment, whether subjected to calcina-
tion, fusion or any other process, is not brought in contact either
with fuel or flame, but is raised to the proper temperature by
exposure in a chamber heated externally by the products of
combustion. These are known as muffle or chamber furnaces;
and by supposing the crucibles or retorts to represent similar
chambers of only temporary duration, the ordinary pot melting
- air furnaces, and those for the reduction of zinc ores or the
manufacture of coal gas, may be included in the same category.
These are almost invariably air furnaces, though sometimes air
under pressure is used, as, for example, in the combustion of
small anthracitic coal, where a current of air from a fan-blower
is sometimes blown under the grate to promote combustion.
Types of muffle furnaces are figured in the article ANNEALING,
HARDENING AND TEMPERING.
Furnace Materials. The materials used in the construction
of furnaces are divisible into two classes, namely, ordinary and
refractory or fire-resisting. The former are used principally as
casing, walls, pillars or other supporting parts of the structure,
and includes ordinary red or yellow bricks, clay-slate, granite
and most building stones; the latter are reserved for the parts
immediately in contact with the fuel and flame, such as the
lining of the fire-place, the arches, roof and flues, the lower part
if not the whole of the chimney lining in reverberatory furnaces,
and the whole of the internal walls of blast furnaces. Among
such substances are fireclay and firebricks, certain sandstones,
silica in the form of ganister, and Dinas stone and bricks, ferric
oxide and alumina, carbon (as coke and graphite), magnesia,
lime and chromium oxide their relative importance being
indicated by their order, the last two or three indeed being only
of limited use.
The most essential point in good fireclays, or in the bricks
or other objects made from them, is the power of resisting
fusion at the highest heat to which they may be exposed. This
supposes them to be free from metallic oxides forming easily
fusible compounds with silica, such as lime or iron, the presence
of the former even in comparatively small proportion being very
detrimental. As clays they must be sufficiently plastic to be
readily moulded, but at the same time possess sufficient stiffness
not to contract too strongly in drying, whereby the objects
produced would be liable to be warped or cracked before firing.
In most cases, however, the latter tendency is guarded against,
in making up the paste for moulding, by adding to the fresh
clay a certain proportion of burnt material of the same kind,
such as old bricks or potsherds, ground to a coarse powder.
Coke dust or graphite is used for the same purpose in crucible
making (see FIREBRICK).
The most highly valued fireclays are derived from the Coal
Measures. Among the chief localities are the neighbourhood of
Stourbridge in Worcestershire and Stannington near Sheffield,
which supply most of the materials for crucibles used in steel and
brass melting, and the pots for glass houses; Newcastle-on-Tyne
and Glenboig near Glasgow, where heavy blast furnace and other
firebricks, gas retorts, &c., are made in large quantities. Coarse-
grained but very strong firebricks are also made of the waste of
china clay works.
In Belgium the clay raised at Andenne is very largely used for
making retorts for zinc furnaces. The principal French fireclays
are derived from the Tertiary strata in the south, and more nearly
resemble porcelain clays than those of the Coal Measures They
give wares of remarkably fine texture and surface, combined with
high refractory character.
In Germany, Ips and Passau on the Danube, and Gross Almerode
in Hesse, are the best known localities producing fireclay goods, the
crucibles from the last-mentioned place, known as Hessian crucibles,
going all over the world. These, though not showing a great resist-
ance to extreme heat, are very slightly affected by sudden alterna-
tions in heating, as they may be plunged cold into a strongly heated
furnace without cracking, a treatment to which French and Stour-
bridge pots cannot be subjected with safety.
Plumbago or graphite is largely used in the production of
crucibles, not in the pure state but in admixture with fireclay;
the proportion of the former varies with the quality from 25 to
nearly 50 %. These are the most enduring of all crucibles, the
best lasting out 70 or 80 meltings in brass foundries, about 50
with bronze, and 8 to 10 in steel-melting.
Silica is used in furnace-building in the forms of sand, ganister,
a finely ground sandstone from the Coal Measures of Yorkshire,
and the analogous substance known as Dinas clay, which is
really nearly pure silica, containing at most about 2\ % of bases.
Dinas clay is found at various places in the Vale of Neath in
South Wales, in the form of a loose disintegrated sandstone,
which is crushed between rollers, mixed with about i % of lime,
and moulded into bricks that are fired in kilns at a very high
temperature. These bricks are specially used for the roof, fire
arches, and other parts subjected to intense heat in reverbera-
tory steel-melting furnaces, and, although infusible under
ordinary conditions, are often fairly melted by the heat without
fluxing or corrosion after a certain amount of exposure. Ganister,
a slightly plastic siliceous sand, is similarly used for the lining
of Bessemer steel converters; it is found in the neighbourhood
of Sheffield.
Alumina as a refractory material is chiefly used in the form
of bauxite, but its applications are somewhat special. It has
been found to stand well for the linings of rotatory puddling
furnaces, where, under long-continued heating, it changes into
a substance as hard and infusible as natural emery. In the
FURNACE
361
Paris Exhibition of 1878 bricks very hard and dense in character,
said to be of pure alumina, were exhibited by Muller & Co. of
Paris, as well as bricks of magnesia, the latter being specially
remarkable for their great weight. They are intended for use
at the extreme temperatures obtainable in steel furnaces, or
for the melting of platinum before the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe.
For the latter purpose, however, lime is generally used; but as
this substance has only small stability, it is usually bedded in a
casing of firebrick. Oxide of chromium and chrome iron ore
have been proposed as refractory crucible materials. The former
may be used as a bed for melting platinum in the same way as
lime or magnesia, without affecting the quality of the metal.
Ferric oxide, though not strictly infusible, is largely used as a
protecting lining for furnaces in which malleable iron is made,
a portion of the ore being reduced and recovered in the process.
In an oxidizing atmosphere it is indifferent to silica, and therefore
siliceous bricks containing a considerable proportion of ferric
oxide, when used in flues of boilers, brewers' coppers, &c. and
Similar situations, are perfectly fire-resisting so long as the heated
gas contains a large proportion of unconsumed air. The red
firebricks known as Windsor bricks, which are practically
similar in composition to soft red sandstone, are of this character.
The electric furnace has led to the discovery of several
important materials, which have been employed as furnace
Linings. Carborundum (q.v.) was applied by Engels in 1899,
firebricks being washed with carborundum paste and then baked.
Siloxicon, a compound of carbon, silicon and oxygen, formed
from carbon and silica in the electric furnace, was patented by
E. G. Acheson in 1903. It is very refractory, and is applied by
mixing with water and some bond, such as sodium silicate or
gas-tar. An amorphous, soft silicon carbide, also formed in the
electric furnace, was patented by B. Talbot in 1899. For basic
linings, magnesia crystallized in the electric furnace is being
extensively used, replacing dolomite to some extent (see E.
Kilburn Scott, " Refractory Materials for Furnace Linings,"
Faraday Soc., 1006, p. 289).
Furnace Construction. In the construction of furnaces provision
has to be made for the unequal expansion of tiie different pans under
the effect of heat. This is especially necessary in the case of rever-
beratory furnaces, which are essentially weak structures, and
therefore require to be bound together by complicated systems of
tie rod* and uprights or buck staves. The latter are very commonly
made of old flat bottom rails, laid with the flat of the flange against
the wall. Puddling furnaces are usually entirely cased with iron
plates, and blast furnaces with hoops round each course of the stack,
or in those of thinner constructions the firebrick work is entirely
enclosed in a wrought iron casing or jacket. Such parts as may be
subjected to extreme heat and the fretting action of molten material,
as the tuyere' and slag breasts of blast furnaces, and the fire bridges
and bed plates of reverberatory furnaces, are often made in cast
iron with doable walls, a current of water or air being kept circulating
through the intermediate upace. In this way the metal, owing to
its high conductivity and low specific heat as compared to that of
water, is kept at a temperature far below its melting point if the
water i* renewed quickly enough. It is of course necessary in such
cases that the circulation shall be perfectly free, in order to prevent
the accumulation of steam under pressure in the interior of the
casting. This method has received considerable extension, notably
in furnace-smelting of iron ores containing manganese, where the
entire hearth is often completely water-cased, and in some lead
furnaces where no firebrick lining is used, the lower part of the
furruce stack being a mere double iron box cooled by water suf-
ficiently to keep a coating of slag adhering to the inner shell which
prevents the metal from Being acted upon.
Mechanical Furnaces. The introduction and withdrawal of the
charges in fusion furnaces is effected by gravitation, the solid masses
of raw ore, fuel and flux being thrown in at the top, and flowing
out of the furnace at the taphole or slag run at the bottom. Vertical
kilns, such as those used for burning limestone, are worked in a
similar manner the raw stone going in at the top, and the burnt
product falling through holes in the bottom when allowed to do so.
With reverberatory calciners, however, where the work is done
upon a horizontal bed, a considerable amount of hand labour is
expended in raking out the charge when finished, and in drawing
slags from fusion furnaces; and more particularly in the puddling
process of refining iron the amount of manual exertion required is
very much greater. To diminish the item of expenditure on this
bead, various kinds of mechanical furnaces have been adopted, all
of which can be classified under three heads of gravitating furnaces,
mechanical stirrers and revolving furnaces.
l. In gravHati n( fumacet the bed is laid at a slope just within the
angle of repose of the charge, which is introduced at the upper end,
.mil is pushed down the slope by fresh material, when necessary,
in the contrary direction to tne flame which enters at the lower end.
Gerstenhofer's pyrites burner is a furnace of this class. It has a tall
vertical chamber heated from below, and traversed by numerous
narrow horizontal cross bars at different heights. The ore in fine
powder is fed in at the top, through a hopper, in a regular thin
stream, by a pair of rollers, and in falling lodges on the flats of the
bars, forming a talus upon each of the height corresponding to the
angle of rest of the material, which is, however, at short intervals
removed to lower levels by the arrival of fresh ore from above. In
this way a very large surface is exposed to the heat, and the ore, if
containing sufficient sulphur to maintain the combustion, is perfectly
burned when it arrives at the bottom ; if, however, it is imperfectly
sized or damp, or if it contains much earthy matter, the result is
not very satisfactory. There are many other furnaces in which the
same principle is utilized.
2. Mechanical stirrers constitute a second division of mechanical
furnaces, in which the jabour of rabbling or stirring the charges is
performed by combinations of levers and wheel-work taking motion
from a rotating shaft, and more or less perfectly imitating tne action
of hand labour. They are almost entirely confined to puddling
furnaces.
3. Revolving furnaces, the third and most important division of
mechanical furnaces, are of two kinds. The first of these resemble
an ordinary reverberatory furnace by having a flat bed which,
however, has the form of a circular disk mounted on a central shaft,
and receives a slow movement of rotation from a water-wheel or
other motor, so that every part of the surface is brought successively
under the action of the fire, the charge being stirred and ultimately
removed by passing under a series of fixed scraper arms placed above
the surface at various points. Brunton's calciner, used in the " burn-
ing " of the pyritic minerals associated with tin ore, is a familiar
example of this type. The hearth may either rotate on an inclined
axis, so that the path of its surface is oblique to that of the flame,
or the working part may be a hollow cylinder, between the fireplace
and flue, with its axis horizontal or nearly so, whose inner surface
represents the working bed, mounted upon friction rollers, and
receiving motion from a special steam-engine by means of a central
belt of spur gearing. Furnaces of the second kind were first used in
alkali works for the conversion of sulphate into carbonate of sodium
in the process known as black ash fusion, but have since been applied
to other processes. As calciners they are used in tin mines and for
the chlonnation of silver ores. Mechanical furnaces are figured in
the article ALKALI MANUFACTURE.
Use of Healed Air. The calorific intensity of fuel is found to be
very considerably enhanced, if the combustion be effected with air
previously heated to any temperature between that of boiling water
and a dull red heat, the same effect being observed both with solid
and gaseous fuel. The latter, especially when brought to the burning
point at a high temperature, produces a heat that can be resisted
by the most refractory substances only, such as silica, alumina and
magnesia. This is attainedjn the regenerative furnace of Siemens,
detailed consideration of which belongs more properly to the subject
of iron.
Economy of Waste Heat. In every system of artificial heating, the
amount of heat usefully applied is but a small proportion of that
developed by combustion. Even under the most advantageous
application, that of evaporation of water in a steam boiler where the
gases of the fire have to travel through a great length of flues bounded
y thin iron surfaces of great heat-absorbing capacity, the tem-
perature of the current at the chimney is generally much above that
required to maintain an active draught in the fireplace; and other
tubes containing water, often in considerable numbers, forming the
so-<:;illed fuel economizers, may often be interposed between the
boiler and the chimney with marked advantage as regards saving
of fuel. In reverberatory and air furnaces used in the different
operations of iron manufacture, where ;in extremely high temperature
has to be maintained in spaces of comparatively small extent, such
as the beds of puddling, welding and steel-melting furnaces, the
temperature of tne exhaust gases is exceedingly high, and if allowed
to pass directly into the chimney they appear as a great body of
flame at the top. It is now general to save a portion of this heat by
passing the flame through flues of steam boilers, air-heating appara-
tus, or both so that the steam required for the necessary operations
of the forge and heated blast for the furnace itself may be obtained
without further expenditure of fuel. The most perfect method of
utilizing the waste heat hitherto applied is that of the Siemens re-
generator, in which the spent gases are made to travel through
chambers, known as regenerators or recuperators of heat, containing
a quantity of thin firebricks piled into a cellular mass so as to offer
a very large heat-absorbing surface, whereby their temperature is
very considerably reduced, and they arrive at the chimney at a heat
not exceeding 300 or 400 degrees. As soon as the bricks have become
red hot, the current is diverted to an adjacent chamber or pair of
chambers, and the acquired heat is removed by a current of cool
gas or air passing towards the furnace, where it arrives at a tem-
perature sufficiently high to ensure the greatest possible heating
effect in combustion.
362
FURNEAUX FURNESS
In iron-smelting blast furnaces the waste gases are of considerable
fuel value, and may render important services if properly applied.
Owing to the conditions of the work, which require the maintenance
of a sensibly reducing atmosphere, they contain a very notable
proportion of carbonic oxide, and are drawn off by large wrought iron
tubes near the top of the furnace and conveyed by branch pipes
to the different boilers and air-heating apparatus, which are now
entirely heated by the combustion of such gases, or mixed with air
and exploded in gas engines. Formerly they were allowed to burn
to waste at the mouth of a short chimney place above the furnace
top, forming a huge body of flame, which was one of the most
striking features of the Black Country landscape at night.
Laboratory and Portable Furnaces. Small air-furnaces with hot
plates or sand bath flues were formerly much employed in chemical
laboratories, as well as small blast furnaces for crucibles heated with
charcoal or coke. The use of such furnaces has very considerably
diminished, owing to the general introduction of coal-gas for heating
purposes in laboratories, which has been rendered possible by the
invention of the Bunsen burner, in which the mixture of air and gas
giving the least luminous but most powerfully heating flame is
effected automatically by the effluent gas. These burners, or
modifications of them, have also been applied to muffle furnaces,
which are convenient when only a few assays have to be made the
furnace being a mere clay shell and soon brought to a working
temperature; but the fuel is too expensive to allow of their being
used habitually or on a large scale. Petroleum, or rather the heavy
oils obtained in tar refineries, having an equal or superior heating
power to coal-gas, may also be used in laboratories for producing
high temperatures. The oil is introduced in a thin stream upon a
series of inclined and channelled bars, where it is almost immediately
volatilized and burnt by air flowing in through parallel orifices.
Furnaces of this kind may be used for melting cast iron or bronze
in small quantities, and were employed by H. Sainte Claire Deville
in experiments in the metallurgy of the platinum group of metals.
Sefstrom's blast furnace, used in Sweden for the assay of iron ores,
is a convenient form of portable furnace applied to melting in
crucibles. It consists of a sheet-iron cylinder about 8 or 9 in. in
diameter, within which is fixed one of smaller size lined with fire-
clay. The space between the two cylinders serves as a heater and
distributor for the blast, which is introduced through the nozzle at
the bottom, and enters the furnace through a series of several small
tuyeres arranged round the inner lining. Charcoal is the fuel used,
and the crucibles stand upon the bottom of the clay lining. When
a large body of fuel is required, the cylinder can be lengthened by
an iron hoop which fits over the top ring. Deville's portable blast
furnace is very similar in principle to the above, but the body of the
furnace is formed of a single cast iron cylinder lined with fireclay,
closed below by a cast iron plate perforated by a ring of small holes
a hemispherical basin below forming the air-heating chamber.
FURNEAUX, TOBIAS (1735-1781), English navigator, was
born at Swilly. near Plymouth on the aist of August 1735. He
entered the royal navy, and was employed on the French and
African coasts and in the West Indies during the latter part of the
Seven Years' War (1760-1763). He served as second lieutenant
of the " Dolphin " under Captain Samuel Wallis on the latter's
voyage round the globe (August 1766-May 1768); was made
a commander in November 1771; and commanded the " Ad-
venture " which accompanied Captain Cook (in the " Resolu-
tion ") in Cook's second voyage. On this expedition Furneaux
was twice separated from his leader (February 8-May 19, 1773;
October 22, 1773-July 14, 1774, the date of his return to
England). On the former occasion he explored a great part of
the south and east coasts of Tasmania, and made the earliest
British chart of the same. Most of his names here survive;
Cook, visiting this shore-line on his third voyage, confirmed
Furneaux's account and delineation of it (with certain minor
criticisms and emendations), and named after him the islands
in Banks Straits, opening into Bass's Straits, and the group now
known as the Low Archipelago. After the " Adventure " was
finally separated from the " Resolution " off New Zealand in
October 1773, Furneaux returned home alone, bringing with him
Omai of Ulaietea. This first South Sea Islander seen in the
British Isles returned to his home with Cook in 1776-1777.
Furneaux was made a captain in 1775, and commanded the
" Syren " in the British attack of the 28th of June 1776 upon
Charleston, South Carolina. His successful efforts to introduce
domestic animals and potatoes into the South Sea Islands are
worthy of note. He died at Swilly on the igth of September
1781.
See Hawkesworth's Narrative of Wallis' Voyage; Captain Cook's
Narrative of his Second Voyage; also T. Furneaux's life by Rev.
Henry Furneaux in the Dictionary of National Biography.
FURNES (Flem. Veurne), an old-fashioned little town amid
the dunes near the coast in West Flanders, Belgium, about
26 m. S.W. of Bruges. Pop. (1904) 6099. It is the centre of a
considerable area extending to the French frontier, and its
market is an important one for the disposal of corn, stock, hops
and dairy produce. During the Norman raids Furnes was
destroyed, and the present town was built by Baldwin Bras de
Fer, first count of Flanders, about the year 870. At the height
of the prosperity of the Flemish communes in the i4th century
there were dependent on the barony of Furnes not fewer than
fifty-two rich villages, but these have all disappeared, partly
no doubt as the consequence of repeated French invasions down
to the end of the i8th century, but chiefly through the encroach-
ment of the sea followed by the accumulation of sand along the
whole of this portion of the coast. Furnes contains many
curious old houses and the church of St Walburga, which is a
fine survival of the I3th century with some older portions. The
old church and buildings, grouped round the Grand Place, which
is the scene of the weekly market, present a quaint picture
which is perhaps not to be equalled in the country. Near Furnes
on the seashore is the fashionable bathing place called La Panne.
Furnes one day a year becomes a centre of attraction to all
the people of Flanders. This is the last Sunday in July, when the
fete of Calvary and the Crucifixion is celebrated. Of all popular
festivities in Belgium this is the nearest approach to the old
Passion Play. The whole story of Christ is told with great
precision by means of succeeding groups which typify the different
phases of the subject. The people of Furnes pose as Roman
soldiers or Jewish priests, as the apostles or mere spectators,
while the women put on long black veils so that they may figure
in the procession as the just women.
FURNESS, HORACE HOWARD (1833- ), American
Shakespearian scholar, was born in Philadelphia on the 2nd of
November 1833, being the son of William Henry Furness (1802-
1896) minister of the First Unitarian church in that city, a
powerful preacher and writer. He graduated at Harvard in
1854, and was admitted to the bar in 1859, but soon devoted
himself to the study of Shakespeare. He accumulated a collection
of illustrative material of great richness and extent, and brought
out in 1871 the first volume of a new Variorum edition, designed
to represent and summarize the conclusions of the best authorities
in all languages textual, critical and annotative. The volumes
appeared as follows: Romeo and Juliet (1871); Macbeth (1873)
(revised edition, 1903); Hamlet (2 vols., 1877); King Lear
(1880); Othello (1886); The Merchant of Venice (1888); 4s You
Like It (1890); The Tempest (1892); A Midsummer Night's
Dream (1895); The Winter's Tale (1898); Much Ado about
Nothing (1899); Twelfth Night (1901); Love's Labour's Lost
(1904). The edition has been generally accepted as a thorough
and scholarly piece of work; its chief fault is that, beginning
with Othello (1886), the editor used the First Folio text as his
basis, while in others he makes the text of the Cambridge (Globe)
editors his foundation. His wife, Helen Kate Furness (1837-
1883), compiled A Concordance to the Poems ofShakespeare(i8?2).
FURNESS, a district of Lancashire, England, separated from
the major portion of the county by Morecambe Bay. It is
bounded S.E. by this inlet of the Irish Sea, S.W. by the sea,
W. by the Duddon estuary and Cumberland, and N. and E. by
Westmorland. Its area is about 2 50 sq. m. It forms the greater
part of the North Lonsdale parliamentary division of Lancashire,
and contains the parliamentary borough of Barrow-in-Furness.
The surface is almost entirely hilly. The northern half is included
in the celebrated Lake District, and contains such eminences
as the Old Man of Coniston and Wetherlam. Apart from the
Duddon, which forms part of the western boundary, the principal
rivers are the Leven and Crake, flowing southward into a common
estuary in Morecambe Bay. The Leven drains Windermere
and the Crake Coniston Lake. The usage of the term " Lake
District," however, tends to limit the name of Furness in common
thought to the district south of the Lakes, where several of the
place-names are suffixed with that of the district, as Barrow-in-
Furness, Dalton-in-Furness, Broughton-in-Furness. Between
FURNISS FURNITURE
36:
the Duddon and Morecambe Bay lies Walney Island, 8 m. in
length, and in the shallow strait between it and the mainland
are several smaller islands. That pan of Furncss which forms a
peninsula between the Leven estuary and Morecambe Bay, and
the Duddon estuary, is rich in hematite iron ore, which has been
worked from very early times. It was known and smelted by
British and Romans, and by the monks of Furness Abbey and
Conishead Priory, both in the district. It was owing to the
existence of this ore that the town of Barrow grew up in the ipth
century; at first as a port from which the ore was exported to
South Wales, while later furnaces were established on the spot,
and acquired additional importance on the introduction of the
Bessemer process, which requires a non-phosphoric ore such as
is found here. The hematite is also worked at Ulverston, Askam,
Dalton and elsewhere, but the furnaces now depend in part
upon ore imported from Spain. The supposed extension of the
ore under the sands of the Duddon estuary led to the construction
of a sea wall to facilitate the working. The district is served
by the main line of the Furness railway, from Carnforth (junction
with the London & North-Western railway), passing the pleasant
watering-place of Grange, and approximately following the
coast by Ulverston, Dalton and Barrow, with branches to Lake
Side, Windennere, and to Coniston.
Apart from its industrial importance and scenic attractions,
Furness has an especial interest on account of its famous abbey.
The ruins of this, beautifully situated in a wooded
valley, are extensive, and mainly of fine transitional
Norman and Early English date, acquiring additional
picturesqueness from the warm colour of the red sandstone
of which they are built. The abbey of Furness, otherwise
Furdenesia or the further nest (promontory), which was dedicated
' to St Mary, was founded in 1127 by a small body of monks
belonging to the Benedictine order of Savigny. In 1124 they
had settled at Tulketh, near Preston, but migrated in 1127 to
Furness under the auspices of Stephen, count of Boulogne,
afterwards king, at that time lord of the liberty of Furness.
In 1148 the brotherhood joined the Cistercian order. Stephen
granted to the monks the lordship of Furness, and his charter
was confirmed by Henry I., Henry II. and subsequent kings.
The abbot's power throughout the lordship was almost absolute;
he had a market and fair at Dalton, was free from service to the
county and wapentake, and held a sheriff's tourn. By a succes-
sion of gifts the abbey became one of the richest in England
and was the largest Cistercian foundation in the kingdom. At
the Dissolution its revenues amounted to between 750 and
800 a year, exclusive of meadows, pastures, fisheries, mines,
mills and salt works, and the wealth of the monks enabled them
to practise a regal hospitality. The abbot was one of the twenty
Cistercian abbots summoned to the parliament of 1264, but was
not cited after 1330, as he did not hold of the king in capite per
baroniam. The abbey founded several offshoot houses, one of
the most important being Rushcn Abbey in the Isle of Man. In
1535 the royal commissioners visited the abbey and reported
four of its inmates, including the abbot, for incontinence. In
1536 the abbot was charged with complicity in the Pilgrimage
of Grace, and on the 7th of April 1537, under compulsion,
surrendered the abbey to the king. A few monks were granted
pensions, and the abbot was endowed with the profits of the
rectory of Dalton, valued at 33, 6s. 8d. per annum. In 1540
the estates and revenues were annexed by act of parliament to
the Duchy of Lancaster. About James I.'s reign the site and
territories were alienated to the Prestons of Preston-Patrick,
from whom they descended to the dukes of Devonshire.
Conishead Priory, near Ulverston, an Augustinian foundation
of the reign of Henry II., has left no remains, but of the priory
of Cartmel (i 188) the fine church is still in use. It is a cruciform
structure of transitional Norman and later dates, its central
tower having the upper storey set diagonally upon the lower.
The chancel contains some superb Jacobean carved oak screens,
with stalls of earlier date.
FURNISS. HARRY (1854- ), British caricaturist and
illustrator, was born at Wexford, Ireland, of English and Scottish
parents. He was educated in Dublin, and in his schooldays
edited a Schoolboy's Punch in close imitation of the original.
He came to London when he was nineteen, and began to draw
for the illustrated papers, being for some years a regular contribu-
tor to the Illustrated London News. His first drawing in Punch
appeared in 1880, and he joined its staff in 1884. He illustrated
Lucy's " Diary of Toby, M.P.," in Punch, where his political
caricatures became a popular feature. Among his other successes
were a series of " Puzzle Heads," and his annual " Royal
Academy guy'd." In Royal Academy Antics (1800) he published
a volume of caricatures of the work of leading artists. He
resigned from the staff of Punch in 1894, produced for a short
time a weekly comic paper Lika Joko, and in 1898 began a
humorous monthly, Fair Game; but these were short-lived.
Among the numerous books he illustrated were James Payn's
Talk of the Town, Lewis Carroll's Sylvie and Bruno, Gilbert a
Beckett's Comic Blackstone, G. E. Farrow's Wallypug Book,
and his own novel, Poverty Bay (1003). Our Joe, his great Fight
(1003), was a collection of original cartoons. His volume of
reminiscences, Confessions of a Caricaturist (1901), was followed
by Harry Furnissat Home (1904). In 1005 he published How to
draw in Pen and Ink, and produced the first number of Harry
Furniss's Christmas Annual.
FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir), a general term
of obscure origin, used to describe the chattels and fittings re-
quired to adapt houses and other buildings for use. Wood,
ivory, precious stones, bronze, silver and gold have been used
from the most ancient times in the construction or for the
decoration of furniture. The kinds of objects required for
furniture have varied according to the changes of manners and
customs, as well as with reference to the materials at the com-
mand of the workman, in different climates and countries.
Of really ancient furniture there are very few surviving examples,
partly by reason of the perishable materials of which it was usually
constructed, and partly because, however great may have been
the splendour of Egypt, however consummate the taste of Greece,
however luxurious the life of Rome, the number of household
appliances was very limited. The chair, the couch, the table,
the bed, were virtually the entire furniture of early peoples,
whatever the degree of their civilization, and so they remained
until the close of what are known in Eruopean history as the
middle ages. During the long empire-strewn centuries which
intervened between the lapse of Egypt and the obliteration of
Babylon, the extinction of Greece and the dismemberment of
Rome and the great awakening of the Renaissance, household
comfort developed but little. The Ptolemies were as well lodged
as the Plantagenets, and peoples who spent their lives in the
open air, going to bed in the early hours of darkness, and rising
as soon as it was light, needed but little household furniture.
Indoor life and the growth of sedentary habits exercised a
powerful influence upon the development of furniture. From
being splendid, or at least massive, and exceedingly sparse and
costly, it gradually became light, plentiful and cheap. In the
ancient civilizations, as in the periods when our own was slowly
growing, household plenishings, save in the rudest and most
elementary forms, were the privilege of the great no person
of mean degree could have obtained, or would have dared to
use if he could, what is now the commonest object in every
house, the chair (q.v.). Sparse examples of the furniture of
Egypt, Nineveh, Greece and Rome are to be found in museums;
but our chief sources of information are mural and sepulchral
paintings and sculptures. The Egyptians used wooden furniture
carved and gilded, covered with splendid textiles, and supported
upon the legs of wild animals; they employed chests and coffers
as receptacles for clothes, valuables and small objects generally.
Wild animals and beasts of the chase were carved upon the
furniture of Nineveh also; the lion, the bull and the ram were
especially characteristic. The Assyrians were magnificent in
their household appointments; their tables and couches were
inlaid with ivory and precious metals. Cedar and ebony were
much used by these great Eastern peoples, and it is probable that
they were familiar with rosewood, walnut and teak. Solomon's
FURNITURE
bed was of cedar of Lebanon. Greek furniture was essentially
Oriental in form; the more sumptuous varieties were of bronze,
damascened with gold and silver. The Romans employed Greek
artists and workmen and absorbed or adapted many of their
mobiliary fashions, especially in chairs and couches. The Roman
tables were of splendid marbles or rare woods. In the later
ages of the empire, in Rome and afterwards in Constantinople,
gold and silver were plentifully used in furniture; such indeed
was the abundance of these precious metals that even cooking
utensils and common domestic vessels were made of them.
The architectural features so prominent in much of the
medieval furniture begin in these Byzantine and late Roman
thrones and other seats. These features became paramount as
Pointed architecture became general in Europe, and scarcely
less so during the Renaissance. Most of the medieval furniture,
chests, seats, trays, &c., of Italian make were richly gilt and
painted. In northern Europe carved oak was more generally
used. State seats in feudal halls were benches with ends carved
in tracery, backs panelled or hung with cloths (called cloths of
estate), and canopies projecting above. Bedsteads were square
frames, the testers of panelled wood, resting on carved posts.
Chests of oak carved with panels of tracery, or of Italian cypress
(when they could be imported), ere used to hold and to carry
clothes, tapestries, &c., to distant castles and manor houses;
for house furniture, owing to its scarcity and cost, had to be
moved from place to place. Copes and other ecclesiastical
vestments were kept in chests with ornamental lock plates and
iron hinges. The splendour of most feudal houses depended
on pictorial tapestries which could be packed and carried from
place to place. Wardrobes were rooms fitted for the reception
of dresses, as well as for spices and other valuable stores. Ex-
cellent carving in relief was executed on caskets, which were of
wood or of ivory, with painting and gilding, and decorated with
delicate hinge and lock metal-work. The general subjects of
sculpture were taken from legends of the saints or from metrical
romances. Renaissance art made a great change in architecture,
and this change was exemplified in furniture. Cabinets (q.v.) and
panelling took the outlines of palaces and temples. In Florence,
Rome, Venice, Milan and other capitals of Italy, sumptuous
cabinets, tables, chairs, chests, &c., were made to the orders
of the native princes. Vasari (Lives of Painters) speaks of
scientific diagrams and mathematical problems illustrated in
costly materials, by the best artists of the day, on furniture made
for the Medici family. The great extent of the rule of Charles V.
helped to give a uniform training to artists from various countries
resorting to Italy, so that cabinets, &c., which were made in
vast numbers in Spain, Flanders and Germany, can hardly be
distinguished from those executed in Italy. Francis I. and
Henry VIII. encouraged the revived arts in their respective
dominions. Pielra dura, or inlay of hard pebbles, agate, lapis
lazuli, and other stones, ivory carved and inlaid, carved and gilt
wood, marquetry or veneering with thin woods, tortoiseshell,
brass, &c., were used in making sumptuous furniture during the
first period of the Renaissance. Subjects of carving or relief
were generally drawn from the theological and cardinal virtues,
from classical mythology, from the seasons, months, &c. Carved
altarpieces and woodwork in churches partook of the change in
style.
The great period of furniture in almost every country was,
however, unquestionably the i8th century. That century saw
many extravagances in this, as in other forms of art, but on the
whole it saw the richest floraison of taste, and the widest sense
of invention. This is the more remarkable since the furniture
of the lyth century has often been criticized as heavy and coarse.
The criticism is only partly justified. Throughout the first three-
quarters of the period between the accession of James I. and
that of Queen Anne, massiveness and solidity were the dis-
tinguishing characteristics of all work. Towards the reign of
James II., however, there came in one of the most pleasing and
elegant styles ever known in England. Nearly a generation
before then Boulle was developing in France the splendid and
palatial method of inlay which, although he did not invent it,
is inseparably associated with his name. We owe it perhaps to
the fact that France, as the neighbour of Italy, was touched
more immediately by the Renaissance than England that the
reign of heaviness came earlier to an end in that country than on
the other side of the Channel. But there is a heaviness which is
pleasing as well as one which is forbidding, and much of the
furniture made in England any time after the middle of the
1 7th century was highly attractive. If English furniture of
the Stuart period be not sought after to the same extent as that
of a hundred years later, it is yet highly prized and exceedingly
decorative. Angularity it often still possessed, but generally
speaking its elegance of form and richness of upholstering lent
it an attraction which not long before had been entirely lacking.
Alike in France and in England, the most attractive achievements
of the cabinetmaker belong to the i8th century English Queen
Anne and early Georgian work is universally charming; the
regency and the reigns of Louis XV. and XVI. formed a period
of the greatest artistic splendour. The inspiration of much of
the work of the great English- school was derived from France,
although the gropings after the Chinese taste and the earlier
Gothic manner were mainly indigenous. The French styles of the
century, which began with excessive flamboyance, closed before
the Revolution with a chaste perfection of detail which is perhaps
more delightful than anything that has ever been done in
furniture. In the achievements of Riesener, David Rontgen,
Gouthiere, Oeben and Rousseau de la Rottiere we have the high-
water mark of craftsmanship. The marquetry of the period,
although not always beautiful in itself, was executed with
extraordinary smoothness and finish; the mounts of gilded
bronze, which were the leading characteristic of most of the work
of the century, were finished with a minute delicacy of touch
which was until then unknown, and has never been rivalled since.
If the periods of Francis I. and Henry II., of Louis XIV. and
the regency produced much that was sumptuous and even elegant,
that of Louis XVI., while men's minds were as yet undisturbed
by violent political convulsions, stands out as, on the whole,
the one consummate era in the annals of furniture. Times of
great achievement are almost invariably followed directly by
those in which no tall thistles grow and in which every little
shrub is magnified to the dimensions of a forest tree; and the
so-called " empire style " which had begun even while the last
monarch of the ancien regime still reigned, lacked alike the grace-
ful conception and the superb execution of the preceding style.
Heavy and usually uninspired, it was nurtured in tragedy and
perished amid disaster. Yet it is a profoundly interesting style,
both by reason of the classical roots from which it sprang and
the attempt, which it finally reflected, to establish new ideas in
every department of life. Founded upon the wreck of a lingering
feudalism it reached back to Rome and Greece, and even to
Egypt. If it is rarely charming, it is often impressive by its
severity. Mahogany, satinwood and other rich timbers were
characteristic of the style of the end of the i8th century;
rosewood was most commonly employed for the choicer work
of the beginning of the igth. Bronze mounts were in high
favour, although their artistic character varied materially.
Previously to the middle of the i8th century the only cabinet-
maker who gained sufficient personal distinction to have had
his name preserved was Andre Charles Boulle; beginning with
that period France and England produced many men whose
renown is hardly less than that of artists in other media. With
Chippendale there arose a marvellously brilliant school of English
cabinetmakers, in which the most outstanding names are those
of Sheraton, Heppelwhite, Shearer and the Adams. But if the
school was splendid it was lamentably short-lived, and the ipth
century produced no single name in the least worthy to be
placed beside these giants. Whether, in an age of machinery,
much room is left for fine individual execution may be doubted,
and the manufacture of furniture now, to a great extent, takes
place in large factories both in England and on the con-
tinent. Owing to the necessary subdivision of labour in these
establishments, each piece of furniture passes through numerous
distinct workshops. The master and a few artificers formerly
FURNITURE
PLATE I.
alnut, leather
; abuut I5JO.
Flo, s- Painted and carved Righ-
Bck Cluir *fah cane back and
ami; about 1600.
Fag. . Camd Mahosmv Chair
ra the rtyle at Chifindale; and
hall of 1Mb crnrury
ak Arm-trt.tir. Kntflish, Tic. ;. - Arm t h.iir. snhil seat, cane
1 7th crnlury.
)>.!< k ; nhuul ItjfjO.
FlO. 6. Carved Walnut Chair!. English, early l8lh century.
The arm-chair is inlaid.
uny Arm-* li:iir.
the style of Chipfcndale, with
ibon pattern.
I'lo. 10 Can-ed and Inlaid MahofBBf
Chair, in the slyle of Hr|,|Jchilc;
Ule iSlh century.
FlO. 4. Arm-ch.ur, siufTcd back and
scat; about 1650.
Fie. 7. Walnut Chair; about 1710.
FlO. 11. Mahogany Chair in the
Kyle of Sheraton; about 1780.
mm
cane lent, in the style of
,
Fie. ij. Arm-chair of rarnd anl fit
Wood whh atuOed back, ceat and
ma. Fresco, Loua XV. l)rte.
FIG. 14. Mahogany Arnxhalr. Empire
rle, e;rl)r loth century, said to have
belonged to the Honaparte family.
FlO. 15. Painted and gill Beech Chair.
Knjjlish, about 1800.
Tht chain in Fie* i.>. 6 &o, io. ij. IJ. are ta the Victoria and Albert Mmeum. Figs 8 and 9 being lent by 1.1. -Col. O. B. Croft Lyota, Fig. t 3 byj. H. FitzHenry, Ew. Thereat
ere lent to the Bethaal Green Eihibition, 1801 and are the properly of Lord Zoucbe (j and 7), Earl Brownlow (4), and Sir Spencer Potuonby-Fane, G.C.B. (ii).
PLATE II.
FURNITURE
FlG. I. Front of Oak Coffer with wrought iron bands
French, 2nd half of I3th century.
FIG. 2. English Oak Chest, dated 1637.
FIG. 3. Italian (Florentine) Coffer of Wood with gilt arabesque
stucco ornament, about 1480.
FlG. 4. Italian " Cassone" or Marriage Coffer, ijth century-.
Carved and gilt wood with painted front and ends.
FIG. 5. Walnut Table with expanding leaves. Swiss, i?th century.
FlG. 6. Oak Gate-Legged Table. English,
1 7th century.
FlG. 7 Writing Table. French, end of Louis XV. period.
Riesener marquetry, ormolu mounts and Sevres plaques.
FIG. 8. Painted Satin- wood Tables, in the style of Sheraton,
about 1790.
The above are in the Victoria and Albert Museum, except Fig. 8, which were in the Bethnal Green Exhibition, 1892.
FURNITURE
PLATE 111.
1. CARVKD OAK SIDEBOARD.
lyth century. \'ictoria and
Must-urn.
Albert
2. CARVKD OAK COt'RT Ct PBOARD. English, early I7th
century. Victoria and Albert Museum.
3. EBONY CARVED CABI-
NET. The interior
decorated with inlaid
ivory and coloured
woods ; French or
Dutch, middle of ijth
century. Victoria and
Albert Museum.
4. VENEERED CHEST OF
DRAWERS. About
1690. Lent to Bethnal
Green Exhibition by
Sir Spencer Ponsonby-
Fane, G.C.B.
EBONY ARMOIRE.
With tortoise-shell
panels inlaid with
brass and other
metals, and ormolu
mountings. Designed
by B6rain, and
executed by Andre
I'n mill-. French,
Louis XIV. period.
Victoria and Albert
Museum.
6. GLASS-FRONTED
BOOKCASE AND
CABINET. Of
mahogany. In the
style of Sheraton,
about 170). I. .ni
to the Bethnal dp-cii
Exhibition by the
jatc Vincent J. Rob-
inson, C.I.E.
FURNIVALL FURSTENBERG
superintended each piece of work, which, therefore, was never
far removed from the designer's eye. Though accomplished
artists are retained by the manufacturers of London, Paris and
other capitals, there can no longer be the same relation between
the drrifyrT and his work. Many operations in these modern
factories are carried on by machinery. This, though an economy
of labour, entails loss of artistic effect. The chisel and the knife
are no longer in such cases guided and controlled by the sensitive
touch of the human hand.
A decided, if not always intelligent, effort to devise a new
style in furniture began during the last few years of the igth
century, which gained the name of " I'art nouveau." Its pioneers
professed to be free from all old traditions and to seek inspiration
from nature alone. Happily nature is less forbidding than many
of these interpretations of it, and much of the " new art " is a
remarkable exemplification of the impossibility of altogether
ignoring traditional forms. The style was not long in degenerat-
ing into extreme extravagance. Perhaps the most striking con-
sequence of this effort has been, especially in England, the
revival of the use of oak. Lightly polished, or waxed, the cheap
foreign oaks often produce very agreeable results, especially
when there is applied to them a simple inlay of boxwood and
stained holly, or a modern form of pewter. The simplicity of
these English forms is in remarkable contrast to the tortured
and ungainly outlines of continental seekers after a conscious
and unpleasing " originality."
Until a very recent period the most famous collections of
historic furniture were to be found in such French museums as
the Louvre, Cluny and the Garde Meuble. Now, however, they
are rivalled, if not surpassed, by the magnificent collections of
the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington, and the
Wallace collection at Hertford House, London. The latter, in
conjunction with the Jones bequest at South Kensington, forms
the finest of all gatherings of French furniture of the great
periods, notwithstanding that in the Bureau du Roi the Louvre
possesses the most magnificent individual example in existence.
In America there are a number of admirable collections repre-
sentative of the graceful and homely " colonial furniture "
made in England and the United States during the Queen Anne
and Georgian periods.
See also the separate articles in this work on particular forms of
furniture. The literature of the subject has become very extensive,
and it is needless to multiply here the references to books. Pcrrot
and Chipiez, in their great Ilistoirc de I'art dans I'antiquite (1882
et eq.). deal with ancient times, and A. de Champeaux, in Le Meuble
(1885), with the middle ages and later period: English furniture is
admirably treated by Percy Macquoid in his History of English
Furniture (1905); and Lady Dilkc's French Furniture in the l8th
Century (1901), and Luke Vincent Lockwood's Colonial Furniture in
America (1901), should also be consulted. (J. P.-B.)
FURNIVALL, FREDERICK JAMES (1825-1910), English
philologist and editor, was born at Egham, Surrey, on the 4th
of February 1825, the son of a surgeon. He was called to the bar
in 1849, but his attention was soon diverted to philological
studies and social problems. He gave Frederick Denison Maurice
valuable assistance in the Christian Socialist movement, and was
one of the founders of the Working Men's College. For half a
century he indefatigably promoted the study of early English
literature, partly by his own work as editor, and still more
efficaciously by the agency of the numerous learned societies
of which he was both founder and director, especially the Early
English Text Society (1864), which has been of inestimable
service in promoting the study of early and middle English.
He also established and conducted the Chaucer, Ballad, New
Shakespeare and Wyclif Societies, and at a later period societies
for the special study of Browning and Shelley. He edited texts
for the Early English Text Society, for the Roxburghe Club
and the Rolls Series; but bis most important labours were
devoted to Chaucer, whose study he as an editor greatly assisted
by his " Six-Text " edition of the Canterbury Tales, and other
publications of the Chaucer Society. He was the honorary
secretary of the Philological Society, and was one of the original
promoters of the Oxford New English Dictionary. He co-operated
with its first editor, Herbert Coleridge, and after his death
was for some time principal editor during the preliminary period
of the collection of material. The completion of his half-century
of labour was acknowledged in 1900 by a handsome testimonial,
including the preparation by his friends of a volume of philo-
logical essays specially dedicated to him, An English Miscellany
(Oxford, 1901), and a considerable donation to the Early English
Text Society. Dr Furni vail was always an enthusiastic oarsman,
and till the end kept up his interest in rowing; with John
Bccsley in 1845 he introduced the new type of narrow sculling
boat, and in 1886 started races on the Thames for sculling fours
and sculling eights. He died on the 2nd of July 1910.
PURSE. CHARLES WELLINGTON (1868-1004), English
painter, born at Staines, the son of the Rev. C. W. Furse, arch-
deacon of Westminster, was descended collaterally from Sir
Joshua Reynolds, and in his short span of life achieved such
rare excellence as a portrait and figure painter that he forms an
important link in the chain of British portraiture which extends
from the time when Van Dyck was called to the court of Charles I.
to our own day. His talent was precocious; at the age of seven
he gave indications of it in a number of drawings illustrating
Scott's novels. He entered the Slade school in 1884, winning the
Slade scholarship in the following year, and completed his educa-
tion at Julian's atelier in Paris. Hard worker as he was, his
activity was frequently interrupted by spells of illness, for he had
developed signs of consumption when he was still attending the
Slade school. An important canvas called " Cain" was his first
contribution (1888) to the Royal Academy, to the associateship
of which he was elected in the year of his death. For some years
before he had been a staunch supporter of the New English Art
Club, to the exhibitions of which he was a regular contributor.
He was married in October 1900 to Katherine, daughter of John
Addington Symonds. His fondness for sport and of an open-air
life found expression in his art and introduced a new, fresh and
vigorous note into portraiture. There is never a suggestion of
the studio or of the fatiguing pose in his portraits. The sitters
appear unconscious of being painted, and are generally seen in
the pursuit of their favourite outdoor sport or pastime, in the
full enjoyment of life. Such are the " Diana of the Uplands,"
the " Lord Roberts " and " The Return from the Ride " at the
Tate Gallery; the four children in the " Cubbing with the York
and Ainsty," " The Lilac Gown," " Mr and Mrs Oliver Fishing "
and the portrait of Lord Charles Beresford. Most of these
pictures, and indeed nearly all the work completed in the few
years of Furse's activity, show a pronounced decorative tendency.
His sense of space, composition and decorative design can best
be judged by his admirable mural decorations for Liverpool
town hall, executed between 1899 and 1902. A memorial exhibi-
tion of Furse's paintings and sketches was held at the Burlington
Fine Arts Club in 1906.
FURST, JULIUS (1805-1873), German Orientalist, was born
of Jewish parents at Zerkowo in Posen, on the izth of May 1805.
He studied philosophy and philology at Berlin, and oriental
literature at Posen, Breslau and Halle. In 1857 he was appointed
to a lectureship at the university of Leipzig, and he was promoted
to a professorship in 1864, which he held until his death at Leipzig
on the 9th of February 1873. Among his writings may be
mentioned Lehrgebaude der aramaischen Idiome (Leipzig, 1835);
Librorum sacrorum Veteris Testamenti concordanliae Hebraicae
atque Chaldaicae(Leipzig, 1 83 7-1 840) ; HebrHisches und chaldtiisches
Wdrlerbuch (1851, English translation by S. Davidson 1867);
Kuitur und Literalurgeschichte der Juden in A sien ( 1 849) . FUrst
also edited a valuable Bibliotheca Judaica (Leipzig, 1849-1863),
and was the author of some other works of minor importance.
From 1840 to 1851 he was editor of Der Orient, a journal devoted
to the language, literature, history and antiquities of the Jews.
FURSTENBERG, the name of two noble houses of Germany.
r. The more important is in possession of a mediatized princi-
pality in the district of the Black Forest and the Upper Danube,
which comprises the countship of Heiligenberg, about 7 m. to
the N. of the Lake of Constance, the landgraviates of Sttihlingen
and Baar, and the lordships of Jungnau, Trochtelfingen, Hausen
3 66
FURSTENBERG
and Moskirch or Messkirch. The territory is discontinuous;
and as it lies partly in Baden, partly in Wurttemberg, and partly
in the Prussian province of Sigmaringen, the head of the family
is an hereditary member of the first chamber of Baden and of
the chamber of peers in Wurttemberg and in Prussia. The
relations of the principality with Baden are defined by the treaty
of May 1825, and its relations with Wurttemberg by the royal
declaration of 1839. The Slammorl or ancestral seat of the
family is Furstenberg in the Black Forest, about 13 m. N. of
Schaffhausen, but the principal residence of the present repre-
sentatives of the main line is at Donaueschingen.
The family of Fiirstenberg claims descent from a certain
Count Unruoch, a contemporary of Charlemagne, but their
authentic pedigree is only traceable to Egino II., count of
Urach, who died before 1136. In 1218 his successors inherited
the possessions of the house of Zahringen in the Baar district
of the Black Forest, where they built the town and castle of
Fiirstenberg. Of the two sons of Egino V. of Urach, Conrad,
the elder, inherited the Breisgau and founded the line of the
counts of Freiburg, while the younger, Heinrich (1215-1284),
received the territories lying in the Kinzigthal and Baar, and
from 1250 onward styled himself first lord, then count, of
Fiirstenberg. His territories were subsequently divided among
several branches of his descendants, though temporarily re-
united under Count Friedrich III., whose wife, Anna, heiress
of the last count of Wardenberg, brought him the countship of
Heiligenberg and lordships of Jungnau and Trochtelfingen in
1534. On Friedrich 's death (1559) his territories were divided
between his two sons, Joachim and Christof I. Of these the
former founded the line of Heiligenberg, the latter that of
Kinzigthal. The Kinzigthal branch was again subdivided in
the i7th century between the two sons of Christof II. (d. 1614),
the elder, Wratislaw II. (d. 1642), founding the line of Mosskirch,
the younger, Friedrich Rudolf (d. 1655), that of Stiihlingen.
The Heiligenberg branch received an accession of dignity by the
elevation of Count Hermann Egon (d. 1674) to the rank of prince
of the Empire in 1664, but his line became extinct with the
death of his son Prince Anton Egon, favourite of King Augustus
the Strong and regent of Saxony, in 1716. The heads of both
the Mosskirch and Stiihlingen lines were now raised to the
dignity of princes of the Empire (1716). The Mosskirch branch
died out with Prince Karl Friedrich (d. 1744); the territories
of the Stiihlingen branch had been divided on the death of
Count Prosper Ferdinand (1662-1704) between his two sons,
Joseph Wilhelm Ernst (1699-1762) and Ludwig August Egon
(1705-1759). The first of these was created prince of the Empire
on the loth of December 1716, and founded the princely line
of the Swabian Furstenbergs; in 1772 he obtained from the
emperor Francis I. for all his legitimate sons and their descend-
ants the right to bear, instead of the style of landgrave, that of
prince, which had so far been confined to the reigning head of
the family. Ludwig, on the other hand, founded the family of
the landgraves of Fiirstenberg, who, since their territories lay
in Austria and Moravia, were known as the " cadet line in
Austria." The princely line became extinct with the death
of Karl Joachim in 1804, and the inheritance passed to the
Bohemian branch of the Austrian cadet line in the person of
Karl Egon II. (see below). Two years later the principality
was mediatized.
In 1909 there were two branches of the princely house of
Fiirstenberg: (i) the main branch, that of Fiirstenberg-Donaue-
schingen, the head of which was Prince Maximilian Egon (b.
1863), who succeeded his cousin Karl Egon III. in 1896; (2)
that of Fiirstenberg-KOnigshof, in Bohemia, the head of which
was Prince Emil Egon (b. 1876), chamberlain and secretary of
legation to the Austro-Hungarian embassy in London (1907).
The cadet line of the landgraves of Fiirstenberg is now extinct,
its last representative having been the landgrave Joseph Frie-
drich Ernst of FUrstenberg-Weitra (1860-1896), son of the
landgrave Ernst (1816-1889) by a morganatic marriage. He
was not recognized as ebenburtig by the family. The landgraves
of Ftirstenberg were in 1909 represented only by the landgravines
Theresa (b. 1839) and Gabrielle (b. 1844), daughters of the
landgrave Johann Egon (1802-1879).
From the days of Heinrich of Urach, a relative and notable
supporter of Rudolph of Habsburg, the Furstenbergs have
played a stirring part in German history as statesmen, ecclesi-
astics and notably soldiers. There was a popular saying that
" the emperor fights no great battle but a Fiirstenberg falls."
In the Heiligenberg line the following may be more particularly
noticed. , .
FRANZ EGON (1625-1682), bishop of Strassburg, was the elder
son of Egon VII., count of Furstenberg (1588-1635), who served
with distinction as a Bavarian general in the Thirty Years' War.
He began life as a soldier in the imperial service, but on the
elevation of his friend Maximilian Henry of Bavaria to the
electorate of Cologne in 1650, he went to his court and embraced
the ecclesiastical career. He soon gained a complete ascendancy
over the weak-minded elector, and, with his brother William
Egon (see below), was mainly instrumental in making him the
tool of the aggressive policy of Louis XIV. of France. Ecclesi-
astical preferments were heaped upon him. As a child he had
been appointed to a canonry of Cologne; to these he added
others at Strassburg, Liege, Hildesheim and Spires; he became
also suffragan bishop and dean of Cologne and provost of Hildes-
heim, and in 1663 bishop of Strassburg. Later he was also
prince-abbot of Liiders and Murbach and abbot of Stablo and
Malmedy. On the conclusion of a treaty between the emperor
and the elector of Cologne, on the nth of May 1674, Franz was
deprived of all his preferments in Germany, and was compelled
to take refuge in France. He was, however, amnestied with his
brother William by a special article of the treaty of Nijmwegen
(1679), whereupon he returned to Cologne. After the French
occupation of Strassburg (1681) he took up his residence there
and died on the ist of April 1682.
His brother WILLIAM EGON (1629-1704), bishop of Strassburg,
began his career as a soldier in the French service. He went to
the court of the elector of Cologne at the same time as Franz
Egon, whose zeal for the cause of Louis XIV. of France he shared.
In 1672 the intrigues of the two Furstenbergs had resulted in a
treaty of offensive alliance between the French monarchy and
the electorate of Cologne, and, the brothers being regarded by
the Imperialists as the main cause of this disaster, William was
seized by imperial soldiers in the monastery of St Pantaleon at
Cologne, hurried off to Vienna and there tried for his life. He
was saved by the intervention of the papal nuncio, but was kept
in prison till the signature of the treaty of Nijmwegen (1679).
As a reward for his services Louis XIV. appointed him bishop
of Strassburg in succession to his brother in 1682, in 1686 obtained
for him from Pope Innocent XI. the cardinal's hat, and in 1688
succeeded in obtaining his election as coadjutor-archbishop of
Cologne and successor to the elector Maximilian Henry. At the
instance of the emperor, however, the pope interposed his veto;
the canons followed the papal lead, and, the progress of the
Allies against Louis XIV. depriving him of all prospect of
success, William Egon retired to France. Here he took up his
abode at his abbey of St Germain des Pres near Paris, where he
died on the loth of April 1704.
In the Stiihlingen line the most notable was KARL EGON
(1796-1854), prince of Furstenberg, the son of Prince Karl
Alois of Furstenberg, a general in the Austrian service, who was
killed at the battle of Loptingen on the 25th of March 1799.
In 1804 he inherited the Swabian principality of Furstenberg
and all the possessions of the family except the Moravian estates.
He studied at Freiburg and Wurzburg, and in 1815 accompanied
Prince Schwarzenberg to Paris as staff -officer. In 1817 he came
of age, and in the following year married the princess Amalie
of Baden. By the mediatization of his principality in 1806 the
greater part of his vast estates had fallen under the sovereignty
of the grand-duke of Baden, and Prince Furstenberg took a
conspicuous part in the upper house of the grand-duchy. In
politics he distinguished himself by a liberalism rare in a great
German noble, carrying through by his personal influence with
his peers the abolition of tithes and feudal dues and stanchly
FURSTENWALDE FURZE
367
advocating the freedom of the press. He was not less distin-
guished by his large charities: among other foundations he
established a hospital at Donaueschingen. For the industrial
development of the country, too, he did much, and proved himself
also a notable patron of the arts. His palace of Donaueschingen,
with its collections of paintings, engravings and coins, was a
centre of culture, where poets, painters and musicians met with
princely entertainment. He died on the 14th of September
1869, and was succeeded by his son Karl Egon II. (1820-1892),
with the death of whose son, Karl Egon III., in 1896, the title
and estates passed to Prince Maximilian Egon, head of the cadet
tine of Fiirstenbcrg-Purglitz.
See Munch. Gtuh. des Houses und da Landes Firstenberg, 4 vols.
(AU-la-Chdpelle. 1820-1847); S. Riezler, Cesck. des Jurstlichen
HauMi FurstenbtTg bts IJO7 (Tubingen, 1883); Fursttnbergisches
Urkundentnuk. edited by S. Riezler and F. L. Baumann, vols. i.-vii.
(Tubingen, 1877-1891), continued s. tit. Mitteilungen aus dem
JuTstlitk. Furttenberfistkem Arckn by Baumann and G. TumbOlt,
a vol*. (i*. 1890-1903); Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire (Leiden, 1890-
1893) ; Almanack dt Gotka; AU[tmeine deutsche Biographic.
3. The second Furstenberg family has its possessions in
Westphalia and the country of the Rhine, and takes its name
from the castle of Furstenberg on the Ruhr. The two most
remarkable men whom it has produced are Franz Friedrich
Wilhelm, freiherr von Furstenberg, and Franz Egon, count von
Furstenberg-Stammheim. The former (1728-1810) became
ultimately vicar-general of the prince-bishop of Mttnster, and
effected a great number of important reforms in the administra-
tion of the country, besides doing much for its educational
and industrial development. The latter (1797-1859) was an
enthusiastic patron of art, who zealously advocated the comple-
tion of the Cologne cathedral, and erected the beautiful church
of St Apollinaris near Remagen on the Rhine. He was a member
of the Prussian Upper House in 1849, collaborated in founding
the Prcussiiclies Wochenblatt, and was an ardent defender of
Catholic interests. His son, Count Gisbert von Furstenberg-
Stammheim (b. 1836), was in 1009 head of the Rhenish line of
the house of Furstenberg.
FtiRSTENWALDE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg, on the right bank of the Spree, and
on the railway from Berlin to Frankfort-on-Oder, 28 m. E. of
the former city. Pop. (1905) 20,498. Its beautiful cathedral
church contains several old monuments. The industries are
important, including, besides brewing and malting, manufactures
of starch, vinegar, electric lamps and gas-fittings, stoves, &c.,
iron-founding and wool-weaving. Furstenwalde is one of the
oldest towns of Brandenburg. From 1385 it was the seat of
the bishop of Lebus, whose bishopric was incorporated with
the electorate of Brunswick in 1595.
FORTH, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the kingdom
of Bavaria, at the confluence of the Pegnitz with the Regnitz,
5 m. X.W. from Nuremberg by rail, at the junction of lines to
Hof and Wiirzburg. Pop. (1885) 35.455! (i9s) 60,638. It is
a modern town in appearance, with broad streets and palatial
busines* bouses. Of its four Evangelical churches, the old St
Mkhaeliskirche is a handsome structure; but its chief edifices
are the new town hall, with a tower 175 ft. high and the
magnificent synagogue. The Jews have also a high school,
which enjoys a great reputation. There are besides a classical,
a wood-carving and an agricultural school and a library. Fiirth
h the seat of several important industries; particularly, the
production of chromolithographs and picture-books, the manu-
facture of mirrors and mirror-frames, bronze and gold-leaf wares,
pencils, toys, haberdashery, optical instruments, silver work,
turnery, chicory, machinery, fancy boxes and cases, and an
extensive trade is carried on in these goods as also in bops,
metals, wool, groceries and coal. A large annual fair is held
at Michaelmas and lasts for eleven days. The earliest railway
in Germany was that between Nuremberg and Furth (opened
on the -th of December 1835).
Furth was founded, according to tradition, by Charlemagne,
who erected a chapel there. It was for a time a Vogtei (advocate-
ship) under the burgraves of Nuremberg, but about 1314 it was
bequeathed to the see of Bam berg, and in 1806 it came into
the possession of Bavaria. In 1632 Gustavus Adolphus besieged
it in vain, and in 1634 it was pillaged and burnt by the Croats.
It owes its rise to prosperity to the tolerance it meted out to the
Jews, who found here an asylum from the oppression under
which they suffered in Nuremberg.
See FronmUller, Chronik der Stadt Fiirth (1887).
FURTW ANGLER, ADOLF (1833-1007), German archaeologist,
was born at Freiburg im Breisgau, and was educated there,
at Leipzig and at Munich, where he was a pupil of H. Brunn,
whose comparative method in art-criticism he much developed.
He took part in the excavations at Olympia in 1878, became
an assistant in the Berlin Museum in 1880, and professor at
Berlin (1884) and later at Munich. His latest excavation work
was at Aegina. He was a prolific writer, with a prodigious
knowledge and memory, and 'a most ingenious and confident
critic; and his work not only dominated the field of archaeological
criticism but also raised its standing both at home and abroad.
Among his numerous publications the most important were a
volume on the bronzes found at Olympia, vast works on ancient
gems and Greek vases, and the invaluable Masterpieces of
Greek Sculpture (English translation by Eug6nie Strong). He
died at Athens on the loth of October 1907.
FURZE, GORSE or WHIN; botanical name Ulex (Ger.
Stcchginster, Fr. ajonc), a genus of thorny papilionaceous
shrubs, of few species, confined to west and central Europe and
north-west Africa. Common furze, U. europaeus, is found on
heaths and commons in western Europe from Denmark to Italy
and Greece, and in the Canaries and Azores, and is abundant
in nearly all parts of the British Isles. It grows to a height
of 2-6 ft.; it has hairy stems, and the smaller branches end each
in a spine; the leaves, sometimes lanceolate on the lowermost
branches, are mostly represented by spines from 2 to 6 lines long,
and branching at their base; and the flowers, about three-quarters
of an inch in length, have a snaggy, yellowish-olive calyx, with two
small ovate bracts at its base, and appear in early spring and
late autumn. They are yellow and sweet-scented and visited by
bees. The pods are few-seeded; their crackling as they burst
may often be heard in hot weather. This species comprises the
varieties vulgaris, or U. europaeus proper, which has spreading
branches, and strong, many-ridged spines, and strictus (Irish
furze), with erect branches, and slender 4-edged spines. The
other British species of furze is U. nanus, dwarf furze, a native
of Belgium, Spain and the west of France; it is a procumbent
plant, less hairy than U. europaeus, with smaller and more
orange-coloured flowers, which spring from the primary spines,
and have a nearly smooth calyx, with minute basal bracts.
Furze, or gorse, is sometimes employed for fences.
Notwithstanding its formidable spines, the young shoots
yield a palatable and nutritious winter forage for horses and
cattle. To fit it for this purpose it must be chopped and bruised
to destroy the spines. This is sometimes done in a primitive
and laborious way by layhig the gorse upon a block of wood and
beating it with a mallet, flat at one end and armed with crossed
knife-edges at the other, by the alternate use of which it is ,
bruised and chopped. There are now a variety of machines
by which this is done rapidly and efficiently, and which are in
use where this kind of forage is used to any extent. The agri-
cultural value of this plant has often been over-rated by theoreti-
cal writers. In the case of very poor, dry soils it does, however,
yield much valuable food at a season when green forage is not
otherwise to be had. It is on this account of importance to
dairymen; and to them it has this further recommendation,
that cows fed upon it give much rich milk, which is free from
any unpleasant flavour. To turn it to good account, it
must be sown in drills, kept clean by hoeing, and treated
as a regular green crop. If sown in March, on land fitly pre-
pared and afterwards 'duly cared for, it is ready for use in the
autumn of the following year. A succession of cuttings of
proper age is obtained for several years from the same field.
It is cut by a short stout scythe, and must be brought
from the field daily; for when put in a heap after being
3 68
FUSARO FUSEL OIL
chopped and bruised it heats rapidly. It is given to horses and
cows in combination with chopped hay or straw. An acre will
produce about 2000 faggots of green two-year-old gorse, weighing
ao Ib each.
This plant is invaluable in mountain sheep-walks. The
rounded form of the furze bushes that are met with in such
situations shows how diligently the annual growth, as far as it
is accessible, is nibbled by the sheep. The food and shelter
afforded to them in snowstorms by clusters of such bushes is
of such importance that the wonder is our sheep farmers do not
bestow more pains to have it in adequate quantity. Young
plants of whin are so kept down by the sheep that they can
seldom attain to a profitable size unless protected by a fence
for a few years. In various parts of England it is cut for fuel.
The ashes contain a large proportion of alkali, and are a good
manure, especially for peaty land.
FUSARO, LAGO, a lake of Campania, Italy, m. W. of Baia,
and i m. S. of the acropolis of Cumae. It is the ancient A cherusia
palus, separated from the sea on the W. by a line of sandhills.
It may have been the harbour of Cumae in early antiquity.
In the ist century A.D. an artificial outlet was dug for it at its
S. end, with a tunnel, lined with opus reticulatum and brick,
under the hill of Torregaveta. This hill is covered with the
remains of a large villa, which is almost certainly that of Servilius
Vatia, described by Seneca (Epist. 55). There are remains of
other villas on the shores of the lake. Oyster cultivation is
carried on there.
See J. Beloch, Campanien (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), 188. (T. As.)
FUSELI, HENRY (1741-1825), English painter and writer on
art, of German-Swiss family, was born at Zurich in Switzerland
on the 7th of February 1741; he himself asserted in 1745, but
this appears to have been a mere whim. He was the second
child in a family of eighteen. His father was John Caspar
Fiissli, of some note as a painter of portraits and landscapes,
and author of Lives of the Helvetic Painters. This parent
destined his son for the church, and with this view sent him to
the Caroline college of his native town, where he received an
excellent classical education. One of his schoolmates there
was Lavater, with whom he formed an intimate friendship.
After taking orders in 1761 Fuseli was obliged 'to leave his
country for a while in consequence of having aided Lavater to
expose an unjust magistrate, whose family was still powerful
enough to make its vengeance felt. He first travelled through
Germany, and then, in 1 765, visited England, where he supported
himself for some time by miscellaneous writing; there was a
sort of project of promoting through his means a regular literary
communication between England and Germany. He became
in course of time acquainted with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom
he showed his drawings. By Sir Joshua's advice he then devoted
himself wholly to art. In 1770 he made an art-pilgrimage to
Italy, where he remained till 1778, changing his name from
Fiissli to Fuseli, as more Italian-sounding. Early in 1779 he
returned to England, taking Zurich on his way. He found a
commission awaiting him from Alderman Boydell, who was then
organizing his celebrated Shakespeare gallery. Fuseli painted
a number of pieces for this patron, and about this time published
an English edition of Lavater's work on physiognomy. He like-
wise gave Cowper some valuable assistance in preparing the
translation of Homer. In 1788 Fuseli married Miss Sophia
Rawlins (who it appears was originally one of his models, and who
proved an affectionate wife), and he soon after became an
associate of the Royal Academy. Two years later he was pro-
moted to the grade of Academician. In 1799 he exhibited a
series of paintings from subjects furnished by the works of
Milton, with a view to forming a Milton gallery corresponding
to BoydelTs Shakespeare gallery. The number of the Milton
paintings was forty-seven, many of them very large; they were
executed at intervals within nine years. This exhibition, which
closed in 1800, proved a failure as regards profit. In 1799 also
he was appointed professor of painting to the Academy. Four
years afterwards he was chosen keeper, and resigned his pro-
fessorship; but he resumed it in 1810, and continued to hold
both offices till his death. In 1805 he brought out an edition of
Pilkington's Lives of the Painters, which, however, did not add
much to his reputation. Canova, when on his visit to England,
was much taken with Fuseli's works, and on returning to Rome
in 1817 caused him to be elected a member of the first class in
the Academy of St Luke. Fuseli, after a life of uninterrupted
good health, died at Putney Hill on the i6th of April 1825,
at the advanced age of eighty-four, and was buried in the crypt
of St Paul's cathedral. He was comparatively rich at his death,
though, his professional gains had always appeared to be meagre.
As a painter, Fuseli had a daring invention, was original,
fertile in resource, and ever aspiring after the highest forms
of excellence. His mind was capable of grasping and realizing
the loftiest conceptions, which, however, he often spoiled on the
canvas by exaggerating the due proportions of the parts, and
throwing his figures into attitudes of fantastic and over-strained
contortion. He delighted to select from the region of the super-
natural, and pitched everything upon an ideal scale, believing
a certain amount of exaggeration necessary in the higher branches
of historical painting. " Damn Nature! she always puts me
out," was his characteristic exclamation. In this theory he was
confirmed by the study of Michelangelo's works and the marble
statues of the Monte Cavallo, which, when at Rome, he used
often to contemplate in the evening, relieved against a murky
sky or illuminated by lightning. But this idea was by him
carried out to an excess, not only in the forms, but also in the
attitudes of his figures; and the violent and intemperate action
which he often displays destroys the grand effect which many
of his pieces would otherwise produce. A striking illustration
of this occurs in his famous picture of " Hamlet breaking from
his Attendants to follow the Ghost ": Hamlet, it has been said,
looks as though he would burst his clothes with convulsive
cramps in all his muscles. This intemperance is the grand defect
of nearly all Fuseli's compositions. On the other hand, his
paintings are never either languid or cold. His figures are full
of life and earnestness, and seem to have an object in view
which they follow with rigid intensity. Like Rubens he excelled
in the art of setting his figures in motion. Though the lofty and
terrible was his proper sphere, Fuseli had a fine perception of the
ludicrous. The grotesque humour of his fairy scenes, especially
those taken from A Midsummer-Night's Dream, is in its way not
less remarkable than the poetic power of his more ambitious
works. As a colourist Fuseli has but small claims to distinction.
He scorned to set a palette as most artists do; he merely dashed
his tints recklessly over it. Not unfrequently he used his paints
in the form of a dry powder, which he rubbed up with his pencil
with oil, or turpentine, or gold size, regardless of the quantity,
and depending for accident on the general effect. This reckless-
ness may perhaps be explained by the fact that he did not paint
in oil till he was twenty-five years of age. Despite these draw-
backs he possessed the elements of a great painter.
Fuseli painted more than 200 pictures, but he exhibited only
a minority of them. His earliest painting represented " Joseph
interpreting the Dreams of the Baker and Butler"; the first
to excite particular attention was the " Nightmare," exhibited
in 1782. He produced only two portraits. His sketches or
designs numbered about 800; they have admirable qualities of
invention and design, and are frequently superior to his paintings.
His general powers of mind were large. He was a thorough
master of French, Italian, English and German, and could write
in all these tongues with equal facility and vigour, though he
preferred German as the vehicle of his thoughts. His writings
contain passages of the best art-criticism that English literature
can show. The principal work is his series of Lectures in the
Royal Academy, twelve in number, commenced in 1801.
Many interesting anecdotes of Fuseli, and his relations to con-
temporary artists, are given in his Life by John Knowles, who also
edited his works in 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1831. (W. M. R.)
FUSEL OIL (from the Ger. Fusel, bad spirits), the name applied
to the volatile oily liquids, of a nauseous fiery taste and smell,
which are obtained in the rectification of spirituous liquors made
by the fermentation of grain, potatoes, the marc of grapes, and
FUSIBLE METAL FUSION
369
other material, and which, as they are of higher boiling point
than ethyl alcohol, occur in largest quantity in the last portions
of the distillate. Besides ethyl or ordinary alcohol, and amyl
alcohol, which are present in them all, there have been found in
fusel oil several other bodies of the C.Ht.+i-OH series, also
certain ethers, and members of the C.H>,, CO,H series of
fatty acids. Normal propyl alcohol is contained in the fusel
oil of the marc brandy of the south of France, and isoprimary
butyl alcohol in that of beet-root molasses. The chief constituent
of the fusel oil procured in the manufacture of alcohol from
potatoes and grain, usually known as fusel oil and potato-spirit,
is isoprimary amyl alcohol, or isobutylcarbinol. Ordinary fusel
oil yields also an isomcric amyl alcohol (active amyl alcohol)
boiling at about 128. Variable quantities of fusel oil, less or
greater according to the stage of ripening, exist in commercial
spirits (see SPIRITS).
Fusel oil and its chief constituent, amyl alcohol, are direct
nerve poisons. In small doses it causes only thirst and headache,
with furred tongue and some excitement. In large doses it is
a convulsent poison. Impure beverages induce all the graver
neurotic and visceral disorders in alcoholism; and, like fusel
oil, furfural and the essence of absinthe, are convulsent poisons.
Pure ethyl alcohol intoxication, indeed, is rarely seen, being
modified in the case of spirits by the higher alcohols contained
in fusel oil. According to Rabuteau the toxic properties of the
higher alcohols increase with their molecular weight and boiling
point. Richet considers that the fusel oil contained in spirits
constitutes the chief danger in the consumption of alcoholic
beverages. The expert can immediately detect the peculiarly
virulent characters of the mixed intoxication due to the consump-
tion of spirits containing a large percentage of fusel oil.
FUSIBLE METAL, a term applied to certain alloys, generally
composed of bismuth, lead and tin, which possess the property of
me King at comparatively low temperatures. Newton's fusible
metal (named after Sir Isaac Newton) contains 50 parts of
bismuth, 31-25 of lead and 18-75 of tin; that of Jean Direct
(1725-1801), 50 parts of bismuth with 25 each of lead and tin;
and that of Valentin Rose the elder, 50 of bismuth with 28-1 of
lead and 24-1 of tin. These melt between 91 and 95 C. The
addition of cadmium gives still greater fusibility; in Wood's
metal, for instance, which is Darcet's metal with half the tin
replaced by cadmium, the melting point is lowered to 66-7 1 C. ;
while another described by Lipowitz and containing 1 5 parts of
bismuth, 8 of lead. 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium, softens at about
55 and is completely liquid a little above 60. By the addition
of mercury to Darcet's metal the melting point may be reduced
so low as 45. These fusible metals have the peculiarity of ex-
panding as they cool; Rose's metal, for instance, remains pasty
for a considerable range of temperature below its fusing point,
contracts somewhat rapidly from 80 to 55, expands from 55
to 35, and contracts again from 35 to o". For this reason they
may be used for taking casts of anatomical specimens or making
dickes from wood-blocks, the expansion on cooling securing
sharp impressions. By suitable modification in the proportions
of the components, a series of alloys can be made which melt
at various temperatures above the boiling point of water; for
example, with 8 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead and 3 of tin the
melting point is 1 23, and with 8 of bismuth, 30 of lead and 24 of
tin it is 172. With tin and lead only in equal proportions it is
341. Such alloys are used for making the fusible plugs inserted
in the furnace-crowns of steam boilers, as a safeguard in the event
of the water-level being allowed to fall too low. When this
happens the plug being no longer covered with water is heated
to such a temperature that it melts and allows the contents of
the boiler to escape into the furnace. In automatic fire-sprinklers
the orifices of the pipes are dosed with fusible metal, which melts
and liberates the water when, owing to an outbreak of fire in
the room, the temperature rises above a predetermined limit.
FUSILIER, originally (in French about 1670, in English about
1680) the name of a soldier armed with a light flintlock musket
called the fusil; now a regimental designation. Various forms
of flintlock small arms had been used in warfare since the middle
of the i6th century. At the time of the English civil war (1642-
1652) the term " firelock " was usually employed to distinguish
these weapons from the more common matchlock musket. The
special value of the firelock in armies of the I7th century lay
in the fact that the artillery of the time used open powder barrels
for the service of the guns, making it unsafe to allow lighted
matches in the muskets of the escort. Further, a military escort
was required, not only for the protection, but also for the
surveillance of the artillerymen of those days. Companies of
" firelocks " were therefore organized for these duties, and out of
these companies grew the " fusiliers " who were employed in
the same way in the wars of Louis XIV. In the latter part of
the Thirty Years' War (1643) fusiliers were simply mounted
troops armed with the fusil, as carabiniers were with the carbine.
But the escort companies of artillery came to be known by the
name shortly afterwards, and the regiment of French Royal
Fusiliers, organized in 1671 by Vauban, was considered the model
for Europe. The general adoption of the flintlock musket and
the suppression of the pike in the armies of Europe put an end
to the original special duties of fusiliers, and they were subse-
quently employed to a large extent in light infantry work,
perhaps on account of the greater individual aptitude for
detached duties naturally shown by soldiers who had never been
restricted to a fixed and unchangeable place in the line of battle.
The senior fusilier regiment in the British service, the (7th)
Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment), was formed on the
French model in 1685; the sth foot (now Northumberland
Fusiliers), senior to the 7th in the army, was not at that time
a fusilier regiment. The distinctive head-dress of fusiliers in the
British service is a fur cap, generally resembling, but smaller
than and different in details from, that of the Foot Guards.
In Germany the name " fusilier " is borne by certain infantry
regiments and by one battalion in each grenadier regiment.
FUSION, the term generally applied to the melting of a solid
substance, or the change of state of aggregation from the solid
to the liquid. The term " liquefaction " is frequently employed
in the same sense, but is often restricted to the condensation
of a gas or vapour. The converse process of freezing or solidifica-
tion, the change from the liquid to the solid state, is subject to
the same laws, and must be considered together with fusion.
The solution of a solid in a foreign liquid, and the deposition or
crystallization of a solid from a solution, are so closely rekted
to the fusion of a pure substance, that it will also be necessary
to consider some of the analogies which they present.
i. General Phenomena. There are two chief varieties of the
process of fusion, namely, crystalline and amorphous, which are
in many ways distinct, although it is possible to find intermediate
cases which partake of the characteristics of both. The melting
of ice may be taken as a typical case of crystalline fusion. The
passage from rigid solid to mobile liquid occurs at a definite
surface without any intermediate stage or plastic condition.
The change takes place at a definite temperature, the fusing or
freezing point (abbreviated F.P.), and requires the addition
of a definite quantity of heat to the solid, which is called the
latent heat of fusion. There is also in general a considerable
change of volume during fusion, which amounts in the case of
ice to a contraction of 9 % . Typical cases of amorphous solidifica-
tion are those of silica, glass, plastic sulphur, pitch, alcohol and
many organic liquids. In this type the liquid gradually becomes
more and more viscous as the temperature falls, and ultimately
attains the rigidity characteristic of a solid, without any definite
freezing point or latent heat. The condition of the substance
remains uniform throughout, if its temperature is uniform;
there is no separation into the two distinct phases of solid
and liquid, and there is no sudden change of volume at any
temperature.
A change or transition from one crystalline form to another
may occur in the solid state with evolution or absorption of
heat at a definite temperature, and is analogous to the change
from solid to liquid, but usually takes place more slowly owing
to the small molecular mobility of the solid state. Thus
rhombic sulphur when heated passes slowly at 95-6 C. into the
FUSION
monosymmetric form which melts at 1 20, but if heated rapidly
the rhombic form melts at 114-5. The two forms, rhombic and
monosymmetric, can exist in equilibrium at 95-6, the transition
point at which they have the same vapour pressure. Similarly
a solid solution of carbon in iron, when cooled slowly, passes
at about 700 C., with considerable evolution of heat, into the
form of " pearlite," which is soft when cold, but if rapidly chilled
the carbon remains in solution and the steel is very hard (see
also ALLOYS).
In the case of crystalline fusion it is necessary to distinguish
two cases, the homogeneous and the heterogeneous. In the first
case the composition of the solid and liquid phases are the same,
and the temperature remains constant during the whole process
of fusion. In the second case the solid and liquid phases differ
in composition; that of the liquid phase changes continuously,
and the temperature does not remain constant during the fusion.
The first case comprises the fusion of pure substances, and
that of eutectics, or cryohydrates; the second is the general
case of an alloy or a solution. These have been very fully
studied and their phenomena greatly elucidated in recent
years.
There is also a sub- variety of amorphous fusion, which may
be styled colloid or gelatinous, and may be illustrated by the
behaviour of solutions of water in gelatin. Many of these jellies
melt at a fairly definite temperature on heating, and coagulate or
set at a definite temperature on cooling. But in some cases the
process is not reversible, and there is generally marked hysteresis,
the temperature of setting and other phenomena depending on
the rate of cooling. This case has not yet been fully worked out;
but it appears probable that in many cases the jelly possesses
a spongy framework of solid, holding liquid in its meshes or
interstices. It might be regarded as a case of " heterogeneous "
amorphous fusion, in which the liquid separates into two phases
of different composition, one of which solidifies before the other.
The two phases cannot, as a rule, be distinguished optically,
but it is generally possible to squeeze out some of the liquid
phase when the jelly has set, which proves that the substance
is not really homogeneous. In very complicated mixtures, such
as acid lavas or slags containing a large proportion of silica,
amorphous and crystalline solidification may occur together.
In this case the crystals separate first during the process of
cooling, the mother liquor increases gradually in viscosity, and
finally sets as an amorphous ground-mass or matrix, in which
crystals of different kinds and sizes, formed at different stages
of the cooling, remain embedded. The formation of crystals
in an amorphous solid after it has set is also of frequent
occurrence. It is termed devitrification, but is a very slow
process unless the solid is in a plastic state.
2. Homogeneous Crystalline Fusion. The fusion of a solid of
this type is characterized most clearly by the perfect constancy
of temperature during the process. In fact, the law of constant
temperature, which is generally stated as the first of the so-called
" laws of fusion," does not strictly apply except to this case.
The constancy of the P.P. of [a pure substance is so characteristic
that change of the F.P. is often one of the most convenient tests
of the presence of foreign material. In the case of substances
like ice, which melt at a low temperature and are easily obtained
in large quantities in a state of purity, the point of fusion may
be very accurately determined by observing the temperature
of an intimate mixture of the solid and liquid while slowly
melting as it absorbs heat from surrounding bodies. But in the
majority of cases it is more convenient to observe the freezing
point as the liquid is cooled. By this method it is possible to
ensure perfect uniformity of temperature throughout the mass
by stirring the liquid continuously during the process of freezing,
whereas it is difficult to ensure uniformity of temperature in
melting a solid, however gradually the heat is supplied, unless
the solid can be mixed with the liquid. It is also possible to
observe the F.P. in other ways, as by noting the temperature
at the moment of the breaking of a wire, of the stoppage of a
stirrer, or of the maximum rate of change of volume, but these
methods are generally less certain in their indications than the
point of greatest constancy of temperature in the case of homo-
geneous crystalline solids.
Fusing Points
of Common Metals.
Mercury . . -38-8
Antimony 630
Potassium .
. 62-5
Aluminium
655
Sodium
95-6
Silver
962
Tin. . .
. 231-9
Gold
1064
Bismuth
. 269-2
Copper .
1082
Cadmium .
- 320-7
Nickel .
1427
Lead .
327-7
Palladium
'535
Zinc
. 419-0
Platinum
1710
The above table contains some of the most recent values of
fusing points of metals determined (except the first three and
the last three) with platinum thermometers. The last three
values are those obtained by extrapolation with platinum-
rhodium and platinum-iridium couples. (See Harker, Proc.
Roy. Soc. A 76, p. 235, 1905.) Some doubt has recently been
raised with regard to the value for platinum, which is much
lower than that previously accepted, namely 1775.
3. Superjusion, Supersaturation. It is generally possible to
cool a liquid several degrees below its normal freezing point
without a separation of crystals, especially if it is protected
from agitation, which would assist the molecules to rearrange
themselves. A liquid in this state is said to be " undercooled "
or " superfused." The phenomenon is even more familiar in
the case of solutions (e.g. sodium sulphate or acetate) which may
remain in the " metastable " condition for an indefinite time
if protected from dust, &c. The introduction into the liquid
under this condition of the smallest fragment of the crystal,
with respect to which the solution is supersaturated, will pro-
duce immediate crystallization, which will continue until the
temperature is raised to the saturation point by the liberation
of the latent heat of fusion. The constancy of temperature at
the normal freezing point is due to the equilibrium of exchange
existing between the liquid and solid. Unless both solid and
liquid are present, there is no condition of equilibrium, and the
temperature is indeterminate.
It has been shown by H. A. Miers (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1906, 89,
p. 413) that for a supersaturated solution in metastable equili-
brium there is an inferior limit of temperature, at which it passes
into the " labile " state, i.e. spontaneous crystallization occurs
throughout the mass in a fine shower. This seems to be analogous
to the fine misty condensation which occurs in a supersaturated
vapour in the absence of nuclei (see VAPORIZATION) when the
supersaturation exceeds a certain limit.
4. Effect of Pressure on the F.P. The effect of pressure on the
fusing-point depends on the change of volume during fusion. Sub-
stances which expand on freezing, like ice, have their freezing points
lowered by increase of pressure; substances which expand on
fusing, like wax, have their melting points raised by pressure.
In each case the effect of pressure is to retard increase of volume.
This effect was first predicted by James Thomson on the analogy
of the effect of pressure on the boiling point, and was numerically
verified by Lord Kelvin in the case of ice, and later by Bunsen in
the case of paraffin and spermaceti. The equation by which the
change of the F.P. is calculated may be proved by a simple applica-
tion of the Carnot cycle, exactly as in the case of vapour and liquid.
(See THERMODYNAMICS.) If L be the latent heat of fusion in
mechanical units, ' the volume of unit mass of the solid, and v"
that of the liquid, the work done in an elementary Carnot cycle of
range d8 will be dp(v*v'), if dp is the increase of pressure required
to produce a change dO in the F.P. Since the ratio of the work-
difference or cycle-area to the heat-transferred L must be equal to
d6/0, we have the relation
dO/dp = 0(v"-v")/L. (l)
The sign of dB, the change of the P.P., is the same as that of the
change of volume (v* v'). Since the change of volume seldom
exceeds o-l c.c. per gramme, the change of the F.P. per atmosphere
is so small that it is not as a rule necessary to take account of varia-
tions of atmospheric pressure in observing a freezing point. A
variation of I cm. in the height of the barometer would correspond
to a change of -0001 C. only in the F.P. of ice. This is far beyond the
limits of -accuracy of most observations. Although the effect of
pressure is so small, it produces, as is well known, remarkable
results in the motion of glaciers, the moulding and regelation of
ice, and many other phenomena. It has also been employed to
explain the apparent inversion of the order of crystallization in
rocks like granite, in which the arrangement of the crystals indicates
that the quartz matrix solidified subsequently to the crystals of
FUSION
w r, mica or hornblende embedded in it, although the quartz
i a higher meliing point. It i contended that under enormous
procure the freezing points of the more fusible constituents might
be ratted above that of the quartz, if the latter is less affected by
presMirr. Thus Bunsen found the F.I 1 , of paraffin wax 1-4* C.
below that of spermaceti at atmospheric pressure. At too atmo-
sphere* the two melted at the tame temperature. At higher pressures
the paraffin would solidify first. The effect of pressure on tin-
silicate*, however, is much smaller, and it is not so easy to explain
a change of several hundred degrees in the P.P. It teems more
likely in this particular case that the order of crystallization depends
on the action of superheated water or steam at high temperatures
and pressures, which is well known to exert a highly solvent and
metamorphic action on silicate*.
5. Variation of Latent Heat. C. C. Person in 1847 endeavoured to
how by the application of the first law of thermodynamics that
the increase of the latent heat per degree should be equal to the
difference (t's") between the specific heats of the liquid and solid.
If, for instance, water at o* C. were first frozen and then cooled to
I" C., the beat abstracted per gramme would be (L'+s't) calories.
But if the water were first cooled to <"C.,and then frozen at /*C.,
by abstracting heat L', the heat abstracted would be L*+s*l.
Assuming that the heat abstracted should be the same in the two
cases, we evidently obtain L' '-(*' s')t. This theory has been
approximately verified by Petterson, by observing the freezing of a
liquid cooled below its normal F.P. (Jour. Ckem. Soc. 24, p. 151).
But his method does not represent the true variation of the latent
beat with temperature, since the freezing, in the case of a superfused
liquid, really takes place at the normal freezing point. A quantity
of heat t't is abstracted in cooling to -f, (L' s't) in raising to o*
and freezing at o*, and s't in cooling the ice to /. The latent heat
L' at I does not really enter into the experiment. In order to
make the liquid freeze at a different temperature, it is necessary to
subject it to pressure, and the effect of the pressure on the latent
heat cannot be neglected. The entropy of a liquid <t>' at its F.P.
reckoned from any convenient zero 6> in the solid state may be
represented by the expression
+'-+-f i 'd6/9+LI8. (2)
Since td+'lde-t', we obtain by differentiation the relation
dLlde-s'-s'+L/e, (3)
which is exactly similar to the equation for the specific heat of a
vapour maintained in the saturated condition. If we suppose that
the specific heats i' and s' of the solid and liquid at equilibrium
pressure are nearly the same as those ordinarily observed at con-
stant pressure, the relation (3) differs from that of Person only by
the addition of the term Lit. Since s' is greater than s' in all cases
hitheno investigated, and Lit is necessarily positive, it is clear that
the latent heat of fusion must increase with rise of temperature, or
diminish with fall of temperature. It is possible to imagine the F.P.
to lowered by pressure (positive or negative) that the latent heat
should vanish, in which case we should probably obtain a continuous
passage from the liquid to the solid state similar to that which
occurs in the case of amorphous substances. According to equation
(j), the rate of change of the latent heat of water is approximately
p-8o calorie per degree at o* C. (as compared with 0-50, Person),
if we assume i'-i, and j'-o-5. Putting (s' *')~o-5 in equation
(2), we find Z,-o at 160* C. approximately, but no stress can be
laid on this estimate, as the variation of (i's') is so uncertain.
6. Fretting o] Solutions and Alloys. The phenomena of
freezing of heterogeneous crystalline mixtures may be illustrated
by the case of aqueous solutions and of metallic solutions or
alloys, which have been most widely studied. The usual effect
of an impurity, such as salt or sugar in solution in water, is to
lower the freezing point, so that no crystallization occurs until
the temperature has fallen below the normal F.P. of the pure
solvent, the depression of F.P. being nearly proportional to the
concentration of the solution. When freezing begins, the solvent
generally separates out from the solution in the pure state. This
separation of the solvent involves an increase in the strength
of the remaining solution, so that the temperature does not
remain constant during the freezing, but continues to fall as
more of the solvent is separated. There is a perfectly .definite
relation between temperature and concentration at each stage
of the process, which may be represented in the form of a curve
as AC in fig. i, called the freezing point curve. The equilibrium
temperature, at the surface of contact between the solid and
liquid, depends only on the composition of the liquid phase and
not at all on the quantity of solid present. The abscissa of the
F.P. curve represents the composition of that portion of the
original solution which remains liquid at any temperature. If
instead of starting with a dilute solution we start with a strong
solution represented by a point N, and cool it as shown by the
vertical line ND, a point D is generally reached at which the
solution becomes " saturated." The dissolved substance or
" solute " then separates out as the solution is further cooled,
and the concentration diminishes with fall of temperature in
a definite relation, as indicated by the curve CB, which is called
the solubility curve. Though often called by different names,
the two curves AC and CB are
essentially of a similar nature.
To take the case of an aqueous
solution of salt as an example,
along CB the solution is satur-
ated with respect to salt, along
AC the solution is saturated with
respect to ice. When the point
C is reached along either curve,
the solution is saturated with
respect to both salt and ice.
The concentration cannot vary
further, and the temperature
remains constant, while the salt
and ice crystallize out together,
maintaining the exact proportions
ll
FIG. i. F.P. of Solubility
Curve: simple case.
in which they exist in the solution. The resulting solid was
termed a cryohydrate by F. Guthrie, but it is really an intimate
mixture of two kinds of crystals, and not a chemical compound
or hydrate containing the constituents in chemically equivalent
proportions. The lowest temperature attainable by means of a
freezing mixture is the temperature of the F.P. of the corre-
sponding cryohydrate. In a mixture of salt and ice with the least
trace of water a saturated brine is quickly formed, which dissolves
the ice and falls rapidly in temperature, owing to the absorption
of the latent heat of fusion. So long as both ice and salt are
present, if the mixture is well stirred, the solution must necessarily
become saturated with respect to both ice and salt, and this can
only occur at the cryohydric temperature, at which the two
curves of solubility intersect.
The curves in fig. i also illustrate the simplest type of freezing
point curve in the case of alloys of two metals A and B which
do not form mixed crystals or chemical compounds. The alloy
corresponding to the cryohydrate, possessing the lowest melting
point, is called the eutectic alloy, as it is most easily cast and
worked. It generally possesses a very fine-grained structure,
and is not a chemical compound. (See ALLOYS.)
To obtain a complete F.P. curve even for a binary alloy is a
laborious and complicated process, but the information contained
in such a curve is often very valuable. It is necessary to operate
with a number of different alloys of suitably chosen composition,
and to observe the freezing points of each separately. Each alloy
should also be analysed after the process if there is any risk of
its composition having been altered by oxidation or otherwise.
The freezing points are generally best
determined by observing the gradual
cooling of a considerable mass, which
is well stirred so long as it remains
liquid. The curve of cooling may most
conveniently be recorded, either photo- I
graphically, using a thermocouple and I**
galvanometer, as in the method of Sir I
W. Roberts- Austen, or with pen and
ink, if a platinum thermometer is avail-
able, according to the method put in
practice by C. T. Heycock and F. H.
Neville.
\
\\
r***A
\f.
*N
\
^
N
\\
V
V
\v
\
* .
-\
\
v
^
FIG. 2. Cooling Curves
of Alloys : typical case.
A typical set of curves obtained
in this manner is shown in fig. 2. When
the pure metal A in cooling reaches its
F.P. the temperature suddenly becomes
stationary, and remains accurately constant for a considerable
period. Often it falls slightly below the F.P. owing to super-
fusion, but rises to the F.P. and remains constant as soon as
freezing begins. The second curve shows the cooling of A with
10% of another metal B added. The freezing begins at a lower
temperature with the separation of pure A. The temperature
372
FUSION
no longer remains constant during freezing, but falls more and
more rapidly as the proportion of B in the liquid increases.
When the eutectic temperature is reached there is a second
F.P. or arrest at which the whole of the remaining liquid solidifies.
With 20% of B the first F.P. is further lowered, and the tempera-
ture falls faster. The eutectic F.P. is of longer duration, but
still at the same temperature. For an alloy of the composition
of the eutectic itself there is no arrest until the eutectic tempera-
ture is reached, at which the whole solidifies without change of
temperature. There is a great advantage in recording these
curves automatically, as the primary arrest is often very slight,
and difficult to observe in any other way.
7. Change of Solubility with Temperature. The lowering of the
F.P. of a solution with increase of concentration, as shown by the
F.P. or solubility curves, may be explained and calculated by
equation (i) in terms of the osmotic pressure of the dissolved sub-
stance by analogy with the effect of mechanical pressure. It is
possible in salt solutions to strain out the salt mechanically by a
suitable filter or " semi-permeable membrane," which permits the
water to pass, but retains the salt. To separate I gramme of
salt requires the performance of work PV against the osmotic
pressure P, where V is the corresponding diminution in the volume
of the solution. In dilute solutions, to which alone the following
calculation can be applied, the volume V is the reciprocal of the
concentration C of the solution in grammes per unit volume, and
the osmotic pressure P is equal to that of an equal number of mole-
cules of gas in the same space, and may be deduced from the usual
equation of a gas,
P=RB/VM=RSC/M, ( 4 )
where M is the molecular weight of the salt in solution, the absolute
temperature, and .R a constant which has the value 8-32 joules,
or nearly 2 calories, per degree C. It is necessary to consider
two cases, corresponding to the curves CB and AB in fig. I, in
which the solution is saturated with respect to salt and water
respectively. To facilitate description we take the case of a salt
dissolved in water, but similar results apply to solutions in other
liquids and alloys of metals.
(a) If unit mass of salt is separated in the solid state from a satur-
ated solution of salt (curve CB) by forcing out through a semi-
permeable membrane against the osmotic pressure P the corre-
sponding volume of water V in which it is dissolved, the heat evolved
is the latent heat of saturated solution of the salt Q together with
the work done PV. Writing (Q+PV) for L, and V for (*-') in
equation (i), and substituting P for p, we obtain
Q+PV=V8dP/d9, (5)
which is equiyalent to equation (i), and may be established by
similar reasoning. Substituting for P and V in terms of C from
equation (4), if Q is measured in calories, R = 2, and we obtain
QC = 2PdC/d9, (6)
which may be integrated, assuming Q constant, with the result
2log,C"/C' = QlO'-Q/e', ( 7 )
where C', C* are the concentrations of the saturated solution cor-
responding to the temperatures 9' and 6*. This equation may be
employed to calculate the latent heat of solution Q from two ob-
servations of the solubility. It follows from these equations that
Q is of the same sign as dC/de, that is to say, the solubility increases
with rise of temperature if heat is absorbed in the formation of the
saturated solution, which is the usual case. If, on the other hand,
heat is liberated on solution, as in the case of caustic potash or
sulphate of calcium, the solubility diminishes with rise of temperature.
(b) In the case of a solution saturated with respect to ice (curve
AC) , if one gramme of water having a volume v is separated by freezing,
we obtain a precisely similar equation to (5), but with L the latent
heat of fusion of water instead of Q, and v instead of V. If the
solution is dilute, we may neglect the external work Pv in comparison
with L, and also the heat of dilution, and may write P/t for dP/d8,
where t is the depression of the F.P. below that of the pure solvent.
Substituting for P in terms of V from equation (4), we obtain
t= 2Pv/L VM= 28>v>IL WM, (8)
where W is the weight of water and w that of salt in a given volume
of solution. If M grammes of salt are dissolved in 100 of water,
w = M and W=ioo. The depression of the F.P. in this case is
called by van t' Hoff the " Molecular Depression of the F.P." and
is given by the simple formula
t = -Q20>/L. (9)
Equation (8) may be used to calculate L or M, if either is known,
from observations < of t, 8 and w/W. The results obtained are
sufficiently approximate to be of use in many cases in spite of the
rather liberal assumptions and approximations effected in the
course of the reasoning. In any case the equations give a simple
theoretical basis with which to compare experimental data in order
to estimate the order of error involved in the assumptions. We
may thus estimate the variation of the osmotic pressure from the
value given by the gaseous equation, as the concentration of the
solution or the molecular dissociation changes. The most un-
certain factor in the formula is the molecular weight M, since the
molecule in solution may be quite different from that denoted by
the chemical formula of the solid. In many cases the molecule of
a metal in dilute solution in another metal is either monatomic, or
forms a compound molecule with the solvent containing one atom
of the dissolved metal, in which case the molecular depression is
given by putting the atomic weight for M. In other cases, as
Cu, Hg, Zn, in solution in cadmium, the depression of the F.P.
per atom, according to Heycock and Neville, is only half as great,
which would imply a diatomic molecule. Similarly As and Au in
Cd appear to be triatomic, and Sn in Pb tetratomic. Intermediate
cases may occur in which different molecules exist together in
equilibrium in proportions which vary according to the temperature
and concentration. The most familiar case is that of an electrolyte,
in which the molecule of the dissolved substance is partly dissociated
into ions. In such cases the degree of dissociation may be estimated
by observing the depression of the F.P., but the results obtained
cannot always be reconciled with those deduced by other methods,
such as measurement of electrical conductivity, and there are many
difficulties which await satisfactory interpretation.
Exactly similar relations to (8) and (9) apply to changes of boiling
point or vapour pressure produced by substances in solution (see
VAPORIZATION), the laws of which are very closely connected with
the corresponding phenomena of fusion; but the consideration of
the vapour phase may generally be omitted in dealing with the fusion
of mixtures where the vapour pressure of either constituent is small.
8. Hydrates. The simple case of a freezing point curve,
illustrated in fig. i, is generally modified by the occurrence
of compounds of a character analogous to hydrates of soluble
salts, in which the dissolved substance combines with one or
more molecules of the solvent. These hydrates may exist as
compound molecules in the solution, but their composition
cannot be demonstrated unless they can be separated in the solid
state. Corresponding to each crystalline hydrate there is gener-
ally a separate branch of the solubility curve along which the
crystals of the hydrate are in equilibrium with the saturated
solution. At any given temperature the hydrate possessing the
least solubility 'is the most stable. If two are present in contact
with the same solution, the more soluble will dissolve, and the
less soluble will be formed at its expense until the conversion
is complete. The two hydrates cannot be in equilibrium with the
same solution except at the temperature at which their solu-
bilities are equal, i.e. at the point where the corresponding curves
of solubility intersect. This temperature is called the " Transi-
tion Point." In the case of ZnSO 4 , as shown in fig. 3, the hepta-
hydrate, with seven molecules of water, is the least soluble
hydrate at ordinary tem-
peratures, and is generally
deposited from saturated
solutions. Above 39 C.,
however, the hexahydrate,
with six molecules, is less
soluble, and a rapid conver-
sion of the hepta- into the
hexahydrate occurs if the
former is heated above the
transition point. The solu-
bility of the hexahydrate is
FIG. 3. Solubility Curves of
Hydrates.
greater than that of the heptahydrate below 39, but increases
more slowly with rise of temperature. At about 80 C.
the hexahydrate gives place to the monohydrate, which
dissolves in water with evolution of heat, and diminishes in
solubility with rise of temperature. Intermediate hydrates
exist, but they are more soluble, and cannot be readily isolated.
Both the mono- and hexahydrates are capable of existing in
equilibrium with saturated solutions at temperatures far below
their transition points, provided that the less soluble hydrate
is not present in the crystalline form. The solubility curves can
therefore be traced, as in fig. 3, over an extended range of tem-
perature. The equilibrium of each hydrate with the solvent,
considered separately, would present a diagram of two branches
similar to fig. i, but as a rule only a small portion of each curve
can be realized, and the complete solubility curve, as. experi-
mentally determined, is composed of a number of separate
pieces corresponding to the ranges of minimum solubility of
different hydrates. Failure to recognize this, coupled w?th the
FUSSEN FUST
373
fact that in strong and viscous solutions the state of equilibrium
is but slowly attained, is the probable eiplanation of the remark-
able discrepancies existing in many recorded data of solubility.
Transition Points of Hydrates.
NatCrO.-lOHrf). . 19-9* NaBr-2HiO . . .57*
NaSO,-10H,0 . . 33-4* IUCV41U) . . . 57'8*
Na*X>,-10H,0 .35-1* Na.PO,- 12H.O . . 73'4*
NaSrf>,-5H,0 . . 48-0* Ba(OH),-8H,0 . . 77'9
The transition points of the hydrates given in the above list
(Richards, Proc. Amer. Acad., 1899, 34. P- 77> afford well-
marked constant temperatures which can be utilized as fixed
points for experimental purposes.
9. Formation of Mixed Crystals. An important exception
to the general type already described, in which the addition of a
dissolved substance lowers the P.P. of the solvent, is presented
by the formation of mixed crystals, or " solid solutions," in
which the solvent and solute occur mixed in varying proportions.
This isomorphous replacement of one substance by another, in
the same crystal with little or no change of form, has long been
known and. studied in the case of minerals and salts, but the
relations between composition and melting-point have seldom
been investigated, and much still remains obscure. In this case
the process of freezing does not necessitate the performance of
work of separation of the constituents of the solution, the P.P.
is not necessarily depressed, and. the effect cannot be calculated
by the usual formula for dilute solutions. One of the simplest
types of P.P. curve which may result from the occurrence of
mixed crystals is illustrated by the case of alloys of gold and
silver, or gold and platinum, in which the P.P. curve is nearly
a straight line joining the freezing-points of the constituents.
The equilibrium between the solid and liquid, in both of which
the two metals are capable of mixing in all proportions, bears in
this case an obvious and dose analogy to the equilibrium between
a mixed liquid (e.g. alcohol and water) and its vapour. In the
latter case, as is well known, the vapour will contain a larger
proportion of the more volatile constituent. Similarly in the case
of the formation of mixed crystals, the liquid should contain
a larger proportion of the more fusible constituent than the solid
with which it is in equilibrium. The composition of the crystals
which are being deposited at any moment will, therefore,
necessarily change as solidification proceeds, following the
change in the composition of the liquid, and the temperature
will fall until the last portions of the liquid to solidify will consist
chiefly of the more fusible constituent, at the P.P. of which the
solidification will be complete. If, however, as seems to be
frequently the case, the composition of the solid and liquid phases
do not greatly differ from each other, the greater part of the
solidification will occur within a comparatively small range of
temperature, and the initial P.P. of the alloy will be well marked.
It is possible in this case to draw a second curve representing
the composition of the solid phase which is in equilibrium with
the liquid at any temperature. This curve will not represent the
average composition of the crystals, but that of the outer coating
only which is in equilibrium with the liquid at the moment.
H. W. B. Roozeboom (Zeit. Phys. Chem. xxx. p. 385) has
attempted to classify some of the possible cases which may
occur in the formation of mixed crystals on the basis of J. W.
Gibbs's thermodynamic potential, the general properties of which
may be qualitatively deduced from a consideration of observed
phenomena. But although this method may enable us to classify
different types, and even to predict results in a qualitative
manner, it does not admit of numerical calculation similar to
equation (8), as the Gibbs's function itself is of a purely abstract
nature and its form is unknown. There is no doubt that the
formation of mixed crystals may explain many apparent
BfK""*>fct in the study of P.P. curves. The whole subject has
been most fruitful of results in recent years, and appears full of
promise for the future.
For further detail* in this particular branch the reader may consult
report by Neville (Brit. Attoc. Rep., 1900), which contains numerous
reference* to original paper* by Robert-Au*ten, Le Chatelier,
Roozeboom and other*. For the properties of solution* we SOLU-
n .-. (H. L. C.)
FUSSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, at
the foot of the Alps (Tirol), on the Lech, 2500 ft. above the sea,
with a branch line to Oberdorf on the railway to Augsburg. Pop.
4000. It has six Roman Catholic churches, a Franciscan monas-
tery and a castle. Rope-making is an important industry.
The castle, lying on a rocky eminence, is remarkable for the
peace signed here on the 2 2nd of April 1745 between the elector
Maximilian III., Joseph of Bavaria and Maria Theresa. Two
miles to the S.I-;., immediately on the Austrian frontier, romanti-
cally situated on a rock overlooking the Schwanensec, is the
magnificent castle of Hohenschwangau, and a little to the north,
on the site of an old castle, that of.Neuschwanstein, built by
Louis II. of Bavaria.
See H. Peistle, Fiusen und Umgtbung (1898).
FUST, JOHANN ( 7-1466), early German printer, belonged
to a rich and respectable burgher family of Mainz, which is known
to have flourished from 1423, and to have held many civil and
religious offices. The name was always written Fust, but in
1506 Johann Schtiffer, in dedicating the German translation of
I. ivy to the emperor Maximilian, called his grandfather Faust,
and thenceforward the family assumed this name, and the Fausts
of Aschaffenburg, an old and quite distinct family, placed
Johann Fust in their pedigree. Johann's brother Jacob, a
goldsmith, was one of the burgomasters in 1462, when Mainz
was stormed and sacked by the troops of Count Adolf of Nassau,
on which occasion he seems to have perished (see a document,
dated May 8, 1463, published by Wyss in Quartalbl. des hist.
Vercins ftir Hessen, 1879, p. 24). There is no evidence that, as
is commonly asserted, Johann Fust was a goldsmith, but he
appears to have been a money-lender or banker. On account of
his connexion with Gutenberg (?..), he has been represented
by some as the inventor of printing, and the instructor as well as
the partner of Gutenberg, by others as his patron and benefactor,
who saw the value of his discovery and supplied him with means
to carry it out, whereas others paint him as a greedy and
crafty speculator, who took advantage of Gutenberg's necessity
and robbed him of the fruits of his invention. However this may
be, the Helmasperger document of November 6, 1455, shows
that Fust advanced money to Gutenberg (apparently 800
guilders in 1450, and another 800 in 1452) for carrying on his
work, and that Fust, in 1455, brought a suit against Gutenberg
to recover the money he had lent, claiming 2020 (more correctly
2026) guilders for principal and interest. It appears that he had
not paid in the 300 guilders a year which he had undertaken to
furnish for expenses, wages, &c., and, according to Gutenberg,
had said that he had no intention of claiming interest. The suit
was apparently decided in Fust's favour, November 6, 1435,
in the refectory of the Barefooted Friars of Mainz, when Fust
made oath that he himself had borrowed 1550 guilders and
given them to Gutenberg. There is no evidence that Fust, as
is usually supposed, removed the portion of the printing materials
covered by his mortgage to his own house, and carried on printing
there with the aid of Peter Schofler, of Gernsheim (who is known
to have been a scriptor at Paris in 1449), to whom, probably
about 1455,* he gave his only daughter Dyna or Christina in
marriage. Their first publication was the Psalter, August 14,
1457, a folio of 350 pages, the first printed book with a complete
date, and remarkable for the beauty of the large initials printed
each in two colours, red and blue, from types made in two
pieces. 1 The Psalter was reprinted with the same types, 1459
(August 29), 1490, 1502 (SchdfTer's last publication) and 1516.
Fust and Schdffer's other works are given below. 1 In 1464 Adolf
1 This date is uncertain; some place the marriage in 1453 or soon
after, other* about 1464. It i* probable that Fust alluded to this
relationship when he spoke of Schfiffer as pueri met in the colophons
of Cicero'* De officiis of 1465 and 1466.
Thi* method was patented in England by Solomon Henry m
1780, and by Sir William Congreve in 1819.
(3) Durandus, Rationale divinorum officiorum (1459), folio, 160
leaves; (4) the Clementine Constitutions, with the gloss of Johannes
Andreae (1460), 51 leaves; (5) Biblia Sacra Lattna (1462), folio,
2 vols.. 242 and 239 leaves, 48 lines to a full page; (6) the Sixth
Book of Decretals, with Andreae's gloss, i?th December 1465, folio,
141 leave*; (7) Cicero, De officiis (1465), 410, 88 leaves, the first
374
FUSTEL DE COULANGES
of Nassau appointed for the parish of St Quintin three Baumeisters
(master-builders) who were to choose twelve chief parishioners
as assistants for life. One of the first of these " Vervaren,"
who were named on May-day 1464, was Johannes Fust, and in
1467 Adam von Hochheim was chosen instead of " the late "
(selig) Johannes Fust. Fust is said to have gone to Paris in 1466
and to have died of the plague, which raged there in August and
September. He certainly was in Paris on the 4th of July, when
he gave Louis de Lavernade of the province of Forez, then
chancellor of the duke of Bourbon and first president of the
parliament of Toulouse, a copy of his second edition of Cicero,
as appears from a note in Lavernade's own hand at the end of
the book, which is now in the library of Geneva. But nothing
further is known than that on the 3Oth of October, probably
in 1471, an annual mass was instituted for him by Peter Schoffer,
Conrad Henlif (for Henekes, or Henckis, Schb'ffer's partner ?
who married Fust's widow about 1468') and Johann Fust (the
son), in the abbey-church of St Victor of Paris, where he was
buried; and that Peter Schoffer founded a similar memorial
service for Fust in 1473 in the church of the Dominicans at
Mainz (Bockenheimer, Cesch. der Stadt Mainz, iv. 15).
Fust was formerly often confused with the famous magician
Dr Johann Faust, who, though an historical figure, had nothing
to do with him (see FAUST).
See further the articles GUTENBERG and TYPOGRAPHY. (J. H. H.)
FUSTEL DE COULANGES, NUMA DENIS (1830-1889), French
historian, was born in Paris on the i8th of March 1830, of Breton
descent. After studying at the ficole Normale Superieure he
was sent to the French school at Athens in 1853, directed some
excavations in Chios, and wrote an historical account of the
island. After his return he filled various educational offices,
and took his doctor's degree with two theses, Quid Vestae cultus
in inslitutis velerum privatis publicisque valuerit and Polybe,
on la Grece conquise par les Remains (1858). In these works
his distinctive qualities were already revealed. His minute
knowledge of the language of the Greek and Roman institutions,
coupled with his low estimate of the conclusions of contemporary
scholars, led him to go direct to the original texts, which he read
without political or religious bias. When, however, he had
succeeded in extracting from the sources a general idea that
seemed to him clear and simple, he attached himself to it as if to
the truth itself, employing dialectic of the most penetrating,
subtle and even paradoxical character in his deduction of the
logical consequences. From 1860 to 1870 he was professor of
history at the faculty of letters at Strassburg, where he had a
brilliant career as a teacher, but never yielded to the influence
exercised by the German universities in the field of classical and
Germanic antiquities.
It was at Strassburg that he published his remarkable volume
La Citt antique (1864), in which he showed forcibly the part
played by religion in the political and social evolution of Greece
and Rome. Although his making religion the sole factor of this
evolution was a perversion of the historical facts, the book was
so consistent throughout, so full of ingenious ideas, and written
in so striking a style, that it ranks as one of the masterpieces of
the French language in the ipth century. By this literary
merit Fustel set little store, but he clung tenaciously to his
edition of a Latin classic and the first book containing Greek char-
acters, while in the colophon Fust for the first time calls Schoffer
" puerum suum " ; (8) the same, 4th February 1466; (9) Grammatica
rhytmica (1466), folio, n leaves. They also printed in 1461-1462
several papal bulls, proclamations of Adolf of Nassau, &c. Nothing
is known to have appeared for three years after the storming and
capture of Mainz in 1462.
"Some confusion in the history of the Fust family has arisen
since the publication of Bernard's One. de I'imprimerie (1853).
On p. 262, vol. i. he gave an extract from the correspondence between
Oberlin and Bodmann (now preserved in the Paris Nat. Library),
from which it would appear that Peter Schoffer was the son-in-law,
not of Johann Fust, but of a brother of his, Conrad Fust. Of the
latter, however, no other trace has been found, and he is no doubt
a fiction of F. J. Bodmann, who, partly basing himself on the
" Conrad " (Henlif, or Henckis) mentioned above, added the rest
to gratify Oberlin (see Wyss in QuarlalbldUer des hist. Vereins fur
Hessen, 1879, p. 17).
theories. When he revised the book in 1875, his modifications
were very slight, and it is conceivable that, had he recast it,
as he often expressed the desire to do in the last years of his life,
he would not have abandoned any part of his fundamental
thesis. The work is now largely superseded.
Fustel de Coulanges was the most conscientious of men, the
most systematic and uncompromising of historians. Appointed
to a lectureship at the Ecole Normale Superieure in February
1870, to a professorship at the Paris faculty of letters in 1875,
and to the chair of medieval history created for him at the
Sorbonne in 1878, he applied himself to the study of the political
institutions of ancient France. The invasion of France by
the German armies during the war of 1870-71 attracted his
attention to the Germanic invasions under the Roman Empire.
Pursuing the theory of J. B. Dubos, but singularly transforming
it, he maintained that those invasions were not marked by the
violent and destructive character usually attributed to them;
that the penetration of the German barbarians into Gaul was a
slow process; that the Germans submitted to the imperial
administration; that the political institutions of theMerovingians
had their origins in the Roman laws at least as much as, if not
more than, in German usages; and, consequently, that there was
no conquest of Gaul by the Germans. This thesis he sustained
brilliantly in his Histoire des institutions politiques de I'ancienne
France, the first volume of which appeared in 1874. It was the
author's original intention to complete this work in four volumes,
but as the first volume was keenly attacked in Germany as well
as in France, Fustel was forced in self-defence to recast the book
entirely. With admirable conscientiousness he re-examined
all the texts and wrote a number of dissertations, of which,
though several (e.g. those on the Germanic mark and on the
allodium and beneficium] were models of learning and sagacity,
all were dominated by his general idea and characterized by a
total disregard for the results of such historical disciplines as
diplomatic. From this crucible issued an entirely new work,
less well arranged than the original, but richer in facts and
critical comments. The first volume was expanded into three
volumes, La Gaule romaine (1891), L' Invasion germanique et
la fin de l'empire(iSgi)and La Monarchic franque(i&8&),{o]\ovfed
by three other volumes, L'Alleu et le domaine rural pendant
I'epoque meroiiingienne (1880), Les Origines du systeme feodal:
le benefice et le patronat . . . (1890) and Les Transformations de
la royaute pendant I'epoque carolingienne (1892). Thus, in six
volumes, he had carried the work no farther than the Carolingian
period. The result of this enormous labour, albeit worthy of a
great historian, clearly showed that the author lacked all sense
of historical proportion. He was a diligent seeker after the truth,
and was perfectly sincere when he informed a critic of the exact
number of " truths " he had discovered, and when he remarked
to one of his pupils a few days before his death, " Rest assured
that what I have written in my book is the truth." Such superb
self-confidence can accomplish much, and it undoubtedly helped
to form Fustel's talent and to give to his style that admirable
concision which subjugates even when it fails to convince;
but a student instinctively distrusts an historian who settles the
most controverted problems with such impassioned assurance.
The dissertations not embodied in his great work were collected
by himself and (after his death) by his pupil, Camille Jullian,
and published as volumes of miscellanies: Recherches sw
quelques problemes d'histoire (1885), dealing with the Roman
colonate, the land system in Normandy, the Germanic mark, and
the judiciary organization in the kingdom of the Franks;
Nouvelles recherches sur quelques problemes d'histoire (1891);
and Questions historiques (1893), which contains his paper on
Chios and his thesis on Polybius.
His life was devoted almost entirely to his teaching and his
books. In 1875 he was elected member of the Academic des
Sciences Morales, and in 1880 reluctantly accepted the post
of director of the ficole Normale. Without intervening personally
in French politics, he took a keen interest in the questions of
administration and social reorganization arising from the fall
of the imperialist regime and the disasters of the war. He wished
FUSTIAN FYNE
375
the institutions of the present to approximate more closely to
those of the past, and devised for the new French constitution a
body of reforms which rellected the opinions he had formed
upon the democracy at Rome and in ancient France. But these
were dreams which did not hold him long, and he would have
been scandalized had he known that his name was subsequently
used as the emblem of a political and religious party. He died
at Massy (Seine-et-Oise) on the i iih of September 1889. Through-
out his historical career at the Ecole Normale and the Sorbonne
and in his lectures delivered to the empress Eugenie his sole
aim was to ascertain the truth, and in the defence of truth his
polemics against what he imagined to be the blindness and
insincerity of his critics sometimes assumed a character of harsh-
ness and injustice. But, in France at least, these critics were
the first to render justice to his learning, his talents and his
disinterestedness.
See Paul Guiraud. Fustd de Coulanges (1896); H. d'Arbois dc
Jutximvillc, Deux ifanieres d'fcrire ihutoire: critique de Bossuet,
fAutusti* Tkirrry tt de Fustel de Coulanges (1896); and Gabriel
Monod, Portraits et souvenirs (1897). (C. B.*)
FUSTIAN, a term which includes a variety of heavy woven
cotton fabrics, chiefly prepared for men's wear. It embraces
plain twilled cloth called jean, and cut fabrics similar to velvet,
known as velveteen, moleskin, corduroy, &c. The term was
once applied to a coarse cloth made of cotton and flax; now,
fustians are usually of cotton and dyed various colours. In the
reign of Edward 111. the name was given to a woollen fabric.
The name is said to be derived from El-Fustat, a suburb of Cairo,
where it .was first made; and certainly a kind of cloth has long
been known under that name. In a petition to parliament,
temp. Philip and Mary, " fustian of Naples " is mentioned. In
the 1 3th and i4th centuries priests' robes and women's dresses
were made of fustian, but though dresses are still made from
some kinds the chief use is for labourers' clothes.
FUSTIC (Fr. fusloc, from Arab, fustuq, Gr. TUTTO.KTJ. pistachio)
YELLOW WOOD or OLD FUSTIC, a dye-stuff consisting of the
wood of Chlorophora tinctoria, a large tree of the natural order
Moraceae, growing in the West Indies and tropical America.
Fustic occurs in commerce in blocks, which are brown without,
and of a brownish-yellow within. It is sometimes employed for
inlaid work. The dye-stuff termed young fustic or Zante fustic,
and also Venetian sumach, is the wood of Rhus cotinus (fustet,
or smoke tree), a southern European and Asiatic shrub of the
natural order Anacardiaceae, called by Gerarde " red sumach,"
and apparently the " coccygia " and " cotinus " of Pliny (Nat.
Hist. xiii. 41, xvi. 30). Its colouring matter is fisetin. Ci 5 Hi 0.
which was synthesized by S. von Kostanecki (Ber., 1004, 37,
p. 384). (See DYEING.)
FUTURES^ a term used in the produce markets for purchases
or sales of commodities to be completed at a future date, as
opposed to cash or " spot " transactions, which are settled
immediately. See MARKET, and (for a detailed discussion of
the question as affecting cotton) COTTON: Marketing and Sup ply.
FUX, JOHANN JOSEPH (1660-1741), Austrian musician,
was born at Hirtenfeld (Styria) in 1660. Of his youth and
early training nothing is known. In 1606 he was organist at one
of the principal churches of Vienna, and in 1608 was appointed
by the emperor Leopold I: as his " imperial court -composer,"
with a salary of about 6 a month. At the court of Leopold and
of his successors Joseph I. and Charles VI., Fux remained for
the rest of his life. To bis various court dignities that of organist
at St Stephen's cathedral was added in 1704. He married the
daughter of the government secretary Schnitzbaum. As a
proof of the high favour in which he was held by the art-loving
Charles VI., it is told that at the coronation of that emperor
as king of Bohemia in 1723 an opera, La Constama e la Forlezza,
especially composed by Fux for the occasion, was given at
Prague in an open-air theatre. Fux at the time was suffering
from gout, but the emperor had him carried in a litter all the
way from Vienna, and gave him a seat in the imperial box.
Fux died at Vienna on the i ?th of February 1741. His life,
although passed in the great world, was eventless, and his only
troubles arose from the intrigues of his Italian rivals at court.
Of the numerous operas which Fux wrote it is unnecessary to
speak. They do not essentially differ from the style of the
Italian opera stria of the time. Of greater importance are his
sacred compositions, psalms, motets, oratorios and masses,
the celebrated Missa Canonica amongst the latter. It is an all
but unparalleled lour de force of learned musicianship, being
written entirely in that most difficult of contrapuntal devices
the canon. As a contrapuntist and musical scholar generally,
Fux was unsurpassed by any of his contemporaries, and his
great theoretical work, the Gradus ad Parnassum, long
remained by far the most thorough treatment of counter-
point and its various developments. The title of the original
Latin edition is Gradus ad Parnassum sive manuductio ad
composilionem musicae regularem, methoda nova ac certa nondutn
ante tarn exact a ordine in lucem edita, elaborata a Joanne Josepho
Fux (Vienna, 1715). It was translated into most European
languages during the iSth century, and is still studied by
musicians interested in the history of their art. The expenses
of the publication were defrayed by the emperor Charles VI.
Fux's biography was published by Ludwig von Kochel (Vienna,
1871). It is based on minute original research and contains, amongst
other valuable materials, a complete catalogue of the composer's
numerous works.
FUZE or FUSE, an appliance for firing explosives in blasting
operations, military shells, &c. (see BLASTING and AMMUNITION,
Shell). The spelling is not governed by authority, but modern
convenience has dictated the adoption of the " z " by military
engineers as a general rule, in order to distinguish this sense
from that of melting by heat (see below). The word, according
to the New English Dictionary, is one of the forms in which the
Lat. fusus, spindle, has been adapted through Romanic into
English, the ordinary fuze taking the shape of a spindle-like
tube. Similarly the term " fusee " (Fi.fusie, spindle full of tow,
Late Lat./ttto/a) is applied to a coned spindle sometimes used in
the wheel train of watches and spring clocks to equalize the action
of the mainspring (see WATCH) ; and the application of the same
term to a special kind of match may also be due to its resemblance
to a spindle. Again, in heraldry, another form, " fusil," derived
through the French from a Late Lat. diminutive (fusillus or
fusellus) of this same fusus, is used of a bearing, an elongated
lozenge. According to other etymological authorities, however
(see Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1898), " fuze " or " fuse," and " fusee "
in the sense of match, are all forms derived through the Fr. fusil,
from Late Lat. facile, steel for striking fire from a flint, from Lat.
focus, hearth. The Fr. fusil and English " fusil " were thus
transferred to the " firelock," i.e. the light musket of the I7th
century (see FUSILIER).
In electrical engineering a " fuse " (always so spelled) is a
safety device, commonly consisting of a strip or wire of easily
fusible metal, which melts and thus interrupts the circuit of
which it forms part, whenever that circuit, through some accident
or derangement, is caused to carry a current larger than that
for which it is intended. In this sense the word must be con-
nected with fusus, the past participle of Lat. fundere, to pour,
whence comes the verb " fuse," to melt by heat, often used
figuratively in the sense of blend, mix.
FYNE, LOCH, an inlet of the sea, Argyllshire, Scotland.
From the head, 6 m. above Inve'aray, to the mouth on the Sound
of Bute, it has a south-westerly and then southerly trend and
is 44 m. long, its width varying from J m. to 6 m. It receives the
Fyne, Shira, Aray and many other streams, and, on the western
side, gives off Lochs Shira, Gair, Gilp (with Ardrishaig, the
Crinan Canal and Lochgilphead) and East Tarbert (with Tarbert
village). The glens debouching on the lake are Fyne, Shira,
Aray, Kinglas and Hell's Glen. The coast generally is picturesque
and in many parts well wooded. All vessels using the Crinan
Canal navigate the loch to and from Ardrishaig, and there are
daily excursions during the season, as far up as Inveraray.
There are ferries at St Catherine's and Otter, and piers at Tarbert,
Ardrishaig, Kilmory, Crarae, Furnace, Inveraray, Strachur and
elsewhere. The industries comprise granite quarrying at Furnace
37^
FYRD FYZABAD
and Crarae, distilling at Ardrishaig, gunpowder-making at
Furnace and Kilfinan, and, above all, fishing. Haddock, whiting
and codling are taken, and the famous " Loch Fyne herrings "
command the highest price in the market.
FYRD, the name given to the English army, or militia, during
the Anglo-Saxon period (see ARMY, 60). It is first mentioned
in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle under the date 6os.The ealdorman,
or sheriff, of the shire was probably charged with the duty of
calling out and leading the fyrd, which appears always to have
retained a local character, as during the time of the Danish
invasions we read of the fyrd of Kent, of Somerset and of
Devon. As attendance at the fyrd was included in the trinoda
necessilas it was compulsory on all holders of land; but that
it was not confined to them is shown by the following extract
from the laws of Ine, king of the West Saxons, dated about
690, which prescribes the penalty for the serious offence of
neglecting the fyrd: " If a gesithcund man owning land neglect
the fyrd, let him pay 120 shillings, and forfeit his land; one not
owning land 60 shillings; a ceorlish man 30 shillings asfyrdivite."
The fyrd was gradually superseded by the gathering of the
thegns and their retainers, but it was occasionally called out for
defensive purposes even after the Norman Conquest.
FYT, JOHANNES (1609-1661), Belgian animal painter, was
born at Antwerp and christened on the igth of August 1609.
He was registered apprentice to Hans van den Berghe in 1621.
Professionally van den Berghe was a restorer of old pictures
rather than a painter of new ones. At twenty Johannes Fyt
entered the gild of St Luke as a master, and 'from that time
till his death in 1661 he produced a vast number of pictures
in which the bold facility of Snyders is united to the powerful
effects of Rembrandt, and harmonies of gorgeous tone are not
less conspicuous than freedom of touch and a true semblance
of nature. There never was such a master of technical processes
as Fyt in the rendering of animal life in its most varied forms.
He may have been less correct in outline, less bold in action
than Snyders, but he was much more skilful and more true in
the reproduction of the coat of deer, dogs, greyhounds, hares
and monkeys, whilst in realizing the plumage of peacocks,
woodcocks, ducks, hawks, and cocks and hens, he had not his
equal, nor was any artist even of the Dutch school more effective
in relieving his compositions with accessories of tinted cloth,
porcelain ware, vases and fruit. He was not clever at figures,
and he sometimes trusted for these to the co-operation of Cor-
nelius Schut or Willeborts, whilst his architectural backgrounds
were sometimes executed by Quellyn. " Silenus amongst
Fruit and Flowers," in the Harrach collection at Vienna, " Diana
and her Nymphs with the Produce of the Chase,".in the Belvedere
at Vienna, and " Dead Game and Fruit in front of a Triumphal
Arch," belonging to Baron von Rothschild at Vienna, are
specimens of the co-operation respectively of Schut, Willeborts
and Quellyn. They are also Fyt's masterpieces. The earliest
dated work of the master is a cat grabbing at a piece of dead
poultry near a hare and birds, belonging to Baron Cetto at
Munich, and executed in 1644. The latest is a " Dead Snipe
with Ducks," of 1660, sold with the Jager collection at Cologne
in 1871. Great power is shown in the bear and boar hunts at
Munich and Ravensworth castle. A " Hunted Roedeer with
Dogs in the Water," in the Berlin Museum, has some of the life
and more of the roughness of Snyders, but lacks variety of tint
and finish. A splendid specimen is the Page and Parrot near a
table covered with game, guarded by a dog staring at a monkey,
in the Wallace collection. With the needle and the brush
Fyt was equally clever. He etched 16 plates, and those repre-
senting dogs are of their kind unique.
FYZABAD, or FAIZABAD, a city, district and division of
British India in the United Provinces. The city stands on the
left bank of the river Gogra, 78 m. by rail E. of Lucknow. Pop.
(1901) 75,085. To the E. of Fyzabad, and now forming a
suburb, is the ancient site of Ajodhya (?..). Fyzabad was
founded about 1730 by Sa'adat Ali Khan, the first nawab
wazir of Oudh, who built a hunting-lodge here. It received its
present name in the reign of his successor; and Shuja-ud-daula,
the third nawab, laid out a large town and fortified it, and here
he was buried. It was afterwards the residence of the Begums
of Oudh, famous in connexion with the impeachment of Warren
Hastings. When the court of Oudh was removed to Lucknow
in 1775 all the leading merchants and bankers abandoned the
place. At the census of 1869 Fyzabad contained only 37,804
inhabitants; but it is now again advancing in prosperity and
population. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, the canton-
ment contained two regiments of infantry, a squadron of cavalry,
and a light field battery of artillery all natives. Owing to
their threatening demeanour after the Meerut massacre, many
of the European women and children were sheltered by one of
the great landholders of Oudh, and others were sent to less
disturbed parts of the country. The troops rose, as was antici-
pated, and although they at first permitted their officers to take
boats and proceed towards Dinapur, a message was afterwards
sent to a rebel force lower down the river to intercept the fugitives.
Of four boats, one, having passed the rebels unnoticed, succeeded
in reaching Dinapur safely. Of those in the other three boats,
one alone escaped. Fyzabad is now a station for European
as well as for native troops. It is the headquarters of a brigade
in the 8th division of the northern army. There is a government
college. Sugar-refining and trade in agricultural produce are
important.
The DISTRICT OP FYZABAD, lying between the two great rivers
Gogra and Gumti, has an area of 1740 sq. m. It is entirely
alluvial and well wooded, and has a good climate. Pop. (1901)
1,225,374, an increase of -7% in the decade. The district is
traversed throughout its length by the Oudh and Rohilkhand
railway from Lucknow to Benares, with a branch to Allahabad.
Tanda, with a population in 1901 of 19,853, has the largest
production of cotton goods in Oudh.
The DIVISION or FYZABAD has an area of 12,113 S Q- m -> an( ^
comprises the six districts of Fyzabad, Gonda, Bahraich,
Sultanpur, Partabgarh and Bara Banki. Pop. (1901) 6,855,991,
an increase of 2 % in the decade.
G GABBRO
377
GThe form of this letter which is familiar to us is an
invent ion of the Romans, who had previously converted
the third symbol of the alphabet into a representative
of a A-sound (see C). Throughout the whole of Roman
history C remained as the symbol for G in the abbreviations
C and Cn. for the proper names Gaius and Gnaeus. According
to Plutarch (Roman Questions, 54, 59) the symbol for G was
invented by Spurius Carvilius Ruga about 203 B.C. This pro-
bably means that he was the first person to spell his cognomen
R VGA instead of RVCA. G came to occupy the seventh place
in the Roman alphabet which had earlier been taken by Z,
because between 450 B.C. and 350 B.C. the (-sounds of Latin
passed into r, names like Pjpisius and Fusius in that period
becoming Papirius and Furius (see Z), so that the letter s had
become superfluous. According to the late writer Martianus
Capella i was removed from the alphabet by the censor Appius
Claudius Caecus in 3 1 a B.C. To Claudius the insertion of G into
the alphabet is also sometimes ascribed.
In the earliest form the difference from C is very slight, the
lower lip of the crescent merely rising up in a straight line C,
but C and G arc found also in republican times. In the earliest
Roman inscription which was found in the Forum in 1899 the
form is ^ written from right to left, but the hollow at the bottom
lip of the crescent is an accidental pit in the stone and not a
diacritical mark. The unvoiced sound in this inscription is
represented by K. The use of the new form was not firmly
established till after the middle of the 3rd century B.C.
In the Latin alphabet the sound was always the voiced stop
(as in gig) in classical times. Later, before e, g passed into a
sound like the English y, so that words begin indifferently with
f or j; hence from the Lat. generum (accusative) and lanuarium
we have in Ital. genera and Gennajo, Fr. gendre and Janvier.
In the ancient Umbrian dialect g had made this change between
vowels before the Christian era, the inhabitant of Iguvium (the
modern Gubbio) being in the later form of his native speech
Ivriru, Lat. Igurinus. In most cases in Mid. Eng. also g passed
into a y sound; hence the old prefix ge of the past participle
appears only as y in yclept and the like. But ng and gg
took a different course, the g becoming an affricate df (dzh), as
in singe, ridge, sedge, which in English before 1 500 were senge,
rigge, segge, and in Scotch are still pronounced sing, rig, seg.
The affricate in words like gaol is of French origin (gedle),
from a Late Lat. gobiola, out of cat/tola, a diminutive of the
Lat. COMA.
The composite origin of English makes it impossible to lay
down rules for the pronunciation of English g; thus there are
in the language five words GUI, three of which have the g hard,
while two have it soft: viz. (i) gill of a fish, (2) gill, a ravine,
both of which are Norse, and (3) Gill, the surname, which is
mostly Gaelic White; and (4) gill a liquid measure, from
O. Fr. gelle, Late Lat. gella in the same sense, and (5) Gill, a
girl's name, shortened from Gillian, Juliana (see Skeat's Etymo-
logical Dictionary). No one of these words is of native origin;
otherwise the initial g would have changed to y, as in Eng.
yeU from the O. Eng. geUan, giellan. (P. Gi.)
OABBRO. in petrology, a group of plutonic basic rocks,
bolocrystalline and usually rather coarse-grained, consisting
essentially of a basic plagioclase felspar and one or more fcrro-
magnesian minerals (such as augite, hornblende, hypersthene
and olivine). The name was given originally in north Italy to
certain coarsely crystalline dark green rocks, some of which are
true gabbros, while others are serpentines. The gabbros are the
plutonic or deep-seated representatives of the dolerites, basalts
and diabases (also of some varieties of andesite) with which they
agree closely in mineral composition, but not in minute structure.
Of their minerals felspar is usually the most abundant, and is
principally labradorite and bytownite, though anorthite occurs
in some, while oligoclase and orthoclase have been found in others.
The felspar is sometimes very clear and fresh, its crystals being
for the most part short and broad, with rather irregular or
rounded outlines. Albite twinning is very frequent, but in these
rocks it is often accompanied by pericline twinning by which the
broad or narrow albitc plates are cut transversely by many thin,
bright and dark bars as seen in polarized light. Equally
characteristic of the gabbros is the alteration of the felspars to
cloudy, semi-opaque masses of saussurite. These are compact,
tough, devoid of cleavage, and have a waxy lustre and usually a
greenish-white colour. When this substance can be resolved by
the microscope it proves to consist usually of zoisite or epidote,
with garnet and albite, but mixed with it are also chlorite,
amphibole, serpentine, prehnite, sericite and other minerals.
The augite is usually brown, but greenish, violet and colourless
varieties may occur. Hypersthene, when present, is often strik-
ingly pleochroic in colours varying from pink to bright green.
It weathers readily to platy-pseudomorphs of bastite which are
soft and yield low polarization colours. The olivine is colourless
in itself, but in most cases is altered to green or yellow serpentine,
often with bands of dark magnetite granules along its cleavages
and cracks. Hornblende when primary is often brown, and may
surround augite or be perthitically intergrown with it; original
green hornblende probably occurs also, though it is more
frequently secondary. Dark-brown biotite, although by no
means an important constituent of these rocks, occurs in many
of them. Quartz is rare, but is occasionally seen intergrown
with felspar as micropegmatite. Among the accessory minerals
may be mentioned apatite, magnetite, ilmenitc, picotite and
garnet.
A peculiar feature, repeated so constantly in many of the
minerals of these rocks as to be almost typical of them, is the
occurrence of small black or dark brown enclosures often regularly
arranged parallel to certain crystallographic planes. Reflection
of light from the surfaces of these minute enclosures produces a
shimmering or Schiller. In augite or hypersthene the effect is
that the surface of the mineral has a bronzy sub-metallic appear-
ance, and polished plates seen at a definite angle yield a bright
coppery-red reflection, but polished sections of the felspars may
exhibit a brilliant play of colours, as is well seen in the Labrador
spar, which is used as an ornamental or semi-precious stone.
In olivine the black enclosures are not thin laminae, but branching
growths resembling pieces of moss. The phenomenon is known as
" schillerization "; its origin has been much discussed, some
holding that it is secondary, while others regard these enclosures
as original.
In many gabbros there is a tendency to a centric arrangement
of the minerals, the first crystallized forming nuclei around which
the others grow. Thus magnetite, apatite and picotite, with
olivine, may be enclosed in augite, hornblende, and hypersthene,
sometimes with a later growth of biotite, while the felspars
occupy the interspaces between the clusters of ferromagnesian
minerals. In some cases there are borders around olivine con-
sisting of fibrous hornblende or tremolite and rhombic pyroxene
(kelyphitic or ocellar structures); spinels and garnet may
occur in this zone, and as it is developed most frequently where
olivine is in contact with felspar it may be due to a chemical
resorption at a late stage in the solidification of the rock. In
some gabbros and norites reaction rims of fibrous hornblende
are found around both hypersthene and diallage where these
are in contact with felspar. Typical orbicular structure such
as characterizes some granites and diorites is rare in the
gabbros, though it has been observed in a few instances in
Norway, California, &c.
In a very large number of the rocks of this group the plagioclase
felspar has crystallized in large measure before the pyroxene, and is
enveloped by it in ophitic manner exactly as occurs in the diabases.
When these rocks become fine-grained they pass gradually into
ophitic diabase and dolerite; only very rarely does olivine enclose
378
GABEL GABELENTZ
felspar in this way. A fluxion structure or flow banding also can
be observed in seme of the rocks of this series, and is characterized
by the occurrence of parallel sinuous bands of dark colour, rich in
ferromagnesian minerals, and of lighter shades in which felspars
predominate.
These basic holocrystalline rocks form a large and numerous class
which can be subdivided into many groups according to their mineral
composition; if we take it that typical gabbro consists of plagioclase
and augites or diallage, norite of plagioclase and
hypersthene, and troctolite of plagioclase and olivine,
we must add to these olivine-gabbro and olivine-
norite in which that mineral occurs in addition to
those enumerated above. Hornblende-gabbros are
distinctly rare, except when the hornblende has been
developed from pyroxene by pressure and shearing,
but many rocks may be described as hornblende- or
biotite-bearing gabbro and norite, when they contain
these ingredients in addition to the normal minerals plagioclase,
augite and hypersthene. We may recognize also quartz-gabbro
and quartz-norite (containing primary quartz or micropegmatite)
and orthoclase-gabbro (with a little orthoclase). The name eucrite
has been given to gabbros in which the felspar is mainly anorthite;
many of them also contain hypersthene or enstatite and*olivine, while
allivalites are anorthite-olivine rocks in which the two minerals
occur in nearly equal proportions; harrisites have preponderating
olivine, anorthite felspar and a little pyroxene. In areas of gabbro
there are often masses consisting nearly entirely of a single mineral,
for example, felspar rocks (anorthosites), augite or hornblende rocks
(pyroxemtes and hornblendites) and olivine rocks (dunites or peri-
dotites). Segregations of iron ores, such as ilmenite, usually with
pyroxene or olivine, occur in association with some gabbro and
anorthosite masses.
Some gabbros are exceedingly coarse-grained and consist of in-
dividual crystals several inches in length; such a type often form
dikes or veins in serpentine or gabbro, and may be called gabbro-
pegmatite. Very fine-grained gabbros, on the other hand, have been
distinguished as beerbachites. Still more common is the occurrence
of sheared, foliated or schistose forms of gabbro. In these the
minerals have a parallel arrangement, the felspars are often broken
down by pressure into a mosaic of irregular grains, while greenish
fibrous or bladed amphibole takes the place of pyroxene and olivine.
The diallage may be present as rounded or oval crystals around
which the crushed felspar has flowed (augen-gabbro) ; or the whole
rock may have a well-foliated structure (hornblende-schists and
amphibolites). Very often a mass of normal gabbro with typical
igneous character passes at its margins or along localized zones into
foliated rocks of this kind, and every transition can be found between
the different types. Some authors believe that the development of
saussurite from felspar is also dependent on pressure rather than on
weathering, and an analogous change may affect the olivine, replacing
it by talc, chlorite, actinolite and garnet. Rocks showing changes
of the latter type have been described from Switzerland under the
name allalinites.
Rocks of the gabbro group, though perhaps not so common nor
occurring in so great masses as granites, are exceedingly widespread.
In Great Britain, for example, there are areas of gabbro in Shetland,
Aberdeenshire, and other parts of the Highlands, Ayrshire, the
Lizard (Cornwall), Carrock Fell (Cumberland) and St David's
(Wales). Most of these occur along with troctolites, norites, ser-
pentine and peridotite. In Skye an interesting group of fresh olivine-
gabbros is found in the Cuillin Hills; here also peridotites occur
and there are sills and dikes of olivine-dolerite, while a great series
of basaltic lavas and ash beds marks the site of volcanic outbursts
in early Tertiary time. In this case it is clearly seen that the gabbros
are the deep-seated and slowly crystallized representatives of the
basalts which were poured out at the surfaces, and the dolerites
which consolidated in fissures. The older gabbros of Britain, such
as those of the Lizard, Aberdeenshire and Ayrshire, are often more
or less foliated and show a tendency to pass into hornblende-schists
and amphibolites. In Germany gabbros are well known in the
Harz Mountains, Saxony, the Odenwald and the Black Forest.
Many outcrops of similar rocks have been traced in the northern
zones of the Alps, often with serpentine and hornblende-schist.
They occupy considerable tracts of country in Norway and Sweden,
as for instance in the vicinity of Bergen. The Pyrenees, Ligurian
Alps, Dauphineand Tuscany are other European localities for gabbro.
In Canada great portions of the eastern portion of the Dominion are
formed of gabbros, norite, anorthosite and allied rock types. In
the United States gabbros and norites occur near Baltimore and near
Peekskill on the Hudson river. As a rule each of these occurrences
contains a diversity of petrographical types, which appear also in
certain of the others; but there is often a well-marked individu-
ality about the rocks of the various districts in which gabbros are
found.
From an economic standpoint gabbros are not of great importance.
They are used locally for building and for road-metal, but are too
dark in colour, too tough and difficult to dress, to be popular as
building stones, and, though occasionally polished, are not to be
compared for beauty with the serpentines and the granites. Segre-
gations of iron ores are found in connexion with many of them
(Norway and Sweden) and are sometimes mined as sources of the
metal.
Chemically the gabbros are typical rocks of the basic subdivision
and show the characters of that group in the clearest way. They
have low silica, much iron and magnesia, and the abundance of lime
distinguishes them in a marked fashion from both the granites and
the peridotites. A few analyses of well-known gabbros are cited
here.
SiO 2
TiO 2
Ab 2 O s
FeO
Fe 2 3
MgO
CaO
Na 2 O
K 2
H 2 O
I.
II. .
III.
IV. .
49-63
49.90
45-73
46-24
i-75
16-18
16-04
22-10
29-85
12-03
3-5i
2-12
1-92
7-81
0-71
1-30
5-38
10-08
11-16
2-41
9-33
14-48
9-26
16-24
1-89
1-69
2-54
1-98
0-81
o-55
o-34
0-18
o-55
1-46
4-38
I.
II. Gabbro, Penig, Saxony;
IV. Anorthosite, mouth of the
Gabbro, Radanthal, Harzburg
III. Troctolite, Coverack, Cornwall;
Seine river, Bad Vermilion lake, Ontario, Canada. (J. S. F.)
GABEL, KRISTOFFER (1617-1673), Danish statesman, was
born at Gliickstadt, on the 6th of January 1617. His father,
Wulbern, originally a landscape painter and subsequently
recorder of Gliickstadt, was killed at the siege of that fortress
by the Imperialists in 1628. Kristoffcr is first heard of in 1639,
as overseer and accountant at the court of Duke Frederick.
When the duke ascended the Danish throne as Frederick III.,
Gabel followed him to Copenhagen as his private secretary and
man of business. Gabel, who veiled under a mysterious reticence
considerable financial ability and uncommon shrewdness, had
great influence over the irresolute king. During the brief interval
between King Charles X. 's first and second attack upon Denmark,
Gabel was employed in several secret missions to Sweden; and he
took a part in the intrigues which resulted in the autocratic
revolution of 1660 (see DENMARK: History). His services on
this occasion have certainly been exaggerated; but if not the
originator of the revolution, he was certainly the chief inter-
mediary between Frederick III. and the conjoined Estates in
the mysterious conspiracy which established absolutism in
Denmark. His activity on this occasion won the king's lifelong
gratitude. He wasenriched, ennobled, andin 1664 made governor
of Copenhagen. From this year must be dated his open and
official influence and power, and from 1660 to 1670 he was the
most considerable personage at court, and very largely employed
in financial and diplomatic affairs. When Frederick III. died,
in February 1670, Gabel's power was at an end. The new ruler,
Christian V., hated him, and accusations against him poured in
from every quarter. When, on the i8th of April 1670, he was
dismissed, nobody sympathized with the man who had grown
wealthy at a time when other people found it hard to live. He
died on the i3th of October 1673.
See Carl Frederik Bricka, Dansk. Biograf. Lex. art " Gabel "
(Copenhagen, 1887, &c.) ; Danmarks Riges Historic (Copenhagen,
1897-1005), vol. v.
GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER (1807-1874), German
linguist and ethnologist, born at Altenburg on the i3th of
October 1807, was the only son of Hans Karl Leopold von der
Gabelentz, chancellor and privy-councillor of the duchy of
Altenburg. From 1821 to 1825 he attended the gymnasium of
his native town, where he had Matthiae (the eminent Greek
scholar) for teacher, and Hermann Brockhaus and Julius Lobe
for schoolfellows. Here, in addition to ordinary school-work,
he carried on the private study of Arabic and Chinese; and the
latter language continued especially to engage his attention
during his undergraduate course, from 1825 to 1828, at the
universities of Leipzig and Gottingen. In 1830 he entered the
public service of the duchyof Altenburg, where heattainedtothe
rank of privy-councillor in 1843. Four years later he was chosen
to fill the post of Landmarschall in the grand-duchy of Weimar,
and in 1848 he attended the Frankfort parliament, and repre-
sented the Saxon duchies on the commission for drafting an
imperial constitution for Germany. In November of the same year
he became president of the Altenburg ministry, but he resigned
office in the following August. From 1851 to 1868 he was
president of the second chamber of the duchy of Altenburg; but
in the latter year he withdrew entirely from public life, that he
GABELLE GABII
379
might give undivided attention to his learned researches. He
died on his estate of Lemnitz, in Saxe- Weimar, on the 3rd of
September 1874.
In the course of his life he is said to have learned no fewer than
eighty languages, thirty of which he spoke with fluency and
elegance. But he was less remarkable for his power of acquisit ion
than for the higher talent which enabled him to turn his know-
ledge to the genuine advancement of linguistic science. Im-
mediately after quitting the university, he followed up his Chinese
researches by a study of the Finno-Ugrian languages, which
resulted in the publication of his fitments de la grammaire
mandckoue in 1832. In 1837 he became one of the promoters,
and a joint-editor, of the Zeitschri/l Jiir die Kunde dcs Morgen-
landes, and through this medium he gave to the world his
Yerstuh finer mordviniscken Grommoiik and other valuable con-
tributions. His Grundtiigedersyrjanischrn Grammatik appeared
in 1841. In conjunction with his old school friend, Julius Lobe,
he brought out a complete edition, with translation, glossary
and grammar, of Ulfilas's Gothic version of the Bible ( 1 843- 1 846) ;
and from 1847 he began to contribute to the Zeilschri/t der
deutscken morgenldnditcken GeseUsckaft the fruits of his researches
into the languages of the Swahilis, the Samoyedes, the Hazaras,
the Aimaks, the Formosans and other widely-separated tribes.
The Beitrage lur Sprachenkunde (1852) contain Dyak, Dakota,
and Kiriri grammars; to these were added in 1857 a Grammatik
u.\\'orterbuckderKassitispracke,&ndin iSooa treatise in universal
grammar (Ober das Passivum). In 1864 he edited the Manchu
translations of the Chinese Sse-shu, Shu-king and Shi-king,
along with a dictionary; and in 1873 he completed the work
which constitutes his most important contribution to philology,
Die melanesiscken Sprachtn nach ihrem grammatiscken Bait
und Hirer Verwondsckaft unier sick und mil den malaiisch-poly-
nesiicken Spracken untersucht (1860-1873). It treats of the
language of the Fiji Islands, New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands,
New Caledonia, &c., and shows their radical affinity with the
Polynesian class. He_also contributed most of the linguistic
articles in Pierer's Conversations-Lexicon.
GABELLE (French, from the Med. Lat. gabulum, gablum,
a tax, for the origin of which see GAVELKIND), a term which,
in France, was originally applied to taxes on all commodities,
but was gradually limited to the tax on salt. In process of time
it became one of the most hated and most grossly unequal
taxes in the country, but, though condemned by all supporters
of reform, it was not abolished until 1 700. First imposed in 1 286,
in the reign of Philip IV., as a temporary expedient, it was made
a permanent tax by Charles V. Repressive as a state monopoly,
it was made doubly so from the fact that the government obliged
every individual above the age of eight years topurchase weekly a
minimum amount of salt at a fixed price. When first instituted,
it was levied uniformly on all the provinces in France, but for the
greater part of its history the price varied in different provinces.
There were five distinct groups of provinces, classified as follows:
(a) the Pays de grandes gabelles, in which the tax was heaviest ;
(6) the Pays de petiies gabelles, which paid a tax of about half
the rate of the former; (c) the Pays de salines, in which the tax
was levied on the salt extracted from the salt marshes; (d) the
Pays rtdimes, which had purchased redemption in 1549; and
(e) the Pays exempts, which had stipulated for exemption on
entering into union with the kingdom of France. Greniers
4 set (dating from 1 34 2) were established in each province, and to
these all salt had to be taken by the producer on penalty of
confiscation. The grenier fixed the price which it paid for the
salt and then sold it to retail dealers at a higher rate.
Se* J. J. Cbmagran. Histoire de FimpSt en France (1876); A.
Gasquet . Pricii del institutions poliliques de I'ancienne France ( 1 885) ;
Necker, Compte rendu (1781).
GABERDINE, or GABARDINE, any long, loose over-garment,
reaching to the feet and girt round the waist. It was, when made
of coarse material .com monly worn in the middle ages by pilgrims,
beggars and almsmen. The Jews, conservatively attached to
the loose and flowing garments of the East, continued to wear
the long upper garment to which the name " gaberdine " could
be applied, long after it had ceased to be a common form as worn
by non-Jews, and to this day in some parts of Europe, e.g. in
Poland, it is still worn, while the tendency to wear the frock-
coat very long and loose is a marked characteristic of the race.
The fact that in the middle ages the Jews were forbidden to
engage in handicrafts also, no doubt, tended to stereotype a form
of dress unfitted for manual labour. The idea of the " gaberdine "
being enforced by law upon the Jews as a distinctive garment
is probably due to Shakespeare's use in the Merchant of Venice,
I.iii. 113. The mark that the Jews were obliged to wear generally
on the outer garment was the badge. This was first enforced
by the fourth Lateran Council of 1215. The " badge " (Lat.
rota; Fr. rouflle, wheel) took generally the shape of a circle of
cloth worn on the breast. It varied in colour at different times.
In France it was of yellow, later of red and white; in England it
took the form of two bands or stripes, first of white, then of
yellow. In Edward I.'s reign it was made in the shape of the
Tables of the Law (see the Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. " Costume "
and " Badge ") The derivation of the word is obscure. It
apparently occurs first in O. Fr. in the forms gauverdine, gal-
vardine, and thence into Ital. as gavardina, and Span, gabardina,
a form which has influenced the English word. The New English
Dictionary suggests a connexion with the O.H. Ger. wallevart,
pilgrimage. Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1898) refers it to Span, gaban,
coat, cloak; cabana, hut, cabin.
GABES, a town of Tunisia, at the head of the gulf of the same
name, and 70 m. by sea S.W. of Sfax. It occupies the site of the
Tacape of the Romans and consists of an open port and European
quarter and several small Arab towns built in an oasis of date
palms. This oasis is copiously watered by a stream called the
Wad Gabes. The European quarter is situated on the right bank
of the Wad near its mouth, and adjacent are the Arab towns
of Jara and Menzel. The houses of the native towns are built
largely of dressed stones and broken columns from the ruins
of Tacape. Gabes is the military headquarters for southern
Tunisia. The population of the oasis is about 20,000, including
some 1 500 Europeans. There is a considerable export trade in
dates.
Gabes lies at the head of the shat country of Tunisia and is
intimately connected with the scheme of Commandant Roudaire
to create a Saharan sea by making a channel from the Mediter-
ranean to these shats (large salt lakes below the level of the sea).
Roudaire proposed to cut a canal through the belt of high ground
between Gabes and the shats, and fixed on Wad Melah, a spot
10 m. N. of Gabes, for the sea end of the channel (see SAHARA).
The company formed to execute his project became simply an
agricultural concern and by the sinking of artesian wells created
an oasis of olive and palm trees.
The Gulf of Gabes, the Syrtis Minor of the ancients, is a semi-
circular shallow indentation of the Mediterranean, about 50 m.
across from the Kerkenna Islands, opposite Sfax on its northern
shore, to Jerba Island, which lies at its southern end. The
waters of the gulf abound in fish and sponge.
GABII, an ancient city of Lat him . between 12 and 13 m. E. of
Rome, on the Via Praenestina, which was in early times known
as the Via Gabina. The part played by it in the story of the
expulsion of the Tarquins is well known; but its importance
in the earliest history of Rome rests upon other evidence the
continuance of certain ancient usages which imply a period of
hostility between the two cities, such as the adoption of the
cinctus Gabinus by the consul when war was to be declared.
We hear of a treaty of alliance with Rome in the time of Tar-
quinius Superbus, the original text of which,written on a bullock's
skin, was said by Dionysius of Halicarnassus to be still extant
in his day. Its subsequent history is obscure, and we only hear
of it again in the ist century B.C. as a small and insignificant
place, though its desolation is no doubt exaggerated by the poets.
From inscriptions we learn that from the time of Augustus or
Tiberius onwards it enjoyed a municipal organization. Its baths
were well known, and Hadrian, who was responsible for much of
the renewed prosperity of the small towns of Latium, appears to
have been a very liberal patron, building a senate-house (Curia
3 8o
GABINIUS GABLER
Aelia Augusta) and an aqueduct. After the 3rd century Gabii
practically disappears from history, though its bishops continue to
be mentioned in ecclesiastical documents till the close of the 9th.
The primitive city occupied the eastern bank of the lake, the
citadel being now marked by the ruins of the medieval fortress of
Castiglione, while the Roman town extended farther to the south.
The most conspicuous relic of the latter is a ruined temple,
generally attributed to Juno, which had six columns in the front
and six on each side. The plan is interesting, but the style of
architecture was apparently mixed. To the east of the temple
lay the Forum, where excavations were made by Gavin Hamilton
in 1792. All the objects found were placed in the Villa Borghese,
but many of them were carried off to Paris by Napoleon, and
still remain in the Louvre. The statues and busts are especially
numerous and interesting; besides the deities Venus, Diana,
Nemesis, &c., they comprise Agrippa, Tiberius, Germanicus,
Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Trajan and Plotina, Hadrian and
Sabina, M. Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Geta, Gordianus Pius
and others. The inscriptions relate mainly tolocal and municipal
matters.
See E. Q. Visconti, Monumenti Gabini delta Villa Pinciana
(Rome, 1797, and Milan, 1835); T. Ashby in Papers of the British
School at Rome, i. 180 seq.; G. Pinza in Bull. Com. (1903),
321 seq. (T. As.)
GABINIUS, AULUS, Roman statesman and general, and
supporter of Pompey, a prominent figure in the later days of the
Roman republic. In 67 B.C., when tribune of the people, he
brought forward the famous law (Lex Gabinia) conferring upon
Pompey the command in the war against the Mediterranean
pirates, with extensive powers which gave him absolute control
over that sea and the coasts for 50 m. inland. By two other
measures of Gabinius loans of money to foreign ambassadors
in Rome were made non- actionable (as a check on the corruption
of the senate) and the senate was ordered to give audience to
foreign envoys on certain fixed days (ist of Feb.-ist of March).
In 6 1 Gabinius, then praetor, endeavoured to win the public
favour by providing games on a scale of unusual splendour,
and in 58 managed to secure the consulship, not without suspicion
of bribery. During his term of office he aided Publius Clodius
in bringing about the exile of Cicero. In 57 Gabinius went
as proconsul to Syria. On his arrival he reinstated Hyrcanus
in the high-priesthood at Jerusalem, suppressed revolts, intro-
duced important changes in the government of Judaea, and
rebuilt several towns. During his absence in Egypt, whither he
had been sent by Pompey, without the consent of the senate,
to restore Ptolemy Auletes to his kingdom, Syria had been
devastated by robbers', and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, had
again taken up arms with the object of depriving Hyrcanus of the
high-priesthood. With some difficulty Gabinius restored order,
and in 54 handed over the province to his successor, M. Licinius
Crassus. The knights, who as farmers of the taxes had suffered
heavy losses during the disturbances in Syria, were greatly
embittered against Gabinius, and, when he appeared in the senate
to give an account of his governorship, he was brought to trial
on three counts, all involving a capital offence. On the charge
of majestas (high treason) incurred by having left his province for
Egypt without the consent of the senate and in defiance of the
Sibylline books, he was acquitted; it is said that the judges were
bribed, and even Cicero, who had recently attacked Gabinius
with the utmost virulence, was persuaded by Pompey to say as
little as he could in his evidence to damage his former enemy.
On the second charge, that of repeiundae (extortion during the
administration of his province), with especial reference to the
10,000 talents paid by Ptolemy for his restoration, he was found
guilty, in spite of evidence offered on his behalf by Pompey and
witnesses from Alexandria and the eloquence of Cicero, who had
been induced to plead his cause. Nothing but Cicero's wish to
do a favour to Pompey could have induced him to take up what
must have been a distasteful task; indeed, it is hinted that the
half-heartedness of the defence materially contributed to
Gabinius's condemnation. The third charge, that of ambitus
(illegalities committed during his canvass for the consulship),
was consequently dropped; Gabinius went into exile, and his
property was confiscated. After the outbreak of the civil war,
he was recalled by Caesar in 49, and entered his service, but took
no active part against his old patron Pompey. After the battle
of Pharsalus, he was commissioned to transport some recently
levied troops to Illyricum. On his way thither by land, he was
attacked by the Dalmatians and with difficulty made his way
to Salonae (Dalmatia). Here he bravely defended himself
against the attacks of the Pompeian commander, Marcus
Octavius, but in a few months died of illness (48 or the be-
ginning of 47).
See Dio Cassius xxxvi. 23-36, xxxviii. 13. 30, xxxix. 55-63;
Plutarch, Pompey, 25. 48; Josephus, Anliq. xiv. 4-6; Appian,
Illyrica, 12, Bell. Civ. u. 24. 59; Cicero, ad Alt. vi. 2, ad Q. Fratrem,
ii. 13, Post reditum in senatu, 4-8, Pro lege Manilla, 17, 18, 19;
exhaustive article by Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine
Encydopddie; and monograph by G. Stocchi, Aulo Gabinio e i suoi
processi (1892).
GABION (a French word derived through Ital. gabbione,
"<ia, from Lat. cavea, a cage), a cylindrical basket without
top or bottom, used in revetting fortifications and for numerous
other purposes of military engineering. The gabion is filled
with earth when in position. The ordinary brushwood gabion in
the British service has a diameter of 2 ft. and a height of 2 ft. gin.
There are several forms of gabion in use, the best known being
the Willesden paper band gabion and the Jones iron or steel
band gabion.
GABLE, in architecture, the upper portion of a wall from the
level of the eaves or gutter to the ridge of the roof. The word is
a southern English form of the Scottish gavel, or of an O. Fr.
word gable or jable, both ultimately derived from O. Norwegian
gafl. In other Teutonic languages, similar words, such as
Ger. Gabel and Dutch gafel, mean " fork," cf. Lat. gabalus,
gallows, which is Teutonic in origin; " gable " is represented
by such forms as Ger. Giebel and Dutch gevel. According to the
New English Dictionary the primary meaning of all these words
is probably " top " or " head," cf. Gr. Kf<p&Ml, and refers to the
forking timbers at the end of a roof. The gable corresponds to
the pediment in classic buildings where the roof was of low pitch.
If the roof is carried across on the top of the wall so that the
purlins project beyond its face, they are masked or hidden by a
" barge board," but as a rule the roof butts up against the back of
the wall which is raised so as to form a parapet. In the middle
ages the gable end was invariably parallel to the roof and was
crowned by coping stones properly weathered on both sides to
throw off the rain. In the i6th century in England variety was
given to the outline of the gable by a series of alternating semi-
circular and ogee curves. In Holland, Belgium and Scotland a
succession of steps was employed, which in the latter country are
known as crow gables or corbie steps. In Germany and the
Netherlands in the I7th and i8th centuries the step gables
assume very elaborate forms of an extremely rococo character,
and they are sometimes of immense size, with windows in two or
three storeys. Designs of a similar rococo character are found in
England, but only in crestings such as those which surmount the
towers of Wollaton and the gatehouse of Hardwick Hall.
Gabled Towers, in architecture, are those towers which are
finished with gables instead of parapets, as at Sompting, Sussex.
Many of the German Romanesque towers are gabled.
GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS (1786-1853), German Hegelian
philosopher, son of J. P. Gabler (below), was born on the 3oth
of July 1786, at Altdorf in Bavaria. In 1804 he accompanied
his father to Jena, where he completed his studies in philosophy
and law, and became an enthusiastic disciple of Hegel. After
holding various educational appointments, he was in 1821
appointed rector of the Bayreuth gymnasium, and in 1830
general superintendent of schools. In 1835 he succeeded Hegel
in the Berlin chair. He died at Teplitz on the I3th of September
1853. His works include Lehrbuch d. philos. Propadeulik (ist
vol., Erlangen, 1827), a popular exposition of the Hegelian
system; De verae philosophiae erga religionem Christianam pietate
(Berlin, 1836), and Die Hegel'sche Philosophie (ib., 1843), a
defence of the Hegelian philosophy against Trendelenburg.
GABLER GAGE BRULE
GABLER.JOHANNPHIUPP( I 7S3-i826), German Protestan
theologian of the school of J. J. Griesbach and J. G. Eichhorn
was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 4th of June 1753. In
1772 be entered the university of Jena as a theological student
In 1 776 be was on the point of abandoning theological pursuits
when the arrival of Griesbach inspired him with new ardour
After having been successively Repttrnt in Got t ingcn and teacher
in the public schools of Dortmund (Westphalia) and Altdor
(Bavaria), he was, in 1 785, appointed second professor of theology
in the university of Altdorf, whence he was translated to a chair
in Jena in 1804, where he succeeded Griesbach in 1812. Here he
died on the i;th of February 1826. At Altdorf Gablerpublishec
(1791-1793) a new edition, with introduction and notes, ol
Eichborn's Urgtschithte; this was followed, two years afterwards
by a supplement entitled Never Versuck tiber die mosaische
ScktpfungsgesckUkte. He was also the author of many essays
which were characterized by much critical acumen, and which had
considerable influence on the course of German thought on
theological and Biblical questions. From 1798 to 1800 he was
editor of the Neuesles Iheologisches Journal, first conjointly with
H. K. A. Hanlein (1762-1829), C. F. von Ammon (1766-1850)
and H. E. G. Paulus, and afterwards unassisted; from 1801 to
1804 of the Journal fur theologische Lilteratur; and from 1805
to 181 1 of the Journal fur auserlesene theologische Litter at ur.
Some of his essays were published by his sons (2 vols., 1831) ; and
a memoir appeared in 1827 by W. Schroter.
CABLETS (diminutive of "gable"), in architecture, triangular
terminations to buttresses, much in use in the Early English
and Decorated periods, after which the buttresses generally
terminated in pinnacles. The Early English gablets are generally
plain, and very sharp in pitch. In the Decorated period they
*re often enriched with panelling and crockets. They are
sometimes finished with small crosses, but oftener with finials.
GABLONZ (Czech, Jablonec), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
94 m. N. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1000) 21,086, mostly
German. It is the chief seat of the glass pearl and imitation
jewelry manufacture, and has also an important textile industry,
and produces large quantities of hardware, papier mach and
other paper goods.
GABORIAU, BJIILB (1833-1873), French novelist, was born
at Saujon (Charente Interieure) on the gth of November 1833.
He became secretary to Paul Feval, and, after publishing some
novels and miscellaneous writings, found his real gift in L'A/aire
Lerouge (1866), a detective novel which was published in the
Pays and at once made his reputation. The story was produced
on the stage in 1872. A long series of novels dealing with the
annals of the police court followed, and proved very popular.
Among them are: Le Crime d'Orcival (1867), Monsieur Lecoq
(1869), La Vie infernale (1870), Let Esclaves de Paris (1869),
L' Argent det autres (1874). Gaboriau died in Paris on the 28th
of September 1873.
GABRIEL (Heb. Sn^, man of God), in the Bible, the
heavenly messenger (see ANGEL) sent to Daniel to explain the
vision of the ram and the he-goat, and to communicate the pre-
diction of the Seventy Weeks (Dan. viii. i6,ix. 21). He was also
employed to announce the birth of John the Baptist to Zacharias,
and that of the Messiah to the Virgin Mary (Luke i. 19, 26).
Because he stood in the divine presence (see Luke i. 19; Rev.
viii. 2; and cf. Tobit xii. 15), both Jewish and Christian writers
generally speak of him as an archangel. In the Book of Enoch
" the four great archangels" are Michael, Uriel, Suriel or Raphael,
and Gabriel, who is set over " all the powers " and shares the
work of intercession. His name frequently occurs in the Jewish
literature of the later post-Biblical period. Thus, according to
the Targum Pseudo- Jonathan, he was the man who showed the
way to Joseph (Gen. xxxvii. 15); and in Deut. xxxiv. 6 it is
affirmed that he, along with Michael, Uriel, Jophiel, Jephcphiah
and the Metatron, buried the body of Moses. In the Targum on
2 Chron. xxxii. 21 he is named as the angel who destroyed the
host of Sennacherib; and in similar writings of a still later period
he is spoken of as the spirit who presides over fire, thunder, the
ripening of the fruits of the earth and similar processes. In the
Koran great prominence is given to his function as the medium
of divine revelation, and, according to the Mahommedan inter-
preters, he it is who is referred to by the appellations " Holy
Spirit " and " Spirit of Truth." He is specially commemorated
in the calendars of the Greek, Coptic and Armenian churches.
GABRIEL HOUNDS, a spectral pack supposed in the North of
England to foretell death by their yelping at night. The legend
is that they are the souls of unbaptized children wandering
through the air till the day of judgment. They are also some-
times called Gabriel or Gabble Ratchet. A very prosaic ex-
planation of this nocturnal noise is given by J. C. Atkinson in
his Cleveland Glossary (1868). " This," he writes, " is the name
for a yelping sound heard at night, more or less resembling
the cry of hounds or yelping of dogs, probably due to large
flocks of wild geese which chance to be flying by night."
See further Joseph Lucas, Studies in Nidderdale (1882), DO.
156-157.
GABRIELI, GIOVANNI (1557-1612?), Italian musical com-
poser, was born at Venice in 1557, and was a pupil of his uncle
Andrea, a distinguished musician of the contrapuntal school
and organist of St Mark's. He succeeded Claudio Merulo as
first organist of the same church in 1585, and died at Venice
either in 1612 or 1613. He was remarkable for his compositions
for several choirs, writing frequently for 12 or 16 voices, and is
important as an early experimenter in chromatic harmony.
It was probably for this reason that he made a special point of
combining voices with instruments, being thus one of the founders
of choral and orchestral composition. Among his pupils was
Heinrich Schutz; and the church of St Mark, from the time of
the Gabrielis onwards down to that of Lotti, became one of the
most important musical schools in Europe.
See also Winterfeld, Johann Gabrieli und seine Zeit (1834).
GABUN, a district on the west coast of Africa, one of the
colonies forming French Congo (q.v.). It derives its designation
from the settlements on the Gabun river or Rio de Gabao. The
Gabun, in reality an estuary of the sea, lies immediately north of
the equator. At the entrance, between Cape Joinville or Santa
Clara on the N. and Cape Pangara or Sandy Point on the S., it
bas a width of about 10 m. It maintains a breadth of some 7 m.
tor a distance of 40 m. inland, when it contracts into what is
known as the Rio Olambo, which is not more than 2 or 3 m.
from bank to bank. Several rivers, of which the Komo is
the chief, discharge their waters into the estuary. The Gabun
was discovered by Portuguese navigators towards the close of the
i sth century, and was named from its fanciful resemblance to a
gabao or cabin. On the small island of Konike, which lies about
.he centre of the estuary, scanty remains of a Portuguese fort have
>een discovered. The three principal tribes in the Gabun are the
Mpongwe, the Fang and the Bakalai.
GACE BRULfi (d. c. 1220), French trouvere, was a native of
Champagne. It has generally been asserted that he taught
Thibaut of Champagne the art of verse, an assumption which is
jased on a statement in the Chroniques de Saint-Denis : " Si
st entre lui [Thibaut] et Gace Brul6 les plus belles rhancons et
es plus (li-litabk-s et melodieuses qui onque fussent oles." This
las been taken as evidence of collaboration between the two
x>ets. The passage will bear the interpretation that with those
of Gace the songs of Thibaut were the best hitherto known,
'aulin Paris, in the Hisloire lilttraire de la France (vol. xxiii.),
quotes a number of facts that fix an earlier date for Gace's songs.
3ace is the author of the earliest known jeu parti. The inter-
ocutors are Gace and a count of Brittany who is identified with
Geoffrey of Brittany, son of Henry II. of England. Gace appears
o have been banished from Champagne and to have found
ef uge in Brittany. A deed dated 1212 attests a contract between
Gatho Brusle (Gace Brul) and the Templars for a piece of land
n Dreux. It seems most probable that Gace died before 1 220, at
he latest in 1225.
See Gideon Busken Huet, Chansons de Gace Bruit, edited for the
ocictS des anciens textes francais (1902), with an exhaustive intro-
uction. Dante quotes a song by Gace, Ire d'amor qui en man ever
epoire, which he attributes erroneously to Thibaut of Navarre
De vulgari eloquentia, p. 151, ed. P. Rajna, Florence, 1895).
3 82
GACHARD GADDI
GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER (1800-1885), Belgian man of
letters, was born in Paris on the i2th of March 1800. He entered
the administration of the royal archives in 1826, and was ap-
pointed director-general, a post which he held for fifty-five years.
During this long period he reorganized the service, added to the
records by copies taken in other European collections, travelled
for purposes of study, and carried on a wide correspondence
with other keepers of records, and with historical scholars. He
also edited and published many valuable collections of state
papers; a full list of his various publications was printed in the
Annuaire de I'academie royale de Belgique by Ch. Piot in 1888,
pp. 220-236. It includes 246 entries. He was the author of
several historical writings, of which the best known are Don
Carlos et Philippe II (1867), tudes et notices historiques con-
cernant I'histoire des Pays-Bas (1863), Histoire de la Belgique
au commencement du XVIII' siecle (1880), Histoire politique et
diplomatique de P. P. Rubens (1877), all published at Brussels.
His chief editorial works are the Actes des etats gentraux des
Pays-Bas 1576-1585 (Brussels, 1861-1866), Collection de docu-
ments inedits concernant I'histoire de la Belgique (Brussels, 1833-
1835), and the Relations des ambassadeurs Venitiens sur Charles
V et Philippe II (Brussels, 1855). Gachard died in Brussels
on the 24th of December 1885.
GAD, in the Bible, i. A prophet or rather a " seer " (cp.
i Sam. ix. 9), who was a companion of David from his early days.
He is first mentioned in i Sam. xxii. 5 as having warned David
to take refuge in Judah, and appears again in 2 Sam. xxiv. 1 1 seq.
to make known Yahweh's displeasure at the numbering of the
people. Together with Nathan he is represented in post-exilic
tradition as assisting to organize the musical service of the temple
(2 Chron. xxix. 25), and like Nathan and Samuel he is said to have
written an account of David's deeds (i Chron. xxix. 29); a
history of David in accordance with later tradition and upon the
lines of later prophetic ideas is far from improbable.
2. Son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; a tribe of Israel
(Gen. xxx. n). The name is that of the god of " luck " or
fortune, mentioned in Isa. Ixv. n (R.V. mg.), and in several
names of places, e.g. Baal-Gad (Josh. xi. 17, xii. 7), and
possibly also in Dibon-Gad, Migdol-Gad and Nahal-Gad. 1
There is another etymology in Gen. xlix. 19, where the name
is played on : " Gad, a plundering troop (g2dud)shall plunder him
(yegudennu), but he shall plunder at their heels." There are no
traditions of the personal history of Gad. One of the earliest
references to the name is the statement on the inscription of
Mesha, king of Moab (about 850 B.C.), that the " men of Gad "
had occupied Ataroth (E. of Dead Sea) from of old, and that the
king of Israel had fortified the city. This is in the district
ascribed to Reuben, with which tribe the fortunes of Gad were
very closely connected. In Numbers xxxii. 34 sqq. the cities
of Gad appear to lie chiefly to the south of Heshbon; in Joshua
xiii. 24-28 they lie almost wholly to the north; while other texts
present discrepancies which are not easily reconciled with either
passage. Possibly some cities were common to both Reuben and
Gad, and perhaps others more than once changed hands. That
Gad, at one time at least, held territory as far south as Pisgah
and Nebo would follow from Deut. xxxiii. 21, if the rendering of
the Targums be accepted, " and he looked out the first part for
himself, because there was the portion of the buried law-giver."
It is certain, however, that, at a late period, this tribe was localized
chiefly in Gilead, in the district which now goes by the name of
Jebel Jil'5.d. The traditions encircling this district point, it
would seem, to the tribe having been of Aramaean origin (see the
story of Jacob) ; at all events its position was extremely exposed,
and its population at the best must have been a mixed one.
Its richness and fertility made it a prey to the marauding nomads
of the desert; but the allusion in the Blessing of Jacob gives the
tribe a character for bravery, and David's men of Gad (i Chron.
xii. 8) were famous in tradition. Although rarely mentioned by
name (the geographical term Gilead is usual), the history of Gad
enters into the lives of Jephthah and Saul, and in the wars of
Ammon and Moab it must have played some part. It followed
1 See G. B. Gray, Heb. Proper Names, pp. 134 seq., 145.
Jeroboam in the great revolt against the house of David, and its
later fortunes until 734 B.C. (i Chron. v. 26) would be those of
the northern kingdom.
See, for a critical discussion of the data, H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib.
cols. 1579 sqq.; also GILEAD; MANASSEH; REUBEN.
GADAG, or GARAG, a town of British India, in the Dharwar
district of Bombay, 43 m. E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901)
30,652. It is an important railway junction on the Southern
Mahratta system, with a growing trade in raw cotton, and also
in the weaving of cotton and silk. There are factories for
ginning and pressing cotton, and a spinning mill. The town
contains remains of a number of temples, some of which exhibit
fine carving, while inscriptions in them indicate the existence
of Gadag as early as the loth century.
GADARA, an ancient town of the Syrian Decapolis, the capital
of Peraea, and the political centre of the small district of Gadaris.
It was a Greek city, probably entirely non-Syrian in origin.
The earliest recorded event in its history is its capture by
Antiochus III. of Syria in 218 B.C.; how long it may have
existed before this date is unknown. About twenty years later
it was besieged for ten months by Alexander Jannaeus. It was
restored by Pompey, and in 30 B.C. was presented by Augustus
to Herod the Great; on Herod's death it was reunited to Syria.
The coins of the place bear Greek legends, and such inscriptions
as have been found on its site are Greek. Its governing and
wealthy classes were probably Greek, the common people being
Hellenized and Judaized Aramaeans. The community was
Hellenistically organized, and though dependent on Syria and
acknowledging the supremacy of Rome it was governed by a
democratic senate and managed its own internal affairs. In the
Jewish war it surrendered to Vespasian, but in the Byzantine
period it again flourished and was the seat of a bishop. It was
renowned for its hot sulphur baths; the springs still exist and
show the remains of bath-houses. The temperature of the
springs is 1 10 F. This town was the birthplace of Meleager the
anthologist. There is a confusion in the narrative of the healing
of the demoniac between the very similar names Gadara, Gerasa
and Gergesa; but the probabilities, both textual and geographical,
are in favour of the reading of Mark (Gerasenes, ch. v. i, revised
version) ; and that the miracle has nothing to do with Gadara,
but took place at Kersa, on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee.
Gadara is now represented by Umm Kais, a group of ruins
about 6 m. S.E. of the Sea of Galilee, and 1194 ft. above the
sea-level. There are very fine tombs with carved sarcophagi in
the neighbourhood. There are the remains of two theatres and
(probably) a temple, and many heaps of carved stones, represent-
ing ancient buildings of various kinds. The walls are, or were,
traceable for a circuit of 2 m., and there are also the remains of
a street of columns. The natives are rapidly destroying the ruins
by quarrying building material out of them. (R. A. S. M.)
GADDI. Four painters of the early Florentine school father,
son and two grandsons bore this name.
i . GADDO GADDI was, according to Vasari, an intimate friend
of Cimabue, and afterwards of Giotto. The dates of birth and
death have been given as 1 239 and about 1312; these are probably
too early; he may have been born towards 1260, and may have
died in or about 1333. He was a painter and mosaicist, is said
to have executed the great mosaic inside the portal of the
cathedral of Florence, representing the coronation of the Virgin,
and may with more certainty be credited with the mosaics inside
the portico of the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, relating to
the legend of the foundation of that church ; their date is probably
1308. In the original cathedral of St Peter in Rome he also
executed the mosaics of the choir, and those of the front repre-
senting on a colossal scale God the Father, with many other
figures; likewise an altarpiece in the church of S. Maria Novella,
Florence; these works no longer exist. It is ordinarily held that
no picture (as distinct from mosaics) by Gaddo Gaddi is now
extant. Messrs Crowe & Cavalcaselle, however, consider that
the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore bear so strong a resemblance
in style to four of the frescoes in the upper church of Assisi,
representing incidents in the life of St Francis (frescoes 2, 3, 4
GADE GADSDEN, C.
33
and especially 5, which shows Francis stripping himself, and
protected by the bishop), that those frescoes likewise may, \\iih
considerable confidence, b* ascribed to Gaddi. Some other extant
mosaics are attributed to him, but without full authentication.
This artist laid the foundation of a very large fortune, which
continued increasing, and placed his progeny in a highly distin-
guished worldly position.
t. TAOOEO GADOI (about 1300-1366, or later), son of Gaddo,
was born in Florence, and is usually said to have been one of
Giotto's most industrious assistants for a period of 24 years.
This can hardly be other than an exaggeration; it is probable
that he began painting on his own account towards 1330, when
Giotto went to Naples. Taddeo also traded as a merchant, and
had a branch establishment in Venice. He was a painter,
mosaicist and architect. He executed in fresco, in the Baroncelli
(now Giugni) chapel, in the Florentine church of S. Croce, the
" Virgin and Child between Four Prophets," on the funeral
monument at the entrance, and on the walls various incidents in
the legend of the Virgin, from the expulsion of Joachim from the
Temple up to the Nativity. In the subject of the " Presentation
of the Virgin in the Temple " are the two heads traditionally
accepted as portraits of Gaddo Gaddi and Andrea Tafi; they, at
any rate, are not likely to be portraits of those artists from the
life. On the ceiling of the same chapel are the " Eight Virtues."
In the museum of Berlin is an altarpiece by Taddeo, the " Virgin
and Child," and some other subjects, dated 1334; in the Naples
gallery, a triptych, dated 1336, of the " Virgin enthroned along
with Four Saints," the " Baptism of Jesus," and his " Deposition
from the Cross "; in the sacristy of S. Pietro a Megognano, near
Poggibonsi, an altarpiece dated 1355, the " Virgin and Child
enthroned amid Angels." A series of paintings, partly from the
life of St Francis, which Taddeo executed for the presses in S.
Croce, are now divided between the Florentine Academy and the
Berlin Museum; the compositions are taken from or founded
on Giotto, to whom, indeed, the Berlin authorities have ascribed
their examples. Taddeo also painted some frescoes still extant
in Pisa, besides many in S. Croce and other Florentine buildings,
which have perished. He deservedly ranks as one of the most
eminent successors of Giotto; it may be said that he continued
working up the material furnished by that great painter, with
comparatively feeble inspiration of his own. His figures are
vehement in action, long and slender in form; his execution
rapid and somewhat conventional. To Taddeo are generally
ascribed the celebrated frescoes those of the ceiling and left
or western wall in the Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in the church
of S. Maria Novella, Florence; this is, however, open to con-
siderable doubt, although it may perhaps be conceded that the
designs for the ceiling were furnished by Taddeo. Dubious also
are the three pictures ascribed to him in the National Gallery,
London. In mosaic he has left some work in the baptistery of
Florence. As an architect he supplied in 1336 the plans for the
present Ponte Vecchio, and those for the original (not the present)
Ponte S. Trinita; in 1337 he was engaged on the church of
Or San Michele; and he carried on after Giotto's death the work
of the unrivalled Campanile.
3. ACNOLO GADOI, born in Florence, was the son of Taddeo;
the date of his birth has been given as 1326, but possibly 1350
is nearer the mark. He was a painter and mosaicist, trained by
his father, and a merchant as well; in middle age he settled down
to commercial life in Venice, and he added greatly to the family
wealth. He died in Florence in October 1306. His paintings
show much early promise, hardly sustained as he advanced
in life. One of the earliest, at S. Jacopo tra' Fossi, Florence,
represents the " Resurrection of Lazarus." Another probably
youthful performance is the series of frescoes of the Pieve di
Prato legends of the Virgin and of her Sacred Girdle, bestowed
upon St Thomas, and brought to Prato in the nth century by
Michele dei Dagomari; the " Marriage of Mary " is one of the
best of this series, the later compositions in which have suffered
much by renewals. In S. Croce he painted, in eight frescoes,
the legend of the Cross, beginning with the archangel Michael
giving Seth a branch from the tree of knowledge, and ending
with the emperor Heraclius carrying the Cross as he enters
Jerusalem; in this picture is a portrait of the painter himself.
Agnolo composed his subjects better than Taddeo; he had more
dignity and individuality in the figures, and was a clear and bold
colourist; the general effect is laudably decorative, but the
drawing is poor, and the works show best from a distance.
Various other productions of this master exist, and many have
perished. Cennino Cennini, the author of the celebrated treatise
on painting, was one of his pupils.
4. GIOVANNI GADDI, brother of Agnolo, was also a painter of
promise. He died young in 1383.
Vasari, and Crowe and Cavelcaselle can be consulted as
to the Gaddi. Other notices appear here and there such as
La Cappella de' Rinuccini in S. Croce di Firenze, by G. Ajazzi
(1845). (W.M.R.)
CADE, NIELS WILHELM (1817-1890), Danish composer,
was born at Copenhagen, on the 22iid of February 1817, his father
being a musical instrument maker. He was intended for his
father's trade, but his passion for a musician's career, made
evident by the" ease and skill with which he learnt to play upon
a number of instruments, was not to be denied. Though he
became proficient on the violin under Wexschall, and in the
elements of theory under Weyse and Berggrecn, he was to a great
extent self-taught. His opportunities of hearing and playing in
the great masterpieces were many, since he was a member of the
court band. In 1840 his Aladdin and his overture of Ossian
attracted attention, and in 1841 his Nackklange aus Ossian
overture gained the local musical society's prize, the judges
being Spohr and Schneider. This work also attracted the notice
of the king, who gave the composer a stipend which enabled him
to go to Leipzig and Italy. In 1844 Gade conducted the Gewand-
haus concerts in Leipzig during Mendelssohn's absence, and on
the latter's death became chief conductor. In 1848, on the
outbreak of the Holstein War, he returned to Copenhagen, where
he was appointed organist and conductor of the Musik-Verein.
In 1852 he married a daughter of the composer J. P. E. Hartmann.
He became court conductor in 1861, and was pensioned by the
government in 1876 the year in which he visited Birmingham
to conduct his Crusaders. This work, and the Friihlingsfantasit,
the Erlkonigs Tochter, Frilhlingsbotschaft and Psyche (written for
Birmingham in 1882) have enjoyed a wide popularity. Indeed,
they represent the strength and the weakness of Gade's musical
ability quite as well as any of his eight symphonies (the best of
which are the first and fourth, while the fifth has an obbligato
pianoforte part). Gade was distinctly a romanticist, but his
music is highly polished and beautifully finished, lyrical rather
than dramatic and effective. Much of the pianoforte music,
Aquarellen, Spring Flowers, for instance, enjoyed a considerable
vogue, as did the Novellelien trio; but Gade's opera Marietta
has not been heard outside the Copenhagen opera house. He
died at Copenhagen on the 2ist of December 1800.
GADOLINIUM (symbol Gd., atomic weight 157-3), one of the
rare earth metals (see ERBIUM). The element was discovered
in 1880 in the mineral samarskite by C. Marignac (Comptes
rendus, 1880, 90, p. 899; Ann. Mm. phys., 1880 [5] 20, p. 535).
G. Urbain (Comptes rendus, 1905, 140, p. 583) separates the
metal by crystallizing the double nitrate of nickel and gadolinium.
The salts show absorption bands in the ultra-violet. The oxide
GdjOj is colourless (Lecoq de Boisbaudran).
GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), American patriot,
was born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. His father,
Thomas Gadsden, was for a time the king's collector for the
port of Charleston. Christopher went to school near Bristol, in
England, returned to America in 1741, was afterwards employed
in a counting house in Philadelphia, and became a merchant and
planter at Charleston. In 1759 he was captain of an artillery
company in an expedition against the Cherokees. He was a
member of the South Carolina legislature almost continuously
from 1760 to 1780, and represented his province in the Stamp
Act Congress of 1765 and in the Continental Congress in 1774-
1776. In February 1776 he was placed in command of all the
military forces of South Carolina, and in October of the same
384
GADSDEN, J. GAETA
year was commissioned a brigadier-general and was taken into
the Continental service: but on account of a dispute arising out
of a conflict between state and Federal authority resigned his
command in 1777. He was lieutenant-governor of his state in
1 780, when Charleston was surrendered to the British. For about
three months following this event he was held as a prisoner on
parole within the limits of Charleston; then, because of his
influence in deterring others from exchanging their paroles for
the privileges of British subjects, he was seized, taken to St
Augustine, Florida, and there, because he would not give another
parole to those who had violated the former agreement affecting
him, he was confined for forty-two weeks in a dungeon. In
1782 Gadsden was again elected a member of his state legislature;
he was also elected governor, but declined to serve on the ground
that he was too old and infirm; in 1788 he was a member of the
convention which ratified for South Carolina the Federal con-
stitution; and in 1790 he was a member of the convention which
framed the new state constitution. He died in Charleston on the
28th of August 1805. From the time that Governor Thomas
Boone, in 1762, pronounced his election to the legislature
improper, and dissolved the House in consequence, Gadsden was
hostile to the British administration. He was an ardent leader
of the opposition to the Stamp Act, advocating even then a
separation of the colonies from the mother country; and in
the Continental Congress of 1774 he discussed the situation on
the basis of inalienable rights and liberties, and urged an im-
mediate attack on General Thomas Gage, that he might be
defeated before receiving reinforcements.
GADSDEN, JAMES (1788-1858), American soldier and diplo-
mat, was born at Charleston, S.C., on the isth of May 1788, the
grandson of Christopher Gadsden. He graduated at Yale in 1 806,
became a merchant in his native city, and in the war of 1812
served in the regular U.S. Army as a lieutenant of engineers.
In 1818 he served against the Seminoles, with the rank of captain,
as aide on the staff of Gen. Andrew Jackson. In October 1820
he became inspector-general of the Southern Division, with the
rank of colonel, and as such assisted in the occupation and the
establishment of posts in Florida after its acquisition. From
August 1821 to March 1822 he was adjutant-general, but, his
appointment not being confirmed by the Senate, he left the army
and became a planter in Florida. He served in the Territorial
legislature, and as Federal commissioner superintended in 1823
the removal of the Seminole Indians to South Florida. In 1832
he negotiated with the Seminoles a treaty which provided for their
removal within three years to lands in what is now the state of
Oklahoma; but the Seminoles refused to move, hostilities again
broke out, and in the second Seminole War Gadsden was
quartermaster-general of the Florida Volunteers from February
to April 1836. Returning to South Carolina he became a rice
planter, and was president of the South Carolina railway.
In 1853 President Franklin Pierce appointed him minister to
Mexico, with which country he negotiated the so-called " Gadsden
treaty " (signed the 3Oth of December 1853), which gave to the
United States freedom of transit for mails, merchandise and
troops across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and provided for a
readjustment of the boundary established by the treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States acquiring 45,535 sq. m.
of land, since known as the " Gadsden Purchase," in what is
now New Mexico and Arizona. In addition, Article XI. of the
treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which bound the United States
to prevent incursions of Indians from the United States into
Mexico, and to restore Mexican prisoners captured by such
Indians, was abrogated, and for these considerations the United
States paid to Mexico the sum of $10,000,000. Ratifications of
the treaty, slightly modified by the Senate, were exchanged on the
3Oth of June 1854; before this, however, Gadsden had retired
from his post. The boundary line between Mexico and the
" Gadsden Purchase " was marked by joint commissions ap-
pointed in 1855 and 1891, the second commission publishing its
report in 1899. Gadsden died at Charleston, South Carolina, on
the 25th of December 1858.
An elder brother, CHRISTOPHER EDWARDS GADSDEN (1785-
1852), was Protestant Episcopal bishop of South Carolina in
1839-1852.
G ADWALL, a word of obscure origin, 1 the common English
name of the duck, called by Linnaeus Anas strepera, but con-
sidered by many modern ornithologists to require removal from
the genus Anas to that of Chaulelasmus or Ctenorhynchus, of
either of which it is almost the sole species. Its geographical
distribution is almost identical with that of the common wild duck
or mallard (see DUCK), since it is found over the greater part of
the northern hemisphere; but, save in India, where it is one of
the most abundant species of duck during the cold weather, it is
hardly anywhere so numerous, and both in the eastern parts of
the United States and in the British Islands it is rather rare than
otherwise. Its habits also, so far as they have been observed,
greatly resemble those of the wild duck; but its appearance
on the water is very different, its small head, flat back, elongated
form and elevated stern rendering it recognizable by the fowler
even at such a distance as hinders him from seeing its very
distinct plumage. In coloration the two sexes appear almost
equally sombre; but on closer inspection the drake exhibits a
pencilled grey coloration and upper wing-coverts of a deep
chestnut, which are almost wanting in his soberly clad partner.
She closely resembles the female of the mallard in colour, but has,
like her own male, some of the secondary quills of a pure white,
presenting a patch of that colour which forms one of the most
readily perceived distinctive characters of the species. The
gadwall is a bird of some interest in England, since it is one of the
few that have been induced, by the protection afforded them in
certain localities, to resume the indigenous position they once
filled, but had, through the draining and reclaiming of marshy
lands, long since abandoned. In regard to the present species,
this fact was due to the efforts of Andrew Fountaine, on whose
property, in West Norfolk and its immediate neighbourhood,
the gadwall, from 1850, annually bred in increasing numbers.
It has been always esteemed one of the best of wild fowl for the
table. (A. N.)
GAEKWAR, or GUICOWAR, the family name of the Mahratta
rulers of Baroda (</..) in western India, which has been con-
verted by the English into a dynastic title. It is derived from the
vernacular word for the cow, but it is a mistake to suppose that
the family are of the cowherd caste ; they belong to the upper class
of Mahrattas proper, sometimes claiming a Rajput origin. The
dynasty was founded by a succession of three warriors, Damaji I.,
Pilaji and Damaji II., who established Mahratta supremacy
throughout Gujarat during the first half of the i8th century. The
present style of the ruler is Maharaja Gaekwar of Baroda.
GAETA (anc. Caielae Portus), a seaport and episcopal see of
Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is
53 m. W.N.W. by rail via Sparanise. Pop. (1901) 5528. It
occupies a lower projecting point of the promontory which forms
the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta. The tomb of Munatius
Plancus, on the summit of the promontory (see CAI'ETAE PORTUS),
is now a naval signal station, and lies in the centre of the exten-
sive earthworks of the modern fortifications. The harbour is
well sheltered except on the E., but has little commercial im-
portance, being mainly a naval station. To the N.W. is the
suburb of Elena (formerly Borgo di Gaeta). Pop. (1901) 10,369.
Above the town is a castle erected by the Angevin kings, and
strengthened at various periods. The cathedral of St Erasmus
(S. Elmo), consecrated in 1106, has a fine campanile begun in
1 The New English Dictionary has nothing to say. Webster gives
the etymology gad well = go about well. Dr R G. Latham suggested
that it was taken from the syllables quedul, of the Lat.'qucrguedula,
a teal. The spelling " gadwall " seems to be first found in Willughby
in 1676, and has been generally adopted by later writers; but
Merrett, in 1667, has " gaddel " (Pinax rerum naturalium Britanni-
carum, p. 180), saying that it was so called by bird-dealers. The
synonym " gray," given by Willughby and Ray, is doubtless derived
from the general colour of the species, and has its analogue in the
Icelandic Gtdond, applied almost indifferently, or with some dis-
tinguishing epithet, to the female of any of the freshwater ducks, and
especially to both sexes of the present, in which, as stated in the text,
there is comparatively little conspicuous difference of plumage in
drake and duck.
GAETANI GAETULIA
385
860 and completed in 1279, and a nave and four aisles; the
interior has, however, been modernized. Opposite the door of
the cathedral is a candelabrum with interesting sculptures of the
end of the ijth century, consisting of 48 panels in bas-relief,
with 24 representations from the life of Christ, and 34 of the
life of St Erasmus (A. Venturi, Storia dell' arte Italiana, iii.
Milan, 1004, 642 seq.). The cathedral possesses three fine
Exulltt rolls, with miniatures dating from the nth to the begin-
ning of the ijth century. Behind the high altar is the banner sent
by Pope Pius V. to Don John of Austria, the victor of Lepanto.
The constable of Bourbon, who fell in the sack of Rome of 1527,
is buried here. The other churches are of minor interest ; close
to that of La Trinita is the Montagna Spaccata, where a vertical
fissure from 6 to 15 ft. wide runs right down to the sea-level.
Over the chasm is a chapel del Crocefisso, the mountain having
split, it is said, at the death of Christ.
During the break-up of the Roman empire, Gaeta, like Amalfi
and Naples, would seem to have established itself as a practically
independent port and to have carried on a thriving trade with
the Levant. Its history, however, is obscure until, in 823, it
appears as a lordship ruled by hereditary hypati or consuls.
In 844 the town fell into the hands of the Arabs, but four years
later they were driven out with help supplied by Pope Leo IV.
In 875 the town was in the hands of Pope John VIII., who gave
it to the count of Capua as a fief of the Holy See, which had long
claimed jurisdiction over it. In 877, however, the hypatus John
(Joannes) II. succeeded in recovering the lordship, which he
established as a duchy under the suzerainty of the East Roman
emperors. In the nth century the duchy fell into the hands of
the Norman counts of A versa, afterwards princes of Capua, and
in 1 135 it was definitively annexed to his kingdom by Roger of
Sicily. The town, however, had its own coinage as late as 1229.
In military history the town has pkyed a conspicuous part.
Its fortifications were strengthened in the isth century. On
the 3oth of September 1707 it was stormed, after a three months'
siege, by the Austrians under Daun; and on the 6th of August
'734 it was taken, after a siege of four months, by French,
Spanish and Sardinian troops under the future King Charles
of Naples. The fortifications were again strengthened; and
in 1799 it was temporarily occupied by the French. On the iSth
of July 1806 it was captured, after an heroic defence, by the
French under Masslna; and on the iSth of July 1815 it capitu-
lated, after a three months' siege, to the Austrians. In November
1848 Pope Pius IX., after his flight in disguise from Rome,
found a refuge at Gaeta, where he remained till the 4th of Sep-
tember 1849. Finally, in 1860, it was the scene of the last stand
of Francis II. of Naples against the forces of United Italy. Shut
up in the fortress with 12,000 men, after Garibaldi's occupation
of Naples, the king, inspired by the heroic example of Queen
Maria, offered a stubborn resistance, and it was not till the i.3th
of February 1861 that, the withdrawal of the French fleet having
made bombardment from the sea possible, he was forced to
capitulate.
See G. B. Federici, Degli antichi ducki, consoli o ipati delta citta
di Gaeta (Naples, 1791); Onorato Gaetani d' Aragona, Mem. star,
deila ctlta di Gotta (Milan, 1879); C. Ravizza, // Golfo di Gaeta
(Novara. 1876). (T. As.)
GAETANI. or CAETANI, the name of the oldest of the Roman
princely families which played a great part in the history of the
city and of the papacy. The Gaetani are of Longobard origin,
and the founder of the house is said to be one Dominus Con-
stantinus Cagetanus, who flourished in the loth century, but
the family had no great importance until the election of Benedetto
Gaetani to the papacy as Boniface VIII. in 1 294, when they at once
became the most notable in the city. The pope conferred
on them the fiefs of Sermoneta, Bassiano, Ninfa and San Donate
(1297-1300), and the marquisate of Ancona in 1300, while Charles
II. of Anjou created the pope's brother count of Caserta.
Giordano Loffredo Gaetani by his marriage with Giovanna
dell' Aquila, heiress of the counts of Fondi and Traetto, in 1 297
added the name of Aquila to his own, and his grandson Giacomo
acquired the lordships of Piedimonte and Gioia. The Gaetani
n. 13
proved brave warriors and formed a bodyguard to protect
Boniface VIII. from his many foes. During the i.|ih and i.<,ih
centuries their feuds with the Colonna caused frequent disturb-
ances in Rome and the Campagna, sometimes amounting to
civil war. They also played an important r61e as Neapolitan
nobles. In 1 500 Alexander VI., in his attempt to crush the great
Roman feudal nobility, confiscated the Gaetani fiefs and gave
them to his daughter Lucrezia Borgia (q.v.) ', but they afterwards
regained them.
At present there are two lines of Gaetani: (i) Gaetani, princes
of Teano and dukes of Sermoneta, founded by Giacobello
Gaetani, whose grandson, Guglielmo Gaetani, was granted
the duchy of Sermoneta by Pius III. in 1503, the marquisate
of Cisterna being conferred on the family by Sixtus V. in 1585.
In 1642, Francesco, the 7th duke of Sermoneta, acquired by
marriage the county of Caserta, which was exchanged for the
principality of Teano in 1750. The present head of the house,
Onorato Gaetani, nth duke of Sermoneta, 4th prince of Teano,
duke of San Marco, marquis of Cisterna, &c., is a senator of the
kingdom of Italy, and was minister for foreign affairs for a short
time. (2) Gaetani dell' Aquila d' Aragona, princes of Piedimonte,
and dukes of Laurenzana, founded by Onorato Gaetani dell'
Aquila, count of Fondi, Traetto, Alife and Morcone, lord of
Piedimonte and Gioia, in 1454. The additional surname of
Aragona was assumed after the marriage of Onorato Gaetani,
duke of Traetto (d. 1529), with Lucrezia of Aragon, natural
daughter of King Ferdinand I. of Naples. The duchy of Lauren-
zana, in the kingdom of Naples, was acquired by Alfonso Gaetani
by his marriage in 1606 with Giulia di Ruggiero, duchess of
Laurenzana. The lordship of Piedimonte was raised to a
principality in 1715. The present (1908) head of the house is
Nicola Gaetani dell' Aquila d'Aragona (b. 1857), 7th prince of
Piedimonte and I2th duke of Laurenzana.
See A. yon Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868) ; F.
Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1872) ; Almanack
de Got ha (1907 and 1908).
GAETULIA, an ancient district in northern Africa, which in
the usage of Roman writers comprised the wandering tribes of
the southern slopes of Mount Aurcs and the Atlas, as far as the
Atlantic, and the oases in the northern part of the Sahara.
They were always distinguished from the Negro people to the
south, and beyond doubt belonged to the same Berber race
which formed the basis of the population of Numidia and
Mauretania (?..). The tribes to be found there at the present
day are probably of the same race, and retain the same wandering
habits; and it is possible that they still bear in certain places
the name of their Gactulian ancestors (see Vivien St Martin,
Le Nord de I'Afrique, 1863). A few only seem to have mingled
with the Negroes of the Sahara, if we may thus interpret
Ptolemy's allusion to Melano-Gaetuli (4. 6. 5.). They were noted
for the rearing of horses, and according to Strabo had 100,000
foals in a single year. They were clad in skins, lived on flesh
and milk, and the only manufacture connected with their name
is that of the purple dye which became famous from the time of
Augustus onwards, and was made from the purple fish found on
the coast, apparently both in the Syrtes and on the Atlantic.
We first hear of this people in the Jugurthine War (111-106
B.C.), when, as Sallust tells us, they did not even know the name
of Rome. They took part with Jugurtha against Rome; but
when we next hear of them they are in alliance with Caesar
against Juba I. (Bell. Afr. 32). In 25 B.C. Augustus seems to
have given a part of Gaetulia to Juba II., together with his
kingdom of Mauretania, doubtless with the object of controlling
the turbulent tribes; but the Gaetulians rose and massacred
the Roman residents, and it was not till a severe defeat had been
inflicted on them by Lentulus Cossus (who thus acquired the
surname Gaetulicus) in A.D. 6 that they submitted to the king.
After Mauretania became a Roman province in A.D. 40, the
Roman governors made frequent expeditions into the Gactulian
territory to the south, and the official view seems to be expressed
by Pliny (v. 4. 30) when he says that all Gaetulia as far as the
Niger and the Ethiopian frontier was reckoned as subject to the
3 86
GAGE GAGERN
Empire. How far this represents the fact is not clear; but
inscriptions prove that Gaetulians served in the auxiliary troops
of the empire, and it may be assumed that the country passed
within the sphere of Roman influence, though hardly within the
pale of Roman civilization.
For bibliography see AFRICA, ROMAN.
GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON (1836- ), American financier,
was born at De Ruyter, Madison county, New York, on the 28th
of June 1836. He was educated at an academy at Rome, New
York, where at the age of seventeen he became a bank clerk.
In 1855 he removed to Chicago, served for three years as book-
keeper in a planing-mill, and in 1858 entered the banking house
of the Merchant's Loan and Trust Company, of which he was
cashier in 1861-1868. Afterwards he became successively
assistant cashier (1868), vice-president (1882), and president
(1891) of the First National Bank of Chicago, one of the strongest
financial institutions in the middle west. He was chosen in 1892
president of the board of directors of the World's Columbian
Exposition, the successful financing of which was due more to him
than to any other man. In politics he was originally a Re-
publican, and was a delegate to the national convention of the
party in 1880, and chairman of its finance committee. In 1884,
however, he supported Grover Cleveland for the presidency,
and came to be looked upon as a Democrat. In 1892 President
Cleveland, after his second election, offered Gage the post of
secretary of the treasury, but the offer was declined. In the
" free-silver " campaign of 1896 Gage laboured effectively for
the election of William McKinley, and from March 1897 until
January 1902 he was secretary of the treasury in the cabinets
successively of Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt. From
April 1902 until 1906 he was president of the United States
Trust Company in New York City. His administration of the
treasury department, through a more than ordinarily trying
period, was marked by a conservative policy, looking toward
the strengthening of the gold standard, the securing of greater
flexibility in the currency, and a more perfect adjustment of the
relations between the government and the National banks.
GAGE, THOMAS (1721-1787), British general and governor
of Massachusetts, second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born
in 1 7 2 1 . He entered the army in 1 741 and saw service in Flanders
and in the campaign of Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel
in the 44th foot in March 1751. In 1754 he served in America,
and he took part in the following year in General Braddock's
disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a new
regiment, and served in Amherst's operations against Montreal.
He was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general
in 1761, and in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the
British forces in America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenant-
general. In 1774 he was appointed governor of Massachusetts,
and in that capacity was entrusted with carrying into effect the
Boston Port Act. The difficulties which surrounded him in the
execution of his office at this time of the gravest unrest culmin-
ated in 1775, and the action of the igth of April at Lexington
initiated the American War of Independence. After the battle
of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William)
Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782,
and died on the 2nd of April 1787.
GAGE, a pledge, something deposited as security for the
performance of an agreement, and liable to be forfeited on failure
to carry it out. The word also appears in " engage," and is
taken from the O. Fr., as are " wage," payment for services,
and " wager," bet, stake, from the collateral O. Fr. waige. These
two words are from the Low Lat. wadiare, vadiare, to pledge,
vadium, classical Lat. vas, vadis, but may be from the old Teutonic
cognate base seen in Gothic wadi, a pledge (cf. Ger. wetten, to
wager); this Teutonic base is seen in Eng. "wed," to marry,
i.e. to engage by a pledge (cf. Goth, gawadjon, to betrothe).
A particular form of giving a " gage " or pledge was that of
throwing down a glove or gauntlet as a challenge to a judicial
combat, the glove being the " pledge " that the parties would
appear on the field; hence the common phrase " to throw down
the gage of defiance " for any challenge (see GLOVE and WAGER).
GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST, BARON VON (1766-
1852), German statesman and political writer, was born at
Kleinniedesheim, near Worms, on the 25th of January 1766.
After studying law at the universities of Leipzig and Gottingen,
he entered the service of the prince of Nassau- Weilburg, whom
in 1791 he represented at the imperial diet. He was afterwards
appointed the prince's envoy at Paris, where he remained till
the decree of Napoleon, forbidding all persons born on the left
side of the Rhine to serve any other state than France, compelled
him to resign his office (1811). He then retired to Vienna, and
in 181 2 he took part in the attempt to excite a second insurrection
against Napoleon in Tirol. On the failure of this attempt he left
Austria and joined the headquarters of the Prussian army (1813),
and became a member of the board of administration for north
Germany. In 1814 he was appointed administrator of the Orange
principalities; and, when the prince of Orange became king of
the Netherlands, Baron Gagern became his prime minister.
In 1815 he represented him at the congress of Vienna, and suc-
ceeded in obtaining for the Netherlands a considerable augmenta-
tion of territory. From 1816 to 1818 he was Luxemburg envoy
at the German diet, but was recalled, at the instance of Metter-
nich, owing to his too independent advocacy of state constitutions.
In 1820 he retired with a pension to his estate at Hornau, near
Hochst, in Hesse-Darmstadt; but as a member of the first
chamber of the states of the grand-duchy he continued to take
an active share in the promotion of measures for the welfare of
his country. He retired from public life in 1848, and died at
Hornau on the 22nd of October 1852. Baron von Gagern wrote
a history of the German nation (Vienna, 1813; znd ed., 2 vols.,
Frankfort, 1825-1826), and several other books on subjects
connected with history and social and political science. Of
most permanent value, however, is his autobiography, Mein
Anteil an der Politik, 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1823-1845).
Of Hans Christoph von Gagern's sons three attained con-
siderable eminence:
FRIEDRICH BALDUIN, Freiherr von Gagern (1794-1848), the
eldest, was born at Weilburg on the 24th of October 1794. He
entered the university of Gottingen, but soon left, and, taking
service in the Austrian army, took part in the Russian campaign
of 1812, and fought in the following year at Dresden, Kulm and
Leipzig. He then entered the Dutch service, took part in the
campaigns of 1815, and, after studying another year at Heidel-
berg, was member for Luxemburg of the military commission of
the German federal diet (1824, 1825). In 1830 and 1831 he took
part in the Dutch campaign in Belgium, and in 1844, after being
promoted to the rank of general, was sent on an important
mission to the Dutch East Indies to inquire into the state of
their military defences. In 1847 he was appointed governor at
the Hague, and commandant in South Holland. In the spring
of 1848 he was in Germany, and on the outbreak of the revolu-
tionary troubles he accepted the invitation of the government
of Baden to take the command against the insurgent " free
companies " (Freischaareri). At Kandern, on the 2oth of April,
he made a vain effort to persuade the leaders to submit, and was
about to order his troops to attack when he was mortally wounded
by the bullets of the insurgents. His Life, in 3 vols. (Heidelberg
and Leipzig, 1856-1857), was written by his brother Heinrich
von Gagern.
HEINRICH WILHELM AUGUST, Freiherr von Gagern (1790-
1880), the third son, was born at Bayreuth on the 2oth of August
1799, educated at the military academy at Munich, and, as an
officer in the service of the duke of Nassau, fought at Waterloo.
Leaving the service after the war, he studied jurisprudence at
Heidelberg, Gottingen and Jena, and in 1819 went for a while
to Geneva to complete his studies. In 1821 he began his official
career as a lawyer in the grand-duchy of Hesse, and in 1832
was elected to the second chamber. Already at the universities
he had proclaimed his Liberal sympathies as a member of the
Burschenschaft, and he now threw himself into open opposition
to the unconstitutional spirit of the Hessian government, an
attitude which led to his dismissal from the state service in 1833.
Henceforth he lived in comparative retirement, cultivating a
GAHANBAR GAILLARD
387
farm rented by his father at Monsheim, and occasionally pub-
lishing criticisms of public affairs, until the February revolution
of 1848 and its echoes in Germany recalled him to active political
life. For a short while he was at the head of the new Hessian
administration; but his ambition was to share in the creation
of a united Germany. At the Heidelberg meeting and the
preliminary convention (Vorparlament) of Frankfort he deeply
impressed the assemblies with the breadth and moderation of
his views; with the result that when the German national
parliament met (May 18), he was elected its first president.
His influence was at first paramount, both with the Unionist
party and with the more moderate elements of the Left, and it was
he who was mainly instrumental in imposing the principle of a
united empire with a common parliament, and in carrying the
election of the Archduke John as regent. With the growing
split between the Great Germans (Groisdeutschcn) , who wished
the new empire to include the Austrian provinces, and the Little
Germans (Klrindeutfchen) , who realized that German unity could
only be attained by excluding them, his position was shaken.
On the i $th of December, when Schmerling and the Austrian
members had left the cabinet, Gagern became head of the
imperial ministry, and on the iSth he introduced a programme
(known as the Cagmscke Programm) according to which Austria
was to be excluded from the new federal state, but bound to it
by a treaty of union. After a severe struggle this proposal was
accepted; but the academic discussion on the constitution
continued for weary months, and on the zoth of May, realizing
the hopelessness of coming to terms with the ultra-democrats,
Gagern and his friends resigned. Later on he attempted to
influence the Prussian Northern Union in the direction of the
national policy, and he took part in the sessions of the Erfurt
parliament; but, soon realizing the hopelessness of any good
results from the vacillating policy of Prussia, he retired from
the contest, and, as a major in the service of the Schleswig-
Hobtein government, took part in the Danish War of 1830.
After the war he retired into private life at Heidelberg. In 1862,
misled by the constitutional tendency of Austrian politics, he
publicly declared in favour of the Great German party. In 1864
he went as Hessian envoy to Vienna, retiring in 1872 when
the post was abolished. He died at Darmstadt on the 22nd
of May 1880.
MAXIMILIAN, Freiherr von Gagern (1810-1889), the youngest
son, was born at Wcilburg on the 26th of March 1810. Up to
1848 he was a government official in Nassau; in that year he
became a member of the German national parliament and under-
secretary of state for foreign affairs. Throughout the revolu-
tionary years he supported his brother's policy, became a member
of the Erfurt parliament, and, after the collapse of the national
movement, returned to the service of the duchy of Nassau. In
1855 be turned Roman Catholic and entered the Austrian service
as court and ministerial councillor in the department of foreign
affairs. In 1871 be retired, and in 1881 was nominated a life
member of the Upper Chamber (Herrenhaus). He died at
Vienna on the i;th of October 1880.
See AUfemeine deutscke Biographie, Band viii. p. 301, &c. (1878)
and Band xlix. p. 654 (1904).
GAHANBAR, festivals of the ancient Avesta calendar cele-
brated by the Parsees at six seasons of the year which correspond
with the six periods of creation: (i) M aidhyozaremaya (mid
spring), (2) Uaidhyoshema (midsummer), (3) Paitishahya (season
of corn), (4) Ayatkrema (season of flocks), (5) Maidhyarya (winter
solstice), (6) Hamas ftathmaedha (festival of sacrifices).
GAIGNIBRES, FRANCOIS ROGER DB (1642-1715), French
genealogist, antiquary and collector, was the son of Aimo de
Gaignicres, secretary to the governor of Burgundy, and was
born on the 3Oth of December 1642. He became icuyer (esquire)
to Louis Joseph, duke of Guise, and afterwards to Louis Joseph's
aunt, Marie of Guise, by whom in 1679 he was appointed governor
of her principality of Joinville. At an early age he began to
make a collection of original materials for history generally, and,
in particular, for that of the French church and court. He
together a large collection of original letters and other
documents, together with portraits and prints, and had copies
made of a great number of the most curious antiquarian objects,
such as seals, tombstones, stained glass, miniatures and tapestry.
In 1711 he presented the whole of his collections to the king.
The bulk of them is preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale
at Paris, and a certain number in the Bodleian library at Oxford.
See G. Duplcssis, Roger de GaigKtires (Paris, 1870); L. Delisle,
Cabinet des manuscrits, t. i. pp. 335-356; H. Bouchot, Les Portraits
aux crayon des XVI' et XVII' socles (Paris, 1884); Ch. de
Grandmaison, Gaigniires, ses correspondants et ses collections de
portraits (Niort, 1892).
GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1755-1829), French hellenist, was
born in Paris on the 4th of July 1755. In 1791 he was appointed
deputy, and in 1792 titular professor at the College de France.
During the Revolution he quietly performed his professional
duties, taking no part in politics, although he possessed the
faculty of ingratiating himself with those in authority. In 1815
he was appointed by the king keeper of Greek MSS. in the royal
library over the heads of the candidates proposed by the other
conservators, an appointment which made him many enemies.
Gail imagined that there was an organized conspiracy to belittle
his learning and professional success, and there was a standing
quarrel between him and his literary opponents, the most dis-
tinguished of whom was P. L. Courier. He died on the sth of
February 1829. Without being a great Greek scholar, Gail was
a man of unwearied industry, whose whole life was devoted to
his favourite studies, and he deserves every credit for having
rescued Greek from the neglect into which it had fallen during the
troublous times in which he lived. The list of Gail's published
works filled 500 quarto pages of the introduction to his edition of
Xenophon. The best of these is his edition of Theocritus (1828).
He also wrote a number of elementary educational works, based
on the principles of the school of Port Royal. His communica-
tions to the Academic des Inscriptions being coldly received and
seldom accorded the honour of print, he inserted them in a vast
compilation in 24 volumes, which he called Le Philologue, con-
taining a mass of ill-digested notes on Greek grammar, geography,
archaeology, and various authors.
See " Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de J. B. G.," in
Mem. de I'Acad. des Inscriptions, ix. ; the articles in Biographie
universelle (by A. Pillon) and Ersch and Gruber's AUgemeine Encyclo-
pddie (by C. F. Bahr); a list of his works will be found in J. M.
Querard, La France litUraire (1829), including the contents of the
volumes of Le Philologue.
GAILLAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Tarn, on the right bank of
the Tarn, 15 m. W. of Albi on the railway from that city to
Toulouse. Pop. (1006) town, 5388; commune, 7535. The
churches of St Michel and St Pierre, both dating from the I3th
and I4th centuries, have little architectural importance. There
are some interesting houses, one of which, the Maison Yversen,
of the Renaissance, is remarkable for the rich carving of its doors.
The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal
of first instance, and a communal college. Its industries include
the manufacture of lime and wooden shoes , while dyeing, wood-
sawing and flour-milling are also carried en; it has a consider-
able trade in grain, flour, vegetables, dried pi ims, anise, coriander,
&c., and in wine, the white and red wines ol the arrondissement
having a high reputation. Gaillac grew up ro md the Benedictine
abbey of St Michel, founded in the loth century.
GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI (1726-1806), French historian,
was born at Ostel, Picardy, in 1726. He was educated for the
bar, but after finishing his studies adopted a literary career,
ultimately devoting his chief attention to history. He was
already a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-
lettres (1760), when, after the publication of the three first
volumes of his Hisloire de la rivalM de la Prance et d'Angleterre,
he was elected to the French Academy (1771); and when
Napoleon created the Institute he was admitted into its third
class (Acadtmie fran(aisc) in 1803. For forty years he was the
intimate friend of Malesherbes, whose life (1805) be wrote. He
died at St Firmin, near Chantilly, on the I3th of February 1806.
Gaillard is painstaking and impartial in his statement of facts,
3 88
GAINESVILLE GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS
and his style is correct and elegant, but the unity of his narrative
is somewhat destroyed by digressions, and by his method of
treating war, politics, civil administration, and ecclesiastical
affairs under separate heads. His most important work is his
Histoire de la rivalite de la France el de I'Angleterre (in u vols.,
1771-1777); and among his other works may be mentioned
Essai de rhetoriqiie fran$aise, a I'usage des jeunes demoiselles
(1745), often reprinted, and in 1822 with a life of the author;
Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne (1757); Histoire de Francois I"
(7 vols., 1776-1779); Histoire des grandes querdles entre CharlesV.
et Francois I" (2 vols., 1777); Histoire de Charlemagne (2 vols.,
1782); Histoire de la rmalite de la France et de I'Espagne (8 vols.,
1801); Dictionnaire historique (6 vols., 1780-1804), making part
of the Encyclopedie methodique; and Melanges litteraires, con-
taining eloges on Charles V., Henry IV., Descartes, Corneille,
La Fontaine, Malesherbes and others.
GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Alachua county,
Florida, U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890)
2790; (1900) 3633, of whom 1803 were negroes; (1905) 5413;
(1910) 6183. Gainesville is served by the Atlantic Coast Line,
the Seaboard Air Line, and the Tampa & Jacksonville railways,
and is an important railway junction. It is the seat of the
University of the State of Florida, established at Lake City in
1905 and removed to Gainesville in 1906. The university in-
cludes a school of language and literature, a general scientific
school, a school of agriculture, a technological school, a school of
pedagogy, a normal school, and an agricultural experiment
station. In 1908 the university had 15 instructors and 103
students. The Florida Winter Bible Conference and Chautauqua
is held here. Gainesville is well known as a winter resort, and its
climate is especially beneficial to persons affected by pulmonary
troubles. In the neighbourhood are the Alachua Sink, Payne's
Prairie, Newman's Lake, the Devil's Mill Hopper and other
objects of interest. The surrounding country produces Sea
Island cotton, melons, citrus and other fruits, vegetables and
naval stores. About ism. W. of the city there is a rich phosphate
mining district. The city has bottling works, and manufactures
fertilizers, lumber, coffins, ice, &c. The municipality owns and
operates the water- works; the water-supply comes from a spring
2 m. from the city, and the water closely resembles that of the
Poland Springs in Maine. Gainesville is in the midst of the
famous Seminole country. The first settlement was made here
about 1850; and Gainesville, named in honour of General E. P.
Gaines, was incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered
as a city in 1907.
GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cooke county,
Texas, U.S.A., about 6 m. S. of the Red river, and about 60 m.
N. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1890) 6594; (1900) 7874 (1201 negroes
and 269 foreign-born); (1910) 7624. The city is served by
the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, and the Missouri, Kansas &
Texas railways, and by an interurban electric railway. Gaines-
ville is a trading centre and market for the surrounding country,
in which cotton, grains, garden truck, fruit and alfalfa are grown
and live-stock is raised; and a wholesale distributing point for
the neighbouring region in Texas and Oklahoma. The city
has cotton-compresses and cotton-gins, and among its manu-
factures are cotton-seed oil, flour, cement blocks, pressed bricks,
canned goods, foundry products, waggon-beds and creamery
products. Gainesville was settled about 1851, was incorporated
in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1879; it was named in
honour of General Edmund Pendleton Gaines (1777-1849),
who served with distinction in the War of 1812, becoming a
brigadier-general in March 1814 and receiving the brevet of
major-general and the thanks of Congress for his defence of
Fort Erie in August 1814. Gaines took a prominent part in the
operations against the Seminoles in Florida in 1817 (when he
was in command of the Southern Military District) and in 1836
and during the Mexican War commanded the department of the
South-West, with headquarters at New Orleans.
GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS (1727-1788), English painter,
one of the greatest masters of the English school in portraiture,
and only less so in landscape, was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, in
the spring of 1727. His father, who carried on the business of a
woollen crape-maker in that town, was of a respectable character
and family, and was noted for his skill in fencing; his mother
excelled in flower-painting, and encouraged her son in the use
of the pencil. There were nine children of the marriage, two of
the painter's brothers being of a very ingenious turn.
At ten years old, Gainsborough "had sketched every fine tree
and picturesque cottage near Sudbury," and at fourteen, having
filled his task-books with caricatures of his schoolmaster, and
sketched the portrait of a man whom he had detected on the
watch for robbing his father's orchard, he was allowed to follow
the bent of his genius in London, with some instruction in
etching from Gravelot, and under such advantages as Hayman,
the historical painter, and the academy in St Martin's Lane could
afford. Three years of study in the metropolis, where he did some
modelling and a few landscapes, were succeeded by two years in
the country. Here he fell in love with Margaret Burr, a young
lady of many charms, including an annuity of 200, married her
after painting her portrait, and a short courtship, and, at the age
of twenty, became a householder in Ipswich, his rent being
6 a year. The annuity was reported to come from Margaret's
real (not her putative) father, who was one of the exiled Stuart
princes or else the duke of Bedford. She was sister of a young
man employed by Gainsborough's father as a traveller. At
Ipswich, Gainsborough tells us, he was " chiefly in the face- way ";
his sitters were not so numerous as to prevent him from often
rambling with his friend Joshua Kirby (president of the Society
of Artists) on the banks of the Orwell, from painting many
landscapes with an attention to details which his later works
never exhibited, or from joining a musical club and entertaining
himself and his fellow-townsmen by giving concerts. As he
advanced in years he became ambitious of advancing in reputa-
tion. Bath was then the general resort of wealth and fashion,
and to that city, towards the close of the year 1759, he removed
with his wife and two daughters, the only issue of their marriage.
His studio in the circus was soon thronged with visitors; he
gradually raised his price for a half-length portrait from 5 to 40
guineas, and for a whole-length from 8 to 100 guineas; and he
rapidly developed beyond the comparatively plain and hum-
drum quality of his Ipswich paintings. Among his sitters at
this period were the authors Sterne and Richardson, and the
actors Quin, Henderson and Garrick. Meanwhile he contributed
both portraits and landscapes to the annual exhibitions in
London. He indulged his taste for music by learning to play the
viol-di-gamba, the harp, the hautboy, the violoncello. His house
harboured Italian, German, French and English musicians.
He haunted the green-room of Palmer's theatre, and painted
gratuitously the portraits of many of the actors: he constantly
gave away his sketches and landscapes. In the summer of 1774,
having already attained a position of great prosperity, he took
his departure for London, and fixed his residence at Schomberg
House, Pall Mall, a noble mansion still standing, for a part of
which the artist paid 300 a year.
Gainsborough had not been many months in London ere he
received a summons to the palace, and to the end of his career he
divided with West the favour of the court, and with Reynolds
the favour of the town. Sheridan, Burke, Johnson, Franklin,
Canning, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Mrs Siddons, Clive,
Blackstone, Kurd, were among the number of those who sat to
him. But in London as in Bath his landscapes were exhibited,
were commended, and were year after year returned to him,
" till they stood," says Sir William Beechey, " ranged in long
lines from his hall to his painting-room." Gainsborough was a
member of the Royal Academy, one of the original 36 elected in
1768; but in 1784, being dissatisfied with the position assigned
on the exhibition walls to his portrait of the three princesses,
he withdrew that and his other pictures, and he never afterwards
exhibited there. Even before this he had taken no part in the
business of the Institution. After seceding he got up an exhibi-
tion in his own house, not successfully. In February 1788, while
witnessing the trial of Warren Hastings, he felt an extraordinary
chill at the back of his neck; this was the beginning of a cancer
GAINSBOROUGH
389
(or, as some say, a malignant wen) which proved fatal on the
nd of August of the same year. He lies buried at Kew.
Gainsborough was tall, fair and handsome, generous, impulsive
to the point of capriciousness, easily irritated, not of bookish
likings, a lively talker, good at repartee. He was a most thorough
embodiment of the artistic temperament; delighting in nature
and " the look of things," insatiable in working, fond of music
and the theatre hardly less than of painting a warm, rich person-
ality, to whom severe principle was perhaps as foreign as de-
liberate wrong-doing. The property which he left at his death was
not large. One of his daughters, Mary, had married the musician
Fischer contrary to his wishes, and was subject to fits of mental
aberration. The other daughter, Margaret, died unmarried.
Mrs Gainsborough, an extremely sweet-tempered woman, sur-
vived her husband ten years. There is a pretty anecdote that
Gainsborough, if he ever had a tiff with her, would write a pacify-
ing note, confiding it to his dog Fox, who delivered it to the lady's
pet spaniel Tristram. The note was worded as in the person of
Fox to Tristram, and Mrs Gainsborough replied in the best of
humours, as from Tristram to Fox.
Gainsborough and Reynolds rank side by side as the greatest
portrait-painters of the English school. They were at variance;
but Gainsborough on his death-bed sought and obtained a re-
conciliation. It is difficult to say which stands the higher of
the two, although Reynolds may claim to have worked with a
nearer approach to even and demonstrable excellence. In grace,
pint, and lightness of insight and of touch, Gainsborough is
peculiarly eminent. His handling was slight for the most part,
and somewhat arbitrary, but in a high degree masterly; and
bis landscapes and rustic compositions are not less gifted than
his portraits. Among his finest works are portraits of " Lady
Lagonier," " Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire," " Master
Buttall (the Blue Boy)," now in Grosvenor House, " Mrs Sheridan
and Mrs Tickell," " Orpin, the parish clerk " (National Gallery),
" the Hon. Mrs Graham " (Scottish National Gallery), his own
portrait (Royal Academy), " Mrs Siddons " (National Gallery);
also" the Cottage Door,"" the Market Cart," " the Return from
Harvest," " the Woodman and his Dog in a Storm " (destroyed
by fire), and " Waggon and Horses passing a Brook " (National
Gallery this was a favourite with its painter). He made a vast
number of drawings and sketches.
A few observations may be added: (i) as to individual
works by Gainsborough, and (2) as to his general characteristics
as a painter.
Two of his first portraits, executed when he was settled at
Ipswich, were separate likenesses of Mr and Mrs Hingeston.
His first great hit was made at Bath with a portrait of Lord
Nugent. With a likeness of Mr Poyntz, 1762, we find a decided
advance in artistic type, and his style became fixed towards
1768. The date of the " Blue Boy " is somewhat uncertain:
most accounts name 1779, but perhaps 1770 is nearer the mark.
This point is not without interest for dilettanti; because it is
aid that Gainsborough painted the picture with a view to confut-
ing a dictum of Reynolds, to the effect that blue was a colour
unsuitable for the main light of a work. But, if the picture was
produced before 1778, the date of Reynolds's dictum, this long-
cherished and often-repeated tradition must be given up. A
full-length of the duke of Norfolk was perhaps the latest work
to which Gainsborough set his hand. His portrait of Elizabeth,
duchess of Devonshire, famous for its long disappearance, has
aroused much controversy; whether this painting, produced not
long after Gainsborough had settled in London, and termed
" the Duchess of Devonshire," does really represent that lady,
is by no means certain. It was mysteriously stolen in 1876 in
London immediately after it had been purchased by Messrs
Agnew at the Wynn Ellis sale at a huge price, and a long time
elapsed before it was retraced. The picture was taken to New
York, and eventually to Chicago; and in April 1001, through
the agency of a man named Pat Sheedy, it was given up to the
American detectives working for Messrs Agnew; it was then sold
to Mr Pierpont Morgan.
Gainsborough's total output of paintings exceeded 300,
including 220 portraits: he also etched at least 18 plates, and
3 in aquatint. At the date of his death 56 paintings remained
on hand: these, along with 148 drawings, were then exhibited.
In his earlier days he made a practice of copying works by
Vandyck (the object of his more special admiration), Titian,
Rubens, Teniers, Hobbema, Claude and some others, but not
in a spirit of servile reproduction.
Gainsborough was pre-eminent in that very essential ele-
ment of portraiture truthful likeness. In process of time he
advanced in the rendering of immediate expression, while he
somewhat receded in general character. He always made his
sitters look pleasant, and, after a while, distinguished. Unity
of impression is one of the most marked qualities in his work;
he seems to have seen his subject as an integer, and he wrought
at the various parts of it together, every touch (and very wilful
some of his touches look) tending towards the foreseen result.
He painted with arrowy speed, more especially in his later
years. For portraits he used at times brushes upon sticks 6 ft.
long; there was but little light in his painting-room, and he
often worked in the evenings. He kept his landscape work
distinct from his portraiture, not ever adding to the latter a fully
realized landscape background; his views he never signed or
dated his likenesses only once or twice. His skies are constantly
cloudy, the country represented is rough and broken; the
scenes are of a pastoral kind, with an effect generally of corning
rain, or else of calm sun-setting. The prevalent feeling of his
landscapes is somewhat sad, and to children, whether in subject-
groups or in portraits, he mostly lent an expression rather plain-
tive than mirthful. It should be acknowledged that, whether
in portraiture or in landscape, the painter's mannerisms of
execution increased in process of time patchings of the brush,
tufty foliage, &c.; some of his portraits are hurried and flimsy,
with a minimum of solid content, though not other than artistic
in feeling. Here are a few of his axioms: " What makes the
difference between man and man is real performance, and not
genius or conception." "I don't think it would be more ridiculous
for a person to put his nose close to the canvas and say the colours
smelt offensive than to say how rough the paint lies, for one is
just as material as the other with regard to hurting the effect and
drawing of a picture." "The eye is the only perspective-master
needed by a landscape-painter." '
AUTHORITIES. In 1788 Philip Thicknesse, Lieutenant-Governor
of Landguard Fort, Ipswich, who had been active in promoting the
artist's fortunes at starting, published A Sketch of the Life and
Paintings of Thomas Gainsborough. He had quarrelled with the
painter at Bath, partly because the latter had undertaken to do a
portrait of him as a gift, and then neglected the work, and finally,
in a huff, bundled it off only half done. The crucial question here is
whether or not Gainsborough was reasonably pledged to perform
any such gratuitous work, and this point has been contested. Thick
nessc's book is in part adverse to Gainsborough, and more particu-
larly so to his wife. Reynolds's " Lecture " on Gainsborough,
replete with critical insight, should never be lost sight of as a leading
document. In 1856 a needfully compiled Life "of Thomas Cains-
borough was brought out by T. W. rulcher. This was the first
substantial work about him subsequent to Allan Cunningham's
lively account (1829) in his Lives of the Painters. Of late years a
great deal has been written, mainly but not by any means exclusively
from the critical or technical point of view: Sir Walter Armstrong
(two works, 1896 and 1898); Mrs Arthur Bell (1902); Sir W. M!
Conway, Artistic Development of Reynolds and Gainsborough (1886);
Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower (1903); G. M. Brock-Arnold (1881).
G. Pauli has brought out an illustrated work in Germany (1904)
under the title Gainsborough. (W. M. R.)
GAINSBOROUGH, a market town in the W. Lindsey or
Gainsborough parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England;
on the right (E.) bank of the Trent. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 17,660. It is served by the Lincoln-Doncaster joint line
of the Great Northern and Great Eastern railways, by which it
is 16 m. N.W. of Lincoln, and by the Great Central railway.
The parish church of All Saints is classic of the i8th century,
excepting the Perpendicular tower. The two other parish
churches are modern. The Old Hall, of the isth century, en-
larged in the i6th, is a picturesque building, forming three
sides of a quadrangle, partially timber-framed, but having a
beautiful oriel window and other parts of stone. There is also
390
GAIRDNER GAISFORD
a Tudor tower of brick. A literary and scientific institute occupy
part of the building. Gainsborough possesses a grammar school
(founded in 1589 by a charter of Queen Elizabeth) and other
schools, town-hall, county court-house, Albert Hall and Church
of England Institute. There is a large carrying trade by water
on the Trent and neighbouring canals. Shipbuilding and iron-
founding are carried on, and there are manufactures of linseed
cake, and agricultural and other machinery.
Gainsborough (Gegnesburh) was probably inhabited by the
Saxons on account of the fishing in the Trent. The Saxon
Chronicle states that in 1013 the Danish king Sweyn landed
here and subjugated the inhabitants. Gainsborough, though not
a chartered borough, was probably one by prescription, for
mention is made of burghal tenure in 1280. The privilege of
the return of writs was conferred on the lord of the manor,
Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, in 1323, and confirmed
to Ralph de Percy in 1383. Mention is made in 1204 of a
Wednesday market, but there is no extant grant before 1258,
when Henry III. granted a Tuesday market to William de
Valence, earl of Pembroke, who also obtained from Edward I.
in 1291 licence for an annual fair on All Saints' Day, and the
seven preceding and eight following days. In 1243 Henry III.
granted to John Talbot licence for a yearly fair on the eve, day
and morrow of St James the Apostle. Queen Elizabeth in 1592
granted to Thomas Lord Burgh two fairs, to begin on Easter
Monday and on the 9th of October, each lasting three days.
Charles I. in 1635-1636 extended the duration of each to nine
days. The Tuesday market is still held, and the fair days are
Tuesday and Wednesday in Easter-week, and the Tuesday and
Wednesday after the aoth of October.
See Adam Stark, History and Antiquities of Gainsburgh (London,
1843)-
GAIRDNER, JAMES (1828- ), English historian, son of
John Gairdner, M.D., was born in Edinburgh on the 22nd of
March 1828. Educated in his native city, he entered the Public
Record Office in London in 1846, becoming assistant keeper of
the public records (1859-1893). Gairdner's valuable and pains-
taking contributions to English history relate chiefly to the
reigns of Richard III., Henry VII. and Henry VIII. For the
" Rolls Series " he edited Letters and Papers illustrative of the
Reigns oj Richard II I. and Henry VII. (London, 1861-1863), an d
Memorials of Henry VII. (London, 1858); and he succeeded
J. S. Brewer in editing the Letters and Papers, foreign and
domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII. (London, 1862-1905).
He brought out the best edition of the Paslon Letters (London,
1872-1875, and again 1896), for which he wrote a valuable
introduction; and for the Camden Society he edited the Histori-
cal collections of a Citizen of London (London, 1876), and Three
i$th-century Chronicles (London, 1880). His other works include
excellent monographs on Richard HI. (London, 1878, new and
enlarged edition, Cambridge, 1898), and on Henry VII. (London,
1889, and subsequently); The Houses of Lancaster and York
(London, 1874, and other editions); The English Church in the
i6th century (London, 1902); Lollardy and the Reformation in
England (1908); and contributions to the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, the Dictionary of National Biography, the Cambridge
Modern History, and the English Historical Review. Gairdner
received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of
Edinburgh in 1897, and was made a C.B. in 1900.
G AIRLOCK (Gaelic gearr, short), a sea loch, village and
parish in the west of the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland.
Pop. of parish (1901) 3797. The parish covers a large district
on the coast, and stretches inland beyond the farther banks
of Loch Maree, the whole of which lies within its bounds. It
also includes the islands of Dry and Horisdale in the loch, and
Ewe in Loch Ewe, and occupies a total area of 200,646 acres.
The place and loch must not be confounded with Gareloch in
Dumbartonshire. Formerly an appanage of the earldom of Ross,
Gairloch has belonged to the Mackenzies since the end of the i sth
century. Flowerdale, an 18th-century house in the pretty little
glen of the same name, lying close to the village, is the chief
seat of the Gairloch branch of the clan Mackenzie. William
Ross (1762-1790), the Gaelic poet, who was schoolmaster of
Gairloch, of which his mother was a native, was buried in the
old kirkyard, where a monument commemorates him.
GAISERIC, or GENSERIC (c. 390-477), king of the Vandals,
was a son of King Godegisel (d. 406), and was born about 390.
Though lame and only of moderate stature, he won renown as a
warrior, and became king on the death of his brother Gonderic
in 428. In 428 or 429 he led a great host of Vandals from Spain
into Roman Africa, and took possession of Mauretania. This
step is said to have been taken at the instigation of Boniface,
the Roman general in Africa; if true, Boniface soon repented of
his action, and was found resisting the Vandals and defending
Hippo Regius against them. At the end of fourteen months
Gaiseric raised the siege of Hippo; but Boniface was forced
to fly to Italy, and the city afterwards fell into the hands of the
Vandals. Having pillaged and conquered almost the whole of
Roman Africa, the Vandal king concluded a treaty with the
emperor Valentinian III. in 435, by which he was allowed to
retain his conquests; this peace, however, did not last long,
and in October 439 he captured Carthage, which he made the
capital of his kingdom. According to some authorities Gaiseric
at this time first actually assumed the title of king. In religious
matters he was an Arian, and persecuted the members of the
orthodox church in Africa, although his religious policy varied with
his relations to the Roman empire. Turning his attention in
another direction he built a fleet, and the ravages of the Vandals
soon made them known and feared along the shores of the Medi-
terranean. " Let us make," said Gaiseric, " for the dwellings of
the men with whom God is angry," and he left the conduct of
his marauding ships to wind and wave. In 455, however, he
led an expedition to Rome, stormed the city, which for fourteen
days his troops were permitted to plunder, and then returned
to Africa laden with spoil. He also carried with him many
captives, including the empress Eudoxia, who is said to have
invited the Vandals into Italy. The Romans made two attempts
to avenge themselves, one by the Western emperor, Majorianus,
in 460, and the other by the Eastern emperor, Leo I., eight years
later; but both enterprises failed, owing principally to the genius
of Gaiseric. Continuing his course on the sea the king brought
Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands under his rule,
and even extended his conquests into Thrace, Egypt and Asia
Minor. Having made peace with the eastern emperor Zeno in
476, he died on the 25th of January 477. Gaiseric was a cruel
and cunning man, possessing great military talents and superior
mental gifts. Though the effect of his victories was afterwards
neutralized by the successes of Belisarius, his name long remained
the glory of the Vandals. The name Gaiseric is said to be
derived from gais, a javelin, and reiks, a king.
See VANDALS; also T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vol. ii.
(London, 1892); E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
(ed. J. B. Bury, 1896-1900) ; L. Schmidt, Geschiclite der Vandalen
(Leipzig, 1901); and F. Martroye, Genseric; La Conquite vandale
en Afrique (Paris, 1907).
GAISFORD, THOMAS (1779-1855), English classical scholar,
was born at Iford, Wiltshire, on the 22nd of December 1779.
Proceeding to Oxford in 1797, he became successively student
and tutor of Christ Church, and was in 1811 appointed regius
professor of Greek in the university. Taking orders, he held
(1815-1847) the college living of Westwell, in Oxfordshire, and
other ecclesiastical preferments simultaneously with his professor-
ship. From 1831 until his death on the and of June 1855, he
was dean of Christ Church. As curator of the Bodleian and
principal delegate of the University Press he was instrumental
in securing the co-operation of distinguished European scholars
as collators, notably Bekker and Dindorf. Among his numerous
contributions to Greek literature may be mentioned, Hephaes-
tion's Encheiridion (1810); Poetae Graeci minores (1814-1820);
Stobaeus' Florilegium (1822); Herodotus, with variorum notes
(1824); Suidas' Lexicon (1834); Etymologicon magnum (1848);
Eusebius's Praeparatio (1843) and Demonstratio evangelica
(1852). In 1856 the Gaisford prizes, for Greek composition, were
founded at Oxford to perpetuate his memory.
GAIUS GALAGO
39 1
GAIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist. Of his personal history
very' little is known. It is impossible to discover even his full
name, Gaius or Caius being merely the personal name(praenomen)
to common in Rome. From internal evidence in his works it may
be gathered that he flourished in the reigns of the emperors
Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.
His works were thus composed between the years 130 and 180,
at the time when the Roman empire was most prosperous, and
its government the best. Most probably Gaius lived in some
provincial town, and hence we find no contemporary notices of
his life or works. After his death, however, his writings were
recognized as of great authority, and the emperor Valentinian
named him, along with Papinian, Ulpian, Modestinus and
Paul us, as one of the five jurists whose opinions were to be followed
by judicial officers in deciding cases. The works of these jurists
accordingly became most important sources of Roman law.
Besides the Institutes, which are a complete exposition of the
elements of Roman law, Gaius was the author of a treatise on the
Edicts of the Magistrates, of Commentaries OH the Twelve Tables,
and on the important Lex Papia Poppaea, and several other
works. His interest in the antiquities of Roman law is apparent,
and for this reason his work is most valuable to the historian of
early institutions. In the disputes between the two schools of
Roman jurists he generally attached himself to that of the
Sabinians, who were said to be followers of Ateius Capito, of
whose life we have some account in the Annals of Tacitus, and to
advocate a strict adherence as far as possible to ancient rules,
and to resist innovation. Many quotations from the works of
Gaius occur in the Digest of Justinian, and so acquired a
permanent place in the system of Roman law; while a com-
parison of the Institutes of Justinian with those of Gaius shows
that the whole method and arrangement of the later work were
copied from that of the earlier, and very numerous passages are
word for word the same. Probably, for the greater part of the
period of three centuries which elapsed between Gaius and
Justinian, the Institutes of the former had been the familiar text-
book of all students of Roman law.
Unfortunately the work was lost to modern scholars, until, in
1816, a manuscript was discovered by B. G. Niebuhr in the
chapter library of Verona, in which certain of the works of St
Jerome were written over some earlier writings, which proved
to be the lost work of Gaius. The greater part of the palimpsest
has, however, been deciphered and the text is now fairly complete.
This discovery has thrown a flood of light on portions of the
history of Roman law which had previously been most obscure.
Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in
the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of
the ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be
traced " survivals " from the most primitive times, which
provide the science of comparative law with valuable illustrations,
which may explain the strange forms of legal procedure found in
other early systems. Another circumstance which renders the
work of Gaius more interesting to the historical student than that
of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time when actions weie
tried by the system of formulae, or formal directions given by the
praetor before whom the case first came, to the judex to whom he
referred it. Without a knowledge of the terms of these formulae
it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the his-
tory of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the
ancient law of Rome were modified by what has been called the
equitable jurisdiction of the praetors, and made applicable to new
conditions, and brought into harmony with the notions and the
needs of a more developed society. It is clear from evidence ol
Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an independent set ol
courts administering, as in England previous to the Judicature
Acts, a system different from that of the ordinary courts, but by
the manipulation of the formulae. In the time of Justinian the
work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared
The Institutes of Gaius are divided into four books the first
treating of persons and the differences of the status they may
occupy in the eye of the law; the second of things, and the
> in which rights over them may be acquired, including the
aw relating to wills; the third of intestate succession and of
ibligations; the fourth of actions and their forms.
There are several carefully prepared editions of the Institutes,
starting from that of Goschen (1820). down to that of Studemund
and Krdger (looo). The most complete English edition is that of
J. Poste, which includes beside the text an English translation and
copious commentary (1885). A comparison of the early forms of
actions mentioned by Gaius with those used by other primitive
societies will be found in Sir II. Maine's Early Institutions, cap. 9.
'or further information see M. Glasson, Etude sur Gaius el sur le
us respondent! i; also ROMAN LAW.
GAIUS CAESAR (A.O. 12-41), surnamed CALIGULA, Roman
emperor from 37-41, youngest son of Germanicus and Agrippina
.he elder, was born on the 3ist of August A.D. 12. He was
>rought up in his father's camp on the Rhine among the soldiers,
and received the name Caligula from the caligae, or foot-soldiers'
xx>ts, which he used to wear. He also accompanied his father to
Syria, and after his death returned to Rome. In 32 he was
summoned by Tiberius to Capreae, and by skilful flattery managed
to escape the fate of his relatives. After the murder of Tiberius
by Naevius Sertorius Macro, the prefect of the praetorian guards,
which was probably due to his instigation, Caligula ascended the
throne amidst the rejoicings of the people. The senate conferred
:he imperial power upon him alone, although Tiberius Gemellus,
the grandson of the preceding emperor, had been designated as
his co-heir. He entered on his first consulship in July 37. For
the first eight months of his reign he did not disappoint the
popular expectation; but after his recovery from a severe illness
bis true character showed itself. His extravagance, cruelty and
profligacy can hardly be explained except on the assumption that
he was out of his mind. According to Pelham, much of his
conduct was due to the atmosphere in which he was brought up,
and the ideas of sovereignty instilled into him, which led him to
pose as a monarch of the Graeco-oriental type. To fill his ex-
hausted treasury he put to death his wealthy subjects and
confiscated their property; even the poor fell victims to his
thirst for blood. He bestowed the priesthood and a consulship
upon his horse Incitatus, and demanded that sacrifice should be
offered to himself. He openly declared that he wished the whole
Roman people had only one head, that he might cut it off at a
single stroke. In 39 he set out with an army to Gaul, nominally
to punish the Germans for having invaded Roman territory, but in
reality to get money by plunder and confiscation. Before leaving,
he led his troops to the coast opposite Britain, and ordered them
to pick up shells on the seashore, to be dedicated to the gods at
Rome as the spoils of ocean. On his return he entered Rome
with an ovation (a minor form of triumph), temples were built,
statues erected in his honour, and a special priesthood instituted
to attend to his worship. The people were ground down by new
forms of taxation and every kind of extortion, but on the whole
Rome was free from internal disturbances during his reign;
some insignificant conspiracies were discovered and rendered
abortive. A personal insult to Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a
praetorian cohort, led to Caligula's assassination on the 24th of
January 41.
See Suetonius, Caligula; Tacitus, Annals, vi. 20 ff.; Dio Cassius
lix.; see also S. Baring Gould, The Tragedy of the Caesars (trd ed.,
1892); H. F. Pelham in Quarterly Review (April, 1905); H. Willrich,
Empire, ch. 48; H. Furneaux's Annals of Tacitus, ii. (introduction).
Mention may also be made of the famous pamphlet by L. Quidde,
Caligula. Eine Sludie uber romischen Cdsnrenwahnsinn and an
anonymous supplement, 1st Caligula mil unserer ?.til vergkichbar f
(both 1894); and a reply, Fin-de-Siecle-Geschichtsschretbung, by
G. Sommerfeldt (1895).
GALAGO, the Senegal name of the long-tailed African repre-
sentatives of the lemur-like Primates, which has been adopted as
their technical designation. Till recently the galagos have
been included in the family Lemuridae; but this is restricted to
the lemurs of Madagascar, and they are now classed with the
lorises and pottos in the family Nyiticebidae, of which they form
the section Galaginae, characterized by the great elongation of the
upper portion of the feet (tarsus) and the power of folding the
large ears. Throughout the greater part of Africa south of the
392
GALANGAL GALAPAGOS ISLANDS
Sahara galagos are widely distributed in the wooded districts,
from Senegambia in the west to Abyssinia in the east, and as far
south as Natal. They pass the day in sleep, but are very active at
night, feeding on fruits, insects and small birds. When they
descend to the ground they sit upright, and move about by
jumping with their hind-legs like jerboas. They are pretty little
animals, varying from the size of a small cat to less than that of a
rat, with large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur and long tails.
There are several species, of which G. crassicaudatus from
Mozambique is the largest; together with G. garnetti of Natal,
G, agisymbanus of Zanzibar, and G. monteiroi of Angola, this
represents the subgenus Otolemur. The typical group includes
G. senegalensis (or go/ago) of Senegal, G. alleni of West and
Central Africa, and G. mohoti of South Africa; while G. demidoffi
of West and Central Africa and G. anomurus of French Congoland
represent the subgenus Hemigalago. (R. L.*)
GALANGAL, formerly written " galingale," and sometimes
" garingal," rhizoma galangae (Arab. Kholinjan j 1 Ger. Galgant-
wurzel; Fr. Racine de Galanga), a drug, now obsolete, with an
aromatic taste like that of mingled ginger and pepper. Lesser
galangal root, radix galangae minoris, the ordinary galangal of
commerce, is the dried rhizome of Alpinia officinarum, a plant of
the natural order Zingiberaceae, growing in the Chinese island of
Hainan, where it is cultivated, and probably also in the woods of
the southern provinces of China. The plant is closely allied to
Alpinia. calcarata, the rhizome of which is sold in the bazaars of
some parts of India as a sort of galangal. Its stems attain a
length of about 4 ft., and its leaves are slender, lanceolate and
light-green, and have a hot taste; the flowers are white with
red veins, and in simple racemes; the roots form dense masses,
sometimes more than a foot in diameter; and the rhizomes grow
horizontally, and are J in. or less in thickness. Galangal seems to
have been unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and to
have been first introduced into Europe by Arabian physicians.
It is mentioned in the writings of Ibn Khurdadbah, an Arabian
geographer who flourished in the latter half of the o,th century,
and " gallengar " (gallingale or galangal) is one of the ingredients
in an Anglo-Saxon receipt for a " wen salve " (see O. Cockayne,
Saxon Leechdoms, vol. iii. p. 13). In the middle ages, as at present
in Livonia, Esthonia and central Russia, galangal was in esteem
in Europe both as a medicine and a spice, and in China it is still
employed as a therapeutic agent. Its chief consumption is in
Russia, where it is used as a cattle-medicine, and as a flavouring
for liqueurs.
GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, an archipelago of five larger and ten
smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean, exactly under the equator.
The nearest island to the South American coast lies 580 m. W. of
Ecuador, to which country they belong. The name is derived
from galdpago, a tortoise, on account of the giant species, the
characteristic feature of the fauna. The islands were discovered
early in the i6th century by Spaniards, who gave them their
present name. They were then uninhabited. The English names
of the individual islands were probably given by buccaneers, for
whom the group formed a convenient retreat.
The larger members of the group, several of which attain an
elevation of 2000 to 2500 ft., are Albemarle or Isabela (100 m.
long, 28 m. in extreme breadth, with an area of 1650 sq. m. and
an extreme elevation of 5000 ft.), Narborough or Fernandina,
Indefatigable or Santa Cruz, Chatham or San Cristobal, James
or San Salvador, and Charles or Santa Maria. The total land
area is estimated at about 2870 sq. m. (about that of the West
Riding of Yorkshire). The extraordinary number of craters,
a few of which are reported still to be active, gives evidence
that the archipelago is the result of volcanic action. The
number of main craters may be about twenty-five, but there
are very many small eruptive cones on the flanks of the old
volcanoes. There is a convict settlement on Chatham with
'Apparently derived from the Chinese Kau-liang-Kiang, i.e.
Kau-liang ginger, the term applied by the Chinese to galangal, after
the prefecture Kau-chau fu in Canton province, formerly called Kau-
liang (see F. Porter Smith, Contrib. to the Materia Medico . . . of
China, p. 9, 1871). .
some 300 inhabitants living in low thatched or iron-roofed
huts, under the supervision of a police commissioner and other
officials of Ecuador, by which country the group was annexed in
1832, when General Villamil founded Floreana on Charles Island,
naming it in honour of Juan Jose Flores, president of Ecuador.
A governor has been appointed since 1885, some importance
being foreseen for the islands in connexion with the cutting of the
Panama canal, as the group lies on the route to Australia opened
up by that scheme. Charles Island, the most valuable of the
group, is cultivated by a small colony. On many of the islets
numerous tropical fruits are found growing wild, but they are no
doubt escapes from cultivation, just as the large herds of wild
cattle, horses, donkeys, pigs, goats and dogs the last large and
fierce which occur abundantly on most of the islands have
escaped from domestication.
The shores of the larger islands are fringed in some parts with a
dense barrier of mangroves, backed by an often impenetrable
thicket of tropical undergrowth, which, as the ridges are ascended,
give place to taller trees and deep green bushes which are covered
with orchids and trailing moss (orchilla), and from which creepers
hang down interlacing the vegetation. But generally the low
grounds are parched and rocky, presenting only a few thickets of
Peruvian cactus and stunted shrubs, and a most uninviting shore.
The contrast between this low zone and the upper zone of rich
vegetation (above about 800 ft.) is curiously marked. From July
to November the clouds hang low on the mountains, and give
moisture to the upper zone, while the climate of the lower is dry.
Rain in the lower zone is scanty, and from May to January does
not occur. The porous soil absorbs the moisture, and fresh water
is scarce. Though the islands are under the equator, the climate
is not intensely hot, as it is tempered by cold currents from the
Antarctic sea, which, having followed the coast of Peru as far as
Cape Blanco, bear off to the N.W. towards and through the
Galapagos. The mean temperature of the lower zone is about
71 F., that of the upper from 66 to 62.
The Galapagos Islands are of some commercial importance to
Ecuador, on account of the guano and the orchilla moss found
on them and exported to Europe. Except on Charles Island,
where settlement has existed longest, little or no influence of
the presence of man is evident in the group; still, the running
wild of dogs and cats, and, as regards the vegetation, especially
goats, must in a comparatively short period greatly modify the
biological conditions of the islands.
The origin and development of these conditions, in islands so
distinctly oceanic as the Galapagos, have given its chief import-
ance to this archipelago since it was visited by Darwin in
the " Beagle." The Galapagos archipelago possesses a rare ad-
vantage from its isolated situation, and from the fact that its
history has never been interfered with by any aborigines of the
human race. Of the seven species of giant tortoises known to
science (although at the discovery of the islands there were
probably fifteen) all are indigenous, and each is confined to its
own islet. There also occurs a peculiar genus of lizards with two
species, the one marine, the other terrestrial. The majority of the
birds are of endemic species peculiar to different islets, while
more than half belong to peculiar genera. More than half of the
flora is unknown elsewhere.
Since 1860 several visits have been paid to the group by scientific
investigators by Dr Habel in 1868; Messrs Baur and Adams, and
the naturalists of the " Albatross," between 1888 and 1891 ; and in
1897-1898 by Mr Charles Harris, whose journey was specially under-
taken at the instance of the Hon. Walter Rothschild. Very com-
plete collections have therefore, as a result of these expeditions,
been brought together; but their examination does not materiajly
change the facts upon which the conclusions arrived at by Darwin,
from the evidence of the birds and plants, were based; though he
" no doubt would have paid more attention to [the evidence afforded
by Land-tortoises], if he had been in possession of facts with which
we are acquainted now " (Giinther). His conclusions were that the
group " has never been nearer the mainland than it is now, nor have
its members been at any time closer together "; and that the char-
acter of the flora and fauna is the result of species straggling over
from America, at long intervals of time, to the different islets, where
in their isolation they have gradually varied in different degrees
and ways from their ancestors. Equally indecisive is the further
GALASHIELS GALATIA
393
exploration M U> evidence for the opinion held by other naturalists
that the endemic specie* uf the different islands nave resulted from
subsidences, through volcanic action, which have reduced one large
bad mas* into a number of islets, wherein the separated species
became differentiated during their isolation. The presence of these
riant reptiles on the group is the chief fact on which a former
toad connexion with the continent of America may be sustained.
" Nearly all authorities agree that it is not probable that they have
crowed the wide sou between the Galapagos Islands and the American
continent, although, while they are helpless, and quite unable to
swim, they can float on the water. If their ancestors had been
carried out to sea once or twice by a flood and safely drifted as far as
the Galapagos Islands " (Wallace), " they must have been numerous
on the continent " (Rothschild and Martin). No remains, and of
course no living species, of these tortoises are known to exist or have
existed on the mainland. Rothschild and Hartert think " it is
more natural to assume the disappearance of a great stock of animals,
the remains of which have survived, . . . than to assume the dis-
appearance in comparatively recent times (i.e. in the Eocene period
or later) of enormous land masses." Past elevations of land, how-
ever (and doubtless equally great subsidences) have taken place in
South America since the Eocene, and the conclusion that extensive
areas of land have subsided in the Indian Ocean has long been based
on a somewhat similar distribution of giant tortoises in the Mascarene
AUTHORITIES. Darwin, Voyage o] 'the " Beagle "; O. Salvin, " On
the Avifauna of the Galapagos Archipelago," Trans. Zool. Soc.
part ix. (1876); Sclater and Salvin, " Characters of New Species
collected by Dr Habel in the Galapagos Islands," Prof. Zool. Sac.
London, 1870, pp. $33-327; A. R. Wallace, Geographical Dis-
tribution of Animals (New York, 1876); Theodor Wolf, Ein Besuch
der Galapagos Inieln (Heidelberg, 1879); and paper in Geographical
Journal, vi. 560 (1895); W. L. and P. L. Sclater, The Geography of
Mammal* (London, 1899); Ridgway, "Birds of the Galapagos
Archipelago," Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. vol. xix. pp. 459-670 (1897);
Baur, " New Observations on the Origin of the Galapagos Islands,"
Amer. Nat. (1897), pp. 661-680, 864-806; A. Agassiz, " The Galapagos
Islands." Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. vol. xxiii. pp. 56-75; A. Gunther,
Proc. Linn, Soc. (London (President's Address), October 1898),
pp. 14-29 (with bibliography from 1875 to 1898 on gigantic land-
tortoises): Rothschild and Hartert, ''Review of the Ornithology
of the Galapagos. Islands," Novitaies toologicae, vi. pp. 85-205;
B. L. Robinson, " Flora of the Galapagos Islands," Proc. Amer.
Acad. of Arts and Sciences, xxxviii. (1902).
GALASHIELS, a municipal and police burgh of Selkirkshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1891) 17,367; (1901) 13,615. It is situated on
Gala Water, within a short distance of its junction with the
Tweed, 33) m. S.S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway.
The town stretches for more than 2 m. along both banks of the
river, the mills and factories occupying the valley by the stream,
the villas and better-class houses the high-lying ground on either
side. The principal structures include the municipal buildings,
com exchange, library, public hall, and the market cross. The
town is under the control of a provost, bailies and council, and,
along with Hawick and Selkirk, forms the Hawick (or Border)
group of parliamentary burghs. The woollen manufactures,
dating from the close of the i6th century, are the most
important in Scotland, though now mainly confined to the weav-
ing of tweeds. Other leading industries are hosiery, tanning
(with the largest yards in Scotland), dyeing, iron and brass found-
ing, engineering and boot-making. Originally a village built for
the accommodation of pilgrims to Melrose Abbey (4 m. E. by S.) ,
it became, early in the i $th century, an occasional residence of the
Douglases, who were then keepers of Ettrick Forest, and whose
peel-tower was not demolished till 1814. Galashicls was created
into a burgh of barony in 1599. The Catrail or Picts' Work
begins near the town and passes immediately to the west. Cloven-
fords, 3) m. W., is noted for the Tweed vineries, which are heated
by 5 m. of water-pipes, and supply the London market throughout
the winter. Two miles farther W. by S. is Ashestiel, where Sir
Walter Scott resided from 1804 to 1812, where he wrote his most
famous poems and began Warerley, and which he left for Abbots-
ford.
GALATIA. I. In the strict sense (Galatia Proper, Roman
GaUograecia) this is the name applied by Greek-speaking peoples
to a large inland district of Asia Minor since its occupation by
Gaulish tribes in the 3rd century B.C. Bounded on the N. by
Bitbynia and Paphlagonia, W. by Phrygia, S. by Lycaonia and
Cappadocia, E. by Pontus, it included the greater part of the
modern vilayet of Angora, stretching from Pessinus eastwards to
Tavium and from the Paphlagonian hills N. of Ancyra southwards
to the N. end of the salt lake Tatta (but probably including the
plains W. of the lake during the greater part of its history), a
rough oblong about 200 m. long and 100 (to 130) broad.
Galatia is part of the great central plateau of Asia Minor, here
ranging from 2000 to 3000 ft. above sea-level, and falls geographic-
ally into two parts separated by the Halys (Kizil Irmak), a
small eastern district lying chiefly in the basin of the Delije
Irmak, the principal affluent of the Halys, and a large western
region drained almost entirely by the Sangarius (Sakaria) and its
tributaries. On the N. side Galatia consists of a series of plains
with fairly fertile soil, lying between bare hills. But the greater
part is a dreary stretch of barren, undulating uplands, intersected
by tiny streams and passing gradually into the vast level waste of
treeless (anc. Axylon) plain that runs S. to Lycaonia; these
uplands are little cultivated and only afford extensive pasturage
for large flocks of sheep and goats. Cities are few and far apart,
and the climate is one of extremes of heat and cold. The general
condition and aspect of the country was much the same in ancient
as in modern times.
The Gaulish invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278-277 B.C.
They numbered 20,000, of which only one-half were fighting men,
the rest being doubtless women and children; and not long after
their arrival we find them divided into three tribes, Trocmi,
Tolistobogii and Tectosages, each of which claimed a separate
sphere of operations. They had split off from the army which
invaded Greece under Brennus in 279 B.C., and, marching into
Thrace under Leonnorius and Lutarius, crossed over to Asia at
the invitation of Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, who required help in
his struggle against his brother. For about 46 years they were the
scourge of the western half of Asia Minor, ravaging the country,
as allies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious
check, until Attalus L, king of Pergamum (241-197), inflicted
several severe defeats upon them, and about 232 B.C. forced
them to settle permanently in the region to which they gave their
name. Prqbably they already occupied parts of Galatia, but
definite limits were now fixed and their right to the district was
formally recognized. The tribes were settled where they after-
wards remained, the Tectosages round Ancyra, the Tolistobogii
round Pessinus, and the Trocmi round Tavium. The constitution
of the Galatian state is described by Strabo: conformably to
Gaulish custom, each tribe was divided into four cantons (Gr.
Ttrpapxlai), each governed by a chief ("tetrarch") of its own
with a judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in
cases of murder, which were tried before a council of 300 drawn
from the twelve cantons and meeting at a holy place called
Drynemeton. But the power of the Gauls was not yet broken.
They proved a formidable foe to the Romans in their wars with
Antiochus, and after Attalus' death their raids into W. Asia
Minor forced Rome in 189 B.C. to send an expedition against them
under Cn. Manlius Vulso, who taught them a severe lesson.
Henceforward their military power declined and they fell at times
under Pontic ascendancy, from which they were finally freed by
the Mithradatic wars, in which they heartily supported Rome.
In the settlement of 64 B.C. Galatia became a client-state of
the empire, the old constitution disappeared, and three chiefs
(wrongly styled " tetrarchs ") were appointed, one for each tribe.
But this arrangement soon gave way before the ambition of one
of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of Cicero and
Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and
was finally recognized by the Romans as king of Galatia. On the
death of the third king Amyntas in 25 B.C., Galatia was incorpor-
ated by Augustus in the Roman empire, and few of the provinces
were more enthusiastically loyal.
The population of Galatia was not entirely Gallic. Before the
arrival of the Gauls, western Galatia up to the Halys was in-
habited by Phrygians, and eastern Galatia by Cappadocians
and other native races. This native population remained, and
constituted the majority of the inhabitants of the rural parts
and almost the sole inhabitants of the towns. They were left in
possession of two-thirds of the land (cf. Caesar, B.C. i. 31) on
condition of paying part of the produce to their new lords, who
394
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE
took the other third, and agriculture and commerce with all the
arts and crafts of peaceful life remained entirely in their hands.
They were henceforth ranked as " Galatians " by the outside
world equally with their overlords, and it was from their numbers
that the " Galatian " slaves who figure in the markets of the
ancient world were drawn. The conquerors, who were few in
number, formed a small military aristocracy, living not in the
towns, but in fortified villages, where the chiefs in their castles
kept up a barbaric state, surrounded by their tribesmen. With the
decline of their warlike vigour they began gradually to mix with
the natives and to adopt at least their religion: the amalgamation
was accelerated under Roman influence and ultimately became
as complete as that of the Normans with the Saxons in England,
but they gave to the mixed race a distinctive tone and spirit, and
long retained their national characteristics and social customs,
as well as their language (which continued in use, side by side
with Greek, in the 4th century after Christ). In the ist century,
when St Paul made his missionary journeys, even the towns
Ancyra, Pessinus and Tavium (where Gauls were few) were not
Hellenized, though Greek, the language of government and trade,
was spoken there; while the rural population was unaffected
by Greek civilization. Hellenic ways and modes of thought
begin to appear in the towns only in the later and century.
In the rustic parts a knowledge of Greek begins to spread in the
3rd century; but only in the 4th and 5th centuries, after the
transference of the centre of government first to Nicomedia and
then to Constantinople placed Galatia on the highway of imperial
communication, was Hellenism in its Christian form gradually
diffused over the country. (See also ANCYRA; PESSINUS;
GORDIUM.)
II. The Roman province of Galatia, constituted 25 B.C.,
included the greater part of the country ruled by Amyntas, viz.
Galatia Proper, part of Phrygia towards Pisidia (Apollonia,
Antioch and Iconium), Pisidia, part of Lycaonia (including
Lystra and Derbe) and Isauria. For nearly 100 years it was the
frontier province, and the changes in its boundaries are an
epitome of the stages of Roman advance to the Euphrates, one
client-state after another being annexed: Paphlagonia in 6-5
B.C.; Sebastopolis, 3-2 B.C.; Amasia, A.D. 1-2; Comana, A.D.
34-35, together forming Pontus Galaticus, the Pontic kingdom
of Polemon, A.D. 64, under the name Pontus Polemoniacus. In
A.D. 70 Cappadocia (a procuratorial province since A.D. 17) with
Armenia Minor became the centre of the forward movement and
Galatia lost its importance, being merged with Cappadocia in a
vast double governorship until A.D. 114 (probably), when Trajan
separated the two parts, making Galatia an inferior province of
diminished size, while Cappadocia with Armenia Minor and
Pontus became a great consular military province, charged with
the defence of the frontier. Under Diocletian's reorganization
Galatia was divided, about 295, into two parts and the name
retained for the northern (now nearly identical with the Galatia
of Deiotarus); and about 300 this province, amplified by the
addition of a few towns in the west, was divided into Galatia
Prima and Secunda or Salutaris, the division indicating the
renewed importance of Galatia in the Byzantine empire. After
suffering from Persian and Arabic raids, Galatia was conquered
by the Seljuk Turks in the nth century and passed to the
Ottoman Turks in the middle of the I4th.
The question whether the " Churches of Galatia," to which St
Paul addressed his Epistle, were situated in the northern or
southern part of the province has been much discussed, and in
England Prof. Sir W. M. Ramsay has been the principal advocate
of the adoption of the South-Galatian theory, which maintains
that they were the churches planted in Derbe, Lystra, Iconium and
Antioch (see GALATIANS). In the present writer's opinion this is
supported by the study of the historical and geographical facts. 1
AUTHORITIES. Van Gelder, De Gallis in Graecia el Asia (1888);
Staehelin, Gesch. d. kleinasiat. Galater (1897); Perrot, De Galatia
1 In the unsettled state of this controversy, weight naturally
attaches to the opinion of experts on either side; and the above
statement, while opposed to the view taken in the following article
on the epistle, must be taken on its merits. Ed. E.B,
prov. Rom. (1867) ; Sir W. M. Ramsay, Histor. Geogr. (1890), St Paul
(1898), and Introd. to Histor. Commentary on Galatians (1899).
For antiquities generally, Perrot, Explor. archeol. de la Galalie (1862) ;
K. Humann and O. Puchstein, Reisen in Kleinasien (1890); Koerte,
Athen. Mitteilungen (1897) ; Anderson and Crowfoot, Journ. of
Hellenic Studies (1899) ; and Anderson, Map of Asia Minor (London,
Murray, 1003). (J. G. C. A.)
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New
Testament. This early Christian scripture is one of the books
militant in the world's literature. Its usefulness to Luther in his
propaganda was no accident in its history; it originated in a
controversy, and the varying views of the momentous struggle
depicted in Gal. ii. and Acts xv. have naturally determined, from
time to time, the conception of the epistle's aim and date.
Details of the long critical discussion of this problem cannot be
given here. (See PAUL.) It must suffice to say that to the present
writer the identification of Gal. ii. i-io with Acts xi. 28 f. and not
with Acts xv. appears quite untenable, while a fair exegesis of
Acts xvi. 1-6 implies a distinction between such towns as Lystra,
Derbe and Iconium on the one hand and the Galatian x&P - with
Phrygia upon the other. 2 A further visit to the ktter country is
mentioned, upon this view, in Acts xviii. 23. The Christians to
whom the epistle was addressed were thus inhabitants, for the
most part (iv. 8) of pagan birth, belonging to the northern
section of the province, perhaps mainly in its south-western
district adjoining Bithynia and the province of Asia. The scanty
allusions to this mission in Acts cannot be taken as any objection
to the theory. Nor is there any valid geographical difficulty.
The country was quite accessible from Antioch. Least of all does
the historical evidence at our disposal justify the inference that
the civilization of north Galatia, during the ist century A.D.,
was Romano-Gallic rather than Hellenic; for, as the coins and
inscriptions indicate, the Anatolian culture which predominated
throughout the province did not exclude the infusion either of
Greek religious conceptions or of the Greek language. The degree
of elementary Greek culture needful for the understanding of
Galatians cannot be shown to have been foreign to the in-
habitants of north Galatia. So far as any trustworthy evidence
is available, such Hellenic notions as are presupposed in this
epistle might well have been intelligible to the Galatians of the
northern provinces. Still less does the acquaintance with Roman
jurisprudence in iii. is-iv. 2 imply, as Halmel contends (Uber
rom. Recht im Galaterbrief, 1895), not merely that Paul must have
acquired such knowledge in Italy but that he wrote the epistle
there. A popular acquaintance with the outstanding features of
Roman law was widely diffused by this time in Asia Minor.
The epistle can hardly have been written therefore until after
the period described in Acts xviii. 22, but the terminus ad quern is
more difficult to fix. 3 The composition may be placed (cf. the
present writer's Historical New Testament, pp. 124 f. for details)
either during the earlier part of Paul's residence at Ephesus
(Acts xix. i, 10, so most editors and scholars), or on his way from
Ephesus to Corinth, or at Corinth itself (so Lightfoot, Bleek,
Salmon).
The epistle was not written until Paul had visited Thessalonica,
s The historical and geographical facts concerning Galatia, which
lead other writers to support the south Galatian theory, are
stated in the preceding article on Galatia; and the question is still
a matter of controversy, the division of opinion being to some extent
dependent on whether it is approached from the point of view of the
archaeologist or the Biblical critic. The ablest re-statements of the
north Galatian theory, in the light of recent pleas for south Galatia
as the destination of this epistle, may be found by the English
reader in P. W. Schmiedel's exhaustive article in Encycl. Btblica
(1592-1616) and Prof. G. H. Gilbert's Student's Life of Paul (1902),
p. 260-272. Schmiedel's arguments are mainly directed against
ir W. M. Ramsay, but a recent Roman Catholic scholar, Dr A.
Steinmann, takes a wider survey in a pamphlet on the north Galatian
side of the controversy (Die Abfassungszeitdes Galaterbrief es, Munster,
i. W., 1906), carrying forward the points already urged by Sieffert
and Zockler amongst others, and especially refuting his fellow-
churchman, Prof. Valentine Weber.
* The tendency among adherents of the south Galatian theory
is to put the epistle as early as possible, making it contemporaneous
with, if not prior to, i Thessalonians. So Douglass Round in The
Date of St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians (1906).
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE
395
but the Galatian churches owed their origin to a mission of Paul
undertaken some time before he crossed from Asia to Europe.
When he composed this letter, he had visited the churches twice.
On the former of these visits (iv. 13 TO fp&rtpov), though
broken down by illness (2 Cor. xii. 7-9?) he had been enthusi-
astically welcomed, and the immediate result of his mission was
an outburst of religious fervour (iii. 1-5, iv. 14 f.). The local
Christians made a most promising start (v. 7) . But they failed to
maintain their ardour. On his second visit (iv. 13, i. 7, v. ai) the
apostle found in many of them a disheartening slackness, due to
discord and incipient legalism. His plain-speaking gave offence
in some quarters (iv. 16), though it was not wholly ineffective.
Otherwise, this second visit is left in the shadow. 1 So far as it
was accompanied by warnings, these were evidently general
rather than elicited by any definite and imminent peril to the
churches. Not long afterwards, however, some judaizing
opponents of the apostle (note the contemptuous anonymity of
the TUBS in i. 7, as in Col. ii. 4 f.), headed by one prominent and
influential individual (v. 10), made their appearance among the
Galatians, promulgating a " gospel " which meant fidelity to, not
freedom from, the Law (i. 6-10). Arguing from the Old Testa-
ment, they represented Paul's gospel as an imperfect creed which
required to be supplemented by legal exactitude, 1 including
ritual observance (iv. 10) and even circumcision,' while at the
same time they sought to undermine his authority 4 by pointing
out that it was derived from the apostles at Jerusalem and
therefore that his teaching must be open to the checks and tests
of that orthodox primitive standard which they themselves
claimed to embody. The sole valid charter to Messianic privileges
was observance of the Mosaic law, which remained obligatory
upon pagan converts (iii. 6-9, 16).
When the news of this relapse reached Paul, matters had
evidently not yet gone too far. Only a few had been circum-
cised. It was not too late to arrest the Galatians on their down-
ward plane, and the apostle, unable or unwilling to re- visit them,
despatched this epistle. How or when the information came to
him, we do not know. But the gravity of the situation renders
it unlikely that he would delay for any length of time in writing
to counteract the intrigues of his opponents; to judge from
allusions like those in i. 6 (rax< and perartdortte the lapse-
still in progress), we may conclude that the interval between the
reception of the news and the composition of the letter must have
been comparatively brief.
After a short introduction 1 (i. 1-5), instead of giving his usual
word of commendation, he plunges into a personal and historical
vindication' of his apostolic independence, which, developed
negatively and positively, forms the first of the three main
1 It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation
were already found by Paul on this visit (so especially Moisten,
Lipdus, Sieffert, PBetderer, Weiss and Weizsacker) or whether they
are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Kenan and
Hofmann, among others). The tone of surprise which marks the
opening of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul
seems to have been taken aback by the news of the Galatians'
defection.
Apparently they were clever enough to keep the Galatians in
ignorance that the entire law would require to be obeyed (v. 3).
The critical dubiety about oM in ii. 5 (cf. Zahn's excursus and
Prof. Lake in Expositor, March 1906, p. 236 f .) throws a sjight doubt
on the interpretation of ii. 3, but it is clear that the agitators had
quoted Paul s practice as an authoritative sanction of the rite.
4 This depreciation is voiced in their catch-word ol iocovrm
(" those of repute," ii. 6), while other echoes of their talk can be
overheard in such phrases as " we are Abraham's seed " (iii. 16),
" sinners of Gentiles " (ii. 15) and " Jerusalem which is our mother "
(iv. 26), as well as in their chances against Paul of " seeking to please
men " (i. 10) and " preaching circumcision " (v. it).
Not only is the address " to the churches of Galatia " unusually
bare, but Paul associates no one with himself, either because he was
on a journey or because, as the attacked party, he desired to con-
centrate attention upon his personal commission. Yet the ij^cii of
i. 8 indicates colleagues like Silas and Timothy.
Cf. Hausrath's History of ike N.T. Times (iii. pp. 181-109), with
the fine remarks, on vi. 17, that " Paul stands before us like an
ancient general who bares his breast before his mutinous legions, and
shows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy
to be called Imperator."
sections in the epistle (i. 6-ii. 21). In the closing passage he
drifts over from an account of this interview with Peter into a
sort of monologue upon the incompatibility of the Mosaic law
with the Christian gospel (ii. 15-21),' and this starts him afresh
upon a trenchant expostulation and appeal (iii. i-v. 12) regarding
the alternatives of law and spirit. Faith dominates this section;
faith in its historical career and as the vantage-ground of
Christianity. The much-vaunted law is shown to be merely a
provisional episode* culminating in the gospel (iii. 7-28) as a
message of filial confidence and freedom (iii. 2O-iv. ii). The
genuine " sons of Abraham " are not legalistic Jewish Christians
but those who simply possess faith in Jesus Christ. A passionate
outburst then follows (iv. u f.), and, harping still on Abraham, the
apostle essays, with fresh rabbinic dialectic, to establish Christi-
anity over legalism as the free and final religion for men, applying
this to the moral situation of the Galatians themselves (v. 1-12).
This conception of freedom then leads him to define the moral
responsibilities of the faith (v. i3~vi. 10), in order to prevent
misconception and to enforce the claims of the gospel upon the
individual and social life of the Galatians. The epilogue (vi.
11-21) reiterates, in a handful of abrupt, emphatic sentences,
the main points of the epistle.
The allusion in vi. 1 1 (Z5er injXi>is U/UP yp&nncunv t-ypaif/a
TJJ Ipti \tipi) is to the large bold size * of the letters in Paul's
handwriting, but the object and scope of the reference are
matters of dispute. It is " a sensational heading " (Findlay),
but it may either refer 10 to the whole epistle (so Augustine,
Chrysostom, &c., followed by Zahn) or, as most hold (with
Jerome) to the postscript (vi. 1 1-18). Paul commonly dictated his
letters. His use of the autograph here may have been to prevent
any suspicion of a forgery or to mark the personal emphasis of his
message. In any case it is assumed that the Galatians knew his
handwriting. It is unlikely that he inserted this postscript from a
feeling of ironical playfulness, to make the Galatians realize that,
after the sternness of the early chapters, he was now treating
them like children, " playfully hinting that surely the large
letters will touch their hearts " (so Deissmann, Bible-Studies
(1901), 346 f.).
The earliest allusion to the epistle" is the notice of its inclusion
in Marcion's canon, but almost verbal echoes of iii. 10-13 are to be
heard in Justin Martyr's Dial, xciv.-xcv.; it was certainly known
to Polycarp, and as the 2nd century advances the evidence of
its popularity multiplies on all sides, from Ptolemaeus and the
Ophites to Irenaeus and the Muratorian canon (cf. Gregory's
Canon and Text of N.T., 1907, pp. 201-203). It is no longer
necessary for serious criticism to refute the objections to its
authenticity raised during the igth century in certain quarters; 11
as Macaulay said of the authenticity of Caesar's commentaries,
" to doubt on that subject is the mere rage of scepticism."
7 Cf. T. H. Green's Works, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the indirect
abstract of the speech's argument, but in verses 18-21 the apostle,
carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he dic-
tates to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation.
Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught
(cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was given as the divine remedy
for the evil yezer of man. So far from being a remedy, he argues, it
is an aggravation.
According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the
use of his son, lit? XP' *' jMf&Nmf ypimuuriv (cf. Field's Notes
on Translation of the New Testament, p. 191). If the point of
Gal. vi. 1 1 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot have contem-
plated copies of the epistle being made. He must have assumed
that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2 Thcss.
iii. 17, with E. A. Abbott, Johannine Grammar, pp. 530-532).
For typaif/a, the epistolary aorist, at the close of a letter, cf.
Xen. Anah. i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX) and Lucia n,
Dial. Meretr. x.
" Hermann Schulze's attempt to bring out the filiation of the
later N.T. literature to Galatians (Die Ursprtinglichkeit del Galater-
briefes, Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of the literary
evidence.
u Cf. especially I. Gloe's Die jtingste Kritik des Galaterbriefes
(Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon's reply to Stock and Loman (Exee.-
itrittsche verhandeling over den Brief van P. aan de Gal., 1889). The
English reader may consult Schmiedel's article (already referred
to) and Dr R. J. Knowling's The Testimony of St Paid to Christ
(1905). 28 f.
39 6
GALATINA GALAXY
Even the problems of its integrity are quite secondary. Marcion
(cf. Tert. Adv. Marc. 2-4) removed what he judged to be some
interpolations, but van Manen's attempt to prove that Marcion's
text is more original than the canonical (Theolog. Tijdschrift,
1887, 400 f. 451 f.) has won no support (cf. C. Clemen's refutation
in Die Einheitlichkeit der paulin. Brief e, 1894, pp. 100 f. and
Zahn's Geschichte d. N. T. lichen Kanons, ii. 409 f.), and little or no
weight attaches to the attempts made (e.g. by J. A. Cramer) to
disentangle a Pauline nucleus from later accretions. Even
D. Volter, who applies this method to the other Pauline epistles,
admits that Galatians, whether authentic or not, is substantially a
literary unity (Paulus und seine Briefe, 1905, pp. 229-285). The
frequent roughnesses of the traditional text suggest, however,that
here and there marginal glosses may have crept in. Thus iv. 25(1
(T& yap 2iva opos earlv iv r% 'Apa/Stp) probably represents
the explanatory and prosaic gloss of a later editor, as many
scholars have seen from Bentley (Opuscula philologica, 1781, pp.
533 f.) to H. A. Schott, J. A. Cramer, J. M. S. Baljon and C.
Holsten. The general style of the epistle is vigorous and unpre-
meditated, " one continuous rush, a veritable torrent of genuine
and inimitable Paulinism, like a mountain stream in full flood,
such as may often have been seen by his Galatians " (J.
Macgregor) . But there is a certain rhythmical balance, especially
in the first chapter (cf . J. Weiss, BeitrUge zur paulin. Rhetorik,
1897, 8 f .) ; here as elsewhere the rush and flow of feeling carry
with them some care for rhetorical form, in the shape of
antitheses, such as a pupil of the schools might more or less
unconsciously retain. 1 All through, the letter shows the breaks
and pauses of a mind in direct contact with some personal crisis.
Hurried, unconnected sentences, rather than sustained argument,
are its most characteristic features. 2 The trenchant re-
monstrances and fiery outbursts make it indeed " read like a
dithyramb from beginning to end."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Of more modern editions in English, the most
competent are those of C. J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in lingu-
istic and grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869),
J. B. Lightfoot , (i ith ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and
F. Kendall (Expositor's Greek Testament, 1903) on the Greek text;
Dr Sanday (in Ellicott's Commentary, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor
(Edinburgh, 1879), B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (Pulpit
Comment., 1885), Dr Agar Beet (London, 1885, &c.), Dr W. F.
Adeney (Century Bible), Dr E. H. Perowne (Cambridge Bible, 1890)
and Dr James Drummond (Internal. Handbooks to N.T., 1899) also
comment on the English text. The editions of Lightfoot and
Jowett are especially valuable for their subsidiary essays, and Sir
W. M Ramsay's Historical Commentary on Galatians (1899) contains
archaeological and historical material which is often illuminating.
The French editions are few and minor, those by A. Sardinoux
(Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being adequate, however. In
Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by F. Sieffert
(in Meyer's Comment., 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1907); these
supersede most of the earlier works, but H. A. Schott (1834), A.
Wieseler (Gottingen, 1859), G. B. Winer Uth ed., 1859), J. C. K. von
Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R. A. Lipsius (2nd ed.,
Hand.-Commentar, 1892), and Zockler (2nd ed., 1894) may still be
consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld's commentary (1852)
discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the
standpoint of Baur's criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed.,
1894) and W. Bousset (in Die Schriften des N.T., 2nd ed., 1907) are
more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843),
F. X. Reithmayr (1865), A. Schafer (Miinster, 1890) and F. Comely
(1892, also in Cursus scripturae sacrae, 1907) are the most satis-
factory modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it
should not be forgotten that the l6th century produced the Literalis
expositio of Cajetan (Rome. 1529) and the similar work of Pierre
Barahona (Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition
of Luther (Latin, 1519, &c. ; German, 1525 f. ; English, 1575 f.). After
Calvin and Grotius, H. E. G. Paulus (Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe
an die Gal. u. Rdmer Christen, 1831) was perhaps the most inde-
pendent interpreter. For the patristic editions, see the introductory
sections in Zahn and Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle
1 Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass,
Die Rhythmen der asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa (1905),
pp. 43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into
unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. I (l^oJ iAv ova bnvrtphv,
4/iti- V 4<70aXfc) may well be, like that in I Cor. xv. 33, a reminiscence
of Menander.
* This affects even the vocabulary which has also " einen gewissen
vulgaren Zug " (Nageli, Der Wortschato des Apostels Paulus, 1905,
pp. 78-79).
is admirably expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten
(Das Evangelium Paulus, Teil I., i., 1880), A. B. Bruce (St Paul's
Conception of Christianity, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G. G. Findlay
(Expositor's Bible). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (Galat. und
Apostelgeschichte, 1882) and M. Thomas (Melanges d'histoire el
de lilt, religieuse, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E. H.
Askwith's essay (Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date,
1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W. S.
Wood (Studies in St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians, 1887) criticizes
Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all bio-
(1887), to which may be added a series of papers by Haupt in Deutsche
Other monographs and essays have been'noted in the course of this
article. See further under PAUL. (J. MT.)
GALATINA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce,
from which it is 14 m. S. by rail, 233 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901) 12,917 (town); 14,086 (commune). It is chiefly remark-
able for the fine Gothic church of St Caterina, built in 1390 by
Raimondello del Balzo Orsini, count of Soleto, with a fine portal
and rose-window. The interior contains frescoes by Francesco
d' Arezzo (1435)- The apse contains the fine mausoleum of the
son of the founder (d. 1454), a canopy supported by four columns,
with his statue beneath it.
GALATZ (Gala^ii), a city of Rumania, capital of the depart-
ment of Covurlui; on the left bank of the river Danube, 90 m.
W. by N. of its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 62,678, including
12,000 Jews. The Danube is joined by the Sereth 3 m. S.W. of
Galatz, and by the Pruth 10 m. E. Galatz is built on a slight
eminence among the marshes which line the intervening shore
and form, beside the western bank of the Pruth, the shallow
mere called Lake Bratych (Brate^ul), more than 50 sq. m. in
extent. With the disappearance, towards the close of the ipth
century, of most of its older quarters in which the crooked, ill-
paved streets and insanitary houses were liable to be flooded every
year, the city improved rapidly. Embankments and fine quays
were constructed along the Danube; electric tramways were
opened in the main streets, which were lighted by gas or
electricity, and pure water was supplied. The higher, or north-
western part of the city, which is the more open and comfortable,
contains many of the chief buildings. These include the pre-
fecture, consulate, prison, barracks, civil and military hospitals
and the offices of the international commission for the control of
the Danube (q.v.). The bishop of the lower Danube resides at
Galatz. There are many Orthodox Greek, Roman Catholic and
other churches; the most interesting being the cathedral, and
St Mary's church, in which is the tomb of the famous Cossack
chief, Mazeppa (1644-1709), said to have been rifled of its contents
by the Russians. Galatz is a naval station, and the headquarters
of the III. army corps, protected by a line of fortifications which
extends for 45 m. E. to Focshani and is known as the Sereth line.
But the main importance of the city is commercial. Galatz is the
chief Moldavian port of entry, approached by three waterways,
the Danube, Sereth and Pruth, down which there is a continual
volume of traffic, except in mid- winter; and by the railways
which intersect all the richest portions of the country. Textiles,
machinery, and coal make up the bulk of imports. Besides a
large trade in petroleum and salt, Galatz ranks first among
Rumanian cities in its export of timber, and second to Braila in
its export of grain. It possesses many saw-mills, paste-mills,
flour-mills, roperies, chemical works and petroleum refineries;
manufacturing also metal ware, wire, nails, soap and candles.
Vessels of 2500 tons can discharge at the quays, but cargoes
consigned to Galatz are often transhipped into lighters at
Sulina. The shipping trade is largely in foreign hands, the
principal owners being British.
GALAXY, properly the MILKY WAY, from the Greek name
6 -yaXaflas, sc. icteXos, from-ydXa, milk, cf. theLat. via lactea (see
STAR). The word is more generally employed in its figurative or
GALBA GALE, THEOPHILUS
transferred sense, to describe a gathering of brilliant or distin-
guished persons or objects.
GALBA. SERVIUS SULP1CIUS, Roman general and orator.
He served under Lucius Aemilius Paulus in the third Macedonian
War. As praetor in 151 B.C. in farther Spain he made himself
infamous by the treacherous murder of a number of Lusitanians,
with their wives and children, after inducing them to surrender
by the promise of grants of land. For this in 149 he was brought
to trial, but secured an acquittal by bribery and by holding up his
little children before the people to gain their sympathy. He was
consul in 144, and must have been alive in 138. He was an
eloquent speaker, noted for his violent gesticulations, and, in
Cicero's opinion, was the first of the Roman orators. His
speeches, however, were almost forgotten in Cicero's time.
Livy xlv. 35; Appian. Hisp. 58-60; Cicero. De oral. i. 53, in. T,
Brutus 21.
GALBA. SERVIUS SULPICIUS. Roman emperor (June A.D.
68 to January 69), born near Terracina, on the 24th of December
5 B.C. He came of a noble family and was a man of great wealth,
but unconnected either by birth or by adoption with the first six
Caesars. In his early years he was regarded as a youth of
remarkable abilities, and it is said that both Augustus and
Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus, Annals, vi. 20;
Suetonius, Co/50, 4). Praetor in 20, and consul in 33, he acquired
a well-merited reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germany,
Africa and Spain by his military capability, strictness and
impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation
of his friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served
Claudius. For the first half of Nero's reign he lived in retire-
ment, till, in 61, the emperor bestowed on him the province of
Hispania Tarraconensis. In the spring of 68 Galba was informed
of Nero's intention to put him to death, and of the insurrection of
Julius Vindex in Gaul. He was at first inclined to follow the
example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of the latter
renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus,
the praefect of the praetorians, had declared in his favour revived
Galba's spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the
legate of the senate and Roman people; after the murder of
Nero, he assumed the title of Caesar, and marched straight for
Rome. At first he was welcomed by the senate and the party of
order, but he was never popular with the soldiers or the people.
He incurred the hatred of the praetorians by scornfully refusing
to pay them the reward promised in his name, and disgusted the
mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His
advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in
the bands of favourites. An outbreak amongst the legions of
Germany, who demanded that the senate should choose another
emperor, first made him aware of his own unpopularity and the
general discontent. In order to check the rising storm, he
adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi
Licinianus, a man in every way worthy of the honour. His
choice was wise and patriotic; but the populace regarded it as a
sign of fear, and the praetorians were indignant, because the
usual donative was not forthcoming. M. Salvius Otho, formerly
governor of Lusitania, and one of Galba's earliest supporters,
disappointed at not being chosen instead of Piso, entered into
communication with the discontented praetorians, and was
adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at once set out to
meet the rebels he was so feeble that he had to be carried in a
litter was met by a troop of cavalry and butchered near the
Lacus Curtius. During the later period of his provincial ad-
ministration he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due
either to a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the
growing infirmities of age. Tacitus rightly says that all would
have pronounced him worthy of empire if he had never been
emperor (" omnium consensu capax imperii nisi imperasset ").
See his life by Plutarch and Suetonius: Tacitus, Histories, i. 7-49
Dio Cassias Ixiii. 23-Uiv. 6; B. W. Henderson, Civil War and
Rebellion in the Roman Empire, A.D. 6O-JO (loo8);W. A. Spooner
On Ike Characters of Galba. Otho and Viteutut in Introd. to his edition
(1891) of the Histories of Tacitus.
GALBANUM (Heb. Helbendh; Gr.xaX^bnj), a gum-resin, the
product of Ferula galbaniSua, indigenous to Persia, and perhaps
397
also of other umbelliferous plants. It occurs usually in hard or
soft, irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or
occasionally in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or
greenish-yellow colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a
peculiar, somewhat musky odour, and a specific gravity of 1-212.
it contains about 8% of terpene; about 65% of a resin which
contains sulphur; about 20% of gum; and a very small
quantity of the colourless crystalline substance umbelliferone,
C 9 H,iOi. Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs. In Exodus
xxx. 34 it is mentioned as a sweet spice, to be used in the making
of a perfume for the tabernacle. Hippocrates employed it in
medicine, and Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extra-
ordinary curative powers, concluding his account of it with the
assertion that " the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium
is sufficient to kill a serpent." The drug is occasionally given
in modern medicine, in doses of from five to fifteen grains. It
has the actions common to substances containing a resin and a
volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however, obsolescent.
GALCHAS, the name given to the highland tribes of Ferghana,
Kohistan and Wakhan. These Aryans of the Pamir and Hindu
Kush, kinsmen of the Tajiks, are identified with the Caldensu
populi of the lay Jesuit Benedict Goes, who crossed the Pamir
in 1603 and described them as " of light hair and beard like the
Belgians." The word " Galcha," which has been explained as
meaning " the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the
mountains," in allusion to the retreat of this branch of the Tajik
family to the mountains to escape the Tatar hordes, is probably
simply the Persian galcha, " clown " or " rustic," in reference to
their uncouth manners. The Galchas conform physically to
what has been called the " Alpine or Celtic European race," so
much so that French anthropologists have termed them " those
belated Savoyards of Kohistan." D'Ujfalvy describes them as
tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy cheeks, black,
chestnut, sometimes red hair, brown, blue or grey eyes, never
oblique, well-shaped, slightly curved nose, thin lips, oval face and
round head. Thus it seems reasonable to hold that the Galchas
represent the most eastern extension of the Alpine race through
Armenia and the Bakhtiari uplands into central Asia. The
Galchas for the most part profess Sunnite Mahommedanism.
See Robert Shaw, " On the Galtchah Languages," in Journ. At.
Soc. Bengal, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph, Tnbet
of the Htndoo-Kocsh (Calcutta, 1880); Hon. Mountstuart Elphin-
stone, An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul (1815); Bull, de la
societi d'anthropologie de Paris (1887); Charles Eugene D Uifalvy
de Mezoe-Koevesd, Lei Aryens (1896), and in Revue d'anthropo-
logie (1870), and Bull, de la toe. de giogr. (June 1878) ; W. Z. Ripley,
Races of Europe (New York, 1899).
GALE, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678), English nonconformist
divine, was born in 1628 at Kingsteignton, in Devonshire, where
his father was vicar. In 1647 he was entered at Magdalen College,
Oxford, where he took his B.A. degree in 1649, and M.A. in 1652.
In 1650 he was made fellow and tutor of his college. He remained
some years at Oxford, discharging actively the duties of tutor,
and was in 1657 appointed as preacher in Winchester cathedral.
In 1662 he refused to submit to the Act of Uniformity, and wa
ejected. He became tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, whom he
accompanied to the Protestant college of Caen, in Normandy,
returning to England in 1665. The latter portion of his life he
passed in London as assistant to John Rowe, an Independent
minister who had charge of an important church in Holborn;
Gale succeeded Rowe in 1677, and died in the following year.
His principal work, The Court of the Gentiles, which appeared in
parts in 1669, 1671 and 1676, is a strange storehouse of miscel-
laneous philosophical learning. It resembles the Intellectual
System of Ralph Cudworth, though much inferior to that work
both in general construction and in fundamental idea. Gale's
endeavour (based on a hint of Grotius in De veritate, i. 16) is to
prove that the whole philosophy of the Gentiles is a distorted or
mangled reproduction of Biblical truths. Just as Cudworth
referred the Democritean doctrine of atoms to Moses as the
original author, so Gale tries to show that the various systems of
Greek thought may be traced back to Biblical sources. Like to
many of the learned works of the i?th century, the Court of the
GALE, THOMAS GALEN
Gentiksh is chaotic and unsystematic, while its erudition is
rendered almost valueless by the complete absence of any critical
discrimination.
His other writings are: A True Idea of Jansenism (1669); Theo-
phil, or a Discourse of the Saint's Amitie with God in Christ (1671) ;
Anatomic of Infidelitie (1672); Idea theologiae (1673); Philosophia
generalis (1676).
GALE, THOMAS (?i63O-i7O2), English classical scholar and
antiquarian, was born at Scruton, Yorkshire. He was educated
at Westminster school and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which
he became a fellow. In 1666 he was appointed regius professor
of Greek at Cambridge, in 1672 high master of St Paul's school,
in 1676 prebendary of St Paul's, in 1677 a fellow of the Royal
Society, and in 1697 dean of York. He died at York on the 7th
(or 8th) of April 1702. He published a collection, Opuscula
mylhologica, ethica, el physica, and editions of several Greek and
Latin authors, but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of old
works bearing on Early English history, entitled Historiae
Anglicanae scriptores and Historiae Britannicae, Saxonicae,
A nglo-Danicae scriptores X V. He was the author of the inscrip-
tion on the London Monument in which the Roman Catholics
were accused of having originated the great fire.
See J. E. B. Mayor, Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne, 448-450.
GALE. i. (A word of obscure origin; possibly derived from
Dan. gal, mad or furious, sometimes applied to wind, in the sense
of boisterous) a wind of considerable power, considerably
stronger than a breeze, but not severe enough to be called a storm.
In nautical language it is usually combined with some qualifying
word, as " half a gale," a " stiff gale." In poetical and figurative
language " gale " is often used in a pleasant sense, as in " favour-
ing gale " ; in America, it is used ia a slang sense for boisterous or
excited behaviour.
2. The payment of rent, customs or duty at regular intervals;
a " hanging gale " is an arrear of rent left over after each suc-
cessive " gale " or rent day. The term survives in the Forest of
Dean, for leases granted to the " free miners " of the forest,
granted by the " gaveller " or agent of the crown, and the term is
also applied to the royalty paid to the crown, and to the area
mined. The word is a contracted form of the O. Eng. gafol,
which survives in " gavel," in gavelkind (?..), and in the name of
the office mentioned above. The root from which these words
derive is that of " give." Through Latinized forms it appears in
gabelle (q.v.).
3. The popular name of a plant, also known as the sweet gale or
gaul, sweet willow, bog or Dutch myrtle. The Old English form of
the word is gagel. It is a small, twiggy, resinous fragrant shrub
found on bogs and moors in the British Islands, and widely
distributed in the north temperate zone. It has narrow, short-
stalked leaves and inconspicuous, apetalous, unisexual flowers
borne in short spikes. The small drupe-like fruit is attached to the
persistent bracts. The leaves are used as tea and as a country
medicine. John Gerard (Herball, p. 1228) describes it as sweet
willow or gaule, and refers to its use in beer or ale. The genus
Myrica is the type of a small, but widely distributed order,
Myricaceae, which is placed among the apetalous families of
Dicotyledons, and is perhaps most nearly allied to the willow
family. Myrica cerifera is the candleberry, wax-myrtle or wax-
tree (q.v.).
GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (1606-
1678), prince bishop of Miinster, belonged to a noble West-
phalian family, and was born on the i2th of October 1606.
Reduced to poverty through the loss of his paternal inheritance,
he took holy orders; but this did not prevent him from fighting
on the side of the emperor Ferdinand III. during the concluding
stages of the Thirty Years' War. In 1 650 he succeeded Ferdinand
of Bavaria, archbishop of Cologne, as bishop of Miinster. After
restoring some degree of peace and prosperity in his principality,
Galen had to contend with a formidable insurrection on the part of
the citizens of Miinster; but at length this was crushed, and the
bellicose bishop, who maintained a strong army, became an
important personage in Europe. In 1664 he was chosen one of
the directors of the imperial army raised to fight the Turk;
and after the peace which followed the Christian victory at St
Gotthard in August 1664, he aided the English king Charles II.
in his war with the Dutch, until the intervention of Louis XIV.
and Frederick William I. of Brandenburg compelled him to
make a disadvantageous peace in 1666. When Galen again
attacked Holland six years later he was in alliance with Louis, but
he soon deserted his new friend, and fought for the emperor
Leopold I. against France. Afterwards in conjunction with
Brandenburg and Denmark he attacked Charles XI. of Sweden,
and conquered the duchy of Bremen. He died at Ahaus on the
igth of September 1678. Galen showed himself anxious to reform
the church, but his chief energies were directed to increasing his
power and prestige.
See K. Tucking, Geschichle des Stifts Miinster unter C. B. von
Galen (Miinster, 1865); P. Corstiens, Bernard van Galen, Vorst-
Bisschop van Munster (Rotterdam, 1872); A. Hiising, Furstbischof
C. B. von Galen (Munster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in the English
Historical Review, vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum
a poem printed in 1666, entitled Letter to the bishop of Munster
containing a Panegyrick of his heroick achievements in heroick verse.
GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS, called Gallien by Chaucer
and other writers of the middle ages, the most celebrated of
ancient medical writers, was born at Pergamus, in Mysia, about
A.D. 130. His father Nicon, from whom he received his early
education, is described as remarkable both for excellence of
natural disposition and for mental culture; his mother, on the
other hand, appears to have been a second Xanthippe. In 146
Galen began the study of medicine, and in about his twentieth
year he left Pergamus for Smyrna, in order to place himself
under the instruction of the anatomist and physician Pelops, and
of the peripatetic philosopher Albinus. He subsequently visited
other cities, and in 158 returned from Alexandria to Pergamus.
A few years later he went for the first time to Rome. There he
healed Eudemus, a celebrated peripatetic philosopher, and other
persons of distinction; and ere long, by his learning and un-
paralleled success as a physician, earned for himself the titles of
" Paradoxologus," the wonder-speaker, and " Paradoxopoeus,"
the wonder-worker, thereby incurring the jealousy and envy of
his fellow-practitioners. Leaving Rome in 168, he repaired to
his native city, whence he was soon sent for to Aquileia, in
Venetia, by the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. In
170 he returned to Rome with the latter, who, on departing
thence to conduct the war on the Danube, having with difficulty
been persuaded to dispense with his personal attendance,
appointed him medical guardian of his son Commodus. In
Rome Galen remained for some years, greatly extending his
reputation as a physician, and writing some of his most important
treatises. It would appear that he eventually betook himself to
Pergamus, after spending some time at the island of Lemnos,
where he learned the method of preparing a certain popular
medicine, the " terra lemnia " or " sigUlata." Whether he ever
revisited Rome is uncertain, as also are the time and place of his
death. According to Suidas, he died at the age of seventy, or in
the year 200, in the reign of Septimius Severus. If, however,
we are to trust the testimony of Abul-faraj, his decease took
place in Sicily, when he was in his eightieth year. Galen was one
of the most versatile and accomplished writers of his age. He
composed, it is said, nearly 500 treatises on various subjects,
including logic, ethics and grammar. Of the published works
attributed to him, 83 are recognized as genuine, 19 are of doubtful
authenticity, 45 are confessedly spurious, 19 are fragments, and
15 are notes on the writings of Hippocrates.
Galen, who in his youth was carefully trained in the Stoic
philosophy, was an unusually prolific writer on logic. Of the
numerous commentaries and original treatises, a catalogue of
which is given in his work De propriis libris, one only has come
down to us, the treatise on Fallacies in dictione (Ilepi T&V (card
Hiv Xew o-o<t>urn&TUv). Many points of logical theory, however,
are discussed in his medical and scientific writings. His name is
perhaps best known in the history of logic in connexion with the
fourth syllogistic figure, the first distinct statement of which was
ascribed to him by Averroes. There is no evidence from Galen's
own works that he did make this addition to the doctrines of
GALENA
399
syllogism, and the remarkable passage quoted by Minoides
Mints from a Greek commentator on the Analytics, referring the
fourth figure to Galen, clearly shows that the addition did not,
as generally supposed, rest on a new principle, but was merely an
amplification or alteration of the indirect moods of the first
figure already noted by Theophrastus and the earlier Peripatetics.
In 1844 Minas published a work, avowedly from a MS. with the
superscription Galtnus, entitled FoX^roC cfoa-ybryi} SiaXncriidi.
Of this work, which contains no direct intimation of a fourth
figure, and which in general exhibits an astonishing mixture of
the Aristotelian and Stoic logic, Prantl speaks with the bitterest
contempt. He shows demonstratively that it cannot be regarded
as a writing of Galen's, and ascribes it to some one or other of the
later Greek logicians. A full summary of its contents will be
found in the ist vol. of the Geschicktedtr Logik (pp. 591-610), and
a notice of the logical theories of the true Galen in the same work,
PP- 559-577-
There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen's
works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned
Jo. Bapt. Opiio, N. Leonkenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa
Bruuvolus, Aug. Gaclaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius,
Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore
Goulston, Caspar Hoffman, Ren Chattier, Mailer and Kiihn. Of
Latin translations Choulant mentions one in the 1 5th and twenty-
two in the following century. The Greek text was edited at Venice,
in 1535, 5 vols. foT; at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols. fol. ; at Paris, with
Latin version by Rent Chattier, in 1639, and in 1679, 13 vols. fol. ;
and at Leipzig, ini82 1-1833, by C. G. Kiihn, considered tobe the best,
ao vols. 8vo. An epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates
and Galen, by J. R. Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846.
A new edition of Galen's smaller works by J. Marquardt, Iwan
Miiller and G. Helmreich was published in three volumes at Leipzig
in 1884-1909.
Further details as to the life and an account of the anatomical
and medical knowledge of Galen will be found in the historical articles
under the headings of ANATOMY and MEDICINE. See also Rene
Chanter'* Life, in his edition of Galen's works; N. F. J. Eloy,
Dictionnaire kistorique de la midecine, s.v. " Galien," torn. i. (1778);
F. Adams's " Commentary " in his Medical Works ofPaulus Aegineta
(London and Aberdeen, 1834) ; J. Kidd, " A Cursory Analysis of the
Works of Galen, so far as they relate to Anatomy and Physiology,"
Trans. Provincial Med. and Surg. Assoc. vi., 1837, pp. 290-336;
C. V. Daremberg, Exposition des connaissances de Gotten stir I' ana-
tomit, la physioioete et la paikologie du systeme nenxttx (These pour
le Doctoral en Medecine) (Paris, 1841); J. R. Gasquet, "The
Practical Medicine of Galen and his Time," The British and Foreign
Mtdico-dtintrtical Ret., vol. ., 1867, pp. 472-488; and Ilberg,
"Die Schriften des Claudius Galenos," Rhetnisches Museum fur
Philolofie, 1889, 1892 and 1896.
GALENA, a city and the county-seat of Jo Daviess county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the Galena
(formerly the Fever) river, near its junction with the Mississippi,
about 165 m. W.N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1000) 5005, of whom
qiS were foreign-born; (1910) 4835. It is served by the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western and the
Illinois Central railways; the Galena river has been made
navigable by government locks at the mouth of the river, but the
river traffic is unimportant. The city is built on rocky limestone
bluffs, which rise rather abruptly on each side of the river, and a
number of the parallel streets, of different levels, are connected
by flights of steps. In Grant Park there is a statue of General
U. S. Grant, who was a resident of Galena at the outbreak of the
Civil War. In the vicinity there are the most important deposits of
zinc and lead in the state, and the city derives its name from the
deposits of sulphide of lead (galena), which were the first worked
about here; below the galena is a zone of zinc carbonate (or
smithsonite) ores, which was the main zone worked between 1860
and 1890; still lower is a zone of blende, or zinc sulphide, now
the principal source of the mineral wealth of the region. The
production of zinc is increasing, but that of lead is unimportant.
The principal manufactures are mining pumps and machinery,
flour, woollen goods, lumber and furniture. Water power is
afforded by the river. Galena was originally a trading post,
called by the French " La Pointe " and by the English " Fever
River," the river having been named after le Fevre, a French
trader who settled near its mouth. In 1826 Galena was laid out
as a town and received its present name; it was incorporated in
1835 and was reincorporated in 1882. In 1838 a theatre was
opened, one of whose proprietors was Joseph Jefferson, the father
of the celebrated actor of that name.
GALENA, a city of Cherokee county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the
extreme S.E. part of the state, on Short Creek and near Spring
river. Pop. (1890) 2496; (1900) 10,155, of whom 580 were
negroes and 251 were foreign-born; (1905) 6440; (1910) 6006.'
It is situated at the intersection of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas,
and the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis (" Frisco System ")
railways, in the midst of a lead acd zinc region, extremely
valuable deposits of these metals having been discovered in 1877.
Smelters and foundries are its principal manufacturing establish-
ments. Water power in abundance is furnished by the Spring
river. After the discovery of the ore deposits two rival companies
founded Galena and Empire City (pop. in 1905, 982), the former
S. of Short Creek and the latter N. of it. Galena was incorporated
in 1877, and in 1907 Empire City was annexed to it.
GALENA, an important ore of lead, consisting of lead sulphide
(PbS). The mineral was mentioned by Pliny under this name,
and it is sometimes now known as lead-glance (Ger. Bleiglanz).
It crystallizes in the cubic system, and well-developed crystals
are of common occurrence; the usual form is the cube or the
cubo-octahedron (fig.). An important
character, and one by which the mineral
may always be recognized, is the perfect
cubical cleavage, on which the lustre is
brilliant and metallic. The colour of t he
mineral and of its streak is lead-grey;
it is opaque; the hardness is 2} and
the specific gravity 7-5. Twinned
crystals are not common, but the
presence of polysynthetic twinning is sometimes shown by fine
striations running diagonally or obliquely across the cleavage
surfaces. Large masses with a coarse or fine granular structure
are of common occurrence; the fractured surfaces of such
masses present a spangled appearance owing to the numerous
bright cleavages.
The formula PbS corresponds with lead 86-6 and sulphur
13-4%. The mineral nearly always contains a small amount of
silver, and sometimes antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, selenium,
&c. Argentiferous galena is an important source of silver; this
metal is present in amounts rarely exceeding i %, and often less
than 0-03 % (equivalent to 10} ounces per ton). Since argentite
(AgtS) is isomorphous with galena, it is probable that the silver
isomorphously replaces lead, but it is to be noted that native
silver has been detected as an enclosure in galena.
Galena is of wide distribution, and occurs usually in metal-
liferous veins traversing crystalline rocks, clay-slates and lime-
stones, and also as pockets in limestones. It is often associated
with blende and pyrites, and with calcite, fluorspar, quartz,
barytes, chalybite and pearlspar as gangue minerals; in the
upper oxidized parts of the deposits, cerussite and anglesite
occur as alteration products. The mineral has occasionally been
observed as a recent formation replacing organic matter, such
as wood; and it is sometimes found in beds of coal. As small
concretionary nodules, it occurs disseminated through sand-
stone at Kommern in the Eifel. In the lead-mining districts of
Derbyshire and the north of England the ore occurs as veins and
flats in the Carboniferous Limestone series, whilst in Cornwall
the veins traverse clay-slates. In the Upper Mississippi lead
region of Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin the ore fills
large cavities or chambers in limestone.
Galena is met with at all places where lead is mined; of
localities which have yielded finely crystallized specimens the
following may be selected for mention: Derbyshire, Alston in
Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man (where crystals measuring
almost a foot across have been found), Neudorf in the Harz,
Rossie in New York and Joplin in Missouri. Good crystals have
also been obtained as a furnace product.
Coarsely grained galena is used for glazing pottery, and is then
known as " potters' ore " or alquifoux.
The galena group includes several other cubic minerals, such as
argentite (</..). Mention may also be made here of clausthalite
4OO
GALEOPITHECUS GALESBURG
(lead selenide, PbSe) and altaite (lead telluride, PbTe), which,
with their lead-grey colour and perfect cubic cleavage, closely
resemble galena in appearance; these species are named after
the localities at which they were originally found, namely,
Klausthal in the Harz and the Altai mountains in Asiatic Russia.
Altaite is of interest as being one of the tellurides found associated
with gold. (L. J. S.)
GALEOPITHECUS, the scientific designation of the Colugo
(q.v.) or Cobego, commonly known as the flying-lemur, and alone
representing the family Galeopithecidae. Much uncertainty has
prevailed among naturalists as to the systematic position of this
animal, or rather these animals (for there are two species) ; and
while some have referred it to the lemurs, others have placed it
with the bats, and others again among the Insectivora, as the
representative of a special subordinal group, the Dermoptera.
Dr H. C. Chapman, who has made a special study of the creature,
writes, however, as follows: " It appears, at least in the judg-
ment of the author, that Galeopilhecus cannot be regarded as
being either a lemur, or insectivore, or bat, but that it stands
alone, the sole representative of an ancient group, Galeopithecidae,
as Hyrax does of Hyracoidea. While Galeopithecus is but re-
motely related to the Lemuroidea and Insectivora, it is so closely
related to Chiroptera, more particularly in regard to the structure
of its patagium, brain, alimentary canal, genito-urinal apparatus,
Feet of Philippine Colugo, or Flying-Lemur (Galeopithecus
philippinensis) .
&c., that there can be but little doubt that the Chiroplera are the
descendants of Galeopithecus, or, more probably, that both are the
descendants of a Galeopithscus-like ancestor." Without going
quite so far as this, it may be definitely admitted that the colugo
is entitled to represent an order by itself, the characters of which
will be as follows: Herbivorous, climbing, unguiculate mammals,
provided with a very extensive flying-membrane, and having the
dental formula i. , c. $, p. f , m. f , total 34. The lower incisors
are directed forwards and have a comb-like structure of their
crowns, while the outermost of these teeth and the canines are
double-rooted, being in these respects, taken together, quite
unlike those of all other mammals; the cheek-teeth have
numerous sharp cusps; and there is the normal replacement of
milk-molars by premolars. In the skull the orbit is surrounded
by bone, and the tympanic has a bulla and an ossified external
meatus. The ulna and fibula are to some extent inclined back-
wards; the carpus has a scapho-Iunar; and the feet are five-
toed. The hemispheres of the brain are short and but slightly
convoluted; the stomach is simple; there is a -large caecum;
the testes are received into inguinal pouches; the uterus is
two-horned; the placenta is discoidal; and there are two
pairs of pectoral teats. A single offspring is produced at a
birth.
It will be obvious that if other representatives of theDermoptera
were discovered, some of these features might apply only to the
family Galeopilhecidae.
There are two species, Galeopithecus volans, ranging from
Burma, Siam and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra and
Java, and G. philippinensis of the Philippine group. The former,
which is nearly 2 ft. in total length, is distinguished by its
larger upper incisors, shorter ears and smaller skull. In both
species not only are the long and slender limbs connected by a
broad integumentary expansion extending outwards from the
sides of the neck and body, but there is also a web between the
fingers and toes as far as the base of the claws (fig.) ; and the
hind-limbs are further connected by a similar expansion passing
outwards along the back of the feet to the base of the claws, and,
inwardly, involving the long tail to the tip, forming a true
interfemoral membrane, as in bats. Besides differing from bats
altogether in the form of the anterior limbs and of the double-
rooted outer incisors and canines, Galeopithecus contrasts strongly
with that order in the presence of a large sacculated caecum, and
in the great length of the colon, which is so remarkably short in
Chiroptera. From the lemurs, on the other hand, the form of
the brain, the character of the teeth, the structure of the skull,
and the deciduate discoida^ placenta at once separate the
group. (R. L.*)
6ALERIUS [GALERIUS VALERIUS MAXIMIANUS], Roman
emperor from A.D. 305 to 311, was born near Sardica in Thrace.
He originally followed his father's occupation, that of a herds-
man, whence his surname of Armentarius (Lat. armentum, herd).
He served with distinction as a soldier under Aurelian and
Probus, and in 293 was designated Caesar along with Constantius
Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and
at the same time being entrusted with the care of the Illyrian
provinces. In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, he was
removed from the Danube to the Euphrates; his first campaign
ended in a crushing defeat, near Callinicum, but in 297, advancing
through the mountains of Armenia, he gained a decisive victory
over Narses (q.v.) and compelled him to make peace. In 305, on
the abdication of Diocletian and Maximianus, he at once assumed
the title of Augustus, with Constantius his former colleague, and
having procured the promotion to the rank of Caesar of Flavius
Valerius Severus, a faithful servant, and Daia (Maximinus), his
nephew, he hoped on the death of Constantius to become sole
master of the Roman world. This scheme, however, was defeated
by the sudden elevation of Constantine at Eboracum (York) on
the death of his father, and by the action of Maximianus and
Maxentius in Italy. After an unsuccessful invasion of Italy in
307 he elevated his friend Licinius to the rank of Augustus, and,
moderating his ambition, devoted the few remaining years of his
life " to the enjoyment of pleasure and to the execution of some
works of public utility." It was at the instance of Galerius that
the first of the celebrated edicts of persecution against the
Christians was published, on the 24th of February 303, and this
policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance
of the general edict of toleration (311), issued in his own name and
in those of Licinius and Constantine. He died in May 311 A.D.
See Zosimus ii. 8-1 1; Zonaras xii. 31-34; Eutropius ix. 24,
x. i.
GALESBURG, a city and the county-seat of Knox county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, 163 m. S.W. of
Chicago. Pop. (1890) 15,264; (1900) -18,607; of whom 3602
were foreign-born; (census, 1910) 22,089. It is served by the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy railways. Knox College (non-sectarian and coeduca-
tional), which was chartered here in 1837 as the " Knox Manual
Labor College " (the present name was adopted in 1857), was
opened in 1841, and had in 1907-1908, 31 instructors and 628
students, of whom more than half were in the Conservatory of
Music, a department of the college, and 79 were in the Academy.
Lombard College (coeducational; Universalist), which was
chartered as the " Illinois Liberal Institute " in 1851, was known
as Lombard University (in honour of Benjamin Lombard, a
benefactor) from 1855 to 1899; it includes a College of Liberal
Arts, the Ryder Divinity School (1881), and departments of
music and domestic science, and in 1907-1908 had 18 instructors
and 117 students. Here also are Corpus Christi College (Roman
Catholic), St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) and Brown's
Business College (1874). There is a public library, founded in
1874. The industries consist mainly of the construction and
repairing of steam railway cars (in the shops of the Chicago, Bur-
lington & Quincy railway) and the manufacture of foundry and
machine-shop products,vitrified brick, agricultural implements
GALGACUS GALICIA
401
and machinery. The total value of the factory product in 1005
was $1,117,772, being 52-9% more than in 1000. Galesburg
was named in honour of the Rev. George Washington Gale ( 1 789-
1862), a prominent Presbyterian preacher, who in 1827-1834 had
founded, the Oneida Manual Labor Institute at Whitestown,
Oneida county, New York. Desiring to establish a college in the
Mississippi Valley to supply " an evangelical and able ministry "
to " spread the Gospel throughout the world," and also wishing to
counteract the influence of pro-slavery men in Illinois, he
interested a number of people in the project, formed a society for
colonisation, and in 1836 led the first settlers to Galesburg, the
" Mesopotamia in the West." Knox College was founded to
fulfil his educational purpose. Galesburg was an important
" station " of the Underground Railroad, one of the conditions of
membership in the " Presbyterian Church of Galesburg " (the
name of Mr Gale's society) being opposition to slavery; and in
1855 this caused the church to withdraw from the Presbytery.
Galesburg was chartered as a city in 1857. On the 7th of October
1858 one of the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates was held in the
grounds of Knox College.
GALGACUS. or perhaps rather CALGACUS, a Caledonian chief
who led the tribes of North Britain against the invading Roman
army under Cn. Julius Agricola about A.D. 85 and was defeated
At the battle of Mons Graupius (Tac. Agric. 29). The name
recurs much later, In Adamnan's Life of Columba, in the name
of a wood near Londonderry, Daire-Calgaich or Roboretum
Calgachi, " the wood of Calgacus ": it may be Celtic and denote
" the man with the sword."
GALIANI, PERDINANDO (1728-1787), Italian economist, was
born at Chieti on the 2nd of December 1728. He was carefully
educated by his uncle Monsignor C. Galiani at Naples and Rome
with a view to entering the Church. Galiani gave early promise
of distinction as an economist, and even more as a wit. At the
age of twenty-two, after he bad taken orders, he had produced
two works by which his name became widely known far beyond
the bounds of his own Naples. The one, his Trattato delta
moneta, in which he shows himself a strong supporter of the
mercantile school, deals with many aspects of the question of
exchange, but always with a special reference to the state of
confusion then presented by the whole monetary system of the
Neapolitan government. The other, Raccolla in Morte del Boia,
established his fame as a humorist, and was highly popular in
Italian literary circles at the end of the iSth century. In this
volume Galiani parodied with exquisite felicity, in a series of
discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of the
most pompous and pedantic Neapolitan writers of the day.
Galiani 's political knowledge and social qualities now pointed him
out to the discriminating eye o'f King Charles, afterwards Charles
III. of Spain, and his liberal minister Tanucci, and he was
appointed in 1759 secretary to the Neapolitan embassy at Paris.
This post he held for ten years, when he returned to Naples and
was made a councillor of the tribunal of commerce, and in 1777,
minister of the royal domains. His economic reputation was
made by a book written in French and published in Paris,
namely, his Dialogues sur U commerce des bUs. This work, by its
light and pleasing style, and the vivacious wit with which it
abounded, delighted Voltaire, who spoke of it as a book in the pro-
duction of which Plato and Molicre might have been combined !
The author, says Pecchio, treated his arid subject as Fontenelle
did the vortices of Descartes, or Algarotti the Newtonian system
of the world. The question at issue was that of the freedom of the
corn trade, then much agitated, and, in particular, the policy of
the royal edict of 1 764, which permitted the exportation of grain
to long as the price had not arrived at a certain height. The
general principle he maintains is that the best system in regard to
this trade is to have no system countries differently circum-
stanced requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment.
He fen", however, into some of the most serious errors of the
mercantilists holding, as indeed did also Voltaire and even
Verri, that one country cannot gain without another losing, and
in his earlier treatise going so far as to defend the action of govern-
ments in debasing the currency. Until his death at Naples on the
3oth of October 1787, Galiani kept up with his old Parisian friends
a correspondence, which was published in 1818.
See L' Abate Galiani, by Alberto Marghieri (1878), and hit corre-
spondence with Tanucci in Vicsseux'g L'Archivio storico (Florence,
1878).
GALICIA (Ger. Galitien; Pol. Halicz), a crownland of Austria,
bounded E. and N. by Russia, S. by Bukovina and Hungary, and
W. by Austrian and Prussian Silesia. It has an area of 30,299
sq. m. , and is t he largest Austrian province. It comprises the old
kingdoms of Galicia and Lodomeria, the duchies of Auschwitz and
Zator, and the grand duchy of Cracow.
Galicia lies on the northern slopes of the Carpathians, which
with their offshoots cover about a third of the whole area of
the country. The surface gradually sinks down by undulating
terraces to the valleys of the Vistula and Dniester. To the N. and
E. of these rivers Galicia forms a continuation of the great plains
of Russia, intersected only by a few hills, which descend from the
plateaus of Poland and Podolia, and which attain in some places
an altitude of 1300 to 1 500 ft. The Carpathians, which, extend-
ing in the form of an arc, form the boundary between Galicia and
Hungary, are divided into the West and the East Beskides,
which are separated by the northern ramifications of the massif
of the Tatra. The highest peaks are the Babia G6ra (5650 ft.),
the Wolowiec (6773 ft.) and the Cserna G6ra (6505 ft.). The
principal passes are those of Zdjar over the Tatra, and of
Dukla, Vereczke K6rosmez6 or Delatyn in the East Beskides.
The river Vistula, which becomes navigable at Cracow,
and forms afterwards the north-western frontier of Galicia,
receives the Sola, the Skawa, the Raba, the Dunajec with
its affluents the Poprad and the Biala, the Wisloka, the San
and the Bug. The Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians,
within the territory of Galicia, becomes navigable at Sambor,
and receives on the right the Stryj, the Swica, the Lomnica and
the Bystrzyca, and on the left the Lipa, the Strypa, the Sereth
and the Zbrucz, the boundary river towards Russia. The
Pruth, which also rises in the Carpathians, within the territory of
Galicia, traverses its south-eastern corner and receives the
Czeremosz, the boundary river towards Bukovina. There are few
lakes in the country except mountain tarns; but considerable
morasses exist about the Upper Dneister, the Vistula and the
San, while the ponds or dams in the Podolian valleys are estimated
to cover an area of over 200 sq. m. The most frequented mineral
springs are the alkaline springs at Szczawnica and Krynica, the
sulphur springs at Krzesowice, Szklo and Lubian, and the
iodine springs at Iwonicz.
Exposed to the cold northern and north-eastern winds, and
shut out by the Carpathians from the warm southerly winds,
Galicia has the severest climate in Austria. It has long winters,
with an abundant snowfall, short and wet springs, hot summers
and long and steady autumns. The mean annual temperature at
Lemberg is 46-2 F., and at Tarnopol only 43 F. fc
Of the total area 48-45% is occupied by arable land, 11-16%
by meadows, 9-19% by pastures, 1-39% by gardens and 25-76%
by forests. The soil is generally fertile, but agriculture is still
backward. The principal products are barley, oats, rye, wheat,
maize and leguminous plants. Galicia has the largest area under
potatoes and legumes in the whole of Austria, and hemp, flax,
tobacco and hops are of considerable importance. The principal
mineral products are salt, coal and petroleum. Salt is extracted
at Wieliczka, Bochnia, Bolechow, Dolina, Kalusz and Kosow.
Coals are found in the Cracow district at Jaworzno, at Siersza
near Trzebinia and at Dabrowa. Some of the richest petroleum
fields in Europe are spread in the region of the Carpathians, and
are worked at Boryslaw and Schodnica near Drohobycz, Bobrka
and Potok near Krosno, Sloboda-Rungurska near Kolomea, &c.
Great quantities of ozocerite are also extracted in the petroli-
ferous region of the Carpathians. Other mineral products are
zinc, extracted at Trzebionka and Wodna in the Cracow region,
amounting to 40% of the total zinc production in Austria, iron
ore, marble and various stones for construction. The sulphur
mines of Swoszowice near Cracow, which had been worked since
1598, were abandoned in 1884.
402
GALICIA
The manufacturing industries of Galicia are not highly
developed. The first place is occupied by the distilleries, whose
output amounts to nearly 40% of the total production of
spirits in Austria. Then follow the petroleum refineries and
kindred industries, saw-mills and the fabrication of various
wood articles, paper and milling. The sugar factory at Tlumacz
and the tobacco factory at Winniki are amongst the largest
establishments of their kind in Austria. Cloth manufacture is
concentrated at Biala, while the weaving of linen and of woollens
is pursued as a household industry, the former in the Carpathian
region, the latter in eastern Galicia. The commerce, which is
mainly in the hands of the Jews, is very active, and the transit
trade to Russia and to the East is also of considerable importance.
Galicia had in 1900 a population of 7,295,538, which is
equivalent to 241 inhabitants per sq. m. The two principal
nationalities are the Poles (45%) and the Ruthenians (42%),
the former predominating in the west and in the big towns, and
the latter in the east. The Poles who inhabit the Carpathians are
distinguished as Goralians (from gdry, mountain), and those of
the lower regions as Mazures and Cracoviaks. The Ruthenian
Highlanders bear the name of Huzulians. The Poles are mostly
Roman Catholics, the Ruthenians are Greek Catholics, and there
are over 770,000 Jews, and about 2500 Armenians, who are
Catholics and stand under the jurisdiction of an Armenian
archbishop at Lemberg.
The Roman Catholic Church has an archbishop, at Lemberg,
and.three bishops, at Cracow, at Przemysl and at Tarnow, and the
Greek Catholic Church is represented by an archbishop, at
Lemberg, and two bishops, at Przemysl and at Stanislau. At the
head of the educational institutions stand the two universities of
Lemberg and Cracow, and the Polish academy of science at
Cracow.
The local Diet is composed of 151 members, including the 3
archbishops, the 5 bishops, and the 2 rectors of the universities,
and Galicia sends 78 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For
administrative purposes, the province is divided into 78 districts
and 2 autonomous municipalities Lemberg (pop. 159,618), the
capital, and Cracow (91,310). Other principal towns are:
Przemysl (46,439), Kolomea (34,188), Tarnow (31,548), Tarnopol
(30,368), Stanislau (29,628), Stryj (23,673), Jaroslau (22,614),
Drohobycz (19,146), Podg6rze (18,142), Brody (17,360), Sambor
(i7,o27),Neusandec(i5,724),Rzesz6w(i4,7i4),Zloczow(i2,2O9),
Grodek (11,845), Horodenka (11,615), Buczacz (11,504), Sniatyn
(11,498), Brzezany (11,244), Kuty (11,127), Boryslaw (10,671),
Chrzan6w (10,170), Jawor6w (10,090), Bochnia (10,049) an d
Biala (8265).
Galicia (or Halicz) took its rise, along with the neighbouring
principality of Lodomeria (or Vladimir), in the course of the i2th
century the seat of the ruling dynasty being Halicz or Halitch.
Disputes between the Galician and Lodomerian houses led to the
interference of the king of Hungary, Bela III., who in 1190
assumed the title of king, and appointed his son Andreas
lieutenant of the kingdom. Polish assistance, however, enabled
Vladimir, the former possessor, to expel Andreas, and in 1198
Roman, prince of Lodomeria, made himself master of Galicia also.
On his death in 1205 the struggle between Poland and Hungary
for supremacy in the country was resumed; but in 1215 it was
arranged that Daniel (1205-1264), son of Roman, should be
invested with Lodomeria, and Coloman, son of the Hungarian
king, with Galicia. Coloman, however, was expelled by Mstislav
of Novgorod; and in his turn Andreas, Mstislav's nominee, was
expelled by Daniel of Lodomeria, a powerful prince, who by a
flexible policy succeeded in maintaining his position. Though in
1235 he had recognized the overlordship of Hungary, yet, when
he found himself hard pressed by the Mongolian general Batu, he
called in the assistance of Innocent IV., and accepted the crown
of Galicia from the hands of a papal legate; and again, when
Innocent disappointed his expectation, he returned to his former
connexion with the Greek Church. On the extinction of his line
in 1340 Casimir III. of Poland incorporated Galicia and Lemberg;
on Casimir's death in 1370 Louis the Great of Hungary, in accord-
ance with previous treaties, became king of Poland, Galicia and
Lodomeria; and in 1382, by the marriage of Louis's daughter
with Ladislaus II., Galicia, which he had regarded as part of his
Hungarian rather than of his Polish possessions, became de-
finitively assigned to Poland. On the first partition of Poland, in
1772, the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria came to Austria,
and to this was added the district of New or West Galicia in 1795;
but at the peace of Vienna in 1809 West Galicia and Cracow were
surrendered to the grand-duchy of Warsaw, and in 1810 part of
East Galicia, including Tarnopol, was made over to Russia. This
latter portion was recovered by Austria at the peace of Paris
(1814), and the former came back on the suppression of the
independent republic of Cracow in 1846. After the introduction
of the constitution of February 1861, Galicia gained a larger
degree of autonomy than any other province in the Austrian
empire.
See Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic in Wort und Bild,
vol. 19 (Wien, 1885-1902, 24 vols.); Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns
in Wort und Bild, vol. 10 (Wien, 1881-1886, 15 vols.). Remarkable
sketches of Galician life are to be found in the works of the German
novelist Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895).
GALICIA (the ancient Gallaecia or Cattaecia, KaAXama or
KaXauia), a captaincy-general, and formerly a kingdom, count-
ship and province, in the north-western angle of Spain; bounded
on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Leon and Asturias, S. by
Portugal, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,980,515;
area, 11,254 sq. m. In 1833 Galicia was divided for adminis-
trative purposes into the provinces of Corunna, Lugo, Orense and
Pontevedra.
Galicia is traversed by mountain ranges, sometimes regarded
as a continuation of the Cantabrian chain; and its surface is
further broken in the east by the westernmost ridges of that
system, which, running in a south-westerly direction, rise above
the basin of the Mino. The high land north of the headwaters of
the Mino forms the sole connecting link between the Cantabrians
properly so-called and the mountains of central and western
Galicia. The average elevation of the province is considerable,
and the maximum height (6593 ft.) is reached in the Pena
Trevinca on the eastern border of Orense.
The principal river is the Mino (Portuguese Minho; Lat.
Minius; so named, it is said, from the minium or vermilion
found in its bed). Rising near Mondonedo, within 25 m. of the
northern coast, the Mino enters the Atlantic near the port of
Guardia, after a course of 170 m. S. and S.W. Its lower reaches
are navigable by small vessels. Of its numerous affluents the
most important is the Sil, which rises among the lofty mountains
between Leon and Asturias. Among other rivers having a
westerly direction may be mentioned the Tambre, the Ulla and
the Lerez or Ler, which falls into the Atlantic by estuaries or rias
called respectively Ria de Muros y Noya, Ria de Arosa and Ria
de Pontevedra. The rivers of the northern versant, such as the
Nera, are, like those of Asturias, for the most part short, rapid
and subject to violent floods.
The coast-line of Galicia, extending to about 240 m., is every-
where bold and deeply indented, presenting a large number of
secure harbours, and in this respect forming a marked contrast to
the neighbouring province. The Eo, which bounds Galicia on
the east, has a deep estuary, the Rivadeo or Ribadeo, which
offers a safe and commodious anchorage. Vivero Bay and the
Ria del Barquero y Vires are of a similar character; while the
harbour of Ferrol ranks among the best in Europe, and is the chief
naval station on the northern coast of Spain. On the opposite
side of Betanzos Bay (the jjfrfas \ipfiv or Portus Magnus of the
ancients) is the great port of Corunna or Corufta. The principal
port on the western coast is that formed by the deep and sheltered
bay of Vigo, but there are also good roadsteads at Corcubion
under Cape Finisterre, at Marin and at Carril.
The climate of the Galician coast is mild and equable, but the
interior, owing to the great elevation (the town of Lugo is 1 500 ft.
above sea-level) , has a wide range of temperature. The rainfall is
exceptionally large, and snow lies on some of the loftier elevations
for a considerable portion of the year. The soil is on the whole
fertile, and the produce very varied. A considerable quantity of
GALIGNANI GALILEE
403
timber is grown on the high lands, and the rich valley pastures
support large herds of cattle, while the abundance of oaks and
chestnuts favours the rearing of swine. In the lowland districts
good crops of maize, wheat, barley, oats and rye, as well as of
turnips and potatoes, are obtained. The fruit also is of excellent
quality and in great variety, although the culture of the vine is
limited to some of the warmer valleys in the southern districts.
The dekesas or moorlands abound in game, and fish are plentiful
in all the streams. The mineral resources of the province, which
are considerable, were known to some extent to the ancients.
Strabo (c. 63 B.C.-A.D. 21) speaks of its gold and tin, and Pliny
(A.D. 13-79) mentions the gemma Gallaica, a precious stone.
Galkia is also remarkable for the number of its sulphur and other
warm springs, the most important of which are those at Lugo,
and those from which Orense is said to take its name (Aquae
wenUs).
Ethnologically the Galicians (Colleges) are allied to the
Portuguese, whom they resemble in dialect, in appearance and in
habits more than the other inhabitants of the peninsula. The
men are well known all over Spain and Portugal as hardy,
honest and industrious, but for the most pan somewhat unskilled,
labourers; indeed the word CaUego has come to be almost a
synonym in Madrid for a " hewer of wood and drawer of water."
It is also used as a term of abuse, meaning " boor." Agriculture
engages the greater part of the resident population, both male and
female; other industries, except the fisheries, are little developed.
The largest town in Galicia is Corunna (pop. 1900, 43,971);
Santiago de Compostela is the ancient capital and an archi-
eptscopal see; Lugo, Tuy, Mondonedo and Orense are bishoprics.
GaUaecia, the country of the Galacci, Callaici or Callaici,
seems to have been very imperfectly known to the earlier
geographers. According to Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.) the
entire population of the peninsula were at one time called Galatae.
The region properly called by their name, bounded on the south
by the Douro and on the east by the Navia, was first entered by
the Roman legions under Decius Junius Brutus in 137-136 B.C.
(Livy Iv., Ivi., Epit.Y, but the final subjugation cannot be placed
earlier than the time of Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14). On the
partition of Spain, which followed the successful invasions of the
Suevi, Alans and Vandals, GaUaecia fell to the lot of the first
named (A.D. 411). After an independent subsistence of nearly
300 years, the Suevian kingdom was annexed to the Visigothic
dominions under Leovigild in 585. In 734 it was occupied by the
Moon, who in turn were driven out by Alphonso I. of Asturias,
in 739. During the 9th and loth centuries it was the subject of
dispute between more than one count of Galicia and the
suzerain, and its coasts were repeatedly ravaged by the Normans.
When Ferdinand I. divided his kingdom among his sons in 1063,
Galicia was the portion allotted to Garcia, the youngest of the
three. In 1072 it was forcibly reannexed by Garcia's brother
Alphonso VI. of Castile and thenceforward it remained an
integral part of the kingdom of Castile or of Leon. The honorary
title of count of Galicia has frequently been borne by younger
sons of the Spanish sovereign.
See Annette B. Meakin, Galicia, the Switzerland of Spain (London,
1909).
GALIGNANI. GIOVANNI ANTONIO (1752-1821), newspaper
publisher, was born at Brescia, Italy, in 1752. After living some
time in London, bt went to Paris, where he started in 1800 an
English library, and in 1808 a monthly publication, the Repertory
of English Literature. In 1814 he began to publish, in Paris,
Galignanft Messenger, a daily paper printed in English. At his
death in 1821 the paper was carried on by his two sons, Jean-
Antoine (1796-1873) and Guillaume (1798-1882). Under their
management it enjoyed a high reputation. Its policy was to
promote good feeling between England and France. The brothers
fttiblithfd and endowed hospitals at Corbeil and at Neuilly-
sur-Seine. In recognition of their generosity the city of Corbeil
erected a monument in their honour. In 1884 the Galignani
family disposed of their interest in Galignani's Messenger, and
from that date until 1004, when it was discontinued, the paper
appeared under the title of the Daily Messenger.
GALILEE (Heb. *?, " border " or " ring," Gr. FaXtXcUo), a
Roman province of Palestine north of Samaria, bounded S. by
Samaria and the Carmel range, E. by the Jordan, N. by the
Leontes (Litani), and W. by the Mediterranean and part of
Phoenicia. Its maximum extent was about 60 m. north to south
and 30 east to west. The name in the Hebrew Scriptures hardly
had a definite territorial significance. It literally means a ring or
circuit, and, like analogous words in English, could be applied to
various districts. Thus Joshua (xiii. 2) and Joel (iii. 4) refer to
the Geliloth (" borders, coast ") of the Philistines or of Palestine;
Joshua again (xxii. 10, 11) and Ezckiel (xlvii. 8) mention the
Jordan valley plain as the " Geliloth of Jordan "in " the Eastern
Gelilah." In its more restricted connotation, denoting the
district to which it is usually applied or a part thereof, it is found
in Joshua xx. 7, xxi. 32, i Chr. vi. 76, as the place where was
situated the town of Kadesh; and in i Kings ix. 1 1, the district of
" worthless " cities given by Solomon to Hiram. In Isa. ix. i we
find the full name of the district, Galil ha-Goyim, literally " the
ring, circuit or border of the foreigners " referring to the
Phoenicians, Syrians and Aramaeans, by whose country the
province was on three sides surrounded. In i Kings xv. 29 it is
specified as one of the districts whose population was deported by
Tiglath-Pileser. Throughout the Old Testament history, how-
ever, Galilee as a whole cannot be said to have a history; the
unit of territorial subdivision was tribal rather than provincial,
and though such important events as those associated with the
names of Barak, Gideon, Gilboa, Armageddon, took place within
its borders, yet these belong rather to the histories of Issachar,
Zebulon, Asher or Naphtali, whose territories together almost
correspond with Galilee, than to the province itself.
After the Jewish return from exile the population confined
itself to Judaea, and Galilee was left in the possession of the mixed
multitude of successors established there by the Assyrians.
When it once more came into Israelite hands is uncertain; it is
generally supposed that its reconquest was due to John Hyrcanus.
Before very long it developed a nationalism and patriotism as
intense as that of Judaea itself, notwithstanding the contempt
with which the metropolitans of Jerusalem looked down upon the
Galilean provincials. Stock proverbial sayings such as " Out of
Galilee cometh no prophet " (though Deborah, Jonah, Elisha,
and probably Hosea, were Galileans) were apparently common.
Provincialism of speech (Matt. xxvi. 73) distinguished the
Galileans; it appears that they confused the gutturals in
pronunciation.
Under the Roman domination Galilee was made a tetrarchate
governed by members of the Herod family. Herod the Great was
tetrarch of Galilee in 47 B.C. ; in 4 B.C. he was succeeded by his son
Antipas. Galilee was the land of Christ's boyhood and the chief
centre of His active work, and in His various ministries here
some of His chief discourses were uttered (as the Sermon on
the Mount, Matt, v.) and some of His chief miracles performed.
After the destruction of Jerusalem the Judaean Rabbinic
schools took refuge in the Galilee they had heretofore despised.
No ancient remains of Jewish synagogues exist except those that
have been identified in some of the ancient Galilean towns, such
as Tell Hum (TalhQm), Kerazeh, Kefr Bir'Im, and elsewhere.
One of the chief centres of Rabbinism was afed, still a sacred
city of the Jews and largely inhabited by members of that faith.
Near here is Meirfln, a place much revered by the Jews as
containing the tombs of Hillel, Shammai and Simon ben Yohai;
a yearly festival in honour of thesa rabbis is here celebrated. At
Tiberias also are the tombs of distinguished Jewish teachers,
including Maimonides.
The province was subdivided into two parts, Upper and Lower
Galilee, the two being divided by a ridge running west to east, which
prolonged would cut the Jordan about midway between HOleh and
the Sea of Galilee. Lower Galilee includes the plains of Buttauf
and Esdraelon.
The whote of Galilee presents country more or less disturbed by
volcanic action. In the lower division the hills are all tilted up
towards the east, and broad streams of lava have flowed i.owtr
over the plateau above the sea of Galilee. In this district amWct.
the highest hills are only about 1800 ft. above the sea. The
ridge of Nazareth rises north of the great plain of Esdraelon, and
404
north of this again is the fertile l>asin of the Buttauf, separated from
the sea-coast plains by low hills. East of the Buttauf extends the
basaltic plateau called Sahel el Ahma (" the inaccessible plain "),
rising 1700 ft. above the Sea of Galilee. North of the Buttauf is a
confused hill country, the spurs falling towards a broad valley which
lies at the foot of the mountains of Upper Galilee. This broad
valley, running westwards to the coast, is perhaps the old boundary
of Zebulun the valley of Jiphthah-el (Josh. xix. 14). The great
plain of Esdraelon is of triangular form, bounded by Gilboa on the
east and by the ridge which runs to Carmel on the west. It is 14 m.
long from Jenin to the Nazareth hills, and its southern border is
about 20 m. long. It rises 200 ft. above the sea, the hills on both
sides being some 1500 ft. higher. The whole drainage is collected
by the Kishon, which runs through a narrow gorge at the north-west
corner of the plain, descending beside the ridge of Carmel to the sea.
The broad valley of Jezreel on the east, descending towards the
Jordan valley, forms the gate by which Palestine is entered from
beyond Jordan. Mount Tabor stands isolated in the plain at the
north-east corner, and rather farther south the conical hill called
Nebi Duhi rises between Tabor and Gilboa. The whole of Lower
Galilee is well watered. The Kishon is fed by springs from near
Tabor and from a copious stream from the west side of the plain of
Esdraelon. North-west of Nazareth is Wadi el Melek, an open
valley full of springs. The river Belus, just south of Acre, risingin the
sea-coast marshes, drains the whole valley above identified with
Jiphthah-el. On the east the broad valley of Jezreel is full of
magnificent springs, many of which are thermal. The plains of
Esdraelon, and the Buttauf, and the plateau of el-Ahma are all
remarkable for the rich basaltic soil which covers them, in which corn,
cotton, maize, sesame, tobacco, millet and various kinds of vegetable
are grown, while indigo and sugar-cane were cultivated in former
times. The Nazareth nills and Gilboa are bare and white, but west
of Nazareth is a fine oak wood, and another thick wood spreads over
the northern slopes of Tabor. The hills west of the great plain are
partly of bare white chalk, partly covered with dense thickets. The
mountains north of the Buttauf are rugged and covered with scrub,
except near the villages, where fine olive groves exist. The principal
places of importance in Lower Galilee are Nazareth (10,000 inhabit-
ants), Sepphoris (now Seffuria), a large village standing above the
Buttauf on the spurs of the southern hills, and Jenin (En Gannim),
a flourishing village, with a palm garden (3000 inhabitants). The
ancient capital, Jezreel (Zerin), is now a miserable village on a pre-
cipitous spur of Gilboa ; north of this are the small mud hamlets,
Solara (Shunem), Endur (Endor), Nein (Nain); on the west side
of the plain is the ruin of Lejjun (the Legio of the 4th century, which
was then a place of importance). In the hills north of the Buttauf
is Jefat, situated on a steep hill-top, and representing the Jotapata
defended by Josephus. Kefr Kenna, now a flourishing Christian
village at the foot of the Nazareth hills, south of the Buttauf, is
one of the sites identified with Cana of Galilee, and the ruin Kana, on
the north side of the same plain, represents the site pointed out to
the pilgrims of the I2th and I3th centuries.
The mountains are tilted up towards the Sea of Galilee, and the
drainage of the district is towards the north-west. On the south the
rocky range of Jebel Jarmuk rises to nearly 4000 ft. above
the sea; on the east a narrow ridge 2800 ft. high forms
the watershed, with steep eastern slopes falling towards
Jordan. Immediately west of the watershed are two small plateaus
covered with basaltic debris, near el-Jish and Kades. On the west
are rugged mountains with deep intricate valleys. The main drains
of the country are first, Wadi el "Ayun, rising north of Jebel
Jarmuk, and running north-west as an open valley; and secondly,
Wadi el Ahjar, a rugged precipitous gorge running north to join the
Leontes. The district is well provided with springs throughout,
and the valleys are full of water in the spring-time. Though rocky
and difficult, Upper Galilee is not barren, the soil of the plateaus is
rich, and the vine flourishes in the higher hills, especially in the
neighbourhood of Kefr Bir'Im. The principal town is Safed, perched
on a white mountain 2700 ft. above the sea. It has a population of
about 9000, including Jews, Christians and Moslems.
Josephus gives a good description of the Galilee of his time in
Wars, iii. 3. 2 : " The Galileans are inured to war from their
infancy, and have been always very numerous; nor hath the
country been ever destitute of men of courage or wanted a
numerous set of them; for their soil is universally rich and fruit-
ful, and full of plantations of trees of all sorts, insomuch that it
invites the most slothful to take pains in its cultivation. . . .
Moreover, the cities lie here very thick, and the very many villages
there are here are everywhere full of people." Though the
population is diminished and the cities ruinous, the country
is still remarkable for fertility, thanks to the copiousness of its
water-supply draining from the Lebanon mountains.
The principal products of the country are corn, wine, oil and
soap (from the olives) , with every species of pulse and gourd.
The antiquities of Galilee include dolmens and rude stone
GALILEE GALILEE, SEA OF
Upper
monuments, rock-cut tombs, and wine-presses, with numerous
remains of Byzantine monasteries and fine churches of the time of
the crusades. There are also remains of Greek architecture in
various places; but the most interesting buildings are the ancient
synagogues, of which some eleven examples are now known.
They are rectangular, with the door to the south, and two rows of
columns forming aisles east and west. The architecture is a
peculiar and debased imitation of classic style, attributed by
architects to the 2nd century A.D. In Kefr Bir'Im there were
remains of two synagogues, but early in the 2oth century one of
them was completely destroyed by a local stone-mason. At
Irbid, above Tiberias, is another synagogue of rather different
character. Traces of synagogues have also been found on
Carmel, and at Tireh, west of Nazareth. It is curious to find
the representation of various animals in relief on the lintels
of these buildings. Hebrew inscriptions also occur, and the
carved work of the cornices and capitals is rich though debased.
In the 1 2th century Galilee was the outpost of the Christian
kingdom of Jerusalem, and its borders were strongly protected
by fortresses, the magnificent remains of which still crown the
most important strategical points. Toron (mod. Tibnin) was
built in 1104, the first fortress erected by the crusaders, and
standing on the summit of the mountains of Upper Galilee.
Beauvoir (Kaukab el-Hawa, built in 1182) stood on a precipice
above Jordan south-west of the Sea of Galilee, and guarded the
advance by the valley of Jezreel; and about the same time
ChateauNeuf (Humn) waserectedabovetheHulehlake. Belfort
(esh Shukif), on the north bank of the Leontes, the finest and
most important, dates somewhat earlier; and Montfort (Kalat el
Kurn) stood on a narrow spur north-east of Acre, completing the
chain of frontier fortresses. The town of Banias, with its castle,
formed also a strong outpost against Damascus, and was the
scene, in common with the other strongholds, of many desperate
encounters between Moslems and Christians. Lower Galilee was
the last remaining portion of the Holy Land held by the Chris-
tians. In 1 250 the knights of the Teutonic order owned lands ex-
tending round Acre as far east as the Sea of Galilee, and including
Safed. These possessions were lost in 1291, on the fall of Acre.
The population of Galilee is mixed. In Lower Galilee the
peasants are principally Moslem, with a sprinkling of Greek
Christians round Nazareth, which is a Christian town. In Upper
Galilee, however, there is a mixture of Jews and Maronjtes,
Druses and Moslems (natives or Algerine settlers), while the
slopes above the Jordan are inhabited by wandering Arabs. The
Jews are engaged in trade, and the Christians, Druses and Mos-
lems in agriculture; and the Arabs are an entirely pastoral
people. (C. R. C.; R. A. S. M.)
GALILEE, an architectural term sometimes given to a porch or
chapel which formed the entrance to a church. This is the case
at Durham and Ely cathedrals, and in Lincoln cathedral the name
is sometimes given to the south-west porch. The name is said
to be derived from the scriptural expression " Galilee of the
Gentiles " (Matt. iv. 15). Galilees are supposed to have been
used sometimes as courts of law, but they probably served chiefly
for penitents not yet admitted to the body of the church. The
Galilee would also appear to have been the vestibule of an abbey
church where women were allowed to see the monks to whom they
were related, or from which they could hear divine service. The
foundation of what is considered to have been a Galilee exists at
the west end of Fountains Abbey. Sometimes also corpses were
placed there before interment.
GALILEE, SEA OF, a lake in Palestine consisting of an
expansion of the Jordan, on the latitude of Mt. Carmel. It is
13 m. long, 8m. broad, 64 sq. m. in area, 680 ft. below the level of
the Mediterranean, and, according to Merrill and Barrois (who
have corrected the excessive depth said to have been found by
Lortet at the northern end), 150 ft. in maximum depth. It is
pear-shaped, the narrow end pointing southward. In the Hebrew
Scriptures it is called the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth (prob-
ably derived from a town of the same name mentioned in
Joshua xi. 2 and elsewhere; the etymology that connects it with
fax, " a harp," is very doubtful.) In Josephus and the book of
GALILEE, SEA OF
4P5
Maccabees it is named Gennesar; while in the Gospels it is
usually called Sea of GalHtc, though once it is called Lake of
Gennesaret (Luke v. i) and twice Sea of Tiberias (John vi. i,
juti. i). The modern Arabic name is Bdfrr Tubariya, which is
often rendered " Lake of Tiberias." Pliny refers to it as the
Lake of Taricheae.
Like the Dead Sea it is a " rift " lake, being part of the great
fault that formed the Jordan-Araba depression. Deposits show
that originally it formed part of the great inland sea that filled
this depression in Pleistocene times. The district on each side of
the lake has a number of hot springs, at least one of which is
beneath the sea itself, and has always shown indications of
volcanic and other subterranean disturbances. It is especially
liable to earthquakes. The water of the sea, though slightly
brackish and not very clear, is generally used for drinking. The
shores are for the greater part formed of fine gravel; some yards
from the shore the bed is uniformly covered with fine greyish
mud. The temperature in summer is tropical, but after noon
falls about 10 F. owing to strong north-west winds. This range
of temperature affects the water to a depth of about 49 ft.;
below that depth the water is uniformly about 59 F. The sea is
set deep in hills which rise on the east side to a height of about
2000 ft. Sudden and violent storms (such as are described in
Matt. viii. 23, xiv. 22, and the parallel passages) are often pro-
duced by the changes of temperature in the air resulting from
these great differences of level.
The Sea of Galilee is best seen from the top of the western preci-
pices. It presents a desolate appearance. On the north the hills
rise gradually from the shore, which is fringed with oleander bushes
and indented with small bays. The ground is here covered with
black basalt. On the west the plateau known as Sahel el-Ahma
terminates in precipices 1700 ft. above the lake, and over these the
black rocky tops called " the Horns of Hattin " are conspicuous
objects. On the south is a broad valley through which the Jordan
flows. On the east are furrowed and rugged slopes, rising to the
neat plateau of the Jaulan (Gaulonitis). The Jordan enters the
lake through a narrow gorge between lower hills. A marshy plain,
at m. long and 1 1 broad, called el-Batihah, exists immediately east
of the Jordan inlet. There is also on the west side of the lake a small
plain called el-Ghu weir, formed by the junction of three large valleys.
It measures 3} m. along the shore, and is i m. wide. This plain,
naturally fertile, but now almost uncultivated, is supposed to be
the plain of Gennesareth, described by Josephus (B. J. iu. 10, 8). On
the east the hills approach in one place within 40 ft. of the water,
but there is generally a width of about } of a mile from the hills to
the beach. On the west the flat ground at the foot of the hills has an
average width of about 200 yds. A few scattered palms dot the
western shores, and a palm grove is to be found near Kefr Harib
on the south-east. The hot baths south of Tiberias include seven
springs, the largest of which has a temperature of 137" F. In these
spriagjs a distinct rise in temperature was observed in 1837, when
Tiberias and Safed were destroyed by an earthquake. The plain
of Gennesareth, with its environs, is the best-watered part of the lake-
basin. North of this plain are the five springs of et-Tabighah, the
largest of which was enclosed about a century ago in an octagonal
reservoir by 'Ali, son of Dhahr el-Amir, and the water led off by an
aqueduct 52 ft. above the lake. The Tabighah springs, though
abundant, are warm and brackish. At the north end of the plain is
'Ain et-Tineh (" spring of the fig-tree "), also a brackish spring;
with a good stream; south of the plain is 'Ain el-Bardeh (" the cold
ing ), which is sweet, but scarcely lower in temperature than
i others. One of the most important springs is 'Ain el-Madaw-
ra (" the round spring "), situated I m. from the south end of the
plain and half a mile from the shore. The water rises in a circular
well 32 ft. in diameter, and is dear and sweet, with a temperature
of 73* F. The bottom is of loose sand, and the fish called coracinus
by Josephus (B.J. iii. 10, 8) is here found (see below). Dr Tristram
was the first explorer to identify this fish, and on account of its
presence suggested the identification of the " round spring " with
the fountain of Capkamaum, which, according to Josephus, watered
the plain of Gennesareth. There is, however, a difficulty in this
identification; there are no ruins at 'Ain el-Madawwera.
Fauna and Flora. For half the year the hillsides are bare and
steppe-like, but in spring are clothed with a subtropical vegetation.
Oleanders flourish round the lake, and the large papyrus grows at
'Ain et-Tin as well as at the mouth of the Jordan. The lake swarms
with fish, which are caught with nets by a gild of fishermen, whose
boats are the only representatives of the many ships and boats
which plied on the lake as late as the loth century. Fishing was a
lucrative industry at an early date, and the Jews ascribed the laws
regulating it to Joshua. The fish, which were classed as clean and
andean, the good and bad of the parable (Matt. xiii. 47, 48), belong
to the genera Chroma, Bartna, Capocia, Diico[nalhus . Nemachtiui,
Blennius and Clarias; and there is a great affinity between them
and the fish of the East African lakes and streams. There are eight
species of Ckromii, most of which hatch their eggs and raise thejs
young; in the buccal cavities of the males. The Chromts simonis is
popularly supposed to be the fish from which Peter took the piece
of money (Matt. xvii. 27). Clarias macracanthus (Arab. Burbur) is
the coracinus of Josephus. It was found by Lortet in the spring*
of 'Ain cl-Madawwera,'Ain et-TInehand'Ainet-Tabighah,onthelake
shore where muddy, and in Lake Huleh. It is a scalcless, snake-like
fish, often nearly 5 ft. long, which resembles the C. aneuillarii of
Egypt. From the absence of scales it was held by the Jews to be
unclean, and some commentators suppose it to be the serpent of
Matt. vii. 10 and Luke xi. n. Large numbers of grebes great
crested, eared, and little, gulls and pelicans frequent the Take.
On its shores are tortoises, mud-turtles, crayfish and innumerable
sand-hoppers; and at varying depths in the lake several species of
Melanin, Mclanopsis, Nentina, Corbicula and Unio have been found.
Antiquities. The principal sites of interest round the lake may
be enumerated from north to west and from south to east.
Kerazeh, the undoubted site of Chorazin, stands on a rocky spur
ooo ft. above the lake, 2 m. north of the shore. Foundations and
scattered stones cover the slopes and the flat valley below. On
the west is a rugged gorge. In the middle of the ruins are the
scattered remains of a synagogue of richly ornamental style built
of black basalt. A small spring occurs on the north. T.-ll l.lmn
(as the name is generally spelt, though Tdhum would probably be
preferable for several reasons) is an important ruin on the shore,
south of the last-mentioned site. The remains consist of founda-
tions and piles of stones (in spring concealed by gigantic thistles)
extending about half a mile along the shore. The foundations of
a fine synagogue, measuring 75 ft. by 57, and built in white
limestone, have been excavated. A conspicuous building has
been erected close to the water, from the fragments of the Tell
Hum synagogue. Since the 4th century Tell IJum has been
pointed out by all the Christian writers of importance as the
site of Capernaum. Some modern geographers question this
identification, but without sufficient reason (see CAPERNAUM).
Minyeh is a ruined site at the north end of the plain of Gen-
nesareth, aj m. from the last, and close to the shore. There
are extensive ruins on flat ground, consisting of mounds and
foundations. Masonry of well-dressed stones has also been here
discovered in course of excavation. Near the ruins are remains of
an old khan, which appears to have been built in the middle ages.
This is another suggested identification for Capernaum; but all
the remains belong to the Arab period. Between Tell ljum and
Minyeb is Tell 'Oreimeh, the site of a forgotten Amorite city.
South of the supposed plain of Gennesareth is Mejdel, commonly
supposed to represent the New Testament town of Magdala.
A few lotus trees and some rock-cut topibs are here found beside
a miserable mud hamlet on the bill slope, with a modern tomb-
house (kubbch). Passing beneath rugged cliffs a recess in the hills
is next reached, where stands Tubariya, the ancient Tiberias or
Rakkatb, containing 3000 inhabitants, more than half of whom are
Jews. The walls, flanked with round towers, but partly destroyed
by the earthquake of 1837, were built by Dbahr el-Amir, as was
the court-house. The two mosques, now partly ruinous, were
erected by his sons. There are remains of a Crusaders' church,
and the tomb of the celebrated Maimonides is shown in the town,
while Rabbi Aqlba and Rabbi Meir lie buried outside. The
ruins of the ancient city, including granite columns and traces of
a sea-wall with towers, stretch southwards a mile beyond the
modern town. An aqueduct in the cliff once brought water a
distance of 9 m. from the south.
Kerak, at the south end of the lake, is an important site on a
peninsula surrounded by the water of the lake, by the Jordan,
and by a broad water ditch, while on the north-west a narrow
neck of land remains. The plateau thus enclosed is partly
artificial, and banked up 50 or 60 ft. above the water. A ruined
citadel remains on the north-west, and on the east was a bridge
over the Jordan; broken pottery and fragments of sculptured
stone strew the site. The ruin of Kerak answers to the descrip-
tion given by Josephus of the city of Taricheae, which lay 30
stadia from Tiberias, the hot baths being between the two cities.
Taricbeae was situated, as is Kerak, on the shore below the
cliffs, and partly surrounded by water, while before the city was a
406
GALILEO
plain (the Ghor) . Pliny further informs us that Taricheae was at
.the south end of the Sea of Galilee. Sinn en-Nabreh, a ruin on a
spur of the, hills close to the last-mentioned site, represents the
ancient Sennabris, where Vespasian (Josephus, B.J. iii. 9, 7)
fixed his camp, advancing from Scythopolis (Beisen) on Taricheae
and Tiberias. Sennabris was 30 stadia from Tiberias, or about
the distance of the ruin now existing.
The eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee have been less fully
explored than the western, and the sites are not so perfectly
recovered. The site of Hippos, one of the cities of Decapolis, is
fixed by Clermont-Ganneau at Khurbet Susieh. Kalat el-Hosn
(" castle of the stronghold ") is a ruin on a rocky spur opposite
Tiberias. Two large ruined buildings remain, with traces of an
old street and fallen columns and capitals. A strong wall once
surrounded the town; a narrow neck of land exists on the east
where the rock has been scarped. Rugged valleys enclose the
site on the north and south; broken sarcophagi and rock-cut
tombs are found beneath the ruin. This site is not identified ; the
suggestion that it is Gamala is doubtful, and not borne out by
Josephus (War, iv. i, i), who says Gamala was over against
Taricheae. Kersa, an insignificant ruin north of the last, is
thought to represent the Gerasa or Gergesa of the 4th century,
situated east of the lake; and the projecting spur of hill south of
this ruin is conjectured to be the place where the swine " ran
violently down a steep place " (Matt. viii. 32).
(C. R. C.; C. W. W.; R. A. S. M.)
GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642), Italian astronomer and
experimental philosopher, was born at Pisa on the isth of
February 1564. His father, Vincenzio, was an impoverished
descendant of a noble Florentine house, which had exchanged
the surname of Bonajuti for that of Galilei, on the election, in
1 343, of one of its members, Tommasode'Bonajuti, to the college
of the twelve Buonuomini. The family, which was nineteen
times represented in the signoria, and in 1445 gave a gonfalonier
to Florence, flourished with the republic and declined with its fall.
Vincenzio Galilei was a man of better parts than fortune. He was
a competent mathematician, wrote with considerable ability on
the theory and practice of music, and was especially distinguished
amongst his contemporaries for the grace and skill of his perform-
ance upon the lute. By his wife, Giulia Ammannati of Pescia, he
had three sons and four daughters.
From his earliest childhood Galileo, the eldest of the family,
was remarkable for intellectual aptitude as well as for mechanical
invention. His favourite pastime was the construction of original
and ingenious toy-machines; but his application to literary
studies was equally conspicuous. In the monastery of Vallom-
brosa, near Florence, where his education was principally con-
ducted, he not only made himself acquainted with the best
Latin authors, but acquired a fair command of the Greek tongue,
thus laying the foundation of his brilliant and elegant style.
From one of the monks he also received instruction in logic; but
the subtleties of the scholastic science were thoroughly distasteful
to him. A document published by F. Selmi in 1864 proves that
he was at this time so far attracted towards a religious life as to
have joined the novitiate; but his father, who had other designs
for him, seized the opportunity of an attack of ophthalmia to
withdraw him permanently from the care of the monks. Having
had personal experience of the unremunerative character both of
music and of mathematics, he desired that his son should apply
himself to the cultivation of medicine, and, not without some
straining of his slender resources, placed him, before he had
completed his eighteenth year, at the university of Pisa. He
accordingly matriculated there on the sth of November 1581, and
immediately entered upon attendance at the lectures of the
celebrated physician and botanist, Andrea Cesalpino.
The natural gifts of the young student seemed at this time
equally ready to develop in any direction towards which choice
or hazard might incline them. In musical skill and invention he
already vied with the best professors of the art in Italy; his
personal taste would have led him to choose painting as his
profession, and one of the most eminent artists of his day,
Lodovico Cigoli, owned that to his judgment and counsel he was
mainly indebted for the success of his works. In 1581, while
watching a lamp set swinging in the cathedral of Pisa, he observed
that, whatever the range of its oscillations, they were invariably
executed in equal times. The experimental verification of this
fact led him to the important discovery of the isochronism of the
pendulum. He at first applied the new principle to pulse-
measurement, and more than fifty years later turned it to account
in the construction of an astronomical clock. Up to this time he
was entirely ignorant of mathematics, his father having carefully
held him aloof from a study which he rightly apprehended would
lead to his total alienation from that of medicine. Accident,
however, frustrated this purpose. A lesson in geometry, given by
Ostilio Ricci to the pages of the grand-ducal court, chanced,
tradition avers, to have Galileo for an unseen listener; his
attention was riveted, his dormant genius was roused, and he
threw all his energies into the new pursuit thus unexpectedly
presented to him. With Ricci's assistance, he rapidly mastered
the elements of the science, and eventually extorted his father's
reluctant permission to exchange Hippocrates and Galen for
Euclid and Archimedes. In 1585 he was withdrawnfrom the
university, through lack of means, before he had taken a degree,
and returned to Florence, where his family habitually resided.
We next hear of him as lecturing before the Florentine Academy
on the site and dimensions of Dante's Inferno; and he shortly
afterwards published an essay descriptive of his invention of the
hydrostatic balance, which rapidly made his name known
throughout Italy. His first patron was the Marchese Guidubaldo
del Monte of Pesaro, a man equally eminent in science, and
influential through family connexions. At the Marchese'n
request he wrote, in 1588, a treatise on the centre of gravity in
solids, which obtained for him, together with the title of " the
Archimedes of his time," the honourable though not lucrative
post of mathematical lecturer at the Pisan university. During
the ensuing two years (1580-1591) he carried on that remarkable
series of experiments by which he established the first principles
of dynamics and earned the undying hostility of bigoted Aristo-
telians. From the leaning tower of Pisa he afforded to all the
professors and students of the university ocular demonstration
of the falsehood of the Peripatetic dictum that heavy bodies fall
with velocities proportional to their weights, and with unanswer-
able logic demolished all the time-honoured maxims of the schools
regarding the motion of projectiles, and elemental weight or
levity. But while he convinced, he failed to conciliate his
adversaries. The keen sarcasm of his polished rhetoric was not
calculated to soothe the susceptibilities of men already smarting
under the deprivation of their most cherished illusions. He seems,
in addition, to have compromised his position with the grand-
ducal family by the imprudent candour with which he condemned
a machine for clearing the port of Leghorn, invented by Giovanni
de' Medici, an illegitimate son of Cosmo I. Princely favour
being withdrawn, private rancour was free to show itself. He
was publicly hissed at his lecture, and found it prudent to resign
his professorship and withdraw to Florence in 1591. Through
the death of his father in July of that year family cares and
responsibilities devolved upon him, and thus his nomination to
the chair of mathematics at the university of Padua, secured by
the influence of the Marchese Guidubaldo with the Venetian
senate, was welcome both as affording a relief from pecuniary
embarrassment and as opening a field for scientific distinction.
His residence at Padua, which extended over a period of
eighteen years, from 1592 to 1610, was a course of uninterrupted
prosperity. His appointment was three times renewed, on each
occasion with the expressions of the highest esteem on the part of
the governing body, and his yearly salary was progressively raised
from 180 to 1000 florins. His lectures were attended by persons
of the highest distinction from all parts of Europe, and such was
the charm of his demonstrations that a hall capable of Containing
2000 people had eventually to be assigned for the accommodation
of the overflowing audiences which they attracted. His invention
of the proportional compass or sector an implement still used in
geometrical drawing dates from 1597; and about the same
time he constructed the first thermometer, consisting of a bulb
GALILEO
407
and tube filled with air and water, and terminating in a vessel of
water. In this instrument the results of varying atmospheric
pressure were not distinguishable from the expansive and con-
tractive effects of heat and cold, and it became an efficient
measure of temperature only when Rinitri, in 1646, introduced
the improvement of hermetically sealing the liquid in glass. The
substitution, in 1670, of mercury for water completed the modern
thermometer.
Galileo seems, at an early period of his life, to have adopted the
Copernican theory of the solar system, and was deterred from
avowing his opinions as is proved by his letter to Kepler of
August 4, 1507 by the fear of ridicule rather than of persecu-
tion. The appearance, in September 1604, of a new star in the
constellation Serpentarius afforded him indeed an opportunity,
of which he eagerly availed himself, for making an onslaught upon
the Aristotelian axiom of the incorruptibility of the heavens;
but he continued to conform his public teachings in the main to
Ptolemaic principles, until the discovery of a novel and potent
implement of research in the shape of the telescope (q.v.) placed
at his command startling and hitherto unsuspected evidence as
to the constitution and mutual relations of the heavenly bodies.
Galileo was not the original inventor of the telescope.' That
honour must be assigned to Johannes Lippershey, an obscure
optician of Middleburg, who, on the and of October 1608,
petitioned the states-general of the Low Countries for exclusive
rights in the manufacture of an instrument for increasing the
apparent size of remote objects. A rumourof the new invention,
which reached Venice in June 1609, sufficed to set Galileo on the
track; and after one night's profound meditation on the principles
of refraction, he succeeded in producing a telescope of threefold
magnifying power. Upon this first attempt he rapidly improved,
until he attained to a power of thirty-two, and his instruments, of
which he manufactured hundreds with his own hands, were soon
in request in every part of Europe. Two lenses only a plano-
convex and a plano-concave were needed for the composition of
each, and this simple principle is that still employed in the con-
struction of opera-glasses. Galileo's direction of his new instru-
ment to the heavens formed an era in the history of astronomy.
Discoveries followed upon it with astounding rapidity and in
bewildering variety. The Sidereus Nuncius, published at Venice
early in 1610, contained the first-fruits of the new mode of
investigation, which were sufficient to excite learned amazement
on both sides of the Alps. The mountainous configuration of
the moon's surface was there first described, and the so-called
" phosphorescence " of the dark portion of our satellite attributed
to its true cause namely, illumination by sunlight reflected
from the earth. 1 All the time-worn fables and conjectures
regarding the composition of the Milky Way were at once dis-
sipated by the simple statement that to the eye, reinforced by
the telescope, it appeared as a congeries of lesser stars, while the
great nebulae were equally declared to be resolvable into similar
elements. But the discovery which was at once perceived to be
most important in itself, and most revolutionary in its effects,
was that of Jupiter's satellites, first seen by Galileo on the ;th of
January 1610, and by him named Sidera Medicea, in honour of the
grand-duke of Tuscany, Cosmo II., who had been his pupil, and
was about to become his employer. An illustration is, with the
general run of mankind, more powerful to convince than an
argument; and the cogency of the visible plea for the Coper-
nican theory offered by the miniature system, then first disclosed
to view, was recognizable in the triumph of its advocates as well
as in the increased acrimony of its opponents.
In September 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for
Florence. His researches with the telescope bad been rewarded
1 The word telescope, from T$X, far, orur, to view, was invented
by DemiscUnus, an eminent Greek scholar, at the request of Prince
Cew, pmtdent of the Lyncean Academy. It was used by Galileo as
early a* 1612, but was not introduced into England until much later.
In 1655 the word ttletcopt was inserted and explained in Bagwell's
tfyttenet of Attrmumj, trunk or cylinder being the terms until then
ordinarily employed.
* Leonardo da Vinci, more than a hundred years earlier, had come
to the same conclusion.
by the Venetian senate with the appointment for life to his
professorship, at an unprecedentedly high salary. His discovery
of the " Medicean Stars " was acknowledged by his nomination
(July la, i(iio) as philosopher and mathematician extraordinary
to the grand-duke of Tuscany. The emoluments of this office,
which involved no duties save that of continuing his scientific
labours, were fixed at 1000 scudi; and it was the desire of
increased leisure, rather than the promptings of local patriotism,
which induced him to accept an offer the original suggestion of
which had indeed come from himself. Before the close of 1610
the memorable cycle of discoveries begun in the previous year
was completed by the observation of the ansated or, as it
appeared to Galileo, triple form of Saturn (the ring-formation was
first recognized by Christiaan Huygens in 1655), of the phases of
Venus, and of the spots upon the sun. As regards sun-spots,
however, Johann Fabricius of Osteel in Friesland can claim
priority of publication, if not of actual detection. In the spring
of 1611 Galileo visited Rome, and exhibited in the gardens of the
Quirinal Palace the telescopic wonders of the heavens to the most
eminent personages at the pontifical court. Encouraged by the
nattering reception accorded to him, he ventured, in his Letters
on the Solar Spots, printed at Rome in 1613, to take up a more
decided position towards that doctrine on the establishment of
which, as he avowed in a letter to Belisario Vinta, secretary to the
grand-duke, " all his life and being henceforward depended."
Even in the time of Copernicus some well-meaning persons,
especially those of the reformed persuasion, had suspected a
discrepancy between the new view of the solar system and certain
passages of Scripture a suspicion strengthened by the anti-
Christian inferences drawn from it by Giordano Bruno; but the
question was never formally debated until Galileo's brilliant
disclosures, enhanced by his formidable dialectic and enthusiastic
zeal, irresistibly challenged for it the attention of the authorities.
Although he had no desire to raise the theological issue, it must be
admitted that, the discussion once set on foot, he threw himself
into it with characteristic impetuosity, and thus helped to
precipitate a decision which it was his interest to avert. In
December 1613 a Benedictine monk named Benedetto Castelli,
at that time professor of mathematics at the university of Pisa,
wrote to inform Galileo of a recent discussion at the grand-
ducal table, in which he had been called upon to defend the
Copernican doctrine against theological objections. This task
Castelli, who was a steady friend and disciple of the Tuscan
astronomer, seems to have discharged with moderation
and success. Galileo's answer, written, as he said himself,
currenle calamo, was an exposition of a formal theory as to the
relations of physical science to Holy Writ, still further developed
in an elaborate apology addressed by him in the following year
(1614) to Christina of Lorraine, dowager grand-duchess of
Tuscany. Not satisfied with explaining adverse texts, he met
his opponents with unwise audacity on their own ground, and
endeavoured to produce scriptural confirmation of a system
which seemed to the ignorant many an incredible paradox, and to
the scientific few a beautiful but daring innovation. The rising
agitation on the subject, fomented for their own purposes by the
rabid Aristotelians of the schools, was heightened rather than
allayed by these manifestoes, and on the fourth Sunday of the
following Advent found a voice in the pulpit of Santa Maria
Novella. Padre Caccini's denunciation of the new astronomy
was indeed disavowed and strongly condemned by his superiors;
nevertheless, on the sth of February 1615, another Dominican
monk named Lorini laid Galileo's letter to Castelli before the
Inquisition.
Cardinal Robert Bcllarmin was at that time by far the most
influential member of the Sacred College. He was a man of vast
learning and upright piety, but, although personally friendly to
Galileo, there is no doubt that he saw in his scientific teachings a
danger to religion. The year 1615 seems to have been a period of
suspense. Galileo received, as the result of a conference between
Cardinals Bellarmin and Del Monte, a semi-official warning to
avoid theology, and limit himself to physical reasoning. " Write
freely," be was told by Monsignor Dini, " but keep outside the
GALILEO
sacristy." Unfortunately, he had already committed himself to
dangerous ground. In December he repaired personally to Rome,
full of confidence that the weight of his arguments and the vivacity
of his eloquence could not fail to convert the entire pontifical
court to his views. He was cordially received, and eagerly
listened to, but his imprudent ardour served but to injure his
cause. On the 24th of February 1616 the consulting theologians
of the Holy Office characterized the two propositions that the
sun is immovable in the centre of the world, and that the earth has
a diurnal motion of rotation the first as " absurd in philosophy,
and formally heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy
Scripture," and the second as " open to the same censure in
philosophy, and at least erroneous as to faith." Two days later
Galileo was, by command of the pope (Paul V.), summoned
to the palace of Cardinal Bellarmin, and there officially ad-
monished not thenceforward to " hold, teach or defend " the
condemned doctrine. This injunction he promised to obey.
On the sth of March the Congregation of the Index issued a decree
reiterating, with the omission of the word " heretical," the censure
of the theologians, suspending, usque corrigatur, the great work of
Copernicus, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, and absolutely
prohibiting a treatise by a Carmelite monk named Foscarini,
which treated the same subject from a theological point of view.
At the same time it was given to be understood that the new
theory of the solar system might be held ex hypothesi, and the
trivial verbal alterations introduced into the Polish astonomer's
book in 1620, when the work of revision was completed by Cardinal
Gaetani, confirmed this interpretation. This edict, it is essential
to observe, the responsibility for which rests with a disciplinary
congregation in no sense representing the church, was never
confirmed by the pope, and was virtually repealed in 1757 under
Benedict XIV.
Galileo returned to Florence three months later, not ill-pleased,
as his letters testify, with the result of his visit to Rome. He
brought with him, for the refutation of calumnious reports
circulated by his enemies, a written certificate from Cardinal
Bellarmin, to the effect that no abjuration had been required of or
penance imposed upon him. During a prolonged audience he had
received from the pope assurances of private esteem and personal
protection; and he trusted to his dialectical ingenuity to find the
means of presenting his scientific convictions under the trans-
parent veil of an hypothesis. Although a sincere Catholic, he
seems to have laid but little stress on the secret admonition of the
Holy Office, which his sanguine temperament encouraged him
gradually to dismiss from his mind. He preserved no written
memorandum of its terms, and it was represented to him, accord-
ing to his own deposition in 1633, solely by Cardinal Bellarmin's
certificate, in which , for obvious reasons, it was glossed over rather
than expressly recorded. For seven years, nevertheless, during
which he led a life of studious retirement in the Villa Segni at
Bellosguardo, near Florence, he maintained an almost unbroken
silence. At the end of that time he appeared in public with his
Suggiatore, a polemical treatise written in reply to the Libra
astronomica of Padre Grassi (under the pseudonym of Lotario
Sarsi), the Jesuit astronomer of the Collegio Romano. The
subject in debate was the nature of comets, the conspicuous
appearance of three of which bodies in the year 1618 furnished
the occasion of the controversy. Galileo's views, although
erroneous, since he held comets to be mere atmospheric emana-
tions reflecting sunlight after the evanescent fashion of a halo
or a rainbow, were expressed with such triumphant vigour, and
embellished with such telling sarcasms, that his opponent did not
venture upon a reply. The Saggiatore was printed at Rome in
October 1623 by the Academy of the Lincei, of which Galileo was
a member, with a dedication to the new pope, Urban VIII., and
notwithstanding some passages containing a covert defence of
Copernican opinions, was received with acclamation by ecclesi-
astical, no less than by scientific authorities.
Everything seemed now to promise a close of unbroken
prosperity to Galileo's career. Maffeo Barberini, his warmest
friend and admirer in the Sacred College, was, by the election of
the Sth of August 1623, seated on the pontifical throne; and the
marked distinction with which he was received on his visit of
congratulation to Rome in 1624 encouraged him to hope for the
realization of his utmost wishes. He received every mark of
private favour. The pope admitted him to six long audiences in
the course of two months, wrote an enthusiastic letter to the
grand-duke praising the great astronomer, not only for his
distinguished learning, but also for his exemplary piety, and
granted a pension to his son Vincenzio, which was afterwards
transferred to himself, and paid, with some irregularities, to the
end of his life. But on the subject of the decree of 1616, the
revocation of which Galileo had hoped to obtain through his
personal influence, he found him inexorable. Yet there seemed
reason to expect that it would at least be interpreted in a liberal
spirit, and Galileo's friends encouraged his imprudent confidence
by eagerly retailing to him every papal utterance which it was
possible to construe in a favourable sense. To Cardinal Hohen-
zollern, Urban was reported to have said that the theory of the
earth's motion had not been and could not be condemned as
heretical, but only as rash; and in 1630 the brilliant Dominican
monk Tommaso Campanella wrote to Galileo that the pope had
expressed to him in conversation his disapproval of the prohi-
bitory decree. Thus, in the full anticipation of added renown,
and without any misgiving as to ulterior consequences, Galileo
set himself, on his return to Florence, to complete his famous
but ill-starred work, the Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del
mondo. Finished in 1630, it was not until January 1632 that it
emerged from the presses of Landini at Florence. The book
was originally intended to appear in Rome, but unexpected
obstacles interposed. The Lincean Academy collapsed with the
death of Prince Federigo Cesi, its founder and president; an
outbreak of plague impeded communication between the various
Italian cities; and the imprimatur was finally extorted, rather
than accorded, under the pressure of private friendship and
powerful interest. A tumult of applause from every part of
Europe followed its publication; and it would be difficult to find
in any language a book in which animation and elegance of style
are so happily combined with strength and clearness of scientific
exposition. Three interlocutors, named respectively Salviati,
Sagredo, and Simplicio, take part in the four dialogues of which
the work is composed. The first-named expounds the views of
the author; the second is an eager and intelligent listener; the
third represents a well-meaning but obtuse Peripatetic, whom the
others treat at times with undisguised contempt. Salviati and
Sagredo took their names from two of Galileo's early friends, the
former a learned Florentine, the latter a distinguished Venetian
gentleman; Simplicio ostensibly derived his from the Cilician
commentator of Aristotle, but the choice was doubtless instigated
by a sarcastic regard to the double meaning of the word. There
were not wanting those who insinuated that Galileo intended to
depict the pope himself in the guise of the simpleton of the party;
and the charge, though preposterous in itself, was supported by
certain imprudences of expression, which Urban was not per-
mitted to ignore.
It was at once evident that the whole tenor of this remarkable
work was in flagrant contradiction with the edict passed sixteen
years before its publication, as well as with the author's personal
pledge of conformity to it. The ironical submission with which it
opened, and the assumed indetermination with which it closed,
were hardly intended to mask the vigorous assertion of Coper-
nican principles which formed its substance. It is a singular
circumstance, however, that the argument upon which Galileo
mainly relied as furnishing a physical demonstration of the truth
of the new theory rested on a misconception. The ebb arid flow
of the tides were, he asserted, a visible proof of the terrestrial
double movement, since they resulted from inequalities in the
absolute velocities through space of the various parts of the
earth's surface, due to its rotation. To this notion, which took
its rise in a confusion of thought, he attached capital importance,
and he treated with scorn Kepler's suggestion that a certain
occult attraction of the moon was in some way concerned in the
phenomenon. The theological censures which the book did not
fail to incur were not slow in making themselves felt. Towards
GALILEO
409
thf end of August the sale was prohibited; on the ist of October
the author was cited to Rome by the Inquisition. He pleaded his
age, now close upon seventy yean, his infirm health, and the
obstacles to travel caused by quarantine regulations; but the
pope was sternly indignant at what he held to be his ingratitude
and insubordination, and no excuse was admitted. At length,
oa the ijth of February 1633, he arrived at the residence of
Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador to the pontifical court, and
there abode in retirement for two months. From the 1 2th to the
joth of April he was detained in the palace of the Inquisition,
where he occupied the best apartments and was treated with
unexampled indulgence. On the joth he was restored to the
hospitality of Niccolini, his warm partisan. The accusation
against him was that he had written in contravention of the
decree of 1616, and in defiance of the command of the Holy Office
communicated to him by Cardinal Bella rm in; and his defence
consisted mainly in a disavowal of his opinions, and an appeal to
his good intentions. On the 2 ist of June he was finally examined
under menace of torture; but he continued to maintain his
assertion that after its condemnation by the Congregation of the
Index, he had never held the Copernican theory. Since the
publication of the documents relating to this memorable trial,
there can no longer be any doubt, not only that the threat of
torture was not carried into execution, but that it was never
intended that it should be. On the 22nd of June, in the church of
Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Galileo read his recantation, and
received his sentence. He was condemned, as " vehemently
suspected of heresy," to incarceration at the pleasure of the
tribunal, and by way of penance was enjoined to recite once a
week for three years the seven penitential psalms. This sentence
was signed by seven cardinals, but did not receive the customary
papal ratification. The legend according to which Galileo,
rising from his knees after repeating the formula of abjuration,
stamped on the ground, and. exclaimed, " Eppur si muove!" is,
a* may readily be supposed, entirely apocryphal. Its earliest
ascertained appearance is in the Abbe Irailh's Qutrelles litUraires
(vol. iii. p. 49, 1761).
Galileo remained in the custody of the Inquisition from the
2ist to the 24th of June, on which day he was relegated to the
Villa Medici on the TrinitA de' Monti. Thence, on the 6th of July,
he was permitted to depart for Siena, where he spent several
months in the house of the archbishop, Ascanio Piccolomini, one
of his numerous and trusty friends. It was not until December
that his earnest desire of returning to Florence was realized, and
the remaining eight yean of his life were spent in his villa at
Arcetri called " II Giojello," in the strict seclusion which was the
prescribed condition of his comparative freedom. Domestic
afflictions combined with numerous and painful infirmities to
embitter his old age. His sister-in-law and her whole family,
who came to live with him on his return from Rome, perished
shortly afterwards of the plague; and on the 2nd of April 1634
died, to the inexpressible grief of her father, his eldest and best-
beloved daughter, a nun in the convent of San Matteo at Arcetri.
Galileo was never married; but by a Venetian woman named
Marina Gamba he had three children a son who married and
left descendants, and two daughters who took the veil at an early
age. His prodigious mental activity continued undiminished to
the last. In 1636 he completed his Dialoghi delle nuave scienze,
in which he recapitulated the results of his early experiments and
mature meditations on the principles of mechanics. This in
many respects his most valuable work was printed by the
Elzevirs at Leiden in 1638, and excited admiration equally uni-
versal and more lasting than that accorded to his astronomical
treatises. His last telescopic discovery that of the moon's
diurnal and monthly librations was made in 1637, only a few
months before his eyes were for ever closed in hopeless blindness.
It was in this condition that Milton found him when he visited
him at Arcetri in 1638. But the fire of his genius was not even yet
extinct. He continued his scientific correspondence with
unbroken interest and undiminished logical acumen; he thought
out the application of the pendulum to the regulation of cloclc-
irhich Huygens successfully realized fifteen yean later;
and he was engaged in dictating to his disciples, Viviani and
Torricelli, his latest ideas on the theory of impact when he was
seized with the slow fever which in two months brought him to
the grave. On the 8th of January 1642 he closed his long life of
triumph and humiliation, which just spanned the interval
between the death of Michelangelo and the birth of Isaac Newton.
The direct services which Galileo rendered to astronomy are
virtually summed up in his telescopic discoveries. To the theo-
retical perfection of the science he contributed little or nothing.
He pointed out indeed that the so-called " third motion," intro-
duced by Copernicus to account for the constant parallelism of
the earth's axis, was a superfluous complication. But he substi-
tuted the equally unnecessary hypothesis of a magnetic attrac-
tion, and failed to perceive that the phenomenon to be explained
was, in relation to absolute space, not a movement but the absence
of movement. The circumstance, however, which most seriously
detracts from his scientific reputation is his neglect of the
discoveries made during his lifetime by the greatest of his
contemporaries. Kepler's first and second laws were published
in 1609, and his third ten years later. By these momentous
inductions the geometrical theory of the solar system was
perfected, and a hitherto unimagined symmetry was perceived to
regulate the mutual relations of its members. But by Galileo
they were passed over in silence. In his Dialogo dei massimi
sistemi, printed not less than thirteen years after the last of the
three laws had been given to the world, the epicycles by which
Copernicus, adhering to the ancient postulate of uniform circular
motion, had endeavoured to reduce to theory the irregularities of
the 'planetary movements, were neither expressly adopted nor
expressly rejected; and the conclusion seems inevitable that this
grave defection from the cause of progress was due to his perhaps
unconscious reluctance to accept discoveries which he had not
originated. His name is nevertheless justly associated with that
vast extension of the bounds of the visible universe which has
rendered modern astronomy the most sublime of sciences, and his
telescopic observations are a standing monument to his sagacity
and acumen.
With the sure instinct of genius, he seized the characteristic
features of the phenomena presented to his attention, and his
inferences, except when distorted by polemical exigencies, have
been strikingly confirmed by modern investigations. Of his two
capital errors, regarding respectively the theory of the tides and
the nature of comets, the first was insidiously recommended to
him by his passionate desire to find a physical confirmation of the
earth's double motion; the second was adopted for the purpose
of rebutting an anti-Copernican argument f oundedon the planetary
analogies of those erratic subjects of the sun. Within two years of
their first discovery, he had constructed approximately accurate
tables of the revolutions of Jupiter's satellites, and he proposed
their frequent eclipses as a means of determining longitudes, not
only on land, but at sea. This method, on which he laid great
stress, and for the facilitation of which he invented a binocular
glass, and devised some skilful mechanical contrivances, was
offered by him in 1616 to the Spanish government, and afterwards
to that of Tuscany, but in each case unsuccessfully; and the
close of his life was occupied with prolonged but fruitless negotia-
tions on the same subject with the states-general of Holland.
The idea, though ingenious, has been found of little practical
utility at sea.
A series of careful observations made him acquainted with the
principal appearances revealed by modern instruments in the
solar spots. He pointed out that they were limited to a certain
defined zone on the sun's surface; he noted the faculae with
which they are associated, the penumbra by which they are
bordered, their slight proper motions and their rapid changes of
form. He inferred from the regularity of their general movements
the rotation of the sun on its axis in a period of little less than a
month; and he grounded on the varying nature of the paths
seemingly traversed by them a plausible, though inconclusive,
argument in favour of the earth's annual revolution. Twice in
the year, he observed, they seem to travel across the solar disk in
straight lines; at other times, in curves. These appearances he
410
GALILEO
referred with great acuteness to the slight inclination of the sun's
axis of rotation to the plane of the ecliptic. Thus, when the
earth finds herself in the plane of the sun's equator, which occurs
at two opposite points of her orbit, the spots, travelling in circles
parallel with that plane, necessarily appear to describe right lines;
but when the earth is above or below the equatorial level, the
paths of the spots open out into curves turned downwards or
upwards, according to the direction in which they are seen. But
the explanation of this phenomenon is equally consistent with the
geocentric as with the heliocentric theory of the solar system.
The idea of a universal force of gravitation seems to have hovered
on the borders of this great man's mind, without ever fully
entering it. He perceived the analogy between the power which
holds the moon in the neighbourhood of the earth, and compels
Jupiter's satellites to circulate round their primary, and the
attraction exercised by the earth on bodies at its surface; * but
he failed to conceive the combination of central force with
tangential velocity, and was disposed to connect the revolutions
of the planets with the axial rotation of the sun. This notion, it
is plain, tended rather towards Descartes's theory of vortices
than towards Newton's theory of gravitation. More valid
instances of the anticipation of modern discoveries may be found
in his prevision that a small annual parallax would eventually be
found for some of the fixed stars, and that extra-Saturnian planets
would at some future time be ascertained to exist, and in his
conviction that light travels with a measurable, although, in
relation to terrestrial distances, infinite velocity.
The invention of the microscope, attributed to Gal'leo by his
first biographer, Vincenzio Viviani, does not in truth belong to
him. Such an instrument was made as early as 1 590 by Zacharias
Jansen of Middleburg; and although Galileo discovered, in 1610,
a means of adapting his telescope to the examination of minute
objects, he did not become acquainted with the compound
microscope until 1624 when he saw one of Drebbel's instru-
ments in Rome, and, with characteristic ingenuity, immedi-
ately introduced some material improvements into its
construction.
The most substantial, if not the most brilliant part of his work
consisted undoubtedly in his contributions towards the establish-
ment of mechanics as a science. Some valuable but isolated facts
and theorems had been previously discovered and proved, but
it was he who first clearly grasped the idea of force as a mechanical
agent, and extended to the external world the conception of the
invariability of the relation between cause and effect. From the
time of Archimedes there had existed a science of equilibrium, but
the science of motion began with Galileo. It is not too much to
say that the final triumph of the Copernican system was due in
larger measure to his labours in this department than to his
direct arguments in its favour. The problem of the heavens is
essentially a mechanical one; and without the mechanical
conceptions of the dependence of motion upon force which
Galileo familiarized to men's minds, that problem might have
remained a sealed book even to the intelligence of Newton. The
interdependence of motion and force was not indeed formulated
into definite laws by Galileo, but his writings on dynamics are
everywhere suggestive of those laws, and his solutions of
dynamical problems involve their recognition. The extra-
ordinary advances made by him in this branch of knowledge
were owing to his happy method of applying mathematical
analysis to physical problems. As a pure mathematician he was,
it is true, surpassed in profundity by more than one among his
pupils and contemporaries; and in the wider imaginative grasp
of abstract geometrical principles he cannot be compared with
Fermat, Descartes or Pascal, to say nothing of Newton or
Leibnitz. Still, even in the region of pure mathematics, his
1 The passage is sufficiently remarkable to deserve quotation in the
original: " Le parti della Terra hanno tal propensione al centro di
essa, che quando ella cangiasse juogo, le dette parti, benche lontane
dal globo nel tempo delle mutazioni di esso, lo seguirebbero per tutto ;
esempio di ci6 sia il seguito perpetuo delle Medicee, ancorche separate
continuamente da Giove. L'istessp si deye dire della Luna, obbligata
a seguir la Terra." Dialogo del massimi sistemi, Giornata terza,
p. 351 of AlbeYi's edition.
powerful and original mind left notable traces of its working.
He studied the properties of the cycloid, and attempted the
problem of its quadrature; and in the " infinitesimals," which he
was one of the first to introduce into geometrical demonstrations,
was contained the fruitful germ of the differential calculus.
But the method which was peculiarly his, and which still forms
the open road to discoveries in natural science, consisted in the
combination of experiment with calculation in the transforma-
tion of the concrete into the abstract, and the assiduous com-
parison of results. The first-fruits of the new system of investiga-
tion was his determination of the laws of falling bodies. Conceiv-
ing that the simplest principle is the most likely to be true, he
assumed as a postulate that bodies falling freely towards the earth
descend with a uniformly accelerated motion, and deduced thence
that the velocities acquired are in the direct, and the spaces
traversed in the duplicate ratio of the times, counted from the
beginning of motion; finally, he proved, by observing the times
of descent of bodies falling down inclined planes, that the postu-
lated law was the true law. Even here, he was obliged to take for
granted that the velocities acquired in descending from the same
height along planes of every inclination are equal; and it was not
until shortly before his death that he found the mathematical
demonstration of this not very obvious principle.
The first law of motion that which expresses the principle
of inertia is virtually contained in the idea of uniformly
accelerated velocity. The recognition of the second that of the
independence of different motions must be added to form the
true theory of projectiles. This was due to Galileo. Up to his
time it was universally held in the schools that the motion of a
body should cease with the impulse communicated to it, but
for the " reaction of the medium " helping it forward. Galileo
showed, on the contrary, that the nature of motion once impressed
is to continue indefinitely in a uniform direction, and that the
effect of the medium is a retarding, not an impelling one. Another
commonly received axiom was that no body could be affected by
more than one movement at one time, and it was thus supposed
that a cannon ball, or other projectile, moves forward in a right
line until its first impulse is exhausted, when it falls vertically to
the ground. In the fourth of Galileo's dialogues on mechanics,
he demonstrated that the path described by a projectile, being the
result of the combination of a uniform transverse motion with a
uniformly accelerated vertical motion, must, apart from the
resistance of the air, be a parabola. The establishment of the
principle of the composition of motions formed a conclusive
answer to the most formidable of the arguments used against the
rotation of the earth, and we find it accordingly triumphantly
brought forward by Galileo in the second of his dialogues on the
systems of the world. It was urged by anti-Copernicans that a
body flung upward or cast downward would, if the earth were in
motion, be left behind by the rapid translation of the point from
which it started; Galileo proved on the contrary that the
reception of a fresh impulse in no way interfered with the move-
ment already impressed, and that the rotation of the earth was
insensible, because shared equally by all bodies at its surface.
His theory of the inclined plane, combined with his satisfactory
definition of " momentum," led him towards the third law of
motion. We find Newton's theorem, that " action and reaction
are equal and opposite," stated with approximate precision in his
treatise Delia scienza meccanica, which contains the substance of
lectures delivered during his professorship at Padua; and the
same principle is involved in the axiom enunciated in the third
of his mechanical dialogues, that " the propensity of a body to
fall is equal to the least resistance which suffices to support it."
The problems of percussion, however, received no definitive
solution until after his death.
His services were as conspicuous in the statical as in the
kinetical division of mechanics. He gave the first satisfactory
demonstration of equilibrium on an inclined plane, reducing it to
the level by a sound and ingenious train of reasoning; while, by
establishing the theory of " virtual velocities," he laid down the
fundamental principle which, in the opinion of Lagrange, con-
tains the general expression of the laws of equilibrium. He
GALION GALL
411
studied with attention the still obscure subject of molecular
cohesion, and little has been added to what he ascertained on the
question of transverse strains and the strength of beams, first
brought by him within the scope of mechanical theory. In his
Disc or so intomo alie COM die stanno su I'acqua, published in 1612,
he used the principle of virtual velocities to demonstrate the more
important theorems of hydrostatics, deducing from it the
equilibrium of fluid in a siphon, and proved against the Aristo-
telians that the floating of solid bodies in a liquid depends not
upon their form, but upon their specific gravities relative to such
liquid.
In order to form an adequate estimate of the stride made by
Galileo in natural philosophy, it would be necessary to enumerate
the confused and erroneous opinions prevailing on all such
subjects in his time. His best eulogium, it has been truly said,
consists in the fallacies which he exposed. The scholastic
distinctions between corruptible and incorruptible substances,
between absolute gravity and absolute levity, between natural
and violent motions, if they did not wholly disappear from
scientific phraseology, ceased thenceforward to hold the place
of honour in the controversies of the learned. Discarding these
obscure and misleading notions, Galileo taught that gravity and
levity are relative terms, and that all bodies are heavy, even
those which, like the air, are invisible; that motion is the result
of force, instantaneous or continuous; that weight is a continuous
force, attracting towards the centre of the earth; that, in a
vacuum, all bodies would fall with equal velocities; that the
" inertia of matter " implies the continuance of motion, as well
as the permanence of rest; and that the substance of the
heavenly bodies is equally " corruptible " with that of the earth.
These simple elementary ideas were eminently capable of
development and investigation, and were not only true but the
prelude to further truth; while those they superseded defied
inquiry by their vagueness and obscurity. Galileo was a man
born in due time. He was superior to his contemporaries, but not
isolated amongst them. He represented and intensified a growing
tendency of the age in which he lived. It was beginning to be
suspected that from Aristotle an appeal lay to nature, and some
were found who no longer treated the ipse dixit of the Stagirite
as the final authority in matters of science. A vigorous but
ineffectual warfare bad already been waged against the blind
traditions of the schools by Ram us and Telesius, by Patricius and
Campanella, and the revolution which Galileo completed had been
prepared by his predecessors. Nevertheless, the task which he so
effectually accomplished demanded the highest and rarest quality
of genius. He struck out for himself the happy middle path
between the a priori and the empirical systems, and exemplified
with brilliant success the method by which experimental science
has wrested from nature so many of her secrets. His mind was
eminently practical. He concerned himself above all with what
fell within the range of exact inquiry, and left to others the
larger but less fruitful speculations which can never be brought to
the direct test of experiment. Thus, while far-reaching but hasty
generalizations have had their day and been forgotten, his work
has proved permanent, because he made sure of its foundations.
His keen intuition of truth, his vigour and yet sobriety of argu-
ment, his fertility of illustration and acuteness of sarcasm, made
him irresistible to his antagonists; and the evanescent triumphs
of scornful controversy have given place to the sedate applause of
m long-lived posterity.
The first complete edition of Galileo's writings was published at
Florence (1842-1856), in 16 8vo vols., under the supervision of
Signer Eugenio Alberi. Besides the works already enumerated, it
contained the Sermonei de motu rravium composed at Pisa between
1589 and 1591 ; his letters to his friends, with many of their replies,
as well a* several of the essays of his scientific opponents; his
laudatory comments on the Orlando Furioso, and depreciatory
notes on the Gerusalemme Liberata, some stanzas and sonnets of no
great merit, together with the sketch of a comedy; finally, a reprint
of Viviani's Life, with valuable notes and corrections. The original
documents from the archives of the Inquisition, relating to the
events of 1616 and 1633, recovered from Paris in 1846 by the efforts
of Count Rossi, and now in the Vatican Library, were to a limited
extent made public by Monsignor Manno-Marini in 1850, and
by M. Henri de I'Epinois. in an essay entitled
Galilee, ton prods, sa condemnation, published in 1867 in the Retue
des questions historiques. He was followed by M. Karl von Gebler,
who, in an able and exhaustive but somewhat prejudiced work,
Galileo Galilei und die rdmiscke Curie (Stuttgart, 1876), sought to
impeach the authenticity of a document of prime importance in
the trial of 1633. He was victoriously answered by Signor Uomenico
Berti, in // Processo originate di Galileo Galilei (Rome, 1876), and by!
M. de I'Epinois, with Lei pieces du prods de Galilee (Rome, Paris, '
1877). The touching letters of Galileo's eldest daughter. Sister Maria
Celeste, to her father were printed in 1864 by Professor Carlo Arduini,
in a publication entitled La 1'rimogenita di Galileo Galilei.
The issue of a " national edition " of the Works of Galileo, in
ao large volumes, was begun at Florence in 1890. It includes a
mass of previously inedited correspondence and other documents,
collected by the indefatigable director, Professor Antonio Favaro,
among whose numerous publications on Galilean subjects may be
mentioned: Galileo e to studio di Padova (2 vols., 1883); Scampoli
Galileani (12 series, 1886-1897); Nuori Studii Galileani (1891);
Galileo Galilei e Suor Maria Celeste (1891). See also Th. Henri
Martin's GaliUe, les droits de la science et la methode des sciences
physiaues (1868); Private Life of Galileo (by Mrs Olney, 1870);
I. J. Fahie's Galileo; his Life and Work (1903); GaliUe et Marius,
by J. A. C. Oudemans and J. Bosscha (1903). The relations of
Galileo to the Church are temperately and ably discussed by F. R.
Wegjt-Prosser in Galileo and his Judges (1889), and in two articles
published in the American Catholic Quarterly for April and July
1901- (A. M. C.)
GALION, a city of Crawford County, Ohio, U.S.A., about 75 m.
S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 6326; (1900) 7282 (703 foreign-
born); (1910) 7214. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Chicago & St Louis, and the Erie railways, and by an interurban
electric railway. The city is about 1 165 ft. above sea level, and
has extensive railway shops (of the Erie railway) and manu-
factories of brick and tile machinery, carriages and wagons, and
grain and seed cleaners. The municipality owns and operates
its electric-lighting plant. Galion was laid out as a town in 183 1 ,
was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and was chartered as a
city in 1878.
GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828), anatomist, physiologist,
and founder of phrenology (?..), was born at Tiefenbrunn near
Pforzheim, Baden, on the 9th of March 1758. After completing
the usual literary course at Baden and Bruchsal, he began the
study of medicine under J. Hermann (1738-1800) at Strassburg,
whence, attracted by the names of Gerhard van Swieten (1700-
1772) and Maximilian Stoll (1742-1788), he removed to Vienna
in 1781. Having received his diploma, he began to practise as
a physician there in 1785; but his energies were mainly devoted
to the scientific investigation of problems which had occupied
his attention from boyhood. At a comparatively early period
he formed the generalization that in the human subject at least
a powerful memory is invariably associated with prominent
eyes; and further observation enabled him, as he thought, also
to define the external characteristics indicative of special talents
for painting, music and the mechanical arts. Following out
these researches, he gradually reached the strong conviction,
not only that the talents and dispositions of men are dependent
upon the functions of the brain, but also that they may be inferred
with perfect exactitude and precision from the external appear-
ances of the skull. Gall's first appearance as an author was
made in 1791, when he published the first two chapters of
a (never completed) work entitled PhUosophisch-mcdicinische
Untersuchungen tiber Natur u. Kunst im kranken u. gesunden
Zustande des Menschen. The first public notice of his inquiries
in cranioscopy, however, was in the form of a letter addressed to
a friend, which appeared in C. M. Wieland's Deutscher Mercur in
1798; but two years previously he had begun to give private
courses of phrenological lectures in Vienna, where his doctrines
soon attracted general attention, and met with increasing success
until, in 1802, they were interdicted by the government as being
dangerous to religion. This step on the part of the authorities
had the effect of greatly stimulating public curiosity and increasing
Gall's celebrity.
In March 1805 he finally left Vienna in company with his
friend and associate J. C. Spurzheim, and made a tour through
Germany, in the course of which he lectured in Berlin, Dresden,
Magdeburg and several of the university towns. His expositions,
which he knew how to make popular and attractive, were much
GALL GALLAND
resorted to by the public, and excited considerable controversy in
the scientific world. He had almost reached the zenith of his
fame when, in 1807, he repaired to Paris and established himself
there as a medical practitioner, at the same time continuing his
activity as a lecturer and writer. In 1808 appeared his Introduc-
tion au cours de physiologic du cerveau, which was followed in
1809 by the Recherches sur le systeme nerveux en general, et sur
celui du ceneau en particulier (originally laid before the Institute
of France in March 1808), and in 1810 by the first instalment
of the Anatomic et physiologic du systeme nerveux en general, et
du ceneau en particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilite
de reconnoitre plusieurs dispositions intellectuettes et morales de
I'komme et des animaux par la configuration de leurs t&es. The
Recherches and the first two volumes of the Anatomic bear the
conjoint names of Gall and Spurzheim. The latter work was
completed in 1819, and appeared in a second edition of six
volumes in 1822-1825. In 1811 he replied to a charge of
Spinozism or atheism, which had been strongly urged against
him, by a treatise entitled Des dispositions innies de I'dme el
de Vesprit, which he afterwards incorporated with his greater
work. In 1819 he became a naturalized French subject, but his
efforts two years afterwards to obtain admission to the Academy
of Sciences, although supported by E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,
were unsuccessful. In 1823 he visited London with the intention
of giving a series of phrenological lectures, but his reception was
not what he had anticipated, and he speedily abandoned his
plans. He continued to lecture and practise in Paris until the
beginning of 1828, when he was disabled by an apoplectic seizure.
His death took place at Montrouge near Paris, on the 22nd of
August 1828.
GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf.
Dutch gal, and Ger. Gatte; the Indo-European root appears in
Gr. xM> an d Lat. fel; possibly connected with " yellow,"
with reference to the colour of bile), the secretion of the liver
known as " bile," the term being also used of the pear-shaped
divcrticidum of the bile-duct, which forms a reservoir for the bile,
more generally known as the " gall-bladder " (see LIVER). From
the extreme bitterness of the secretion, " gall," like the Lat.
fel, is used for anything extremely bitter, whether actually or
metaphorically. From the idea that the gall-bladder was the
dominating organ of a bitter, sharp temperament, " gall " was
formerly used in English for such a spirit, and also for one very
ready to resent injuries. It thus survives in American slang,
with the meaning " impudence " or " assurance."
" Gall," meaning a sore or painful swelling, especially on a
horse, may be the same word, derived from an early use of the
word as meaning " poison." On the other hand, in Romanic
languages, the Fr. galle, Sp. agalla, a wind-gall or puffy distension
of the synovia! bursa on the fetlock joint of a horse, is derived
from the Lat. gotta, oak-apple, from which comes the English
" gall," meaning an excrescence on trees caused by certain
insects. (See GALLS.)
GALLABAT, or GALABAT, called by the Abyssinians Matemma
(Metemma), a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 13 N.
36 1 2' E. It is built, at the foot of a steep slope, on the left bank
of a tributary of the Atbara called the Khor Abnaheir, which
forms here the Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Gallabat lies 90 m.
W. by N. of Gondar, the capital of Amhara, and being on the main
route from Sennar to Abyssinia, is a trade centre of some import-
ance. Pop. about 3000. The majority of the buildings are grass
tukls. Slaves, beeswax, coffee, cotton and hides were formerly
the chief articles of commerce. The slave market was closed
about 1874. Being on the frontier line, the possession of the town
was for long a matter of dispute between the Sudanese, and later
the Egyptians, on the one hand and the Abyssinians on the other.
About 1870 the Egyptians garrisoned the town, which in 1886
was attacked by the dervishes and sacked. From Gallabat a
dervish raiding party penetrated to Gondar, which they looted.
In revenge an Abyssinian army under Ring John attacked the
dervishes close to Gallabat in March 1889. The dervishes
suffered very severely, but King John being killed by a stray
bullet, the Abyssinians retired (see EGYPT: Military Operations,
1885-1896). In December 1898 an Anglo-Egyptian force entered
Gallabat. The Abyssinians then held the fort, but as the result
of frontier arrangement the town was definitely included in the
Sudan, though Abyssinia takes half the customs revenue. Since
1899 the trade of the place has revived, coffee and live stock
being the most important items.
The town and district form a small ethnographical island,
having been peopled in the i8th century by a colony of Takruri
from Darfur, who, finding the spot a convenient resting-place
for their fellow-pilgrims on their way to Mecca and back, obtained
permission from the negus of Abyssinia to make a permanent
settlement. They are an industrious agricultural race, and
cultivate cotton with considerable success. They also collect
honey in large quantities. The Takruri possess jagged throwing
knives, which are said to have been brought from their original
home in the Upper Congo regions.
GALLAIT, LOUIS (1810-1887), Belgian painter, was born at
Tournay, in Hainaut, Belgium, on the 9th of May 1810. He
first studied in his native town under Hennequin. In 1832 his
first picture, " Tribute to Caesar," won a prize at the exhibition
at Ghent. He then went to Antwerp to prosecute his studies
under Mathieu Ignace Van Biee, and in the following year
exhibited at the Brussels Salon " Christ Healing the Blind."
This picture was purchased by subscription and placed in the
cathedral at Tournay. Gallait next went to Paris, whence he
sent to the Belgian Salons "job on the Dunghill," "Montaigne
Visiting Tasso in Prison"; and, in 1841, "The Abdication of
Charles V.," in the Brussels Gallery. This was hailed as a
triumph, and gained for the painter a European reputation.
Official invitations then caused him to settle at Brussels, where he
died on the 2oth of November 1887. Among his greater works
may be named: " The Last Honours paid to Counts Egmont
and Horn by the Corporations of the Town of Brussels," now
at Tournay; " The Death of Egmont," in the Berlin gallery;
the " Coronation of Baudouin, Emperor of Constantinople,"
painted for Versailles; " The Temptation of St Anthony,"
in the palace at Brussels; " The Siege of Antioch," " Art and
Liberty," a " Portrait of M. B. Dumortier " and " The Plague at
Tournay," all in the Brussels gallery. " A Gipsy Woman and
her Children " was painted in 1852. " M. Gallait has all the
gifts that may be acquired by work, taste, judgment and
determination," wrote Th6ophile Gautier; his art is that of
a man of tact, a skilled painter, happy in his dramatic treatment
but superficial. No doubt, this Walloon artist, following the
example of the Flemings of the Renaissance and the treatment
of Belgian classical painters and the French Romantic school,
sincerely aimed at truth; unfortunately, misled by contemporary
taste, he could not conceive of it excepting as dressed in senti-
mentality. As an artist employed by the State he exercised
considerable influence, and for a long period he was the leader of
public taste in Brussels.
See Teichlin, Louis Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland (1853) ;
J. Dujardin, L'Art flamand (1899); C. Lemonnier, Histoire des
beaux-arts en Belgique (1881).
GALLAND, ANTOINE (1646-1715), French Orientalist and
archaeologist, the first European translator of the Arabian
Nights, was born on the 4th of April 1646 at Rollot, in the
department of Somme. The completion of his school education
at Noyon was followed by a brief apprenticeship to a trade,
from which, however, he soon escaped, to pursue his linguistic
studies at Paris. After having been employed for some time
in making a catalogue of the Oriental manuscripts at the Sor-
bonne, he was, in 1670, attached to the French embassy at Con-
stantinople; and in 1673 he travelled in Syria and the Levant,
where he copied a great number of inscriptions, and sketched,
and in some cases removed historical monuments. After a brief
visit to France, where his collection of ancient coins attracted
some attention, Galland returned to the Levant in 1676; and in
1679 he undertook a third voyage, being commissioned by the
French East India Company to collect for the cabinet of Colbert;
on the expiration of this commission he was instructed by the
government to continue his researches, and had the title of
GALLARATE GALLAS
script,
works
" antiquary to the king " conferred upon him. During his pro-
longed residences abroad he acquired a thorough knowledge of t he
Arabic, Turkish and Persian languages and literatures, which, on
his final return to France, enabled him to render valuable assist-
ance to Thcvenot, the keeper of the royal library, and to
Bartbelemy d'Herbelot. After their deaths he lived for some
time at Caen under the roof of Nicolas Foucault (1643-1711),
the intendant of Caen, himself no mean archaeologist; and there
be began the publication (12 vols., 1704-1717) of Les millt et
MM nuils, which excited immense interest during the time of its
appearance, and is still the standard French translation. It had
BO pretensions to verbal accuracy, and the coarseness of the
language was modified to suit European taste, but the narrative
was adequately rendered. In 1701 Galland had been admitted
into the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1 709 he was appointed
to the chair of Arabic in the College de France. He continued
to discharge the duties of this post until his death, which took
place on the i7th of February 1715.
Beside* a number of archaeological works, especially in the depart-
ment of numismatics, he published a compilation from the Arabic,
Persian and Turkish, entitled Paroles remarquables, bans mots et
dei orienlaux (1604), and a translation from an Arabic
, De rorigtiu el du (tropes du caff (1699). The former of
s appeared in an English translation in 1795. His Contes
* fables indiennes At Btdpai et de Lokman was published (1724) after
his death. Among his numerous unpublished manuscripts arc a
translation of the Koran and a Histoire generate des emfxreurs lures.
His Journal was published by M. Charles Schefer in 1881.
GALLARATB, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
Milan, from which it is 25 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1001) 12,002.
The town is of medieval origin. It is remarkable mainly for its
textile factories. It is the junction of railways to Varese,
Laveno and Arona (for the Simplon). Six miles to the W.
are the electric works of Vizzola, the largest in Europe, where
ij.ooo h.p. are derived from the river Ticino.
QALLARS [in Lat. GALLASIUS], NICOLAS DES (c. 1520-
c. 1580), Calvinistic divine, first appears as author of a Defcnsio
of William Farel, published at Geneva in 1545, followed (1545-
1549) by translations into French of three tracts by Calvin.
In i ss< he was admitted burgess of Geneva, and in 1553 made
pastor of a country church in the neighbourhood. In 1557 he
was sent to minister to the Protestants at Paris; his conductor,
Nicolas du Rousseau, having prohibited books in his possession,
was executed at Dijon; des Gallars, having nothing suspicious
about him, continued his journey. On the revival of the
Strangers' church in London (1560), he, being then minister at
Geneva, came to London to organize the French branch; and
in 1561 he published La Forme de police eccttsiaslique institute a
Londret en rglisc del Francois. In the same year he assisted
Beza at the colloquy of Poissy. He became minister to the Pro-
testants at Orleans in 1564; presided at the synod of Paris in
1565; was driven out of Orleans with other Protestants in 1568;
and in 1571 was chaplain to Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre.
Calvin held him in high esteem, employing him as amanuensis,
and as editor as well as translator of several of his cxegetic.il
and polemical works. He himself wrote a commentary on
Exodus (1560); edited an annotated French Bible (1562) and
New Testament (1562); and published tracts against Arians
(1565-1566). His main work was his edition of Irenaeus (1570)
with prefatory letter to Grindal, then bishop of London, and
giving, for the first time, some fragments of the Greek text.
His collaboration with Beza in the Histoire des glises Rtformees
4* royaume de France (1580) is doubted by Bayle.
See Bayle, Dictionnaire hist, et crit.; Jean Senebier, Hist.
t&traire de Geneve ( 1 786) ; Nomelie Biof. ten. ( 1 857). (A. Go. )
GALLAS, MATTHIAS, COUNT or CAHPO, DUKE or LUCERA
(1584-1647), Austrian soldier, first saw service in Flanders, and
in Savoy with the Spaniards, and subsequently joined the forces
of the Catholic League as captain. On the general outbreak
of hostilities in Germany, Gallas, as colonel of an infantry
regiment, distinguished himself, especially at the battle of Stadt-
lohn (1623). In 1630 he was serving as General-Peldwachtmeister
under Collalto in Italy, and was mainly instrumental in the
capture of Mantua. Made count of the Empire for this service,
he returned to Germany for the campaign against Gustavus
Adolphus. In command of a corps of Wallenstein's army, he
covered Bohemia against the Swedes in 1631-1632, and served
at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg, and at Liitzen. Further good
service against Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar commended General
Gallas to the notice of the emperor, who made him lieutenant-
general in his own army. He was one of the chief conspirators
against Wallenstein, and after the tragedy of Eger was appointed
to the command of the army which Wallenstein had formed and
led. At the great battle of NSrdlingen (23rd of August 1634)
in which the army of Sweden was almost annihilated, Gallas
commanded the victorious Imperialists. His next command was
in Lorraine, but even the Moselle valley had suffered so much
from the ravages of war that his army perished of want. Still
more was this the case in northern Germany, where Gallas com-
manded against the Swedish general Baner in 1637 and 1638.
At first driving the Swedes before him, in the end he made a
complete failure of the campaign, lost his command, and was
subject to much ridicule. It was, however, rather the indiscipline
of his men (the baneful legacy of Wallenstein's methods) than his
own faults which brought about his disastrous retreat across
North Germany, and at a moment of crisis he was recalled to
endeavour to stop Torstenson's victorious advance, only to be
shut up in Magdeburg, whence he escaped with the barest remnant
of his forces. Once more relieved of his command, he was again
recalled to make head against the Swedes in 1645 (after their
victory at Jankow). Before long, old and warworn, he resigned
his command, and died in 1647 at Vienna. His army had earned
for itself the reputation of being the most cruel and rapacious
force even in the Thirty Years' War, and his Merode Briider have
survived in the word marauder. Like many other generals of
that period, he had acquired much wealth and great territorial
possessions (the latter mostly his share of Wallenstein's estates).
He was the founder of the Austrian family of Clam-Gallas, which
furnished many distinguished soldiers to the Imperial army.
GALLAS, or more correctly GAI.I.A, a powerful Hamitic
people of eastern Africa, scattered over the wide region which
extends for about 1000 m. from the central parts of Abyssinia to
the neighbourhood of the river Sabaki in British East Africa.
The name " Galla " or " Gala " appears to be an Abyssinian
nickname, unknown to the people, who call themselves Ilm'
Orma, " sons of men " or " sons of Orma," an eponymous hero.
In Shoa (Abyssinia) the word is connected with the river Gala in
Guragie, on the banks of which a great battle is said to have
been fought between the Galla and the Abyssinians. Arnaud
d'Abbadie says that the Abyssinian Moslems recount that,
when summoned by the Prophet's messenger to adopt Islam, the
chief of the Galla said " No," in Arabic kdl (or gal) la, and the
Prophet on hearing this said, " Then let their very name imply
their denial of the Faith." Of all Hamitic peoples the Galla
are the most numerous. Dr J. Ludwig Krapf estimated them
(c. 1860) at from six to eight millions; later authorities put them
at not much over three millions. Individual tribes are said to be
able to bring 20,000 to 30,000 horsemen into the field.
Hardly anything is definitely known as to the origin and early
home of the race, but it appears to have occupied the southern
part of its present territory since the i6th century. According to
Hiob Ludolf and James Bruce, the Galla invaders first crossed the
Abyssinian frontiers in the year 1537. The Galla of Go jam (a
district along the northern side of the river Abai) tell how their
savage forefathers came from the south-east from a country on
the other side of a bahr (lake or river), and the Yejju and Raia
Galla also point towards the east and commemorate the passage
of a bahr. Among the southern Galla tradition appears to be
mainly concerned with the expulsion of the race from the
country now occupied by the Somali. Their original home was
possibly in the district east of Victoria Nyanza, for the tribes near
Mount Kenya are stated to go on periodical pilgrimages to the
mountain, making offerings to it as if to their mother. A theory
has been advanced that the great exodus which it seems certain
took place among the peoples throughout eastern Africa during
the 1 5th century was caused by some great eruption of Kenya
414
GALLATIN
and other volcanoes of equatorial Africa. As a geographical
term Galla-land is now used mainly to denote the south-central
regions of the Abyssinian empire, the country in which the Galla
are numerically strongest. There is no sharp dividing line be-
tween the territory occupied respectively by the Galla and by the
Somali.
In any case the Galla must be regarded as members of that vast
eastern Hamitic family which includes their neighbours, the
Somali, the Afars (Danakil) and the Abyssinians. As in all the
eastern Hamites, there is a perceptible strain of Negro blood in
the Galla, who are, however, described by Sir Frederick Lugard
as " a wonderfully handsome race, with high foreheads, brown
skins, and soft wavy hair quite different from the wool of the
Bantus." As a rule their features are quite European. Their
colour is dark brown, but many of the northern Galla are of a
coffee and milk tint. The finest men are to be found among the
Limmu and Gudru on the river Abai.
The Galla are for the most part still in the nomadic and pastoral
stage, though in Abyssinia they have some agricultural settlements.
Their dwellings, circles of rough stones roofed with grasses, are
generally built under trees. Their wealth consists chiefly in cattle
and horses. Among the southern tribes it is said that about seven
or eight head of cattle are kept for every man, woman and child;
and among the northern tribes, as neither man nor woman ever
thinks of going any distance on foot, the number of horses is very
large. The ordinary food consists of flesh, blood, milk, butter and
honey, the last being considered of so much importance by the
southern Galla that a rude system of bee-keeping is in vogue, and
the husband who fails to furnish his wife with a sufficient supply
of honey may be excluded from all conjugal rights. In the south
monogamy is the rule, but in the north the number of a man's wives
is limited only by his wishes and his wealth. Marriage-forms are
numerous, that of bride-capture being common. Each tribe has
its own chief, who enjoys the strange privilege of being the only
merchant for his people, but in all public concerns must take the
advice of the fathers of families assembled in council. The greater
proportion of the tribes are still pagan, worshipping a supreme god
Waka, and the subordinate god and goddess Oglieh and Atetieh,
whose favour is secured by sacrifices of oxen and sheep. With a
strange liberality of sentiment, they say that at a certain time of
the year Waka leaves them and goes to attend to the wants of their
enemies the Somali, whom also he has created. Some tribes, and
notably the Wollo Galla, have been converted to Mahommedanism
and are very bigoted adherents of the Prophet. In the north, where
the Galla are under Abyssinian rule, a kind of superficial Christian-
ization has taken place, to the extent at least that the people are
familiar with the names of Maremma or Mary, Balawold or Jesus,
Girgis or St George, &c. ; but to all practical intents paganism is
still in force. The serpent is a special object of worship, the northern
Galla believing that he is the author of the human race. There is a
belief in were-wolves (buda), and the northern Galla have sorcerers
who terrorize the people. Though cruel in war, all Galla respect their
pledged word. They are armed with a lance, a two-edged knife, and
a shield of buffalo or rhinoceros hide. A considerable number find
employment in the Abyssinian armies.
Among the more important tribes in the south (the name in each
instance being compounded with Galla) are the Ramatta, the
Kukatta, the Baole, the Aurova, the Wadjole, the llani, the Arrar and
the Kanigo Galla; the Borani, a very powerful tribe, may be con-
sidered to mark the division between north and south; and in the
north we find the Amoro, the Jarso, the Toolama, the Wollo, the
Ambassil, the Aijjo, and the Azobo Galla.
See C. T. Beke, " On the Origin of the Gallas," in Trans, of Brit.
Assoc. (1847); J. Ludwig Krapf, Travels in Eastern Africa (1860);
and Vocabulary of the Galla Language (London, 1842); Arnaud
d'Abbadie, D ouze Ans dans la Haute-thiopw (1868) ; Ph. Paulitschke,
Ethnographic Nord-Ost-Afrikas; Die geistige Kultur der Dan'akil,
Galla u. Som&l (Berlin, 1896) ; P. M. de Salviac, Les Galla (Paris,
1901).
GALLATIN, ALBERT (1761-1849), American statesman, was
born in Geneva (Switzerland) on the 29th of January 1761. The
Gallatins were both an old and a noble family. They are first
heard of in Savoy in the year 1258, and more than two centuries
later they went to Geneva (1510), united with Calvin in his
opposition to Rome, and associated their fortunes with those of
the little Swiss city. Here they remained, and with one or two
other great families governed Geneva, and sent forth many
representatives to seek their fortune and win distinction in the
service of foreign princes, both as soldiers and ministers. On the
eve of the French Revolution the Gallatins were still in Geneva,
occupying the same position which they had held for two hundred
years. Albert Gallatin's father died in 1765, his mother five
years later, and his only sister in 1777. Although left an orphan
at nine, he was by no means lonely or unprotected. His grand-
parents, a large circle of near relatives and Mile Catherine
Pictet (d. 1795), an intimate friend of his mother, cared for him
during his boyhood. He was thoroughly educated at the schools
of Geneva, and graduated with honour from the college or
academy there in 1779. His grandmother then wished him to
enter the army of the landgrave of Hesse, but he declined to serve
" a tyrant," and a year later slipped away from Geneva and
embarked for the United States. A competent fortune, good
prospects, social position, and a strong family connexion were
all thrown aside in order to tempt fate in the New World. His
relatives very properly opposed his course, but they nevertheless
did all in their power to smooth his way, and continued to treat
him kindly. In after life he himself admitted the justice of their
opinions. The temper of the times, a vague discontent with the
established order of things, and some political enthusiasm
imbibed from the writings of Rousseau, are the best reasons
which can now be assigned for Gallatin's desertion of home and
friends.
In July 1780 Gallatin and his friend Henri Serre (d. 1784)
landed in Massachusetts. They brought with them youth, hope
and courage, as well as a little money, and at once entered into
business The times, however, were unfavourable. The great
convulsion of the Revolution was drawing to a close, and every-
thing was in an unsettled condition The young Genevans
failed in business, passed a severe winter in the wilds of Maine,
and returned to Boston penniless. Gallatin tried to earn a
living by teaching French in Harvard College, apparently not
without success, but the cold and rigid civilization of New
England repelled him, and he made his way to the South. In the
backwoods of Pennsylvania and Virginia there seemed to be
better chances for a young adventurer. Gallatin engaged in land
speculations, and tried to lay the foundation of his fortune in a
frontier farm. In 1789 he married Sophie Allegre, and every
prospect seemed to be brightening. But clouds soon gathered
again. After only a few months of wedlock his wife died, and
Gallatin was once more alone. The solitary and desolate frontier
life became now more dreary than ever; he flung himself into
politics the only outside resource open to him, and his long and
eventful public career began.
The constitution of 1787 was then before the public, and
Gallatin, with his dislike of strong government still upon him,
threw himself into opposition and became one of the founders
of the Anti-Federalist, or, as it was afterwards called, the
Republican party. He was a member of the Pennsylvania Con-
stitutional Convention of 1780-1790, and of the Pennsylvania
Assembly in 1790, 1791, and 1792, and rose with surprising
rapidity, despite his ' foreign birth and his inability to speak
English with correctness or fluency. He was helped of course by
his sound education; but the true cause of his success lay in his
strong sense, untiring industry, courage, clear-sightedness and
great intellectual force. In 1793 he was chosen United States
senator from Pennsylvania by the votes of both political parties.
No higher tribute was ever paid to character and ability than that
conveyed by this election. But the staunch Federalists of the
senate, who had begun to draw the party lines rather sharply,
found the presence of the young Genevan highly distasteful.
They disliked his French origin, and suspected him to be a man of
levelling principles His seat was contested on account of a
technical flaw in regard to the duration of his citizenship, and in
February 1794, almost three months after the beginning of the
session, the senate annulled the election and sent him back to
Pennsylvania with all the glory of political martyrdom.
The leading part which Gallatin had taken in the " Whisky
Insurrection " hi Western Pennsylvania had, without doubt,
been an efficient cause in his rejection by the senate. He in-
tended fully to restrain within legal bounds the opposition
which the excise on domestic spirits had provoked, but he made
the serious mistake of not allowing sufficiently for the character
of the backwoods population When legal resistance developed
into insurrection, Gallatin did his best to retrieve his error and
GALLATIN
prevent open war. At Redstone Old Fort (Brownsville) on the
tgth of August 1704, before the " Committee of Sixty " who were
appointed to represent the disaffected people, he opposed with
vigorous eloquence the use of force against the government, and
refused to be intimidated by an excited band of riflemen who
happened to be in the vicinity and represented the radical element.
He effectively checked the excitement, and when a month later
an overwhelming Federal force began moving upon the western
counties, the insurrection collapsed without bloodshed. Of all
the men who took part in the opposition to the excise, Gallatin
alone came out with credit. He was at once elected to the
Mtjnnal house of representatives, and took his seat in December
1 70S- There, by sheer force of ability and industry, he wrested
from all competitors the leadership of the Republicans, and be-
came the most dangerous opponent whom the Federalists had
ever encountered in congress. Inflamed with a hatred of France
just then rising to the dignity of a party principle, they found in
Gallatin an enemy who was both by origin and opinion peculiarly
obnoxious to them. They attacked him unsparingly, but in vain.
His perfect command of temper, his moderation of speech and
action, in a bitterly personal age, never failed, and were his most
effective weapons; but he made his power felt in other ways. His
clear mind and industrious habits drew him to questions of finance .
He became the financier of his party, preached unceasingly his
cardinal doctrines of simplicity and economy, and was an effective
critic of the measures of government. Cool and temperate,
Gallatin, when following his own theories, was usually in the
right, although accused by his followers of trimming. Thus, in
regard to the Jay treaty, he defended the constitutional right of
the house to consider the treaty, but he did not urge rejection in
this specific case. On the other hand, when following a purely
party policy he generally erred. He resisted the navy, the
mainspring of Washington's foreign policy; he opposed commer-
cial treaties and diplomatic intercourse in a similar fashion.
On these points he was grievously wrong, and on all he changed
his views after a good deal of bitter experience.
The greatest period of Gallatin's career in congress was in
1798, after the publication of the famous X.Y.Z. despatches.
The insults of Talleyrand, and his shameless attempts to extort
bribes from the American commissioners, roused the deep anger
of the people against France. The Federalists swept all before
them, and the members of the opposition either retired from
Philadelphia or went over to the government. Alone and single-
handed, Gallatin carried on the fight in congress. The Federalists
bore down on him unmercifully, and even attempted (1798) a
constitutional amendment in regard to citizenship, partly, it
appears, in order to drive him from office. Still he held on,
i^yUng a national struggle in the national legislature, and relying
very little upon the rights of States so eagerly grasped by Jefferson
and Madison. But even then the tide was turning. The strong
measures of the Federalists shocked the country; the leaders
of the dominant party quarrelled fiercely among themselves;
and the Republicans carried the elections of 1800. In the
exciting contest for the presidency in the house of representa-
tives between Jefferson and Burr, it was Gallatin who led the
Republicans.
When, after this contest, Jefferson became president (1801),
there were two men whose commanding abilities marked them
for the first places in the cabinet. James Madison became
secretary of state, and Albert Gallatin secretary of the treasury.
Wise, prudent and conservative, Gallatin made few changes in
Hamilton's arrangements, and for twelve years administered
the national finances with the greatest skill. He and Jefferson
were both imbued with the idea that government could be carried
on upon a priori principles resting on the assumed perfectness of
human nature, and the chief burden of carrying out this theory
fell upon Gallatin. His guiding principles were still simplicity
of administration and speedy extinction of all debt, and every-
thing bent to these objects. Fighting or bribing the Barbary
pirates was a mere question of expense. It was cheaper to seize
Louisiana than to await the settlement of doubtful points.
Commercial warfare was to be avoided because of the cost.
All wars were bad, but if they could not be evaded it was less
extravagant to be ready than to rush to arms unprepared.
Amid many difficulties, and thwarted even by Jefferson himself
in the matter of the navy, Gallatin pushed on; and after six
years the public debt was decreased (in spite of the Louisiana
purchase) by $14,260,000, a large surplus was on hand, a com-
prehensive and beneficent scheme of internal improvements was
ready for execution, and the promised land seemed in sight. Then
came the stress of war in Europe, a wretched neutrality at home,
fierce outbreaks of human passions, and the fair structure of
government by a priori theories based on the goodness of un-
oppressed humanity came to the ground. Gallatin was thrown
helplessly back upon the rejected Federalist doctrine of govern-
ment according to circumstances. He uttered no vain regrets,
but the position was a trying one. The sworn foe of strong
government, he was compelled, in pursuance of Jefferson's
policy, to put into execution the Embargo and other radical
and stringent measures. He did his best, but all was in vain.
Commercial warfare failed, the Embargo was repealed, and
Jefferson, having entangled foreign relations and brought the
country to the verge of civil war, retired to private life, leaving
to his successor Madison, and to Gallatin, the task of extricating
the nation from its difficulties. From 1809 the new administra-
tion, drifting steadily towards war, struggled on from one abortive
and exasperating negotiation to another. It was a period of sore
trial to Gallatin. The peace policy had failed, and nothing else
replaced it. He had lost his hold upon Pennsylvania and his
support in the house, while a cabal in the senate, bitterly and
personally hostile to the treasury, crippled the administration
and reduced every government measure to mere inanity. At
last, however, in June 1812, congress on Madison's recommenda-
tion declared war against England.
Gallatin never wasted time in futile complaints. His cherished
schemes were shattered. War and extravagant expenditure had
come, and he believed both to be fatal to the prosperity and
progress of America. He therefore put the finances in the best
order he could, and set himself to mitigate the evil effects of
the war by obtaining an early peace. With this end in view he
grasped eagerly at the proffered mediation of Russia, and without
resigning the treasury sailed for Europe in May 1813.
Russian mediation proved barren, but Gallatin persevered,
catching at every opportunity for negotiation. In the midst of his
labours came the news that the senate had refused to confirm his
appointment as peace commissioner. He still toiled on unofficially
until, the objection of the senate having been met by the appoint-
ment of a new secretary of the treasury, his second nomination was
approved, and he was able to proceed with direct negotiations.
The English and American commissioners finally met at Ghent,
and in the tedious and irritating discussions which ensued
Gallatin took the leading part. His great difficulty lay in manag-
ing his colleagues, who were, especially Henry Clay and John
Quincy Adams, able men of strong wills and jarring tempers.
He succeeded in preserving harmony, and thus established his
own reputation as an able diplomatist. Peace was his reward;
on the 24th of December 1814 the treaty was signed; and after
visiting Geneva for the first time since his boyhood, and assisting
in negotiating a commercial convention (1815) with England by
which all discriminating duties were abolished, Gallatin in July
181 5 returned to America.
While still in Europe he had been asked by Madison to become
minister to France; this appointment he accepted in January
1816, and adhered to his acceptance in spite of his being asked
in April 1816 to serve once more as secretary of the treasury.
He remained in France for the next seven years. He passed
his time in thoroughly congenial society, seeing everybody of
note or merit in Europe. He did not neglect the duties of his
official position, but strove assiduously and with his wonted
patience to settle the commercial relations of his adopted
country with the nations of Europe, and in 1818 assisted Richard
Rush, then United States minister in London, in negotiating
a commercial convention with Great Britain to take the place
of that negotiated in 1815.
416
GALLAUDET GALLE
In June 1823 he returned to the United States, where he found
himself plunged at once into the bitter struggle then in progress
for the presidency. His favourite candidate was his personal
friend William H. Crawford, whom he regarded as the true
heir and representative of the old Jeffersonian principles. With
these feelings he consented in May 1824 to stand for the vice-
presidency on the Crawford ticket. But Gallatin had come home
to new scenes and new actors, and he did not fully appreciate
the situation. The contest was bitter, personal, factious and full
of intrigue. Martin Van Buren, then in the Crawford interest,
came to the conclusion that the candidate for the second place,
by his foreign origin, weakened the ticket, and in October
Gallatin retired from the contest. The election, undecided by the
popular vote, was thrown into the house, and resulted in the
choice of John Quincy Adams, who in 1826 drew Gallatin from
his retirement and sent him as minister to England to conduct
another complicated and arduous negotiation. Gallatin worked
at his new task with his usual industry, tact and patience, but the
results were meagre, although an open breach on the delicate
question of the north-east boundary of the United States was
avoided by referring it to the arbitration of the king of the
Netherlands. In November 1827 he once more returned to the
United States and bade farewell to public life.
Taking up his residence in New York, he was in 1832-1839
president of the National Bank (afterwards the Gallatin Bank)
of New York, but his duties were light, and he devoted himself
chiefly to the congenial pursuits of science and literature. In
both fields he displayed much talent, and by writing his Synopsis
of the Indian Tribes within the United States East of the Rocky
Mountains and in the British and Russian Possessions in North
America (1836), and by founding the American Ethnological
Society of New York in 1842, he earned the title of " Father
of American Ethnology." He continued, of course, to interest
himself in public affairs, although no longer an active participant,
and in all financial questions, especially in regard to the bank
charter, the resumption of specie payments, and the panic of 1837,
he exerted a powerful influence. The rise of the slavery question
touched him nearly. Gallatin had always been a consistent
opponent of slavery; he felt keenly, therefore, the attempts of
the South to extend the slave power and confirm its existence,
and the remnant of his strength was devoted in his last days to
writing and distributing two able pamphlets against the war
with Mexico. Almost his last public act was a speech, on the
24th of April 1844, in New York City, against the annexation of
Texas; and in his eighty-fourth year he confronted a howling
New York mob with the same cool, unflinching courage which he
had displayed half a century before when he faced the armed
frontiersmen of Redstone Old Fort. During the winter of 1848-
1849 his health failed, and on the I2th of August 1849, at the
home of his daughter in Astoria, Long Island, he passed peace-
fully away.
Gallatin was twice married. His second wife, whom he
married in November 1793, was Miss Hannah Nicholson, of
New York, the daughter of Com. James Nicholson (1737-1804),
an American naval officer, commander-in-chief of the navy from
1777 until August 1781, when with his ship the " Virginia,"
he was taken by the British " Iris " and " General Monk."
By her he had three children, two sons and a daughter, who all
survived him. In personal appearance he was above middle
height, with strongly-marked features, indicating great strength
of intellect and character. He was reserved and very reticent,
cold in manner and not sympathetic. There was, too, a certain
Calvinistic austerity about him. But he was much beloved by
his family. He was never a popular man, nor did he ever have
a strong personal following or many attached friends. He stood,
with Jefferson and Madison, at the head of his party, and won
his place by force of character, courage, application and in-
tellectual power. His eminent and manifold services to his
adopted country, his great abilities and upright character, assure
him a high position in the history of the United States.
The Writings of Albert Gallatin, edited by Henry Adams, were
published at Philadelphia, in three volumes, in 1879. With these
volumes was published an excellent biography, The Life of Albert
Gallatin, also by Henry Adams; another good biography is John
Austin Stevens's Albert Gallatin (Boston, 1884) in the " American
Statesmen " series. (H. C. L.)
GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS (1787-1851), American
educator of the deaf and dumb, was born in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, of French Huguenot ancestry, on the loth of
December 1787. He graduated at Yale in 1805, where he was
a tutor from 1808 to 1810. Subsequently he studied theology
at Andover, and was licensed to preach in 1814, but having
determined to abandon the ministry and devote his life to the
education of deaf mutes, he visited Europe in 1815-1816, and
studied the methods of the abbe Sicard in Paris, and of Thomas
Braidwood (1715-1806) and his successor Joseph Watson
(1765-1829) in Great Britain. Returning to the United States
in 1816, he established at Hartford, Connecticut, with the aid of
Laurent Clerc (1785-1869), a deaf mute assistant of the abb
Sicard, a school for deaf mutes, in support of which Congress,
largely through the influence of Henry Clay, made a land grant,
and which Gallaudet presided over with great success until
ill-health compelled him to retire in 1830. It was the first
institution of the sort in the United States, and served as a model
for institutions which were subsequently established. He died
at Hartford, Connecticut, on the sth of September 1851.
There are three accounts of his life, one by Henry Barnard, Lift,
Character and Services of the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet (Hartford,
1852) ; another by Herman Humphrey (Hartford, 1858), and a
third (and the best one) by his son Edward Miner Gallaudet (1888).
His son, THOMAS GALLAUDET (1822-1902), after graduating
at Trinity College in 1842, entered the Protestant Episcopal
ministry, settled in New York City, and there in 1852 organized
St Anne's Episcopal church, where he conducted services for deaf
mutes. In 1872 he organized and became general manager of
the Church mission to deaf mutes, and in 1885 founded the
Gallaudet home for deaf mutes, particularly the aged, at
Wappingers Falls, near Poughkeepsie, New York.
Another son, EDWARD MINER GALLAUDET (b. 1837), was born
at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 3rd of February 1837, and
graduated at Trinity College in 1856. After teaching for a year
in the institution for deaf mutes founded by his father at Hartford,
he removed with his mother, Sophia Fowler Gallaudet ( 1 798-1 87 7) ,
to Washington, D.C., where at the request of Amos Kendall
(1789-1869), its founder, he organized and took charge of the
Columbia Institution for the deaf and dumb, which received
support from the government, and of which he became president.
This institution was the first to furnish actual collegiate educa-
tion for deaf mutes (in 1864 it acquired the right to grant degrees),
and was successful from the start. . The Gallaudet College
(founded in 1864 as the National Deaf Mute College and renamed
in 1893 in honour of Thomas H. Gallaudet) and the Kendall
School are separate departments of this institution, under
independent faculties (each headed by Gallaudet), but under
the management of one board of directors.
GALLE, or POINT DE GALLE, a town and port of Ceylon on the
south-west coast. It was made a municipality in 1865, and
divided into the five districts of the Fort, Callowclle, Galopiadde,
Hirimbure and Cumbalwalla. The fort, which is more than a mile
in circumference, overlooks the whole harbour, but is commanded
by a range of hills. Within its enclosure are not only several
government buildings, but an old church erected by the Dutch
East India Company, a mosque, a Wesleyan chapel, a hospital,
and a considerable number of houses occupied by Europeans.
The old Dutch building known as the queen's house, or governor's
residence, which dated from 1687, was in such a dilapidated
state that it was sold by the governor, Sir William Gregory, in
1873. Elsewhere there are few buildings of individual note, but
the general style of domestic architecture is pleasant and com-
fortable, though not pretentious. One of the most delightful
features of the place is the profusion of trees, even within the
town, and along the edge of the shore suriyas, palms, coco-nut
trees and bread-fruit trees. The ramparts towards the sea furnish
fine promenades. In the harbour deep water is found close to the
shore, and the outer roads are spacious; but the south-west
GALLENGA GALLEY
monsoon renders entrance difficult, and not unfrequently drives
vessels from their moorings.
The opening of the Sue* Canal in 1869, and the construction of
a breakwater at Colombo, leading to the transfer of the mail and
most of the commercial steamers to the capital of the island,
seriously diminished the prosperity of Galle. Although a few
steamers still call to coal and take in some cargo, yet the lossof
the Peninsular and Oriental and other steamer agencies reduced
the port to a subordinate position; nor has the extension of the
railway from Colombo, and beyond Galle to Matara, very much
improved matters. The tea-planting industry has, however,
spread to the neighbourhood, and a great deal is done in digging
plumbago and in growing grass for the distillation of citronella
oil. The export trade is chiefly represented by coco-nut oil,
plumbago, coir yarn, fibre, rope and tea. In the import trade
cotton goods are the chief item. Both the export and import
trade for the district, however, now chiefly passes through
Colombo. Pop. (IQOI) 37,165.
Galle is mentioned by none of the Greek or Latin geographers,
notes* the identification with Ptolemy's Avium Promontorium or
Ope of Birds be a correct one. It is hardly noticed in the native
chronicles before 1267, and Ibn Batuta, in the middle of the I4th
century, distinctly states that Kali that is, Galle was a small
town. It was not till the period of Portuguese occupation that it
rose to importance. When the Dutch succeeded the Portuguese
they strengthened the fortifications, which had been vigorously
defended against their admiral, Kosten; and under their rule the
place had the rank of a commandancy. In the marriage treaty of
the infanta of Portugal with Charles II. of England it was agreed
that if the Portuguese recovered Ceylon they were to hand over
Galle to the English ; but as the Portuguese did not recover Ceylon
the town was left to fall into English hands at the conquest of the
island from the Dutch in 1796. The name Galle is derived from the
Sinhalese fa/fa, equivalent to "rock"; but the Portuguese and
Dutch settlers, being better fighters than philologists, connected
it with the Latin tallus, a cock, and the image of a cock was
carved as a symbol of the town in the front of the old government
GALLENGA. ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE (1810-1895),
Italian author and patriot, born at Parma on the 4th of
November 1810, was the eldest son of a Piedmontese of good
family, who served for ten years in the French army under
Massena and Napoleon. He had finished his education at the
university of Parma, when the French Revolution of 1830 caused
a ferment in Italy. He sympathized with the movement, and
within a few months was successively a conspirator, a state
prisoner, a combatant and a fugitive. For the next five years he
lived a wandering life in France, Spain and Africa. In August
1836 be embarked for New York, and three years later he
proceeded to England, where he supported himself as a translator
and teacher of languages. His first book, Italy; General Views
of its History and Literature, which appeared in 1841, was well
received, but was not successful financially. On the outbreak of
the Italian revolution in 1848 he at once put himself in com-
munication with the insurgents. He filled the post of Charge
d'Affaires for Piedmont at Frankfort in 1848-1849, and for the
next few years he travelled incessantly between Italy and
England, working for the liberation of his country. In 1854,
through Cavour's influence, he was elected a deputy to the Italian
parliament. He retained his seat until 1864, passing the summer
in England and fulfilling his parliamentary duties at Turin in the
winter. On the outbreak of the Austro-French War of 1859 he
proceeded to Lombardy as war correspondent of The Times.
The campaign was so brief that the fighting was over before he
arrived, but his connexion with The Times endured for twenty
years. He was a forcible and picturesque writer, with a com-
mand of English remarkable for an Italian. He materially
helped to establish that friendly feeling towards Italy which
became traditional in England. In 1859 Gallenga purchased the
Falls, at LUndogo on the Wye, as a residence, and thither he
retired in 1885. He died at this house on the iyth of December
1895. He was twice married. Among his chief works are an
Historical Memoir of Frd Dokino and his Times (1853) ; a History
of Piedmont ( 3 vols., 1855; Italian translation, 1856); Country
Life in Piedmont (1858) ; The Invasion of Denmark (2 vols., 1864) ;
The Pearl of Ike Antilles [travels in Cuba] (1873); Italy Revisited
n. 14
(2 vols., 1875); Two Years of the Eastern Question (a vols., 1877);
The Pope [Pius IX.) and the King [Victor Emmanuel] ( 2 vols.,
1879); South America (1880); A Summer Tour in Russia (i88a);
Iberian Reminiscences (2 vols., 1883); Episodes of my Second
Life(i&&4); Italy, Present and Future ( 2 vols., 1887). Gallenga's
earlier publications appeared under the pseudonym of Luigi
Mariotti.
GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of
which the origin is unknown), 1 a covered passage or space
outside a main wall, sometimes used as a verandah if on the
ground floor, and as a balcony if on an upper floor and supported
by columns, piers or corbels; similarly the upper seats in a
theatre or a church, on either side as in many 17th-century
churches, or across the west end under the organ. The word is
also used of an internal passage primarily provided to place
various rooms in communication with one another; but if
of narrow width this is usually called a corridor or passage.
When of sufficient width the gallery is utilized to exhibit pictures
and other art treasures. In the i6th century the picture gallery
formed the largest room or hall in English mansions, with
wainscoted walls and a richly decorated plaster ceiling; the
principal examples are those of Audley End, Essex (226 ft. by
34 ft.); Hardwick, Derbyshire (166 ft. by 22 ft.) ; Hatfield, Hert-
fordshire (163 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in.); Aston Hall, near Birmingham
(136 ft. by 18 ft.); Haddon Hall, Derbyshire (116 ft. by 17
ft.); and Montacute in Somersetshire (189 ft. by 22 ft.).
Hence the application of the term to art museums (the National
Gallery, &c.) and also to smaller rooms with top-light in which
temporary exhibitions are held.
GALLEY (derived through the O. Fr. galee, galie, from the
Med. Lat. galea, Ital. galea, Port, gait, of uncertain origin; from
the Med. Lat. variant form galera are derived the Mod. Fr.
galere, Span, and Ital. galera) , a long single or half decked vessel of
war, with low free-board, propelled primarily by oars or sweeps,
but also having masts for sails. The word is used generally of the
ancient war vessels of Greece and Rome of various types, whose
chief propelling power was the oar or sweep, but its more specific
application is to the medieval war vessel which survived in the
navies of the Mediterranean sea-powers after the general adoption
of the larger many-decked ship of war, propelled solely by sail-
power. Lepanto (1571) was the last great naval battle in which
the galley played the principal part. The " galleass " or
" galliass " (Med. Lat. galeasea, Ital. galeazza, an augmented form
of galea) was a larger and heavier form of galley; it usually
carried three masts and had at bow and stern a castellated
structure. The " galliot " (O. Fr. galiol, Span, and Port, galeota,
Ital. galeolta, a diminutive of galea) was a small light type of
galley. The " galleon " (formerly in English " galloon," Fr.
galion, derived from the Med. Lat. galio, galionis, a derivative
of galea) was a sailing ship of war and trade, shorter than the
galley and standing high out of the water with several decks,
chiefly used by the Spaniards during the i6th century in the
carrying of treasure from America. The number of oars or sweeps
varied, the larger galley having twenty-five on each side; the
galleass as many as thirty-two, each being worked by several men.
This labour was from the earliest times often performed byslaves
or prisoners of war. It became the custom among the Mediter-
ranean powers to sentence condemned criminals to row in the
war galleys of the state. Traces of this in France can be found as
early as 1532, but the first legislative enactment is in the Ordon-
nance d'Orltans of 1561. In 1564 Charles IX. forbade the
sentencing of prisoners to the galleys for less than ten years.
The galley-slaves were branded with the letters GAL. At the end
of the reign of Louis XIV. the use of the galley for war purposes
had practically ceased, but the corps of the galleys was not
incorporated with the navy till 1 748. The headquarters of the
galleys and of the convict rowers (galfriens) was at Marseilles.
The majority of these latter were brought to Toulon, the others
were sent to Rochefort and Brest, where they were used for work
1 Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. " Galeria," suggests an origin from
ralera, a galley, on the analogy of " nave," from navis, the galley
being a long and narrow ship; but, be adds, alii alia opinantur.
5
GALLIA CISALPINA GALLIENI
in the arsenal. At Toulon the convicts remained (in chains) on
the galleys, which were moored as hulks in the harbour. Shore
prisons were, however, provided for them, known as bagnes,
baths, a name given to such penal establishments first by the
Italians (bagno), and said to have been derived from the prison at
Constantinople situated close by or attached to the great baths
there. The name gal&rien was still given to all convicts, though
the galleys had been abandoned, and it was not till the French
Revolution that the hated name with all it signified was changed
to format. In Spain galera is still used for a criminal condemned
to penal servitude.
A vivid account of the life of galley-slaves in France is given in
Jean Marteilhes's Memoirs of a Protestant, translated by Oliver
Goldsmith (new edition, 1895), which describes the experiences of
one of the Huguenots who suffered after the revocation of the edict
of Nantes.
GALLIA CISALPINA (Lat. CM, on this side, i.e. of the Alps),
in ancient geography, that portion of northern Italy north of
Liguria and Umbria and south of the Alps, which was inhabited
by various Celtic and other peoples, of whom the Celts were in
continual hostility to Rome. In early times it was bounded on
the S. by Liguria and the Aesis, in Caesar's time by Liguria and
the Rubicon. After the Second Punic War (203 B.C.) these tribes
were severely punished by the Roman generals for the assistance
they had rendered to Hannibal. Sulla divided the district into
two parts; the region between the Aesis and the Rubicon was
made directly subject to the government at Rome, while the
northern portion was put under a distinct authority, probably
similar to the usual transmarine commands (see Mommsen,
Hist, of Rome, Eng. trans., bk. iv. c. 10).
For the early Celtic and other peoples and the later history of the
district see ITALY (ancient), and ROME: History, Ancient.
GALLIC ACID.trioxybenzoic acid(HO) 3 (3.4.S-)C6H z CO 2 H-H 2 O,
the acidum gallicum of pharmacy, a substance discovered by K.
W. Scheele; it occurs in the kaves of the bearberry, in pome-
granate root-bark, in tea, in gall-nuts to the extent of about 3 %,
and in other vegetable productions. It may be prepared by keep-
ing moist and exposed to the air for from four to six weeks, at a
temperature of 20 to 25 C., a paste of powdered gall-nuts and
water, and removing from time to time the mould which forms
on its surface; the paste is then boiled with water, the hot
solution filtered, allowed to cool, the separated gallic acid drained,
and purified by dissolving in boiling water, recrystallization at
about 27 C., and washing of the crystals with ice-cold water.
The production of the acid appears to be due to the presence in
the galls of a ferment. Gallic acid is most readily obtained by
boiling the tannin procured from oak-galls by means of alcohol
and ether with weak solution of acids. It may also be produced
by heating an aqueous solution of di-iodosalicylic acid with
excess of alkaline carbonate, by acting on dibromosalicylic acid
with moist silver oxide, and by other methods. It crystallizes in
white or pale fawn-coloured acicular prisms or silky needles,
and is soluble in alcohol and ether, and in 100 parts of cold and
3 of boiling water; it is without odour and has an astringent
and an acid taste and reaction. It melts at about 200 C., and
at 210 to 215 it is resolved into carbon dioxide and pyrogallol,
CeHiCOH)* With ferric salts its solution gives a deep blue
colour, and with ferrous salts, after exposure to the air, an in-
soluble, blue-black, ferroso-ferric gallate. Bases of the alkali
metals give with it four series of salts; these are stable except
in alkaline solutions, in which they absorb oxygen and turn brown.
Solution of calcium bicarbonate becomes with gallic acid, on
exposure to the air, of a dark blue colour. Unlike tannic acid,
gallic acid does not precipitate albumen or salts of the alkaloids,
or, except when mixed with gum, gelatin. Salts of gold and silver
are reduced by it, slowly in cold, instantaneously in warm
solutions, hence its employment in photography. With phos-
phorus oxychloride at 1 20 C. gallic acid yields tannic acid, and
with concentrated sulphuric acid at 100, rufigallicacid, CuHgOs,
an anthracene derivative. Oxidizing agents, such as arsenic
acid, convert it into Magic acid, CuHsC^+HjO, probably a
fluorene derivative, a substance which occurs in gall-nuts, in the
external membrane of the episperm of the walnut, and prob-
ably in many plants, and composes the " bezoar stones " found
in the intestines of Persian wild goats. Medicinally, gallic acid
has been, and is still, largely used as an astringent, styptic and
haemostatic. Gallic acid, however, does not coagulate albumen
and therefore possesses no local astringent action. So far is it
from being an haemostatic that, if perfused through living
blood-vessels, it actually dilates them. Its rapid neutraliza-
tion in the intestine renders it equally devoid of any remote
actions.
GALLICANISM, the collective name for various theories
maintaining that the church and king of France had ecclesiastical
rights of their own, independent and exclusive of the jurisdiction
of the pope. Gallicanism had two distinct sides, a constitutional
and a dogmatic, though both were generally held together, the
second serving as the logical basis of the first. And neither
is intelligible, except in relation to the rival theory of Ultra-
montanism (q.v.). Dogmatic Gallicanism was concerned with
the question of ecclesiastical government. It maintained that
the church's infallible authority was committed to pope and
bishops jointly. The pope decided in the first instance, but his
judgments must be tacitly or expressly confirmed by the bishops
before they had the force of law. This ancient theory survived
much longer in France than in other Catholic countries. Hence
the name of Gallican is loosely given to all its modern up-
holders, whether of French nationality or not. Constitutional
Gallicanism dealt with the relation of church and state in France.
It began in the I3th century, as a protest against the theocratic
pretensions of the medieval popes. They claimed that they, as
vicars of Christ, had the right to interfere in the temporal con-
cerns of princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they
disapproved. Gallicanism answered that kings held their power
directly of God; hence their temporal concerns lay altogether
outside the jurisdiction of the pope. During the troubles of the
Reformation era, when the papal deposing power threatened to
become a reality, the Gallican theory became of great importance.
It was elaborated, and connected with dogmatic Gallicanism, by
the famous theologian, Edmond Richer (1559-1631), and finally
incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration of the French
Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (i) that the
temporal sovereignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2)
that a general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient
liberties of the Gallican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible
teaching authority of the church belongs to pope and bishops
jointly. This declaration led to a violent quarrel with Rome,
and was officially withdrawn in 1693, though its doctrines con-
tinued to be largely held. They were asserted in an extreme
form in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (i79o), p which almost
severed connexion between France and the papacy. In 1802
Napoleon contented himself by embodying Bossuet's declaration
textually in a statute. Long before his time, however, the issue
had been narrowed down to determining exactly how far the pope
should be allowed to interfere in French ecclesiastical affairs.
Down to the repeal of the Concordat in 1905 all French govern-
ments continued to uphold two of the ancient ' ' Gallican Liberties."
The secular courts took cognizance of ecclesiastical affairs when-
ever the law of the land was alleged to have been broken; and
papal bulls were not allowed to be published without the leave
of the state. (See also FEBRONIANISM.) (ST. C.)
GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON (1849- ), French soldier and
colonial administrator, was born at Saint-Beat, in the department
of Haute-Garonne, on the 24th of April 1849. He left the military
academy of Saint-Cyr in July 1870 as a second lieutenant in the
Marines, becoming lieutenant in 1873 and captain in 1878. He
saw service in the Franco-German War, and between 1877 and
1 88 1 took an important part in the explorations and military
expeditions by which the French dominion was extended in the
basin of the upper Niger. He rendered a particularly valuable
service by obtaining, in March 1881, a treaty from Ahmadu,
almany of Segu, giving the French exclusive rights of commerce
on the upper Niger. For this he received the gold medal of the
Socit6 de G6ographie. From 1883 to 1886 Gallieni was stationed
in Martinique. On the 24th of June 1886 he attained the rank
GALLIENUS GALLIPOLI
419
of lieutenant-colonel, and on the 2oth of December was nominated
governor of Upper Senegal. He obtained several successes against
Ahmadu in 1887, and compelled Samory to agree to a treaty by
which he abandoned the left bank of the Niger (see SENEGAL:
History). In connexion with his service in West Africa, Gallieni
published two works Mission f exploration du Haul-Niter,
1879-1881 ( Paris, 1885), and Deux Camfagnes au Sudan franc,ais
(Paris, 1891) which, besides possessing great narrative interest,
give information of considerable value in regard to the resources
and topography of the country. In 1888 Gallieni was made an
officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1891 he attained the rank of
colonel, and from 1893 to 1895 he served in Tongking, command-
ing the second military division of the territory. In 1899 he
published his experiences in Trots Colonnes au Tonkin. In 1896
Madagascar was made a French colony, and Gallieni was ap-
pointed resident -general (a title changed in 1897 to governor-
general) and commander-in-chief. Under the weak administra-
tion of his predecessor a widespread revolt had broken out
against the French. By a vigorous military system Gallieni
succeeded in completing the subjugation of the island. He also
turned his attention to the destruction of the political supremacy
of the Hovas and the restoration of the autonomy of the other
tribes. The execution of the queen's uncle, Ratsimamanga,
and of Rainandrianampandry, the minister of the interior, in
October 1896, and the exile of Queen Ranavalo III. herself in
1807, on the charge of fomenting rebellion, broke up the Hova
hegemony, and made an end of Hova intrigues against French
rule. The task of government was one of considerable difficulty.
The application of the French customs and other like measures,
disastrous to British and American trade, were matters for which
Gallieni was not wholly responsible. His policy was directed to
the development of the economic resources of the island and was
conciliatory towards the non-French European population. He
also secured for the Protestants religious liberty. In 1809 he
published a Rapport d'ensemble sur la situation generate tie Mada-
gascar. In 1905, when he resigned the governorship, Madagascar
enjoyed peace and a considerable measure of prosperity. In
1906 General Gallieni was appointed to command the XIV. army
corps and military government of Lyons. He reviewed the
results of his Madagascar administration in a book entitled
Seuf Ans & Madagascar (Paris, 1908).
GALLIENUS. PUBUUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS, Roman emperor
from A.O. 260 to 268, son of the emperor Valerian, was born about
ai8. From 253 to 260 he reigned conjointly with his father,
during which time he gave proof of military ability and bravery.
But when his father was taken prisoner by Shapur I. of Persia, in
260, Gallienus made no effort to obtain his release, or to with-
stand the incursions of the invaders who threatened the empire
from all sides. He occupied part of his time in dabbling in
literature, science and various trifling arts, but gave himself up
chiefly to excess and debauchery. He deprived the senators of
their military and provincial commands, which were transferred
to equites. During his reign the empire was ravaged by a fearful
pestilence; and the chief cities of Greece were sacked by the
Goths, who descended on the Greek coast with a fleet of five
hundred. His generals rebelled against him in almost every
province of the empire, and this period of Roman history came
to be called the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Nevertheless,
these usurpers probably saved the empire at the time, by main-
taining order and repelling the attacks of the barbarians.
Gallienus was killed at Mediolanum by his own soldiers while
k****!*"! Aureolus. who was proclaimed emperor by the Illyrian
legions. His sons Valerianus and Saloninus predeceased him .
Life by Trebellius Pollio in Script. Hist. Aug.; on coins see articles
in ffumnm. Zeit. (1908) and Kit. Hal. d. num. (1908).
GALLIPPET. GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTS. MARQUIS
DE, Prince de Martignes (1830-1909), French general, was born
in Paris on the 23rd of January 1830. He entered the army in
1848, was commissioned as sub-lieutenant in 1853, and served
with distinction at the siege of Sevastopol in 1855, in the Italian
campaign of 1859, and in Algeria in 1860, after which for a time he
I on the personal staff of the emperor Napoleon III. He
displayed great gallantry as a captain at the siege and storm of
Puebla, in Mexico, in 1863, when he was severely wounded.
When he returned to France to recover from his wounds he was
entrusted with the task of presenting the captured standards and
colours to the emperor, and was promoted chef d'escadrons. He
went again to Algeria in 1864, took part in expeditions against
the Arabs, returned to Mexico as lieutenant-colonel, and, after
winning further distinction, became in 1867 colonel of the 3rd
Chasseurs d'Afrique. In the Franco-German War of 1870-71
he commanded this regiment in the army of the Rhine, until
promoted to be general of brigade on the 3oth of August. At
the battle of Sedan he led the brigade of Chasseurs d'Afrique in
the heroic charge of General Margueritte's cavalry division,
which extorted the admiration of the old king of Prussia. Made
prisoner of war at the capitulation, he returned to France during
the siege of Paris by the French army of Versailles, and com-
manded a brigade against the Communists. In the suppression
of the Commune he did his duty rigorously and inflexibly, and on
that ground earned a reputation for severity, which, throughout
his later career, and in all his efforts to improve the French army,
made him the object of unceasing attacks in the press and the
chamber of deputies. In 1872 he took command of the Batna
subdivision of Algeria, and commanded an expedition against El
Golea, surmounting great difficulties in a rapid march across the
desert, and inflicting severe chastisement on the revolted tribes.
On the general reorganization of the army he commanded the
3ist infantry brigade. Promoted general of division in 1875, he
successively commanded the isth infantry division at Dijon, the
IX. army corps at Tours, and in 1882 the XII. army corps at
Limoges. In 1885 he became a member of the Conseil Suprieur
de la Guerre. He conducted the cavalry manoeuvres in successive
years, and attained a European reputation on all cavalry
questions, and, indeed, as an army commander. Decorated with
the grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1887, he received the
military medal for his able conduct of the autumn manoeuvres in
1891, and after again commanding at the manoeuvres of 1894 he
retired from the active list. Afterwards he took an important
part in French politics, as war minister (22nd of June 1899 to
zgth of May 1900) in M. Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet, and
distinguished himself by the firmness with which he dealt with
cases of unrest in the army, but he then retired into private life,
and died on the 8th of July 1909.
GALLIC, JUNIUS ANNAEUS (originally Lucius ANNAEUS
NOVATUS), son of the rhetorician L. Annaeus Seneca and the
elder brother of L. Annaeus Seneca the philosopher, was born
at Corduba (Cordova) about the beginning of the Christian era.
At Rome he was adopted by L. Junius Gallic, a rhetorician of
some repute, from whom he took the name of Junius Gallio. His
brother Seneca, who dedicated to him the treatises De Ira and
De Vita Beata, speaks of the charm of his disposition, also alluded
to by the poet Statius (Silvae, ii. 7, 32). It is probable that he was
banished to Corsica with his brother, and that both returned
together to Rome when Agrippina selected Seneca to be tutor to
Nero. Towards the close of the reign of Claudius, Gallio was
proconsul of the newly constituted senatorial province of Achaea,
but seems to have been compelled by ill-health to resign the post
within a few years. During his tenure of office (in 53) he dis-
missed the charge brought by the Jews against the apostle Paul
(Acts xviii.). His behaviour on this occasion (" But Gallio
cared for none of these things ") shows the impartial attitude of
the Roman officials towards Christianity in its early days. He
survived his brother Seneca, but was subsequently put to death
by order of Nero (in 63) or committed suicide.
Tacitus, Annals, xv. 73; Dio Cassius Ix. 35, Ixii. 25; Sir W. M.
Rams.iv, .S7 Paul the Traveller, pp. 257-261 ; art. in Hastings'
Dili, of the Bible (H. Cowan). An interesting reconstruction ii given
by An.it uli- France in Sur la pierre blanche.
GALLIPOLI (anc. Callipolis), a seaport town and episcopal see
of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 31 m. S. by W. of it by
rail, 46 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 10,399; com-
mune, 13,459. It is situated on a rocky island in the Gulf of
Taranto, but is united to the mainland by a bridge, protected by
420
GALLIPOLI GALLIPOLIS
a castle constructed by Charles I. of Anjou. The other fortifica-
tions have been removed. The handsome cathedral dates from
1629. The town was once famous for its exports of olive-oil,
which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the rock.
This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine,
however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported.
The ancient Callipolis was obviously of Greek origin, as its
name (" beautiful city ") shows. It is hardly mentioned in
ancient times. Pliny tells us that in his time it was known as
Anxa. It lay a little off the road from Tarentum to Hydruntum,
but was reached by a branch from Aletium (the site is marked
by the modern church of S. Maria della Lizza), among the ruins
of which many Messapian inscriptions, but no Latin ones, have
been found. (T. As.)
GALLIPOLI (Turk. Gelibolu, anc. KaXXforoXis), a seaport and
city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; at the
north-western extremity of the Dardanelles, on a narrow peninsula
132 m. W.S.W. of Constantinople, and 90 m. S. of Adrianople, in
40 24' N. and 26 40' 30" E. Pop. (1905) about 25,000. Nearly
opposite is Lapsaki on the Asiatic side of the channel, which is
here about 2 m. wide. Gallipoli has an unattractive appear-
ance; its streets are narrow and dirty, and many of its houses are
built of wood, although there are a few better structures, occupied
by the foreign residents and the richer class of Turkish citizens.
The only noteworthy buildings are the large, crowded and
well-furnished bazaars with leaden domes. There are several
mosques, none of them remarkable, and many interesting Roman
and Byzantine remains, especially a magazine of the emperor
Justinian (483-565), a square castle and tower attributed to
Bayezid I. (1389-1403), and some tumuli on the south, popularly
called the tombs of the Thracian kings. The lighthouse, built
on a cliff, has a fine appearance as seen from the Dardanelles.
Gallipoli is the seat of a Greek bishop. It has two good harbours,
and is the principal station for the Turkish fleet. From its
position as the key of the Dardanelles, it was occupied by the
allied French and British armies in 1854. Then the isthmus a few
miles north of the town, between it and Bulair, was fortified with
strong earthworks by English and French engineers, mainly on
the lines of the old works constructed in 1357. These fortifica-
tions were renewed and enlarged in January 1878, on the
Russians threatening to take possession of Constantinople.
The peninsula thus isolated by the fortified positions has the Gulf
of Saros on the N.W., and extends some 50 m. S.W. The guns
of Gallipoli command the Dardanelles just before the strait
joins the Sea of Marmora. The town itself is not very strongly
fo'rtified, the principal fortifications being farther down the
Dardanelles, where the passage is narrower.
The district (sanjak) of Gallipoli is exceedingly fertile and well
adapted for agriculture. It has about 100,000 inhabitants, and
comprises four kazas (cantons), namely, (i) Maitos, noted for its
excellent cotton; (2) Keshan, lying inland north of Gallipoli,
noted for its cattle-market, and producing grain, linseed and
canary seed; (3) Myriofyto; and (4) Sharkeui or Shar-Koi
(Peristeri) on the coast of the Sea of Marmora. Copper ore and
petroleum are worked at Sharkeui, and the neighbourhood
formerly produced wine that was highly esteemed and largely
exported to France for blending. Heavy taxation, however,
amounting to 55% of the value of the wine, broke the spirit
of the viticulturists, most of whom uprooted their vines and
replanted their lands with mulberry trees, making sericulture
their occupation.
There are no important industrial establishments in Gallipoli
itself, except steam flour- mills and a sardine factory. The line
of railway between Adrianople and the Aegean Sea has been
prejudicial to the transit trade of Gallipoli, and several attempts
have been made to obtain concessions for the construction of a
railway that would connect this port with the Turkish railway
system. Steamers to and from Constantinople call regularly.
In 1904 the total value of the exports was 80,000. Wheat and
maize are exported to the Aegean islands and to Turkish ports on
the mainland; barley, oats and linseed to Great Britain; canary
seed chiefly to Australia; beans to France and Spain. Semolina
and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock , principally
sheep, pass through Gallipoli in transit to Constantinople and
Smyrna. Cheese, sardines, goats' skins and sheepskins are also
exported. The imports include woollen and cotton fabrics from
Italy, Germany, France and Great Britain, and hardware from
Germany and Austria. These goods are imported through
Constantinople. Cordage is chiefly obtained from Servia. Other
imports are fuel, iron and groceries.
The Macedonian city of Callipolis was founded in the sth
century B.C. At an early date it became a Christian bishopric,
and in the middle ages developed into a great commercial city,
with a population estimated at 100,000. It was fortified by the
East Roman emperors owing to its commanding strategic position
and its valuable trade with Greece and Italy. In 1190 the
armies of the Third Crusade, under the emperor Frederick I.
(Barbarossa), embarked here for Asia Minor. After the capture
of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Gallipoli passed into the
power of Venice. In 1 294 the Genoese defeated a Venetian force
in the neighbourhood. A body of Catalans, under Roger Florus,
established themselves here in 1306, and after the death of their
leader massacred almost all the citizens; they were vainly
besieged by the allied troops of Venice and the Empire, and with-
drew in 1307, after dismantling the fortifications. About the
middle of the i4th century the Turks invaded Europe, and Galli-
poli was the first city to fall into their power. The Venetians
under Pietro Loredano defeated the Turks here in 1416.
GALLIPOLIS, a city and the county-seat of Gallia county,
Ohio, U. S. A., on the Ohio river, about 125 m. E. by S. of
Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 4498; (1900) 5432 (852 negroes); (1910)
5560. It is served by the Kanawha & Michigan (Ohio Central
Lines) and the Hocking Valley railways, and (at Gallipolis Ferry,
West Virginia, across the Ohio) by the Baltimore & Ohio railway.
The city is built on a level site several feet above the river's
high-water mark. It has a United States marine hospital and a
state hospital for epileptics. Among the city's manufactures are
lumber, furniture, iron, stoves, flour and brooms. The muni-
cipality owns and operates its waterworks. Gallipolis was
settled in 1790 by colonists from France, who had received
worthless deeds to lands in Ohio from the Scioto Land Company,
founded by Col. William Duer (1747-1799) and others in 1787
and officially organized in 1789 as the Compagnie du Scioto in
Paris by Joel Barlow, the agent of Duer and 'his associates
abroad, William Playfair, an Englishman, and six Frenchmen.
This company had arranged with the Ohio Company in 1787 for
the use of about 4,000,000 acres, N. of the Ohio and E. of the
Scioto, on which the Ohio Company had secured an option only.
The dishonesty of those who conducted the sales in France, the
unbusinesslike methods of Barlow, and the failure of Duer and
his associates to meet their contract with the Ohio Company,
caused the collapse of the Scioto Company early in 1790, and two
subsequent attempts to revive it failed. Meanwhile about
150,000 acres had been sold to prospective settlers in France, and
in October 1790 the French immigrants, who had been detained
for two months at Alexandria, Virginia, arrived on the site of
Gallipolis, where rude huts had been built for them. This land,
however, fell within the limits of the tract bought outright by the
Ohio Company, which sold it to the Scioto Company, and to
which it reverted on the failure of the Scioto Company to pay.
In 1794 William Bradford, attorney-general of the United States,
decided that all rights in the 4,000,000 acres, on which the Ohio
Company had secured an option for the Scioto Company, were
legally vested in the Ohio Company. In 1795 the Ohio Company
sold to the French settlers for $1-25 an acre the land they
occupied and adjacent improved lots, and the United States
government granted to them 24,000 acres in the southern part of
what is now Scioto County in 1795; little of this land (still
known as the " French Grant "), however, was ever occupied by
them. Gallipolis was incorporated as a village in 1842, and was
first chartered as a city in 1863.
See Theodore T. Belote, The Scioto Speculation and the French
Settlement at Gallipolis (Cincinnati, 1907), series 2, vol. iii. No. 3
of the University Studies of the University of Cincinnati.
GALLITZIN GALLOWAY
421
GALLITZIN. DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE (1770-1840),
American Roman Catholic priest, called " The Apostle of the
Allegbanics," was born at the Hague on the 32nd of December
1770. His name is a form of Golitsuin (q.v.), the Russian family
from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich Gallitzin
(i73$~>8j)> Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate
friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many
years was his mother, Countess Adelheid Amalie vcn Schmettau
(1748-1806), until a severe illness in 1786 led her bade to the
Roman Catholic church, in which she had been reared. At the
age of seventeen he too became a member of that church. His
father had planned for him a diplomatic or military career, and in
1792 he was aide-de-camp to the commander of the Austrian
troops in Brabant; but, after the assassination of the king of
Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was dismissed from the
service. He then set out to complete his education by travel,
and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland,
where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was
ordained priest in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic
priest ordained in America, and then worked in the mission at
Port Tobacco, Maryland, whence he was soon transferred to the
Conewago district. His impulsive objection to some of Bishop
Carroll's instructions was sharply rebuked, and he was recalled
to Baltimore. But in 1 796 he removed to Taney town, Maryland ,
and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such mis-
directed zeal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved
by bis bishop in 1798. In the Alleghanies, in 1799, he planned a
settlement in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and
bought up much land which he gave or sold at low prices to
Catholic immigrants, spending $150,000 or more in the purchase
of some 20,000 acres in a spot singularly ill suited for such an
enterprise. In 1808, after his father's death, he was disinherited
by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia " by reason of your
Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical profession "; and although
his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his half of the valuable
estate and sent him money from time to time, after her death her
brother received little or nothing from the estate. The priest,
who after his father's death had in 1809 discarded the name of
Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had
taken his real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was
a loan from Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for
the see of Philadelphia in 1814, Bishop Carroll gave as an objec-
tion Gallitzin's " great load of debt rashly, though for excellent
and charitable purposes, contracted." In 181 5 Gallitzin was sug-
gested for the bishopric of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for
the proposed see of Pittsburg, and he refused the bishopric of
Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the settlement he had founded
in Cambria county, on tf.e 6th of May 1840. Among his
parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in
building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania
cannot be estimated; but it is said that at his death there were
10,000 members of his church in the district where forty years
before he bad found a scant dozen. One of the villages he founded
bean his name. Among his controversial pamphlets are: A
Defence of Catholic Principles (1816), Letter to a Protestant Friend
on Ike Holy Scriptures (1820), Appeal to the Protestant Public
(1854), and Six Letters of Advice (1834), in reply to attacks
on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod.
See Sarah M. Brownson, Life of D.A. Gallitzin, Prince and Priest
(New York, 1873); a brief summary of his life by A. A. Lambing
in American Catholic Retards (Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, October
1886, pp. $8-68); and a good bibliography by Thomas C. Middleton
in Tht GaUitrin Memorandum Book, in American Catholic Historical
Society of Philadelphia, Records, vol. 4, pp. 32 aqq.
GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69-9), one of the metallic
chemical elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its
spectrum, in a specimen of zinc blende by Lecoq de Boisbaudran
(Comptes rendus, 1875, 81, p. 403, and following years). The chief
chemical and physical properties of gallium had been predicted
many years before by D. Mendeleeff (c. 1869) from a consideration
of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc (see ELEMENT).
The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only contains it in
very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an acid, and
precipitating the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate is
dissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by
sulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fraction-
ally precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the
gallium before the zinc. This precipitate is converted into
gallium sulphate and finally into a pure specimen of the oxide,
from which the metal is obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline
solution. Gallium crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which
melt at 30- 1 5 C. to a silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but
slightly malleable and flexible, although in thin plates it may be
bent several times without breaking. The specific gravity of the
solid form is 5-956 (24-5 C.), of the liquid 6-069, whilst the specific
heats of the two varieties are, for the solid form 0-079 (12-23 C.)
and for the liquid 0-082 (106-119) IM. Berthelot, Comptes
rendus, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is not appreciably volatilized at a red
heat. Chlorine acts on it readily in the cold, bromine not so
easily, and iodine only when the mixture is heated. The atomic
weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de Boisbaudran
by ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer and
K. Seubert.
Gallium oxide GaOi is obtained when the nitrate is heated, or by
solution of the metal in nitric acid and ignition of the nitrate. It
forms a white friable mass which after ignition is insoluble in acids.
On heating to redness in a stream of hydrogen it forms a bluish
mass which is probably a lower oxide of composition GaO. Gallium
forms colourless salts, which in neutral dilute aqueous solutions are
converted on heating into basic salts. The gallium salts are pre-
cipitated by alkaline carbonates and by barium carbonate, but not
by sulphuretted hydrogen unless in acetic acid solution. Potassium
ferrocyanide gives a precipitate even in very dilute solution. In
neutral solutions, zinc gives a precipitate of gallium oxide. By
heating gallium in a regulated stream of chlorine the dichloride
GaCU is obtained as a crystalline mass, which melts at 164 C. and
readily decomposes on exposure to moist air. The trichloride
GaCU is similarly formed when the metal is heated in a rapid stream
of chlorine, and may be purified by distillation in an atmosphere of
nitrogen. It forms very deliquescent long white needles melting at
75-5 C. and boiling at 2 1 5-220" C. The bromide, iodide and sulphate
are known, as is also gallium ammonium alum. Gallium is best
detected by means of its spark spectrum, which gives two violet lines
of wave length 4171 and 4031.
GALLON, an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids,
but also used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four
quarts. The word was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. galon,
Central Fr. jalon, and was Latinized as goto and galona. It
appears to be connected with the modern French jale, a bowl, but
the ultimate origin is unknown; it has been referred without
much plausibility to Gr. yavbti, a milk pail. The British
imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277-274 cub. in. The
old English wine gallon of 231 cub. in. capacity is the standard
gallon of the United States.
GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803), American lawyer and
politician, one of the most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in
West River, Anne Arundel county, Maryland, in 1 731. He early
removed to Philadelphia, where be acquired a high standing as a
lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in 1764) he was one of the
most influential members of the Pennsylvania Assembly, over
which he presided in 1766-1773. During this period, with his
friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Pro-
prietary government, and in 1764 and 1765 attempted to secure a
royal charter for the province. With the approach of the crisis
in the relations between Great Britain and the American colonies
he adopted a conservative course, and, while recognizing the
justice of many of the colonial complaints, discouraged radical
action and advocated a compromise. As a member of the First
Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September 1774) a
" Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the
Colonies," and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It
provided for a president-general appointed by the crown, who
should have supreme executive authority over all the colonies,
and for a grand council, elected tricnnially by the several pro-
vincial assemblies, and to have such " rights, liberties and
privileges as are held and exercised by and in the House of
Commons of Great Britain "; the president-general and grand
council were to be " an inferior distinct branch of the British
legislature, united and incorporated with it." The assent of the
422
GALLOWAY GALLS
grand council and of the British parliament was to be " requisite
to the validity of all ... general acts or statutes," except that
" in time of War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared
by the grand council and approved by the president-general,
shall be valid and passed into a law, without the assent of the
British parliament." The individual colonies, however, were to
retain control over their strictly internal affairs. The measure
was debated at length, was advocated by such influential members
as John Jay and James Duane of New York and Edward
Rutledge of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by
the vote of six colonies to five. Galloway declined a second
election to Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New
Brunswick, New Jersey (December 1776), advised the British to
attack Philadelphia by the Delaware, and during the British
occupation of Philadelphia (1777-1778) was superintendent of
the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of the city. In
October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until his
death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 2gth of August 1803.
After he left America his life was attainted, and his property,
valued at 40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania
Assembly, a loss for which he received a partial recompense in the
form of a small parliamentary pension. He was one of the
clearest thinkers and ablest political writers among the American
Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler, " shared with Thomas
Hutchinson the supreme place among American statesmen
opposed to the Revolution."
Among his pamphlets are A Candid Examination of the Mutual
Claims of Great Britain and the Colonies (1775); Historical and
Political Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion
(1780); Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of
American Independence (1780); and The Claim of the American
Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles
of Law and Justice (1788).
See Thomas Balch (Ed.), The Examination of Joseph Galloway
by a Committee of the House of Commons (Philadelphia, 1855) ;
Ernest H. Baldwin, Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician (New
Haven, 1903); and M. C. Tyler, Literary History of the American
Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897).
GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796-1851), Scottish mathematician,
was born at Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February
1796. In 1812 he entered the university of Edinburgh, where he
distinguished himself specially in mathematics. In 1823 he was
appointed one of the teachers of mathematics at the military
college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed actuary to the
Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of that kind
in London; in which situation he remained till his death on the
ist of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for
the most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting
paper is " On the Proper Motion of the Solar System," and was
published in the Phil. Trans., 1847. He contributed largely to
the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and also
wrote several scientific papers for the Edinburgh Review and
various scientific journals. His Encyclopaedia article, " Prob-
ability," was published separately.
See Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society (1852).
GALLOWAY, a district in the south-west of Scotland, com-
prising the counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was
the Novantia of the Romans, and till the end of the I2th cen-
tury included Carrick, now the southern division of Ayrshire.
Though the designation has not been adopted civilly, its use
historically and locally has been long established. Thus the
Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of earl of Galloway
(created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts. Galloway
also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black hornless
cattle. See KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE and WIGTOWNSHIRE.
GALLOWS 1 (a common Teutonic word cf. Goth, galga,
O. H. Ger. galgo, Mod. Ger. Galgen, A.S. galzan, &c. of uncertain
1 The word " gallows " is the plural of a word (galwe, galowe, Callow)
which, according to the New English Dictionary, was occasionally
used as late as the I7th century, though from the I3th century on-
wards the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of " a
gallows," and, in the older form, of " a pair of gallows," this referring
probably to the two upright posts. From the i6th century onwards
gallows " has been consistently treated as a singular form, a new
plural, " gallowses," having come into use. " The latter, though
origin), the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by
hanging. It usually consists of two upright posts and a cross-
beam, but sometimes of a single upright with a beam projecting
from the top. The Roman gallows was the cross, and in the
older translations of the Bible " gallows " was used for the cross
on which Christ suffered (so galga in Ulfilas's Gothic Testament). 2
Another form of gallows in the middle ages was that of which the
famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type. This
was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected
in each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath,
into which the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the
weather.
According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a
platform or drop (introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs
from the cross-beam, and the noose at its end is placed round
his neck. He is hanged by the falling of the drop, the knot in
the noose being so adjusted that the spinal cord is broken by the
fall and death instantaneous. In old times the process was far
less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in a cart,
which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to
mount a ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman.
Until 1832 malefactors in England were sometimes hanged by
being drawn up from the platform by a heavy weight at the other
end of the rope. Death in these cases was by strangulation. At
the present time executions in the United Kingdom are private,
the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set
apart for the purpose inside the gaol.
The word " gibbet," the Fr. gibet, gallows, which appears in
the first instance to have meant a crooked stick, 3 was originally
used in English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes
still is. Its later and more special application, however, was to
the upright posts with a projecting arm on which the bodies of
criminals were suspended after their execution. These gibbets
were erected in conspicuous spots, on the tops of hills (Gallows
Hill is still a common name) or near frequented roads. The
bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid decomposition,
hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the gruesome
custom comes the common use of the word " to gibbet " for any
holding up to public infamy or contempt.
GALLS. In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of
living mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by
dipterous insects of the genus Oestrus. Signor Moriggia 4 has
described and figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length,
from the back of the human hand, which was caused by Acarus
domesticus. What are commonly known as galls are vegetable
excrescences, and, according to the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers,
comprise " all abnormal vegetable productions developed on
plants by the action of animals, more particularly by insects,
whatever may be their form, bulk or situation." For the larvae
of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. The
exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls,
appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus,
secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the
puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts
of plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision
of the cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval
or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part
in the formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers
remarks, a certain relation is necessary between the " stimulus "
and the " supporter of the stimulus," as evidenced by the limita-
tion in the majority of cases of each species of gall-insect to some
one vegetable structure, still it must be the quality of the irritant
not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt
to be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural
in commonly evaded " (New Eng. Diet. s.v. " Gallows ").
1 In Med. Lat. " gallows " was translated byfuria and patibulum,
both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument
of punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. Furia,
in feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major juris-
diction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief.
1 Cf. Wace, Roman de Rou, iii. 8349 :
" Et jl a le gibet saisi
Qui a son destre braz pendi."
Quoted in' Zoological Record, iv. (1867), p. 192.
GALLS
423
of the tissues, rather than the specific peculiarities or the part
of the plant affected, that principally determines the nature of the
fall. Thus the characteristics of the currant-gall of Spathegaster
baccarum, L., which occurs alike on the leaves and on the
flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to the act of ovi-
posiikm, and not to the functions of the parts producing it;
the bright red galls of the saw-fly Nemotus galikola are found on
four different species of willow, Satix JragUis, S. alba, S. caprea
and 5. cinerea;* and the galls of a Cynipid, Biorkiza aptera,
usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been procured
also from the deodar. 1 Often the gall bears no visible resemblance
to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly,
however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving
to the gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or
les* modified special organs of the plant. The gall of Cecidomyia
jtrwWiiM, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves
the sulks of which have had their growth arrested. The small,
smooth, seed-shaped gall of the American Cynips seminalor,
Harris, according to W. F. Bassett,' is the petiole, and its ter-
minal tuft of woolly hairs the enormously developed pubescence
of the young oak-leaf. The moss-like covering of the " bedeguars' '
of the wild rose, the galls of a Cynipid, Rhodiles rosae, represents
leaves which have been developed with scarcely any parenchyma
between their fibro- vascular .bundles; and the " artichoke-galls "
or " oak-strobile," produced by Aphilothrix gemmae, L., which
insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists of a cupule
to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached, with a
peduncular, oviform, inner gall. 4 . Newman held the view that
many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: " to produce
an acorn has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has
frustrated the attempt." Their formation from buds which
normally would have yielded leaves and shoots is explained by
Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at fructification induced by
opposition, such as has been found to result in several plants from
injury by insect-agency or otherwise.* Galls vary remarkably
in size and shape according to the species of their makers. The
polythalamous gall of Aphilothrix radicis, found on the roots of
old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man's fist; the galls of
another Cynipid, Andricus oteuilus, Tschek,* which occurs on the
male flowers of Quercus sessiliflora, is 2 millimetres, or barely a
line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance,
the oak-leaf hairy galls of Spathegaster tricolor, which are of a
crimson hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light.
The variety of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns
or cups, others lenticular. The " knoppern " galls of Cynips
polycera, Gir, are cones having the broad, slightly convex
upper surface surrounded with a toothed ridge. Of the Ceylone.se
galls, " some are as symmetrical as a composite flower when in
bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry; some protected
by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of long
cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs." ' Thecharacters
of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic, even
when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American
willow, Salix kumilis, it is difficult or impossible to tell the full-
grown insects that produce them from one another. In degree
of complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably.
Some are monot halamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-
maker, whilst others are many-celled and numerously inhabited.
The largest class are the unilocular, or simple, external galls,
divided by Lacaze-Duthiers into those with and those without
a superficial protective layer or rind, and composed of hard,
or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common gall-nut that authority
distinguished seven constituent portions: an epidermis; a
subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer, composing
1 P. Cameron, Scottish Naturalist, ii. pp. 11-15.
* Entomologist, vii. p. 47.
' See in Proc. Entom. Soc. of London tor the Year 1873, p. xvi.
4 See A. Mailer, Gardener's Chronicle (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518;
and E. A. Fitch, Entomologist, xi. p. 129.
Entomologist, vi. pp. 275-278. 339-34O-
1 Verkandl. d. toolog.-bot. Get. in Witn, xxi. p. 709.
7 Darwin, Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication,
ii. p. 282.
the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a
complete investment, underlie the parenchyma ; a hard pro-
tective layer; and lastly, within that, an alimentary central
mass inhabited by the growing larva.*
Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the
Hymenoptera are the gall- wasps (Cynips and its allies), which
infect the various species of oak. They are small insects, having
straight antennae, and a compressed, usually very short abdomen
with the second or second and third segments greatly developed,
and the rest imbricated, and concealing the partially coiled
ovipositor. The transformations from the larval state are
completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or perfect
insect, tunnels its way, usually in autumn, though sometimes,
as has been observed of some individuals of Cynips Kollari,
after hibernation.
Among the commoner of the galls of the Cynipidae are the
"oak-apple" or "oak-sponge" of Andricus terminalis, Fab.;
the " currant " or " berry galls " of Spathegaster baccarum,
L., above mentioned; and the "oak-spangles" of Neurolerus
lenticuloris,' Oliv., generally reputed to be fungoid growths,
until the discovery of their true nature by Frederick Smith, 10 and
the succulent " cherry-galls " of Dryophanta scutellaris, Oliv.
The " marble " or " Devonshire woody galls " of oak-buds,
which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are pro-
duced by Cynips Kollari, 11 already alluded to. They were first
introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become
common near Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later
were observed in several parts of Scotland." They contain
about 1 7 % of tannin." On account of their regular form they
have been used, threaded on wire, formaking ornamental baskets.
The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah galls, 14 produced on a
species of oak by Cynips insana, Westw., have been regarded by
many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (mala insana),
or apples of Sodom (poma sodomitica) , alluded to by Josephus
and others, which, however, are stated by E. Robinson (Bibl.
Researches in Palestine, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be
the singular fruit called by the Arabs 'Osher, produced by the
Asclepias giganlea or procera of botanists. What in California
are known as " flea seeds " are oak-galls made by a species of
Cynips; in August they become detached from the leaves that
bear them, and are caused to jump by the spasmodic movements
of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity. 1 '
Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the Aleppo, Turkey,
or Levant galls of commerce (Ger. Gallitpfel, levantische
Gotten; Fr. noix de Galle), are produced on Quercus in-
fecloria, a variety of Q. Lusilanica, Webb, by Cynips (Diplolepis,
Latr.) tinctoria, L., or C. gallae tinctoriae Oliv. Aleppo galls
(gallae halepenses) are brittle, hard, spherical bodies, f-f in. in
diameter, ridged and warty on the upper half, and light brown
to dark greyish-yellow within. What are termed " blue,"
" black, "or" green "galls contain the insect; the inferior "white"
galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so compact, heavy or
astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig. i.). Less valued
are the galls of Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence the name
" Tarablous galls "). The most esteemed Syrian galls, according
to Pereira, are those of Mosul on the Tigris. Other varieties of
nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in Europe
for various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on
analysis from 26 (H. Davy) to 77 (Buchner) % of tannin (see
" Recherches pour servir a I'histoire des galles," Ann. des set.
not. xix. pp. 293 sqq.
' According to I >r Adler, alternation of generations takes place
between N. lenticularis and Spathegaster baccarum (see E. A. Ormerod,
Entomologist, xi. p. 34).
See Westwood, Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects, ii. (1840)
p. 130.
"For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see Entomologist,
iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131.
11 Scottish Naturalist, i. (1871) p. 116, &c.
" Vincn, Journ. de. pharm. et de chim. xxx. (1856) p. 290;
" English Ink-Galls," Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. iv. p. 520.
14 See Pereira, Materia Medico, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347; Pharm. Journ.
1st scr. vol. viii. pp. 422-424.
'See R. H. Stretch and C. D. Gibbes, Proc. California Acad.
of Sciences, iv. pp. 265 and 266.
424
GALLS
Vinen, loc. cit.), with gallic and ellagic acids, ligneous fibre,
water, and minute quantities of proteids, chlorophyll, resin, free
sugar and, in the cells around the inner shelly chamber, calcium
oxalate. Oak-galls are mentioned by Theophrastus, Dioscorides
(i. 146), and other ancient writers, including Pliny (Nat. Hist.
xvi. 9, 10, xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be produced
" in a single night." Their insect origin appears to have been
entirely unsuspected until within comparatively recent times,
though Pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a kind of gnat is
FIG. I. a, Aleppo "blue" gall; b, ditto in section, showing
central cavity for grub; c, Aleppo " white " gall, perforated by
insect; d, the same in section (natural size).
produced in certain excrescences on oak leaves. Bacon describes
oak-apples as " an exudation of plants joined with putrefaction."
Pomet 1 thought that gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a
similar opinion obtains among the modern Chinese, who apply
to them the term Mu-shih-tsze, or " fruits for the foodless." 2
Hippocrates administered gall-nuts for their astringent properties,
and Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxiv. 5) recommends them as a remedy in
affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the mouth and
some dozen more complaints. In British pharmacy gall-nuts
are used in the preparation of the two astringent ointments
unguentum gallae and unguentum gallae cum opio, and of the
iinctura gallae, and also as a source of tannin and of gallic acid
((/..). They have from very early times been resorted to as a
means of staining the hair of a dark colour, and they are the
base of the tattooing dye of the Somali women. 3
The gall-making Hymenoptera include, besides the Cynipidae
proper, certain species of the genus Eurytoma (Isosoma, Walsh)
and family Chalcididae, e.g. E. hordei, the "joint-worm " of the
United States, which produces galls on the stalks of wheat; 4
also various members of the family Tenthredinidae, or saw-flies.
The larvae of the latter usually vacate their galls, to spin their
cocoons in the earth, or, as in the case of Athalia abdominalis,
Klg., of the clematis, may emerge from their shelter to feed for
some days on the leaves of the gall-bearing plant.
The dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gall-
gnats (Cecidomyidae) , minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies
usually covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the
back. Some of them build cocoons within their galls, others
descend to the ground or become pupae. The true willow-galls
are the work either of these or of saw-flies. Their galls are to be
met with on a great variety of plants of widely distinct genera,
e.g. the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak, 6 grape-vine, 6 alder, goose-
berry, blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle, fennel, meadowsweet, 7
1 A Complete History of Drugs (translation), p. 169 (London, 1748).
* F. Porter Smith, Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica . . . of China,
p. 100 (1871).
R. F. Burton, First Footsteps in E. Africa, p. 178 (1856).
4 A. S. Packard, jun., Guide to the Study of Insects, p. 205 (Salem,
1870).
* On the Cecidomyids of Quercus Cerris, see Fitch, Entomologist,
xi. p. 14.
* See, on Cecidomyia oenephila, Von Haimhoffen, Verhandl. d.
zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxv. pp. 801-810.
'See Entomologist's Month. Mag. iv. (1868) p. 233; and for
figure and description, Entomologist, xi. p. 13.
common cabbage and cereals. In the northern United States, in
May, " legions of these delicate minute flies fill the air at twilight,
hovering over wheat-fields and shrubbery. A strong north-west
wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the farmer."*
Other gall-making dipterous flies are members of the family
Trypetidae, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the
family Mycetophilidae, such as the species Sciara tilicola* Low,
the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of
the young shoots and leaves of the lime.
Galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects
of the families Tingidae, Psyllidae, Coccidae and Aphidae.
Coccus pinicorticis causes the growth of patches of white flocculent
and downy matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the
white pine in America. 10 The galls of examples of the last
family are common objects on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of
the poplar. An American Aphid of the genus Pemphigus pro-
duces black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped excrescences on the
young branches of the hickory.
The Chinese galls of commerce (Woo-pei-tsze} are stated to be
produced by Aphis Chinensis, Bell, on Rhus semialata, Murr. (R.
Bucki-amela, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous tree indigenous to N.
India, China and Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly
pyriform, tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered
externally with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like
matter, and insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect
takes place on the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle,
probably when, after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for
several generations, male winged insects are developed. The galls
are gathered before the frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill
the insects. 11
Chinese galls examined by Viedt 12 yielded 72 % of tannin, and
less mucilage than Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls
are produced by Aphides on species of Pistacia.
M. J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of
the Aphis of Pistachio galls, Anopleura lentisci, is hatched an
apterous insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young
Aphides (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to
the roots of certain grasses (Bromus sterilis and Hordeum vulgare),
and by budding underground give rise to several generations of
apterous insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupi-
fera). These last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and
on it deposit their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed
sexual individuals, the females of which lay fecundated eggs pro-
ductive of gall-founders, thus recommencing the biological cycle
(see Compt. rend., Nov. 18, 1878, p. 782, quoted in Ann. and Mag.
Nat. Hist., 1879, p. 174).
Of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers
FIG.
, Chinese gall (half natural size) ; b, ditto broken, showing
thin- walled cavity; c, Japanese gall (natural size).
there are, among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall-
weevils), and species of the exotic Sagridae and Lamiadae and an
'A. S. Packard, jun., Our Common Insects, p. 203 (Salem, U.S.
1873). On the Hessian fly, Cecidomyia destructor, Say, the May
brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of
barley attacked by it, see Asa Fitch, The Hessian Fly (Albany, 1847),
reprinted from Trans. New York State Agric. Soc. vol. vi.
J. Winnertz, Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Sciarinen, p. 164
(Vienna, 1867).
10 Asa Fitch, First and Second Rep. on the Noxious. . .Insects
of the State of New York, p. 167 (Albany, 1856).
11 See E. Doubleday, Pharm. Journ. 1st ser. vol. viL p. 310; and
Pereira, ib. vol. iii. p. 377.
11 Dingier' s Polyt. Journ. ccxvi. p. 453.
GALLUPPI
425
American beetle, Saperda inornate (Cerambycidat), which forms
the pseudo-galls of Salix longifolia and Populus anguiala, or
cottonwood. Among the Lepidoptera are gall-forming species
belonging to the Tinridae, Aegeriidae, Tortricidae and Ptero-
pkoridae. The larva of a New Zealand moth, Iforova fubfasciata,
Walk. (Caeotcia gaUicolens), of the family Drepanultdae, causes
the stem of a creeping plant, on the pith of which it apparently
subsists, to swell up into a fusiform gall. 1
Mite-galls, or acaroctcidia, are abnormal growths of the leaves
of plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genus
Phyioptus (gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of
thickened portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on
the upper surface, so that the lower is drawn up into the interior,
producing a bursiform cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore,
pear, plum, ash, alder, vine, mulberry and many other plants;
and formerly, e.g. the gall known as Erineum quercinum, on the
leaves of Quercus Cerris, were taken for cryptogamic structures.
The lime-leaf " nail-galls " of Phytoptus liiiae closely resemble the
" trumpet-galls " formed on American vines by a species of
Cecidomyia. 1 Certain minute Nematoid worms, as Anguillula
tcandfns, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise to galls.
Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls
usually contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are
termed guest-flies or cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls of Cynips and
its allies are inhabited by members of other cynipideous genera,
as Synergus, Amblynoius and Synophrus; and the pine-cone-like
gall of Salix strobiMdes, as Walsh has shown, 1 is made by a large
species of Cecidomyia, which inhabits the heart of the mass, the
numerous smaller cecidomyidous larvae in its outer part being
mere inquilines. In many instances the lodgers are not of the
same order of insects as the gall-makers. Some saw-flies, for
example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and some
gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may afford
harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the
case of the Curculio beetle Conotrachelius nenuphar, Hbst., of
which one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and
another lives in the " black knot " of the plum-tree, regarded
by Walsh as probably a true cecidomyidous gall. The same
authority (lot, tit. p. 550) mentions a willow-gall which provides
no less than sixteen insects with food and protection; these are
preyed upon by about eight others, so that alltogether some
twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are dependent for
their existence on what to the common observer appears to be
nothing but " an unmeaning mass of leaves." Among the
numerous insects parasitic on the inhabitants of galls' are
hymenopterous flies of the family Proctotrypidae, and of the
family Chalcididae, e.g. Callimome regius, the larva of which
preys on the larvae of both Cynips glulinosa and its lodger
Synergus facialis. The oak-apple often contains the larvae of
Braconidae and Ichneumonidae, which Von Schlechtendal (loc.
tup. cit. p. 33) considers to be parasites not on the owner of the
gall, Andrictu terminaiis, but on inquilinous Tortricidae. Birds
are to be included among the enemies of gall-insects. Oak-galls,
for example, are broken open by the titmouse in order to obtain
the grub within, and the " button-galls " of Neuroterus numis-
matis, Oliv., are eaten by pheasants.
A great variety of deformations and growths produced by
insects and mites as well as by fungi have been described. They
are in some cases very slight, and in others form remarkably
large and definite structures. The whole are now included under
the term Cecidia; a prefix gives the name of the organism to
which the attacks are due, e.g. Phytoptocecidia are the galls
formed by Phytoptid mites. Simple galls are those that arise
> only one member of a plant is involved ; compound galls
1 For figure and description see Zoology of the " Erebus " and
" Terror.' r u. pp. 46. 47 (1844-1875).
'On the mite-ealU and their makers, see F. Low, " Beitragc zur
Andrew Murray, Economic Entomology, Aptera, pp. 331-374 (1876);
and F. A. W. Thomas. Altere and neve Beobachtungen uber Phytopto-
Ctcidit* (Halle, 1877).
are the result of attacks on buds. Amongst the most remark-
able galls recently discovered we may mention those found on
Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other trees and plants in Australia.
They are remarkable for their variety, and are due to small
scale-insects of the peculiar sub-family Brachyscclinac. As
regards the mode of production of galls, the most important
distinction is between galls that result from the introduction of
an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the plant, and those
that are due to an agent acting externally, the gall in the latter
case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to enclose
its producers. The form and nature of the gall are the result
of the powers of growth possessed by the plant. It has long been
known, and is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be
produced when the tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or
prior to, the actual development of the tissue. Little more than
this is known. The power that gall-producers possess of in-
fluencing by direct interference the growth of the cells of the plant
that affords them the means of subsistence is an art that appears
to be widely spread among animals, but is at the same time one
of which we have little knowledge. The views of Adler as to the
alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies have been fully
confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct observation that
the galls and the insects produced from them in one generation
are entirely different from the next generation; and it has also
been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate
generations is parthenogenetic, no males being produced. It is
supposed that these remarkable phenomena have gradually
been evoked by difference in the nutrition of the alternating
generations. When two different generations are produced in
one year on the same kind of tree it is clear the properties of the
sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse so that the two genera-
tions are adapted to different conditions. In some cases the
alternating generations are produced on different species of trees,
and even on different parts of the two species.
On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further J. T. C.
Ratzeburg, Die Forst-Insecten, Teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (Berlin, 1844);
T. W. Harris, Insects injurious to Vegetation (Boston, U.S., 2nd ed.,
1852); C. L. Koch, Die Pflanzenlduse Aphiden (Nuremberg, 1854);
T. Hartig, Die Familien der Blattwespen und Ilolzwespen (Berlin,
1860); Walsh, " On the Insects, Coleopterous, Hymenopterous and
Dipterous, inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow," Proc.
Ent. Soc. Philadelphia, iii. (1863-1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866-
1867), pp. 223-288; T. A. Marshall, <! On some British Cynipidae,"
Ent. Month. Mag. iv. pp. 6-8, &c.; H. W. Kidd and Albert Mailer,
" A List of Gall-bearing British Plants," ib. v. pp. 118 and 216;
G. L. Mayr, Die mitteleuropdischen Eichengatten in Wort und Bild
(Vienna, 1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in
the Entomologist, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, " Die
Einmiethler der mitteleuropaischen Eichengallen," Verhandl. d.
zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxii. pp. 669-726; and " Die europaischen
Torymiden," ib. xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in Cistula enlomologica,
i., London, 1869-1876); F. Ixiw, " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der
Gallmucken," ib.pp. 143-162, and 321-328; I. E. von Bergenstamm
and P. Low, "Synopsis Cecidomyidarum, ib. xxvi. pp. 1-104;
Perris, Ann. Soc. Entom. de France, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185;
R. Osten-Sacken, " On the North American Cecidomyidae," Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173 ; E. L. Taschen-
berg, Entomologie fur Gartner und Gartenfreunde (Leipzig, 1871);
J. W. H. Traill, " Scottish Galls," Scottish Naturalist, i. (1871), pp.
1-23, &c. ; Albeit M filler, " British Gall Insects," The Entomologist's
Annual for 1872, pp. 1-22; B. Altum, Forstzoologie, iii. " Insecten,"
pp. 250 seq. (Berlin, 1874) ; J. H. Kaltenbach, Die Pflanzenfeinde aus
der Classe der Insecten (Stuttgart, 1874); A. d'Arbois de Jubainville
and J. Vesque, Les Maladies des plantes cultivtes, pp. 98-105 (Paris,
1878). (F. H. B.)
GALLUPPI, PASQUALE (1770-1846), Italian philosopher,
was born on the 2nd of April 1770 at Tropea, in Calabria. He
was of good family, and after studying at the universityof Naples
he entered the public service, and was for many years employed
in the office of the administration of finances. At the age of
sixty, having become widely known by his writingson philosophy,
he was called to the chair of logic and metaphysics in the univer-
sity of Naples, which he held till his death in November 1846.
His most important works are: Lettere filosofi che (1827), in which
he traces his philosophical development; Elementi di filosofia
(1832); Saggio filosofico sulla critica delta conoscenza (1819-
1832); Sull' analisi e sulla sinlesi (1807); Lezioni di logica e
di metafisica (1832-1836); Filosofia della volontd (1832-1842,
426
CALLUS, C. GALT, SIR A. T.
incomplete); Storia delta filosofia (i., 1842); Considerazioni
filosofiche suit' idealismo trascendentale (1841), a memoir on the
system of Fichte.
On his philosophical views see L. Ferri, Essai sur I'hisloire de la
philosophic en Italic au XIX' siecle, i. (1869); V. Botta in Ueber-
weg's Hist, of Philosophy, ii. app. 2; G. Barzellotti, " Philosophy
in Italy," in Mind, iii. (1878); V. Lastrucci, Pasquale Galluppi.
Studio critico (Florence, 1890).
CALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.), Roman poet, orator and
politician, was born of humble parents at Forum Julii (Frejus)
in Gaul. At an early age he removed to Rome, where he was
taught by the same master as Virgil and Varius Rufus. Virgil,
who dedicated one of his eclogues (x.) to him, was in great
measure indebted to the influence of Gallus for the restoration of
his estate. In political life Gallus espoused the cause of Octavi-
anus, and as a reward for his services was made praefect of Egypt
(Suetonius, Augustus, 66). His conduct in this position after-
wards brought him into disgrace with the emperor, and having
been deprived of his estates and sentenced to banishment, he
put an end to his life (Dio Cassius liii. 23). Gallus enjoyed a
high reputation among his contemporaries as a man of intellect,
and Ovid ( Tristia, iv. 10) considered him the first of the elegiac
poets of Rome. He wrote four books of elegies chiefly on his
mistress Lycoris (a poetical name for Cytheris, a notorious
actress), in which he took for his model Euphorion of Chalcis
(q.v.) ; he also translated some of this author's works into Latin.
Nothing by him has survived; the fragments of the four poems
attributed to him (first published by Aldus Manutius in 1590
and printed in A. Riese's Anthologia Latina, 1869) are generally
regarded as a forgery.
See C. Volker, De C. Gatti vita el scriptis (1840-1844) ; A. Nicolas,
De la vie el des ouvraees de C. Gallus ( 1 85 1 ) , an exhaustive monograph.
An inscription found at Philae (published 1896) records the Egyptian
exploits; see M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur, and
Plessis, Poesie latine (1909).
GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS, praefect of Egypt 26-24 B.C. By
order of Augustus he undertook an expedition to Arabia Felix,
with disastrous results. The troops suffered greatly from disease,
heat, want of water and the obstinate resistance of the in-
habitants. The treachery of a foreign guide also added to his
difficulties. After six months Gallus was obliged to return to
Alexandria, having lost the greater part of his force. He was a
friend of the geographer Strabo, who gives an account of the
expedition (xvi. pp. 780-782; see also Dio Cassius liii. 29;
Pliny, Nat. Hist. vi. 32; C. Merivale, Hist, of the Romans under
the Empire, ch. 34; H. Kriiger, Der Feldzug des A. G. nach
dem glucklichen Arabien, 1862). He has been identified with the
Aelius Gallus frequently quoted by Galen, whose remedies are
stated to have been used with success in an Arabian expedition.
GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS, governor of Syria during the reign
of Nero. When the Jews in Jerusalem, stirred to revolt by the
outrages of the Roman procurators, had seized the fortress of
Masada and treacherously murdered the garrison of the palace
of Herod, Gallus set out from Antioch to restore order. On the
1 7th of November A.D. 66 he arrived before Jerusalem. Having
gained possession of the northern suburb,- he attacked the temple
mount; but, after five days' fighting, just when (according to
Josephus) success was within his grasp, he unaccountably with-
drew his forces. During his retreat he was closely pursued by
the Jews and surrounded in a ravine, and only succeeded in
making good his escape to Antioch by sacrificing the greater
part of his army and a large amount of war material. Soon after
his return Gallus died (before the spring of 67), and was succeeded
in the governorship by Licinius Mucianus, the prosecution of the
war being entrusted to Vespasian.
See Tacitus, Hist. v. 10, 13; Suetonius, Vespasian, 4; Josephus,
Bell. Jud. ii. 14-2; E. Schiirer, Hist, of the Jewish People, dir. i.
vol. ii. p. 212 (Eng. tr., 1890).
GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general, statesman
and orator. Under Lucius Aemilius Paulus, his intimate friend,
he commanded the 2nd legion in the campaign against Perseus,
king of Macedonia, and gained great reputation for having pre-
dicted an eclipse of the moon on the night before the battle of
Pydna (168 B.C.). On his return from Macedonia he was elected
consul (166), and in the same year reduced the Ligurians to
submission. In 164 he was sent as ambassador to Greece and
Asia, where he held a meeting at Sardis to investigate the charges
brought against Eumenes of Pergamum by the representatives
of various cities of Asia Minor. Gallus was a man of great learn-
ing, an excellent Greek scholar, and in his later years devoted
himself to the study of astronomy, on which subject he is quoted
as an authority by Pliny.
See Livy xliv. 37, Epit. 46; Polybius xxxi. 9, 10; Cicero, Brutus
20, De officus, i. 6, De senectute, 14; Pliny, Nat. Hist. ii. 9.
GALOIS, EVARISTE (1811-1832), French mathematician, was
born on the 2$th of October 1811, and killed in a duel on the 3ist
of May 1 83 2 . An obituary notice by his friend Auguste Chevalier
appeared in the Revue encyclopedique (1832); and his collected
works are published, Journal de Liouville (1846), pp. 381-444,
about fifty of these pages being occupied by researches on the
resolubility of algebraic equations by radicals. This branch of
algebra he notably enriched, and to him is also due the notion
of a group of substitutions (see EQUATION: Theory of Equations;
also GROUPS, THEORY OF).
His collected works, with an introduction by C. F. Picard, were
published in 1897 at Paris.
G ALSTON, a police burgh and manufacturing town of Ayrshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4876. It is situated on the Irvine, 5 m.
E. by S. of Kilmarnock, with a station on the Glasgow & South-
western railway. The manufactures include blankets, lace,
muslin, hosiery and paper-millboard, and coal is worked in the
vicinity. About i m. to the north, amid the " bonnie woods and
braes," is Loudoun Castle, a seat of the earl of Loudoun.
GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH (1817-1893), Canadian
statesman, was the youngest son of John Gait the author. Born
in London on the 6th of September 1817, he emigrated to Canada
m !83S. and settled in Sherbrooke, in the province of Quebec,
where he entered the service of the British American Land Com-
pany, of which he rose to be chief commissioner. Later he was
one of the contractors for extending the Grand Trunk railway
westward from Toronto. He entered public life in 1849 as Liberal
member for the county of Sherbrooke, but opposed the chief
measure of his party, the Rebellion Losses Bill, and in the same
year signed a manifesto in favour of union with the United States,
believing that in no other way could Protestant and Anglo-
Saxon ascendancy over the Roman Catholic French majority in
his native province be maintained. In the same year he retired
from parliament but re-entered it in 1853, and was till 1872 the
chief representative of the English-speaking Protestants of
Quebec province. On the fall of the Brown-Dorion administra-
tion in 1858 he was called on to form a ministry, but declined
the task, and became finance minister under Sir John Macdonald
and Sir George Cartier on condition that the federation of the
British North American provinces should become a part of their
programme. From 1858 to 1862 and 1864 to 1867 he was finance
minister, and did much to reduce the somewhat chaotic finances
of Canada into order. To him are due the introduction of the
decimal system of currency and the adoption of a system of
protection to Canadian manufactures. To his diplomacy was
due the coalition in 1864 between Macdonald, Brown and Cartier,
which carried the federation of the British North American
provinces, and throughout the three years of negotiation which
followed his was one of the chief influences. He became finance
minister in the first Dominion ministry, but suddenly and
mysteriously resigned on the 4th of November 1867. After his
retirement he gave to the administration of Sir John Macdonald
a support which grew more and more fitful, and advocated
independence as the final destiny of Canada. In 1871 he was
again offered the ministry of finance on condition of abandoning
these views, but declined. In 1877 he was the Canadian nominee
on the Anglo-American fisheries commission at Halifax, and
rendered brilliant service. In 1880 he was appointed Canadian
high commissioner to Great Britain, but retired in 1883 in favour
of Sir Charles Tupper. During this period he advocated imperial
Federation. He was Canadian delegate at the Paris Monetary
Conference of 1881, and to the International Exhibition of
Fisheries in 1683. From this date till his death on the igth of
GALT, J. GALTON
427
September 1893 he lived in retirement. No Canadian statesman
has had sounder or more abundant ideas, but a certain intellectual
fickleness made him always a somewhat untrustworthy colleague
in political life. (W. L. G.)
GALT, JOHN (1770-1839), Scottish novelist, was born at
Irvine, Ayrshire, on the 2nd of May 1779. He received his early
education at Irvine and Greenock, and read largely from one of
the public libraries while serving as a clerk in a mercantile office.
In 1804 he went to settle in London, where he published anony-
mously a poem on the Battle of Largs. After unsuccessful
attempts to succeed in business Gait entered at Lincoln's Inn,
but was never called to the bar. He obtained a commission from
a British firm to go abroad to find out whether the Berlin and
Milan decrees could be evaded. He met Byron and Sir John
Hothouse at Gibraltar, travelled with Byron to Malta, and met
him again at Athens. He was afterwards employed by the
Glasgow merchant Kirkman Finlay on similar business at
Gibraltar, and in 1814 visited France and Holland. His early
works are the Life and Administration of Wolsey, Voyages and
Travels, Letters from the Levant, the Life of Benjamin West,
Historical Pictures and The Wandering Jew; and he induced
Colbura to publish a periodical containing dramatic pieces
rejected by London managers. These were afterwards edited
by Gait as the New British Theatre, which included some plays of
his own. He first showed his real power as a writer of fiction in
The Ayrshire Legatees, which appeared in Blackwood's Magazine
in 1820. This was followed in 1821 by his masterpiece The
Annals of the Parish; and, at short intervals, Sir Andrew Wylie,
The Entail, The Steam-Boat and The Provost were published.
These humorous studies of Scottish character are all in his
happiest manner. His next works were Ringan Gilhaize (1823),
a story of the Covenanters; The Spaewife (1823), which relates
to the times of James I. of Scotland; Rothelan (1824), a novel
founded on the reign of Edward III.; The Omen (1825), which
was favourably criticized by Sir Walter Scott; and The Last
of the Lairds, another picture of Scottish life.
In 1826 he went to America as secretary to the Canada Land
Company. He carried out extensive schemes of colonization,
and opened up a road through what was then forest country
between Lakes Huron and Erie. In 1827 he founded Guelph in
upper Canada, passing on his way the township of Gait on the
Grand river, named after him by the Hon. William Dixon. But
all this work proved financially unprofitable to Gait. In 1829
he returned to England commercially a ruined man, and devoted
himself with great ardour to literary pursuits, of which the first
fruit was Lavrie Todd one of his best novels. Then came
Soulhennan, a tale of Scottish life in the times of Queen Mary.
In 1830 he was appointed editor of the Courier newspaper a
post he soon relinquished. His untiring industry was seen in the
publication, in rapid succession, of a Life of Byron, Lives of the
Players, Bogle Corbet, Stanley Button, The Member, The Radical,
Eben Er skint, The Stolen Child, his Autobiography, and a col-
lection of tales entitled Stories of the Study. In 1834 appeared
his Literary Life and Miscellanies, dedicated by permission to
William IV., who sent the author a present of 200. As soon as
this work was published Gait retired to Greenock, where he
continued his literary labours till his death on the nth of April
1839.
Gait, like almost all voluminous writers, was exceedingly
unequal. His masterpieces are The Ayrshire Legatees, The
Annals of He Parish, Sir Andrew Wylie, The Entail, The Provost
and Lavrie Todd. The Ayrshire Legatees gives, in the form of
a number of exceedingly diverting letters, the adventures of the
Rev. Dr Pringle and his family in London. The letters are made
the excuse for endless tea-parties and meetings of kirk-session
in the rural parish of Garnock. The Annals of the Parish are
told by the Rev. Micah Balwhidder, Gait's finest character. This
work (which, be it remembered, existed in MS. before Waverley
was published) is a splendid picture of the old-fashioned Scottish
pastor aad the life of a country parish; and, in rich humour,
genuine pathos and truth to nature it is unsurpassed even by
Scott. It is a fine specimen of the homely graces of the Scottish
dialect, and preserves much vigorous Doric phraseology fast pass-
ing out of use even in country districts. In this novel Mr Gait
used, for the first time, the term " Utilitarian," which afterwards
became so intimately associated with the doctrines of John
Stuart Mill and Bentham (see Annals of the Parish, chap, xxxv.,
and a note by Mill in Utilitarianism, chap. ii.). In Sir Andrew
Wylie the hero entered London as a poor lad, but achieved re-
markable success by his shrewd business qualities. The character
is somewhat exaggerated, but excessively amusing. The Entail
was read thrice by Byron and Scott, and is the best of Gait's
longer novels. Leddy Grippy is a wonderful creation, and was
considered by Byron equal to any female character in literature
since Shakespeare's time. The Provost, in which Provost Pawkic
tells his own story, portrays inimitably the jobbery, bickerings
and self-seeking of municipal dignitaries in a quaint Scottish
burgh. In Lawrie Todd Gait, by giving us the Scot in America,
accomplished a feat which Sir Walter never attempted. This
novel exhibits more variety of style and a greater love of nature
than his other books. The life of a settler is depicted with unerring
pencil, and with an enthusiasm and imaginative power much more
poetical than any of the author's professed poems.
The best of Gait's novels were reprinted in Blackwood's Standard
Novels, to volume i. of which his friend Dr Moir prefixed a memoir.
GALT, a town in Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada, 23 m.
N.N.W. of Hamilton, on the Grand river and on the Grand Trunk
and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1881) 5187; (1901) 7866.
It is named after John Gait, the author. It has excellent water
privileges which furnish power for flour-mills and for manu-
factures of edge tools, castings, machinery, paper and other
industries.
GALTON, SIR FRANCIS (1822- ), English anthropologist,
son of S. T. Gallon, of Duddeston, Warwickshire, was born on the
i6th of February 1822. His grandfather was the poet-naturalist
Erasmus Darwin, and Charles Darwin was his cousin. After
attending King Edward VI. 's grammar school, Birmingham, he
studied at Birmingham hospital, and afterwards at King's
College, London, with the intention of making medicine his pro-
fession; but after taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge,
in 1843 he changed his mind. The years 1843-1846 he spent in
travelling in the Sudan, and in 1850 he made an exploration, with
Dr John Anderson, of Damaraland and the Ovampo country in
south-west Africa, starting from Walfisch Bay. These tracts had
practically never been traversed before, and on the appearance
of the published account of his journey and experiences under the
title of Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa (1853)
Galton was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical
Society. His Art of Travel; or, Shifts and Contrivances in Wild
Countries was first published in 1855. In 1860 he visited the
north of Spain, and published the fruits of his observations of the
country and the people in the first of a series of volumes, which
he edited, entitled Vacation Tourists. He then turned to meteor-
ology, the result of his investigations appearing in Meteoro-
graphica, published in 1863. This work was the first serious
attempt to chart the weather on an extensive scale, and in it also
the author first established the existence and theory of anti-
cyclones. Galton was a member of the meteorological committee
(1868), and of the Meteorological Council which succeeded it, for
over thirty years. But his name is most closely associated with
studies in anthropology and especially in heredity. In 1869
appeared his Hereditary Genius, its Laws and Consequences, a work
which excited much interest in scientific and medical circles. This
was followed by English Men of Science, their Nature and Nurture,
published in 1874; Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Develop-
ment, issued in 1883; Life-History Album (1884); Record of
Family Faculties (1884) (tabular forms and directions for enter-
ing data, with a preface); and Natural Inheritance (1889). The
idea that systematic efforts should be made to improve the breed
of mankind by checking the birth-rate of the unfit and further-
ing the productivity of the fit was first put forward by him in 1 865 ;
he mooted it again in 1884, using the term " eugenics " for the
first time in Human Faculty, and in 1904 he endowed a research
fellowship in the university of London for the promotion of
428
GALUPPI GALVANOMETER
knowledge of that subject, which was defined as " the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the
racial qualities of future generations, either physically or men-
tally." Gallon was the author of memoirs on various an-
thropometric subjects; he originated the process of composite
portraiture, and paid much attention to finger-prints and their
employment for the identification of criminals, his publications
on this subject including Finger Prints (1892), Decipherment of
Blurred Finger Prints (1893) and Finger Print Directories (1895).
From the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1860,
he received a royal medal in 1886 and the Darwin medal in 1902,
and honorary degrees were bestowed on him by Oxford (1894)
and Cambridge (1895). In 1908 he published Memories of My
Life, and in 1909 he received a knighthood.
GALUPPI, BALDASSARE (1706-1785), Italian musical com-
poser, was born on the i8th of October 1706 on the island of
Burano near Venice, from which he was often known by the
nickname of Buranello. His father, a barber, and violinist at the
local theatre, was his first teacher. His first opera, composed at
the age of sixteen, being hissed off the stage, he determined to
study seriously, and entered the Conservatorio degli Incurabili at
Venice, as a pupil of Antonio Lotti. After successfully producing
two operas in collaboration with a fellow-pupil, G. B. Pescetti, in
1728 and 1729, he entered upon a busy career as a composer of
operas for Venetian theatres, writing sometimes as many as five
in a year. He visited London in 1741, and arranged a pasticcio,
Alexander in Persia, for the Haymarket. Burney considered his
influence on English music to have been very powerful. In 1740
he became vice-maestro di cappella at St Mark's and maestro in
1762. In 1749 he began writing comic operas to libretti by
Goldoni, which enjoyed an enormous popularity. He was invited
to Russia by Catherine II. in 1766, where his operas made a
favourable impression, and his influence was also felt in Russian
church music. He returned to Venice in 1 768, where he had held
the post of director of the Conservatorio degli Incurabili since
1762. He died on the 3rd of January 1785.
Galuppi's best works are his comic operas, of which 77 Filosofo
di Campagna (1754), known in England as The Guardian Trick'd
(Dublin, 1762) was the most popular. His melody is attractive
rather than original, but his workmanship in harmony and
orchestration is generally superior to that of his contemporaries.
He seems to have been the first to extend the concerted finales of
Leo and Logroscino into a chain of several separate movements,
working up to a climax, but in this respect he is much inferior to
Sard and Mozart.
Browning's poem, " A Toccata of Galuppi," does not refer to
any known composition, but more probably to an imaginary
extemporization on the harpsichord, such as was of frequent
occurrence in the musical gatherings of Galuppi's day.
See also Alfred Wotquerme, BaldasSare Galuppi, etude biblio-
graphique sur ses eeuvres dramatiqaes (Brussels, 1902). Many of his
autograph scores are in the library of the Brussels conservatoire.
(E. J. D.)
6ALVANI, LUIGI (1737-1798), Italian physiologist, after
whom galvanism received its name, was born at Bologna on the
9th of September 1737. It was his wish in early life to enter the
church, but by his parents he was educated for a medical career.
At the university of Bologna, in which city he practised, he was
in 1762 appointed public lecturer in anatomy, and soon gained
repute as a skilled though not eloquent teacher, and, chiefly from
his researches on the organs of hearing and genito-urinary tract
of birds, as a comparative anatomist. His celebrated theory
of animal electricity he enunciated in a treatise, " De viribus
electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius," published in the
7th volume of the memoirs of the Institute of Sciences at Bologna
in 1791, and separately at Modena in the following year, and
elsewhere subsequently. The statement has frequently been
repeated that, in 1786, Galvani had noticed that the leg of a
skinned frog, on being accidentally touched by a scalpel which
had lain near an electrical machine, was thrown into violent
convulsions; and that it was thus that his attention was first
directed to the relations of animal functions to electricity. From
documents in the possession of the Institute of Bologna, however,
it appears that twenty years previous to the publication of his
Commentary Galvani was already engaged in investigations as
to the action of electricity upon the muscles of frogs. The
observation that the suspension of certain of these animals on an
iron railing by copper hooks caused twitching in the muscles of
their legs led him to the invention of his metallic arc, the first
experiment with which is described in the third part of the
Commentary, with the date September 20, 1786. The arc he
constructed of two different metals, which, placed in contact
the one with a frog's nerve and the other with a muscle, caused
contraction of the latter. In Galvani's view the motions of the
muscle were the result of the union, by means of the metallic arc,
of its exterior or negative electrical charge with positive electricity
which proceeded along the nerve from its inner substance. Volta,
on the other hand, attributed them solely to the effect of
electricity having its source in the junction of the two dissimilar
metals of the arc, and regarded the nerve and muscle simply as
conductors. On Galvani's refusal, from religious scruples, to
take the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine republic in 1797, he
was removed from his professorship. Deprived thus of the means
of livelihood, he retired to the house of his brother Giacomo,
where he soon fell into a feverish decline. The republican
government, in consideration of his great scientific fame, eventu-
ally, but too late, determined to reinstate him in his chair, and he
died at Bologna on the 4th of December 1798.
A quarto edition of his works was published at Bologna in 1841-
1842, by the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of that city, under
the title Opere edite ed inedite del professore Luigi Galvani.
GALVANIZED IRON, sheet iron having its surface covered
with a thin coating of zinc. In spite of the name, galvanic
action has often no part in the production of galvanized iron,
which is prepared by dipping the iron, properly cleaned and
pickled in acid, in a bath of molten zinc. The hotter the zinc the
thinner the coating, but as a high temperature of the bath is
attended with certain objections, it is a common practice to use a
moderate temperature and clear off the excess of zinc by passing
the plates between rollers. In Norwood and Rogers's process a
thin coating of tin is applied to the iron before it is dipped in the
zinc, by putting the plates between layers of granulated tin in a
wooden tank containing a dilute solution of stannous chloride,
when tin is deposited on them by galvanic action. In " cold
galvanizing " the zinc is deposited electrolytically from a bath,
preferably kept neutral or slightly acid, containing a 10%
solution of crystalh'zedzincsulphate,ZnSO4-7H 2 O. The resulting
surface is usually duller and less lustrous than that obtained by
the use of molten zinc. Another method of forming a coating of
zinc, known as " sherardizing," was.in vented by Sherard Cowper-
Coles, who found that metals embedded in zinc dust (a product
obtained in zinc manufacture and consisting of metallic zinc mixed
with a certain amount of zinc oxide) and heated to temperatures
well below the melting point of zinc, become coated with a layer
of that metal. In carrying out the process the articles are placed
in an air-tight vessel with the zinc dust, which must be dry, and
subjected to a heat of 250-330^, the time for which the heating
is continued depending on the thickness of the deposit required
and varying from one-half to several hours. If an air-tight
receptacle is not available, a small percentage of powdered carbon
is added to the zinc-dust, to prevent increase in the amount of
oxide, which, if present in excess, tends to make the deposit dull.
Galvanized iron by its zinc surface is protected from corrosion
by the weather, though the protection is not very efficient in
the presence of acid or sulphurous fumes, and accordingly it
is extensively employed for roofing, especially in the form of
corrugated sheets. The iron wire used for wire-netting, tele-
graphic purposes, &c., is commonly galvanized, as also are bolts,
nuts, chains and other fittings on ships.
GALVANOMETER, an instrument for detecting or measuring
electric currents. The term is generally applied to instruments
which indicate electric current in scale divisions or arbitrary
units, as opposed to instruments called amperemeters (?..),
which show directly on a dial the value of the current in amperes.
GALVANOMETER
429
GaJ vanometers may be divided into direct current and alternating
current instruments, according as they are intended to measure
one or other of these two classes of currents (see ELECTRO-
KINETICS).
Dirttl Current Galvanometers. The principle on which one type
of direct current galvanometer, called a movable needle galvano-
meter, depends for its action is that a small magnet when suspended
in the centre of a coil of wire tends to set its magnetic axis in the
direction of the magnetic field of the coil at that point due to the
current passing through it. In (he other type, or movable coil
galvanometer, the coil is suspended and the magnet fixed; hence
the coil tends to set itself with its axis parallel to the lines of force
of the magnet. The movable system must be constrained in some
way _ to take up and retain a definite position when no current is
passing by means which are called the control."
In its simple and original form the movable needle galvanometer
consisted of a horizontal magnetic needle suspended within a coil
of insulated wire by silk fibres or pivoted on a point like
a compass needle. The direction of such a needle is con-
trolled by the direction of the terrestrial magnetic force
within the coil. If the needle is so placed that its axis is
parallel to the plane of the coil, then when an electric cur-
rent passes through the coil it is deflected and places itself at an angle
to the axis of the coil determined by the strength of the current
and of the controlling field. In the early forms of movable needle
galvanometer the needle was either a comparatively large magnet
several inches in length, or else a smaller magnet was employed
carrying a long pointer which moved over a scale of degrees so as to
indicate the deflexion. A method of measuring the deflexion by
means of a mirror scale and telescope was introduced by K. 1 .
Gauss and W. Weber. The magnet had a mirror attached to it,
and a telescope having cross wires in the focus was used to observe
the scale divisions of a fixed scale seen reflected in the mirror. Lord
Kelvin (Professor W. Thomson) made the important
improvement of reducing the size of the needle and attach-
ing it to the back of a very small mirror, the two being
suspended by a single fibre of cocoon silk. The mirror
was. made of silvered microscopic glass about J in. in diameter,
and the magnetic needle or needles consisted of short fragments of
watchspring cemented to its back. A ray of light being thrown on the
mirror from a lamp the deflexions of the needle were observed by
watching the movements of a spot of light reflected from it upon a
fixed scale. This form of mirror galvanometer was first devised
in connexion with submarine cable signalling, but soon became an
indispensable instrument in the physical laboratory.
In course of time both the original form of single needle galvano-
meter and mirror galvanometer were improved by introducing the
AMtmae astatic principle and weakening the external controlling
^^ magnetic field. If two magnetic needles of equal size ana
jjjJJJ^^ moment are attached rigidly to one stem parallel to each
other but with poles placed in opposite directions an
astatic system results; that is, if the needles are so suspended as
to be free to move in a horizontal plane, and if they are made exactly
equal in magnetic strength, the system will have no directive power.
If one needle is slightly weaker than the other, the suspended
system will set itself with some axis parallel to the lines of force
of a field in which it is placed. In a form of astatic needle galvano-
meter devised by Professor A. Broca of Paris, the pair of magnetized
needles are suspended vertically and parallel to each other with
poles in opposite directions. The upper poles are included in one
coil and the lower poles within another coil, so connected that the
current circulates in the right direction in each coil to displace the
pairs of poles in the same direction. By this mode of arrangement
a greater magnetic moment can be secured, together with more
perfect astaticity and freedom from disturbance by external fields.
The earth's magnetic field can be weakened by means of a controlling
magnet arranged to create in the space in the interior of the galvano-
meter coils an extremely feeble controlling magnetic field. In
instruments having a coil for each needle and designed so that the
current in both cods passes so as to turn both needles in the same
direction, the controlling magnet is so adjusted that the normal
position of the needles is with the magnetic axis parallel to the plane
of the coil. An astatic magnetic system used in conjunction with
a mirror galvanometer gives a highly sensitive form of instrument
(fig. l ) ; it is, however, easily disturbed by stray magnetic fields
caused by neighbouring magnets or currents through conductors,
and therefore is not suitable for use in many places.
This fact led to the introduction of the movable coil galvanometer
which was first devised by Lord Kelvin as a telegraphic signalling
instrument but subsequently modified by A. d'Arsonval
and others into a laboratory galvanometer (fig. 2). I n this
instrument a permanent magnet, generally of the horse-
shoe shape, is employed to create a strong magnetic field, in
which a light movable coil is suspended. The suspension
is bifilar, consisting of two fine wires which are connected to the ends
of the coil and serve to lead the current in and out. If such a coil
is placed with its plane parallel to the lines of force of the permanent
magnet, then when a current is passing through it it displaces itself
Construc-
tion and
in the field, so as to set with its axis more nearly parallel to the lines
of force of the field. The movable coil may carry a pointer or a
mirror; in the latter form it is well represented by several much
used laboratory instruments. The movable coil galvanometer has
the great advantage that it is not easily disturbed by the magnetic
fields caused by neighbouring magnets or electric currents, and thus
is especially useful in the electrical workshop and factory.
In the practical construction of the suspended needle fixed coil
galvanometer great care must be taken with the insulation of the
wire of the coil. This wire is generally silk-covered,
wound on a frame, the whole being thoroughly saturated
with paraffin wax. In some cases two wires are wound OTCi
on in parallel, constituting a "differential galvanometer."
When properly adjusted this instrument can be used for the exact
comparison of electric currents by a null method, because if an
electric current is passed
through one wire and creates
certain deflexions of the
needle, the current which
annuls this deflexion when
passed through the other
wire must be equal to the
first current. In the con-
struction of a movable coil
galvanometer, it is usual to
intensify the magnetic field
by inserting a fixed soft iron
core in the interior of the
movable coil. If the current
to be measured is too large
to be passed entirely through
the galvanometer, a portion
is allowed to flow through a
circuit connecting the two
terminals of the instrument.
This circuit is called a shunt
and is generally arranged so
as to talce 0-9, 0-99, or 0-999
of the total current, leaving
o-i, o-oi or o-oo i to flow
through the galvanometer.
W. E. Ayrton and T. Mather have designed a universal shunt box or
resistance which can be applied to any galvanometer and by which a
known fraction of any current can be sent through the galvanometer
when we know its resistance (see Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. Lend., 1894,
23, P-.3'4)- A galvanometer can be calibrated, or the meaning of its
deflexion determined, by passing through it an electric current of
known value and observing the deflexion of the needle or coil. The
known current can be provided in the following manner: a single
secondary cell of any kind can have its electromotive force measured
by the potentiometer (q.v.), and compared with that of a standard
voltaic cell. If the secondary cell is connected with the galvanometer
through a known high resistance R, and if the galvanometer is
shunted, that is, has its terminals connected by another resistance S,
then if the resistance of the galvanometer itself is denoted by G,
FIG. I. Kelvin Astatic Mirror Gal-
vanometer. Elliott square pattern.
FIG. 2. Movable Coil Galvanometer.
the whole resistance of the shunted galvanometer and high resistance
has a value represented by R+p^g, and therefore the current
through the galvanometer produced by an electromotive force E of
SE
vanomeer
the cell is represented by
K(G+S)+GS'
Suppose this current produces a deflexion of the needle or coil
or spot of light equal to X scale divisions, we can then alter the
value of the resistances R and S, and so determine the relation
between the deflexion and the current. By the sensitiveness of the
430
GALVESTON
galvanometer is meant the deflexion produced by a known electro-
motive force put upon its terminals or a known current sent through
it. It is usual to specify the sensitiveness of a mirror galvanometer
by requiring a certain deflexion, measured in millimetres, of a spot
of light thrown on the scale placed at one metre from the mirror,
when an electromotive force of one-millionth of a volt (microvolt)
is applied to the terminals of the galvanometer ; it may be otherwise
expressed by stating the deflexion produced under the same con-
ditions when a current of one microampere is passed through the
coil. In modern mirror galvanometers a deflexion of I mm. of the
spot of light upon a scale at I metre distance can be produced by a
current as small as one hundred millionth (to- 8 ) or even one ten
thousand millionth (io- 16 ) of an ampere. It is easy to produce
considerable sensitiveness in the galvanometer, but for practical
purposes it must always be controlled by the condition that the
zero remains fixed, that is to say, the galvanometer needle or coil
must come back to exactly the same position when no current is
passing through the instrument. Other important qualifications
of a galvanometer are its time-period and its dead-beatness. For
certain purposes the needle or coil should return as quickly as
possible to the zero position and with either no, or very few, oscilla-
tions. If the latter condition is fulfilled the galvanometer is said
to be " dead-beat." On the other hand, for some purposes the
galvanometer is required with the opposite quality, that is to say,
there must be as little retardation as possible to the needle or coil
when set in motion under an impulsive blow. Such a galvanometer
is called " ballistic." The quality of a galvanometer in this respect
is best estimated by taking the logarithmic decrement of the oscilla-
tions when the movable system is set swinging. This last term is
defined as the logarithm of the ratio of one swing to the next succeed-
ing swing, and a galvanometer of which the logarithmic decrement
is large, is said to be highly damped. For many purposes, such as
for resistance measurement, it is desirable to have a galvanometer
which is highly damped; this result can be obtained by affixing
to the needles either light pieces of mica, when it is a movable needle
galvanometer, or by winding the coil on a silver frame when it is
a movable coil galvanometer. On the other hand, for the comparison
of capacities of condensers and for other purppses, a galvanometer
is required which is as little damped as possible, and for this purpose
the coil must have the smallest possible frictional resistance to its
motion through the air. In this case the moment of inertia of the
movable system must be decreased or the control strengthened.
The Einthoven string galvanometer is another form of sensitive
instrument for the measurement of small direct currents. It consists
of a fine wire or silvered quartz fibre stretched in a strong magnetic
field. When a current passes through the wire it is displaced across
the field and the displacement is observed with a microscope.
For the measurement of large currents a " tangent galvanometer "
is employed (fig. 3). Two fixed circular coils are placed apart at a
. distance equal to the radius of either coil, so that a
current passing through them creates in the central
region between them a nearly uniform magnetic field.
At the centre of the coils is suspended a small magnetic
needle the length of which should not be greater than fa the radius
of either coil. The normal position of the needle is at right angles
to the line joining the centre of the
coils. If a current is passed through
the coils, the needle will be deflected,
and the tangent of the angle of its
deflexion will be nearly proportional to
the current passing through the coil,
provided that the controlling field is
uniform in strength and direction, and
that the length of the magnetic needle
is so short that the space in which it
rotates is a practically uniform magnetic
field.
Alternating Current Galvanometers.
For the detection of small alternating
currents a magnetic needle or movable
coil galvanometer is of no utility. We
FIG. 3. Helmholtz Tan- can, however, construct an instrument
gent Galvanometer. suitable for the purpose by suspending
within a coil of insulated wire a small
needle of soft iron placed with its axis at an angle of 45 to
the axis of the coil. When an alternating current passes through
the coil the soft iron needje tends to set itself in the direction of the
axis of the coil, and if it is suspended by a quartz fibre or metallic
wire so as to afford a control, it can become a metrical instrument.
Another arrangement, devised by J. A. Fleming in 1887, consists
of a silver or copper disk suspended within a coil, the plane of the
disk being held at 45 to that of the coil. When an alternating
current is passed through the coil, induced currents are set up in the
disk and the mutual action causes the disk to endeavour to set
itself so that these currents are a minimum. This metal disk galvano-
meter has been made sufficiently sensitive to detect the feeble
oscillatory electric currents set up in the receiving wire of a wireless
telegraph^ apparatus. The Duddell thermal ammeter is another
very sensitive form of alternating current galvanometer. In it the
current to be detected or measured is passed through a high resist-
ance wire or strip of metal leaf mounted on glass, over which is
suspended a closed loop of bismuth and antimony, forming a thermo-
electric couple. This loop is suspended by a quartz fibre in a strong
magnetic field, and one junction of the couple is held just over the
resistance wire and as near it as possible without touching. When
an alternating current passes through the resistance it creates heat
which in turn acts on the thermo-j unction and generates a continu-
ous current in the loop, thus deflecting it in the magnetic field.
The sensitiveness of such a thermal ammeter can be made sufficiently
great to detect a current of a few microamperes.
REFERENCES.]. A. Fleming, A Handbook for the Electrical
Laboratory and Testing Room, vol. i. (London, 1901); W. E. Ayrton,
T. Mather and W. E. Sumpner, " On Galvanometers," Proc. Phys,
Soc. London (1890), io, 393; H. R. Kempe, A Handbook of Electrical
Testing (London, 1906); A. Gray, Absolute Measurements in Elec-
tricity and Magnetism, vol. ii. part ii. (London, 1893). Useful
information is also contained in the catalogues of all the principal
electrical instrument makers Messrs. Elliott Bros., Nalder, The
Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, Pitkin, Hartmann and
Braun, Queen and others. (J. A. F.)
GALVESTON, a city and port of entry and the county-seat of
Galveston county, Texas, U.S.A., on the Gulf of Mexico, near the
N.E. extremity of Galveston Island and at the entrance to
Galveston Bay. It is about 48 m. S.E. of Houston and 310 m.
W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 29,084; (1900) 37,789,
(6339 were foreign-born and 8291 negroes); (1910) 36,981; land
area (1906) 7-8 sq. m. It is served by the Galveston, Houston
& Henderson, the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio, the
Gulf, Colorado & Santa F6, the Trinity & Brazos Valley,
the International & Great Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas
& Texas railways, and by numerous steamship lines to Gulf
ports in the United States and Mexico, and to Cuba, South
America, Europe and the Atlantic ports of the United States.
Galveston Island is a low, sandy strip of land about 28 m. long
and ij to 35 m. wide, lying from 2 to 3 m. off the mainland.
The city, which extends across the island from Gulf to Bay,
faces and has its harbour on the latter. The island was connected
with the mainland before the 1900 storm by a road bridge and
several railway bridges, which, a short distance W. of the city,
crossed the narrow strip of water separating the West Bay from
Galveston Bay proper; the bridge least harmed (a single-track
railway bridge) was repaired immediately and was for a time the
city's only connexion with the mainland, but in 1908 bonds were
issued for building a concrete causeway, accommodating four
railway tracks, one interurban car track, and a roadway for
vehicles and pedestrians. An enormous sea-wall (completed in
1904 at a cost of $2,091,000) was constructed on the eastern and
Gulf sides of the city, about 5 m. long, 17 ft. above mean low tide
(i 5 f t. above the high- water mark of the storm of 1 900 and 7 5 ft.
above the previous high-water mark, that of September 1875),
1 6 ft. wide at the base and 5 ft. at the top, weighing 20 tons to the
lineal foot, and with a granite rip-rap apron extending out 27 ft.
on the Gulf side. The entire grade of the city was raised from i to
1 5 ft. above the old level. Between the sea-wall and the sea there
is a splendid beach, the entire length of which is nearly 30 m.
Among the principal buildings are the city hall, the court-house,
the masonic temple, the Federal custom-house and post-office,
the Y.M.C.A. building and the public library. The United States
government maintains a marine hospital, a live-saving station,
an immigrant landing station, and the state and the Federal
government separate quarantine stations. In addition to the
Ball public high school, Galveston is the seat of St Mary's
University (1854), the Sacred Heart and Ursuline academies, and
the Cathedral school, all under Roman Catholic control.
The government of the municipality was long vested in a
council of ward aldermen, controlled by a " machine," which was
proved corrupt in 1894 by an investigation undertaken at the
personal expense of the mayor; it gave place in 1895 to a city
council of aldermen at large, which by 1901 had proved its
inefficiency especially in the crisis following the storm of the
preceding year. Government then seemed a business question
and was practically undertaken by the city's commercial experts,
the Deepwater commission, whose previous aim had been
harbour improvement, and who now drew up a charter providing
for government by a board of five appointed by the governor of the
state. A compromise measure making three members appointees
GALWAY
of the governor and two elected by the voters of the city was
in force for a time but was declared unconstitutional. A third
charter was adopted providing for five commissioners, chosen by
the people, dividing among themselves the pests of mayor-
president and commissioners of finance and revenue, of water-
works and sewerage, of streets and public property, and of police
and fire protection, each commissioner being held individually
responsible for the management of his department. These are
business departments carefully systematized by their heads.
The legislative power is vested in the commission as a whole,
over whose meetings the mayor-president presides; he has a vote
like every other commissioner, and has no veto power. '1 he
success of this commission government has been remarkable:
in 1001-1908 the city, without issuing bonds except for grade
raising, paid off a large debt, raised the salaries of city employees,
paid its running expenses in cash, planned and began public
improvements and sanitary reforms, and did much for the
abolition of gambling and the regulation of other vice. The
Galveston Plan and similar schemes of government have been
adopted in many other American cities.
Galveston's manufactories, the products of which in igoo
were valued at $5,016,360, a decrease of 12-4% from 1800
(value of products under " factory system," $3,675,323 in 1900;
$2,006,654 in 1005, a decrease of 18-5%), include cotton-seed
oil refineries, flour and feed mills, lumber mills, wooden-ware
factories, breweries, cement works, creosoting works, ship-yards
and ice factories. There are extensive cotton warehouses, coal
and grain elevators, and large wholesale supply depots. The
Gulf Fisheries Company has its fleet's headquarters and large
packing-houses at Galveston. It is as a commercial port that
Galveston is chiefly important. In 1907 it was the second port
in the United States in the value of its exports (domestic and
foreign, $106,627,382, or 10-22% of the total), being surpassed
only by New York City; and was the first of the Gulf ports
(having 45-43% of the total value), New Orleans being second
with $164,008,540. Galveston's imports in 1907 were valued at
$7,669,458. Galveston is the greatest cotton-exporting port
in the Union, its exports of cotton in 1007 being valued at
$163,564,445. Other exports of great value are cotton seed pro-
ducts (oil and cake, $10,188,504 in 1907), Indian corn ($3,457,279
in 1007), wheat ($9,443,901 in 1906), lumber and flour. The
electric lighting and water-supply systems are owned and
operated by the municipality.
The harbour of Galveston seems to have been named about
1782 by Spanish explorers in honour either of Jose de Galvez,
Marquis of Sonora, or his nephew Bernardo, governor of
Louisiana; and in the early days of the igth century was the
principal rendezvous of a powerful band of buccaneers and pirates,
of whom, for many years, the notorious Jean Lafitte was chief.
After much difficulty these were finally dispersed about 1820 by
the United States authorities, and in 1837 the first settlement
from the United States was made on the site of the present city.
The town was incorporated by the legislature of the Republic
of Texas in 1839. On the 8th of October 1862 the city was taken
by a Federal naval force under Commander William B. Renshaw
(1816-1863). After a sharp engagement a Confederate force
under General John B. Magruder (1810-1871) retook the city on
the ist of January 1863, one of the Federal ships, the " Harriet
Lane," falling into Confederate hands, and another, the " West-
field," being blown up with Commander Renshaw on board.
Thereafter Galveston remained in Confederate hands, although
rigidly blockaded by the Federal navy, until the close of the war.
On the 8th of September 1900 the city was seriously damaged by
a West Indian hurricane, which, blowing steadily for eighteen
hours, reached a velocity of 135 m. an hour. The waters of the
Gulf were piled up in enormous waves that swept across a large
part of the city, destroying or badly damaging more than 8000
buildings, entailing a loss of about 5000 lives, and a property
loss estimated at about $17,000,000. Liberal contributions
came from all over the country, and the state partially remitted
the city's taxes for 1 7 years. The city was rapidly rebuilt on a
more substantial plan.
QALWAY, a county in the west of Ireland, in the province of
Connaught, bounded N. by Mayo and Roscommon; . by
Roscommon, King's County and Tipperary; S. by Clare and
Galway Bay; and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is
1,519,699 acres or about 2375 sq. m., the county being second in
size to Cork among the Irish counties.
The county is naturally divided by Lough Corrib into two
great divisions. The eastern, which comprehends all the county
except the four western baronies, rests on a limestone base, and
is, generally speaking, a level champaign country, but contains
large quantities of wet bog. Its southern portion is partly a
continuation of the Golden Vale of Limerick, celebrated for its
fertility, and partly occupied by the Slievebaughty Mountains.
The northern portion of the division contains rich pasture and
tillage ground, beautifully diversified with hill and dale. Some
of the intermediate country is comparatively uncultivated, but
forms excellent pasturage for sheep. The western division of the
county has a substratum of granite, and is barren, rugged and
mountainous. It is divided into the three districts of Connemara,
Jar-Connaught and Joyce's Country; the name of Connemara
is, however, often applied to the whole district. Its highest
mountains are the grand and picturesque group of Bunnabeola,
or the Twelve Bens or Pins, which occupy a space of about 25 sq.
m., the highest elevation being 2695 ft- Much of this district is a
gently sloping plain, from 100 to 300 ft. above sea-level. Joyce's
Country, farther north, is an elevated tract, with flat-topped
hills 1300 to 2000 ft. high, and deep narrow valleys lying between
them.
Galway possesses the advantage of a very extended line of
sea-coast, indented by numerous harbours, which, however, are
rarely used except by a few coasting and fishing vessels. At the
boundary with the county Mayo in the north is Killary Harbour
which separates the two counties. The first bay on the western
coast capable of accommodating large ships is Ballynakill,
sheltered by Freaghillaun or Heath Island. Next in succession
is Cleggan Bay. Off these inlets lie the islands of Inishbofin and
Inishark, with others. Streamstown is a narrow inlet, within
which are the inhabited islands of Omey, Inishturk and Turbot.
Ardbear harbour is divided into two inlets, the northern terminat-
ing at the town of Clifden, with excellent anchorage; the
southern inlet has also good anchorage within the bar, and has
a good salmon fishery. Mannin Bay, though large, is much
exposed and little frequented by shipping. From Slyne Head the
coast turns eastward to Roundstone Bay, which has its entrance
protected by the islands of Inishnee and Inishlacken. Next in
order is Bertraghboy Bay, studded with islets and rocks, but
deep and sheltered. Kilkieran Bay, the largest on this coast, has
a most productive kelp shore of nearly 100 m.; its mouth is
but 3 m. broad. Between Gorumna Island and the mainland is
Greatman's Bay and close to it Costello Bay, the most eastern of
those in Connemara. The whole of the coast from Greatman's
Bay eastward is comprehended in the Bay of Galway, the entrance
of which is protected by the three limestone islands of Aran,
Inishmore (or Aranmore), Inishmann and Inisheer.
The rivers are few, and, except the Shannon, of small size.
The Suck, which forms the eastern boundary of the county,
rises in Roscommon, and passing by Ballinasloe, unites with the
Shannon at Shannonbridge. The Shannon forms the south-eastern
boundary of the county, and passing Shannon Harbour, Banagher,
Meelick and Portumna, swells into the great expanse of water
called Lough Derg, which skirts the county as far as the village of
Mount Shannon. The Claregalway flows southward through the
centre of the county, and enters Lough Corrib some 4 m. above
the town of Galway. The Bally nahinrh, considered one of the
best salmon-fishing rivers in Connaught, rises in the Twelve Pins,
passes through Ballynahinch Lake, and after a short but rapid
course falls into Bertraghboy Bay. Lakes are numerous. Lough
Corrib extends from Galway town northwards over 30,000 acres,
with a shore of 50 m. in extent. The lake is studded with many
islands, some of them thickly inhabited. The district west of
Lough Corrib contains a vast number of lakes, about twenty-five of
them more than a mile in length. Lough Rea, by the town of the
432
GALWAY
same name, is more remarkable for scenic beauty than for extent.
Besides these perennial lakes, there are several low tracts, called
turloughs, which are covered with water during a great part of the
year. Loughs Mask and Corrib are connected by a salmon ladder,
and contain large trout. Galway, with the Screab Waters, drain-
ing into Camus Bay, a branch of Kilkieran Bay, with Recess
and the Ballynahinch waters, are the best fishing centres. On
account of its scenic beauty, both coastal and inland, together
with its facilities for sport, county Galway is frequented by
summer visitors. Though for long the remoter parts were difficult
of access, as in the case of Donegal, Mayo, Clare and the western
counties generally, the Gal way and Clifden rail way assisted private
enterprise to open up the country. The western mountains,
broken by deep landlocked and island-sheltered bays, as well as
by the innumerable small loughs of the Connemara districts,
afford scenes varying from gentle slopes occasionally well wooded
along the water's edge to wild, bare moorlands among the
heights, while the summits are usually bold and rocky cones.
Several small fishing villages have acquired the dignity of water-
ing-places from the erection of hotels, which have also been
planted in previously untenanted situations of high scenic
attractions; among these may be mentioned Leenane at the
head of Killary harbour, Renvyle House at its entrance, Letter-
frack on Ballynakill Bay, Streamstown and Clifden, and Cashel
on Bertraghboy Bay. Inland are Recess, near Lough Derryclare,
and Ballynahinch, on the lough of that name, both on the
railway, at the foot of the Twelve Pins.
Geology. The east of this county lies in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone plain, with domes of Old Red Sandstone rising near Dunmore
and Mount Bellew. As Galway town is neared, the grey rock
appears freely on the surface, and Lough Corrib spreads itself over
almost level land. Its west branches, however, run up into " Dai-
radian " hills, which rise abruptly on the threshold of Connemara.
A broad mass of ice-worn gneiss and granite lies between Lough
Corrib and Galway Bay, cut off so sharply at the sea as to suggest
the presence of an east-and-west line of fracture. The Twelve
Bens owe their supremacy to the quartzites, which are here well
bedded and associated with limestone and mica-schist. Silurian
conglomerates and sandstones, with andesitic lavas, overlie the
Dalradians, with marked unconformity, south of Leenane and
round Lough Nafooey. The surfaces of the hard rocks admirably
record the action of ice throughout the county. There is black
Carboniferous marble at Menlough near Galway ; and the well-known
" Connemara Marble " is a banded serpentinous crystalline limestone
in the Dalradians at Recess, Ballynahinch and Streamstown.
Compact red granite is worked at Shantallow, and the region west
of Galway contains many handsome porphyritic red varieties.
Climate and Industries. The climate is mild and healthy but
variable, and violent winds from the west are not uncommon.
Frost or snow seldom remains long on the western coast, and cattle
of every description continue unhoused during the winter. The
eastern part of the county produces the best wheat. Oats are fre-
quently sown after potatoes in moorish soils less adapted for wheat.
The flat shores of the bays afford large supplies of seaweed for
manure. Limestone, gravel and marl are to be had in most other
parts. When a sufficient quantity of manure for potatoes cannot
be had, the usual practice is to pare and burn the surface. In many
places on the seashore fine early potatoes are raised in deep sea-sand
manured with seaweed, and the crop is succeeded by barley. Those
parts of the eastern district less fitted for grain are employed in
pasturage. Heathy sheep-walks occupy a very large tract between
Monivea and Galway. An extensive range from Atnenry, stretching
to Galway Bay at Kinvarra, is also chiefly occupied by sheep. Over
half the total acreage of the county is pasture-land, and cattle, sheep,
pigs and poultry are extensively reared. The proportion of tillage to
pasturage is roughly as one to four; and owing to the nature of the
country fully one-third of the total area is quite barren.
Manufactures are not carried on beyond the demand caused by
the domestic consumption of the people. Coarse friezes, flannels
and blankets are made in all parts and sold largely in Galway and
Loughrea. Connemara has been long celebrated for its hand-knit
woollen stockings. Coarse linen, of a narrow breadth, called handle
linen, is also made for home consumption. There is a linen-weaving
factory at Oughterard. The manufacture of kelp, formerly a great
source of profit on the western shores, is still carried on to some
extent. Feathers and sea-fowls' eggs are brought in great quantities
from the islands of Aran, the produce of the puffins and other sea-
fowl that frequent the cliffs. Fishing affords occupation to many
of the inhabitants, the industry having as its centres the ports of
Galway and Clifden.
The Midland Great Western main line enters the county at
Ballinasloe, and runs by Athenry to Galway, with an extension
to Oughterard (Lough Corrib) and Clifden. The Great Southern &
Western line from Sligo to Limerick traverses the county from
N. to S., by way of Tuam, Athenry and Gort.
Population and Administration. The population of county
Galway (211,227 in 1891; 192,549 in 1901) decreased by more
than half in the last seventy years of the igth century, and the
decrease continues, as emigration is heavy. About 97% of the
population are Roman Catholics, and a somewhat less percentage
are rural. The Erse tongue is maintained by many in this
remote county. The chief towns are Galway (pop. 13,426),
Tuam (3012), Ballinasloe (4904) and Loughrea (2815), with the
smaller towns of Portumna, Gort, Clifden, Athenry, Headford,
Oughterard and Eyrecourt. The county is divided into four
parliamentary divisions (returning one member each); north,
south, east and Connemara, while the town of Galway returns
one member. There are eighteen baronies. Assizes are held at
Galway, quarter-sessions at Galway, Ballinasloe, Clifden, Gort,
Loughrea, Oughterard, Portumna and Tuam. The county
comprises parts of the Protestant dioceses of Tuam and of
Killaloe; and of the Roman Catholic dioceses of Elphin, Galway,
Clonfert and Killaloe.
History. The history of county Galway is exceedingly obscure,
and nearly every one of its striking physical features carries its
legend with it. For centuries local septs struggled together for
mastery undeterred by outside influence. The wreck of part of
the Spanish Armada on this coast in 1588 left survivors whose
influence is still to be traced. The formation of Galway into a
county was effected about 1 579 by Sir Henry Sydney, lord deputy
of Ireland. In the county at Aughrim (<?..) the decisive battle
of the English Revolution was fought in 1691. Among the
antiquities are several round towers. The only perfect one is at
Kilmacduagh, a very fine example 112 ft. high, leaning con-
siderably out of the perpendicular. Raths or encampments are
numerous and several cromlechs are to be seen in good preserva-
tion. The ruins of monastic buildings are also numerous. That
of Knockmoy, about 6 m. from Tuam, said to have been founded
in 1180 by Cathal O'Connor, was adorned with rude fresco
paintings-, still discernible, which were considered valuable as
being the best authentic representations existing of ancient
Irish costumes. Ancient castles and square towers of the Anglo-
Norman settlers are frequently met with; some have been kept in
repair, but the greater number are in ruins. The castle of Tuam,
built in 1 161 by Roderick O'Connor, king of Ireland, at the period
of the English invasion, is said to have been the first building of
this description of stone and mortar in Ireland. The remains of a
round castle, a form of building very uncommon in the military
architecture of the country, are to be seen between Gort and
Kilmacduagh. The extraordinary cyclopean and monastic
ruins on the Aran Islands (q.v.) must be mentioned; and the
town of Galway, Athenry, and the neighbourhood of Ballinasloe
all show interesting remains. The small church of Clonfert, in the
south of the county, with a fine Romanesque doorway, is a
cathedral, the diocese of which was united with Kilfenora,
Kilmacduagh and Killaloe in 1833.
GALWAY, a seaport, parliamentary borough and the county
town of county Galway, Ireland, on the north shore of Galway
Bay, and on the main line of the Midland Great Western railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 13,426. Some of the streets are
very narrow, and contain curious specimens of old buildings,
chiefly in antique Spanish style, being square, with a central
court, and a gateway opening into the street. The most note-
worthy of these is the pile known as Lynch's Castle. This
residence takes its name from the family of whom James Lynch
Fitzstephen, mayor of Galway in 1493, was a member; whose
severity as a magistrate is exemplified in the story that he
executed his own son, and thus gave origin (according to one of
several theories) to the familiar term of Lynch law. The principal
streets are broad and contain good shops. St Nicholas church is a
fine cruciform building founded in 1320, and containing monu-
ments, and a bell, one of a peal, which appears to have been
brought from Cavron in France, but how this happened is not
known. The church was made collegiate in 1484, and Edward
VI. created the Royal College of Galway in connexion with it;
GAMA
433
but the old college buildings no longer serve this purpose, and the
church ceased to be collegiate in 1840. There are remains of
a Franciscan friary founded in 1206. St Augustine's church
(Roman Catholic) is modern (1859). The town is the seat of
a Roman Catholic diocese. There are grammar, model and
industrial schools, the first with exhibitions to Trinity College,
Dublin; but the principal educational establishment is University
College, a quadrangular building in Tudor Gothic style, of grey
limestone. It was founded as .Queen's College, with other
colleges of the same name at Belfast and Cork, under an act of
1845, and its name was changed when it was granted a new
charter pursuant to the Irish Universities Act 1008. The
harbour comprises an extensive line of quays, and is connected
for inland navigation with Lough Corrib. The shipping trade is
considerable, but as a trans-Atlantic port Galway was exploited
unsuccessfully. The fisheries, both sea and salmon, are im-
portant. The chief exports are wool, agricultural produce and
black marble, which is polished in local mills. Other industrial
establishments include corn-mills, iron-foundries, distilleries, and
brush and bag factories. The borough, which returned two
members to parliament until 1885, now returns one.
Galway is divided into the old and new towns, while a suburb
known as the Claddagh is inhabited by fishermen. This is a
curious collection of small cottages, where communal govern-
ment by a locally elected mayor long prevailed, together with
peculiar laws and customs, strictly exclusive inter-marriage, and a
high moral and religious standard. Specimens of the distinc-
tive Claddagh ring, for example, were worn and treasured
as venerated heirlooms. These customs, with the distinctive
dress of the women, died out but slowly, and even to-day their
vestiges remain.
The environs of Galway are pleasant, with several handsome
residences. The most interesting point in the vicinity is Roscam,
with its round tower, mined church and other remains. Salthill,
with golf links, is a waterside residential suburb.
Little is known of the history of Galway until after the arrival
of the English, at which time it was under the protection of
O'Flaherty, who possessed the adjoining district to the west.
On the extinction of the native dynasty of the O'Connors, the
town fell into the hands of the De Burgos, the head of a branch of
which, under the name of M'William Eighter, long governed it by
magistrates of his own appointment. After it had been secured
by walls, which began to be built about 1270 and are still in part
traceable, it became the residence of a number of enterprising
settlers, through whom it attained a position of much commercial
celebrity. Of these settlers the principal families, fourteen in
number, were known as the tribes of Galway. They were of
Norman, Saxon or Welsh descent, and became so exclusive in
their relationships that dispensations were frequently requisite
for the canonical legality of marriages among them. The town
rapidly increased from this period in wealth and commercial
rank, far surpassing in this respect the rival city of Limerick.
Richard II. granted it a charter of incorporation with liberal
privileges, which was confirmed by his successor. It had the
right of coinage by act of parliament, but there is no evidence to
show that it exercised the privilege. Another charter, granted in
1545, extended the jurisdiction of the port to the islands of Aran,
permitted the exportation of all kinds of goods except linens and
woollens, and confirmed all the former privileges. Large numbers
of Cromwell's soldiers are said to have settled in the town; and
there are many traces of Spanish blood among the population.
Its municipal privileges were extended by a charter from James I.,
whereby the town, and a district of two miles round in every
direction, were formed into a distinct county, with exclusive
jurisdiction and a right of choosing its own magistrates. During
the civil wan of 1641 the town took part with the Irish, and was
surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote;
after which the ancient inhabitants were mostly driven out, and
their property was given to adventurers and soldiers, chiefly
from England. On the accession of James II. the old inhabitants
entertained sanguine hopes of recovering their former rights.
But the successes of King William soon put an end to their ex-
pectations; and the town, after undergoing another siege, again
capitulated to the force brought against it by General Ginkell.
GAMA. VASCO DA (c. 1460-1524), Portuguese navigator and
discoverer of the sea-route to India, was born at Sines, a small
seaport in the province of Alemtejo. Of da Gama's early history
little is known. His descent, according to the Nobiliario of
Antonio de Lima, was derived from a noble family which is
mentioned in the year 1166; but the line cannot be traced
without interruption farther back than the year 1280, to one
Alvaro da Gama, from whom was descended Estevao da Gama,
civil governor of Sines, whose third son Vasco was born prob-
ably about the year 1460. In that year died Prince Henry the
Navigator, to whose intelligence and foresight must be traced
back all the fame that Portugal gained on the seas in the i -,t h and
i6th centuries. Explorers sent out at his instigation discovered
the Azores and unknown regions on the African coast, whence
continually came reports of a great monarch, " who lived east of
Benin, 350 leagues in the interior, and who held both temporal
and spiritual dominion over all the neighbouring kings," astory
which tallied so remarkably with the accounts of "Prester John "
which had been brought to the Peninsula by Abyssinian priests,
that John II. of Portugal steadfastly resolved that both by sea
and by land the attempt should be made to reach the country
of this potentate. For this purpose Pedro de Covilham and
Affonso de Payva were despatched eastward by land; while
Bartholomeu Diaz (q.v.), in command of two vessels, was sent
westward by sea (see ABYSSINIA, 14). That there was in truth
an ocean highway to the East was proved by Diaz, who returned
in December 1488 with the report that when sailing southward
he was carried far to the east by a succession of fierce storms,
past as he discovered only on his return voyage what he
ascertained to be the southern extremity of the African continent.
The condition of John's health and concerns of state, however,
prevented the fitting out of the intended expedition; and it was
not till nine years later, when Emanuel I. had succeeded to
the throne, that the preparations for this great voyage were
completed hastened, doubtless, by Columbus's discovery of
America in the meanwhile.
For the supreme command of this expedition the king selected
Vasco da Gama, who had in his youth fought in the wars against
Castile, and in his riper years gained distinction as an intrepid
mariner. The fleet, consisting of four vessels specially built for
this mission, sailed down the Tagus on the gth of July 1497, after
prayers and confession made by the officers and crews in a small
chapel on the site where now stands the church of S. Maria de
Belem (see LISBON), afterwards built to commemorate the event.
Four months later the flotilla cast anchor in St Helena Bay,
South Africa, rounded the Cape in safety, and in the beginning
of the next year reached Malindi, on the east coast of Africa.
Thence, steering eastward, under the direction of a pilot obtained
from Indian merchants met with at this port, da Gama arrived
at Calicut, on the Malabar coast, on the 201)1 May 1498, and set
up, according to the custom of his country, a marble pillar as a
mark of conquest and a proof of his discovery of India. His
reception by the zamorin, or Hindu ruler of Calicut, would
have in all probability been favourable enough, had it not been
for the jealousy of the Mahommedan traders who, fearing for
their gains, so incited the Hindus against the new-comers that da
Gama was unable to establish a Portuguese factory. Having
seen enough of India to assure him of its great resources, he
returned to Portugal in September 1499. The king received him
with every mark of distinction, granted him the use of the prefix
Dom, thus elevating him to the rank of an untitled noble, and
conferred on him pensions and other property. In prosecution
of da Gama's discoveries another fleet of thirteen ships was
immediately sent out to India under Pedro Alvares Cabral, who,
in sailing too far westward, by accident discovered Brazil, and on
reaching his destination established a factory at Calicut. The
natives, again instigated by the Mahommedan merchants, rose
up in arms and murdered all whom Cabral had left behind. To
avenge this outrage a powerful armament of ten ships was fitted
out at Lisbon, the command of which was at first given to
434
GAMALIEL
Cabral, but was afterwards transferred to da Gama, who received
the title admiral of India (January 1 502). A few weeks later the
fleet sailed, and on reaching Calicut da Gama immediately
bombarded the town, treating its inhabitants with a savagery
too horrible to describe. From Calicut he proceeded in November
to Cochin, " doing all the harm he could on the way to all that he
found at sea," and having made favourable trading terms with it
and with other towns on the coast, he returned to Lisbon in
September 1503, with richly laden ships. He and his captains
were welcomed with great rejoicings and he received additional
privileges and revenues.
Soon after his return da Gama retired to his residence in Evora,
possibly from pique at not obtaining so high rewards as he
expected, but more probably in order to enjoy the wealth and
position which he had acquired; for he was now one of the
richest men in the kingdom. He had married, probably in 1500,
a lady of good family, named Catherina de Ataide, by whom he
had six sons. According to Correa, he continued to advise King
Emanuel I. on matters connected with India and maritime policy
up to 1505, and there are extant twelve documents dated 1507-
1522 which prove that he continued to enjoy the royal favour.
The most important of these is a grant dated December 1519
by which Vasco da Gama was created count of Vidigueira, with
the extraordinary privileges of civil and criminal jurisdiction
and ecclesiastical patronage. During this time the Portuguese
conquests increased in the East, and were presided over by
successive viceroys. The fifth of these was so unfortunate that
da Gama was recalled from his seclusion by Emanuel's successor,
John III., and nominated viceroy of India, an honour which in
April 1524 he left Lisbon to assume. Arriving at Goa during
September of the same year, he immediately set himself to correct
with vigour the many abuses which had crept in under the rule
of his predecessors. He was not destined, however, to prosecute
far the reforms he had inaugurated, for, on the Christmas-eve
following his arrival, he died at Cochin after a short illness, and was
buried in the Franciscan monastery there. In 1 538 his body was
conveyed to Portugal and entombed in the town of Vidigueira.
In 1880 what were supposed on insufficient evidence to have been
his remains were transferred to the church of Santa Maria de
Belem. His voyage had the immediate result of enriching
Portugal, and raising her to one of the foremost places among the
nations of Europe, and eventually the far greater one of bringing
to pass the colonization of the East by opening its commerce
to the Western world.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Vasco da Gama's First Voyage, by Dr E. Raven-
stein (London, Hakluyt Society, 1898), is a translation with notes,
&c., of the anonymous Roteiro (Journal or Itinerary), written by
one of Vasco da Gama's subordinates who sailed on board the
"S. Raphael," which was commanded by the admiral's brother Paulo
da Gama. This is the most important of the original authorities;
five accounts of the voyage in letters contemporary with it are
appended to the Hakluyt Society's translation. See also J. de
Barros, Decadas da India (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written c. 1540);
F. L. de Castanheda, Historia do descobrimento da India (Coimbra,
1551, largely based on the Roteiro); The Three Voyages of Vasco da
Gama and his Viceroyalty, by Caspar Correa (Hakluyt Society,
1869), chiefly valuable for the events of 1524; The Lusiads of
Camoens, the central incident in which is Vasco da Gama's first
voyage; Calcoen (i.e. Calicut), a Dutch Narrative of the Second
Voyage of Vasco da Gama, written by some unknown seaman of
the expedition, printed at Antwerp about 1504, reprinted in fac-
simile, with introduction and translation, by J. Ph. Berjeau (London,
1874) ; Thome Lopes, narrative (1502) in vol. i. of Ramusio.
GAMALIEL (V?93)- This name, which in Old Testament
times figures only as that of a prince of the tribe of Manasseh
(vide Num. i. 10, &c.), was hereditary among the descendants of
Hillel. Six persons bearing the name are known.
i. GAMALIEL I., a grandson of Hillel, and like him designated
Ha-ZSqgn (the Elder), by which is apparently indicated that
he was numbered among the Sanhedrin, the high council of
Jerusalem. According to the tradition of the schools of Palestine
Gamaliel succeeded his grandfather and his father (of the latter
nothing is known but his name, Simeon) as Nasi, or president of
the Sanhedrin. Even if this tradition does not correspond with
historic fact, it is at any rate certain that Gamaliel took a leading
position in the Sanhedrin, and enjoyed the highest repute as an
authority on the subject of knowledge of the Law and in the
interpretation of the Scripture?. He was the first to whose name
was prefixed the title Rabban (Master, Teacher). It is related in
the Acts of the Apostles (v. 34 et seq.) that his voice was uplifted
in the Sanhedrin in favour of the disciples of Jesus who were
threatened with death, and on this occasion he is designated
as a Pharisee and as being " had in reputation among all the
people " (voiu>dida<TKa\os TI/WOS vavrl r<$ XacjJ). In the Mishna
(Gittin iv. 1-3) he is spoken of as the author of certain legal
ordinances affecting the welfare of the community (the expression
in the original is " tiqqun ha-olam," i.e. improvement of the
world) and regulating certain questions as to conjugal rights.
In the tradition was also preserved the text of the epistles
regarding the insertion of the intercalary month, which he sent
to the inhabitants of Galilee and the Darom (i.e. southern
Palestine) and to the Jews of the Dispersion (Sanhedrin nb and
elsewhere). He figures in two anecdotes as the religious adviser
of the king and queen, i.e. Agrippa I. and his wife Cypris
(Pesahim 88 b). His function as a teacher is proved by the fact
that the Apostle Paul boasts of having sat at the feet of Gamaliel
(Acts. xxii. 3). Of his teaching, beyond the saying preserved in
Aboth i. 16, which enjoins the duty of study and of scrupulous-
ness in the observance of religious ordinances, only a very
remarkable characterization of the different natures of the
scholars remains (Aboth di R. Nathan, ch. xl.). His renown in
later days is summed up in the words (Mishna, end of Sotah):
" When Rabban Gamaliel the Elder died, regard for the Torah
(the study of the Law) ceased, and purity and piety died." As
Gamaliel I. is the only Jewish scribe whose name is mentioned
in the New Testament he became a subject of Christian legend,
and a monk of the I2th century (Hermann the Premonstra-
tensian) relates how he met Jews in Worms studying Gamaliel's
commentary on the Old Testament, thereby most probably
meaning the Talmud.
2. GAMALIEL II., the son of Simon ben Gamaliel, one of
Jerusalem's foremost men in the war against the Romans (vide
Josephus, Bellum Jud. iv. 3, 9, Vita 38), and grandson of Gamaliel
I. To distinguish him from the latter he is also called Gamaliel
of Jabneh. In Jabneh (Jamnia), where during the siege of
Jerusalem the scribes of the school of Hillel had taken refuge by
permission of Vespasian, a new centre of Judaism arose under the
leadership of the aged Johanan ben Zakkai, a school whose
members inherited the authority of the Sanhedrin of Jerusalem.
Gamaliel II. became Johanan ben Zakkai's successor, and
rendered immense service in the strengthening and reintegration
of Judaism, which had been deprived of its former basis by the
destruction of the Temple and by the entire loss of its political
autonomy. He put an end to the division which had arisen
between the spiritual leaders of Palestinian Judaism by the
separation of the scribes into the two schools called respectively
after Hillel and Shammai, and took care to enforce. his own
authority as the president of the chief legal assembly of Judaism
with energy and often with severity. He did this, as he himself
said, not for his own honour nor for that of his family, but in order
that disunion should not prevail in Israel. Gamaliel's position
was recognized by the Roman government also. Towards the
end of Domitian's reign (c A. D. 95) he went to Rome in company
with the most prominent members of the school of Jabneh, in
order to avert a danger threatening the Jews from the action of
the terrible emperor. Many interesting particulars have been
given regarding the journey of these learned men to Rome and
their sojourn there. The impression made by the capital of the
world upon Gamaliel and his companions was an overpowering
one, and they wept when they thought of Jerusalem in ruins.
In Rome, as at home, Gamaliel often had occasion to defend
Judaism in polemical discussions with pagans, and also with
professed Christians. In an anecdote regarding a suit which
Gamaliel was prosecuting before a Christian judge, a converted
Jew, he appeals to the Gospel and to the words of Jesus in
Matt. v. 17 (Shabbath 116 a, b). Gamaliel devoted special
attention to the regulation of the rite of prayer, which after the
GAMBETTA
435
cessation of sacrificial worship had become all-important. He
gave the principal prayer, consisting of eighteen benedictions, its
final revision, and declared it every Israelite's duty to recite it
three times daily. He was on friendly terms with many who were
not Jews, and was so warmly devoted to his slave Tabi that when
the latter died he mourned for him as for a beloved member of his
own family. He loved discussing the sense of single portions of
the Bible with other scholars, and made many fine expositions of
the text. With the words of Deut. xiii. 18 he associated the
lesson: " So long as thou thyself an merciful, God will also be
merciful to thee." Gamaliel died before the insurrections under
Trajan had brought fresh unrest into Palestine. At his funeral
obsequies the celebrated proselyte Aquila (Akylas Onkelos),
reviving an ancient custom, burned costly materials to the value
of seventy minae. Gamaliel himself had given directions that his
body was to be wrapped in the simplest possible shroud. By this
he wished to check the extravagance which had become associated
with arrangements for the disposal of the dead, and his end was
attained; for his example became the rule, and it also became the
custom to commemorate him in the words of consolation
addressed to the mourners (Kethub. 8 6). Gamaliel's son,
Simon, long after his father's death, and after the persecutions
under Hadrian, inherited his office, which thenceforward his
descendants handed on from father to son.
3. GAMALIEL III., son of Jehuda I. the redactor of the Mishna,
and his successor as A'iut (patriarch). The redaction of the
Mishna was completed under him, and some of his sayings are
incorporated therein (Aboth ii. 2-4). One of these runs as follows :
" Beware of those in power, for they permit men to approach
them only for their own uses; they behave as friends when it is
for their advantage, but they do not stand by a man when he is in
need." Evidently this was directed against the self-seeking of the
Roman government. Gamaliel III. lived during the first half of
the 3rd century.
4. GAMALIEL IV., grandson of the above, patriarch in the latter
half of the jrd century: about him very little is known.
5. GAMALIEL V., son and successor of the patriarch Hillel II.:
beyond his name nothing is known of him. He lived in the
latter half of the 4th century. He. is the patriarch Gamaliel
whom Jerome mentions in his letter to Pamachius, written in 393.
6. GAMALIEL VI., grandson of the above, the last of the
patriarchs, died in 425. With him expired the office, which had
already been robbed of its privileges by a decree of the emperors
Honorius and Theodosius II. (dated the i?th of October 415).
Gamaliel VI. was also a physician, and a celebrated remedy of his
is mentioned by his contemporary Marcellus (De Medicamentis,
liber 21). (W. BA.)
GAMBETTA. LBON (1838-1882), French statesman, was bora
at Cahors on the 2nd of April 1838. His father, a Genoese, who
had established himself as a grocer and had married a French-
woman named Massabie, is said to have been his son's prototype
in vigour and fluency of speech. In his sixteenth year young
Gambetta lost by an accident the sight of his left eye, which
eventually had to be removed. Notwithstanding this privation,
he highly distinguished himself at the public school of Cahors,
and in 1857 proceeded to Paris to study law. His southern
vehemence gave him great influence among the students of the
Quartier Latin, and he was soon known as an inveterate enemy
of the imperial government. He was called to the bar in 1859,
but, although contributing to a Liberal review, edited by
Challemel Lacour, did not make much way until, on the iyth
of November 1868, he was selected to defend the journalist
Delescluze. prosecuted for having promoted the erection of a
monument to the representative Baudin, who was killed in
mteing the coup d'ttat of 1851. Gambetta seized his opportunity
and assailed both the coup d'ttat and the government with an
eloquence of invective which made him immediately famous.
In May 1869 he was returned to the Assembly, both by the first
circumscription of Paris and by Marseilles, defeating Hippolyte
Carnot for the former constituency and Thiers and Lesseps for
the latter. He elected to sit for Marseilles, and lost no oppor-
tunity of attacking the Empire in the Assembly. He was at first
opposed to the war with Germany, but when satisfied that it had
been forced upon France he did not, like some of his colleagues,
refuse to vote supplies, but took the patriotic line of supporting
the flag. When the news of the disaster at Sedan reached Paris,
Gambetta called for strong measures. He himself proclaimed the
fall of the emperor at the corps Itgislatif, and the establishment of
a republic at the hotel de ville. He was one of the first members
of the new government of national defence, becoming minister
of the interior. He advised his colleagues to leave Paris and
conduct the government from some provincial city. This advice
was rejected from dread of another revolution in Paris, and a
delegation to organize resistance in the provinces was despatched
to Tours, but when this was seen to be inefficient Gambetta
himself (7th October) quitted Paris in a balloon, and upon
arriving at Tours took the supreme direction of affairs as minister
of the interior and of war. Aided by M. de Freycinet, then a
young officer of engineers, as his assistant secretary of war, he
displayed prodigies of energy and intelligence. He spedily
organized an army, which might possibly have effected the relief
of Paris if Metz had held out, but the surrender of Bazaine
brought the army of the crown prince into the field, and success
was impossible. After the defeats of the French near Orleans
early in December the seat of government had to be transferred
to Bordeaux, and when Paris surrendered at the end of January,
Gambetta, though resisting and protesting, was compelled to
submit to the capitulation concluded with Prince Bismarck.
He immediately resigned his office. Elected by nine departments
to the National Assembly meeting at Bordeaux (on the ist of
March 187 1) he chose to sit for Strassburg, which by the terms of
the treaty about to be submitted to the Assembly for ratification
was to be ceded to Prussia, and when the treaty was adopted he
resigned in protest and retired to Spain.
He returned to France in June, was elected by three depart-
ments in July, and commenced an agitation for the definitive
establishment of the Republic. On the $th of November 187 1 he
established a journal, La Rtpublique franfaise, which soon
became the most influential in France. His orations at public
meetings were more effective than those delivered in the
Assembly, especially that made at Bordeaux on his return, and
that at Grenoble on the 26th of November 1872, in which he
spoke of political power having passed to les nouvdles couches
sociales. When Thiers, however, fell from power in May 1873,
and a Royalist was placed at the head of the government in the
person of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta gave proof of his
statesmanship by unceasingly urging his friends to a moderate
course, and by his tact and parliamentary dexterity, no less than
by his eloquence, he was mainly instrumental in the voting of the
constitution in February 1875. This policy he continued during
the early days of the now consolidated Republic, and gave it
the appropriate name of " opportunism." It was not until the
4th of May 1877, when the peril from reactionary intrigues was
notorious, and the clerical party had begun a campaign for the
restoration of the temporal power of the pope, that he delivered
his famous speech denouncing " clericalism " as " the enemy."
On the i6th of May Marshal MacMahon, in order to support the
clerical reactionaries, perpetrated his parliamentary coup d'ttat,
and on the isth of August Gambetta, in a speech at Lille, gave
him the alternative se soumeltre ou se dtmettre. He then under-
took a political campaign to rouse the republican party through-
out France, which culminated in a speech at Romans (September
18, 1878) formulating its programme. MacMahon, equally
unwilling to resign or to provoke civil war, had no choice but to
dismiss his advisers and form a moderate republican ministry
under the premiership of Dufaure.
When the resignation of the Dufaure cabinet brought about
the abdication of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta declined to
become a candidate for the presidency, but gave his support to
Grevy ; nor did he attempt to form a ministry, but accepted the
office of president of the chamber of deputies (January 1879).
This position, which he filled with much ability, did not pre-
vent his occasionally descending from the presidential chair to
make speeches, one of which, advocating an amnesty to the
GAMBIA
communards, was especially memorable. Although he really
directed the policy of the various ministries, he evidently thought
that the time was not ripe for asserting openly his own claims to
direct the policy of the Republic, and seemed inclined to observe
a neutral attitude as far as possible; but events hurried him on,
and early in 1881 he placed himself at the head of a movement
for restoring scrutin de lisle, or the system by which deputies are
returned by the entire department which they represent, so that
each elector votes for several representatives at once, in place of
scrutin d'arrondissement, the system of small constituencies,
giving one member to each district and one vote to each elector.
A bill to re-establish scrutin de lisle was passed by the Assembly
on i gth May 1881, but rejected by the Senate on the igth of
June.
But this personal rebuff could not alter the fact that in the
country his was the name which was on the lips of the voters at
the election. His supporters were in a large majority, and on the
reassembling of the chamber, the Ferry cabinet quickly resigned.
Gambetta was unwillingly entrusted by Gr6vy on the i4th of
November 1881 with the formation of a ministry known as
Le Grand Ministere. He now experienced the Nemesis of his
over-cautious system of abstinence from office for fear of com-
promising his popularity. Every one suspected him of aiming at
a dictatorship; attacks, not the less formidable for their injustice,
were directed against him from all sides, and his cabinet fell on
the 26th of January 1882, after an existence of only sixty-six
days. Had he remained in office his declarations leave no doubt
that he would have cultivated the British alliance and co-
operated with Great Britain in Egypt; and when the Freycinet
administration, which succeeded, shrank from that enterprise
only to see it undertaken with signal success by England alone,
Gambetta's foresight was quickly justified. His fortunes were
presenting a most interesting problem when, on the 3ist of
December 1882, at his house in Ville d'Avray, near Sevres, he
died by a shot from a revolver which accidentally went off.
Then all France awoke to a sense of her obligation to him, and
his public funeral on the 6th of January 1883 evoked one of the
most overwhelming displays of national sentiment ever witnessed
on a similar occasion.
Gambetta rendered France three inestimable services: by
preserving her self-respect through the gallantry of the resistance
he organized during the German War, by his tact in persuading
extreme partisans to accept a moderate Republic, and by his
energy in overcoming the usurpation attempted by the advisers
of Marshal MacMahon. His death, at the early age of forty-four,
cut short a career which had given promise of still greater things,
for he had real statesmanship in his conceptions of the future of
his country, and he had an eloquence which would have been
potent in the education of his supporters. The romance of his
life was his connexion with Leonie Leon (d. 1906), the full details
of which were not known to the public till her death. This lady,
with whom Gambetta fell in love in 1871, was the daughter of a
French artillery officer. She became his mistress, and the liaison
lasted till he died. Gambetta himself constantly urged her to
marry him during this period, but she always refused, fearing to
compromise his career; she remained, however, his confidante
and intimate adviser in all his political plans. It is understood
that at last she had just consented to become his wife, and the
date of the marriage had been fixed, when the accident which
caused his death occurred in her presence. Contradictory
accounts have indeed been given as to this fatal episode, but that
it was accidental, and not suicide, is certain. On Gambetta the
influence of Leonie was absorbing, both as lover and as politician,
and the correspondence which has been published shows how
much he depended upon her. But in various matters of detail the
serious student of political history must be cautious in accepting
her later recollections, some of which have been embodied in the
writings of M. Francis Laur, such as that an actual interview took
place in 1878 between Gambetta and Bismarck. That Gambetta
after 1875 felt strongly that the relations between France and
Germany might be improved, and that he made it his object, by
travelling incognito, to become better acquainted with Germany
and the adjoining states, may be accepted, but M. Laur appear*
to have exaggerated the extent to which any actual negotiations
took place. On the other hand, the increased knowledge of
Gambetta's attitude towards European politics which later
information has supplied confirms the view that in him France lost
prematurely a master mind, whom she could ill spare. In April
1905 a monument by Dalou to his memory at Bordeaux was
unveiled by President Loubet.
Gambetta's Discours et plaidoyers politiques were published by J.
Reinach in II vols. (Pans, 1881-1886); his Depeches, circulates,
decrets ... in 2 vols. (Paris, 1886-1891). Many biographies have
appeared. The principal are J. Reinach, Leon Gambetta (1884),
Gambetta orateur (1884) and Le Ministere Gambetta, histoire et doctrine
(1884); Neucastel, Gambetta, sa vie, et ses idees politiques (1885);
J. Hanlon, Gambetta (London, 1881); Dr Laborde, Leon Gambetta
biographie psychologique (1898); P. B. Gheusi, Gambetta, Life and
Letters (Eng. trans, by V. M. Montagu, 1910). See also G. Hanotaux,
Histoire de la France contemporaine (1903, &c.). F. Laur's Le Cceur
de Gambetta (1907, Eng. trans., 1908) contains the correspondence
with Leonie L6on; see also his articles on " Gambetta and Bismarck "
in The Times of August 17 and 19, 1907, with the correspondence
arising from them. (H. CH.)
GAMBIA, an important river of West Africa, and the only
river of Africa navigable by ocean-going boats at all seasons for
over 200 m. from its mouth. It rises in about 11 25' N. and
12 15' W., within 150 m. of the sea on the north-eastern escarp-
ment of the Futa Jallon highlands, the massif where also rise the
head-streams of the Senegal and some of the Niger tributaries,
besides the Rio Grande and many other rivers flowing direct to
the Gulf of Guinea. The Gambia, especially in its lower course, is
very serpentine, and although the distance from the source to
the mouth of the river is little more than 300 m. in a direct line,
the total length of the stream is about 1000 m. It flows first
N.N.E., receiving many left-hand tributaries, but about 1 2 3 5' N.
takes a sharp bend N.W. and maintains this direction until it
leaves the fertile and hilly region of Bondu. The descent to the
lower district is marked by the Barraconda rapids, formed by a
ledge of rock stretching across the river. Between 30 and 50 m.
above the falls the Gambia is joined by two considerable affluents,
the Nieriko from the north and the Kuluntu or Grey river from
the south. From the Barraconda rapids to the Atlantic the
Gambia has a course of about 350 m. Throughout this distance
the waters are tidal, and the river is navigable all the year round
by boats drawing 6 ft. of water. At Yarbatenda, a few miles
below Barraconda, the river has a breadth, even at the dry
season, of over 300 ft., with a depth of 13 to 20 ft. From the falls
to McCarthy's Island, a distance of 200 m., the river valley, which
here presents a park-like appearance, is enclosed by low rocky
hills of volcanic character. For 50 m. below the island, where the
stream is about 800 yds. wide, the banks of the river are steep and
thickly wooded. They then become low and are fringed with
mangrove swamps. From Devil's Point, a sharp promontory on
the north bank up to which place the water is salt the river
widens considerably and enters the Atlantic, in about 13! N.
and i6| W., by a broad estuary. Near the mouth of the river
on the south side is St Mary's Island (3! m. long by ij broad),
and opposite on the north bank is Barra Point, the river being
here contracted to 2 \ m. Eighteen miles lower down the distance
from shore to shore is 27 m. There is a sand-bar at the entrance
to the river, but at the lowest state of the tide there are 26 ft. of
water over the bar. The Gambia is in flood from November to
June, when the Barraconda rapids are navigable by small boats.
Above the rapids the stream is navigable for 160 m. Politically
the Gambia is divided between Great Britain and France
Britain possessing both banks of the river up to, but not includ-
ing, Yarbatenda.
The Gambia was one of the rivers passed by Hanno the
Carthaginian in his famous voyage along the west coast of
Africa. It was known to Ptolemy and the Arabian geographers,
and was at one time supposed to be a mouth of the Nile, and,
later (i8th century), a branch of the Niger. It was possibly
visited by Genoese navigators in 1291, and was certainly dis-
covered by the Portuguese c. 1446, but was first explored for any
distance from its mouth (1455) by the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto
GAMBIA
437
(?..), who published an account of his travels at Vicenza in 1 507
(La Prima N*vig<t*i<me ptr t'Oceano all* lerre de' Negri ddla
Basra Ethiopia) . Afterwards the Gambia became a starting-place
for explorers of the interior, among them Mungo Park, who began
both his journeys (1795 and 1805) from this river. It was not
until 1818 that the sources of the Gambia were reached, the
discovery being made by a Frenchman, Gaspard Mollien,who had
travelled by way of the Senegal and Bondu. The middle course
of the river was explored in 1851 by R. G. MacDonnell, then
governor of the Gambia colony, and in 1881 Dr V. S. Gouldsbury
also navigated its middle course. No native craft of any kind
was seen above Barraconda. The more correct name of the river
is Gambra, and it is so called in old books of travel.
See Mungo Park's Travel} (London, 1799); G. Moltien, Travels
. . . to tke Sources of He Senegal and Gambia . . ., edited by T. E.
Bowdich (London, 1820) ; the account of Dr Gouldsbury 's journey in
the Blue Book C 3065 (1881) ; also under the country heading below.
GAMBIA, the most northerly of the British West African
dependencies. It consists of a stretch of land on both sides of the
lower Gambia. The colony, with the protectorate dependent upon
it, has an area of about 4000 sq. m. and a population officially
estimated (1907) at 163,000. The colony proper (including
St Mary's Island, British Kommbo, the Ceded Mile, McCarthy's
Island and other islets) has an area of about 69 sq. m. The
protectorate consists of a strip of land extending ten kilometres
(about 6 m.) on each side of the river to a distance of about
300 m. in a direct line from the sea. The land outside these
limits is French. Within the protectorate are various petty
kingdoms, such as Barra, to the north of the Gambia, and
Kommbo, to the south. The breadth of the colony near the coast
is somewhat greater than it is higher up. The greatest breadth
is 39 m.
Physical Features, Fauna and Flora. The colony, as its name
implies, derives its character and value from the river Gambia (q.v.),
which is navigable throughout and beyond the limits of the colony,
while large ocean-going snips can always cross the bar at its mouth
and enter the port of Bat hurst . Away from the swamps by the river
banks, the country is largely " bush." The region above McCarthy's
Island is hilly. Much of the land is cleared for cultivation. The
fauna includes lions, leopards, several kinds of deer, monkeys,
bush-cow and wild boar. Hippopotami are found in the upper part
of the river, and crocodiles abound in the creeks. The birds most
common are bush-fowl, bustards, guinea-fowl, quail, pigeon and
sand-grouse. Bees are very numerous in parts of the country.
The Bora resembles that of West Africa generally, the mangrove
being common. Mahogany and rosewood (Pterocarpus erinaceus)
trees are found, though not in large numbers, and the rubber-vine
and oil-palm are also comparatively scarce. There are many varieties
of fern. The cassava (manioca) and indigo plants are indigenous.
Clinalf The climate during the dry season (November-June)
is the bat on the British West African coast, and the Gambia is
then considered fairly healthy. Measures for the extermination of
the m* 1 *"* 1 mosquito are carried on with good effect. The mean
temperature at Bathurst is 77" F., the shade minimum being 56
and the solar maximum 165". Up river the variation in temperature
is even greater than at Bathurst, from 50 in the morning to ioo-
104* at 3 P.M. being common at McCarthy's Isle. The average
rainfall is about 50 in. a year, but save for showers in May and June
there is rarely any rain except between July and October. The first
instance of rain in December in twenty-six years was recorded in
1906. The dry east wind known as the harmattan blows inter-
mittently from December to March.
Inhabitants. The inhabitants, who are both thrifty and
industrious, are almost entirely of Negro or Negroid race, the
chief tribes represented being the Mandingo (q.v.), the Jolof and
the Jola. Numbers of Fula (q.v.) are also settled in the country.
Fully four-fifths of the natives are Mahommedans. The few
European residents are officials, traders or missionaries.
Towns and Trade. Bathurst, pop. about 8000, the chief
town of the colony, in 13 34' N., 16" 36' W., is built on St Mary's
Island, which lies at the mouth of the river near its south
bank and is connected with the mainland by a bridge across
Oyster Creek. It was founded in 1816 and is named after the
3rd earl Bathurst, secretary of state for the colonies from 181 2 to
1827. Bathurst is a fairly well-built town, the chief material
employed being red sandstone. It lies about 12 to 14 ft. above
the level of the river. The principal buildings face the sea, and
include Government House, barracks, a well-appointed hospital,
founded by Sir R. G. MacDonnell (administrator, 1847-1852),
and various churches. The market-place is shaded by a fine
avenue of bombax and other wide-spreading trees. There are no
other towns of any size in the Gambia. A trading station called
Georgetown is situated on McCarthy's Island, so named after Sir
Charles McCarthy, the governor of Sierra Leone, who in 1824 was
captured and beheaded by the Ashanti at the battle of Essamako.
Albreda, a small port on the north bank of the river, of some
historic interest (sec below), is in the Barra district.
Products. Ground-nuts (A rat his hypogaea), rubber, beeswax,
palm kernels, rice, cotton, and millet are the chief productions.
Millet and rice are the staple food of thepepple. The curing of hides,
the catching and drying of fish, boat-building, and especially the
weaving of cotton into cloths called " pagns, afford employment
to a considerable number of persons. Formerly the principal ex-
ports, besides slaves, were gold-dust, wax and hides, the gold being
obtained from the Futa Jallon district farther inland. Between
1830 ami 1840 from 1500 to 2000 oz. of gold were exported annually,
but shipments ceased soon afterwards, though small quantities of
gold-dust can still be obtained from native goldsmiths. The export
of hides received a severe check in 1892-1893 through the death of
nearly all the cattle, but after an interval of seven or eight years
the industry gradually revived. The value of hides exported in-
creased from 520 in 1902 to 9615 in 1907. The collection of rubber
was started about 1880, but the trade has not assumed large pro-
portions. In 1907 the value of the rubber exported was 4602.
The export of wax, valued at 37,000 in 1843, had dwindled in
1907 to 2325. The cultivation of the ground-nut, first exported
in 1830, assumed importance by 1837, and by 1850 had become the
chief industry of the colony. In 1907 the value of the nuts was
256,685, over M of the total exports (exclusive of specie). Nearly
the whole male population is engaged in the industry for eight months
of the year. Planted in June, after the early rains, the crop is
reaped in October or November and exported to Europe (f to
Marseilles) for the extraction of its oil, which is usually sola as olive
oil. A feature of the industry is the appearance at the beginning of
the planting season of thousands of men from a distance, " strange
farmers," as they are called, who are housed and fed and given
farms to cultivate. In return they have to give half the produce
to the landlords. As soon as he has sold his nuts, the " strange
farmer " goes off, often not returning for years.
Apart from the cultivation of the ground-nut, the agricultural
resources of the country are undeveloped. Large herds of cattle are
kept by the Fula, and in cattle rich natives usually invest their
wealth. Land can be hired for 2d. an acre per annum for twenty-
one years. All land lying vacant or unused, or to which the occupier
is unable to produce any title, is vested in the crown. A botanical
station was opened in 1894, and the cultivation of American and
Egyptian cotton was taken in hand in 1902. The experiment
proved discouraging. Great difficulty was experienced in getting
farmers to grow cotton for export, as unless carried on on highly
scientific lines its cultivation is not so profitable as that of theground-
nut. The principal imports, of which over } come from Great Britain
or British colonies, are cotton goods, kola-nuts (from Sierra Leone),
tobacco, rice, sugar and spirits. In the ten years 1898 to 1907 the
average annual value of the exports was 301,000, of the imports
316,000. There are no mines in the colony, nor any apparent
mineral wealth, except ridges of ironstone in the regions above
McCarthy's Island. Bathurst is in telegraphic communication with
Europe and the rest of Africa. There are no railways in the colony,
but it is traversed by well-made roads of a uniform width of 18 ft.
The Liverpool mail steamers call at the port every fortnight. A
government steamer runs regularly from Bathurst to McCarthy's
Island, and a smaller boat pfies on the upper river. The shipping
trade is chiefly British ; French and German tonnage coming, next.
Surrounded on all sides, save seawards, by French territory, the
colony largely depends, economically, upon France, to which
country most of the exports go. A considerable entrepot trade is
also done with the neighbouring French colonies. The extent of
French influence is indicated by the fact that the five-franc piece,
locally known as a dollar, is largely circulated throughout the pro-
tectorate, and is accepted as legal tender, although the currency in
the colony proper is the English coinage.
Admintstratton, Revenue, Sfc. The Gambia is administered by a
governor, assisted by an executive and a legislative council. On
the last-named body nominated unofficial members have seats.
The colony is self-supporting and has no public debt. The revenue,
which in 1906 for the first time exceeded 60,000, is mainly derived
from customs. A company of the West African Frontier Force is
maintained. Travelling commissioners visit the five districts into
which, for administrative purposes, the protectorate is divided, and
in which the native form of government prevails. From the native
law-courts appeal can be made to the supreme court at Bathurst.
There is also at Bathurst a Mahommedan court, established in 1906,
for the trial of cases involving the civil status of Moslems.
Primary schools are maintained by the various religious denomi-
nations, and receive grants from government. The Wesleyans have
GAMBIA
also a secondary and a technical school. There is a privately
supported school for Mahommedans at Bathurst. The Anglicans,
Wesleyans and Roman Catholics have numerous converts.
History. Of the early history of the Gambia district there is
scant mention. At what period the stone circles and pillars
(apparently of a " Druidical " character), whose ruins are found at
several places along the upper Gambia, were erected is not known.
Those at Lamin Koto, on the right bank of the river opposite
McCarthy's Island, are still in good preservation, and are an
object of veneration to the Mahommedans (see Geog. Journ.
vol. xii., 1898). The country appears to have formed part,
successively, of the states of Ghana, Melle and Songhoi. The
relations, political and commercial, of the natives were all with
the north and east; consequently no large town was founded on
the banks of the river, nor any trade carried on (before the
coming of the white man) by vessels sailing the ocean About
the nth century the district came under Mahommedan influence.
The Portuguese visited the Gambia in the isth century, and
in the beginning of the i6th century were trading in the lower
river. Embassies were sent from the Portuguese stations in-
land to Melle to open up trade with the interior, but about the
middle of the century this trade apparently mostly in gold and
slaves declined. At the end of the century the river was known
as the resort of banished men and fugitives from Portugal and
Spain. It was on the initiative of Portuguese living in England
that Queen Elizabeth, in 1588, granted a patent to "certain
merchants of Exeter and others of the west parts and of London
for a trade to the river of Senega and Gambra in Guinea." This
company was granted a monopoly of trade for ten years. Its
operations led to no permanent settlement in the Gambia. In
1618 James I. granted a charter to another company named
" The Company of Adventurers of London trading into Africa,"
and formed at the instigation of Sir Robert Rich, afterwards earl
of Warwick, for trade with the Gambia and the Gold Coast.
This company sought to open up trade with Timbuktu, then
believed to be a great mart for gold, which reached the lower
Gambia in considerable quantities. With this object George
Thompson (a merchant who had traded with Barbary) was sent
out in the " Catherine," and ascended the Gambia in his ship to
Kassan, a Portuguese trading town, thence continuing his journey
in small boats. In his absence the " Catherine " was seized and
the crew murdered by Portuguese and half-castes, and Thompson
himself was later on murdered by natives. Two years afterwards
Richard Jobson, another agent of the Company of Adventurers,
advanced beyond the falls of Barraconda; and he was followed,
about forty years later, by Vermuyden, a Dutch merchant, who
on his return to Europe asserted that he had reached a country
full of gold.
The Company of Adventurers had built a fort near the mouth
of the Gambia. This was superseded in 1664 by a fort built by
Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes on a small
island 20 m. from the mouth of the river and named Fort James,
in honour of the duke of York (James II.). This fort was built
expressly to defend the British trade against the Dutch, and from
that time the British remained in permanent occupation of one or
more ports on the river. In 1723 Captain Bartholomew Stibbs
was sent out by the Royal African Company, which had succeeded
the earlier companies, to verify Vermuyden's reports of gold.
He proceeded 60 m. above the falls, but the land of gold was not
found. The French now became rivals for the trade of the
Gambia, but the treaty of Versailles in 1783 assigned the trade in
the river to Britain, reserving, however, Albreda for French trade,
while it assigned the Senegal to France, with the reservation of
the right of the British to trade at Portendic for gum. This
arrangement remained in force till 1857, when an exchange of
possessions was effected and the lower Gambia became a purely
British river. In the period between.the signing of the treaty of
Versailles and 1885 the small territories which form the colony
proper were acquired by purchase or cession from native kings.
St Mary's Isle was acquired in 1806; McCarthy's Isle was bought
in 1823; the Ceded Mile was granted by the king of Barra in
1826; and British Kommbo between 1840 and 1855. During
this period the colony had gone through an economic crisis by
the abolition of the slave trade (1807), which had been since 1662
its chief financial support. The beginning of a return to pro-
sperity came in 1816 when some British traders, obliged to leave
Senegal on the restoration of that country to France after the
Napoleonic wars, founded a settlement on St Mary's Isle. From
that year the existing colony, as distinct from trading on the river,
dates. The Gambia witnessed many administrative changes.
When the slave trade was abolished, the settlement was placed
under the jurisdiction of the governor of Sierra Leone, and was
formally annexed to Sierra Leone on the dissolution of the Royal
African Company (1822). It so remained until 1843, when the
Gambia was made an independent colony, its first governor
being Henry Frowd Seagram. Afterwards (1866) the Gambia
became a portion of the officially styled " West African Settle-
ments." In 1888 it was again made a separate government,
administered as a crown colony. Between the years last
mentioned 1866-1888 the colony had suffered from the retro-
grade policy adopted by parliament in respect to the West
African Settlements (vide Report of the Select Committee of 1865).
In 1870 negotiations were opened between France and Great
Britain on the basis of a mutual exchange of territories in West
Africa. Suspended owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian
War the negotiations were resumed in 1876. " Definite proposals
were at that time formulated by which the Gambia was to be
exchanged for all posts by France between the Rio Pongas
(Pongo river, French Guinea) and the Gabun. This would have
been a comprehensive and intelligible arrangement, but so strong
a feeling in opposition to any cession of British territory was
manifested in parliament, and by various mercantile bodies,
that the government of the day was unable to press the scheme." *
Nothing was done, however, to secure for the Gambia a suitable
hinterland, and in 1877 the 4th earl of Carnarvon (then colonial
secretary) warned British traders that they proceeded beyond
McCarthy's Isle at their own risk. Meantime the French from
Senegal pushed their frontier close to the British settlements,
so that when the boundaries were settled by the agreement of
the loth of August 1889 with France, Great Britain was able to
secure only a ten-kilometre strip on either side of the river. This
document fixed the frontier of the British protectorate inland at
a radius of 10 m. from the centre of the town of Yarbatenda;
which town is situated at the limit of navigability of the Gambia
from the sea. By Art. 5 of the Anglo-French convention of the
8th of April 1904, Yarbatenda was ceded to France, with the
object of giving that country a port on the river accessible to
sea-going merchantmen.
Since 1871 the colony had been self-supporting, but on the
acquirement of the protectorate it was decided, in order to balance
increasing expenditure, to impose a " hut tax " on the natives.
This was done in 1895. The tax, which averages 43. per annum
for a family, met with no opposition.
In 1892 a slave-raiding chief, named Fodi Kabba, had to be
forcibly expelled from British territory. In 1894 another slave-
raider, Fodi Silah, gave much trouble to the protectorate. An
expedition under Captain E. H. (afterwards admiral) Gamble
succeeded in routing him, and Fodi Silah took refuge in French
territory, where he died. During the expedition Captain Gamble
was led into an ambush, and in this engagement lost 1 5 killed and
47 wounded. In 1900 trouble again arose through the agency of
Fodi Kabba, who had fixed his residence at Medina, in French
territory. Two travelling commissioners (Mr F. C. Sitwell and
Mr Silva) were murdered in June of that year, at a place called
Suankandi, and a punitive expedition was sent out under
Colonel H. E. Brake. Suankandi was captured and, the French
co-operating, Medina was also captured, Fodi Kabba being
killed on the 23rd of March 1901.
The people of the protectorate are in general peaceful and
contented, and slave trading is a thing of the past. Provision
was moreover made by an ordinance of 1906 for the extinction of
slavery itself throughout the protectorate, it being enacted that
1 Extract from a despatch of Lord Salisbury to the British
ambassador to France, dated 3Oth of March. 1892.
GAMBIER GAMBRINUS
43.9
henceforth mil children born of slaves were fn-i- from birth, and
that all slaves became free on the death of their master.
See the Annual Reports on the colony published by the colonial
office. London, which give the latest official information; C. P.
Lucas's Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vol. Hi., West
Africa (and ed., Oxford, 1900) (this book contain* valuable biblio-
graphical notes); and Tkt Gambia Colony and Protectorate, an
official handbook (with map and considerable historical information),
by F. B. Archer, treasurer of the colony (London, 1906). Early
accounts of the country will be found in vol. ii. of Thomas Astlcy s
New General Collection of Voyages and Travels (London, 1745-1747).
See also Major W. Gray and Surgeon Dochard, Travels in Western
Africa in 1818-1811. from the Kirer Gambia . . . to the River Niter
(London, 1829). The Hora has been the subject of a special study,
A. Ranpoo, La Flort utiUd*bas!indelaGambie(Bordeaux,l8f)5). Most
of the books mentioned under GOLD COAST also deal with theGambia.
GAMBIER. JAMBS OAMBIER, BARON (1756-1833), English
admiral, was born on the 131(1 of October 1756 at the Bahamas,
of which his father, John Gambier, was at that time lieutenant-
governor. He entered the navy in 1767 as a midshipman on
board the " Yarmouth," under the command of his uncle; and,
his family interest obtaining for him rapid promotion, he was
raised in 1778 to the rank of post-captain, and appointed to the
" Raleigh," a fine 32-gun frigate. At the peace of 1783 he was
placed on half-pay; but, on the outbreak of the war of the
French Revolution, he was appointed to the command of the
74-gun ship " Defence," under Lord Howe; and in her he had
an honourable share in the battle on the ist of June 1794. In
recognition of his services on this occasion, Captain Gambier
received the gold medal, and was made a colonel of marines;
the following year he was advanced to the rank of rear-admiral,
and appointed one of the lords of the admiralty. In this office he
continued for six years, till, in February 1801, he, a vice-admiral
of 1709, hoisted his flag on board the " Neptune," of 98 guns,
as third in command of the Channel Fleet under Admiral Corn-
wallis, where, however, he remained for but a year, when he was
appointed governor of Newfoundland and commander-in-rhief
of the ships on that station. In May 1804 he returned to the
admiralty, and with a short intermission in 1806, continued
there during the naval administration of Lord Melville, of his
uncle. Lord Barham, and of Lord Mulgrave. In November 1805
be was raised to the rank of admiral; and in the summer of 1807,
whilst still a lord of the admiralty, he was appointed to the
command of the fleet ordered to the Baltic, which, in concert
with the army under Lord Cathcart, reduced Copenhagen, and
enforced the surrender of the Danish navy, consisting of nineteen
ships of the line, besides frigates, sloops, gunboats, and naval
stores. This service was considered by the government as worthy
of special acknowledgment ; the naval and military commanders,
officers, seamen and soldiers received the thanks of both Houses
of Parliament , and Admiral Gambier was rewarded with a peerage.
In the spring of the following year he gave up his seat at the
admiralty on being 'appointed to the command of the Channel
Fleet; and in that capacity he witnessed the partial, and pre-
vented the total, destruction of the French fleet in Basque Roads,
on the 1 2th of April 1809. It is in 'connexion with this event,
which might have been as memorable in the history of the British
navy as it is in the life of Lord Dundonald (see DUNDONAI.D),
that Lord Gambier's name is now best known. A court-martial,
assembled by order of a friendly admiralty, and presided over
by a warm partisan, " most honourably acquitted " him on the
charge " that, on the 1 2th of April, the enemy's ships being then
on fire, and the signal having been made that they could be
destroyed, he did, for a considerable time, neglect or delay taking
effectual measures for destroying them "; but this decision was
in reality nothing more than a party statement of the fact that a
commander-in-chief, a supporter of the government, is not to be
condemned or broken for not being a person of brilliant genius or
dauntless resolution. No one now doubts that the French fleet
should have been reduced to ashes, and might have been, had
Lord Gambier bad the talents, the energy, or the experience of
many of his juniors. He continued to hold the command of the
Channel Fleet for the full period of three years, at the end of which
time in 1811 be was superseded. In 1814 he acted in a civil
capacity as chief commissioner for negotiating a treaty of peace
with the United States; for his exertions in which business he
was honoured with the Grand Cross of the Bath. In 1830 he was
raised to the high rank of admiral of the fleet, and he died on the
mtli of April 1833.
Lord Gambier was a man of earnest, almost morbid, religious
principle, and of undoubted courage; but the administration of
the admiralty has seldom given rise to such flagrant scandals as
during the time when he was a member of it; and through the
whole war the self-esteem of the navy suffered no such wound as
during Lord Gambier's command in the Bay of Biscay.
The so-called Memorials, Personal and Historical, of Admiral
Lord Gambier, by Lady Chattcrton (1861), has no historical value.
The life of Lord Gambier is to be read in Marshall's Royal Naval
Biography, in Knife's Naval Biography, in Lord Dundonafd's Auto-
biography of a Seaman, in the Minutes of the Courts-Martial and in
the general history of the period.
GAMBIER, a village of College township, Knox county, Ohio,
U.S.A., on the Kokosing river, 5 m. E. of Mount Vernon. Pop.
(1900) 751; (1910) S37- It is served by the Cleveland, Akron &
Columbus railway. The village is finely situated, and is the seat
of Kenyon College and its theological seminary, Bexley Hall
(Protestant Episcopal), and of Harcourt Place boarding school
for girls (1889), also Protestant Episcopal. The college was in-
corporated in 1824 as the " Theological Seminary of the Protes-
tant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio"; but in 1891
" Kenyon College," the name by which the institution has always
been known, became the official title. Its first exercises were held
at Worthington, Ohio, in the home of Philander Chase (1775-
1852), first Protestant Episcopal bishop in the North-west
Territory, by whose efforts the funds for its endowment had been
raised in England in 1823-1824, the chief donors being Lords
Kenyon and Gambier. The first permanent building, " Old
Kenyon " (still standing, and used as a dormitory), was erected
on Gambier Hill in 1827 in the midst of a forest. In 1907-1908
the theological seminary had 18 students and the collegiate
department 119.
Some account of the founding of the college may be found in Bishop
Chase's Reminiscences; an Autobiography, comprising a History of the
Principal Events in the A uthor's Life to 1847 (2 vols., New York, 1848).
GAMBOGE (from Camboja, a name of the district whence it is
obtained), a gum-resin procured from Garcinia Hanburii, a
dioecious tree with leathery, laurel-like leaves, small yellow
flowers, and usually square-shaped and four-seeded fruit, a
member of the natural order Guttiferae, and indigenous to
Cambodia and parts of Siam and of the south of Cochin China,
formerly comprised in Cambojan territory. The juice, which
when hardened constitutes gamboge, is contained in the bark of
the tree, chiefly in numerous ducts in its middle layer, and from
this it is procured by making incisions, bamboo joints being
placed to receive it as it exudes. Gamboge occurs in commerce
in cylindrical pieces, known as pipe or roll gamboge, and also,
usually of inferior quality, in cakes or amorphous masses. It is
of a dirty orange externally; is hard and brittle, breaks with a
conchoidal and reddish-yellow, glistening fracture, and affords a
brilliant yellow powder; is odourless, and has a taste at first
slight, but subsequently acrid; forms with water an emulsion;
and consists of from 20 to 25% of gum soluble in water, and from
?o to 75% of a resin. Its commonest adulterants are rice-flour
and pulverized bark.
Gamboge (Cambogia) is a drastic hydragogue cathartic, caus-
ing much griping and irritation of the intestine. A small
quantity is absorbed, adding a yellow ingredient to the urine
and acting as a mild diuretic. Its irritant action on the skin may
cause the formation of pustules. It is less active only than
croton oil and elaterium, and may be given in doses of half to two
grains, combined with some sedative such as hyoscyamus, in
apoplexy and in extreme cases of dropsy. Gamboge is used as a
pigment, and as a colouring matter for varnishes. It appears to
have been first brought into Europe by merchants from the East
at the close of the l6th century.
GAMBRINUS, a mythical Flemish king who is credited with the
first brewing of beer. His name is usually derived from that of
Jan Primus, i.e. Jan (John) I., the victorious duke of Brabant,
from 1261 to 1294, who was president of the Brussels gjld of
44
GAME GAME LAWS
brewers; his portrait with a foaming glass of ale in his hand had
the place of honpur in the gild-hall, and this led in time, it is
suggested, to the myth of the beer-king who is usually repre-
sented outside a barrel with a tankard in his hand.
GAME, a word which in its primary and widest significance
means any amusement or sport, often combined in the early
examples with " glee," " play," " joy " or " solace." It is a
common Teutonic word, in O. Eng. gamen, in O.H.G. gaman, but
only appears in modern usage outside English in Dan. gammen
and Swed. gamman. The ulterior derivation is obscure, but
philologists have identified it with the Goth, gaman, companion
or companionship; if this be so, it is compounded of the prefix
ga-, with, and the root seen in " man." Apart from its primary
and general meaning the word has two specific applications, first
to a contest played as a recreation or as an exhibition of skill, in
accordance with rules and regulations; and, secondly, to those
wild animals which are the objects of the chase, and their flesh as
used for food, distinguished as such from meat, fish and poultry,
and from the flesh of deer, to which the name " venison " is given.
For " game," from the legal aspect, and the laws relating to its
pursuit and capture see GAME LAWS. The athletic contests of the
ancient Greeks (d7tow$) and the public shows (ludi) of the arena
and amphitheatre of the ancient Romans are treated below
(GAMES, CLASSICAL); the various forms of modern games,
indoor and outdoor, whether of skill, strength or chance, are
dealt with under their specific titles. A special use ("gaming"
or "gambling") restricts the term to the playing of games for
money, or to betting and wagering on the results of events, as in
horse-racing, &c. -(see GAMING AND WAGERING). " Gamble,"
" gambler " and " gambling " appear very late in English. The
earliest quotations in the f{ew English Dictionary for the three
words are dated 1775, 1747 and 1784 respectively. They were
first regarded as cant or slang words, and implied a reproach,
either as referring to cheats or sharpers, or to those who played
recklessly for extravagant stakes. The form of the words is
obscure, but is supposed to represent a local variation gammle of
the M.E. gamenian. From this word must, of course, be dis-
tinguished " gambol," to sport, frisk, which, as the older forms
(gambald, gambaud) show, is from the Fr. gambade, leap, jump, of
a horse, It. gambado, gamba, leg (Mod. Fr. jambe).
GAME LAWS. This title in English law is applied to the
statutes which regulate the right to pursue and take or kill
certain kinds of wild animals (see above). The existence of
these statutes is due to the rules of the common law as to the
nature of property, and the interest of the Norman sovereigns
and of feudal superiors in the pleasures of sport or the chase.
The substantial basis of the law of property is physical possession
of things and the power to deal with them as we see fit. By the
common law wild animals are regarded as res nullius, and as not
being the subject of private property until reduced into possession
by being killed or captured. A bird in the hand is owned : a
bird in the bush is not. Even bees do not become property until
hived. " Though a swarm lights in my tree," says Bracton,
" I have no more property therein than I have in the birds which
make their nests thereon. " If reclaimed or confined they become
property. If they escape, the rights of the owner continue only
while he is in pursuit of the fugitive, i.e. no other person can in
the meantime establish a right of property against him by
capturing the animal. A swarm of bees " which fly out of my
hive are mine so long as I can keep them in sight and have
power to pursue them." But the right of recapture does not
entitle the owner to follow his animals on to the lands of another,
and the only case in which any right to follow wild animals on to
the lands of others is now expressly recognized is when deer or
hares are hunted with hounds or greyhounds. This recognition
merely excepts such pursuit from the law as to criminal game tres-
pass, and fox-hunters and those who course hares or hunt stags
are civilly liable for trespass if they pass over land without the
consent of the occupier (Paul v. Summerhayes, 1878, 4 Q.B.D. 9).
It is a maxim of the common law that things in which no one
can claim any property belong to the crown by its prerogative:
this rule has been applied to wild animals, and in particular to
deer and what is now called "*' game." The crown rights may
pass to a subject by grant or equivalent prescription. In the
course of time the exclusive right to take game, &c., on lands
came to be regarded as incidental to the ownership or occupation
of the lands. This is described as the right to game ratione soli.
In certain districts of England which are crown forests or chases
or legal parks, or subject to rights of free warren, the right to
take deer and game is not in the owner or occupier of the soil, but
is in the crown by prerogative, or ratione priviiegii in the grantee
of the rights of chase, park or free warren, which are anterior to
and superior to those of the owner or occupier of the lands over
which the privilege has been granted. In all cases where these
special rights do not exist, the right to take or kill wild animals is
treated as a profit incidental to the ownership or occupation of
the land on which they are found, and there is no public right to
take them on private land or even on a highway; nor is there any
method known to the law by which the public at large or an
undefined body of persons can lawfully acquire the right to take
wild animals in alieno solo.
In the nature of things the right to take wild animals is
valuable as to deer and the animals usually described as game,
and not as to those which are merely noxious as vermin, or simply
valueless, as small birds. Upon the rules of the common law
there has been grafted much legislation which up till the end of
the i8th century was framed for the preservation of deer and
game for the recreation and amusement of persons of fortune,
and to prevent persons of inferior rank from squandering in the
pursuit of game time which their station in life required to be
more profitably employed. These enactments included the
rigorous code known as the Laws of the Forest (see FOREST
LAWS), as well as what are usually called the Game Laws.
In England the older statutes relating to game were all repealed
early in the igth century. From the time of Richard II. (1389)
to 1831, no person might kill game unless qualified by estate or
social standing, a qualification raised from a 405. freehold in 1389
to an interest of 100 a year in freehold or 150 in long leaseholds
(1673). In 1831 this qualification by estate was abolished as to
England. But in Scotland the right to hunt is theoretically
reserved to persons who have in heritage that unknown quantity
a " plough-gate of land " (Scots Act 1621, c. 31); and in Ireland
qualifications by estate are made necessary for killing game and
keeping sporting dogs (Irish Act 1698, 8 Will. III. c. 8). In
England the game laws proper consist of the Night Poaching Acts
of 1828 and 1844, the Game Act of 1831, the Poaching Prevention
Act 1862, and the Ground Game Acts of 1880 and 1906. From
the fact that the right of landowners over wild animals on their
land does not amount to ownership it follows that they cannot
prosecute any one for stealing live wild animals: and that apart
from the game laws the only remedy against poachers is by civil
action for trespass. As between trespasser and landowner the
law is peculiar (Blades v. Higgs, 1865, n H.L.C. 621). If A
starts and kills a hare on B's land the dead hare belongs to B
(ratione soli) and not to A, though he has taken the hare by his own
efforts (per industriam). But if A hunts the hare from B's land
on to C's land and there kills it, the dead hare belongs to A and
not to B or C. It is not B's because it was not taken on his land,
and it is not C's because it was not started on his land. In other
words the right of each owner is limited to animals both started
and killed on his own land, and in the case of conflicting claims
to the animal taken (made ratione soli) the captor can make title
(per industriam) against both landowners. If he is a trespasser
he is liable to civil or criminal proceedings by both landowners,
but the game is his unless forfeited under a statute. Another
peculiar result of the law is that where trespassers (e.g. poachers)
kill and carry off game or rabbits as part of one continuous
transaction they are not guilty of theft, but only of game trespass
(R. v. Townley, 1871, L.R. i C.C.R. 315), but it is theft for a
trespasser to pick up and carry off a pheasant killed by the owner
of the land on his own land or even a pheasant killed by an
independent gang of poachers. The young of wild animals
belong (propter impotentiam) to the owner of the land until they
are able to fly or run away. This right does not extend to the
GAME LAWS
441
of wild birds. But the owner can reduce the eggs into
possession by taking them up and setting them under hens or in
enclosures. And if this is done persons who take them are
thieves and not merely poachers, A game farm, like a decoy for
wild water-fowl, is treated as a trade or business; but a game
preserve in which full-grown animals fly or run wild is subject to
the ordinary incidents of the law as to animals Jerae naturae.
The classification of wild animals for purposes of sport in England
is as follows:
l. Beasts of forest are hart and hind (red deer), boar, wolf and all
. Beasts at chase and park are buck and doe (fallow deer), fox,
marten and roe, or all beasts of venery and hunting.
3. Beasts of (free) warren are roe, hare, rabbit, partridge, pheasant,
woodcock, quail, rail and heron.
4. Game, as defined by the Night Poaching Act of 1828 and the
Game Act of 1831, is pheasant, partridge, black game, red grouse,
bustard and hare. In France game (gibier) includes everything
eatable that runs or flies.
. Wild fowl not in any of the previous lists which are nevertheless
prized for sport, e.g. duck, snipe, plovers, &c.
6. Wild birds not falling within class 4 are more or less protected
against destruction by the Wild Birds 'Protection Acts, which were,
however, passed with quite other objects than the game laws.
As regards class i no subject without special authority of the
crown may kill within a forest or its purlieus or on adjacent high-
ways, rivers or enclosures. The right to the animals in a forest does
not depend on ownership of the land but on the royal prerogative
as to the animals, i.*. it exists not ratione soli but ratione primlegii :
and this right is not in any way altered by the Game Act 1831.
A chase is a forest in the hands of a subject and a legal park (which
is an enclosed chase) is created by crown grant or by prescription
founded on a lost grant. The rights of the grantee are in substance
the same as those of the crown in a forest, and do not depend on
ownership of the soil. In the case of a free warren the grantee
usually but not necessarily owns some or all of the soil over which
the right of warren runs. The right of free warren depends on
n grant or prescription founded on lost grant, and involves a
is protected under the Larceny Act 1861, s. 17, as well as by
e laws. In manors, of which none have been created since
right of property over beasts and fowl of warren on all lands within
the franchise. As will appear from the list above, some game birds
are not fowl of warren, e.g. black game and red grouse (Duke of
Devonshire v. Lodge, 1827, 7 B. & C. 39). Free warren is quite
different from ordinary warrens, in which hares or rabbits are bred
by the owner of the soil for sport or profit. Ground game in such
warrens is
the game
1290, the lord by his franchise had the sporting rights over the
manor, but at the present time this right is restricted to the commons
and wastes of the manor, the freehold whereof is in him, and does not
extend to enclosed freeholds nor as a general rule to enclosed copy-
holds, unless at the time of enclosure the sporting rights were
reserved to him by the Enclosure Act or award (Sowerby v. Smith,
1873, L.R. 8 C.P. 514). In other words his rights exist ratione
tali and not ratione pnvilegii. The Game Act 1831 gives lords of
manors and privileged persons certain rights as to appointing
gamcfcfepcrs with special powers to protect game within the district
over which their rights extend (ss. 13, 14, 15, 16). The game laws
in no way cut down the special privileges as to forest, park, chase or
free warren (1831, s. 9), and confirm the sporting right of lords of
manonon the wastes of the manor (1831, s. 10). As to all lands not
affected by these rights, the right to kill or take game on the land is
presumably in the occupier. On letting land the owner may, subject
to the qualifications hereinafter stated, reserve to himself the right
to kill or take " game " or rabbits or other wild animals concurrently
with or in exclusion of the tenant. Where the exclusive right is in
the landlord the tenant is not only liable \o forfeiture or damages for
breaches of covenants in the lease, but is also liable to penalties on
summary conviction if without the lessor's authority he pursues,
kills or takes any " game " upon the land or gives permission to
others to do so (1831, s. 12). In effect he is
made criminally liable for game trespasson lands
in his own occupation, so far as relates to game,
but is not so liable if he takes rabbits, snipe,
woodcock, quails or rails.
The net effect of the common law and the
: laws is to give the occupier of lands and the
:r of sporting rights over them the following
remedies against persons who infringe their right
to kill or take wild animals on the land. A
stranger who enters on the land of another to
take any wild animals is liable to the occupier for
trespass on the land and for the animals started
aad killed on the land by the trespasser. He is
also criminally liable for game trespass if he has
entered on the land to search for or in pursuit of
exceed 408., unless five or more persons go together, in which case
the maximum penalty is 5. If a single offender refuses his name
or address or gives a false address to the occupier or to the owner
of the sporting rights or his representatives, or refuses to leave the
land, he may oe arrested by them, and is liable to a penalty not
exceeding 5, and if five or more concerned together in game trespass
have a gun with them and use violence, intimidation or menace, to
prevent the approach of persons entitled to take their names or
order them off trie land, they incur a further penalty up to 5.
If the trespass is in search or pursuit of game or nil>hit\ in the night-
time, the maximum penalty on a first conviction is imprisonment with
hard labour for not over three months; on a second, imprisonment,
&c., for not over six months, and the offender may be put under
sureties not to offend again for a year after a first conviction or for
two years after a second conviction. For a first or second offence
the conviction is summary, subject to appeal to quarter sessions,
but for a third offence the offender is tried on indictment and is
liable to penal servitude (3-7 years) or imprisonment with hard
labour (2 years). The offenders may be arrested by the owner or
occupier of the land or their servants, and if the offenders assault or
offer violence by firearms or offensive weapons they are liable to be
indicted and on conviction punished to the same extent as in the last
offence. In 1844 the above penalties were extended to persons found
by night on highways in search or pursuit of game. If three or more
trespass together on land by night to take or destroy game or rabbits,
and any of them is armed with firearms, bludgeon or other offensive
weapon, they are liable to be indicted and on conviction sentenced
to penal servitude (3-14 years) or imprisonment with hard labour
(2 years). By " day " time is meant from the beginning of the first
hour before sunrise to the end of the first hour after sunset, and by
" night " from the end of the first hour after sunset to the beginning
of the first hour before sunrise (act of 1828, s. 12; act of 1831, s. 34).
The time is reckoned by local and not by Greenwich time.
The penalties for night poaching are severe, but encounters
between the owners of sporting rights and armed gangs of poachers
have often been attended by homicide. It is to be observed that it is
illegal and severely punishable to set traps or loaded spring guns
for poachers (Offences against the Person Act 1861, s. 31), whereby
any grievous bodily harm is intended or may be caused even to a
trespasser, so that the incursions of poachers can be prevented only
by personal attendance on the scene of their activities; and it is to
be observed also that the provisions of the Game Laws above stated
are, so far as concerns private land, left to be enforced by private
enterprise without the interference of the police, with the result
that in some districts there are scenes of private nocturnal war.
Even in the Night Poaching Act 1844, which applies to highways,
the arrest of offenders is made by owners, occupiers or their game-
keepers. The police were not given any direct authority as to
poachers until the Poaching Prevention Act 1862, under which a
constable is empowered " on any highway, street or public place,
to search any person whom he may have good cause to suspect of
coming from any land where he shall have been unlawfully in search
or pursuit of ' game,' or any persons aiding or abetting such person,
and having in his possession any game unlawfully obtained, or any
gun, part of gun, or nets or engines used for the killing or taking
game; and also to stop and search any cart or other conveyance in
or upon which such constable or peace officer shall have good cause
to suspect that any such game, or any such article or thing, is being
carried by such person." If any such thing be found the constable
is to detain it, and apply fora summons against the offender, summon-
ing him to appear before a petty sessional court, on conviction
before which tie may be fined not more than 5, and forfeits the
game, guns, &c., found in his possession. In this act " game "
includes woodcock, snipe and rabbits, and the eggs of game birds
other than bustards; and the act applies to poaching either by night
or by day. In all cases of summary conviction for poaching an appeal
lies to quarter sessions. In all cases of poaching the game, &c.,
taken may be forfeited by the court which tries the poacher.
Close Time. On certain days, and within periods known as
" close time," it is illegal to kill deer or game. The present close
times are as follows :
' game " or woodcock, snipe, quail, landrails or
abbits.
England.
Ireland.
Scotland.
Hare ....
None
April 2 1 to Aug. n 1
None
Red deer (male) .
None
Jan. i to June 9
None
Fallow deer .
None
Sept. 29 to June 10
None
Roe deer
None
None
None
Pheasant
Feb. I to Sept. 30
Feb. i to Sept. 30
Feb. i to Sept. 30
(1845)
Partridge
Feb. I to Aug. 31
Feb. i to Aug. 31
Feb. I to Aug. 31
(1899)
Black game . . .
Dec. 10 to Aug. 20*
Dec. 10 to Aug. 20
Dec. 10 to Aug. 20
Red grouse . . .
Dec. 10 to Aug. 12
Dec. 10 to Aug. 12
Dec. 10 to Aug. 12
Ptarmigan
None
Dec. 10 to Aug. 20
Dec. 10 to Aug. 12
Bustard (wild turkey) .
March I to Sept. I
Jan. 10 to Sept. I
None
rabbits. If the trespass is in the daytime (whether on lands of the
subject or in royal forests, &c.), the penalty on conviction may not
1 Unless varied by order of lord-lieutenant.
' Except in Devon, Somerset and New Forest, where to Sect. i.
442
GAME LAWS
In England and Ireland the winged game above named and hares
may not be killed on Sundays or Christmas Day. It is illegal to
sell or expose for sale hares or leverets in March, April, May, June
and July. It is illegal throughout the United Kingdom to buy or
sell winged game birds after ten days from the beginning of the
close season as fixed by the English law (1831, s. 4; 1860, s. 13).
This prohibition applies to the sale of live game, British or foreign,
and to the sale of British dead game. It is illegal to lay poison for
game or rabbits except in rabbit holes, and it is illegal to kill game by
firearms at night. Wild birds not within the list above given but of
interest for sport are protected by close times fixed under the Wild
Birds Protection Acts, which may vary in each county of each
kingdom.
Licences. Besides the restrictions on the right to take or kill game
which arise out of the law as to ownership or occupation of the lands
on which it is found, there are further restrictions imposed by the
laws of excise. From the time of Richard II. (1389) until 1831 the
right of persons other than gamekeepers properly deputed by the
lord of a manor to take game was made to depend on the social
rank of the person, or on the amount of his interest in land, which
ranged from a 403. freehold (in 1389) to 100 a year (1671). These
restrictions were abolished in 1831, and the right to kill game was
made conditional on the possession of a game certificate, now called
a game licence in Great Britain (act of 1831, ss. 6, 23). By s. 4 of the
Game Licences Act 1860 " any person, before he shall in Great Britain
take, kill or pursue, or aid or assist in any manner in the taking,
killing or pursuing, by any means whatever, or use any dog, gun,
net or other engine for the purpose of taking, killing or pursuing any
game, or any woodcock, snipe, quail, landrail, or any coney, or any
deer, shall take out a proper licence to kill game under this act"
subject to a penalty of 20. There are certain exceptions and
exemptions as to royal personages, royal gamekeepers, and with
reference to taking woodcock or snipe by nets or springes, by coursing
or hunting hares or deer, or killing deer, rabbits or hares (Hares
Acts 1848, Game Licences Act 1860) in certain enclosed lands by
the owners or occupiers. A licence is not required for beaters and
assistants who go out with holders of a game licence. The licence
is granted by the Inland Revenue Department. The issue is regu-
lated by. the Game Licences Act 1860 as amended by the Customs
and Inland Revenue Act 1883. The licences now in use are of four
kinds :
Those taken out after 3ist July
To expire on the next 3 1st July 300
To expire on the next 3 1st October . . . .200
Those taken out after 1st November
To expire on the next 3ist July 200
Those taken out for any continuous period of four-
teen days specified in the licence I o o
In the case of gamekeepers in Great Britain for whom the employer
pays the duty on male servants, the annual licence fee is 2,
but the licence extends only to lands on which the employer has a
right to kill game. A licence granted to a person in his own right
and not as gamekeeper or servant is effective throughout the United
Kingdom. The game licence does not authorize trespass on the lands
of others in search of game nor the shooting of game, &c., at night,
and is forfeited on a conviction of game trespass (1831, s. 30; 1860,
s. 1 1 ). Persons who have game licences need not have a gun licence,
but the possession of a gun licence does not qualify the holder to kill
game or even rabbits.
The sale of game when killed is also subject to statutory regulation.
Gamekeepers may not sell game except under the authority of their
employer (1831, ss. 17, 25). Persons who hold a full game licence
may sell game, but only to persons who hold a licence to deal in game.
These licences are annual (expiring on the 1st of July), andare granted
in London by justices of the peace, and in the rest of England by
the council of the borough or urban or rural district in which the
. dealer seeks to carry on ousiness (1831, s. 18; 1893, c. 73, s. 27),
and a notice of the existence of the licence must be posted on the
licensed premises. A licence must be taken out for each shop.
The following persons are disqualified for holding the licence : inn-
keepers, persons holding licences to sell intoxicants, owners, guards
or drivers of mail-carts, stagecoaches or public conveyances, carriers
and higglers (1831, s. 18). This enactment interferes with the grant
of game licences to large stores which also have licences to sell beer.
The licensed dealer may buy British game only from persons who
are lawfully entitled to sell game. Conviction of an offence under the
Game Act 1831 avoids the licence (s. 22). The local licence must
also be supplemented by an excise licence for which a fee of 2 is
charged. Licensed dealers in game are prohibited from selling^ game
killed in the United Kingdom from the tenth day after the beginning
of close time to the end of that period. The provisions above stated
under the act of 1831 applied only to England, but were in 1860
extended to the rest of the United Kingdom, and were in 1893
applied to dealers in game imported from abroad. The main effect
of the system of licences is to prevent the disposal of game by
poachers rather than to benefit the revenue.
Deer. Deer are not included within the definition of game in
any of the English game laws. Deer-stealing was very seriously
punished by the oldlaw, and under an act of 9 George I. c. 22,
known as the Waltham Black Act, passed because of the depredations
of disguised deer-stealers in Epping Forest, it was under certain
circumstances made a capital offence. At present offences with
reference to deer are included in the Larceny Act 1861. It is a felony
to hunt or kill deer in enclosures in forests, chases or purlieus, or in
enclosed land where deer is usually kept, or after a previous con-
viction to hunt or kill deer in the open parts of a forest, &c., and
certain minor provisions are made as to arrest by foresters, forfeiture
of venison unlawfully possessed and for unlawfully setting traps for
deer. These enactments do not prevent a man from killing on his
own land deer which have strayed there (Threlkeld v. Smith, 1901,
2 K.B. 531). In Scotland the unlawful killing of deer is punished as
theft.
Eggs. The owner or occupier of land has no property in the eggs
of wild birds found on his lands unless he takes them up. But under
s. 24 of the Game Act 1831 a penalty of 53. per egg is incurred by
persons who unlawfully (i.e. without being, or having licence from,
the person entitled to kill the game) and wilfully take from the nest
or destroy in the nest the eggs of any game bird, or of a swan, wild
duck, teal or widgeon. Similar provisions exist in Ireland under an
act of 1698, and by the Poaching Prevention Act 1862 (United
Kingdom) power is given to constables to search persons suspected
of poaching and to take from them the eggs of pheasants, partridges,
grouse or black game. And the Wild Birds Protection Acts deal with
the eggs of all wild birds except game and swans.
Damage to Crops by Game. Where an occupier of lands has not
the right to kill game or rabbits he runs the risk of suffering damage
by the depredations of the protected animals, which he may not kill
without incurring a liability to summary conviction or for breach
of the conditions on which he holds the land. At common law the
owner of land who has reserved to himself the sporting rights,
and his sporting tenants, must use the reserved rights reasonably.
They are liable for any damage wilfully or unnecessarily done to
the crops, &c., of the occupier, such as trampling down standing
crops or breaking hedges or fences. They are not directly liable to
the occupier for damage done to the crops by game bred on the land
or frequenting it in the ordinary course of nature ; but are not entitled
to turn down game or rabbits on the land. And if game or rabbits
are for the purposes of sport imported or artificially raised on land,
the person who breeds or brings them there is liable for the damage
done to the crops of adjoining owners or occupiers (Farrer v. Nelson,
1885, 15 Q.B.D. 258; Birkbeck v. Paget, 31 Beav. 403; Hilton v.
Green, 1862, 2 F. & F. 821).
Recent legislation has greatly increased the rights of the occupiers
of land as against the owners of sporting rights over it. As regards
hares and rabbits the occupier's rights are regulated by the Ground
Game Act 1880 (which is expressed to be made " in the interests of
good husbandry and for the better security of capital and labour
invested in the cultivation of the soil "). By that act the occupier
of land as incident to and inseparable from his occupation has the
right to kill and take hares and rabbits on the land. The right is
indefeasible and cannot be divested by contract with the owner or
landlord or even by letting the occupier's sporting rights to another.
But where apart from the act the right to kill game on the land is
vested in a person other than the occupier, such person has a right
concurrent with the statutory right of the occupier to take hares
and rabbits on the land. The act does not extend to common lands
nor to lands over which rights of grazing or pasturage for not more
than nine months in the year exist. Consequently over such lands
exclusive rights of killing ground game still continue, and the law
appears not to apply in cases where a special right of killing or taking
ground game vested before the 7th of September 1880 in any person
(other than the landlord) by statute, charter or franchise (s. 5).
The mode of exercise of the occupier's right is subject to certain
limitations. The ground game is only to be taken by him or by
persons whom he has duly authorized in writing, who must be
members of his family or his servants or bona fide employed by him
for reward to take ground game. The written authority must be
produced on demand to persons having concurrent rights to take and
kill the ground game (s. I (l) (c)). Firearms may not be used by
night, nor may poison be used, nor may spring traps be set except
in rabbit holes (s. 6) ; nor may ground game be killed on days or
seasons or by methods prohibited by statute in 1880 (s. 10).
In the case of moorland and unenclosed lands (which are not
arable and do not consist of small detached portions of less than 25
acres) the occupier may between the 1st of September and the 3ist
of March kill and take ground game; but between the 1st of
September and the loth of December firearms may not be used
(1880, s. i (3) ; 1906, s. 2). In the case of such lands the occupiers
and the owners of the sporting rights may between the ist of Sep-
tember and the loth of December make and enforce for their joint
benefit agreements for taking the ground game. The Agricultural
Holdings Act 1906 (operating from 1909) deals, inter alia, with damage
to crops by deer and winged game, but does not apply to damage
by hares or rabbits. The tenant of agricultural land is entitled to
compensation for damage to his crops exceeding is. per acre over the
area affected if caused by game, " the right to kill or take which is
vested neither in him nor in any one claiming under him other than
the landlord and which the tenant has not permission in writing to
kill " (s. 2). The jight of the tenant is indefeasible and cannot be
GAMES, CLASSICAL
contracted away. Disputes as to amount are to be settled by
arbitration ; but claims to be effectual must be made as to growing
crops before reaping, raising or feeding off, and as to cut crops before
carrying. In the case of contracts of tenancy created before the 1st
of January 1909, allowances are to be made if by their terms com-
pensation for damage by game is stipulated for, or an allowance of
an agreed amount for damage by game was expressly made in fixing
the rent. The compensation is payable by the landlord subject to
his right to be indemnified in owes where the sporting rights are not
vested in him.
Sperling Rigkts. Sporting rights (i.e. rights of fowling or of
shooting, or of taking or killing game or rabbits, or of fishing), when
severed from the occupation of land, are subject toincomeor property
tax, and to assessment for the purpose of local rates (Rating Act
1874) ; and in valuing land whether for rates or taxes the value of the
sporting rights is now an important and often the chief item of value
in beneficial occupation of the land. Where the sporting rights are
the landlord's, the rate thereon is paid in the first instance by the
tenant and deducted from his rent. Where the sporting right is
reserved and let, the rating authority may rate cither the landlord
or the sporting tenant as occupier of the right. The Ground Game
Acts have not affected the liability to assessment of concurrent rights
of kilting hares and rabbits reserved by a landlord, or of a concurrent
rigju granted by the occupier (Ryde (2nd ed.), 385-387). The owner-
ship of sporting rights severed from the ownership or occupation of
the land over which they are exercisable is not an interest in land
giving the electoral franchise or a claim for compensation if the land
is taken under the Lands Clauses Consolidation Acts.
Scotland. By the law of Scotland all men have right and privilege
of game on their own estates as a real right incident thereto, which
does not pass by an agricultural lease except by express words, or
in the case of ground game by the act of 1880. The landlord is
liable to the tenant for damage done to the surface of the lands in
exercise of his right to the game and also for extraordinary damage
by over-preserving or over-stocking. Under an act of 1877 he was
liable for excessive damage done by rabbits or game reserved to or
retained under a lease granted after the 1st of January 1878, or
reserved by presumption of common law; this act from 1909 on-
wards is superseded by the provisions of the Agricultural Holdings
Act 1906. Night poaching is punished by the same act as in England,
and day poaching by an act of 1832 and the act of 1882. Until 1887
poaching by night under arms was a capital offence. The definition
of game in Scotland for purposes of night poaching is the same as
in England. The provisions of the act of 1832 as to game trespass
by day apply also to deer, roe, rabbits, woodcock, snipe, rails and
wild duck; but in other respects closely resemble those of the
English act of 1831.
Offences against the game laws are not triable by justices of the
peace, but only in the sheriff court. The close time for game birds in
Scotland is the same as in England, so far as dealing in them is
concerned, but differs slightly as to killing. Black game rnay not be
killed bet een the loth of December and the 25th of August, nor
ptarmigan between the loth of December and the 2oth of August.
There is no close time for red, fallow or roe deer, or rabbits. By an
old Scots act of 1621 (omitted from the recent wholesale repeal of
such acts) no one may lawfully kill game in Scotland who does not
own a plough-gate of land except on the land of a person so qualified.
Ireland. The common law as to game is the same for Ireland as
for England. The game laws of Ireland are contained partly in acts
passed prior to the union (1698, 1707, 1787 and 1797), partly in acts
limited to Ireland, and as to the rest in acts common to the whole
United Kingdom.
Under the act of 1698 no one may kill game in Ireland who has not
a freehold worth 40 a year or 1000 net personality, and elaborate
> are made by that and later acts against the keeping of
i by persons not qualified by estate to kill game. British
i and soldiers in Ireland appear to have been much addicted
to poaching, and their activities were restrained by enactments of
1608 and 1707.
Night poaching in Ireland is dealt with by an act of 1826. Trespass
on lands in pursuit of game to which the landlord or lessor has by
reservation exclusive ngjit is summarily punishable under an act
of 1864, which includes in the definition of game, woodcock, snipe,
quails, landrails, wild duck, widgeon and teal. Under the Land Act
1881 the landlord of a statutory holding may at the commencement
of the term subject to the Ground Game Acts retain and exercise the
CKlusiye right of taking " game " as above defined.
A cane licence is not required for taking or killing rabbits. But
in other respects the law as to game licences, dog licences and licences
to deal in game is the same as in Great Britain.
Britiik Pojjfjsions Abroad. The English game laws have not
been carried to any colony as part of the personal law of the colonists,
nor have they been extended to them by imperial or colonial legisla-
tion. But the legislatures of many colonies have passed acts to
preserve or protect native or imported wild animals, and in some of
these statutes the protected animals are described as game. These
statutes are free from feudal prepossessions as to sporting
and are framed rather on the lines of the Wild Birds Protection Acts
rights,
than on the English game laws, but in
sporting leases oy the crown are
The acts
e.g. Quebec
since 189
(irect.
443
are indicated in the annual summary of colonial legislation furnished
in the Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation.
See also Oke's Game Laws, 4th ed., by Willis Bund (1897) ; Warry,
Game Laws of England (1897); Marchant and Watkins, Wild Birds
Protection Act (1897). (W. F. C.)
GAMES, CLASSICAL, i. Publk Games. The public games of
Greece (eryiiw) and Rome (l.uili) consisted in athletic contests
and spectacles of various kinds, generally connected with and
forming part of a religious observance. Probably no institution
exercised a greater influence in moulding the national character,
and producing that unique type of physical and intellectual
beauty which we see reflected in Greek art and literature, than the
public contests of Greece (see ATHLETE; ATHLETIC SPORTS).
For them each youth was trained in the gymnasium, they were
the central mart whither poet, artist and merchant each brought
his wares, and the common ground of union for every member of
the Hellenic race. It is to Greece, then, that we must look for the
earliest form and the fullest development of ancient games. The
shows of the Roman circus and amphitheatre were at best a
shadow, and in the later days of the empire a travesty, of the
Olympia and Pythia, and require only a cursory notice.
The earliest games of which we have any record are those at
the funeral of Patroclus, which form the subject of the twenty-
third Iliad. They are noteworthy as showing that
Greek games were in their origin clearly connected with
religion; either, as here, a part of the funeral rites, or else
instituted in honour of a god, or as a thank-offering for a victory
gained or a calamity averted, or in expiation of some crime.
Each of the great contests was held near some shrine or sacred
place and is associated with some deity or mythical hero. It was
not before the 4th century that this honour was paid to a living
man (see Plutarch, Lysander, 18). The games of the Iliad and
those of the Odyssey at the court of Alcinous are also of interest
as showing at what an early date the distinctive forms of Greek
athletics boxing, wrestling, putting the weight, the foot and
the chariot race were determined.
The Olympian games were the earliest, and to the last they
remained the most celebrated of the four national festivals.
Olympia was a naturally enclosed spot in the rich plain of Elis,
bounded on the N. by the rocky heights of Cronion, and on the S.
and W. by the Alpheus and its tributary the Cladeus. There was
the grove of Altis, in which were ranged the statues of the
victorious athletes, and the temple of Olympian Zeus with the
chryselephantine statue of the god, the masterpiece of Pheidias.
There Heracles (so ran the legend which Pindar has introduced
in one of his finest odes), when he had conquered Elis and slain its
king Augcas, consecrated a temenos and instituted games in
honour of his victory. A later legend, which probably embodies
historical fact, tells how, when Greece was torn by dissensions and
ravaged by pestilence, Iphitus inquired of the oracle for help,
and was bidden restore the games which had fallen into
desuetude; and there was in the time of Pausanias, suspended
in the temple of Hera at Olympia, a bronze disk whereon were
inscribed, with the regulations of the games, the names of
Iphitus and Lycurgus. From this we may safely infer that the
games were a primitive observance of the Eleians and Pisans, and
first acquired their celebrity from the powerful concurrence of
Sparta. The sacred armistice, or cessation of all hostilities,
during the month in which the games were held, is also credited
to Iphitus.
In 776 B.C. the Eleians engraved the name of their countryman
Coroebus as victor in the foot race, and thenceforward we have
an almost unbroken list of the victors in each succeeding Olympiad
or fourth recurrent year. For the next fifty years no names
occur but those of Eleians or their next neighbours. After 720
B. we find Corinthians and Megareans, and later still Athenians
and extra- Pcloponnesians. Thus what at first was nothing more
than a village feast became a bond of union for all the branches of
the Doric race, and grew in time to be the high festival to which
every Greek gathered, from the mountain fastnesses of Thessaly
to the remotest colonies of Cyrene and Marseilles. It survived
even the extinction of Greek liberty, and had nearly completed
twelve centuries when it was abolished by the decree of the
444
GAMES, CLASSICAL
Christian emperor Theodosius, in the tenth year of his reign.
The last Olympian victor was a Romanized Armenian named
Varastad.
Let us attempt to call up the scene which Olympia in its palmy
days must have presented as the great festival approached.
Heralds had proclaimed throughout Greece the " truce of God."
So religiously was this observed that the Spartans chose to risk
the liberties of Greece, when the Persians were at the gates of
Pylae, rather than march during the holy days. Those white
tents which stand out against the sombre grey of the olive groves
belong to the Hellanodicae, or ten judges of the games, chosen
one for each tribe of the Eleians. They have been here already
ten months, receiving instruction in their duties. All, too, or
most of the athletes must have arrived, for they have been
undergoing the indispensable training in the gymnasium of the
Altis. But along the " holy road " from the town of Elis there
are crowding a motley throng. Conspicuous in the long train of
pleasure-seekers are the detapoi or sacred deputies, clad in their
robes of office, and bearing with them in their carriages of state
offerings to the shrine of the god. Nor is there any lack of
distinguished visitors. It may be Alcibiades, who, they say, has
entered no less than seven chariots; or Gorgias, who has written
a famous ein5eiis for the occasion; or the sophist Hippias,
who boasts that all he bears about him, from the sandals on his
feet to the dithyrambs he carries in his hand, are his own manu-
facture; or Action, who will exhibit his picture of the Marriage
of Alexander and Roxana the picture which gained him no less
a prize than the daughter of the Hellanodices Praxonides; or, in
an earlier age, the poet-laureate of the Olympians, Pindar him-
self. One feature of the medieval tournament and the modern
racecourse is wanting. Women might indeed compete and win
prizes as the owners of teams, but all except the priestesses of
Demeter were forbidden, matrons on pain of death, to enter the
enclosure.
At daybreak the athletes presented themselves in the Bouleu-
terium, where the presidents were sitting, and proved by witnesses
that they were of pure Hellenic descent, and had no stain,
religious or civil, on their character. Laying their hands on the
bleeding victim, they swore that they had duly qualified them-
selves by ten months' continuous training in the gymnasium, and
that they would use no fraud or guile in the sacred contests.
Thence they proceeded to the stadium, where they stripped to
the skin and anointed themselves. A herald proclaimed, " Let
the runners put their feet to the line," and called on the spectators
to challenge any disqualified by blood or character. If no
objection was made, they were started by the note of the
trumpet, running in heats of four, ranged in the places assigned
them by lot. The presidents seated near the goal adjudged the
victory. The foot-race was only one of twenty-four Olympian
contests which Pausanias enumerates, though we must not
suppose that these were all exhibited at any one festival. Till the
77th Olympiad all was concluded in one day, but afterwards the
feast was extended to five.
~The order of the games is for the most part a matter of conjecture,
but, roughly speaking, the historical order of their institution was
followed. We will now describe in this order the most important.
(i) The Foot-race. For the first 13 Olympiads the 8p6^ioj, or
single lap of the stadium, which was 200 yds. long, was the only
contest. The Slav\os, in which the course was traversed twice,
was added in the I4th Olympiad, and in the isth the WXixos, or
long race, of 7, 12 or, according to the highest computation, 24 laps,
about 2| m. in length. We are told that the Spartan Ladas, after
winning this race, dropped down dead at the goal. There was also,
for a short time, a race in heavy armour, which Plato highly com-
mends as a preparation for active service. (2) Wrestling was intro-
duced in the i8th Olympiad. The importance attached to this
exercise is shown by the very word palaestra, and Plutarch calls it
the most artistic and cunning of athletic games. The practice
differed little from that of modern times, save that the wrestler's
limbs were anointed with oil and sprinkled with sand. The third
throw, which decided the victory, passed into a proverb, and strug-
gling on the ground, such as we see in the famous statue at Florence,
was not allowed, at least at the Olympia. (3) In the same year was
introduced theirki>Toff\ov (pentathlon), a combination of the five games
enumerated in the well-known pentameter ascribed to Simonides:
5Xya, iroSuKtlriv, diaKov, ixovra,
Only the first of these calls for any comment. The only leap practised
seems to have been the long jump. The leapers increased their
momentum by means of dXTijpes or dumb-bells, which they swung
in the act of leaping and dropped as they " took off." The take-off
may have been slightly raised, and some commentators with very
little warrant have stated that spring-boards were used. The record
jump with which Phayllus of Croton is credited, 55 ft., is incredible
with or without a spring-board. It is disputed whether a victory in
all five contests, or in three at least, was required to win the irivTaB\ov.
(4) The rules for boxing were not unlike those of the modern ring
(see PUGILISM), and the chief difference was in the use of the caeslus.
This in Greek times consisted of leather thongs bound round the
boxer's fists and wrists ; and the weighting with lead or iron or metal
studs, which made the caestus more like a " knuckle-duster " than
a boxing-glove, was a later Roman development. The death of an
antagonist, unless proved to be accidental, not only disqualified for a
prize but was severely punished. The use of ear-guards and the comic
allusions to broken ears, not noses, suggest that the Greek boxer
did not hit out straight from the shoulder, but fought windmill
fashion, like the modern rustic. In the pancratium, a combination of
wrestling and boxing, the use of the caestus, and even of the clenched
fist, was disallowed. (5) The chariot-race had its origin in the 23rd
Olympiad. Of the hippodrome, or racecourse, no traces remain,
but from the description of Pausanias we may infer that the dimen-
sions were approximately 1600 ft. by 400. Down the centre there
ran a bank of earth, and at each end of this bank was a turning-post
round which the chariots had to pass. " To shun the goal with rapid
wheels " required both nerve and skill, and the charioteer played a
more important part in the race than even the modern jockey.
Pausanias tells us that horses would shy as they passed the fatal spots.
The places of the chariots were determined by lot, and there were
elaborate arrangements for giving all a fair start. The number of
chariots that might appear on the course at once is uncertain.
Pindar (Pyth. v. 46) praises Arcesilaus of Cyrene for having brought
off his chariot uninjured in a contest where no fewer than forty took
part. The large outlay involved excluded all but rich competitors,
and even kings and tyrants eagerly contested the palm. Thus in
the list of victors we find the names of Cylon, the would-be tyrant
of Athens, Pausanias the Spartan king, Archelaus of Macedon, Gelon
and Hiero of Syracuse, and Theron of Agrigentum. Chariot -races
with mules, with mares, with two horses in place of four, were
successively introduced, but none of these present any special
interest. Races on horseback date from the 33rd Olympiad. As the
course was the same, success must have depended on skill as much
as on swiftness. Lastly, there were athletic contests of the same
description for boys, and a competition of heralds and trumpeters,
introduced in the 93rd Olympiad.
The prizes were at first, as in the Homeric times, of some intrinsic
value, but after the 6th Olympiad the only prize for each contest
was a garland of wild olive, which was cut with a golden sickle from
the kallistephanos, the sacred tree brought by Hercules " from the
dark fountains of Ister in the land of the Hyperboreans, to be a
shelter common to all men and a crown of noble deeds " (Pindar,
Ol. iii. 18). Greek writers from Herodotus to Plutarch dwell with
complacency on the magnanimity of a people who cared for nothing
but honour and were content to struggle for a corruptible crown.
But though the Greek games present in this respect a favourable
contrast to the greed and gambling of the modern racecourse, yet
to represent men like Milon and Damoxenus as actuated by pure love
of glory is a pleasing fiction of the moralists. The successful athlete
received in addition to the immediate honours very substantial
rewards. A herald proclaimed his name, his parentage and his
country; the Hellanodicae took from a table of ivory and gold the
olive crown and placed it on his head, and in his hand a branch of
palm ; as he marched in the sacred revel to the temple of Zeus, his
friends and admirers showered in his path flowers and costly gifts,
singing the old song of Archilochus, r^xXXa na\\lvm(, and his name
was canonized in the Greek calendar. Fresh honours and rewards
awaited him on his return home. If he was an Athenian he received,
according to the law of Solon, 500 drachmae, and free rations for
life in the Prytaneum; if a Spartan, he had as his- prerogative the
post of honour in battle. Poets like Pindar, Simonides and Euripides
sung his praises, and sculptors like Pheidias and Praxiteles were
engaged by the state to carve his statue. We even read of a breach
in the town walls being made to admit him, as if the common road
were not good enough for such a hero; and there are well-attested
instances of altars being built and sacrifices offered to a successful
athlete. No wonder then that an Olympian prize was regarded
as the crown of human happiness. Cicero, with a 'Roman's contempt
for Greek frivolity, observes with a sneer that an Olympian victor
receives more honours than a triumphant general at Rome, and tells
the story of the Rhodian Diagoras, who, having himself won the
prize at Olympia, and seen his two sons crowned on the same day,
was addressed by a Laconian in these words:" Die, Diagoras,
for thou hast nothing short of divinity to desire." Alcibiades,
when setting forth his services to the state, puts first his victory at
Olympia, and the prestige he had won for Athens by his magnificent
display. But perhaps the most remarkable evidence of the exag-
gerated value which the Greeks attached to athletic prowess is a
casual expression which Thucydides employs when describing the
GAMES, CLASSICAL
445
enthusiastic reception of Brasida* at Scione. The state, he says,
voted him a crown of gold, and the multitude flocked round him and
decked him with garlands, as tkougk ke vxre an alhltle.
The Pythian games originated in a local festival held at
Delphi, anciently called Pytho, in honour of the Pythian Apollo,
and were limited to musical competitions. The date at which
they became a Panhellenic &fu (so Demosthenes calls them)
cannot be determined, but the Pythiads as a chronological era
date from 527 B.C., by which time music had been added to all the
Panhellenic contests. Now, too, these were held at the end of
every fourth year; previously there had been an interval of
eight years. The Amphictyones presided and the prize was a
chaplet of laurel.
The NemtaH games were biennial and date from 516 B.C.
They were by origin an Argive festival in honour of Nemean
Zeus, but in historical times were open to all Greece and
provided the established round of contests, except that no
mention is made of a chariot-race. A wreath of wild celery was
the prise.
The Isthmian games, held on the Isthmus of Corinth in the
first and third year of each Olympiad, date, according to Eusebius,
from 523 B.C. They are variously reported to have been founded
by Poseidon or Sisyphus in honour of Melicertes, or by Theseus
to celebrate his victory over the robbers Sinis and Sciron. Their
early importance is attested by the law of Solon which bestowed
a reward of 100 drachmae on every Athenian who gained a
victory. The festival was managed by the Corinthians; and
after the city was destroyed by Mummius (146 B.C.) the presidency
passed to the Sicyonians until Julius Caesar rebuilt Corinth
(46 B.C.). They probably continued to exist till Christianity
became the religion of the Roman empire. The Athenians were
closely connected with the festival, and had the privilege of
proedria, the foremost seat at the games, while the Eleans were
absolutely excluded from participation. The games included
gymnastic, equestrian and musical contests, differing little from
those of the other great festivals, and the prize was a crown made
at one time of parsley (more probably wild celery), at a later
period of pine. The importance of the Isthmian games in later
times is shown by the fact that Flamininus chose the occasion
for proclaiming the liberation of Greece, 196 B.C. That at a
later anniversary (A.D. 67) Nero repeated the proclamation of
Flamininus, and coupled with it the announcement of his own
infamous victory at Olympia, shows alike the hollowness of
the first gift and the degradation which had befallen the Greek
games, the last faint relic of Greek nationality.
The Ludi Publici of the Romans included feasts and
theatrical exhibitions as well as the public games with
which alone we are concerned. As in Greece, they
were intimately connected with religion. At the
beginning of each civil year it was the duty of the consuls
to vow to the gods games for the safety of the commonwealth,
and the expenses were defrayed by the treasury. Thus,
at no cost to themselves, the Roman public were enabled to
indulge at the same time their religious feelings and their love of
amusement. Their taste for games naturally grew till it became
a passion, and under the empire games were looked upon by
the mob as one of the two necessaries of life. The aediles who
succeeded to this duty of the consuls were expected to supplement
the state allowance from their private purse. Political adven-
turers were not slow to discover so ready a road to popularity, and
what at first had been exclusively a state charge devolved upon
men of wealth and ambition. A victory over some barbarian
horde or the death of a relation served as the pretext for a
magnificent display. But the worst extravagance of private
citizens was eclipsed by the reckless prodigality of the Caesars,
who squandered the revenues of whole provinces in catering for
the mob of idle sightseers on whose favour their throne de-
pended. But though public games played as important a part in
Roman as in Greek history, and must be studied by the Roman
historian as an integral factor in social and political life, yet,
regarded solely as exhibitions, they are comparatively devoid of
interest, and we sympathize with Pliny, who asks his friend how
any man of sense can go day after day to view the same dreary
round of fights and races.
It is easy to explain the different feelings which the games
of Greece and of Rome excite. The Greeks at their best were
actors, the Romans from first to last were spectators. It is true
that even in Greek games the professional element played a large
and ever-increasing part. As early as the 6th century B.C.
Xenophanes complains that the wrestler's strength is preferred to
the wisdom of the philosopher, and Euripides, in a well-known
fragment, holds up to scorn the brawny swaggering athlete.
But what in Greece was a perversion and acknowledged to be
such, the Romans not only practised but held up as their ideal.
No Greek, however high in birth, was ashamed to compete in
person for the Olympic crown. The Roman, though little inferior
in gymnastic exercises, kept strictly to the privacy of the
palaestra; and for a patrician to appear in public as a charioteer
is stigmatized by the satirist as a mark of shameless effrontery.
Roman games are generally classified as fixed, extraordinary
and votive; but they may be more conveniently grouped accord-
ing to the place where they were held, viz. the circus or the
amphitheatre.
For the Roman world the circus was at once a political club, a
fashionable lounge, a rendezvous of gallantry, a betting ring,
and a playground for the million. Juvenal, speaking loosely, says
that in his day it held the whole of Rome; but there is no reason
to doubt the precise statement of P. Victor, that in the Circus
Maximus there were seats for 350,000 spectators.
Of the various Ludi Circenses it may be enough here to give a
short account of the most important, the Ludi Magni or Maximi.
Initiated according to legend by Tarquinius Priscus, the Ludi
Magni were originally a votive feast to Capitoline Jupiter, promised
by the general when he took the field, and performed on his return
from the annual campaign. They thus presented the appearance of
a military spectacle, or rather a review of the whole burgess force,
which marched in solemn procession from the capitol to the forum
and thence to the circus, which lay between the Palatine and Aven-
tine. First came the sons of patricians mounted on horseback,
next the rest of the burghers ranged according to their military
classes, after them the athletes, naked save for the girdle round
their loins, then the company of dancers with the harp and flute
players, next the priestly colleges bearing censers and other sacred
instruments, and lastly the simulacra of the gods, carried aloft on
their shoulders or drawn in cars. The games themselves were four-
fold: (i) the chariot race; (2) the Indus Troiae; (3) the military
review; and (4) gymnastic contests. Of these only the first two call
for any comment. (l) The chariot employed in the circus was the
two-wheeled war car, at first drawn by two, afterwards by four, and
more rarely by three horses. Originally only two chariots started
for the prize, but under Caligula we read of as many as twenty-four
heats run in the day, edch of four chariots. The distance traversed
was fourteen times the length of the circus or nearly 5"m. The
charioteers were apparently from the first professionals, though
the stigma under which the gladiator lay never attached to their
calling. Indeed a successful driver may compare in popularity and
fortune with a modern jockey. The drivers were divided into
companies distinguished by the colours of their tunics, whence arose
the faction of the circus which assumed such importance under the
later emperors. In republican times there were two factions, the
white and the red ; two more, the green and the blue, were added
under the empire, and for a short time in Domitian's reign there
were also the gold and the purple. Even in Juvenal's day party
spirit ran so high that a defeat of the green was looked upon as a
second Cannae. After the seat of empire had been transferred to
Constantinople these factions of the circus were made the basis of
political cabals, and frequently resulted in sanguinary tumults,
such as the famous Nika revolt (A.D. 532), in which 30,000 citizens
lost their lives. (2) The Ludus Troiae was a sham-fight on horseback
in which the actors were patrician youths. A spirited description of
it will be found in the 5th Aencid. (See also CIRCUS.)
The two exhibitions we shall next notice, though occasionally
given in the circus, belong more properly to the amphitheatre.
Venatio was the baiting of wild animals who were pitted either with
one another or with men captives, criminals or trained hunters
called bestiarii. The first certain instance on record of this amuse-
ment is in 1 86 B.C., when M. Fulvius exhibited lions and tigers in
the arena. The taste for these brutalizing spectacles grew apace,
and the most distant provinces were ransacked by generals and
proconsuls to supply the arena with rare animals giraffes, tigers
and crocodiles. Sulla provided for a single show loo lions, and
Pompey 600 lions, besides elephants, which were matched with
Gaetulian hunters. Julius Caesar enjoys the doubtful honour of
inventing the bull-fight. At the inauguration of the Colosseum
5000 wild and 4000 tame beasts were killed, and to commemorate
446
GAMING AND WAGERING
Trajan's Dacian victories there was a butchery of 11,000 beasts.
The naumachia was a sea-fight, either in the arena, which was
flooded for the occasion by a system of pipes and sluices, or on an
artificial lake. The rival fleets were manned by prisoners of war
or criminals, who often fought till one side was exterminated. In
the sea-fight on Lake Fucinus, arranged by the emperor Claudius,
100 ships and 19,000 men were engaged.
But the special exhibition of the amphitheatre was the munus
gladiatorium, which dates from the funeral games of Marcus and
Decimus Brutus, given in honour of their father, 264 B.C. It was
probably borrowed from Etruria, and a refinement on the common
savage custom of slaughtering slaves or captives on the grave of a
warrior or chieftain. Nothing so clearly brings before us the vein
of coarseness and inhumanity which runs through the otherwise
noble character of the Roman, as his passion for gladiatorial shows.
We can fancy how Pericles, or even Alcibiades, would have loathed
a spectacle that Augustus tolerated and Trajan patronized. Only
after the conquest of Greece we hear of their introduction into
Athens, and they were then admitted rather out of compliment to
the conquerors than from any love of the sport. In spite of numerous
prohibitions from Constantine downwards, they continued to
flourish even as late as St Augustine. To a Christian martyr, if we
may credit the story told by Theodoret and Cassiodorus, belongs the
honour of their final abolition. In the year 404 Telemachus, a
monk who had travelled from the East on this sacred mission,
rushed into the arena and endeavoured to separate the combatants.
He was instantly despatched by the praetor's orders; but Honorius,
on hearing the report, issued an edict abolishing the games, which
were never afterwards revived. (See GLADIATORS.)
Of the other Roman games the briefest description must suffice.
The Ludi Apollinares were established in 212 B.C., and were annual
after 211 B.C.; mainly theatrical performances. The Megalenses
were in honour of the great goddess, Cybele; instituted 204 B.C.,
and from 191 B.C. celebrated annually. A procession of Galli, or
priests of Cybele, was a leading feature. Under the empire the
festival assumed a more orgiastic character. Four of Terence's
plays were produced at these games. The Ludi Saeculares were
celebrated at the beginning or end of each saeculum, a period variously
interpreted by the Romans themselves as 100 or no years. The
celebration by Augustus in 17 B.C. is famous by reason of the Ode
composed by Horace for the occasion. They were solemnized by
the emperor Philip A.D. 248 to commemorate the millennium of the
city.
2. Private Games. These may be classified as outdoor and
indoor games. There is naturally all the world over a much
closer resemblance between the pursuits and amusements of
children than of adults. Homer's children built castles in the
sand, and Greek and Roman children alike had their dolls, their
hoops, their skipping-ropes, their hobby-horses, their kites,
their knuckle-bones and played at hopscotch, the tug-of-war,
pitch and toss, blind-man's buff, hide and seek, and kiss in
the ring or at closely analogous games. Games of ball were
popular in Greece from the days of Nausicaa, and at Rome there
were five distinct kinds of ball and more ways of playing with
them. For particulars the dictionary of antiquities must be
consulted. It is strange that we can find in classical literature no
analogy to cricket, tennis, golf or polo, and though the follis
resembled our football, it was played with the hand and arm. not
with the leg. Cock-fighting was popular both at Athens and
Rome, and quails were kept and put to various tests to prove
their pluck.
Under indoor games we may distinguish games of chance and
games of skill, though in some of them the two elements are
combined. Tesserae, shaped and marked with pips like modern
dice, were evolved from the tali, knuckle-bones with only four
flat sides. The old Roman threw a hazard and called a main,
just as did Charles Fox, and the vice of gambling was lashed by
Juvenal no less vigorously than by Pope. The Latin name for a
dice-box has survived in the fritillary butterfly and flower. '
The primitive game of guessing the number of fingers simul-
taneously held up by the player and his opponent is still popular
in Italy where it is known as " morra." The proverbial phrase
for an honest man was quicum in tenebris mices, one you
would trust to play at morra in the dark.
Athena found the suitors of Penelope seated on cowhides and
playing at irrcroi, some kind of draughts. The invention of the
game was ascribed to Palamedes. In its earliest form it was
played on a board with five lines and with five pieces. Later we
find eleven lines, and a further development was the division of
the board into squares, as in the game of ir6Xw (cities). In the
Roman latrunculi (soldiers), the men were distinguished as
common soldiers and " rovers," the equivalent of crowned pieces.
Duodecim scripta, as the name implies, was played on a board
with twelve double lines and approximated very closely to our
backgammon. There were fifteen pieces on each side, and the
moves were determined by a throw of the dice; " blots " might be
taken, and the object of the player was to clear off all his own men.
Lastly must be mentioned the Coltabus (<?..), a game peculiar to
the Greeks, and with them the usual accompaniment of a wine
party. In its simplest form each guest threw what was left in his
cup into a metal basin, and the success of the throw, determined
partly by the sound of the wine in falling, was reckoned a divina-
tion of love. For the various elaborations of the game (in Sicily
we read of Cottabus houses), Athenaeus and Pollux must be con-
sulted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Daremberg et Saglio, Dictionnaire des an-
tiquites grecques et romaines, articles " Agon," " Athleta," " Circus,"
"Ludi," " Olympia," "Spiele"; Curtius and Adler, Olympia (5
vols., 1890, &c.); Hachtmann, Olympia und seine Festspiele;
Blumner, Home Life of the Ancient Greeks; J P. Mahaffy, Old
Greek Education; P. Gardner and F. B. Jevqns, Manual of Greek
Antiquities; E. N. Gardiner, Greek Athletic Sports (1910); Becker-
Marquardt, Handbuch der romischen Altertumer (5 vols.). (F. S.)
GAMING AND WAGERING. It is somewhat difficult exactly
to define or adequately to distinguish these terms of allied
meaning. The word " game " (q.ii .) is applicable to most pastimes
and many sports, irrespective of their lawful or unlawful
character. " Gaming " is now always associated with the
staking of money or money's worth on the result of a game of
pure chance, or mixed skill and chance; and " gambling " has
the same meaning, with a suggestion that the stakes are excessive
or the practice otherwise reprehensible, while " wager " and
" wagering " are applied to money hazarded on any contingency
in which the person wagering has no interest at risk other than
the amount at stake. " Betting " is usually restricted to wagers
on events connected with sports or games, and " lottery " applies
to speculation to obtain prizes by lot or chance.
At English common law no games were unlawful and no
penalties were incurred by gambling, nor by keeping gaming-
houses, unless by reason of disorder they became a public
nuisance. From very early times, however, the English statute
law has attempted to exercise control over the sports, pastimes
and amusements of the lieges. Several points of view have been
taken: (i) their competition with military exercises and training;
(2) their attraction to workmen and servants, as drawing them
from work to play; (3) their interference with the observance of
Sunday; (4) their combination with betting or gambling as
causing impoverishment and dishonesty in children, servants and
other unwary persons; (5) the use of fraud or deceit in connexion
with them. The legislation has assumed several forms: (i)
declaring certain games unlawful either absolutely or if accom-
panied by staking or betting money or money's worth on the event
of the game; (2) declaring the keeping of establishments for
betting, gaming or lotteries illegal, or prohibiting the use of
streets or public places for such purposes; (3) prohibiting the
enforcement in courts of justice of gambling contracts.
The earliest English legislation against games was passed in the
interests of archery and other manly sports which were believed to
render the lieges more fit for service in war. A statute g aroes
of Richard if. (1388) directed servants and labourers /a,^/',,^
to have bows and arrows and to use them on Sundays ua i aw tui.
and holidays, and to cease from playing football, quoits,
dice, putting the stone, kails and other such importune games.
A more drastic statute was passed in 1409 (n Hen. IV. c.
4) and penalties were imposed in 1477 (17 Edw. IV'. c. '3)_ on
persons allowing unlawful games to be played on their premises.
These acts were superseded in 1541 (33 Hen. VIII. c. 9) by a statute
passed on the petition of the bowyers, fletchers (fUchiers), stringers
and arrowhead makers of the realm. This act (still partly in force)
is entitled an " act for maintenance of archery and debarring of
unlawful games " ; and it recites that, since the last statutes (of
3 & 6 Hen. VIII.) " divers and many subtil inventative and crafty
persons have found and daily find many and sundry new and crafty
games and plays, as legating in the fields, slide-thrift, otherwise
called shove-groat, as well within the city of London as elsewhere
in many other and divers parts of this realm, keeping houses, plays
and alleys for the maintenance thereof, by reason whereof archery is
sore decayed, and daily is like to be more minished, and divers
GAMING AND WAGERING
447
bowyeri and He tetters, (or lack of work, gone and inhabit themselves
in Scotland and other place* out of this realm, there working and
teaching their science, to the puissance of the same, to the great com-
fort of Mrangen and detriment of this realm." Accordingly penalties
are imposed on all penoiu keeping house* for unlawful games, and
all peraoo* resorting thereto (s. 8). The game* specified arc dicing,
table (backgammon) or carding, or any game prohibited by any
statute theretofore made or any unlawful new gamr then or thereafter
invented or to be invented. It is further provided that " no manner
of artificer or craftsman of any handicraft or occupation, husband-
man, apprentice, labourer, servant at husbandry, journeyman or
servant of artificer, mariners, fishermen, watermen, or any serving
man, shall play at the tables, tennis, dice, cards, bowls, clash,
coyting, legating or any other unlawful game out of Christmas
under the pain at "~ to be forfeit for every time; and in Christmas
to play at any of the said game* in their masters' houses or in their
masters' presence; and also that no manner of person shall at any
time play at any bowl or bowls in open places out of his garden or
orchard (s. 11). The social evils of gambling (impoverishment,
crime, neglect of divine service) are incidentally alluded to in the
preamble, but only in connexion with the main purpose of the statute
the maintenance of archery. No distinction is made between
game* of skill and game* of chance, and no reference is made to play-
ing for money or money's worth. The Book of Sports of James I.
(1617). republished by Charles I. (1613), was aimed at encouraging
certain sports on Sundays and holidays; but with the growth of
Puritanism the royal efforts failed. The Sunday Observance Act
1625 prohibits the meeting of people out of their own parishes on the
Lord Day for any sports or pastimes whatsoever. It has been
attempted to enforce this act against Sunday football. The act
goes on to prohibit any bear-baiting, bull-baiting, interludes,
common plays or other unlawful exercises or plays on Sunday by
parishioners within their own parishes. According to Blackstone
(iv. Comm. c. 13) the principal ground of complaint leading to
legislation in the l8th century was "gambling in high life." He
collects the statutes made with this view, but only those still in
force need have been mentioned.
The first act directed against gambling as distinct from playing
game* was that of 1665 (16 Car. II. c. 7) "against deceitful, dis-
orderly and excessive gaming" which deals with games both of
skill and chance at which people cheat, or play otherwise than with
ready money, or lose more than 100 on credit. In 160.8 (13 Will.
HI. c. 23) legislation was passed against lotteries, therein described
a* " mischievous and unlawful games." This act was amended in
1710 (o Anne c. 6), and in the same year was passed a statute which
is the beginning of the modern legislation against gambling (9 Anne
c. 19). It includes within its scope money won by " gaming or
playing " at cards, &c., and money won by betting " on the sides
or hands of those who game at any of the forbidden games. But it
refers to tennis and bowls as well as to games with carils and dice.
The following list of lawful games, sports and exercises is given in
Olipkant on Horses, ifc. (6th ed.) : horse-races, steeplechases, trotting
, coursing matches, foot-races, boat-races, regattas, rowing
, golf, wrestling matches, cricket, tennis, fives, rackets,
skittle*, quoits, curling, putting the stone, football, and
presumably every bona-fide variety, e.g. croquet, knurr and spell,
hockey or any similar games. Cock-fighting is said to have been
unlawful at common law, and that and other modes of setting animals
to fight are offences against the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
Acts. The following are also lawful games: whist and other lawful
at cards, backgammon, bagatelle, billiards, chess, draughts
ominoes. But to allow persons to play for money at these
or at skittles or " skittle pool " or "puff and dart " on
d premise* is gaming within the Licensing Act 1872. The
earlier act* declared unlawful the following games of skill: foot-
ball, quoits, putting the stone, kails, tennis, bowls, clash or kails, or
doyshcayls, logating. half bowl, slide-thrift or shove-groat and
backgammon. Backgammon and other games in 1739 played with
backgammon tables were treated as lawful in that year. Horse-
racing, long under restriction, being mentioned in the act of 1665
and many 18th-century acts, was fully legalized in 1840 (3 & 4
Viet. c. 35). The act of 1541, so far as it declared any game of mere
skill unlawful, was repealed by the Gaming Act 1845. Billiards is
legal in private houses or clubs and in public places duly licensed.
The following games have been declared by the statutes or the judges
to be unlawful, whether played in public or in private, unless played
in a royal palace where the sovereign is residing: ace of hearts,
pharaoh (faro), basset and hazard (1738). passage, and every game
then invented or to be invented with dice or with any other instru-
ment, engine or device in the nature of dice having one or more
figures or numbers thereon (1739), roulet or roly-poly (1744), and all
lotteries (except Art Union lotteries), rouge et noir, bauarat-banque
(1884), ckemin defer (1895), and all games at cards which are not
game* of mere skill. The definition of unlawful game does not in-
clude whist played for a prize not subscribed to by the players,
but it does include playing cards for money in licensed premises;
even in the private room of the licensee or with private friends
during cloving hours.
The first attack on lotteries was in 1698, against lotteries " by
dice, lots, cards, balls or any other numbers or figures or in any other
way whatsoever." An act of 1721 prohibited lotteries which under
the name of sales distributed prizes in money, advowsons, land,
jewels, &c., by lots, tickets, numbers or figures. Acts of 1722, 1733
and 1823 prohibited any sale of tickets, receipts, chances or numbers
in foreign lotteries. The games of cards already referred to as un-
lawful were in 1738 declared to be " games or lotteries by cards or
dice," and in 1802 the definition of lottery was extended to include
" little-goes and any game or lottery not authorized by parliament,
drawn by dice, lots, cards, balls, or by numbers or figures or by any
other way, contrivance or device whatsoever." This wide definition
reaches raffles and sweepstakes on races. The advertisement of
foreign or illegal lotteries is forbidden by acts of 1836 and 1844.
In 1846 art unions were exempted from the scope of the Lottery
Acts. Attempts have been made to suppress the sale in England
of foreign lottery tickets, but the task is difficult, as the post-office
distributes the advertisements, although, under the Revenue Act
1898, the Customs treat as prohibited goods advertisements or
notices as to foreign lotteries. More success has been obtained in
putting down various devices by newspapers and shopkeepers to
attract customers by instituting " missing word competitions "
and " racing coupon competitions "; by automatic machines which
give speculative chances in addition to the article obtained for the
coin inserted ; by distribution of prizes by lot or chance to customers ;
by holding sweepstakes at public-houses, by putting coins in sweet-
meats to tempt street urchins by cupidity to indigestion; or by
gratuitous distribution of medals giving a chance of a prize from a
newspaper. An absolutely gratuitous distribution of chances seems
not to be within the acts, but a commercial distribution is, even if
individuals who benefit do not pay for their chance.
As already stated, the keeping of a gaming-house was at common
law punishable only if a public nuisance were created. The act of
1541 imposes penalties on persons maintaining houses for unlawful
games. Originally licences could be obtained for such houses, but
these were abolished in i .s.s.s (2 & 3 Phil, and Mar). In 1698 lotteries
were declared public nuisances, and in 1802 the same measure was
meted out to lotteries known as little-goes. Special penalties are
provided for those who set up lotteries or any unlawful game with
cards or dice, &c. (1738, 1739, 1744). In 1751 inhabitants of a
parish were enabled to insist on the prosecution of gaming-houses.
The act of 1802 imposed severe penalties on persons publicly or
privately keeping places for any lottery. This statute hits at the
deliberate or habitual use of a place for the prohibited purpose, and
does not touch isolated or incidental uses on a single occasion, e.g.
at a bazaar or show; but under an act of 1823 the sale of lottery
tickets is in itself an offence. The Gaming Act 1845 facilitates the
search of suspected gaming-houses and the proof that they are such.
It provides that, to prove any house to be a common gaming-house,
it shall be sufficient to show that it is kept or used for playing
therein at any unlawful game, and that a bank is kept there by one
or more of the players exclusively of the others, or that the chances
of any game played therein are not alike favourable to all the
players, including among the players the banker or other person by
whom the game is managed, or against whom the other players
stake, play or bet." Gambling, it will be noticed, is still in this
definition connected with some kind of game. The act also provides
that proof that the gaming was for money shall not be required,
and that the presence of cards, dice and other instruments of gaming
shall be prima-facie evidence that the house was used as a common
gaming-house. The most recent statute dealing with gaming-
houses is of 1854, which provides summary remedies against the
keeper and makes further provisions to facilitate conviction. It
may be added that the Gaming Act 1845 makes winning money by
cheating at any game or wager punishable in the same way as
obtaining money by false pretences. At the present time proceedings
for keeping gaming-houses in the sense in which that word is com-
monly understood are comparatively rare, and are usually against
foreigners. The statutes hit both public and private gaming-houses
(see the Park Club case, Jenks v. Turpin, 1884, 13 Q.B.D. 505,
the leading case on unlawful games). The proprietor and the person
who keeps the bank at an unlawful game arc both within the statute:
the players are not, but the act of Henry VIII. is so far alive that
they can be put under recognizance not to frequent gaming-houses.
Under the Licensing Act 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed
victuallers who suffer any gaming or unlawful game to be played
on their premises. A single instance of playing an unlawful game
for money in a private house is not within the statutes (R. v. Dairies,
1807, 2 Q.B. 199).
In England, so far as the general public is concerned, gaming at
cards is to a large extent superseded by betting on sports and pas-
times, or speculation by means of lotteries or like devices. The
legislation against betting to nomine began in 1853. In the Betting
Act 1853 it is described as a kind of gaming of late sprung up to the
injury and demoralization of improvident persons by the opening of
places called betting houses and offices, and the receiving of money
in advance by the owners or occupiers or their agents on promises
to pay money on events or horse races and like contingencies. This
act strikes at ready money betting as distinguished from betting on
credit (" on the nod "). It was avowedly framed to hit houses open
to all and sundry as distinguished from private betting clubs such as
Tattersall's. The act seeks to punish persons who keep a house,
GAMING AND WAGERING
office, room or other place for the purpose (inter alia) of any person
betting with persons " resorting thereto " or of receiving deposits
in consideration of bets on contingencies relating to horse-races or
other races, fights, games, sports or exercises. The act especially
excepts persons who receive or hold prizes or stakes to be paid to
the winner of a race or lawful sport, game or exercise, or to the owner
of a horse engaged in a race (s. 6). Besides the penalties incurred by
keeping such places, the keeper is liable to repay to depositors the
suras deposited (s. 5).
By the Licensing Act 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed persons
who allow their houses to be used in contravention of the Betting
Act 1853. There has been a great deal of litigation as to the meaning
and scope of this enactment, and a keen contest between the police
and the Anti-gambling League (which has been very active in the
matter) and the betting confraternity, in which much ingenuity
has been shown by the votaries of sport in devising means for evading
the terms of the enactment. The consequent crop of legal decisions
shows a considerable divergence of judicial opinion. The House
of Lords has held that the Tattersall's enclosure or betting ring on a
racecourse is not a " place " within the statute; and members of a
bona-fide club who bet with each other in the club are not subject
to the penalties of the act. But the word " place " has been held
to include a public-house bar, an archway, a small plot of waste
ground, and a bookmaker's stand, and even a bookmaker's big
umbrella, and it is difficult to extract from the judges any clear
indication of the nature of the " places " to which the act applies.
The act is construed as applying only to ready-money betting, i.e.
when the stake is deposited with the bookmaker, and only to places
used for betting with persons physically resorting thereto; so that
bets by letter, telegram or telephone do not fall within its penalties.
The arm of the law has been found long enough to punish as thieyes
" welshers," who receive and make off with deposits on bets which
they never mean to pay if they lose. The act of 1853 makes it an
offence to publish advertisements showing that a house is kept for
betting. It was supplemented in 1874 by an act imposing penalties
on persons advertising as to betting. But this has been read as
applying to bets falling within the act of 1853, and it does not
prohibit the publication of betting news or sporting tips in news-
papers. A few newspapers do not publish these aids to ruin, and in
some public libraries the betting news is obliterated, as it attracts
crowds of undesirable readers. The act of 1853 has been to a great
extent effectual against betting houses, and has driven some of
them to Holland and other places. But it has been deemed ex-
pedient to legislate against betting in the streets, which has been
found too attractive to the British workman.
By the Metropolitan Streets Acts 1867 any three or more persons
assembled together in any part of any street in the city of London
or county of London for the purpose of betting and
deemed to be obstructing the street, may be arrested
without warrant by a constable and fined a sum not ex-
ceeding 5. The Vagrancy Act 1873 (36 & 37 Viet. c. 38) provides
that "Every person playing or betting by way of wagering or gaming
on any street, road, highway or other open and public place, or in
any open place to which the public have, or are permitted to have,
access, at or with any table or instrument of gaming, or any coin, card,
token or other article used as an instrument or means of gaming,
at any game or pretended game of chance, shall be deemed a rogue
and vagabond." This act amended a prior act of 1868, passed to
repress the practice of playing pitch and toss in the streets, which
had become a public nuisance in the colliery districts. The powers
of making by-laws for the peace, order and good government of
their districts, possessed by municipal boroughs and since 1888
by county councils and extended in 1899 to the new London
boroughs, have in certain cases been exercised by making by-laws
forbidding any person to " frequent or use any street or other public
place, on behalf either of himself or any other person, for the purpose
of bookmaking, or betting, or wagering, or agreeing to bet or wager
with any person, or paying, or receiving or settling bets." This and
similar by-laws have been held valid, but were found inadequate,
and by the Street Betting Act 1906 (6 Edw. VII. c. 43), passed by the
efforts of the late Lord Davey, it is made an offence for any person
to frequent or loiter in a street or public place on behalf of himself
or of any other person for the purpose of bookmaking or betting or
wagering or agreeing to bet or wager or paying or receiving or settling
bets. TJie punishment for a first offence is fine up to 10, for a secona
fine up to 20, and the punishment is still higher in the case of a third
or subsequent offence, or where the accused while committing the
offence has any betting transaction with a person under the age of
sixteen. The act does not apply to ground used for a course for
horse-racing or adjacent thereto on days on which races take place ;
but the expression public place includes a public park, garden or
sea-beach, and any unenclosed ground to which the public for the
time have unrestricted access, and enclosed places other than public
parks or gardens to which the public have a restricted right of
access with or without payment, if the owners or persons controlling
the place exhibit conspicuously a notice prohibiting betting therein.
A constable may arrest without warrant persons offending and seize
all books, papers, cards and other articles relating to betting found
in their possession, and these articles may be forfeited on conviction.
Besides the above provision against betting with infants the Betting
Street
betting.
and Loans (Infants) Act 1892, passed at the instance of the late
Lord Herschell, makes it a misdemeanour to send, with a view to
profit, to any one known by the sender to be an infant, a document
inviting him to enter into a betting or wagering transaction. The
act is intended to protect lads at school and college from temptation
by bookmakers.
We must now turn from the public law with respect to gaming
to the treatment of bets and wagers from the point of view of
their obligation on the individuals who lose them. A , .
wager may be defined as " a promise to give money or age "*'
money's worth upon the determination or ascertainment of an
uncertain event " (Anson, Law of Contract, nthed., p. 206). The
event may be uncertain because it has not happened or because
its happening is not ascertained; but to make the bargain a
wager the determination of the event must be the sole condition
of the bargain. According to the view taken in England of the
common law, bets or wagers were legally enforceable, subject to
certain rules dictated by considerations of public policy, e.g.
that they did not lead to immorality or breach of the peace, or
expose a third person to ridicule. 1 The courts were constantly
called upon to enforce wagers and constantly exercised their
ingenuity to discover excuses for refusing. . A writer on the law of
contracts 2 discovers here the origin of that principle of " public
policy " which plays so important a part in English law. Wager-
ing contracts were rejected because the contingencies on which
they depended tended to create interests hostile to the common
weal. A bet on the life of the emperor Napoleon was declared
void because it gave one of the parties an interest in keeping the
king's enemy alive, and also because it gave the other an interest
in compassing his death by unlawful means. A bet as to the
amount of the hop-duty was held to be against public policy,
because it tended to expose the condition of the king's revenue to
all the world. A bet between two hackney coachmen, as to which
of them should be selected by a gentleman for a particular
journey, was void because it tended to expose the customer to
their importunities. When no such subtlety could be invented,
the law, however reluctantly, was compelled to enforce the
fulfilment of a wager. Actions on wagers were not favoured by
the judges; and though a judge could not refuse to try such an
action, he could, and often did, postpone it until after the decision
of more important cases.
Parliament gradually intervened to confine the common law
within narrower limits, both in commercial and non-commercial
wagers, and both by general and temporary enactments. An
example of the latter was 7 Anne c. 16 (1710), avoiding all wagers
and securities relating to the then war with France. The earliest
general enactment was 16 Car. II. c. 7 (1665), prohibiting the
recovery of a sum exceeding 100 lost in games or pastimes, or in
betting on the sides or hands of the players, and avoiding securities
for money so lost. 9 Anne c. 19 avoided securities for such wagers
for any amount, even in the hands of bona-fide holders for value
without notice, and enabled the loser of 10 or upwards to sue for
and recover the money he had lost within three months of the
loss. Contracts of insurance by way of gaming and wagering
were declared void, in the case of marine risks in 1746, and in the
case of other risks in 1774. It was not until 1845 that a general
rule was made excluding wagers from the courts. Section 18 of
the Gaming Act 1845 (passed after a parliamentary inquiry in
1844 as to gaming) enacted " that all contracts or agreements,
whether by parole or in writing, by way of gaming or wagering
shall be null and void, and that no suit shall be brought or main-
tained in any court of law or equity for recovering any sum of
money or valuable thing alleged to be won upon any wager, or
which shall have been deposited in the hands of any person to
abide the event on which any wager shall have been made;
provided always that this enactment shall not be deemed to apply
to any subscription or contribution, or agreement to subscribe or
contribute, for or towards any plate, prize or sum of money to be
awarded to the winner or winners of any lawful game, sport,
pastime or exercise."
The construction put on this enactment enabled turf commission
1 Leake on Contracts (4th ed.), p. 529.
1 Pollock, Contracts (7th ed.), p. 313.
GAMING AND WAGERING
449
gents to recover from their principals bets made and paid for
them. But the Gaming Act 1892 rendered null and void any
promise, express or implied, to repay to any person any sum of
money paid by him under, or in respect of, any contract or agree-
ment rendered null and void by the Gaming Act 1845, or to pay
any sum of money by way of commission, fee, reward, or other-
wise in respect of any such contract or agreement, or of any
services in relation thereto or in connexion therewith, and
provided that no action should be brought or maintained to
recover any such sum. By the combined effect of these two
enactments the recovery by the winner from the loser or stake-
holder of bets or of stakes on games falling within s. 18 of the
Gaining Act 1845 is absolutely barred; but persons who have
deposited money to abide the event of a wager are not debarred
from crying off and recovering their stake before the event is
decided, or even after the decision of the event and before the
stake is paid over to the winner; ' and a man who pays a bet for a
friend, or a turf commission agent or other agent who pays a bet
for a principal, has now no legal means of recovering the money,
unless some actual deceit was used to induce him to pay in ignor-
ance that it was a bet. But a person who has received a bet on
account of another can still, it would seem, be compelled to pay
it over, and the business of a betting man is treated as so far
lawful that income-tax is charged on its profits, and actions
between panics in such a business for the taking of partnership
accounts have been entertained.
The effect of these enactments on speculative dealings in shares
or other commodities calls for special consideration. It seems to
be correct to define a wagering contract as one in which two
persons, having opposite opinions touching the issue of an event
(past or future), of which they are uncertain, mutually agree that
on the determination of the event one shall win, and the other
shall pay over a sum of money, or other stake, neither party
having any other interest in the event than the sum or stake to
be won or lost. This definition does not strike at contracts in
" futures," under which the contractors are bound to give or take
delivery at a date fixed of commodities not in existence at the date
of the contract. Nor are such contracts rendered void because
they are entered into for purposes of speculation; in fact, their
legality is expressly recognized by the Sale of Goods Act 1893.
Contracts of insurance are void if made by way of gaming or
wagering on events in which the assured has no interest present
or prospective whether the matter be life or fire risks (1774)
or maritime risks (Marine Insurance Act 1906). An act
known as Sir John Barnard's Act (7 Geo. II. c. 8, entitled
" An act to prevent the infamous practice of stock jobbing ")
prohibited contracts for liberty to accept or refuse any public
stocks or securities and wagers relating to public stocks, but
this act was repealed in 1860, and contracts to buy or sell stocks
and shares are not now void because entered into by way of
speculation and not for purposes of investment. The only limita-
tion on such contracts is that contained in Leeman's Act (30 &
31 Via. c. 29) as to contracts for the sale of shares in joint-
stock banking companies. But a transaction in any commodity,
though in form commercial, falls within the Gaming Acts if in
substance the transaction is a mere wager on the price of the
commodity at a date fixed by the contract. It does not matter
whether the dealing is in stocks or in cotton, nor whether it is
entered into on the Stock Exchange, or on any produce exchange,
or elsewhere; nor is it conclusive in favour of the validity of the
bargain that it purports to bind the parties to take or deliver the
article dealt in. The courts are entitled to examine into the true
nature of the transaction; and where the substantial intention of
the parties is merely to gamble in differences, to make what is
called " a time bargain," the fact that it is carried out by a series
of contracts, regular and valid in form, will not be sufficient to
exclude the application of the Gaming Acts.
In very many cases transactions with f outside stockbrokers " or
" bucket shops " have been held to be mere wagers, although the
contracts purported to give " put " or " call " options to demand
delivery or acceptance of the stocks dealt with; and the cover
1 Burge v. Aikby, 1900, I Q.B. 744.
. 15
deposited by the " client " has been treated as a mere security for
performance of the bargain, and recoverable if sued for in time,
i.e. before it is used for the purpose for which it is deposited.
There was not up to 1909 any authoritative decision as to the
application of the Gaming Act 1892 to transactions on the London
Stock Exchange through a stockbroker who is a member of
" the House "; but the same principle appears to be applicable
where the facts of the particular deal clearly indicate that the
intention was to make a mere time bargain, or to pay or receive
differences only. The form, however, of all bargains on the
Stock Exchange is calculated and intended to preclude people
from setting up a gaming act defence: as each contract entitles
the holder to call for delivery or acceptance of the stock named
therein. In the event of the bankruptcy of a person involved in
speculations, the bankruptcy officials exclude from proof against
the estate all claims founded on any dealing in the nature of a
wager; and on the same principle the bankrupt's trustee can-
not recover sums won by the bankrupt by gaming transactions,
but unexhausted " cover " on uncompleted transactions may be
recovered back.
Besides the enactments which prevent the recovery of bets or
wagers by action there has also been a good deal of legislation
dealing with securities given in respect of " gambling
debts." The earliest (1665) dealt with persons playing "** ""*
at games otherwise than for ready money and losing
100 or more on credit, and not only prohibited the winner from
recovering the overplus but subjected him to penalties for winning
it. An act of 1710 (9 Anne c. 19) declared utterly void all notes,
bills, bonds, judgments, mortgages or other securities where the
consideration is for money or valuable security won by gaming
at cards, stocks or other games, or by betting on the sides or
hands of the gamesters, or for reimbursing money knowingly
advanced for such gaming or betting. This act draws a distinc-
tion between gaming and other bets or wagers. Under this act
the securities were void even in the hands of innocent transferees.
In 1841 the law was altered, declaring such securities not void
but made upon an " illegal " consideration. The effect of the
change is to enable an innocent transferee for value, of a bill, note
or cheque, to recover on a security worthless in the hands of the
original taker (see s. 30 of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882), but to
put on him the burden of proving that he is a bona fide holder
for value. In the case of a negotiable security given for a wager
not within the acts of 1710 or 1841 (e.g. a, bet on a contested
election), but within the act of 1845, a third person holding it
would be presumed to be a holder for value and on the person
prima facie liable under the security falls the burden of proving
that no consideration was given for it. It has been decided after
considerable divergence of judicial opinion that an action will not
lie in England in favour of the drawee against the drawer of a
cheque drawn at Algiers on an English bank, partly for losses at
baccarat, and partly for money borrowed to continue playing the
game. The ground of decision was in substance that the Gaming
Acts of 1845 and 1892 as the lex fort prohibit the English courts
from enforcing gaming debts wherever incurred (Moults v.
Owen, 1907, i K.B. 746).
Scotland. A Scots act of 1621 c. 14 (said still to be in force)
forbids playing at cards or dice in any common house of hostelry,
and directs that sums over 100 marks won on any one day at carding
or dicing or at wagers on horse races should be at once sent to the
treasurer of the kirk session. The Lottery Acts, except that of 1608,
apply to Scotland; and the Betting House Act 1853 was extended
to Scotland in 1874. The Street Betting Act 1906 extends to Scot-
land, and gaming houses can be suppressed under the Burgh Police
Act 1892, and street betting, lotteries or gaming under that of 1903.
The Scots courts refuse to try actions on wagers, as being spon-
iiones ludicrae, unbecoming the dignity of the courts. 9 Anne c. 19
and 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 41 extend to Scotland, but the weight of
judicial opinion is that the Gaming Act 1845 does not.
Ireland. The British Acts against lotteries were extended to
Ireland in 1780, and the general law as to gaming is the same in
both countries.
Britith Posseuiont.-^Certain of the earlier imperial acts are in
force in British possessions, e.g. the act of 9 Anne c. 19, which is in
force in Ontario subject to amendments made in 1902. In the
Straits Settlements, Jamaica and British Guiana there are ordin-
ances directed against gambling and lotteries, and particularly
450
GAMUT GANDHARVA
against forms of gambling introduced by the Chinese. Under these
ordinances the money paid for a lottery ticket is recoverable by law.
In the Transvaal betting houses were suppressed by proclamation
(No. 33) soon after the annexation. An invention known in France
as the pari mutuel, and in Australia as the totalizator, is allowed
to be used on race-courses in most of the states (but not in New
South Wales). In Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania and
Western Australia the state levies a duty on the takings of the
machine. In Tasmania the balance of the money retained by the
stewards of the course less the tax must be applied solely for improv-
ing the course or promoting horse-racing. In Victoria under an
act of 1901 the promoters of sports may by ad vertisement duly posted
make betting on the ground illegal.
Egypt. -By law No. 10 of 1905 all lotteries are prohibited with
certain exceptions, and it is made illegal to hawk the tickets or offer
them for sale or to bring illegal lotteries in any way to the notice
of the public. The authorized lotteries are those for charitable
purposes, e.g. those of the benevolent societies of the various foreign
communities.
United States. In the United States many of the states make
gaming a penal offence when the bet is upon an election, or a horse
race, or a game of hazard. Betting contracts and securities given
upon a bet are often made void, andthis may destroy a gaming note
in the hands of an innocent purchaser for value. The subject lies
outside of the province of the federal government. By the legislation
of some states the loser may recover his money if he sue within a
limited time, as he might have done in England under 9 Anne c. 19.
AUTHORITIES. Brandt on Games (1872); Oliphant, Law of
Horses, &c. (6th ed. by Lloyd, 1908); Schwabe on the Stock Ex-
change (1905); Melsheimer on the Stock Exchange (4th ed., 1905);
Coldridge and Hawksford, The Law of Gambling (1895) ; Stutfield,
Betting (3rd ed., 1901). (W. F. C.)
GAMUT (from the Greek letter gamma, used as a musical
symbol, and ut, the first syllable of the medieval hymn Sanctus
Johannes), a term in music used to mean generally the whole
compass or range of notes possessed by an instrument or voice.
Historically, however, the sense has developed from its stricter
musical meaning of a scale (the recognized musical scale of any
period), originating in the medieval "great scale," of which the
invention has usually been ascribed to Guido of Arezzo (q.v.) in
the nth century. The whole question is somewhat obscure, but,
in the evolution of musical notation out of the classical alpha-
betical system, the invention of the medieval gamut is more
properly assigned to Hucbald (d. 930). In his system of scales
the semitone was always between the 2nd and 3rd of a tetrachord,
as G, A, \> B, C, so the $ B and # F of the second octave were in
false relation to the b B and $ F of the first two tetrachords. To
this scale of four notes, G, A, t> B, C, were subsequently added a
note below and a note above, which made the hexachord with
the semitone between the 3rd and 4th both up and down, as
F, G, A, \> B, C, D. It was at a much later date that the yth, our
leading note, was admitted into a key, and for this the first two
letters of the last line of the above-named hymn, " Sanctus
Johannes," would have been used, save for the notion
that as the note Mi was at a semitone below Fa, the same vowel
should be heard at a semitone below the upper Ut, and the
syllable Si was substituted for Sa. Long afterwards the syllable
Ut was replaced by Do in Italy, but it is still retained in France;
and in these two countries, with whatever others employ their
nomenclature, the original Ut and the substituted Do stand for
the sound defined by the letter C in English and German termin-
ology. The literal musical alphabet thus accords with the
.... AB C DEFG
syllabic: ^ ^ Ut Qr DQ ^ Mi> ^ ^ In Germany
a remnant of Greek use survives. A was originally followed
in the scale by the semitone above, as the classical Mese was
followed by Paramese, and this note, namely \> B, is still called
B in German, English % B (French and Italian Si) being repre-
sented by the letter H. The gamut which, whenever instituted,
did not pass out of use until the igth century, regarded the
hexachord and not the octachord, employed both letters and
syllables, made the former invariable while changing the latter
according to key relationship, and acknowledged only the three
keys of G, C and F; it took its name from having the Greek
letter gamma with Ut for its lowest keynote, though the Latin
letters with the corresponding syllables were applied to all the
other notes.
GANDAK, a river of northern India. It rises in the Nepal
Himalayas, flows south-west until it reaches British territory,
where it forms the boundary between the United Provinces and
Bengal for a considerable portion of its course, and falls into the
Ganges opposite -Patna. It is a snow-fed stream, and the
surrounding country in the plains, lying at a lower level than its
banks, is endangered by its floods. The river is accordingly
enclosed by protective embankments.
The LITTLE GANDAK rises in the Nepal hills, enters Gorakhpur
district about 8 m. west of the Gandak, and joins the Gogra just
within the Saran district of Bengal.
The BURHI (or old) GANDAK also rises in the Nepal hills, and
follows a course roughly parallel to and east of that of the Gandak,
of which it represents an old channel, passing Muzaffarpur, and
joining the Ganges nearly opposite to Moughjr. Its principal
tributary is the Baghmati, which rises in the hills N. of Kath-
mandu, flows in a southerly direction through Tirhut, and joins
the Burhi Gandak close to Rusera.
GANDAMAK, a village of Afghanistan, 35 m. from Jalalabad
on the road to Kabul. On the retreat from Kabul of General
Elphinstone's army in 1842, a hill near Gandamak was the scene
of the massacre of the last survivors of the force, twenty officers
and forty-five British soldiers. It is also notable for the treaty of
Gandamak, which was signed herein 1879 with Yakub Khan.
(See AFGHANISTAN.)
GANDERSHEIM, a town of Germany in the duchy of Bruns-
wick, in the deep valley of the Gande, 48m. S.W. of Brunswick, on
the railway Boissum-Holzminden. Pop. (1905) 2847. It has two
Protestant churches of which the convent church (Stiftskirche)
contains the tombs of famous abbesses, a palace (now used as law
courts) and the famous abbey (now occupied by provincial
government offices). There are manufactures of linen, cigars,
beet-root sugar and beer.
The abbey of Gandersheim was founded by Duke Ludolf of
Saxony, who removed here in 856 the nuns who had been
shortly before established at Brunshausen. His own daughter
Hathumoda was the first abbess, who was succeeded on her death
by her sister Gerberga. Under Gerberga's government Louis III.
granted a privilege, by which the office of abbess was to continue
in the ducal family of Saxony as long as any member was found
competent and willing to accept the same. Otto III. gave the
abbey a market, a right of toll and a mint; and after the bishop
of Hildesheim and the archbishop of Mainz had long contested
with each other about its supervision, Pope Innocent III. declared
it altogether independent of both. The abbey was ultimately
recognized as holding directly of the Empire, and the abbess had
a vote, in the imperial diet. The conventual estates were of great
extent, and among the feudatories who could be summoned to
the court of the abbess were the elector of Hanover and the king
of Prussia. Protestantism was introduced in 1 568, and Magdalena,
the last Roman Catholic abbess, died in 1589; but Protestant
abbesses were appointed to the foundation, and continued to
enjoy their imperial privileges till 1803, when Gandersheim
was incorporated with Brunswick. The last abbess, Augusta
Dorothea of Brunswick, was a princess of the ducal house, and
kept her rank till her death. The memory of Gandersheim will
long be preserved by its literary memorials. Hroswitha, the
famous Latin poet, was a member of the sisterhood in the 9th
century; and the rhyming chronicle of Eberhard of Gandersheim
ranks as in all probability the earliest historical work composed in
low German.
The Chronicle, which contains an account of the first period of the
monastery, is edited by L. Wieland in the Mpnumenta Germ, historica
(1877), and has been the object of a special study by Paul Hasse
(Gottingen, 1872). See also " Agii vita Hathumodae abbatissae
Gandershemensis primae," in J. G. von Eckhart's Veterum monu-
mentorum quaternio (Leipzig, 1720); and Hase, Mittelalterliche
Baudenkmaler Niedersachsens (1870).
GANDHARVA, in Hindu mythology, the term used to denote
(i) in the Rig- Veda usually a minor deity; (2) in later writings
a class of divine beings. As a unity Gandharva has no special
attributes but many duties, and is in close relation with the great
gods. Thus he is director of the sun's horses; he is guardian of
GANDIA GANGES
45'
soma, the sacred liquor, and therefore is regarded as the heavenly
physician, soma being a panacea. He is servant of Agni the god
of light and of Varuna the divine judge. He is omnipresent: in
the heavens, in the air and in the waters. He is the keeper of
heaven's secrets and acts as messenger between gods and men.
He is gorgeously clothed and carries shining weapons. For wife
he has the spirit of the clouds and waters, Apsaras, and by her
became father of the first mortals, Yama and Yami. He is the
tutelary deity of women and presides over marriage ceremonies.
In their collective capacity the Gandharva share the duties
allotted to the single deity. They live in the house of Indra and
with their wives, the Apsaras, beguile the time by singing, acting
and dancing. Sometimes they are represented as numbering
twelve, sometimes twenty-seven, or they are innumerable. In
Hindu law a Gandharva marriage is one contracted by mutual
consent and without formality.
QANDfA. a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of
Valencia; on the Gandfa- Alcoy and Alcira-Denia railways.
Pop. (IQOO) 10,026. Gandia is on the left bank of the river
Alcoy or Sirpis, which waters one of the richest and most populous
plains of Valencia and enters the Mediterranean Sea at the small
harbour of Gandia (El Grao), 3 m. N.E. The chief ancient
buildings of Gandia are the Gothic church, the college, founded by
San Francisco de Borgia, director-general of the order of Jesus
(1510-1572), and the palace of the dukes of Gandfa a title held
in the ijth and i6th centuries by members of the princely house
of Borgia or Borja. A Jesuit convent, the theatre, schools and
the palace of the dukes of Osuna, are modern. Besides its manu-
factures of leather, silk, velvet and ribbons, Gandfa has a thriving
export trade in fruit, and imports coal, guano, timber and flour.
In 1904, 400 vessels, of 200,000 tons, entered the harbour.
GANDO. a sultanate ot British West Africa, included in the
protectorate of Nigeria, situated on the left bank of the Niger
above Borgu. The sultanate was established, c. 1819, on the death
of Othman Dan Fodio, the founder of the Fula empire, and its
rea and importance varied considerably during the igth century,
several of the Fula emirates being regarded as tributaries, while
Gando itself was more or less dependent on Sokoto. Gando in
the middle of the century included both banks of the Niger
at least as far N.W. as Say. The districts outside the British
protectorate now belong to France. Since 1884 Gando has been
in treaty relations with the British, and in 1003 the part assigned
to the British sphere by agreement with France came definitely
under the control of the administration in Nigeria. Gando now
forms the sub-province of the double province of Sokoto. The
emir was appointed under British authority after the conquest of
Sokoto in 1903. Since that date the province has been organized
for administration on the same system as the rest of the pro-
tectorate of Northern Nigeria. Provincial and native courts of
justice have been established, roads have been opened, the slave
trade has been abolished, and the country assessed under the new
scheme for taxation. British garrisons are stationed at Jegga
and Ambrusa. The chief town is Gando, situated on the Sokoto,
the first considerable affluent of the Niger from the east, about
60 m. S.W. of the town of Sokoto.
DANES A, or GANCSH, in Hindu mythology, the god of wisdom
and prudence, always represented with an elephant's head possibly
to indicate his sagacity. He is the son of Siva and Par vati. He is
among the most popular of Indian deities, and almost every act,
religious or social, in a Hindu's life begins with an invocation to
him, as do most books. He typifies not the wisdom of knowledge
but that worldly wisdom which results in financial success, and
thus be is particularly the god of the Hindu shopkeeper. In his
divine aspect Ganesa is ruler over the hosts of heaven, the spirits
which come and go to do Indra 's will.
CANOES (GANCA), a great river of northern India, formed by
the drainage of the southern ranges of the Himalayas. This
mighty stream, which in its lower course supplies the river
system of Bengal, rises in the Garhwal state, and falls into the
Bay of Bengal after a course of 1 500 m. It issues, under the name
of the Bhaprathi, from an ice cave at the foot of a Himalayan
snow-bed near Gangotri, 10,300 ft. above the level of the sea.
During its passage through the southern spurs of the Himalayas it
receives the J.ilm.ivi from the north-west, and subsequently the
Al.iku.inil.i. after which the united stream takes the name of the
Ganges. Deo Prayag, their point of junction, is a celebrated place
of pilgrimage, as is also Gangotri, the source of the parent stream.
At Sukhi it pierces through the Himalayas, and turns south-west to
Hardwar, also a place of great sanctity. It proceeds by a tortuous
course through the districts of Dehra Dun, Saharanpur, Muzaff-
arnagar, Bulandshahr and Farukhabad, in which last district it
receives the Ramganga. Thus far the Ganges has been little more
than a series of broad shoals, long deep pools and rapids, except, of
course, during the melting of the snows and throughout the rainy
season. At Allahabad, however, it receives the Jumna, a mighty
sister stream, which takes its rise also in the Himalayas to the west
of the sources of the Ganges. The combined river winds eastwards
by south-east through the United Provinces, receiving the Gumti
and the Gogra. The point of junction with both the Gumti and the
Gogra has more or less pretension to sanctity. But the tongue of
land at Allahabad, where the Jumna and the Ganges join, is the true
Prayag, the place of pilgrimage, to which hundreds of thousands of
devout Hindus repair to wash away their sins in the sacred river.
It is here that the great festival called the Magh mela is held.
Shortly after passing the holy city of Benares the Ganges enters
Behar, and after receiving an important tributary, the Sone from
the south, passes Patna, and obtains another accession to its volume
from the Gandak, which rises in Nepal. Farther to the east it
receives the Kusi, and then, skirting the Rajmahal hills, turns sharply
to the southward, passing near the site of the ruined city of Gaur.
By this time it has approached to within 240 m., as the crow fik-s,
from the sea. About 20 m. farther on it begins to branch out over
the level country, and this spot marks the commencement of the
delta, 220 m. in a straight line, or 300 by the windings of the river,
from the Bay of Bengal. The main channel takes the name of the
Padma or Padda, and proceeds in a south-easterly direction, past
I'.ilmu to Goalanda, above which it is joined by the Jamuna or
main stream of the Brahmaputra. The vast confluence of waters
rushes towards the sea, receiving further additions from the hill
country on the east, and forming a broad estuary known under the
name of the Meghna, which enters the Bay of Bengal near Noakhali.
This estuary, however, is only the largest and most easterly of a great
number of mouths or channels. The most westerly is the Hugli,
which receives the waters of a number of distributary channels that
start from the parent Ganges above Murshidabad. Between the
Hugli on the west and the Meghna on the cast lies the delta. The
upper angle of it consists of rich and fertile districts, such as Murshi-
dabad, Nadia, Jessore and the 24 Parganas. But towards its southern
base, resting on the sea, the country sinks into a series of great
swamps, intercepted by a network of innumerable channels. This
wild waste is known as the Sundarbans, from the sundari tree,
which grows in abundance in the seaboard tracts.
The most important channel of the Ganges for commerce is the
Hugli, on which stands Calcutta, about 90 m. from the mouth.
Beyond this city the navigation is conducted by native craft, the
modern facilities for traffic by rail and the increasing shoals in the
river having put an end to the previous steamer communication,
which plied until about 1860 as high up as Allahabad. Below
Calcutta important boat routes through the delta connect the Hugli
with the eastern branches of the river, for both native craft and
steamers.
The Ganges is essentially a river of great cities : Calcutta, Monghvr,
Patna, Benares and Allahabad all lie on its course below its junction
with the Jumna; and the ancient capitals, Agra and Delhi, arc
on the Jumna, higher up. The catchment basin of the Ganges is
bounded on the N. by a length of about 700 m. of the Himalayan
range, on the S. by the Vindhya mountains, and on the E. by the
ranges which separate Bengal from Burma. The vast river basin
thus enclosed embraces 432,480 sq. m. According to the latest
calculations, the length of the main stream of the Ganges is 1540 m.,
or with its longest affluent, 1680; breadth at true entrance into the
sea, 20 m. ; breadth of channel in dry season, ij to 2j m. ; depth in
dry season, 30 ft.; flood discharge, 1,800,000 cub. ft. per second;
ordinary discharge, 207,000 cub. ft.; longest duration of flood,
about 40 days. The average fall from Allahabad to Benares is 6 in.
per mile; from Benares to Calcutta, between 4 and 5 in.; from
Calcutta to the sea, I to 2 in. Great changes take place from time
to time in the river-bed, which alter the face of the country. Ex-
tensive islands are thrown up, and attach themselves to the mainland,
while the river deserts its old bed and seeks a new channel, it may be
many miles off. Such changes are so rapid and on so vast a scale, and
the corroding power of the current on the bank so irresistible, that
in Lower Bengal it is considered perilous to build any structure of a
large or permanent character on its margin. Many decayed or ruined
cities attest the changes in the river-bed in ancient times; and
within our own times the main channel which formerly passed
Rajmahal has turned away from it, and left the town high and dry,
7 m. from the bank.
The Ganges is crossed by six railway bridges on its course as
far as Benares; and another, at Sara in Eastern Bengal, has been
sanctioned.
452
GANGOTRI GANNAL
The U p PER GANGES CANAL and the LOWER GANGES CANAL are the
two principal systems of perennial irrigation in the United Pro-
vinces. The Ganges canal was opened by Lord Dalhousie in 1854, and
irrigates 978,000 acres. The Lower Ganges canal, an extension of
the original canal, has been in operation since 1878 and irrigates
830,000 acres. The two canals, together with the eastern Jumna,
command the greater portion of the Doab lying between the
Ganges and the Jumna, above Allahabad. Navigation in either is
insignificant. (T. H. H.*)
GANGOTRI, a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, among
the Himalaya Mountains. It is situated in the native state of
Garhwal in the United Provinces, on the Bhagirathi, the chief
head-stream of the Ganges, which is here not above 15 or 20 yds.
broad, with a moderate current, and not in general above 3 ft.
deep. The course of the river runs N. by E.; and on the bank
near Gangotri there is a small temple about 20 ft. high, in which
are images representing Ganga, Bhagirathi and other figures of
mythology. It dates from the early part of the i8th century.
The bed of the river adjoining the temple is divided off by the
Brahmans into three basins, where the pilgrims bathe. One of
these portions is dedicated to Brahma, another to Vishnu and
the third to Siva. The pilgrimage to Gangotri is considered
efficacious in washing away the sins of the devotee, and ensuring
him eternal happiness in the world to come. The water taken
from this sacred spot is exported by pilgrims to India and sold
at a high price. The elevation of the temple above the sea is
10,319 ft.
GANGPUR, a tributary state of Orissa, Bengal, included until
1905 among the Chota Nagpur States. It is bounded N. by
Ranchi district, E. by the Singhbhum district, S. by Sambalpur
and Bamra, and W. by Raigarh in the Central Provinces. The
country is for the most part an undulating plain, broken by
detached ranges of hills, one of which, the Mahavira range,
possesses a very remarkable appearance, springing abruptly from
the plain in an irregular wall of tilted and disrupted rock, with
two flanking peaks. The rivers are the Ib and the Brahmani,
formed here by the union of the Sankh and the South Koel, both
navigable by canoes. The Ib was formerly famous on account of
diamonds found in its bed, and its sands are still washed for gold.
One of the largest coalfields in India extends into the state,
and iron ore is also found. Jungle products lac, silk cocoons,
catechu and resin, which are exported; wild animals bisons,
buffaloes, tigers, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals, wild dogs and
many sorts of deer. Area, 2492 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 238,896;
estimated revenue, 16,000.
GANGRENE (from Gr. y&yypaiva, an eating sore, from
ypaiveiv, to gnaw), a synonym in medicine for mortification (q.v.) ,
or a local death in the animal body due to interruption of the
circulation by various causes.
GANILH, CHARLES (1758-1836), French economist and
politician, was born at Allanche in Cantal on the 6th of January
1758. He was educated for the profession of law and practised
as avocat. During, the troubled period which culminated in the
taking of the Bastille on the i4th of July 1789, he came pro-
minently forward in public affairs, and was one of the seven
members of the permanent Committee of Public Safety which sat
at the hotel de ville. He was imprisoned during the Reign of
Terror, and was only released by the counter-revolution of the
9th Thermidor. During the first consulate he was called to the
tribunate, but was excluded in 1802. In 1815 he was elected
deputy for Cantal, and finally left the Chamber on its dissolution
in 1823. He died in 1836. Ganilh is best known as the most
vigorous defender of the mercantile school in opposition to the
views of Adam Smith and the English economists.
His works, though interesting from the clearness and precision
with which these peculiar opinions are presented, do not now possess
much value for the student of political economy. He wrote Essai
politique sur le revenue des peuples de I'antiquite, du moyen Age, &c.
(1808); Des systkmes d'economie politique (1809); Theone d'faonomie
politique (1815); Dictionnaire analytique de I'economie politique
(1826).
GANJAM, a district of British India, in the extreme north-east
of the Madras Presidency. It has an area of 8372 sq. m. Much
of the district is exceedingly mountainous and rocky, but is
interspersed with open valleys and fertile plains. Pleasant
groves of trees in the plains give to the scenery a greener appear-
ance than is usually met with in the districts to the south. The
mountainous tract known as the Maliyas, or chain of the Eastern
Ghats, has an average height of about 2000 ft. its principal
peaks being Singharaj (4976 ft.), Mahendragiri (4923) and
Devagiri (4535). The hilly region forms the agency of Ganjam,
with an area of 3483 sq. m. and a population (in 1901) of 321,114,
mostly wild backward tribes, incapable of being governed under
ordinary conditions and therefore ruled by an agent of the
governor with special powers. The chief rivers are the Rushikulya,
the Vamsadhara and the Languliya. The sea and river fisheries
afford a livelihood to a considerable section of the population.
The hilly region abounds in forests consisting principally of sal,
with satin-wood, ebony and sandal-wood in smaller quantities.
Ganjam formed part of the ancient kingdom of Kalinga. Its
early history is involved in obscurity, and it was not till after the
Gajapati dynasty ascended the throne of Orissa that this tract
became even nominally a part of their dominions. Owing to the
nature of the country the rising Mahommedan power was long
kept at bay; and it was not till nearly a century after the first
invasion of Orissa that a Mahommedan governor was sent to
govern the Chicacole Circars, which included the present district of
Ganjam. In 1 7 53 Chicacole, with the Northern Circars, were made
over to the French by Salabat Jang for the maintenance of his
French auxiliaries. In 1759 Masulipatam was taken by an
English force sent from Bengal, and the French were compelled to
abandon Ganjam and their other factories in the north. In 1 765
the Northern Circars (including Ganjam) were granted to the
English by imperial firman, and in August 1768 an English
factory was founded at Ganjam, protected by a fort. The present
district of Ganjam was constituted in 1802. In the earlier years of
British rule considerable difficulty was experienced in the adminis-
tration of the district; and on more than one occasion the re-
fractory large landholders had to be coerced by means of regular
troops. In 1816 Ganjam was overrun by the Pindaris; and in
1836 occurred the Gumsur campaign, when the British first came
into contact with the aboriginal Kondhs, the suppression of whose
practice of human sacrifice was successfully accomplished. A
petty rising of a section of the Kondhs occurred in 1865, which
was, however, suppressed without the aid of regular troops.
In 1901 the pop. of the district was 2,010,236, showing an
increase of 20 % in the decade. There are two systems of govern-
ment irrigation: (i) the Rushikulya project, and (2) the Ganjam
minor rivers system. The principal crops are rice, other food
grains, pulse, oil seeds and a little sugar-cane and cotton. Salt is
evaporated, as a government monopoly, along the coast. Sugar
is refined, according to German methods, at Aska, where rum also
is produced. A considerable trade is conducted at the ports of
Gopalpur and Calingapatam, which are only open roadsteads.
The district is traversed throughout by the East Coast railway
(Bengal-Nagpur system), which was opened from Calcutta to
Madras in 1900. There are colleges at Berhampore and Parlaki-
medi. The headquarters station is Berhampore; the town of
Ganjam occupied this position till 1815, when it was found
unhealthy, and its importance has since declined.
GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS (1791-1852), French chemist, was
born at Sarre-Louis on the 28th of July 1791. In 1808 he entered
the medical department of the French army, and witnessed the
retreat from Moscow in 1812. After the downfall of the empire he
worked at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris and subsequently at
the Faculty of Sciences as assistant to L. J. Thenard. His
contributions to technical chemistry included a method of
refining borax, the introduction of elastic rollers formed of
gelatin and sugar for use in printing, and processes for manu-
facturing glue and gelatin, lint, white lead, &c. The Institute
awarded him a Montyon prize in 1827 for his advocacy of
chlorine as a remedy in pulmonary phthisis, and again in 1835 for
his discovery of the efficacy of solutions of aluminium acetate and
chloride for preserving anatomical preparations. In the latter
part of his life he turned his attention to embalmment, his
method depending on the injection of solutions of aluminium salts
into the arteries. He died at Paris in January 1852. His SOB
GANNET
453
FELIX, bora in 1829, also devoted himself to the question of the
dfrpnl of the dead, among his publications being Mart rtetle el
mart appurenie (1868), Inkum-ition el cremation (1876), and Les
Cimetiercs (1885), a work on the history and law of burial, of
which only one volume appeared.
GANNET (O.E. gaitol) or SOLAN GOOSE, > the Pdecanus basianus
of Linnaeus and the Sula btutana of modern ornithologists, a
large sea-fowl long known as a numerous visitor, for the purpose
of breeding, to the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Firth of
Gannct, or Solan Goose.
Forth, and to certain other islands off the coast of Britain, of
which four are in Scottish waters namely, Ailsa Craig, at the
mouth of the Firth of Clyde; the group known collectively as
St Kilda; Suleskerry, some 40 m. north-east of the Butt of Lewis;
and the Stack and Skerry, about the same distance westward of
Stromness. It appears also to have two stations off the coast of
'The phrase ganoles bati (gannet's bath), a periphrasis for the sea,
occurs in the Anfto-Saxon Chronicle, in reference to events which
took place A.D. 975, as pointed put by Prof. Cunningham, whose
learned treatise on this bird (Ibis, 1866, p. i) nearly exhausts all
that can be laid of its history and habits. A few pages further on
(p. 13) this writer remarks: " The name gannet is intimately con-
nected with our modern English gander, both words being modifica-
tioos of the ancient British gan or ' gans,' which is the same word
at the modern German ' Gans,' which in its turn corresponds with
the old High German ' Kan*,' the Greek jrfr. the Latin anstr, and
the Sanskrit ' bansa,' all of which possess the same signification, viz.
a goose. The origin of the name* solan or sotand, sulan, sula and
hat-tula, which are evidently all closely related, is not so obvious.
Martin \Voy. St Kilda] inform* us that some imagine that the word
from the Irish souler, corrupted and adapted to the
Scottish language, <jui oculii irretortu e longinqito respiciat praedam.'
The earlier writers in general derive the word from the Latin solea,\n
consequence of the bird's supposed habit of hatching its egg with its
foot; and in a note intercalated into Ray's description of the solan
goose in the edition of his Itineraries published by the Ray Society,
and edited by Dr Lankester, we are told, though no authority for the
statement i* given, that ' the gannet, Sula alba, should be written
solent goose, i.e. a channel goose.' " Hereon an editorial note
remark* that this last statement appear* to have been a suggestion of
Yarrell's. and that it seem* at least a* possible that the Solent"
took its name from the bird.
Ireland, the Skellig Islands and the Stags of Broadhaven, and it
resorts besides to Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel its only
English breeding-place. Farther to the northward its settle-
ments are Myggenaes, the most westerly of the Faeroes, and
various small islands off the coast of Iceland, of which the
Vestmannaeyjar, the Rcykjanes Fuglosk6r and Grimsey are the
chief. On the western side of the Atlantic it appears to have but
five stations, one in the Bay of Fundy, and four rocks in the
Gulf of St Lawrence. On all these seventeen places the bird
arrives about the end of March or in April and departs in autumn
when its young are ready to fly; but even during the breeding-
season many of the adults may be seen on their fishing excursions
at a vast distance from their home, while at other times of the
year their range is greater still, for they not only frequent the
North Sea and the English Channel, but stray to the Baltic, and,
in winter, extend their flight to the Madeiras, while the members
of the species of American birth traverse the ocean from the shores
of Greenland to the Gulf of Mexico.
Apparently as bulky as a goose, and with longer wings and tail,
the gannet weighs considerably less. The plumage of the adult is
white, tinged on the head and neck with buff, while the outer
edge and principal quills of the wings are black, and some bare
spaces round the eyes and on the throat reveal a dark blue skin.
The first plumage of the young is of a deep brown above, but
paler beneath, and each feather is tipped with a triangular white
spot. The nest is a shallow depression, either on the ground
itself or on a pile of turf, grass and seaweed which last is often
conveyed from a great distance. The single egg it contains has a
white shell of the same chalky character as a cormorant's. The
young are hatched blind and naked, but the slate-coloured skin
with which their body is covered is soon clothed with white
down, replaced in due time by true feathers of the dark colour
already mentioned. The mature plumage is believed not to be
attained for some three years. Towards the end of summer the
majority of gannets, both old and young, leave the neighbourhood
of their breeding-place, and, betaking themselves to the open sea,
follow the shoals of herrings and other fishes (the presence of
which they are most useful in indicating to fishermen) to a great
distance from land. Their prey is almost invariably captured by
plunging upon it from a height, and a company of gannets fishing
presents a curious and interesting spectacle. Flying in a line,
each bird, when it comes over the shoal, closes its wings and
dashes perpendicularly into the waves, whence it emerges after a
few seconds, and, shaking the water from its feathers, mounts in a
wide curve, and orderly takes its place in the rear of the string, to
repeat is headlong plunge so soon as it again finds itself above its
prey. 1
Structurally the gannet presents many points worthy of note,
such as its dosed nostrils, its aborted tongue, and its toes all
connected by a web characters which it possesses in common
with most of the other members of the group of birds (Stegano-
podes) to which it belongs. But more remarkable still is the
system of subcutaneous air-cells, some of large size, pervading
almost the whole surface of the body, communicating with the
lungs, and capable of being inflated or emptied at the will of the
bird. This peculiarity has attracted the attention of several
writers Montagu, Sir R. Owen (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1831, p. oo),
and Macgillivray.
In the southern hemisphere the gannet is represented by two
nearly allied but somewhat smaller forms one, Sula capensis,
inhabiting the coast of South Africa, and the other, S. serrator,
the Australian seas. Both much resemble the northern bird, but
1 The large number of gannets. and the vast quantity of fish they
take, has been frequently animadverted upon, but the computations
on this last point are perhaps fallacious. It seems to be certain that
in former days fishes, and herrings in particular, were at least as
plentiful as now, if not more so, notwithstanding that gannets were
more numerous. Those frequenting the Bass were reckoned by
Macgillivray at 20,000 in 1831, while in 1869 they were computed at
12,000, showing a decrease of two-fifths in 38 years. On Ailsa in
1869 there were supposed to be as many as on the Bass, but their
number was estimated at 10,000 in 1877 (Report on the Herrine
Fisheries of Scotland, 1878, pp. xxv. and 171), being a diminution of
one-sixth in eight years, or nearly twice as great as on the Bass.
454
GANODONTA GAO
the former seems to have a permanently black tail, and the latter
a tail the four middle feathers of which are blackish-brown with
white shafts.
Apparently inseparable from the gannets generically are the
smaller birds well known to sailors as boobies, from the extra-
ordinary stupidity they commonly display. They differ, how-
ever, in having no median stripe of bare skin down the front of
the throat; they almost invariably breed upon trees. and are
inhabitants of warmer climates. One of them, 5. cyanops, when
adult has much of the aspect of a gannet, but S. piscator is readily
distinguishable by its red legs, and S. leucogaster by its upper
plumage and neck of deep brown. These three are widely
distributed within the tropics, and are in some places exceedingly
abundant. The fourth, 5. variegata, which seems to preserve
throughout its life the spotted suit characteristic of the immature
S. bassana, has a much more limited range, being as yet only
known from the coast of Peru, where it is one of the birds which
contribute to the formation of guano. (A. N.)
GANODONTA (so named from the presence of bands of enamel
on the teeth), a group of specialized North American Lower and
Middle Eocene mammals of uncertain affinity. The group
includes Hemiganm, Psittacotherium and Conoryctes from the
Puerco, Calamodon and Hemiganus from the Wasatch, and
Stylinodon from the Bridger Eocene. With the exception of
Conoryctes, in which it is longer, the skull is short and suggests
affinity to the sloths, as does what little is known of the limb-
bones. The dentition, too, is of a type which might well be
considered ancestral to that of the Edentata. For instance, the
molars when first developed have tritubercular summits, but
these soon become worn away, leaving tall columnar crowns,
with a subcircular surface of dentine exposed at the summit of
each. Moreover, while the earlier types have a comparatively
full series of teeth, all of which are rooted and invested with
enamel, in the later forms the incisors are lost, the cheek-teeth
never develop roots but grow continuously throughout life.
These and other features induced Dr J. L. Wortman to regard
the Ganodonta as an ancestral suborder of Edentata; but this
view is not accepted by Prof. W. B. Scott. Teeth provision-
ally assigned to Calamodon have been obtained from the Lower
Tertiary deposits of Switzerland.
See J. L. Wortman, " The Ganodonta and their Relationship to
the Edentata," Butt. Amer, Mus. vol. ix. p. 59 (1897); W. B. Scott,
" Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata, Rep. Princeton
Exped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904). (R. L.*)
CANS, EDUARD (1797-1839), German jurist, was born at
Berlin on the 22nd of March 1797, of prosperous Jewish parents.
He studied law first at Berlin, then at Gottingen, and finally at
Heidelberg, where he attended Hegel's lectures, and became
thoroughly imbued with the principles of the Hegelian philosophy.
In 1820, after taking his doctor's degree, he returned to Berlin
as lecturer on law. In 1825 he turned Christian, and the following
year was appointed extraordinary, and in 1828 ordinary, professor
in the Berlin faculty of law. At this period the historical school
of jurisprudence was coming to the front, and Cans, predisposed
owing to his Hegelian tendencies to treat law historically, applied
the method to one special branch the right of succession. His
great work, Erbrecht in weltgeschichtlicher Entwicklung (1824,
1825, 1829 and 1835), is of permanent value, not only for its
extensive survey of facts, but for the admirable manner in which
the general theory of the slow evolution of legal principles is
presented. In 1830, and again in 1835, Cans visited Paris, and
formed an intimate acquaintance with the leaders of literary
culture and criticism there. The liberality of his views, especially
on political matters, drew upon Cans the displeasure of the
Prussian government, and his course of lectures on the history of
the last fifty years (published as Vorlesungen ilber d. Geschichte
d. letzten funfzig Jahre, Leipzig, 1833-1834) was prohibited. He
died at Berlin on the 5th of May 1839. In addition to the works
above mentioned, there may be noted the treatise on the funda-
mental laws of property (Ober die Grundlage des Besilzes, Berlin,
1829), a portion of a systematic work on the Roman civil law
(System des rdmischen Civil- Rechts, 1827), and a collection of his
miscellaneous writings ( Vcrmischle Schriften, 1832). Gans edited
the Philosophic der Geschichte in Hegel's Werke, and contributed
an admirable preface.
See RevTte des deux mondes (Dec. 1839).
GANSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1778-1844), Austrian
musical composer, was born in 1778 at Sterzing in Tirol. His
father, a schoolmaster and teacher of music, undertook his son's
early education, which the boy continued under various masters
till 1802, when he became the pupil of the celebrated Abbe G. J.
Vogler. To his connexion with this artist and with his fellow-
pupils, more perhaps than to his own merits, Gansbacher's
permanent place in the history of music is due; for it was during
his second stay with Vogler, then (1810) living at Darmstadt,
that he became acquainted with Weber and Meyerbeer, and the
close friendship which sprang up among the three young
musicians, and was dissolved by death only, has become cele-
brated in the history of their art. But Gansbacher was himself
by no means without merit. He creditably filled the responsible
and difficult post of director of the music at St Stephen's
cathedral, Vienna, from 1823 till his death (July 13, 1844); and
his compositions show high gifts and accomplishment. They
consist chiefly of church music, 17 masses, besides litanies,
motets, offertories, &c., being amongst the number. He also
wrote several sonatas, a symphony, and one or two minor com-
positions of a dramatic kind.
GANTE, a cloth made from cotton or tow warp and jute weft.
It is largely used for bags for sugar and similar material, and has
the appearance of a fine hessian cloth.
GANYMEDE, in Greek mythology, son of Tros, king of
Dardania, and CaUirrhog. He was the most beautiful of mortals,
and was carried off by the gods (in the later story by Zeus himself,
or by Zeus in the form of an eagle) to Olympus to serve as cup-
bearer (Apollodorus iii. 12; Virgil, Aeneid, v. 254; Ovid,
Metam. x. 255). By way of compensation, Zeus presented his
father with a team of immortal horses (or a golden vine).
Ganymede was afterwards regarded as the genius of the fountains
of the Nile, the life-giving and fertilizing river, and identified by
astronomers with the Aquarius of the zodiac. Thus the divinity
that distributed drink to the gods in heaven became the genius
who presided over the due supply of water on earth. When
pederasty became common in Greece, an attempt was made to
justify it and invest it with dignity by referring to the rape of the
beautiful boy by Zeus; in Crete, where the love of boys was
reduced to a system, Minos, the primitive ruler and law-giver,
was said to have been the ravisher of Ganymede. Thus the name
which once denoted the good genius who bestowed the precious
gift of water upon man was adopted to this use in vulgar Latin
under the form Catamitus. Ganymede being carried off by the
eagle was the subject of a bronze group by the Athenian sculptor
Leochares, imitated in a marble statuette in the Vatican. E.
Veckenstedt (Ganymedes, Libau, 1881) endeavours to prove that
Ganymede is the genius of intoxicating drink (pidv, mead, for
which he postulates a form /wjSos), whose original home was
Phrygia.
See article by P. Weizsacker in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie.
In the article GREEK ART, fig. 53 (PI. I.) gives an illustration of
Ganymede borne aloft by an eagle.
GAO, GAO-GAO, or GARO, a town of French West Africa, in the
Upper Senegal and Niger colony, on the left bank of the Niger,
400 m. by river below Timbuktu. Pop. about 5000. The
present town dates from the French occupation in 1900; of the
ancient city there are scanty ruins-, the chief being a truncated
pyramid, the remains of the tomb (i6th century) of Mahommed
Askia, the Songhoi conqueror, and those of the great mosque.
According to tradition a city stood on this spot in very ancient
times and its inhabitants are said to have had intercourse with
the Egyptians. It is known, however, that the city of which the
French settlement is the successor was founded by the Songhoi,
probably in the 7th or 8th century, and became the capital of
their empire. Garo (Ga-rho) appears to have been the correct
name of the Songhoi city, though it was also known as Gogo and
Kuku (Kaougha). 1 In the 1 2th century Idrisi describes Kuku as
1 There was another city called Kaoka or Gaoga east of Lake
Chad in the country now known as Bagirmi. It was the seat of the
GAOL GARASHANIN
455
a populous un walled town devoted to commerce and industry;
it is possible, however, that Idrisi is referring not to Gao but to
another town somewhat to the south at that period the middle
course of the Niger had many prosperous towns along its banks.
In the 14th century Gao was conquered by the king of Melle, and
its great mosque was built (c. 1325) by the Melle sovereign
Kunkur Musa on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. In the
15th century the Songhoi regained power and Gao attained its
greatest prosperity in the reign of Askia. It did not enjoy the
commercial importance of Jenni nor the intellectual supremacy
of Timbuktu, but was the political centre of the western Sudan
for a long period. On the break up of the Songhoi power the
city declined in importance. It became subject in 1590 to the
Rmma of Timbuktu, from whom it was wrested in 1770 by the
Tuareg, the last named surrendering possession to the French.
The first European to reach Gao was Mungo Park (1805) ; he was
followed in 1851 by Heinrich Earth, and in 1806 by the French
naval lieutenant Hourst. Gao is now the headquarters of a mili-
tary district. A caravan route leads from it to Kano and Bornu.
From Gao upwards the Niger is navigable for over 1000 m.
See TIMBUKTU. For the Gao region of the Niger see an article
by F. Dubois in L'AfriquefriiHfaue (January 1909).
GAOL, or JAIL, a prison (?..). The two forms of the word are
due to the parallel dual forms in Old Central and Norman French
respectively, jaiole or jaole, and gaiole or gayolle. The common
origin is the mcd. Lat. gabiola, a diminutive formed from cavea,
a hollow, a den, from which the English " cave " is derived.
The form " gaol " still commonly survives in English, and is in
official usage, e.g. " gaol-delivery," but the common pronuncia-
tion of both words, " jail," shows the real surviving word.
GAON (Heb. for "Excellency," plural Geonim), the title
given to the heads of the two Jewish academies in Babylonia,
Sura and Pumbeditha. Though the name is far older, it is
chiefly applied to Rabbis who lived between the close of the
Talmud and the transference of the centre of Judaism from Asia
to Europe i.e. from the end of the 6th to the middle of the nth
century A.D. The Geonim were required to do homage to the
Exilarchs (see EXILAKCH) but were otherwise independent.
They exercised wide authority and were appealed to in settle-
ment of the social and religious affairs of the diaspora. To them
must be assigned the arrangement of the main lines of the present
Synagogue liturgy. Their chief literary activity took the form of
Answers to Questions a form which was extensively used in
later centuries. The most noted of the Geonim, who will be
found treated under their respective names, were Ahai, Amram,
emach, Saadiah, Sherira and Hai. Hai Gaon died in 1038,
closing the period of the Geonim after an activity of four and a
half centuries.
A full list at the Geonim is given in tabular form in the Jewish
Encyclopaedia, vol. v. p. 571. (I. A.)
GAP, the capital of the French department of the Hautes
Alpes. Pop. (1906) town, 6888; commune, 10,823. It is built
at a height of 2418 ft. on the right bank of the Luye (an affluent
of the Durance), in an agreeable position, and is dominated afar
by snowy peaks on the N.E. The little city has the look of a
Provencal town, being white. The 17th-century cathedral
church has been entirely reconstructed (1866-1905). In the
prefecture is the tomb of the constable de Lesdiguieres (1543-
1626), dating from about 1613, and due to a Lorraine sculptor,
Jacob Richier. The same building contains various scientific
and archaeological collections, as well as the very rich archives,
which include many MSS. from the monastery of Durbon, &c.
There are a few small manufactories of purely local importance.
Gap is connected by railway with Briancon (51} m.) and with
Grenoble (85} m.), while from the railway junction of Veynes
( i6j m. W. of Gap) it is 1 22 m. by rail to Marseilles. The episcopal
BuUla dynasty, an offshoot of the royal family of Kanem, whose
rule in the isth century extended from the Shari to Darfur. The
existence of the state was first mentioned by Leo Africanus. To the
Bornuese it was known a* Rulala or Kulca Butala, a name which
persist* as that of a district in French Congo (see BORNU). The
similarity at the name Gaoga to that of the Songhoi capital has given
rise to much confusion.
see of Gap, now in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence,
is first certainly mentioned in the 6th century, and in 1791 was
enlarged by the annexation of that of Embrun (then suppressed).
Gap is the Vapincum of the Romans, and was founded by
Augustus about 14 B.C. It long formed part of Provence, but in
1232 most of the region passed by marriage to the dauphins of
Viennois. The town itself, however, remained under the rule of
the bishops until 1512, when it was annexed to the crown of
France. The bishops continued to bear the title of count of
Gap until the Revolution. The town was sacked by the
Huguenots in 1567 and 1577, and by the duke of Savoy in 1692.
It was the birthplace of the reformer Guillaume Farel (1489-
1565), who first preached his doctrines there about 1561-1562,
but then took refuge in Switzerland.
See J. Roman, Hisloire Ae la ville de Cap (Gap, 1892).
(W. A. B. C.)
GAPAN, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, 3 m. E. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop.
(1903) 11,278. It is situated in a rich rice-growing region, and
extensive forests in its vicinity contain fine hardwoods. Its
climate is comparatively cool and healthy. The principal native
dialects spoken are Tagalog and Pampangan. Gapan is the oldest
town of the province.
GARARISH (KARARISH), a semi-nomadic tribe of Semitic
origin, dwelling along the right bank of the Nile from Wadi
Haifa to Merawi. Many members of the tribe are agriculturists,
others act as guides or transport drivers. They declare themselves
kinsfolk of the Ababda, but they are more Arab than Beja.
GARASHANIN, ILIYA (1812-1874), Servian statesman, was
the son of a Servian peasant, who made money by exporting
cattle and pigs to Austria and by his intelligence and wealth
attained to a certain influence in the country. He wanted to
give his son as good an education as possible, and therefore sent
him to Hungary to learn first in a Greek and then in a German
school. Highly gifted, and having passed through a regular
although somewhat short school training, the young Iliya very
quickly came to the front. In 1836 Prince Milosh appointed him
a colonel and commander of the then just organized regular army
of Servia. In 1842 he was called to the position of assistant to
the home minister, and from that time until his retirement from
public life in 1867 he was repeatedly minister of home affairs, dis-
tinguishing himself by the energy and justice of his administration.
But he rendered far greater services to his country as minister
for foreign affairs. He was the first Servian statesman who had a
political programme, and who worked to replace the Russian pro-
tectorate over Servia by the joint protectorate of all the great
powers of Europe. As minister for foreign affairs in 1853 he was
decidedly opposed to Servia joining Russia in war against Turkey
and the western powers. His anti-Russian views resulted in
Prince Menshikov, while on his mission in Constantinople, 1853,
peremptorily demanding from the prince of Servia (Alexander
Karageorgevich) his dismissal. But although dismissed, his
personal influence in the country secured the neutrality of Servia
during the Crimean War. He enjoyed esteem in France, and it
was due to him that France proposed to the peace conference of
Paris (1856) that the old constitution, granted to Servia by
Turkey as suzerain and Russia as protector in 1839, should be
replaced by a more modern and liberal constitution, framed by a
European international commission. But the agreement of the
powers was not secured. Garashanin induced Prince Alexander
Karageorgevich to convoke a national assembly, which had not
been called to meet for ten years. The assembly was convoked
for St Andrew's Day 1858, but its first act was to dethrone Prince
Alexander and to recall the old Prince Milosh Obrenovich. When
after the death of his father Milosh (in 1860) Prince Michael
ascended the throne, he entrusted the premiership and foreign
affairs to Iliya Garashanin. The result of their policy was that
Servia was given a new, although somewhat conservative, con-
stitution, and that she obtained, without war, the evacuation
of all the fortresses garrisoned by the Turkish troops on the
Servian territory, including the fortress of Belgrade (1867).
Garashanin was preparing a general rising of the Balkan nations
456
GARAT GARBLE
against the Turkish rule, and had entered into confidential
arrangements with the Rumanians, Bosnians, Albanians,
Bulgarians and Greeks, and more especially with Montenegro.
But the execution of his plans was frustrated by his sudden
resignation (at the end of 1867), and more especially by the
assassination of Prince Michael a few months later (the loth of
June 1868). Although he was a Conservative in politics, and as
such often in conflict with the leader of the Liberal movement,
Yovan Ristich, he certainly was one of the ablest statesmen
whom Servia had in the ipth century. (C. Mi.)
GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH (1740-1833), French writer
and politician, was born at Bayonne on the 8th of September
1749. After receiving a good education under the direction of a
relation who was a cur6, and having been an advocate at Bor-
deaux, he came to Paris, where he obtained introductions to the
most distinguished writers of the time, and became a contributor
to the Encyclopedic mtthodique and the Mercure de France. He
gained considerable reputation by an eloge on Michel de L'H6pital
in 1778, and was afterwards three times crowned by the Academy
for eloges on Suger, Montausier and Fontenelle. In 1785 he was
named professor of history at the Lycee, where his lectures
enjoyed an equal popularity with those of G. F. Laharpe on
literature. Being chosen a deputy to the states-general in 1789,
he rendered important service to the popular cause by his
narrative of the proceedings of the Assembly contributed to the
Journal de Paris. Possessing strongly optimist views, a mild
and irresolute character, and indefinite and changeable con-
victions, he played a somewhat undignified part in the great
political events of the time, and became a pliant tool in carrying
out the designs of others. Danton had him named minister of
justice in 1792, and in this capacity had entrusted to him what he
called the commission af reuse of communicating to Louis XVI.
his sentence of death. In 1 793 he became minister of the interior.
In this capacity he proved himself quite inefficient. Though
himself uncorrupt, he winked at the most scandalous corruption
in his subordinates, and in spite of the admirably organized
detective service, which kept him accurately informed of every
movement in the capital, he entirely failed to maintain order,
which might easily have been done by a moderate display of
firmness. At last, disgusted with the excesses which he had been
unable to control, he resigned (August 15, 1793). On the 2nd of
October he was arrested for Girondist sympathies but soon
released, and he escaped further molestation owing to the
friendship of Barras and, more especially, of Robespierre, whose
literary amour-propre he had been careful to flatter. On the gth
Thermidor, however, he took sides against Robespierre, and on
the 1 2th of September 1 794 he was named by the Convention as a
member of the executive committee of public instruction. In
1 798 he was appointed ambassador to Naples, and in the following
year he became a member, then president, of the Council of the
Ancients. After the revolution of the i8th Brumaire he was
chosen a senator by Napoleon and created a count. During the
Hundred Days he was a member of the chamber of representa-
tives. In 1803 he was chosen a member of the Institute of France,
but after the restoration of Louis XVIII. his name was, in 1816,
deleted from the list of members. After the revolution of 1830
he was named a member of the new Academy of Moral and
Political Science. He died at Ustaritz near Bayonne, April 25,
1833. His writings are characterized by elegance, grace and
variety of style, and by the highest kind of rhetorical eloquence;
but his grasp of his subject is superficial, and as his criticisms
have no root in fixed and philosophical principles they are not
unfrequently whimsical and inconsistent. He must not be
confounded with his elder brother Dominique (1735-1799); who
was also a deputy to the states-general.
The works of Garat include, besides those already mentioned,
Considerations sur la Revolution Fran^aise (Paris, 1792); Memoires
sur la Revolution, ou expose de ma conduite (1795); Memoires sur
la vie de M. Suard, sur ses ecrits, et sur le XVIII' siecle (1820);
eloges on Joubert, Kleber and Desaix; several notices of distin-
guished persons; and a large number of articles in periodicals.
Valuable materials for the history of Carat's tenure of the ministry,
notably the police reports of Dutard, are given in W. A. Schmidt s
Tableaux de to Revolution FranQaise (3 vols., Leipzig, 1867-1870).
GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN (1764-1823), French singer, nephew
of Dominique Joseph Garat, was born in Bordeaux on the 2Sth
of. April 1764. Gifted with a voice of exceptional timbre and
compass he devoted himself, from an early age, to the cultivation
of his musical talents. On account of his manifesting a distaste
for the legal profession, for which his father wished him to study,
he was deprived of his allowance, but through the patronage of a
friend he obtained the office of secretary to Comte d'Artois, and
was afterwards engaged to give musical lessons to the queen of
France. At the beginning of the Revolution he accompanied
Rode to England, where the two musicians appeared together in
concerts. He returned to Paris in 1 794. After the Revolution he
became a professional singer, and on account of a song which he
had composed in reference to the misfortunes of the royal family
he was thrown into prison. On regaining his liberty he went to
Hamburg, where he at once achieved extraordinary success; and
by his subsequent appearances in Paris, and his visits to Italy,
Spain, Germany and Russia, he made for himself a reputation as
a singer unequalled by any other of his own time. He was a keen
partisan of Gluck in opposition to Handel. On the institution of
the Conservatoire de Musique he became its professor of singing.
He also composed a number of songs, many of which have
considerable merit. He died on the ist of March 1823 in Paris.
GARAY, JANOS (1812-1853), Hungarian poet and author,
was born on the loth of October 1812, at Szegszard, in the
county of Tolna. From 1823 to 1828 he studied at Fiinfkirchen,
and subsequently, in 1829, at the university of Pest. In 1834 he
brought out an heroic poem, in hexameters, under the title
Csatar. After this he issued in quick succession various historical
dramas, among which the most successful were Arbdcz, OrszAgh
Ilona and Balhori Erzsebet, the first two published at Pest in
1837 and the last in 1840. Garay was an energetic journalist,
and in 1838 he removed to Pressburg, where he edited the political
journal Hirnok (Herald). He returned to Pest in 1839, when he
was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy
of Sciences. In 1842 he was admitted into the Kisfaludy Society,
of which he became second secretary. Garay enriched Hungarian
literature with numerous lyrical poems, ballads and tales. The
first collection of his poems was published at Pest in 1843; and
his prose tales appeared in 1845, under the title of Tollrajzok
(Sketches with the Pen). His historical ballads and legends,
styled Arpddok (Pest, 1847, 2nd ed. 1848), showed him to be a
master in the art of ballad-writing. Some of his lyrical poems
also are excellent, as, for example, Balatoni Kagyldk (Shells from
the Balaton Lake) (Pest, 1848). His legend Bosnydk Zsdfia
(Pest, 1847), and his poetical romance Frangep&n Krisiofne
(Christopher Frangepan's Wife) (Pest, 1846), gained the prize of
the Kisfaludy Society. His last and most famous work was an
historical poem in twelve cantos, with the title Szent Laszld
(Saint Ladislaus) (Eger, 1852, 2nd ed., Pest, 1853, 3rd ed. 1863).
Garay was professor of Hungarian language and literature to the
university of Pest in 1848-1849. After about four years' illness
he died on the sth of November 1853, in great want. A collective
edition of his poems was published at Pest the year after his
death by F. Ney (2nd ed. 1860), and several of his poems were
translated by Kertbeny.
See Garay Jdnos Osszes koltemenyei (2nd ed., Pest, 1860); and
Dichtungen von Johann Garay (2nd ed., Vienna, 1856).
GARBLE (a word derived from the Arab, gharbala, to sift, and
related to ghirbal, a sieve; the Arabic words are of foreign origin,
probably from the Lat. cribrum, a sieve), originally a medieval
commercial term in the Mediterranean ports, meaning to sort
out, or to sift merchandize, such as corn, spices, &c., in order
to separate what was good from the refuse or waste; hence to
select the best of anything for retention. Similarly a " garbler "
was an official who was appointed to sort out, or test the work of
those who had already sorted, the spices or drugs offered for sale
in the London markets. In this original sense the word is now
obsolete, but by inversion, or rather perversion, "garble" now
means to sort out or select, chiefly from books or other literary
works, or from public speeches, some portion which twists, muti-
lates, or renders ineffective the meaning of the author or speaker.
GARgAO GARCIA DE PAREDES
457
GARCAO. PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORREA (1724-
177*), Portuguese lyric poet, was the son of Philippe Corrfta da
Serra, *juialgo of the royal house who held an important post in
the foreign office; his mother was of French descent. The poet's
health was frail, and after going through a Jesuit school in Lisbon
and learning English, French and Italian at home, he proceeded in
174.' to the uniMTMty oi Coimbra with a view to a legal career.
He took his degree in 1748, and two years later was created
a knight of the Order of Christ. In 1751 his marriage with
D. Maria Salcma brought him a rich dower which enabled him
to live in ease and cultivate letters; but in later years a law-suit
reduced him to poverty. From 1760 to 1762 he edited the
Lisbon Gatettt. In 1756, in conjunction with Cruz e Silva and
others, Garcao founded the Arcadia Lusilana to reform the
prevailing bad taste in literature, identified with Seicentismo,
which delighted in conceits, windy words and rhetorical phrases.
The Arcadia fulfilled its mission to some extent, but it lacked
creative power, became dogmatic, and ultimately died of inanition.
Garcio was the chief contributor to its proceedings, bearing the
name of " Corydon Erimantheo," and his orations and dis-
sertations, with many of his lyrics, were pronounced and read at
its meetings. He lived much in the society of the English
residents in Lisbon, and he is supposed to have conceived a
passion for an English married lady which completely absorbed
him and contributed to his ruin. In the midst of his* literary
activity and growing fame, he was arrested on the night of the
9th of April 1771, and committed to prison by Pombal, whose
displeasure he had incurred by his independence of character.
The immediate cause of his incarceration would appear to have
been his connexion with a love intrigue between a young friend of
his and the daughter of a Colonel Elsden, but he was never
brought to trial, and the matter must remain in doubt. After
much solicitation, his wife obtained from the king an order for her
husband's release on the loth of November 1772, but it came too
late. Broken by infirmities and the hardships of prison life,
Garcao expired that very day in the Limoeiro, at the age of
forty-seven.
Taking Horace as his model, and aided by sound judgment,
scholarship and wide reading, Garcao set out to raise and purify
the standard of poetical taste, and his verses are characterized by
a Hitnifiil simplicity of form and expression. His sonnets ad
toddles show a charming personality; his vigorous and elegant
odes and epistles are sententious in tone and reveal an inspired
poet and a man chastened by suffering. His two comedies in
bendecasyUables, the Theatro Now (played in January 1766)
and the Assemblta, are excellent satires on the social life of the
capital; and in the Cantata de Didi, included in the latter piece,
the spirit of Greek an is allied to perfection of form, making this
composition perhaps the gem of Portuguese iSth century poetry.
Garcio wrote little and spent much time on the labor limae.
Hi* work* were published posthumously in 1778, and the most com-
plete and accessible edition is that of I. A. de Azevedo Castro (Rome,
1888). An English version of the Cantata de Dido appeared in the
Academy (January 19th, 1895). See Innocencio da Silva, Diccionario
HbliefrapSico Fortune*, vol. vi. pp. 386-393, and vol. xvii. pp. 182-
184; also Dr Thcophilo Braga, A Arcadia Lusitana (Oporto, 1899).
(E. P.)
GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO). MANOEL (1775-1832),
Spanish singer and composer, was born in Seville on the 22nd of
January 1775. He became a chorister at the cathedral of Seville,
and studied music under the best masters of that city. At
seventeen he made his debut on the stage at Cadiz, in an operetta,
in which were included songs of his own composition. Soon after-
wards he appeared at Madrid in the twofold capacity of singer and
composer. His reputation being established, he proceeded to
Paris, where he appeared for the first time, in 1808, in Paer's
opera GristUa. Here also he was received with great applause,
his style of singing being especially appreciated. This he further
improved by careful study of the Italian method in Italy itself,
where be continued his successes. His opera // Califo di Bagdad
was favourably received at Naples in 1812, but his chief successes
were again due to his perfection as a vocalist. His opera La
MorU di Tasso was produced in 1821 In Paris, where it was
followed in 1823 by his // Faztoletto, In 1824 he went to London,
and thence proceeded to America (1825) with a company of
artistes, amongst whom were his son Manoel and his daughter
Maria, better known under her subsequent name of Malibran.
In New York was produced his opera La Figlia dell' aria in 1827.
He extended his artistic tour as far as Mexico, and was on the
point of returning to Europe in order to retire from public life
when he was robbed of his well-earned wealth by brigands on his
way to Vera Cruz. Settled again in Paris in 1829, he soon retired
from the stage, and devoted himself exclusively to teaching. He
died in Paris on the 2nd of June 1832. His method of teaching
was famous, and some of the most celebrated singers of the early
part of the century were amongst his pupils. He also wrote an
excellent book on the art of singing called Melodo di canto, of
which the essence was subsequently incorporated by his son
Manoel in his admirable Trailt complet de I'art du chant (1847).
His operas have not survived their day. He wrote nearly forty in
all, but with the exception of those quoted, and El Poeta calculista,
produced when he was thirty, none are remarkable. Besides the
children already mentioned, his daughter Paulina, Madame
Viardot (1821-1910), worthily continued the tradition for the
best singing with which his name' had become associated.
His son, MANOEL GARCIA (1805-1906), who celebrated his
hundredth birthday in London on the I7th of March 1905, was
born at Madrid, and after his father's death devoted himself to
teaching. He was a professor at the Paris Conservatoire from
1830 to 1848, from that time to 1895 was a professor at the
Royal Academy of Music in London. He became famous for his
invention of the laryngoscope about 1850, apart from his position
as the greatest representative of the old " bel canto " style of
singing.
GARCfA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO (1734-1787),
Spanish dramatist, was born at Zafra on the 9th of March 1734,
and was educated at Salamanca. At Madrid he soon attracted
attention by his literary arrogance and handsome person; and
at an early age became chief of the National Library, a post from
which he was dismissed owing to the intrigues of his numerous
enemies. The publication of his unsatisfactory collection of
Spanish plays entitled Theatro Hespanol( 1785- 1786) exposed him
to severe censures, which appear to have affected his reason.
He died at Madrid on the i2th of March 1787, without carrying
into effect his avowed intention of reviving the national drama.
His Agabtemndn vengado derives from Sophocles, his Jaire is
translated from Voltaire, and even his once famous Raquel,
though Spanish in subject, is classic in form.
GARCfA DE PAREDES, DIEGO (1466-1534), Spanish soldier
and duellist, was a native of Trujillo in Estremadura, Spain.
He never commanded an army or rose to the position of a general,
but he was a notable figure in the wars of the end of the 1 5th and
beginning of the i6th century, when personal prowess had still a
considerable share in deciding the result of actions. His native
town and its district, which lie between Talavera and Madrid,
produced many of the most noted conquistadores of America,
including the Pizarro family. Diego himself served in his youth
in the war of Granada. His strength, daring and activity fitted
him to shine in operations largely composed of night marches,
escalades, surprises and hand-to-hand combats. The main
scene of his achievements was in Italy, and he betook himself to
it on his own showing not in search of glory, but because he
had killed a relation of his own, Ruy Sanchez clc Vargas, in a street
fight arising out of a quarrel about a horse. He fled to Rome,
then under the rule of the Borgias. Diego was a distant relation
to the cardinal of Santa Cruz (Carvajal), a favourite with Pope
Alexander VI., who was in conflict with the barons of the
Romagna and took Diego into his service. He remained a soldier
of the pope till he killed a man in a personal quarrel and found it
necessary to pass over to the enemy. Now he became acquainted
with the Colonnas, who appreciated his services. The wars
between Ferdinand V. of Aragon (the Catholic king) and Louis
XII. gave him a more creditable opening. The Spanish general
Gonsalvo de C6rdoba, who knew his value, employed him and
trusted him; and he took part in all the wars of Italy on the
GARCIA GUTIERREZ GARDA, LAKE OF
frontier of Navarre, and once against the Turks on the Danube,
till 1530, His countrymen made him the hero of many
Miinchausen-like stories of personal prowess. It was said that he
held a bridge single-handed against 200 Frenchmen, that he
stopped the wheel of a water-mill, and so forth. In the " Brief
Summary " of his life and deeds attributed to him, and printed at
the end of the Chronicle of the Great Captain, published in 1584 at
Alcala de Henares, he lays no claim to having done more than
was open to a very athletic man. He was killed at Bologna in
1534 by a fall while engaged in a jumping-match with some of
the younger officers of the army. His body was carried to his
native town Trujillo, and buried in the church of Santa Maria
Mayor in 1545.
GARCfA GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO (1812-1884), Spanish
dramatist, was born at Chiclana (Cadiz) on the 5th of July 1812,
and studied medicine in his native town. In 1832 he removed
to Madrid, and earned a scanty living by translating plays of
Scribe and the elder Dumas; despairing of success, he was on the
point of enlisting when he suddenly sprang into fame as the author
of El Trovador, which was played for the first time on the ist of
March 1836. Garcia Gutierrez never surpassed this first effort,
which placed him among the leaders of the romantic movement
in Spain, and which became known all over Europe through
Verdi's music. His next great success was Simdn Bocanegra
(1843), but, as his plays were not lucrative, he emigrated to
Spanish America, working as a journalist in Cuba and Mexico till
1850, when he returned to Spain. The best works of his later
period are a zarzuela entitled El Grumete (1853), La Venganza
catalana (1864) and Juan Lorenzo (1865). He became head of
the archaeological museum at Madrid, and died there on the 6th
of August 1884. His Poesias (1840) and another volume of
lyrics, entitled Luz y tinieblas (1842), are unimportant; but the
brilliant versification of his plays, and his power of analysing
feminine emotions, give him a foremost place among the Spanish
dramatists of the igth century.
CARD, a department in the south of France, consisting of part
of the old province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 421,166. Area
2270 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the departments of Lozere and
Ardeche, E. by the Rhone, which separates it from Vaucluse and
Bouches-du-Rh6ne, S. by the Mediterranean, S.W. by Herault
and W. by Aveyron. Gard is divided into three sharply-defined
regions. Its north-western districts are occupied by the range of
the Cevennes, which on the frontier of Lozere attain a height of
5120 ft. The whole of this region is celebrated for its fruitful
valleys, its gorges, its beautiful streams, its pastures, and the
chestnut, mulberry and other fruit trees with which the
mountains are often clothed to their summits. The Garrigues, a
dry, hilly region of limestone, which lends itself to the cultivation
of cereals, the vine and olive, stretches from the foot of the
Cevennes over the centre of the department, covering about half
its area. The southern portion, which extends to the sea, and was
probably at one time covered by it, is a low plain with numerous
lakes and marshes. Though unhealthy, it is prosperous, and
comprises the best arable land and vineyards in Gard.
Besides the Rhone, which bounds the department on the E.,
and the Ardeche, the lower course of which forms part of its
boundary on the N., the principal rivers are the Ceze, Gard,
Vidourle and Herault. The most northern of these is the Ceze,
which rises in the Cevennes, and after a course of about 50 m. in
an E.S.E. direction falls into the Rhone above Roquemaure.
The Gard, or Gardon, from which the department takes its name,
is also an affluent of the Rhone, and, rising in the Cevennes from
several sources, traverses the centre of the department, having a
length of about 60 m. In the upper part of its course it flows
through a succession of deep mountain gorges, and from the
melting of the snows on the Cevennes is subject to inundations,
which often cause great damage. Its waters not infrequently
rise 18 or 20 ft. in a few hours, and its bed is sometimes increased
in width to nearly a mile. Near Remoulins it is crossed by a
celebrated Roman aqueduct the Pont du Gard (see AQUEDUCT).
The Vidourle flows in a S.S.E. direction from its source near Le
Vigan, and after a course of about 50 m. falls into the sea. Below
Sommieres it forms the western boundary of the department.
The Herault has its source and part of its course in the west of
Gard. The Canal de Beaucaire extends- from the Rhone at
Beaucaire to Aigues-Mortes, which communicates with the
Mediterranean at Grau-du-Roi by means of the Grand- Roubine
canal.
The climate is warm in the south-east, colder in the north-
west; it is rather changeable, and rain-storms are common. The
cold and violent north-west wind known as the mistral is its
worst drawback. Les Fumades (near Allegre) and Euzet have
mineral springs. The chief grain crops are wheat and oats.
Rye, barley and potatoes are also grown. Gard is famed for its
cattle, its breed of small horses, and its sheep, the wool of which is
of a very fine quality. In the rearing of silk- worms it ranks first
among French departments. The principal fruit trees are the
olive, mulberry and chestnut. The vine is extensively cultivated
and yields excellent red and white wines. The department is
rich in minerals, and the mines of coal, iron, lignite, asphalt,
zinc, lead and copper, which are for the most part situated in the
neighbourhoods of Alais and La Grand'-Combe, constitute one of
the chief sources of its wealth. Great quantities of salt are
obtained from the salt marshes along the coast. The quarries of
building and other stone employ a considerable number of work-
men. The fisheries are productive. The manufactures are exten-
sive, and> include those of silk, of which Alais is the chief centre,
cotton and woollen fabrics, hosiery, ironware, hats (Anduze),
liquorice, gloves, paper, leather, earthenware and glass. There
are also breweries and distilleries, and important metallurgical
works, the chief of which are those of Besseges. The exports of
Gard include coal, lignite, coke, asphalt, building-stone, iron,
steel, silk, hosiery, wine, olives, grapes and truffles.
The department is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. It is
divided into the arrondissements of Nimes, Alais, Uzes and Le
Vigan, with 40 cantons and 351 communes. The chief town is
Nimes, which is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon
and of a court of appeal. Gard belongs to the isth military
region, which has its headquarters at Marseilles, and to the
academic (educational division) of Montpelh'er. Nimes, Alais,
Uzes, Aigues-Mortes, Beaucaire, Saint-Gilles, Besseges,La Grand'-
Combe and Villeneuve-Ies-Avignon are the principal places.
Opposite the manufacturing town of Pont-St-Esprit the Rhone
is crossed by a fine medieval bridge more than 1000 yds. long
built by the Pontiff brethren. Le Vigan, an ancient town with
several old houses, carries on silk-spinning.
GARDA, LAKE OF (the Locus Benacus of the Romans), the
most easterly and the most extensive of the great Lombard
lakes, being only surpassed in the Alpine region by those of
Geneva and Constance. Save the extreme northern extremity
(Riva, which was secured from Venice by Tirol in 1517), the
whole lake is Italian, being divided between the provinces of
Verona and Brescia. Its broad basin orographically represents
the southern portion of the valley of the Adige, though that river
now flows through a narrow trench which is separated from the
lake by the long narrow ridge of the Monte Baldo (7277 ft.).
Nowadays the lake is fed by the Sarca, that flows in at its north
end from the glaciers of the Adamello, while at the southern
extrefnity of the lake the Mincio flows out, on its way to join the
Po. The area of the lake is about 143 sq. m., its length {532^ m.,
its greatest breadth is about 10 m., the height of its surface above
sea-level is 216 ft. and the greatest depth yet measured is 1916 ft.
Its upper or northern end is narrow, but between Garda (E.) and
Salo (W.) the lake expands gradually into a nearly circular basin,
which at the southern extremity is divided into two parts by the
long low promontory of Sermione, that projects from the southern
shore between Peschiera and Desenzano. Owing to this con-
formation the lake is much exposed to sudden and violent winds,
which Virgil alludes to in his well-known line (Georg. ii. line 160) :
fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marine. The most
dangerous of these winds is the Borea or Suer, that sweeps down
from the north as through a funnel. In the southern portion of
the lake the Vinessa, an E.S.E. wind, is most dreaded. The Ora
is a regular wind coming from the east which, on reaching the
CARD ANE GARDINER
lake, Wows from S. to N. The steep grey limestone crags of
Monte Baldo, on the eastern side of the lake, contrast strongly
with the rich vegetation on the western and southern shores.
The portion of the western shore that extends from Gargnano to
Said is the most sheltered and warmest part of the region, so that
not merely does it resemble one continuous garden (producing
lemons, figs, mulberries, olives, &c.), but is frequented in winter,
and has been given the name of the Riritra Benacensr. The
lovely promontory of Sermione, at the southern end of the lake,
has also an extremely luxuriant vegetation, while it contains
many remain* of buildings of Roman and later date, having been
the Sirmio of Catullus, who resided here and celebrated its beauties
in many of his poems. In 1817 a boat with paddles set in motion
by horses was put on the lake, but the first steamer dates only
from 1844. At the south end of the lake, E. and W. respectively
of the promontory of Sermione, are the towns of Peschiera
( Ui m. by rail from Verona on the east) and of Desenzano (17$ m.
by rail from Brescia on the west), which are 8} m. distant from
each other. On the west shore of the lake are Said, Toscolano,
Gargnano and Limonc. while the rugged east shore can boast
only of Bardolino and Garda. At the northern tip of the lake,
and in Tirol, is Riva, the most considerable town on the lake,
and 15 J m. by rail from the Mori station on the main Brenner
Une (W. A. B. C.)
GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU. COUNT (1766-1818),
French general and diplomatist, was born on the 3Oth of January
1766. He entered the army and rose rapidly during the revolu-
tionary wars, becoming captain in 1793. In May 1799 he
distinguished himself by saving a division of the French army
which was about to be crushed by the Russians at the battle of
Bassignana, and was named at once brigadier-general by Moreau.
He incurred Napoleon's displeasure for an omission of duty
shortly before the battle of Marengo (June I4th, 1800), but in
1805 was appointed to be aide-de-camp of the emperor. His chief
distinction, however, was to be won in the diplomatic sphere.
In the spring of 1807, when Russia and Prussia were at war with
France, and the emperor Alexander I. of Russia was also engaged
in hostilities with Persia, the court of Teheran sent a mission to
the French emperor, then at the castle of Finkenstein in the east
of Prussia, with a view to the conclusion of a Franco-Persian
alliance. This was signed on the 4th of May 1807, at that castle;
and Napoleon designed Gardane as special envoy for the cement-
ing of that alliance. The secret instructions which he drew up
for Gardane, and signed on the 3oth of May, are of interest as
showing the strong oriental trend of the emperor's policy. France
was to guarantee the integrity of Persia, to recognize that
Georgia (then being invaded by the Russians) belonged to the
shah, and was to make all possible efforts for restoring that
territory to him. She was also to furnish to the shah arms,
officers and workmen, in the number and to the amount
demanded by him. Napoleon on his side required Persia to
declare war against Great Britain, to expel all Britons from her
territory, and to come to an understanding with the Afghans
with a view to a joint Franco-Perso-Afghan invasion of India.
Gardane, whose family was well known in the Levant, had a long
and dangerous journey overland, but was cordially received at
Teheran in December 1807. The conclusion of the Frfnco-
Russian treaty at Tilsit in July 1807 rendered the mission
abortive. Persia longed only for help against Russia and had
no desire, when all hope of that was past, to attack India. The
bah, however, promised to expel Britons and to grant to France
a commercial treaty. For a time French influence completely
replaced that of England at Teheran, and the mission of Sir
John Malcolm to that court was not allowed to proceed. Finally,
however, Gardane saw that nothing much was to be hoped for in
the changed situation of European affairs, and abruptly left the
country (April 1800). This conduct was not wholly approved by
Napoleon, but be named him count and in 1810 attached him
to Massena's army in Portugal. There, during the disastrous
retreat from Santarem to Almeida, he suffered a check which
brought him into disfavour. The rest of his career calls for no
notice. He died in 1818. The report which he sent to Cham-
459
pagny (dated April J3rd, 1809) on the state of Persia and the
prospects of a successful invasion of India is of great interest.
He admitted the difficulties of this enterprise, but thought that
a force of picked French troops, aided by Persians and Afghans,
might under favourable conditions penetrate into India by way of
Kandahar, or through Sind, especially if the British were dis-
tracted by maritime attacks from Mauritius.
See Count Alfred dc Gardane, Mission du general Gardane en Perse
(Pans i860; and P. A. L. dc Driault, La Politique orientate a*
Au/xi/i ,m ebastiani et Gardane (Paris, 1904). (J. HL. R.)
GARDELEGEN. a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on
the right bank of the Milde, 20 m. W. from Stendal, on the main
line of railway Berlin-Hanover. Pop. (1005) 8193. It has a
Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, a hospital,
founded in 1 285, and a high-grade school. There are considerable
manufactures, notably agricultural machinery and buttons, and
its beer has a great repute. Gardelegen was founded in the loth
century, and was for a long time the seat of a line of counts. It
suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, and in 1775 was
burned by the French. On the neighbouring heath Margrarc
Louis I. of Brandenburg gained, in 1343, a victory over Otto the
Mild of Brunswick.
GARDEN (from O. Fr. gordin, mod. Fr. jardin; this, like
our words " garth," a paddock attached to a building, and
" y arc V' comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which
appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. gart, cf. Dutch gaarde
and Ger. garlen), the ground enclosed and cultivated for the
growth of fruit, flowers or vegetables (see HORTICULTURE).
The word is also used for grounds laid out ornamentally, used as
places of public entertainment. Such were the famous Ranelagh
and Vauxhall Gardens in London; it is similarly used in zoologi-
cal gardens, and as a name in towns for squares, terraces or
streets. From the fact that Epicurus (?..) taught in the gardens
at Athens, the disciples of his school of philosophy were known as
of dird TUV Kirirtav (so Diog. Laertius x. 10); and Cicero (De
finibus v. i. 3, and elsewhere) speaks of the Horti Epicuri.
Thus as the " Academy " refers to the Platonic and the " Porch "
(<7rod) to the Stoic school, so the " Garden " is the name given to
the Epicurean school of philosophy. Apollodorus was known as
mrirorrvpavvm, the tyrant of the garden.
GARDENIA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rubiaceae,
containing about sixty species of evergreen trees and shrubs,
natives of the warmer parts of the old world. Several are
grown in stoves or greenhouses for their handsome, sweet-scented
white flowers. The flowers are developed singly at the end of a
branch or in the leaf-axils, and are funnel- or salver-shaped with
a long tube. The double forms of Gardenia florida (a native of
China) and G. radicans (a native of Japan) are amongst the most
beautiful and highly perfumed of any in cultivation. Gardenias
are grown chiefly for cut flowers, and are readily propagated by
cuttings. They require plenty of heat and moisture in the grow-
ing season, and must be kept free from insects such as the mealy
bug, green fly, red spider and scale-insect.
GARDINER, JAMES (1688-1745), Scottish soldier, was born at
Carriden in Linlithgo wshire, on the 1 1 th of January 1 688. At t he
age of fourteen he entered a Scottish regiment in the Dutch
service, and was afterwards present at the battle of Ramillies,
where he was wounded. He subsequently served in different
cavalry regiments, and in 1730 was advanced to the rank of
lieutenant-colonel, and in 1743 to that of colonel. He fell at the
battle of Prestonpans, the Jist of September 1745. The
circumstances of his death are described in Sir Walter Scott's
Waverley. In his early years he was distinguished for his
recklessness and profligacy, but in 1719 a supernatural vision,
as he regarded it, led to his conversion, and from that time he
lived a life of great devoutness and of thorough consistency with
his Christian profession. Dr Alexander Carlyle of Inveresk,
author of an autobiography, says that he was " very osten-
tatious " about his conversion speaks of him as weak, and
plainly thinks there was a great deal of delusion in Col.
Gardiner's account of his sins.
life was written by Dr Philip Doddridge and hai been often
reprinted.
460
GARDINER, S. R. GARDINER, STEPHEN
GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902), English
historian, son of Rawson Boddam Gardiner, was born near
Alresford, Hants, on the 4th of March 1829. He was educated at
Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, where he obtained a first
class in literae humaniores. He was subsequently elected to
fellowships at All Souls (1884) and Merton (1892). For some
years he was professor of modern history at King's College,
London, and devoted his life to historical work. He is the
historian of the Puritan revolution, and has written its history in
a series of volumes, originally published under different titles,
beginning with the accession of James I.; the seventeenth (the
third volume of the History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate)
appeared in 1901. This was completed in two volumes by C. H.
Firth as The Last Years of the Protectorate (1909). The series is
History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak
of the Civil War, 1603-1642 (10 vols.); History of the Great Civil
War, 1642-1640 (4 vols.); and History of the Commonwealth and
Protectorate, 1649-1660. His treatment is exhaustive and
philosophical, taking in, along with political and constitutional
history, the changes in religion, thought and sentiment during his
period, their causes and their tendencies. Of the original
authorities on which his work is founded many of great value
exist only in manuscript, and his researches in public and
private collections of manuscripts at home, and in the archives
of Simancas, Venice, Rome, Brussels and Paris, were inde-
fatigable and fruitful. His accuracy is universally acknowledged.
He was perhaps drawn to the Puritan period by the fact of his
descent from Cromwell and Ireton, but he has certainly written of
it with no other purpose than to set forth the truth. In his
judgments of men and their actions he is unbiassed, and his
appreciations of character exhibit a remarkable fineness of
perception and a broad sympathy. Among many proofs of these
qualities it will be enough to refer to what he says of the characters
of James I., Bacon, Laud, Strafford and Cromwell. On consti-
tutional matters he writes with an insight to be attained only by
the study of political philosophy, discussing in a masterly
fashion the dreams of idealists and the schemes of government
proposed by statesmen. Throughout his work he gives a promi-
nent place to everything which illustrates human progress in
moral and religious, as well as political conceptions, and specially
to the rise and development of the idea of religious toleration,
finding his authorities not only in the words and actions of men of
mark, but in the writings of more or less obscure pamphleteers,
whose essays indicate currents in the tide of public opinion.
His record of the relations between England and other states
proves his thorough knowledge of contemporary European
history, and is rendered specially valuable by his researches
among manuscript sources which have enabled him to expound
for the first time some intricate pieces of diplomacy.
Gardiner's work is long and minute; the fifty-seven years
which it covers are a period of exceptional importance in many
directions, and the actions and characters of the principal persons
in it demand careful analysis. He is perhaps apt to attach an
exaggerated importance to some of the authorities which he was
the first to bring to light, to see a general tendency in what may
only be the expression of an individual eccentricity, to rely too
much on ambassadors' reports which may have. been written for
some special end, to enter too fully into the details of diplomatic
correspondence. In any case the length of his work is not the
result of verbiage or repetitions. His style is clear, absolutely
unadorned, and somewhat lacking in force; he appeals con-
stantly to the intellect rather than to the emotions, and is seldom
picturesque, though in describing a few famous scenes, such as the
execution of Charles I., he writes with pathos and dignity. The
minuteness of his narrative detracts from its interest; though
his arrangement is generally good, here and there the reader
finds the thread of a subject broken by the intrusion of incidents
not immediately connected with it, and does not pick it up again
without an effort. And Gardiner has the defects of his supreme
qualities, of his fairness and critical ability as a judge of character;
his work lacks enthusiasm, and leaves the reader cold and un-
moved. Yet, apart from its sterling excellence, it is not without
beauties, for it is marked by loftiness of thought, a love of purity
and truth, and refinement in taste and feeling. He wrote other
books, mostly on the same period, but his great history is that by
which his name will live. It is a worthy result of a life of unre-
mitting labour, a splendid monument of historical scholarship.
His position as an historian was formally acknowledged: in 1862
he was given a civil list pension of 150 per annum, " in recogni-
tion of his valuable contributions to the history of England ";
he was honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Edinburgh, and
Ph.D. of Gottingen, and honorary student of Christ Church,
Oxford; and in 1894 he declined the appointment of regius
professor of modern history at Oxford, lest its duties should
interfere with the accomplishment of his history. He died on
the 24th of February 1902.
Among the more noteworthy of Gardiner's separate works are:
Prince Charles and the Spanish Marriage (2 vols., London, 1869);
Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1625-1660 (1st
ed., Oxford, 1889; 2nd ed., Oxford, 1899); Oliver Cromwell (London,
1901); What Gunpowder Plot was (London, 1897); Outline of
English History (ist ed., London, 1887; 2nd ed., London, 1896);
and Student's History of England (2 vols., 1st ed., London, 1890-
1891; 2nd ed., London, 1891-1892). He edited collections of
papers for the Camden Society, and from 1891 was editor of the
English Historical Review. (W. Hu.)
GARDINER, STEPHEN (c. 1493-1555), English bishop and
lord chancellor, was a native of Bury St Edmunds. The date of
his birth as commonly given, 1483, seems to be about ten years
too early, and surmises which have passed current that he was
some one's illegitimate child are of no authority. His father is
now known to have been John Gardiner, a substantial cloth
merchant of the town where he was born (see his will, printed in
Proceedings of the Suffolk Archaeological Institute, i. 329), who
took care to give him a good education. In 1511 he, being then
a lad, met Erasmus at Paris (Nichols's Epistles of Erasmus,
ii. 12, 13). But he had probably already been to Cambridge,
where he studied at Trinity Hall and greatly distinguished him-
self in the classics, especially in Greek. He afterwards devoted
himself to the canon and civil law, in which subjects he attained
so great a proficiency that no one could dispute his pre-eminence.
He received the degree of doctor of civil law in 1520, and of canon
law in the following year.
Ere long his abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Wolsey,
who made him his secretary, and in this capacity he is said to have
been with him at More Park in Hertfordshire, when the conclusion
of the celebrated treaty of the More brought Henry VIII. and
the French ambassadors thither. It is stated, and with great
probability, that this was the occasion on which he was first
introduced to the king's notice, but he does not appear to have
been actively engaged in Henry's service till three years later. In
that of Wolsey be undoubtedly acquired a very intimate know-
ledge of foreign politics, and in 1527 he and Sir Thomas More
were named commissioners on the part of England in arranging
a treaty with the French ambassadors for the support of an army
in Italy against the emperor. That year he accompanied Wolsey
on his important diplomatic mission to France, the splendour and
magnificence of which are so graphically described by Cavendish.
Among the imposing train who went with the cardinal including,
as it did, several noblemen and privy councillors Gardiner
alonfc seems to have been acquainted with the real heart of the
matter which made this embassy a thing of such peculiar moment.
Henry was then particularly anxious to cement his alliance with
Francis I., and gain his co-operation as far as possible in the
object on which he had secretly set his heart a divorce from
Catherine of Aragon. In the course of his progress through
France he received orders from Henry to send back his secretary
Gardiner, or, as he was called at court, Master Stevens, for fresh
instructions; to which he was obliged to reply that he positively
could not spare him as he was the only instrument he had in
advancing the king's " secret matter." Next year Gardiner, still
in the service of Wolsey, was sent by him to Italy along with
Edward Fox, provost of King's College, Cambridge, to promote
the same business with the pope. His despatches on this occasion
are still extant, and whatever we may think of the cause on which
he was engaged, they certainly give a wonderful impression of the
GARDINER, STEPHEN
461
seal and ability with which he discharged his functions. Here his
perfect familiarity with the canon law gave him a great advantage.
He was instructed to procure from the pope a decretal com-
mission, laying down principles of law by which Wolsey and
Campeggio might hear and determine the cause without appeal.
The demand, though supported by plausible pretexts, was not
only unusual but clearly inadmissible. Clement VII. was then at
Orvieto, and had just recently escaped from captivity at St
Angelo at the hands of the imperialists. But fear of offending
the emperor could not have induced him to refuse a really
legitimate request from a king like Henry. He naturally referred
the question to the cardinals about him; with whom Gardiner
held long arguments, enforced, it would seem, by not a little
browbeating of the College. What was to be thought, he said, of
a spiritual guide, who either could not or would not show the
wanderer his way ? The king and lords of England would be
driven to think that God had taken away from the Holy See the
key of knowledge, and that pontifical laws which were not clear
to the pope himself might as well be committed to the flames.
This ingenious pleading, however, did not serve, and he was
obliged to be content with a general commission for Campeggio
and Wolsey to try the cause in England. This, as Wolsey saw,
was quite inadequate for the purpose in view; and he again
instructed Gardiner, while thanking the pope for the commission
actually granted, to press him once more by very urgent pleas,
to send the desired decretal on, even if the latter was only to be
shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. Otherwise,
he wrote, he would lose his credit with the king, who might even
be tempted to throw off his allegiance to Rome altogether. At
last the pope to his own bitter regret afterwards gave what
was desired on the express conditions named, that Campeggio
was to show it to the king and Wolsey and no one else, and then
destroy it, the two legates holding their court under the general
commission. After obtaining this Gardiner returned home;
but early in the following year, 1529, when proceedings were
delayed on information of the brief in Spain, he was sent once
more to Rome. This time, however, his efforts were unavailing.
The pope would make no further concessions, and would not
even promise not to revoke the cause to Rome, as he did very
shortly after.
Gardiner's services, however, were fully appreciated. He was
appointed the king's secretary. He had been already some years
archdeacon of Taunton, and the archdeaconry of Norfolk was
added to it in March 1529, which two years later he resigned for
that of Leicester. In 1330 he was sent to Cambridge to procure
the decision of the university as to the unlawfulness of marriage
with a deceased brother's wife, in accordance with the new plan
devised for settling the question without the pope's intervention.
In this be succeeded, though not without a good deal of artifice,
more creditable to his ingenuity than to his virtue. In November
i S3 1 the king rewarded him for his services with the bishopric
of Winchester, vacant by Wolsey's death. The promotion was
unexpected, and was accompanied by expressions from the king
which made it still more honourable, as showing that if he had
been in some things too subservient, it was from no abject, self-
seeking policy of his own. Gardiner had, in fact, ere this remon-
strated boldly with his sovereign on some points, and Henry
now reminded him of the fact. " I have often squared with you,
Gardiner," he said familiarly, " but I love you never the worse,
as the bishopric I give will convince you." In 1 532, nevertheless,
he excited some displeasure in the king by the part he took in the
preparation of the famous " Answer of the Ordinaries " to the
complaints brought against them in the House of Commons.
On this subject he wrote a very manly letter to the king in his own
defence.
His next important action was not so creditable; for he was,
not exactly, as is often said, one of Cranmer's assessors, but,
according to Cranmer's own expression, " assistant " to him as
counsel for the king, when the archbishop, in the absence of
Queen Catherine, pronounced her marriage with Henry null and
void on the 23id of May 1533. Immediately afterwards he was
sent over to Marseilles, where an interview between the pope and
Francis I. took place in September, of which event Henry
stood in great suspicion, as Francis was ostensibly his most
cordial ally, and had hitherto maintained the justice of his cause
in the matter of the divorce. It was at this interview that Bonner
intimated the appeal of Henry VIII. to a general council in case
the pope should venture to proceed to sentence against him.
This appeal, and also one on behalf of Cranmer presented with it,
were of Gardiner's drawing up. In 1535 he and other bishops
were called upon to vindicate the king's new title of " Supreme
Head of the Church of England." The result was his celebrated
treatise De vcra obedientia, the ablest, certainly, of all the
vindications of royal supremacy. In the same year he had an
unpleasant dispute with Cranmer about the visitation of his
diocese. He was also employed to answer the pope's brief
threatening to deprive Henry of his kingdom.
During the next few years he was engaged in various embassies
in France and Germany. He was indeed so much abroad that
he had little influence upon the king's councils. But in 1539 he
took part in the enactment of the severe statute of the Six Articles,
which led to the resignation of Bishops Latimer and Shaxton and
the persecution of the Protestant party. In 1 540, on the death of
Cromwell, earl of Essex, he was elected chancellor of the university
of Cambridge. A few years later he attempted, in concert with
others, to fasten a charge of heresy upon Archbishop Cranmer in
connexion with the Act of the Six Articles; and but for the
personal intervention of the king he would probably have
succeeded. He was, in fact, though he had supported the royal
supremacy, a thorough opponent of the Reformation in a
doctrinal point of view, and it was suspected that he even
repented his advocacy of the royal supremacy. He certainly
had not approved of Henry's general treatment of the church,
especially during the ascendancy of Cromwell, and he was
frequently visited with storms of royal indignation, which he
schooled himself to bear with patience. In 1544 a relation of
his own, named German Gardiner, whom he employed as his
secretary, was put to death for treason in reference to the king's
supremacy, and his enemies insinuated to the king that he
himself was of his secretary's way of thinking. But in truth the
king had need of him quite as much as he had of Cranmer; for it
was Gardiner, who even under royal supremacy, was anxious
to prove that England had not fallen away from the faith,
while Cranmer's authority as primate was necessary to upholding
that supremacy. Thus Gardiner and the archbishop maintained
opposite sides of the king's church policy; and though Gardiner
was encouraged by the king to put up articles against the arch-
bishop himself for heresy, the archbishop could always rely on the
king's protection in the end. Heresy was gaining ground in high
places, especially after the king's marriage with Catherine Parr;
and there seems to be some truth in the story that the queen
herself was nearly committed for it at one time, when Gardiner,
with the king's approbation, censured some of her expressions
in conversation. In fact, just after her marriage, four men
of the Court were condemned at Windsor and three of them
were burned. The fourth, who was the musician Marbeck, was
pardoned by Gardiner's procurement.
Great as Gardiner's influence had been with Henry VIII., his
name was omitted at the last in the king's will, though Henry
was believed to have intended making him one of his executors.
Under Edward VI. he was completely opposed to the policy of the
dominant party both in ecclesiastical and in civil matters. The
religious changes he objected to both on principle and on the
ground of their being moved during the king's minority, and
he resisted Cranmer's project of a general visitation. His re-
monstrances, however, were met by his own committal to the
Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his
imprisonment. Though soon afterwards released, it was not long
before he was called before the council, and, refusing to give
them satisfaction on some points, was thrown into the Tower,
where he continued during the whole remainder of the reign, a
period slightly over five years. During this time he in vain
demanded his liberty, and to be called before parliament as a peer
of the realm. His bishopric was taken from him and given to Dr
462
GARDINER GARDNER
Poynet, a chaplain of Cranmer's who had not long before been
made bishop of Rochester. At the accession of Queen Mary, the
duke of Norfolk and other state prisoners of high rank were in the
Tower along with him; but the queen, on her first entry into
London, set them all at liberty. Gardiner was restored to his
bishopric and appointed lord chancellor, and he set the crown on
the queen's head at her coronation. He also opened her first
parliament and for some time was her leading councillor.
He was now called upon, in advanced life, to undo not a little of
the work in which he had been instrumental in his earlier years
to vindicate the legitimacy of the queen's birth and the lawfulness
of her mother's marriage, to restore the old religion, and to
recant what he himself had written touching the royal supremacy.
It is said that he wrote a formal Palinodia or retractation of his
book De vera obedientia, but it does not seem to be now extant ;
and the reference is probably to his sermon on Advent Sunday
1554, after Cardinal Pole had absolved the kingdom from schism.
As chancellor he had the onerous task of negotiating the queen's
marriage treaty with Philip, to which he shared the general
repugnance, though he could not oppose her will. In executing it,
however, he took care to make the terms as advantageous for
England as possible, with express provision that the Spaniards
should in nowise be allowed to interfere in the government of the
country. After the coming of Cardinal Pole, and the reconcilia-
tion of the realm to the see of Rome, he still remained in high
favour. How far he was responsible for the persecutions which
afterwards arose is a debated question. He no doubt approved
of the act, which passed the House of Lords while he presided
there as chancellor, for the revival of the heresy laws. Neither
is there any doubt that he sat in judgment on Bishop Hooper,
and on several other preachers whom he condemned, not exactly
to the flames, but to be degraded from the priesthood. The
natural consequence of this, indeed, was that when they declined,
even as laymen, to be reconciled to the Church, they were
handed over to the secular power to be burned. Gardiner,
however, undoubtedly did his best to persuade them to save
themselves by a course which he conscientiously followed himself;
nor does it appear that, when placed on a commission along with
a number of other bishops to administer a severe law, he could
very well have acted otherwise than he did. In his own diocese
no victim of the persecution is known to have suffered till after
his death; and, much as he was already maligned by opponents,
there are strong evidences that his natural disposition was humane
and generous. In May 1553 he went over to Calais as one of the
English commissioners to promote peace with France; but their
efforts were ineffectual. In October 1555 he again opened parlia-
ment as lord chancellor, but towards the end of the month he
fell ill and grew rapidly worse till the izth of November, when
he died over sixty years of age.
Perhaps no celebrated character of that age has been the
subject of so much ill-merited abuse at the hands of popular
historians. That his virtue was not equal to every trial must be
admitted, but that he was anything like the morose and narrow-
minded bigot he is commonly represented there is nothing
whatever to show. He has been called ambitious, turbulent,
crafty, abject, vindictive, bloodthirsty and a good many other
things besides, not quite in keeping with each other; in addition
to which it is roundly asserted by Bishop Burnet that he was
despised alike by Henry and by Mary, both of whom made use of
him as a tool. How such a mean and abject character submitted
to remain five years in prison rather than change his principles is
not very clearly explained; and as to his being despised, we have
seen already that neither Henry nor Mary considered him by any
means despicable. The truth is, there is not a single divine or
statesman of that day whose course throughout was so thoroughly
consistent. He was no friend to the Reformation, it is true, but
he was at least a conscientious opponent. In doctrine he adhered
to the old faith from first to last, while as a question of church
policy, the only matter for consideration with him was whether
the new laws and ordinances were constitutionally justifiable.
His merits as a theologian it is unnecessary to discuss; it is as
a statesman and a lawyer that he stands conspicuous. But his
learning even in divinity was far from commonplace. The part
that he was allowed to take in the drawing up of doctrinal
formularies in Henry VIII. 's time is not clear; but at a later
date he was the author of various tracts in defence of the Real
Presence against Cranmer, some of which, being written in prison,
were published abroad under a feigned name. Controversial
writings also passed between him and Bucer, with whom he had
several interviews in Germany, when he was there as Henry
VIII. 's ambassador.
He was a friend of learning in every form, and took great
interest especially in promoting the study of Greek at Cambridge.
He was, however, opposed to the new method of pronouncing
the language introduced by Sir John Cheke, and wrote letters to
him and Sir Thomas Smith upon the subject, in which, according
to Ascham, his opponents showed themselves the better critics,
but he the superior genius. In his own household he loved to
take in young university men of promise; and many whom he
thus encouraged became distinguished in after life as bishops,
ambassadors and secretaries of state. His house, indeed, was
spoken of by Leland as the seat of eloquence and the special
abode of the muses.
He lies buried in his own cathedral at Winchester, where his
effigy is still to be seen. Q. GA.)
GARDINER, a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A., at the
confluence of Cobbosseecontee river with the Kennebec, 6 m.
below Augusta. Pop. (i8go) 5491; (IQOO) 5501 (337 foreign-
born); (1910) 5311. It is served by the Maine Central railway.
The site of the city is only a few feet above sea-level, and the
Kennebec is navigable for large vessels to this point; the water
of the Cobbosseecontee, falling about 130 ft. in a mile, furnishes
the city with good power for its manufactures (chiefly paper,
machine-shop products, and shoes) . The city exports considerable
quantities of lumber and ice. Gardiner was founded in 1760 by
Dr Sylvester Gardiner (1707-1786), and for a time the settlement
was called Gardinerston; in 1779, when it was incorporated as a
town, the founder being then a Tory, it was renamed Pittston.
But in 1803, when that part of Pittston which lay on the W.
bank of the Kennebec was incorporated as a separate town and
new life was given to it by the grandson of the founder, the present
name was adopted. Gardiner was chartered as a city in 1849.
The town of Pittston, on the E. bank of the Kennebec, had a
population of 1177 in 1900.
GARDNER, PERCY (1846- ), English classical archaeo-
logist, was born in London, and was educated at the City
of London school and Christ's College, Cambridge (fellow, 1872).
He was Disney professor of archaeology at Cambridge from 1880
to 1887, and was then appointed professor of classical archaeo-
logy at Oxford, where he had a stimulating influence on the study
of ancient, and particularly Greek, art. He also became promi-
nent as an historical critic on Biblical subjects. Among his works
are: Types of Greek Coins (1883): A Numismatic Commentary
on Pausanias (with F. Imhoof-Blumer, 1887); New Chapters in
Greek History (1892), an account of excavations in Greece and
Aisa Minor; Manual of Greek Antiquities (with F. B. Jevons,
2nd ed. 1898); Grammar of Greek Art (1905); Exploratio
Eoangelica (1899), on the origin of Christian belief; A Historic
View of the New Testament (1901) ; Growth of Christianity (1907).
His brother, ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER (1862- ), educated
at the City of London school and Caius College, Cambridge
(fellow, 1885), is also well known as an archaeologist. From
1887 to 1895 he was director of the British School of Archaeology
at Athens, and later became professor of archaeology at University
College, London. His publications include: Introduction to
Greek Epigraphy (1887); Ancient Athens (1902); Handbook of
Greek Sculpture (1905); Six Greek Sculptors (1910). He was
elected first Public Orator of London University in 1910.
GARDNER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 8424; (1900) 10,813, of whom 3449 were
foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,699. The township is traversed
by the Boston & Maine railway. It has an area of 21-4 sq. m. of
hill country, well watered with streams and ponds, and includes
the villages of Gardner (15 m. by rail W. of Fitchburg), South
GARE-FOWL
463
Gardner and West Gardner. In the township are the state
colony for the insane, the Henry Heywood memorial hospital,
and the Levi Hey wood memorial library (opened in 1886), a
memorial to Levi Heywood (1800-1881), a prominent local
manufacturer of chain, who invented various kinds of chair-
making machinery. By far the principal industry of the township
(dating from 1805) is the manufacture of chairs, the township
having in 1905 the largest chair factory in the world; among the
other manufactures are toys, baby-carriages, silver-ware and
oil stoves. In 1005 the total factory product of the township
was valued at $5,019,019, the furniture product alone amounting
to $4,267,064, or 85-2% of the total. Gardner, formed from
parts of Ashburnham, Templeton, Westminster and Winchenden,
was incorporated in 1785, and was named in honour of Col.
Thomas Gardner (1714-1775), a patriot leader of Massachusetts,
who was mortally wounded in the battle of Bunker Hill.
See W. D. Herrifk, History of On Town of Gardner (Gardner,
1878), covering the years 1785-1878.
GARE-FOWL 1 (Icelandic, Geirfugl; Gaelic, Gearbhul), the
anglicized form of the Hebridean name of a large sea-bird now
considered extinct, formerly a visitor to certain remote Scottish
; Und>, the Great Auk of most English book-writers, and the
Gate-Fowl, or Great Auk.
Alca impennis of Linnaeus. In size it was hardly less than a tame
goose, and in appearance it much resembled its smaller and
surviving relative the razor-bill (Alca lor da); but the glossy
black of its bead was varied by a large patch of white occupying
nearly all the space between the eye and the bill, in place of the
razor-bill's thin white line, while the bill itself bore eight or more
deep transverse grooves instead of the smaller number and the
ivory- like mark possessed by the species last named. Otherwise
the coloration was similar in both, and there is satisfactory
evidence that the gare-fowl's winter-plumage differed from that
of the breeding-season just as is ordinarily the case in other
members of the family Akidae to which it belongs. The most
striking characteristic of the gare-fowl, however, was the com-
paratively abortive condition of its wings, the distal portions of
1 The name first appear*, and in this form, in the Account of Hirta
(St Kilda) and Rona. etc., t.v the lord register, Sir George M'Kcnzic,
of Tarbat, printed by I'inkcrton in his Collection of Voyages and
Travels (iti. p. 730), and the* in Sibbald'* Scotia illvstrata (1684).
Martin soon after, in his Vtytf to St Kilda, pclt it " Gairfowl."
Sir R. Owen adopted the form farfuwl," without, as would seem,
any precedent authority.
which, though the bird was just about twice the linear dimensions
of the razor-bill, were almost exactly of the same size as in that
species proving, if more direct evidence were wanting, its
inability to fly.
The most prevalent misconception concerning the garc-fowl is
one which has been repeated so often, and in books of surh
generally good repute and wide dispersal, that a successful
refutation seems almost hopeless. This is the notion that it was
a bird possessing a very high northern range, and consequently
to be looked for by Arctic explorers. How this error arose would
take too long to tell, but the fact remains indisputable that,
setting aside general assertions resting on no evidence worthy of
attention, there is but a single record deserving any credit at all
of a single example of the species having been observed within the
Arctic Circle, and this, according to Prof. Rcinhardt, who had the
best means of ascertaining the truth, is open to grave doubt.* It
is clear that the older ornithologists let their imagination get the
better of their knowledge or their judgment, and their statements
have been blindly repeated by most of their successors. Another
error which, if not so widely spread, is at least as serious, since
Sir R. Owen unhappily gave it countenance, is that this bird
" has not been specially hunted down like the dodo and dinornis,
but by degrees has become more scarce." If any reliance can be
placed upon the testimony of former observers, the first part of
this statement is absolutely untrue. Of the dodo all we know is
that it flourished in Mauritius, its only abode, at the time the
island was discovered, and that some 200 years later it had ceased
to exist the mode of its extinction being open to conjecture, and
a strong suspicion existing that though indirectly due to man's
acts it was accomplished by his thoughtless agents (Phil. Trans.,
1869, p. 354). The extinction of the Dinornis lies beyond the
range of recorded history. Supposing it even to have taken
place at the very latest period as yet suggested and there is
much to be urged in favour of such a supposition little but oral
tradition remains to tell us how its extirpation was effected.
That it existed after New Zealand was inhabited by man is indeed
certain, and there is nothing extraordinary in the proved fact that
the early settlers (of whatever race they were) killed and ate
moas. But evidence that the whole population of those birds
was done to death by man, however likely it may seem, is
wholly wanting. The contrary is the case with the gare-fowl. In
Iceland there is the testimony of a score of witnesses, taken down
from their lips by one of the most careful naturalists who ever
lived, John Wolley, that the latest survivors of the species were
caught and killed by expeditions expressly organized with the
view of supplying the demands of caterers to the various museums
of Europe. In like manner the fact is incontestable that its
breeding-stations in the western part of the Atlantic were for
three centuries regularly visited and devastated with the combined
objects of furnishing food or bait to the fishermen from very early
days, and its final extinction, according to Sir Richard Bonny-
castle (Newfoundland in 1842, i. p. 232), was owing to " the ruth-
less trade in its eggs and skin." There is no doubt that one of the
chief stations of this species in Icelandic waters disappeared
through volcanic action, and that the destruction of the old
Geirfuglasker drove some at least of the birds which frequented it
to a rock nearer the mainland, where they were exposed to danger
from which they had in their former abode been comparatively
free; yet on this rock (Eldey = fire-island) they were " specially
hunted down " whenever opportunity offered, until the stock
there was wholly extirpated in 1844.
A third misapprehension is that entertained by John Gould
in his Birds of Great Britain, where he says that " formerly this
bird was plentiful in all the northern parts of the British Islands,
particularly the Orkneys and the Hebrides. At the commence-
ment of the igth century, however, its fate appears to have been
sealed; for though it doubtless existed, and probably bred, up to
the year 1830, its number? annually diminished until they became
so few that the species could not hold its own." Now of the
1 The specimen is in the Museum of Copenhagen ; the doubt lies as
to the locality where it was obtained, whether at Disco, which is
within, or at the Fiskernas, which is without, the Arctic Circle.
464
GARFIELD
Orkneys, we know that George Low, who died in 1795, says in his
posthumously-published Fauna Orcadensis that he could not find
it was ever seen there; and on Bullock's visit in 1812 he was told,
says Montagu (Orn. Diet. A pp.), that one male only had made its
appearance for a long time. This bird he saw and unsuccessfully
hunted, but it was killed soon after his departure, while its mate
had been killed just before his arrival, and none have been seen
there since. As to the Hebrides, St Kilda is the only locality
recorded for it, and the last example known to have been obtained
there, or in its neighbourhood, was that given to Fleming (Edinb.
Phil. Journ. x. p. 96) in 1821 or 1822, having been some time
before captured by Mr Maclellan of Glass. That the gare-fowl
was not plentiful in either group of islands is sufficiently obvious,
as also is the impossibility of its continuing to breed " up to the
year 1830."
But mistakes like these are not confined to British authors.
As on the death of an ancient hero myths gathered round his
memory as quickly as clouds round the setting sun, so have stories,
probable as well as impossible, accumulated over the true history of
this species, and it behoves the conscientious naturalist to exercise
more than common caution in sifting the truth from the large
mass of error. Americans have asserted that the specimen which
belonged to Audubon (now at Vassar College) was obtained by
him on the banks of Newfoundland, though there is Macgillivray's
distinct statement (Brit. Birds, v. p. 359) that Audubon pro-
cured it in London. The account given by Degland (Orn. Europ.
ii. p. 529) in 1849, and repeated in the last edition of his work by
M. Gerbe, of its extinction in Orkney, is so manifestly absurd that
it deserves to be quoted in full: " II se trouvait en assez grand
nombre il y a une quinzaine d'annees aux Orcades; mais le
ministre presbytdrien dans le Mainland, en off rant une forte prime
aux personnes qui lui apportaient cet oiseau, a ete cause de sa
destruction sur ces lies." The same author claims the species as a
visitor to the shores of France on the testimony of Hardy
(Annuaire normand, 1841, p. 298), which he grievously misquotes
both in his own work and in another place (Naumannia, 1855,
p. 423), thereby misleading an anonymous English writer (Nat.
Hist. Rev., 1865, p. 475) and numerous German readers.
John Milne in 1875 visited Funk Island, one of the former
resorts of the gare-fowl, or " penguin," as it was there called, in
the Newfoundland seas, a place where bones had before been
obtained by Stuvitz, and natural mummies so lately as 1863 and
1864. Landing on this rock at the, risk of his life, he brought off
a rich cargo of its remains, belonging to no fewer than fifty birds,
some of them in size exceeding any that had before been known.
His collection was subsequently dispersed, most of the specimens
finding their way into various public museums, v
A literature by no means inconsiderable has grown up respecting
the gare-fowl. Neglecting works of general bearing, few of which
are without many inaccuracies, the following treatises may be
especially mentioned: J. J. S. Steenstrup, " Et Bidrag til Geir-
fuglens Naturhistorie og saerligt til Kundskaben om dens tidligere
Udbredningskreds," Naturh. Foren. Vidensk. Meddelelser (Copen-
hagen, 1855), p. 33; E. Charlton, "On the Great Auk," Trans.
Tyneside Nat. Field Club, iv. p. ill; " Abstract of Mr J. Wolley's
Researches in Iceland respecting the Gare-fowl," Ibis (1861), p. 374;
W Preyer, " tlber Plautus impennis," Journ. fur Orn. (1862), pp.
u> 337); K. E. von Baer, " ttber das Aussterben der Tierarten in
physiologischer und nicht physiologischer Hinsicht," Bull, de
I'Acad. Imp. de St-Petersb. vi. p. 513; R. Owen, " Description of
the Skeleton of the Great Auk,' Trans. Zool. Soc. v. p. 317; " The
Gare-fowl and its Historians," Nat. Hist. Rev. v. p. 467; J. H.
Gurney, jun., " On the Great Auk," Zoologist (and ser.), pp. 1442,
1639; H. Reeks, "Great Auk in Newfoundland," &c., op. cit.
p. 1854; V. Fatio, "Sur 1'Alca impennis," Bull. Soc. Orn. Suisse,
ii. pp. i, 80, 147; "On existing Remains of the Gare-fowl," Ibis
(1870), p. 256; J. Milne, " Relics of the Great Auk," Field (27th of
March, 3rd and loth of April 1875). Lastly, reference cannot be
omitted to the happy exercise of poetic fancy with which Charles
Kingsley was enabled to introduce the chief facts of the gare-fowPs
extinction (derived from one of the above-named papers) into his
charming Water Babies. (A. N.)
GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (1831-1881), twentieth president
of the United States, was born on the igth of November 1831
in a log cabin in the little frontier town of Orange, Cuyahoga
county, Ohio. His early years were spent in the performance
of such labour as fell to the lot of every farmer's son in the new
states, and in the acquisition of such education as could be had
in the district schools held for a few weeks each winter. But life
on a farm was not to his liking, and at sixteen he left home and
set off to make a living in some other way. A book of stories
of adventure on the sea, which he read over and over again when
a boy, had filled him with a longing for a seafaring life. He
decided, therefore, to become a sailor, and, in 1848, tramping
across the country to Cleveland, Ohio, he sought employment
from the captain of a lake schooner. But the captain drove him
from the deck, and, wandering on in search of work, he fell in
with a canal boatman who engaged him. During some months
young Garfield served as bowsman, deck-hand and driver of a
canal boat. An attack of the ague sent him home, and on
recovery, having resolved to attend a high school and fit himself
to become a teacher, he passed the next four years in a hard
struggle with poverty and in an earnest efforf to secure an educa-
tion, studying for a short time in the Geauga Seminary atChester,
Ohio. He worked as a teacher, a carpenter and a farmer;
studied for a time at the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute
at Hiram, Ohio, which afterward became Hiram College, and
finally entered Williams College. On graduation, in 1856,
Garfield became professor of ancient languages and literature
in the Eclectic Institute at Hiram, and within a year had risen
to the presidency of the institution.
Soon afterwards he entered political life. In the early days
of the Republican party, when the shameful scenes of the Kansas
struggle were exciting the whole country, and during the cam-
paigns of 1857 and 1858, he became known as an effective
speaker and ardent anti-slavery man. His reward for his services
was election in 1859 to the Ohio Senate as the member from
Portage and Summit counties. When the " cotton states "
seceded, Garfield appeared as a warm supporter of vigorous
measures. He was one of the six Ohio senators who voted
against the proposed amendment to the Federal Constitution
(Feb. 28th, 1861) forbidding any constitutional amendment
which should give Congress the power to abolish or interfere
with slavery in any state; he upheld the right of the government
to coerce seceded states; defended the " Million War Bill "
appropriating a million dollars for the state's military expenses;
and when the call came for 75,000 troops, he moved that Ohio
furnish 20,000 soldiers and three millions of dollars as her share.
He had just been admitted to the bar, but on the outbreak of
war he at once offered his services to the governor, and became
lieutenant-colonel and then colonel of the 42nd Ohio Volunteers,
recruited largely from among his former students. He served
in Kentucky, was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general
of volunteers early in 1862; took part in the second day's
fighting at the battle of Shiloh, served as chief of staff under
Rosecrans in the Army of the Cumberland in 1863, fought at
Chickamauga, and was made a major-general of volunteers for
gallantry in that battle. In 1862 he was elected a member of
Congress from the Ashtabula district of Ohio, and, resigning his
military commission, took his seat in the House of Representatives
in December 1863. In Congress he joined the radical wing of
the Republican party, advocated the confiscation of Confederate
property, approved and defended the Wade-Davis manifesto
denouncing the lameness of Lincoln, and was soon recognized
as a hard worker and ready speaker. Capacity for work brought
him places on important committees he was chairman suc-
cessively of the committee on military affairs, the committee on
banking and currency, and the committee on appropriations,
and his ability as a speaker enabled him to achieve distinction
on the floor of the House and to rise to leadership. Between
1863 and 1873 Garfield delivered speeches of importance on
" The Constitutional Amendment to abolish Slavery," " The
Freedman's Bureau," " The Reconstruction of the Rebel States,"
" The Public Debt and Specie Payments," " Reconstruction,"
" The Currency," " Taxation of United States Bonds," " Enforc-
ing the I4th Amendment," " National Aid to Education,"
and " the Right to Originate Revenue Bills." The year 1874
was one of disaster to the Republican party. The greenback
GAR-FISH GARGANEY
465
issue, the troubles growing out of reconstruction in the South,
the Credit Mobilier and the " Salary Grab," disgusted thousands
of independent voters and sent a wave of Democracy over the
country. Garfield himself was accused of corruption in con-
nexion with the Cretlit Mobilier scandal, but the charge was
never proved. A Republican convention in his district demanded
his resignation, and re-election seemed impossible; but he
defended himself in two pamphlets, " Increase of Salaries
and " Review of the Transactions of the Credit Mobilier Com-
pany," made a village-to-village canvass, and was victorious.
In 1876 Garfield for the eighth time was chosen to represent his
district; and afterwards as one of the two representatives of
the Republicans in the House, he was a member of the Electoral
Commission which decided the dispute regarding the presidential
election of 1876. When, in 1877, James G. Blaine was made
a senator from Maine, the leadership of the House of Repre-
sentatives passed to Garfield, and he became the Republican
candidate for speaker. But the Democrats had a majority in
the House, and he was defeated. Hayes, the new president,
having chosen John Sherman to be his secretary of the treasury,
an effort was made to send Garfield to the United States Senate
in Sherman's place. But the president needed his services
in the House, and he was not elected to the Senate until
1880.
The time had now come (1880) when the Republican party
must nominate a candidate for the presidency. General Grant
had served two terms (1860-1877), and the- unwritten law of
custom condemned his being given another. But the " bosses "
of the Republican party in three great States New York,
Pennsylvania and Illinois were determined that he should be
renominated. These men and their followers were known as
the " stalwarts." Opposed to them were two other factions,
one supporting James G. Blaine, of Maine, and the other John
Sherman, of Ohio. When the convention met and the balloting
began, the contest along these factional lines started in earnest.
For eight-and-twenty ballots no change of any consequence was
noticeable. Though votes were often cast for ten names, there
were but two real candidates before the convention, Grant and
Blaine. That the partisans of neither would yield in favour of
the other was certain. That the choice therefore rested with the
supporters of the minor candidates was manifest, and with the
cry " Anything to beat Grant! " an effort was made to find
some man on whom the opposition could unite. Such a man
was Garfield. His long term of service in the House, his leader-
ship of his party on its floor, his candidacy for the speakership,
and his recent election to the United States Senate, marked him
out as the available man. Between the casting of the first and
the thirty-third ballot, Garfield, who was the leader of Sherman's
adherents in the convention, had sometimes received one or two
votes and at other times none. On the thirty-fourth he received
seventeen, on the next fifty, and on the next almost the entire
vote hitherto cast for Blaine and Sherman, and was declared
nominated. During the campaign Garfield was subject to
violent personal abuse; the fact that he was alleged to have
received $329 from the Credit Mobilier as a dividend on stock
led his opponents to raise the campaign cry of " 320," and this
number was placarded in the streets of the cities and printed
in flaring type in partisan newspapers. The forged " Morey
letter," in which he was made to appear as opposed to the ex-
clusion of the Chinese, was widely circulated and injured his
candidacy in the West. That the charges against Garfield were
not generally credited, however, is shown by the fact that he
received 214 electoral votes to his opponent's 155. He was
inaugurated on the 4th of March 1881.
Unfortunately, the new president was unequal to the task of
composing the differences in his party. For his secretary of state
he chose James G. Blaine. the bitterest political enemy of Senator
RoKoe Conkling (?..) the leader of the New York " stalwarts."
Without consulting the New York senators, Garfield appointed
William H. Robertson, another political enemy of Conkling's, to
the desirable post of Collector of the Port of New York, and
thereby destroyed all prospects of party harmony. On the and of
July, while on his way to attend the commencement exercises at
Williams College, the new president was shot in a Washington
railway station by a disappointed office-seeker named Charles
J. Guiteau, whose mind had no doubt been somewhat influenced
by the abuse lavished upon the president by his party opponents;
and on the igth of September 1881, he died at Elberon, New
Jersey, whither he had been removed on the 6th. He was buried
in Cleveland, Ohio, where in 1800 a monument was erected by
popular subscription to his memory.
In 1858 Garfield had married Miss Lucretia Rudolph, by whom
he had seven children. His son, HARRY AUGUSTUS GARFIELD
(b. 1863) graduated at Williams College in 1885, practised law in
Cleveland, Ohio, in 1888-1903, was professor of politics at
Princeton University in 1903-1908, and in 1908 became president
of Williams College. Another son, JAMES RUDOLPH GARFIELD
(b. 1865), also graduated at Williams College in 1885 and practised
law in Cleveland; he was a Republican member of the Ohio
Senate in 1896-1899, was commissioner of corporations, Depart-
ment of Commerce and Labour, in 1903-1907, attracting wide
attention by his reports on certain large industrial organizations,
and was secretary of the interior (1907-1909) in the cabinet of
President Roosevelt.
President Garfield's writings, edited by Burke A. Hinsdale, were
published at Boston, in two volumes, in 1882. (J. B. McM.)
OAR-FISH, the name given to a genus of fishes (Belone) found
in nearly all the temperate and tropical seas, and readily recog-
nized by their long, slender, compressed and silvery body, and by
their jaws being produced into a long, pointed, bony and sharply-
toothed beak. About fifty species are known from different
parts of the globe, some attaining to a length of 4 or 5 ft. One
species is common on the British coasts, and is well known by the
names of "long-nose," "green-bone," &c. The last name is
given to those fishes on account of the peculiar green colour of
their bones, which deters many people from eating them, although
their flesh is well flavoured and perfectly wholesome. The
skipper (Scomberesox) and half-beak (Hemirhamphus), in which
the lower jaw only is prolonged, are fishes nearly akin to the
gar-pikes.
GARGANEY 1 (North-Italian, Garganello), or SUMMER-TEAL,
the Anas querquedula and A. circia of Linnaeus (who made, as
did Willughby and Ray, two species out of one), and the type of
Stephens's genus Querquedula. This bird is one of the smallest of
the Anatidae, and has gained its cqmmon English name from
being almost exclusively a summer-visitant to England where
nowadays it only regularly resorts to breed in some of the East-
Norfolk Broads, though possibly at one time it was found at the
same season throughout the great Fen-district. Slightly larger
than the common teal (A . crecca) , the male is readily distinguished
therefrom by its peculiarly-coloured head, the sides of which are
nutmeg-brown, closely freckled with short whitish streaks, while
a conspicuous white curved line descends backwards from the
eyes. The upper wing-coverts are bluish grey, the scapulars
black with a white shaft-stripe, and the wing-spot (speculum)
greyish green bordered above and below by white. The female
closely resembles the hen teal, but possesses no wing-spot. In
Ireland or Scotland the garganey is very rare, and though it
is recorded from Iceland, more satisfactory evidence of its
occurrence there is needed. It has not a high northern range,
and its appearance in Norway and Sweden is casual. Though it
breeds in many parts of Europe, in none can it be said to be
common; but it ranges far to the eastward in Asia even to
Formosa, according to Swinhoe and yearly visits India in
winter in enormous numbers. Those that breed in Norfolk
arrive somewhat late in spring and make their nests in the vast
reed-beds which border the Broads a situation rarely or never
chosen by the teal. The labyrinth or bony enlargement of the
Lrachea in the male garganey differs in form from that described
n any other drake, being more oval and placed nearly in the
__' The word was introduced by Willughby from Gesner (On., lib.
ii. p. 127), but, though generally adopted by authors, seems never to
lave become other than a book-name in English, the bird being in-
variably known in the parts of this island where it is indigenous as
' summer-teal."
4 66
GARGANO GARIBALDI
median line of the windpipe, instead of on one side, as is usually
the case.
GARGANO, MONTE (anc. Garganus Mons), a massive
mountainous peninsula projecting E. from the N. coast of Apulia,
Italy, and belonging geologically to the opposite Dalmatian
coast; it was indeed separated from. the rest of Italy by an arm
of the sea as late as the Tertiary period. The highest point
(Monte Calvo) is 3465 ft. above sea-level. The oak forests
for which it was renowned in Roman times have entirely
disappeared.
GARGOYLE, or GURGOYLE (from the Fr. gargouille, originally
the throat or gullet, cf. Lat. gurgulio, gula, and similar words
derived from root gar, to swallow, the word representing the
gurgling sound of water; Ital. doccia di grande; Ger. Ausguss),
in architecture, the carved termination to a spout which conveys
away the water from the gutters. Gargoyles are mostly grotesque
figures. The term is applied more especially to medieval work,
but throughout all ages some means of throwing the water off the
roofs, when not conveyed in gutters, has been adopted, and in
Egypt there are gargoyles to eject the water used in the washing
of the sacred vessels which would seem to have been done on the
flat roofs of the temples. In Greek temples the water from the
roof passed through the mouths of lions whose heads were carved
or modelled in the marble or terra-cotta cymatium of the cornice.
At Pompeii large numbers of terra-cotta gargoyles have been
found which were modelled in the shape of various animals.
GARHWAL, or GURWAL. i. A district of British India, in the
Kumaon division of the United Provinces. It has an area of
5629 sq. m., and consists almost entirely of rugged mountain
ranges running in all directions, and separated by narrow valleys
which in some cases become deep gorges or ravines. The only
level portion of the district is a narrow strip of waterless forest
between the southern slopes of the hills and the fertile plains
of Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in the north, the
principal peaks being Nanda Devi (25,661 ft.), Kamet (25,413),
Trisul (23,382), Badrinath (23,210), Dunagiri (23,181) and
Kedarnath (22,853). The Alaknanda, one of the main sources of
the Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of the
district. At Devaprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi,
and thenceforward the united streams bear the name of the
Ganges. Cultivation is principally confined to the immediate
vicinity of the rivers, which are employed for purposes of irriga-
tion. Garhwal originally consisted of 52 petty chieftainships,
each chief with his own independent fortress (garh). Nearly
500 years ago, one of these chiefs, Ajai Pal, reduced all the minor
principalities under his own sway, and founded the Garhwal
kingdom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the
adjacent state of Tehri, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when
the Gurkhas invaded Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal
chief into the plains. For twelve years the Gurkhas ruled the
country with a rod of iron, until a series of encroachments by
them on British territory led to the war with Nepal in 1814.
At the termination of the campaign, Garhwal and Kumaon were
converted into British districts, while the Tehri principality
was restored to a son of the former chief. Since annexation,
Garhwal has rapidly advanced in material prosperity. Pop.
(1901) 429,900. Two battalions of the Indian army (the 39th
Garhwal Rifles) are recruited in the district, which also contains
the military cantonment of Lansdowne. Grain and coarse cloth
are exported, and salt, borax, live stock and wool are imported,
the trade with Tibet being considerable. The administrative
headquarters are at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar is the
largest place. This is an important mart, as is also Kotdwara,
the terminus of a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway
from Najibabad.
2. A native state, also known as Tehri, after its capital; area
4180 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 268,885. It adjoins the district
mentioned above, and its topographical features are similar.
It contains the sources of both the Ganges and the Jumna,
which are visited by thousands of Hindu pilgrims. The gross
revenue is about 28,000, of which nearly half is derived from
forests. No tribute is paid to the British government.
GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE (1807-1882), Italian patriot, was
born at Nice on the 4th of July 1807. As a youth he fled from
home to escape a clerical education, but afterwards joined his
father in the coasting trade. After joining the " Giovine Italia "
he entered the Sardinian navy, and, with a number of comfjanions
on board the frigate " Euridice," plotted to seize the vessel and
occupy the arsenal of Genoa at the moment when Mazzini's
Savoy expedition should enter Piedmont. The plot being
discovered, Garibaldi fled, but was condemned to death by
default on the 3rd of June 1834. Escaping to South America
in 1836, he was given letters of marque by the state of Rio
Grande do Sul, which had revolted against Brazil. After a series
of victorious engagements he was taken prisoner and subjected to
severe torture, which dislocated his limbs. Regaining liberty, he
renewed the war against Brazil, and took Porto Allegro. During
the campaign he met his wife, Anita, who became his inseparable
companion and mother of three children, Anita, Ricciotti and
Menotti. Passing into the service of Uruguay, he was sent to
Corrientes with a small flotilla to oppose Rosas's forces, but
was overtaken by Admiral Brown, against whose fleet he fought
for three days. When his ammunition was exhausted he burned
his ships and escaped. Returning to Montevideo, he formed the
Italian Legion, with which he won the battles of Cerro and Sant'
Antonio in the spring of 1846, and assured the freedom of
Uruguay. Refusing all honours and recompense, he prepared to
return to Italy upon receiving news of the incipient revolutionary
movement. In October 1847 he wrote to Pius IX., offering his
services to the Church, whose cause he for a moment believed to
be that of national liberty.
Landing at Nice on the 24th of June 1848, he placed his sword
at the disposal of Charles Albert, and, after various difficulties
with the Piedmontese war office, formed a volunteer army 3000
strong, but shortly after taking the field was obliged, by the
defeat of Custozza, to flee to Switzerland. Proceeding thence to
Rome, he was entrusted by the Roman republic with the defence
of San Pancrazio against the French, where he gained the victory
of the 3oth of April 1849, remaining all day in the saddle, although
wounded in the side at the beginning of the fight. From the 3rd
of May until the 3oth of May he was continuously engaged
against the Bourbon troops at Palestrina, Velletri and elsewhere,
dispersing an army of 20,000 men with 3000 volunteers. After
the fall of Rome he left the city at the head of 4000 volunteers,
with the idea of joining the defenders of Venice, and started on
that wonderful retreat through central Italy pursued by the
armies of France, Austria, Spain and Naples. By his consummate
generalship and the matchless endurance of his men the pursuers
were evaded and San Marino reached, though with a sadly
diminished force. Garibaldi and a few followers, including his
devoted wife Anita, after vainly attempting to reach Venice,
where the tricolor still floated, took refuge in the pine forests of
Ravenna; the Austrians were seeking him in all directions, and
most of his legionaries were captured and shot. Anita died near
Comacchio, and he himself fled across the peninsula, being assisted
by all classes of the people, to Tuscany, whence he escaped to
Piedmont and ultimately to America. At New York, in order to
earn a living, he became first a chandler, and afterwards a trading
skipper, returning to Italy in 1854 with a small fortune, and
purchasing the island of Caprera, on which he built the house
thenceforth his home. On the outbreak of war in 1859 he was
placed in command of the Alpine infantry, defeating the
Austrians at Casale on the 8th of May, crossing the Ticino on the
23rd of May, and, after a series of victorious fights, liberating
Alpine territory as far as the frontier of Tirol. When about to
enter Austrian territory proper his advance was, however,
checked by the armistice of Villafranca.
Returning to Como to wed the countess Raimondi, by whom
he had been aided during the campaign, he was apprised,
immediately after the wedding, of certain circumstances which
caused him at once to abandon that lady and to start for central
Italy. Forbidden to invade the Romagna, he returned in-
dignantly to Caprera, where with Crispi and Bertani he planned
the invasion of Sicily. Assured by Sir James Hudson of the
GARIN LE LOHERAIN
467
sympathy of England, he began active preparations for the
expedition to Marsala. At the last moment he hesitated, but
Crispi succeeded in persuading him to sail from Genoa on the
5th of May 1860 with two vessels carrying a volunteer corps of
1070 strong. Calling at Talamone to embark arms and money,
he reached Marsala on the nth of May, and landed under the
protection of the British vessels " Intrepid " and " Argus."
On the 1 2th of May the dictatorship of Garibaldi was proclaimed
at Salemi, on the i $th of May the Neapolitan troops were routed
at Calatafimi, on the 25th of May Palermo was taken, and on the
6th of June 20,000 Neapolitan regulars, supported by nine
frigates and protected by two forts, were compelled to capitulate.
Once established at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to
liberate Naples and march upon Rome, a plan opposed by the
emissaries of Cavour, who desired the immediate annexation of
Sicily to the Italian kingdom. Expelling Lafarina and driving
out Depretis, who represented Cavour, Garibaldi routed the
Neapolitans at Milazzo on the 2oth of July. Messina fell on the
2Oth of July, but Garibaldi, instead of crossing to Calabria,
secretly departed for Aranci Bay in Sardinia, where Bertani was
fitting out an expedition against the papal states. Cavour,
however, obliged the expedition to sail for Palermo. Returning
to Messina, Garibaldi found a letter from Victor Emmanuel II.
HmMftHing him from invading the kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi
replied asking " permission to disobey." ^Next day he crossed
the Strait, won the battle of Reggio on the 2ist of August,
accepted the capitulation of 9000 Neapolitan troops at San
Giovanni and of 11,000 more at Soveria. The march upon
Naples became a triumphal progress, which the wiles of Francesco
II. were powerless to arrest. On the ;th of September Garibaldi
entered Naples, while Francesco fled to Gaeta. On the ist
of October he routed the remnant of the Bourbon army 40,000
strong on the Volturno. Meanwhile the Italian troops had
occupied the Marches, Umbria and the Abruzzi, a battalion of
Bersaglieri reaching the Volturno in time to take part in the
battle. Their presence put an end to the plan for the invasion
of the papal states, and Garibaldi unwillingly issued a decree for
the pUbiscile which was to sanction the incorporation of the Two
Sicilies in the Italian realm. On the yth of November Garibaldi
accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn entry into
Naples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera, after disbanding
his volunteers and recommending their enrolment in the regular
army.
Indignation at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect
of his followers by the Italian government induced him to return
to political life. Elected deputy in 1861, his anger against
Cavour found violent expression. Bixio attempted to reconcile
them, but the publication by Cialdini of a letter against Garibaldi
provoked a hostility which, but for the intervention of the king,
would have led to a duel between Cialdini and Garibaldi. Return-
ing to Caprera, Garibaldi awaited events. Cavour's successor,
Rkasoli, enrolled the Garibaldians in the regular army; Rattazzi,
who succeeded Ricasoli, urged Garibaldi to undertake an ex-
pedition in aid of the Hungarians, but Garibaldi, finding his
followers ill-disposed towards the idea, decided to turn his arms
against Rome. On the 291 h of June 1862 he landed at Palermo
and gathered an army under the banner " Roma o morte."
Rattazzi, frightened at the prospect of an attack upon Rome,
proclaimed a state of siege in Sicily, sent the fleet to Messina, and
instructed Cialdini to oppose Garibaldi. Circumventing the
Italian troops, Garibaldi entered Catania, crossed to Melito with
3000 men on the 25th of August, but was taken prisoner and
wounded by Cialdini's forces at Aspromonte on the 27th of
August. Liberated by an amnesty, Garibaldi returned once
more to Caprera amidst general sympathy.
In the spring of 1864 he went to London, where he was accorded
an enthusiastic reception and given the freedom of the city.
From England be returned again to Caprera. On the outbreak of
war in 1866 he assumed command of a volunteer army and, after
the defeat of the Italian troop* at Custozza, took the offensive
in order to cover Brescia. On the 3rd of July he defeated the
Austrians at Monte Saello, on the 7th at Lodrone, on the loth at
Darso, on the i6th at Condino, on the igth at Ampola, on the
aist at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he
was ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous
reply " Obbedisco " (" I obey " ) has often been cited as a classical
example of military obedience to a command destructive of a
successful leader's hopes, but documents now published (cf.
Corriere detta sera, gth of August 1906) prove beyond doubt that
Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to evacuate
the Trentino would shortly reach him. The order arrived on the
9th of August, whereas Crispi had been sent as early as the i6th
of July to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition,
Austria would not cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the
evacuation was inevitable. Hence Garibaldi's laconic reply.
From the Trentino he returned to Caprera to mature his designs
against Rome, which had been evacuated by the French in
pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of the isth of
September 1864. Gathering volunteers in the autumn of 1867,
he prepared to enter papal territory, but wasarrestedatSinalunga
by the Italian government and conducted to Caprera. Eluding
the surveillance of the Italian cruisers, he returned to Florence,
and, with the complicity of the second Rattazzi cabinet, entered
Roman territory at Passo Corese on the 23rd of October. Two
days later he took Monterotondo, but on the 2nd of November
his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French aod papal troops.
Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and
taken back to Caprera, where he eked out his slender resources by
writing several romances. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer
corps and went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops
at Chatillon, Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the
Versailles assembly, he resigned his mandate in anger at French
insults, and withdrew to Caprera until, in 1874, he was elected
deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm induced the Conservative
Minghetti cabinet to propose that a sum of 40,000 with an
annual pension of 2000 be conferred upon him as a recompense
for his services, but the proposal, though adopted by parliament
(27th May 1875), was indignantly refused by Garibaldi. Upon the
advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and
pension, and worked energetically upon the scheme for the Tiber
embankment to prevent the flooding of Rome. At the same time
he succeeded in obtaining the annulment of his marriage with the
countess Raimondi (with whom hehad never lived) andcontracted
another marriage with the mother of his children, Clelia and
Manlio. In 1880 he went to Milan for the inauguration of the
Mentana monument, and in 1882 visited Naples and Palermo,
but was prevented by illness from being present at the 6ooth
anniversary of the Sicilian Vespers. On the 2nd of June 1882
his death at Caprera plunged Italy into mourning.
See Garibaldi, Epistolario, ed. E. E. Ximenes (2 vols., Milan, 1885),
and Memorie autografiche (nth ed., Florence, 1002; Eng. translation
by A. Werner, with supplement by I. W. Mario in vol. iii. of 1888
ed.); Giuseppe Guerzoni, Garibaldi (3 vols., Florence, 1882); Jessie
White Mario, Garibaldi e i suoi tempi (Milan, 1884) ; G. M. Trevelyan,
Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic (London, 1907), which
contains an excellent sketch of Garibaldi's early career, of the events
leading up to the proclamation of the Roman Republic, and a
picturesque, detailed and authoritative account of the defence of
Rome and of Garibaldi's flight, with a very full bibliography; also
Trevelyan's Garibaldi and the Thousand (1909). (H. W. S.)
OARIN LE LOHERAIN, French epic hero. The I2th century
chanson de geste of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and
most sanguinary narratives left by the trouveres. This local
cycle of Lorraine, which is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbers
de Metz, Ans&s, fils de Girbert and Yon, is obviously based on
history, and the failure absolutely to identify the events recorded
docs not deprive the poems of their value as a picture of the
savage feudal wars of the nth and 1 2th centuries. The episodes
are evolved naturally and the usual devices adopted by the
trouveres to reconcile their inconsistencies are absent. Neverthe-
less no satisfactory historical explanation of the story has yet
been offered. It has been suggested by a recent critic (F.
Settegast, Queilensludien zur gallo-romanischen Epik, 1904) that
these poems resume historical traditions going back to the
Vandal irruption of 408 and the battle fought by the Romans
and the West Goths against the Huns in 451. The cycle relates
4 68
GARLAND GARLIC
three wars against hosts of heathen invaders. In the first of
these Charles Martel and his faithful vassal Hervis of Metz fight
by an extraordinary anachronism against the Vandals, who have
destroyed Reims and besieged other cities. They are defeated in
a great battle near Troyes. In the second Hervis is besieged in
Metz by the " Hongres." He sends first for help to Pippin, who
defers his assistance by the advice of the traitor Hardre. Hervis
then transfers his allegiance to Anseis of Cologne, by whose help
the invaders are repulsed, though Hervis himself is slain. In the
third Thierry, king of Moriane 1 sends to Pippin for help against
four Saracen kings. He is delivered by a Prankish host, but
falls in the battle. Hervis of Metz was the son of a citizen to
whom the duke of Lorraine had married his daughter Aelis, and
his sons Garin and Begue are the heroes of the chanson which
gives its name to the cycle. The dying king Thierry had desired
that his daughter Blanchefleur should marry Garin, but when
Garin prefers his suit at the court of Pippin, Fremont of Bordeaux
puts himself forward as his rival and Hardre, Fremont's father, is
slain by Garin. The rest of the poem is taken up with the war
that ensues between the Lorrainers and the men of Bordeaux.
They finally submit their differences to the king, only to begin
their disputes once more. Blanchefleur becomes the wife of
Pippin, while Garin remains her faithful servant. One of the
most famous passages of the poem is the assassination of Begue
by a nephew of Fromont, and Garin, after laying waste his
enemy's territory, is himself slain. The remaining songs con-
tinue the feud between the two families. According to Paulin
Paris, the family of Bordeaux represents the early dukes of
Aquitaine, the last of whom, Waifar (745-768) was dispossessed
and slain by Pippin the Short, king of the Franks; but the
trouveres had in mind no doubt the wars which marked the end of
the Carolingian dynasty.
See Li Romans de Garin le Loherain, ed. P. Paris (Paris, 1833);
Hist. lilt, de la France, vol. xxii. (1852); J. M. Ludlow, Popular
Epics of the Middle Ages (London and Cambridge, 1865); F. Lot,
Etudes d'histoire du moyen age (Paris, 1896); F. Settegast, Quellen-
studien zur gallo-romanischen Epik (Leipzig, 1904). A complete
edition of the cycle was undertaken by E. Stengel, the first volume of
which, Hervis de Mes(Gesellschaft fur roman. Lit., Dresden), appeared
in 1903.
GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202-1252), Latin grammarian, known
as Johannes Garlandius, or, more commonly, Johannes de
Garlandia, was born in England, though most of his life was
spent in France. John Bale in his Calalogus, and John Pits,
following Bale, placed him among the writers of the nth century.
The main facts of his life, however, are stated in a long poem De
triumphis ecclesiae contained in Cotton MS. Claudius A x in the
British Museum, and edited by Thomas Wright for the Roxburghe
Club in 1856. Garland narrates the history of his time from the
point of view of the victories gained by the church over heretics
at home and infidels abroad. He studied at Oxford under a
certain John of London, whom it is difficult to distinguish from
others of the same name; but he must have been in Paris in or
before 1 202, for he mentions as one of his teachers Alain de Lisle,
who died in that year or the next. Garland was one of the pro-
fessors chosen in 1229 for the new university of Toulouse, and
remained in the south during the Albigensian crusade, of which
he gives a detailed account in books iv.-vi. In 1232 or 1233 the
hatred of the people made further residence in Toulouse unsafe
for the professors of the university, who had been installed by the
Catholic party. Garland was one of the first to fly, and the rest
of his life was spent in Paris, where he finished his poem in 1252.
Garland's grammatical works were much used in England, and
were often printed by Richard Pynson and Wynkyn de Worde.
He was also a voluminous Latin poet. Works on mathematics
and music have also been assigned to him, but the ascription may
have arisen from confusion of his works with those of Gerlandus,
a canon of Besancon in the I2th century. The treatise on
alchemy, Compendium alchimiae, often printed under his name,
was by a 14th-century writer named Martin Ortolan, or Lortholain.
The best known of his poems beside the " De Triumphis
1 i.e. Maurienne, now a district and diocese (St Jean de Maurienne)
of Savoy.
Ecclesiae " is " Epithalamium beatae Mariae Virginis, "contained
in the same MS. Among his other works are his " Dictionarius,"
a Latin vocabulary, printed by T. Vfrightintiie Library of National
Antiquities (vol. i., 1857); Compendium lotius grammatices . . .,
printed at Deventer, 1489; two metrical treatises, entitled
Synonyma and Equivoca, frequently printed at the close of the
1 5th century.
For further bibliographical information see the British Museum
catalogue; J. A. Fabncius, Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimae
aetatis . . ., vol. iii. (1754); G. Brunet, Manuel du libraire, &c.
See also Histoire lilt, de la France, vols. viii., xxi., xxiii. and xxx.;
the prefaces to the editions by T. Wright mentioned above; P.
Meyer, La Chanson de la croisade contre les Albigeois, vol. ii. pp.
xxi-xxiii. (Paris, 1875); Dr A. Scheler, Lexicographic latine du XII'
et du XIII' siecles (Leipzig, 1867) ; the article by C. L. Kingsford in
the Diet. Nat. Biog., giving a list also of the works on alchemy,
mathematics and music, rightly or wrongly ascribed to him; J. E.
Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. \. (1906) 549. (E. G.)
GARLIC (O. Eng. gdrledc, i.e. " spear-leek "; Gr. aripooov;
Lat. allium; Ital. aglio; Fr. ail; Ger. Knoblauch), Allium
sativum, a bulbous perennial plant of the natural order Liliaceae,
indigenous apparently to south-west Siberia. It has long,
narrow, flat, obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spathe, and a
globose umbel of whitish flowers, among which are small bulbils.
The bulb, which is the only part eaten, has membranous scales,
in the axils of which are 10 or 12 cloves, or smaller bulbs. From
these new bulbs can be procured by planting out in February or
March. The bulbs are best preserved hung in a dry place. If of
fair size, twenty of them weigh about i Ib. To prevent the plant
from running to leaf, Pliny (Nat. Hist. xix. 34) advises to bend
the stalk downward and cover with earth; seeding, he observes,
may be prevented by twisting the stalk.
Garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (q.v.).
It is stated to have been grown in England before the year 1548.
The percentage composition of the bulbs is given by E. Solly
(Trans. Hort. Soc. Land., new ser., iii. p. 60) as water 84-09,
organic matter 13-38, and inorganic matter 1-53 that of the
leaves being water 87-14, organic matter 11-27 and inorganic
matter 1-59. The bulb has a strong and characteristic odour
and an acrid taste, and yields an offensively smelling oil, essence
of garlic, identical with allyl sulphide (C 3 H 6 ) 2 S (see Hofmann
and Cahours, Journ. Chem. Soc. x. p. 320). This, when garlic
has been eaten, is evolved by the excretory organs, the activity
of which it promotes. From the earliest times garlic has been
used as an article of diet. It formed part of the food of the
Israelites in Egypt (Numb. xi. 5) and of the labourers employed
by Cheops in the construction of his pyramid, and is still grown in
Egypt, where, however, the Syrian is the kind most esteemed
(see Rawlinson's Herodotus, ii. 1 2 5) . Itwas largely consumed by
the ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors and rural classes
(cf. Virg. Eel. ii. n), and, as Pliny tells us (N.H. xix. 32), by
the African peasantry. Galen eulogizes it as the rustic's theriac
(see F. Adams's Paulus Aegineta, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam,
a writer of the 1 2th century (see Wright's edition of his works,
p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a palliative of the heat of the sun
in field labour. " The people in places where the simoon is
frequent," says Mountstuart Elphinstone (An Account of the
Kingdom of Caubul, p. 140, 1815), " eat garlic, and rub their lips
and noses with it, when they go out in the heat of the summer,
to prevent their suffering by the simoon." " O dura messorum
ilia," exclaims Horace (Epod. iii.), as he records his detestation
of the popular esculent, to smell of which was accounted a sign
of vulgarity (cf. Shakespeare, Coriol. iv. 6, and Meas. for Meas.
iii. 2). In England garlic is seldom used except as a seasoning,
but in the southern countries of Europe it is a common ingredient
in dishes, and is largely consumed by the agricultural population.
Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at
cross-roads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, Characters,
AeiffiSaiAiwias) ; and according to Pliny garlic and onions
were invocated as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths.
The inhabitants of Pelusium in lower Egypt, who worshipped the
onion, are said to have held both it and garlic in aversion as food.
Garlic possesses stimulant and stomachic properties, and was of
old, as still sometimes now, employed as a medicinal remedy.
GARNET
469
Pliny (N.H. xx. 23) gives an exceedingly long list of complaints
in which it was considered beneficial. Dr T. Sydenham valued
it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen
(Mat. Mtd. ii. p. 174, 1780), found some dropsies cured by it
alone. In the United States the bulb is given in doses of \-i
drachma in cases of bronchiectasis and phthisis pulmonalis.
Garlic may also be prescribed as an extract consisting of the
inspissated juice, in doses of 5-10 grains, and as the syrupus
aUii aceticus. in doses of 1-4 drachms. This last preparation has
recently been much extolled in the treatment of pulmonary
tuberculosis or phthisis.
The wild " crow garlic " and " field garlic " of Britain are the
species A Ilium mnealt and A. oleractum respectively.
GARNET, or GARNETT, HENRY (1555-1606), English Jesuit,
son of Brian Garnett, a schoolmaster at Nottingham, was edu-
cated at Winchester and afterwards studied law in London.
Having become a Roman Catholic, he went to Italy, joined the
Society of Jesus in 1575, and acquired under Bellarmine and
others a reputation for varied learning. In 1586 he joined the
mission in England, becoming superior of the province on the
imprisonment of William Weston in the following year. In the
dispute between the Jesuits and the secular clergy known as the
" Wisbech Stirs" (1595-1506) he zealously supported Weston
in his resistance to any compromise with the civil government.
His antagonism to the secular clergy was also shown later, when
in 1603 he, with other Jesuits, was the means of betraying to
the government the " Bye Plot," contrived by William Watson,
a secular priest. In 1598 he was professed of the four vows.
Garnet supervised the Jesuit mission for eighteen years with
conspicuous success. His life was one of concealment and dis-
guises; a price was put on his head; but he was fearless and
indefatigable in carrying on his propaganda and in ministering
to the scattered Catholics, even in their prisons. The result was
that he gained many converts, while the number of Jesuits in
England increased during his tenure of office from three to forty.
It is, however, in connexion with the Gunpowder Plot that he is
best remembered. His part in this, for which he suffered death,
needs discussion in greater detail.
In 1602 Garnet received briefs from Pope Clement VIII.
directing that no person unfavourable to the Catholic religion
should be allowed to succeed to the throne. About the same time
be was consulted by Catesby, Tresham and Winter, all afterwards
involved in the Gunpowder Plot, on the subject of the mission to
be sent to Spain to induce Philip III. to invade England. Accord-
ing to his own statement he disapproved, but he gave Winter a
recommendation to Father Creswell, an influential person at
Madrid. Moreover, in May 1605 he gave introductions to Guy
Fawkes when he went to Flanders, and to Sir Edmund Baynham
when he went to Rome (see GUNPOWDER PLOT). The prepara-
tions for the plot had now been actively going forward since the
beginning of 1604, and on the gth of June 1605 Garnet was
asked by Catesby whether it was lawful to enter upon any
undertaking which should involve the destruction of the innocent
together with the guilty, to which Garnet answered in the
affirmative, giving as an illustration the fate of persons besieged
in a town in time of war. Afterwards, feeling alarmed, according
to his own accounts, he admonished Catesby against in tending the
death of " not only innocents but friends and necessary persons
for a commonwealth," and showed him a letter from the pope
forbidding rebellion. According to Sir Everard Digby, however,
Garnet, when asked the meaning of the brief, replied " that they
were not (meaning the priests) to undertake or procure stirs, but
yet they would not hinder any, neither was it the pope's mind
they should, that should be undertaken for Catholic good. . . .
This answer, with Mr Catesby's proceedings with him and me,
gave me absolute belief that the matter in general was approved,
though every particular was not known." Both men were en-
deavouring to exculpate themselves, and therefore both state-
ments are subject to suspicion. A few days later, according to
Garnet, the Jesuit. Oswald Tesemond, known as Greenway,
informed him of the whole plot " by way of confession," when,
as he declares, he expressed horror at the design and urged Green-
way to do his utmost to prevent its execution. Subsequently,
after his trial, Garnet said he " could not certainly affirm " that
Greenway intended to relate the matter to him in confession.
Garnet's conduct in now keeping the plot a secret has been a
matter of considerable controversy not only between Roman
Catholics and Protestants, but amongst Roman Catholic writers
themselves. Father Martin del Rio, a Jesuit, writing in 1600,
discusses the exact case of the revelation of a plot in confession.
Almost all the learned doctors, he says, declare that the confessor
may reveal it, but he adds, " the contrary opinion is the safer and
better doctrine, and more consistent with religion and with the
reverence due to the holy rite of confession." According to
Bellarmine, Garnet's zealous friend and defender, "If the person
confessing be concealed, it is lawful for a priest to break the seal
of confession in order to avert a great calamity "; but he justifies
Garnet's silence by insisting that it was not lawful to disclose a
treasonable secret to a heretical king. According to Garnet's own
opinion a priest cognizant of treason against the state " is bound
to find all lawful means to discover it salvo sigUlo confessionis."
In this connexion it is worth pointing out that Garnet had not
thought it his duty to disclose the treasonable intrigue with the
king of Spain in 1602, though there was no pretence in this case
that he was restricted by the seal of confession, and his inactivity
now tells greatly in his disfavour; for, allowing even that he
was bound by confessional secrecy from taking action on Green-
way's information, he had still Catesby's earlier revelations to
act upon. He appears to have taken no steps whatever to prevent
the crime, beyond writing to Rome in vague terms that " he
feared some particular desperate courses," which aroused no
suspicions in that quarter. At the same time he wrote to Father
Parsons on the 4th of September that " as far as he could now see
the minds of the Catholics were quieted."
His movements immediately prior to the attempt were
certainly suspicious. In September, shortly before the expected
meeting of parliament on the 3rd of October, Garnet organized a
pilgrimage to St Winifred's Well in Flintshire, which started
from Gothurst (now Gayhurst), Sir Everard Digby "s house in
Buckinghamshire, included Rokewood, and stopped at the
houses of John Grant and Robert Winter, three others of the
conspirators. During the pilgrimage Garnet asked for the
prayers of the company " for some good success for the Catholic
cause at the beginning of parliament." After his return he went
on the 2<)th of October to Coughton in Warwickshire, near which
place it had been settled the conspirators were to assemble after
the explosion. On the 6th of November, Bates, Catesby's
servant and one of the conspirators, brought him a letter with the
news of the failure of the plot and desiring advice. On the 3oth
Garnet addressed a letter to the government in which he pro-
tested his innocence with the most solemn oaths, " as one who
hopeth for everlasting salvation."
It was not till the 4th of December, however, that Garnet and
Greenway were, by the confession of Bates, implicated in the
plot; and on the same day Garnet removed from Coughton to
Hindlip Hall, near Worcester, a house furnished with cleverly-
contrived hiding-places for the use of the proscribed priests.
Here he remained some time in concealment in company with
another priest, Oldcorne alias Hall, but at last on the 3Oth of
January 1606, unable to bear the dose confinement any longer,
they surrendered and were taken up to London, being well
treated during the journey by Salisbury's express ordc rs. He was
examined by the council on the 13th of February and frequently
questioned during the following days, but refused to incriminate
himself, and a threat to inflict torture had no effect upon his
resolution. Subsequently Garnet and Oldcorne having been
placed in adjoining rooms and enabled to communicate with one
another, their conversations were overheard on several separate
occasions and considerable information obtained. Garnet at
first denied all speech with Oldcorne, but subsequently on the 8th
of March confessed his connexion with the plot. He was tried at
the Guildhall on the 28th.
Garnet was clearly guilty of misprision of treason, i.e. of having
concealed his knowledge of the crime, an offence which exposed
470
GARNET
him to perpetual imprisonment and forfeiture of his property;
for the law of England took no account of religious scruples or
professional etiquette when they permit the execution of a
preventable crime. Strangely enough, however, the government
passed over the incriminating conversation with Green way, and
relied entirely on the strong circumstantial evidence to support
the charge of high treason against the prisoner. The trial was
not conducted in a manner which would be permitted in more
modern days. The rules of evidence which now govern the pro-
cedure in criminal cases did not then exist, and Garnet's trial,
like many others, was influenced by the political situation, the
case against him being supported by general political accusations
against the Jesuits as a body, and with evidence of their com-
plicity in former plots against the government. The prisoner
himself deeply prejudiced his cause by his numerous false state-
ments, and still more by his adherence to the doctrine of equivoca-
tion. Garnet, it is true, claimed to limit the justification of
equivocation to cases " of necessary defence from injustice and
wrong or of the obtaining some good of great importance when
there is no danger of harm to others," and he could justify his
conduct in lying to the council by their own conduct towards him,
which included treacherous eavesdropping and fraud, and also
threats of torture. Moreover, the attempt of the counsel for the
crown to force the prisoner to incriminate himself was opposed to
the whole spirit and tradition of the law. of England. He was
declared guilty, and it is probable, in spite of the irregularity and
unjudicial character of his trial, that substantial justice was
done by his conviction. His execution took place on the 3rd of
May 1606, Garnet acknowledging himself justly condemned for
his concealment of the plot, but maintaining to the last that he
had never approved it. The king, who had shown him favour
throughout and who had forbidden his being tortured, directed
that he should be hanged till he was quite dead and that the
usual frightful cruelties should be omitted.
Soon after his death the story of the miracle of "Garnet's Straw"
wascirculatedall over Europe, according to which a blood-stained
straw from the scene of execution which came into the hands of
one John Wilkinson, a young and fervent Roman Catholic, who
was present, developed Garnet's likeness. In consequence of the
credence which the story obtained, Archbishop Bancroft was
commissioned by the privy council to discover and punish the
impostors. Garnet's name was included in the list of the 353
Roman Catholic martyrs sent to Rome from England in 1880, and
in the 2nd appendix of the Menology of England and Wales
compiled by order of the cardinal archbishop and the bishops of
the province of Westminster by R. Stanton in 1887, where he is
styled " a martyr whosecauseisdeferredforfuture investigation."
The passage in Macbeth (Act n. Scene iii.) on equivocators no
doubt refers especially to Garnet. His aliases were Farmer,
Marchant,Whalley,Darcey Meaze,Phillips,Humphreys, Roberts,
Fulgeham, Allen. Garnet was the author of a letter on the
Martyrdom of Godfrey Maurice, alias John Jones, in Diego
Yepres's Historia particular de lapersecucion de Inglaterra(i$g<)) ;
a Treatise of Schism, a MS. treatise in reply to A Protestant
Dialogue between a Gentleman and a Physician; a translation of
the Stemma Christi with supplements (1622); a treatise on the
Rosary; a Treatise of Christian Renovation or Birth (1616).
AUTHORITIES. Of the great number of works embodying the
controversy on the question of Garnet's guilt the following may be
mentioned, in order of date: A Trite and Perfect Relation of the
whole Proceedings against . . . Garnet a Jesuit and his Confederates
(1606, repr. 1679), the official account, but incomplete and inaccurate ;
Apologia pro Henrico Garneto (1610), by the Jesuit L'Heureux,
under the pseudonym Endaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's
reply, Antilogia versus Apologiam Eudaemon- Joannes, in which the
whole subject is well treated; Henry More, Hist. Provinciae Angli-
canae Societatis (1660); D. Jardine, Gunpowder Plot (1857); J.
Morris, S. J., Condition of the Catholics under James I. (1872), con-
taining Father Gerard's narrative; J. H. Pollen, Father Henry
Garnet and the Gunpowder Plot (1888); S. R. Gardiner, What Gun-
powder Plot was (1897), in reply to John Gerard, S.J., What was the
Gunpowder Plot? (1897); J. Gerard, Contributions towards a Life of
Father Henry Garnet (1898). See also State Trials II., and Cal. of
State Papers Dom., (1603-1610). The original documents are pre-
served in the Gunpowder Plot Book at the Record Office.
GARNET, a name applied to a group of closely-related
minerals, many of which are used as gem-stones. The name
probably comes from the Lat. granalicus, a stone so named from
its resemblance to the pulp of the pomegranate in colour, or to its
seeds in shape; or possibly from granum, " cochineal," in allusion
to the colour of the stone. The garnet was included, with other
red stones, by Theophrastus, under the name of avdpa.%, while
the common garnet seems to have been his av6paiaov. Pliny
groups several stones, including garnet, under the term carbun-
culus. The modern carbuncle is a deep red garnet (almandine)
cut en cabochon, or with a smooth convex surface, frequently
hollowed out at the back, in consequence of the depth of colour,
and sometimes enlivened with a foil (see ALMANDINE). The
Hebrew word nophek, translated &v8pa in the Septuagint, seems
to have been the garnet or carbuncle, whilst bareketh (o-piaperySos
of the Septuagint), though also rendered " carbuncle," was prob-
ably either beryl or, in the opinion of Professor Flinders Petrie,
rock-crystal. Garnets were used as beads in ancient Egypt.
Though not extensively employed by the Greeks as a material for
engraved gems, it was much used for this purpose by the Romans
of the Empire. Flat polished slabs of garnet are found inlaid
in mosaic work in Anglo-Saxon and Merovingian jewelry, the
material used being almandine, or " precious garnet."
Garnets vary considerably in chemical composition, but the
variation is limited within a certain range. All are orthosilicates,
conformable to the general formula R "^"'2(8104)3, where R" =
Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and R'" = Al, Fe, Cr. Although there are many
kinds of garnet they may be reduced to the following six types,
which may occur intermixed isomorphously:
1. Calcium-aluminium garnet (Grossularite), CasAl 2 Si a Oi2.
2. Calcium-ferric garnet (Andradite), CasF^SisO^.
3. Calcium-chromium garnet (Uvarovite), Ca3Cr 2 Si 3 Oi 2 .
4. Magnesium-aluminium garnet (Pyrppe), MgsAlsSijOu.
5. Ferrous-aluminium garnet (Almandine), FeaAljSisOu.
6. Manganous-aluminium garnet (Spessartine), Mn 3 Al 2 Si s Oi 2 .
These are frequently called respectively : ( I ) Lime-alumina garnet ;
(2) lime-iron garnet; (3) lime-chrome garnet; (4) magnesia-alumina
garnet ; (5) iron-alumina garnet ; (6) manganese-alumina garnet.
The types are usually modified by isomorphous replacement of
some of their elements.
All garnets crystallize in the cubic system, usually in rhombic
dodecahedra or in icositetrahedra, or in a combination of the two
forms (see fig.). Octahedra and cubes are rare, but the six-faced
octahedron occurs in some of the com-
binations. Cleavage obtains parallel
to the dodecahedron, but is imperfect.
The hardness varies according to com-
position from 6-5 to 7-5, and the specific
gravity in like manner has a wide
range, varying from 3-4 in the calcium-
aluminium garnets to 4-3 in the ferrous-
aluminium species. Sir Arthur H.
Church found that many garnets when
fused yielded a product of lower
density than the original mineral. The
colour is typically red, but may be brown, yellow, green or even
black, while some garnets are colourless. Being cubic the garnets
are normally singly refracting, but anomalies frequently occur,
leading some authorities to doubt whether the mineral is really
cubic. The refractive power of garnet is high, so that in micro-
scopic sections, viewed by transmitted light, the mineral stands
out in relief.
Garnets are very widely distributed, occurring in crystalline
schists, gneiss, granite, metamorphic limestone, serpentine, and
occasionally in volcanic rocks. With omphacite and smaragdite,
garnet forms the peculiar rock called eclogite. The garnets used for
industrial purposes are usually found loose in detrital deposits,
weathered from the parent rock, though in some important workings
the rock is quarried. The garnets employed as gem-stones are
described under their respective headings (see ALMANDINE, CINNA-
MON STONE, DEMANTOID and PYROPE). Most of the minerals noticed
in this article are of scientific rather than commercial interest.
Grossularite or " gooseberry-stone," is typically a brownish-green
garnet from Siberia, known also as wiluite (a name applied also to
vesuvianite, g.t>.), from the river Wilui where it occurs. It is related
to hessonite, or cinnamon-stone. A Mexican variety occurs in rose-
GARNETT GARNIER, GERMAIN
pink dodecahedra. Romanxovite is a brown garnet, of grossularia-
type, from Finland, taking its name from Count K.mi.uuov. Andra-
ditc was named by J. D. Dana after B. J il'Aiulr.nl.i e Silv.i, who
described, in 1800, one of it* varieties allochroite, a Norwegian
garnet, *o named from its variable colour. This species includes
most of the common garnet occurring in granular and compact
masses, sometimes forming gamet rock. To andradite may be
referred mclanite, a black garnet well known from the volcanic
tuff* near Komr, usol oo.i-ion.illv in the iSth century for mourning
jewelry. Another black garnet, in small crystals from the Pyrenees,
u oiled pyreneite. Under andradite may also be placed topazolito,
a honey-yellow garnet, rather like topaz, from Piedmont; colo-
phonite, a brown resin-like garnet, with which certain kinds of
idocrase have been confused; aplome, a green garnet from Saxony
and Siberia; and jelletite, a green Swiss garnet named after the
Rev. J. H. Jellet. Here alio may be placed the green Siberian
mineral termed dcmantoid (q.r.), sometimes improperly called
olivine by jewellers. Uvarovite, named after a Russian minister,
Count S. S. Uvarov, U a rare green garnet from Siberia and Canada,
but though of fine colour is never found in crystals large enough for
gem-stones. Spessartite, or spessartinc, named after Spessart, a
German locality, U a fine aurora-red garnet, cut for jewelry when
sufficiently clear, and rather resembling cinnamon-stone. It is
found in Ceylon, and notably in the mica-mines in Amelia county,
Virginia, United States. A beautiful rose-red garnet, forming a
fine gem-stone, occurs in gravels in Macon county, N.C., and has
been described by \V. E. Hidden and Dr J. H. Pratt under the name
of rhodolite. It seems related to both almandine and pyrope, and
shows the absorption-spectrum of almandine. The Bohemian garnets
largely used in jewelry belong to the species pyrope (q.v.).
Garnets are not only cut as gems, but are used for the bearings of
pivots in watches, and are in much request for abrasive purposes.
Garnet paper is largely used, especially in America, in place of sand-
paper for smoothing woodwork and for scouring leather in the boot-
trade. As an abrasive agent it is worked at several localities in the
United States, especially in New York State, along the borders of
the Adirondacks, where it occurs in limestone and in gneiss. Much
of the garnet used as an abrasive is coarse almandine. Common
garnet, where abundant, has sometimes been used as a fluxing agent
in metallurgical operations. Garnet has been formed artificially,
and is known as a furnace-product.
It may be noted that the name of white garnet has been given to
the mineral Icucite, which occurs, like garnet, crystallized in icosi-
tetrahedra. (F. W. R.*)
GARNETT, RICHARD (1835-1906), English librarian and
author, son of the learned philologist Rev. Richard Garnett
(1789-1850), priest-vicar of Lichfield cathedral and afterwards
keeper of printed books at the British Museum, who came of a
Yorkshire family, was bora at Lichfield on the 2yth of February
1835. His father was really the pioneer of modern philological
research in England; his ankles in the Quarterly Review (1835,
1836) on English lexicography and dialects, and on the Celtic
question, and his essays in the Transactions of the Philological
Society (reprinted 1850), were invaluable to the later study of
the English language. The son, who thus owed much to his
parentage, was educated at home and at a private school, and in
1851, just after his father's death, entered the British Museum as
an assistant in the library. In 1875 he rose to be superintendent
of the reading-room, and from 1800 to 1809, when he retired, he
was keeper of the printed books. In 1883 he was given the
degree of LL.D. at Edinburgh, an honour repeated by other
universities, and in 1895 he was made a C.B.
His long connexion with the British Museum library, and the
value of his services there, made him a well-known figure in the
literary world, and he published much original work in both
prose and verse. His chief publications in book-form were:
in verse, Primula (1858), loin Egypt (1859), Idylls and Epigrams
(1869, republished in 1892 as A Chaplelfrom the Greek Anthology),
The Queen and other Poems (1002), Collected Poems (1893); in
prose, biographies of Carlyle (1887), Emerson (1887), Milton
(1800), Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1808); a volume of re-
markably original and fanciful tales, The Twilight of the Gods
(1888); a tragedy, Iphigenia in Delphi (1890); A Short History
of Italian Literature (1808); Essays in Librarianship and Biblio-
phily (1809); Essays of an Ex-librarian (1901). He was an
extensive contributor to the Encyclopaedia Britannica and the
Dictionary of National Biography, editor of the International
Library of Famous Literature, and co-editor, with E. Gosse, of the
elaborate English Literature: an illustrated Record. So multi-
farious was his output, however, in contributions to reviews, Sic.,
and as translator or editor, that this list represents only a small
part of his published work. He was a member of numerous
learned literary societies, British and foreign. His facility as an
expositor, and his gift for lucid and acute generalization, together
with his eminence as a bibliophile, gave his work an authority
which was universally recognized, though it sometimes suffered
from his relying too much on his memory and his power of
generalizing remarkable as both usually were in cases
requiring greater precision of statement in matters of detail. But
as an interpreter, whether of biography or belles lettres, who
brought an unusually wide range of book-learning, in its best
sense, interestingly and comprehensibly before a large public, and
at the same time acceptably to the canons of careful scholarship,
Dr Garnett's writing was always characterized by clearness,
common sense and sympathetic appreciation. His official
career at the British Museum marked an epoch in the manage-
ment of the library, in the history of which his place is second
only to that of Panizzi. Besides introducing the " sliding press "
in 1887 he was responsible for reviving the publication of the
general catalogue, the printing of which, interrupted in 1841, was
resumed under him in 1880, and gradually completed. The anti-
podes of a Dryasdust, his human interest in books made him an
ideal librarian, and his courtesy and helpfulness were outstanding
features in a personality of singular charm. The whole bookisli
world looked on him as a friend. Among his " hobbies " was a
study of astrology, to which, without associating his name with
it in public, he devoted prolonged inquiry. Under the pseudonym
of " A. G. Trent " he published in 1880 an article (in the Uni-
versity Magazine) on " The Soul and the Stars " quoted in
Wilde and Dodson's Natal Astrology. He satisfied himself that
there was more truth in the old astrology than modern criticism
supposed, and he had intended to publish a further monograph
on the subject, but the intention was frustrated by the ill-health
which led up to his death on the I3th of April 1906. He married
(1863) an Irish wife, Olivia Narney Singleton (d. 1003), and had a
family of six children; his son Edward (b. 1868) being a well-
known literary man, whose wife translated Turgeneff's works
into English. (H. CH.)
GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813-1881), French econo-
mist, was born at Bcuil (Alpes maritimes) on the 3rd of October
1813. Coming to Paris he studied at the Ecole de Commerce, of
which he eventually became secretary and finally a professor.
In 1842 he founded with Gilbert-Urbain Guillaumin (1801-1864)
the Soci6t6 d'Economie politique, becoming its secretary, a post
which he held till his death; and in 1846 he organized the
Association pour la Libert6 des Echanges. He also helped to
establish and edited for many years the Journal des iconomistes
and the Annuaire de I' economic politique. Of the school of
laissez faire, he was engaged during his whole life in the advance-
ment of the science of political economy, and in the improve-
ment of French commercial education. In 1873 he became a
member of the Institute, and in 1876 a senator for the depart-
ment in which he was born. He died at Paris on the 2$th of
September 1881. Of his writings, the following are the more
important: Traitt d'tconomie politique (1845), Richard Cobden
et la Ligue (1846), Traitt des finances (1862), and Principes du
Population (1857).
GARNIER, GERMAIN, MARQUIS (1754-1821), French poli-
tician and economist, was born at Auxerre on the 8th of November
1754. He was educated for the law, and obtained when young
the office of procureur to the Chatelet in Paris. On the calling of
the states-general he was elected as one of the deputes suppliants
of the city of Paris, and in 1791 administrator of the department
of Paris. After the loth of August 1792 he withdrew to the
Pays de Vaud, and did not return to France till 1795. In public
life, however, he seems to have been singularly fortunate. In
1797 he was on the list of candidates for the Directory; in 1800
he was prefect of Seine-et-Oise; and in 1804 he was made senator
and in 1 808 a count. After the Restoration he obtained a peerage,
and on the return of Louis XVIIL, after the Hundred Days, he
became minister of state and member of privy council, and in
1817 was created a marquis. He died at Paris on the 4th of
472
GARNIER, J. L. C. GARNIER, R.
October 1821. At court he was, when young, noted for his facile
power of writing society verse, but his literary reputation depends
rather on his later works on political economy, especially his
admirable translation, with notes and introduction, of Smith's
Wealth of Nations (1805) and his Histoire de la monnaie (2 vols.,
1819), which contains much sound and well-arranged material.
His Abrege des principes de I'econ. polit. (1796) is a very clear and
instructive manual. The valuable Description geographique,
physique, et politique dti departement de Seine-et-Oise (1802) was
drawn up from his instructions. Other works are De la propriete
(1792) and Histoire des banques d'escompte (1806).
GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES (1825-1898), French
architect, was born in Paris on the 6th of November 1825. He
was educated in a primary school, and it was intended that he
should pursue his father's craft, that of a wheelwright. His
mother, however, having heard that with a little previous study
he might enter an architect's office and eventually become a
measuring surveyor (xerificateur) , and earn as much as six francs
a day, and foreseeing that in consequence of his delicate health
he would be unfit to work at the forge, sent him to learn drawing
and mathematics at the Petite Ecole de Dessin, in the rue de
Medecine, the cradle of so many of the great artists of France.
His progress was such as to justify his being sent first into an
architect's office and then to the well-known atelier of Lebas,
where he began his studies in preparation for the examination of
the Ecole des Beaux Arts, which he passed in 1842, at the age of
seventeen. Shortly after his admission it became necessary that
he should support himself, and accordingly he worked during the
day in various architects' offices, among them in that of M.
Viollet-le-Duc, and confined his studies for the Ecole to the
evening. In 1848 he carried off, at the early age of twenty-three,
the Grand Prix de Rome, and with his comrades in sculpture,
engraving and music, set off for the Villa de Medicis. His
principal works were the measured drawings of the Forum of
Trajan and the temple of Vesta in Rome, and the temple of
Serapis at Pozzuoli. In the fifth year of his travelling student-
ship he went to Athens and measured the temple at Aegina,
subsequently working out a complete restoration of it, with its
polychromatic decoration, which was published as a monograph
in 1877. The elaborate set of drawings which he was com-
missioned by the due de Luynes to make of the tombs of the
house of Anjou were not published, owing to the death of his
patron; and since Garnier's death they have been given to the
library of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, along with other drawings he
made in Italy. On his return to Paris in 1853 he was appointed
surveyor to one or two government buildings, with a very
moderate salary, so that the commission given him by M. Victor
Baltard to make two water-colour drawings of the H6tel de
Ville, to be placed in the album presented to Queen Victoria in
1855, on the occasion of her visit to Paris, proved very acceptable.
These two drawings are now in the library at Windsor.
In 1860 came, at last, Garnier's chance: a competition was
announced for a design for a new imperial academy of music, and
out of 163 competitors Gamier was one of five selected for a
second competition, in which, by unanimous vote, he carried off
the first prize, and the execution of the design was placed in his
hands. Begun in 1861, but delayed in its completion by the
Franco-German War, it was not till 1875 that the structure of the
present Grand Opera House of Paris was finished, at a cost of
about 35,000,000 francs (1,420,000). During the war the build-
ing was utilized as the municipal storehouse of provisions. The
staircase and the magnificent hall are the finest portion of the
interior, and alike in conception and realization have never been
approached. Of Garnier's other works, the most remarkable are
the Casino at Monte Carlo, the Bischoffsheim villa at Bordighera,
the H6tel du Cercle de la Librairie in Paris; and, among tombs,
those of the musicians Bizet, Offenbach, Mass6andDuprato. In
1874 he was elected a member of the Institute of France, and
after passing through the grades of chevalier, officer and com-
mander of the Legion of Honour, received in 1895 the rank of
grand officer, a high distinction that had never before been
granted to an architect. Charles Garnier's reputation was not
confined to France; it was recognized by all the countries of
Europe, and in England he received, in 1886, the royal gold medal
of the Royal Institute of Architects, given by Queen Victoria.
Besides his monograph on the temple of Aegina, he wrote
several works, of which Le Nouvel Opera de Paris is the most
valuable. For the International Exhibition of 1889 he designed
the buildings illustrating the " History of the House " in all
periods, and a work on this subject was afterwards published by
him in conjunction with M. Ammann. Not the least of his
claims to the gratitude of his country were the services which he
rendered on the various art juries appointed by the state, the
Institute of France, and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, services which
in France are rendered in an honorary capacity. Gamier died
on the 3rd of August 1898. (R. P. S.)
GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [FRANCIS] (1830-
1873), French officer and explorer, was born at St Etienne on the
25th of July 1839. He entered the navy, and after voyaging
in Brazilian waters and the Pacific he obtained a post on the
staff of Admiral Charner, who from 1860 to 1862 was campaign-
ing in Cochin-China. After some time spent in France he
returned to the East, and in 1862 he was appointed inspector of
the natives in Cochin-China, and entrusted with the administra-
tion of Cho-lon, a suburb of Saigon. It was at his suggestion
that the marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat determined to send a
mission to explore the valley of the Mekong, but as Gamier was
not considered old enough to be put in command, the chief
authority was entrusted to Captain Doudart de Lagree. In the
course of the expedition to quote the words of Sir Roderick
Murchison addressed to the youthful traveller when, in 1870, he
was presented with the Victoria Medal of the Royal Geographical
Society of London from Kratie in Cambodia to Shanghai
5392 m. were traversed, and of these 3625 m., chiefly of country
unknown to European geography, were surveyed with care, and
the positions fixed by astronomical observations, nearly the whole
of the observations being taken by Gamier himself. Volunteering
to lead a detachment to Talifu, the capital of Sultan Suleiman,
the sovereign of the Mahommedan rebels in Yunnan, he success-
fully carried out the more than adventurous enterprise. When
shortly afterwards Lagree died, Gamier naturally assumed the
command of the expedition, and he conducted it in safety to the
Yang-tsze-Kiang, and thus to the Chinese coast. On his return
to France he was received with enthusiasm. The preparation of
his narrative was interrupted by the Franco-German War, and
during the siege of Paris he served as principal staff officer to the
admiral in command of the eighth " sector." His experiences
during the siege were published anonymously in the feuilletonof
Le Temps, and appeared separately as Le Siege de Paris, journal
d'un ojjicier de marine (1871). Returning to Cochin-China he
found the political circumstances of the country unfavourable
to further exploration, and accordingly he went to China, and in
1873 followed the upper course of the Yang-tsze-Kiang to the
waterfalls. He was next commissioned by Admiral Dupre,
governor of Cochin-China, to found a French protectorate or a
new colony in Tongking. On the 2oth of November 1873 he took
Hanoi, the capital of Tongking, and on the 2ist of December he
was slain in fight with the Black Flags. His chief fame rests on
the fact that he originated the idea of exploring the Mekong, and
carried out the larger portion of the work.
The narrative of the principal expedition appeared in 1873, as
Voyage d' exploration en Indo-Chine effectue pendant les annees 1866,
1867 et 1808, publie sous la direction de M. Francis Gamier, avec
le concours de M. Delaporte et de MM. Joubert et Thorel (2 vols.).
An account of the Yang-tsze-Kiang from Garnier's pen is given in
the Bulletin de la Soc. de Geog. (1874). His Chronique royale du
Cambodje, was reprinted from the Journal Asiatique in 1872. See
Ocean Highways (1874) for a memoir by Colonel Yule; and Hugh
Clifford, Further India, in the Story of Exploration series (1904).
GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1 545-^.1600), French tragic poet, was
born at Ferte Bernard (Le Maine) in 1545. He published his
first work while still a law-student at Toulouse, where he won a
prize (1565) in the jeux floraux. It was a collection of lyrical
pieces, now lost, entitled Plaintes amour euses de Robert Gamier
(1565). After some practice at the Parisian bar, he became
GARNIER-PAGES GARONNE
473
conteiller du roi au siege presidial et sdnechaussee of Le Maine,
his native district, and later lieutenant-general criminel. His
friend Lacroix du Maine says that he enjoyed a great reputation
as an orator. He was a distinguished magistrate, of considerable
weight in his native province, who gave his leisure to literature,
and whose merits as a poet were fully recognized by his own
gcnrr.it ion. He died at Le Mans probably in 1509 or 1600.
In hi* early plays he was a dose follower of the school of
dramatists who were inspired by the study of Seneca. In these
productions there is little that is strictly dramatic except the
form. A tragedy was a series of rhetorical speeches relieved by a
lyric chorus. His pieces in this manner are Porcie (published
1568, acted at the hotel de Bourgogne in 1573), Cornilie and
Hippolyte (both acted in 1573 and printed in 1574). In Porcie
the deaths of Cassius, Brutus and Portia are each the subject of
an eloquent recital, but the action is confined to the death of the
nurse, who alone is allowed to die on the stage. His next group
of tragedies Uarc-Antoine (1578), La Troade (1579), Antigone
(acted and printed 1580) shows an advance on the theatre of
lienne Jodclle and Jacques GreVin, and on his own early plays,
in so much that the rhetorical element is accompanied by abund-
ance of action, though this is accomplished by the plan of joining
together two virtually independent pieces in the same way.
In 1582 and 1583 he produced his two masterpieces Brada-
mante and Let Junes. In Bradamante, which alone of his plays
has no chorus, he cut himself adrift from Senecan models, and
sought his subject in Ariosto, the result being what came to be
known later as a tragi-comedy. The dramatic and romantic
story becomes a real drama in Garnier's hands, though even
there the lovers, Bradamante and Roger, never meet on the stage.
The contest in the mind of Roger supplies a genuine dramatic
interest in the manner of Corncille. Les Juives is the pathetic
story of the barbarous vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar on the
Jewish king Zedekiah and his children. The Jewish women
lamenting the fate of their children take a principal part in this
tragedy, which, although almost entirely elegiac in conception,
is singularly well designed, and gains unity by the personality of
the prophet. M. Faguet says that of all French tragedies of the
i6th and i;th centuries it is, with Athalie, the best constructed
with regard to the requirements of the stage. Actual representa-
tion is continually in the mind of the author; his drama is, in
fact, visually conceived.
Gamier must be regarded as the greatest French tragic poet of
his century and the precursor of the great achievements of the
next.
The best edition of his works is by Wendelin Foerster (Heilbronn,
4 vols.. 1882-1883). A detailed criticism of his works is to be found
in Emile Faguet, La Tragedic franfaise au XVI' stick (1883, pp.
1 83-3<7)-
GARNIER-PAGBS. BTIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS (1801-1841),
French politician, was born at Marseilles on the 27th of December
1801. Soon after his birth his father Jean Frangois Garnier, a
naval surgeon, died, and his mother married Simon Pages, a
college professor, by whom she had a son. The boys were brought
up together, and took the double name Gamier-Pages. Etienne
found employment first in a commercial house in Marseilles, and
then in an insurance office in Paris. In 1825 he began to study
law, and made some mark as an advocate. A keen opponent of
the Restoration, he joined various democratic societies, notably
the Aide-lot, le del t'aidera, an organization for purifying the
elections. He took part in the revolution of July 1830; became
secretary of the Aide-tot, le ciel t'aidera, whose propaganda he
brought into line with his anti-monarchical ideas; and in 1831
was sent from Isere to the chamber of deputies. He was con-
cerned in the preparation of the Cample rendu of 1832, and
advocated universal suffrage. He was an eloquent speaker, and
his sound knowledge of business and finance gave him a marked
influence among all parties in the chamber. He died in Paris on
the 23rd of June 1841.
His half-brother, Louis ANTOINE GARMER-PAGES (1803-
1878), fought on the barricades during the revolution of July
1830, and after t!ennc's death was elected to the chamber of
deputies (1842). He was a keen promoter of reform, and was a
leading spirit in the affair of the reform banquet fixed for the
22nd of February 1848. He was a member of the provisional
government of 1848, and was named mayor of Paris. On the
5th of March 1848 he was made minister of finance, and incurred
great unpopularity by the imposition of additional taxes. He
was a member of the Constituent Assembly and of the Executive
Commission. Under the Empire he was conspicuous in the
republican opposition and opposed the war with Prussia, and
after the fall of Napoleon III. became a member of the Govern-
ment of National Defence. Unsuccessful at the elections for the
National Assembly (the 8th of February 1871), he retired into
private life, and died in Paris on the 3ist of October 1878. He
wrote Histoire de la revolution de 1848 (1860-1862); Histoire de
la commission executive (1869-1872); and L'Opposition etl'empire
(1872).
GARNISH, a word meaning to fit out, equip, furnish, now
particularly used of decoration or ornament. It is formed from
the O. Fr. garnisant or guarnissani, participle of garnir, guarnir,
to furnish, equip. This is of Teutonic origin, the base being
represented in O. Eng. warnian, to take warning, beware, and
Ger. ivarnen, to warn, Eng. warn; the original sense would be to
guard against, fortify, hence equip or fit out. The meaning of
" warn " is seen in the law term " garnishee," a person who owes
money to or holds money belonging to another and is " warned "
by order of the court not to pay it to his immediate creditor but
to a third person who has obtained final judgment against that
creditor. (See ATTACHMENT; EXECUTION; BANKRUPTCY.)
GARO HILLS, a district of British India, in the hills division of
Eastern Bengal and Assam. It takes its name from the Garos, a
tribe of doubtful ethnical affinities and peculiar customs, by whom
it is almost entirely inhabited. The Garos are probably a section
of the great Bodo tribe, which at one time occupied a large part of
Assam. According to the census of 1901 they numbered 128,117.
In the 1 8th century they are mentioned as being frequently in
conflict with the inhabitants of the plains below their hills, and in
1700 the British government first tried to reduce them. No
permanent success was achieved. In 1852 raids by the Garos
were followed by a blockade of the hills, but in 1856 they were
again in revolt. Again a repressive expedition was despatched in
1861, but in 1866 there was a further raid. A British officer was
liow posted among the hills; this step was effective; in 1869 the
district was constituted, and though in 1871 an outrage was
committed against a native on the survey staff, there was little
opposition when an expedition was sent in 1872-1873 to bring the
whole district into submission, and there were thereafter no
further disturbances.
The district consists of the last spurs of the Assam hills, which
here run down almost to the bank of the Brahmaputra, where that
river debouches upon the plain of Bengal and takes its great
sweep to the south. The administrative headquarters are at
Tura. The area of the district is 3140 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 138,274, showing an increase of 14% in the
decade. The American missionaries maintain a small training
school for teachers. The public buildings at Tura were entirely
destroyed by the earthquake of June 12, 1897, and the roads in
the district were greatly damaged by subsidence and fissures.
Coal in large quantities and petroleum are known to exist.
The chief exports are cotton, timber and forest products. Trade
is small, though the natives, according to their own standard,
are prosperous. They are fair agriculturists. Communications
within the district are by cart-roads, bridle-paths and native
tracks.
GARONNE (Lat. Garumna), a river of south-western France,
rising in the Maladetta group of the Pyrenees, and flowing in a
wide curve to the Atlantic Ocean. It is formed by two torrents,
one of which has a subterranean course of 2 m., disappearing in
the sink known as the Trou du Taureau (" bull's hole ") and
reappearing at the Goueil de Joueou. After a course of 30 m. in
Spanish territory, during which it flows through the fine gorge
called the Vall6e d'Aran, the Garonne enters France in the
department of Haute Garonne through the narrow defile of the
474
GARRET GARRETT
Pont du Roi, and at once becomes navigable for rafts. At
Montrfijeau it receives on the left the Neste, and encountering at
this point the vast plateau of Lannemezan is forced to turn
abruptly east, flowing in a wide curve to Toulouse. At Saint
Martory it gives off the irrigation canal of that name. At this
point the Garonne enters a fertile plain, and supplies the motive
power to several mills. It is joined on the right by various
streams fed by the snows of the Pyrenees. Such are the Salat, at
whose confluence river navigation proper begins, and the Arize
and the Ariege (both names signifying " river "). From Toulouse
the Garonne flows to the north-west, now skirting the northern
border of the plateau of Lannemezan which here drains into it , the
principal streams being the Save, the Gers and the Baise. On its
right hand the Garonne is swelled by its two chief tributaries, the
Tarn, near Moissac, and the Lot, below Agen; farther down it is
joined by the Drot (or Dropt), and on the left by the Ciron.
Between Toulouse and Castets, 335 m. above Bordeaux, and the
highest point to which ordinary spring-tides ascend, the river is
accompanied at a distance of from a j to 3 m. by the so-called
" lateral canal " of the Garonne, constructed in 1838-1856.
This canal is about 120 m. long, or 133 m. including its branches,
one of which runs off at right angles to Montauban on the Tarn.
From Toulouse to Agen the main canal follows the right bank of
the Garonne, crossing the Tarn on an aqueduct at Moissac, while
another magnificent aqueduct of twenty-three arches carries it at
Agen from the right to the left bank of the river. It has a fall of
420 ft. and over fifty locks,, and is navigable for vessels having the
maximum dimensions of 985 ft. length, 19 ft. breadth and 6j ft.
draught. The carrying trade upon it is chiefly in agricultural
produce and provisions, building materials, wood and industrial
products. At Toulouse the canal connects with the Canal du
Midi, which runs to the Mediterranean. After passing Castets the
Garonne begins to widen out considerably, and from being 160
yds. broad at Agen increases to about 650 yds; at Bordeaux, its
great commercial port. From here it flows with ever increasing
width between two flat shores to the Bee d'Ambes (155 m.),
where, after a course of 357 m., it unites with the Dordogne to
form the vast estuary known as the Gironde. The triangular
peninsula lying between these two great tidal rivers is called
Entre-deux-mers (" between two seas ") and is famous for its
wines. The drainage area of the Garonne is nearly 33,000 sq. m.
Floods are of common occurrence, and descend very suddenly!
The most disastrous occurred in 1875, 1856 and in 1770, when the
flood level at Castets attained the record height of 425 ft. above
low-water mark.
GARRET (from the O. Fr. garite, modern guerite, a watch-
tower, connected ultimately with " guard " and " ward "),
properly a small look-out tower built on a wall, and hence the
name given to a room on the top storey of a building, the sloping
ceiling of which is formed by the roof.
GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITAO DE
ALMEIDA, VISCONDE DE ALMEIDA-GARRETT (1799-1854),
perhaps the greatest Portuguese poet since Camoens, was of
Irish descent. Born in Oporto, his parents moved to the Quinta
do Castello at Gaya when he was five years old. The French
invasion of Portugal drove the family to the Azores, and Garrett
made his first studies at Angra, beginning to versify at an early
age under the influence of his uncle, a poet of the school of
Bocage. Going to the university of Coimbra in 1816, he soon
earned notoriety by the precocity of his talents and his fervent
Liberalism, and there he gained his first oratorical and literary
successes. His tragedy Lucrecia was played there in February
1819, and during this period he also wrote Merope as well as a
great part of Cato, all these plays belonging to the so-called
classical school. Leaving Coimbra with a law degree, he pro-
ceeded to Lisbon, and on the nth of November 1822 married
D. Luiza Midosi; but the alliance proved unhappy and a formal
separation took place in 1839.
The reactionary movement against the Radical revolution of
1820 reached its height in 1823, and Garrett had to leave Portugal
by order of the Absolutist ministry then in power, and went
to England. He became acquainted with the masterpieces of
the Engh'sh and German romantic movements during his stay
abroad.
Imbued with the spirit of nationality, he wrote in 1824 at
Havre the poem " Camoes," which destroyed the influence of the
worn-out classical and Arcadian rhymers, and in the following
year composed the patriotic poem " D. Branca," or " The
Conquest of the Algarve." He was permitted to return to
Portugal in 1826, and thereupon devoted himself to journalism.
With the publication of O Porluguez, he raised the tone of the
press, exhibiting an elevation of ideas and moderation of language
then unknown in political controversy, and he introduced the
" feuilleton." But his defence of Liberal principles brought him
three months' imprisonment, and when D. Miguel was proclaimed
absolute king on the 3rd of May 1828, Garrett had again to leave
the country. In London, where he sought refuge, he continued
his adhesion to romanticism by publishing Adozinda and Bcrnal-
Francez, expansions of old folk-poems, which met with the
warmest praise from Southey and were translated by Adamson.
He spent the next three years in and about Birmingham,
Warwick and London, engaged in writing poetry and political
pamphlets, and by these and by his periodicals he did much to
unite the Portuguese emigres and to keep up their spirit amid
their sufferings in a foreign land. Learning that an expedition
was being organized in France for the liberation of Portugal,
Garrett raised funds and joined the forces under D. Pedro as a
volunteer. Sailing in February 1 83 2 , he disembarked at Terceira,
whence he passed to S. Miguel, then the seat of the Liberal
government. Here he became a co-operator with the statesman
Mousinho da Silveira, and assisted him in drafting those laws
which were to revolutionize the whole framework of Portuguese
society, this important work being done far from books and
without pecuniary reward. In his spare time he wrote some of
the beautiful lyrics afterwards collected into Flares sem Fructo.
He took part in the expedition that landed at the Mindello on the
8th of July 1832, and in the occupation of Oporto. Early in the
siege he sketched out, under the influence of Walter Scott, the
historical romance Arco de Sant' Anna, descriptive of the city in
the reign of D. Pedro I.; and, in addition, he organized the
Home and Foreign offices under the marquis of Palmella, drafted
many important royal decrees, and prepared the criminal and
commercial codes. In the following November he was de-
spatched as secretary to the marquis on a diplomatic mission to
foreign courts, which involved him in much personal hardship.
In the next year the capture of Lisbon enabled him to return
home, and he was charged to prepare a scheme for the reform of
public instruction.
In 1834-1835 he served as consul-general and charge d'affaires
at Brussels, representing Portugal with distinction under most
difficult circumstances, for which he received no thanks and
little pay. When he got back, the government employed him to
draw up a proposal for the construction of a national theatre and
for a conservatoire of dramatic art, of which he became the
head. He instituted prizes for the best plays, himself revising
nearly all that were produced, and a school of dramatists and
actors arose under his influence. To give them models, he
proceeded to write a series of prose dramas, choosing his subjects
from Portuguese history. He began in 1838 with the Auto de
Gil Vicente, considering that the first step towards the re-
creation of the Portuguese drama was to revive the memory of its
founder, and he followed this up in 1842 by the Alfageme de
Santarem, dealing with the Holy Constable, and in 1843 by
Frei Luiz de Sousa, one of the few great tragedies of the igth
century, a work as intensely national as The Lusiads, The story,
which in part is historically true, and has the merit of being
simple, like the action, is briefly as follows. D. Joao de Portugal,
who was supposed to have died at the battle of Alcacer, returns,
years afterwards, to find his wife married to Manoel de Sousa and
the mother of a daughter by him, named Maria. Thereupon the
pair separate and enter religion, and Manoel becomes the famous
chronicler, Frei Luiz de Sousa (q.v.}. The characters live and
move, especially Telmo, the old servant, who would never believe
in the death of his former master D. Joao, and the consumptive
GARRETJING GARRICK, DAVID
475
child Maria, who helps Tel mo to create the atmosphere of impend-
ing disaster; while the episodes, particularly those of the return
of D. Joao and the death of Maria, are full of power, and the
language is Portuguese of the best.
Entering parliament in 1837, Garrett soon made his mark as
an orator. In that year he delivered many notable discourses in
defence of liberal ideas. He also brought in a literary copyright
bill, which, when it became law in 1851, served as a precedent for
similar legislation in England and Prussia. In 1840 he made his
famous speech known as Porto Pyreu, in which he skilfully turned
the well-known anecdote of the " mad Athenian " against his
opponents. While attending with assiduity to his duties as a
deputy, he wrote, about this time, the drama D. Filippo de
VUkena, founded on an incident in the revolution of 1640, for
representation by the pupils of the conservatoire, and the'
sexton of 1841 saw another of his oratorical triumphs in his
speech against the law of tithes. In July 1843 an excursion to
Santarem resulted in his prose masterpiece Viagens na minha
terra, at once a novel and a miscellany of literary, political and
philosophic criticism, written without plan or method, easy,
jovial and epigrammatic. He took no pan in the civil war that
followed the revolution of Maria da Fonte, but continued his
literary labours, producing in 1848 the comedy A Sobrinha do
Uarquet, dealing with the times of Pombal, and in 1849 an
historical memoir on Mousinho da Silveira. He spent much of
the year 1850 in finishing his Romanceiro, a collection of folk-
poetry of which he' was the first to perceive the value; and in
June 185 1 he was created a viscount. In the following December
he drew up the additional act to the constitutional charter, and
his draft was approved by the ministers at a cabinet meeting in
his house. Further, be initiated the Conselho Ultramarine; and
the Law oftke Miser icordias, with its preamble, published in 1852,
was entirely from his pen. In the same year he became for a
short time minister of foreign affairs. In 1853 he brought out
Polkas Cahidas, a collection of short poems ablaze with passion
and exquisite in form, of which his friend Herculano said:
" if Camoens had written love verses at Garrett's age, he could
not have equalled him." His final literary work was a novel,
Helena, which he left unfinished, and on the loth of February
1854 he made his last notable speech in the House. He died on
the 9th of December 1854, and on the 3rd of May 1003 his re-
mains were translated to the national pantheon, the Jeronymos
at Belem. where they rest near to those of Camoens. As poet,
novelist, journalist, orator and dramatist, he deserves the remark
of Rebello da Silva: " Garrett was not a man f letters only but
an entire literature in himself."
Besides his strong religious faith, Garrett was endowed with a
deep sensibility, a creative imagination, rare taste and a singular
capacity for sympathy. Thus, though a learned man and an able
jurist, he was bound to be first and always an artist. His artistic
temperament explains his many-sided activity, his expansive
kindliness, his seductive charm, especially for women, his patriot-
ism, his aristocratic pretensions, his huge vanity and dandyism,
and the ingenuousness that absolves him from many faults in an
irregular life. From his rich artistic nature sprang his profound,
sincere, sensual and melancholy lyrics, the variety and perfection
of his scenic creations, the splendour of his eloquence, the truth of
his comic vein, the elegance of his lighter compositions. Two
books stand out in bold relief from among his writings: Folhas
Cakidas, and that tragedy of fatality and pity, Frei Luiz de
Stnaa, with its gallery of noble figures incarnating the truest
realism in an almost perfect prose form. The complete collection
of his works comprises twenty-four volumes and there are several
editions.
AUTHORITIES. Gomes de Amorim, Garrett, memorial biographical
(3 voh.. Lisbon. 1881-1888); D. Romero Ortiz, La Litteralura
Portutueia en el tigfo XIX (Madrid, 1869), pp. 165-221; Dr
Tbeophiio Braga. Garrett e o romantismo (Oporto, 1904), and Garrett
t 01 dramas romanticos (Oporto, 1905), with a full bibliography;
Inaocencio da Silva, Diccionario btbliopapkico Portuguez, vol. iii.
PP- 39-3l6, and vol. x. pp. 180-185. See Rerue encydoptdique
Larouitf. No. 28^, for a bibliography of the foreign translations of
Garrett. Frei Luiz de Souia was translated by Edgar Prestage under
the title Brother Luiz de Souia (London, 1909). (K. PR.)
GARRETTINQ, properly GALLETTINO, a term in architecture
for the process in which the " gallets " or small splinters of stone
are inserted in the joints of coarse masonry to protect the'
mortar joints; they are stuck in while the mortar is wet.
OARRICK, DAVID(i7i7-i779), English actor and theatrical
manager, was descended from a good French Protestant family
named Game or Garrique of Bordeaux, which had settled in 1
England on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His father,
Captain Peter Gar-rick, who had married Arabella Clough, the
daughter of a vicar choral of Lichfield cathedral, was on a re-
cruiting expedition when his famous third son was born at Here-
ford on the igth of February 1717. Captain Garrick, who had
made his home at Lichfield, where he had a large family, in 1731
rejoined his regiment at Gibraltar. This kept him absent from
home for many years, during which letters were written to him
by " little Davy," acquainting him with the doings at Lichfield.
When the boy was about eleven years old he paid a short visit
to Lisbon where his uncle David had settled as a wine merchant.
On his father's return from Gibraltar, David, who had previously
been educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, was, largely by
the advice of Gilbert Walmley, registrar of the ecclesiastical court,
sent with his brother George to the " academy " at Edial, just
opened in June or July 1736 by Samuel Johnson, the senior by
seven years of David, who was then nineteen. This seminary
was, however, closed in about six months, and on the 2nd of
March 1736/7 both Johnson and Garrick left Lichfield for
London Johnson, as he afterwards said, " with twopence
halfpenny in his pocket," and Garrick " "with three-halfpence in
his." Johnson, whose chief asset was the MS. tragedy of Irene,
was at first the host of his former pupil, who, however, before the '
end of the year took up his residence at Rochester with John
Colson (afterwards Lucasian professor at Cambridge). Captain
Garrick died about a month after David's arrival in London.
Soon afterwards, his uncle, the wine merchant at Lisbon, having
left David a sum of 1000, he and his brother entered into
partnership as wine merchants in London and Lichfield, David
taking up the London business. The concern was not prosperous
though Samuel Foote's assertion that he had known Garrick
with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar calling himself a wine
merchant need not be taken literally and before the end of 1 741
he had spent nearly half of his capital.
His passion for the stage completely engrossed him ; he tried
his hand both at dramatic criticism and at dramatic authorship.
His first dramatic piece, Lethe, or Aesop in the Shades, which he
was thirty-seven years later to read from a splendidly bound
transcript to King George III. and Queen Charlotte, was played
at Drury Lane on the isth of April 1740; and he became a well-
known frequenter of theatrical circles. His first appearance on
the stage was made in March 1741, incognito, as harlequin at
Goodman's Fields, Yates, who was ill, having allowed him to take
his place during a few scenes of the pantomime entitled Harlequin
Student, or The Fall of Pantomime with the Restoration of the
Drama. Garrick subsequently accompanied a party of players
from the same theatre to Ipswich, where he played his first part
as an actor under the name of Lyddal, in the character of Aboan
(in Southerne's Oroonoko). His success in this and other parts
determined his future career. On the igth of October 1741 he
made his appearance at Goodman's Fields as Richard III. and
gained the most enthusiastic applause. Among the audience
was Macklin, whose performance of Shylock, early in the same
year, had pointed the way along which Garrick was so rapidly to
pass in triumph. On the morrow the latter wrote to his brother
at Lichfield, proposing to make arrangements for his withdrawal
from the partnership, which, after much distressful complaint on
the part of his family, met by him with the utmost consideration,
were ultimately carried into effect. Meanwhile, each night had
added to his popularity on the stage. The town, as Gray (who,
like Horace Walpole, at first held out against the furore) declared,
was " horn-mad " about him. Before his Richard had exhausted
its original effect, he won new applause as Aboan, and soon
afterwards as Lear and as Pierre in Otway's Venice Preserved,
as well as in several comic characters (including that of Bayes).
476
GARRICK, DAVID
Glover (" Leonidas ") attended every perfonnance; the duke of
Argyll, Lords Cobham and Lyttelton, Pitt, and several other
members of parliament testified their admiration. Within the
first six months of his theatrical career he acted in eighteen
characters of all kinds, and from the 2nd of December he appeared
in his own name. Pope went to see him three times during his
first performances, and pronounced that " that young man
never had his equal as an actor, and he will never have a rival."
Before next spring he had supped with " the great Mr Murray,
counsellor," and was engaged to do so with Mr Pope through
Murray's introduction, while he was dining with Halifax, Sand-
wich and Chesterfield. " There was a dozen dukes of a night at
Goodman's Fields," writes Horace Walpole. Garrick's farce of
The Lying Valet, in which he performed the part of Sharp, was at
this time brought out with so much success that he ventured to
send a copy to his brother.
His fortune was now made, and while the managers of Covent
Garden and Drury Lane resorted to the law to make Giffard, the
manager of Goodman's Fields, close his little theatre, Garrick
was engaged by Fleetwood for Drury Lane for the season of 1742.
In June of that year he went over to Dublin, where he found the
same homage paid to his talents as he had received from his own
countrymen. He was accompanied by Margaret (Peg) Woffing-
ton, of wh'om he had been for some time a fervent admirer.
(His claim to the authorship of the song to Lovely Peggy is
still sub judice. There remains some obscurity as to the end of
their liaison.) From September 1742 to April 1745 he played at
Drury Lane, after which he again went over to Dublin. Here
he remained during the whole season, as joint-manager with
Sheridan, in the direction and profits of the Theatre Royal in
Smock Alley. In 1746-1747 he fulfilled a short engagement with
Rich at Covent Garden, his last series of performances under a
management not his own. With the close of that season Fleet-
wood's patent for the management of Drury Lane expired, and
Garrick, in conjunction with Lacy, purchased the property of the
theatre, together with the renewal of the patent; contributing
8000 as two-thirds of the purchase-money. In September 1747
it was opened with a strong company of actors, Johnson's
prologue being spoken by Garrick, while the epilogue, written by
him, was spoken by Mrs Woffington. The negotiations involved
Garrick in a bitter quarrel with Macklin, who appears to have had
a real grievance in the matter. Garrick took no part himself till
his performance of Archer in the Beaux' Stratagem, a month after
the opening. For a time at least " the drama's patrons " were
content with the higher entertainment furnished them; in the
end Garrick had to " please " them, like most other managers, by
gratifying their love of show. Garrick was surrounded by many
players of eminence, and he had the art, as he was told by Mrs
Clive, " of contradicting the proverb that one cannot make
bricks without straw, by doing what is infinitely more difficult,
making actors and actresses without genius." He had to en-
counter very serious opposition from the old actors whom he had
distanced, and with the younger actors and actresses he was
involved in frequent quarrels. But to none of them or their
fellows did he, so far as it appears, show that jealousy of real
merit from which so many great actors have been unable to remain
free. For the present he was 'able to hold his own against all
competition. The naturalness of his acting fascinated those who,
like Partridge in Tom Jones, listened to nature's voice, and
justified the preference of more conscious critics. To be " pleased
with nature" was, as Churchill wrote, in the Rosciad (1761),'
to be pleased with Garrick. For the stately declamation, the
sonorous, and beyond a doubt impressive, chant of Quin and his
fellows, Garrick substituted rapid changes of passion and humour
in both voice and gesture, which held his audiences spellbound.
" It seemed," wrote Richard Cumberland, " as if a whole century
had been stepped over in the passage of a single scene; old
things were done away, and a new order at once brought forward,
i In the subsequent Apology addressed to the Critical Reviewers,
Churchill revenged himself for the slight which he supposed Garrick
to have put upon him, by some spiteful lines, which, however,
Garrick requited by good-humoured kindness.
bright and luminous, and clearly destined to dispel the barbarisms
of a tasteless age, too long superstitiously devoted to the illusions
of imposing declamation." Garrick's French descent and his
education may have contributed to give him the vivacity and
versatility which distinguished him as an actor; and nature had
given him an eye, if not a stature, to command, and a mimic
power of wonderful variety. The list of his characters in tragedy,
comedy and farce is large, and would be extraordinary for a
modern actor of high rank; it includes not less than seventeen
Shakespearian parts. As a manager, though he committed some
grievous blunders, he did good service to the theatre and signally-
advanced the popularity of Shakespeare's plays, of which not
less than twenty-four were produced at Drury Lane under his
management. Many of these were not pure Shakespeare; and
he is credited with the addition of a dying speech to the text of
Macbeth. On the other hand, Tate Wilkinson says that Garrick's
production of Hamlet in 1773 was well received at Drury Lane
even by the galleries, " though without their favourite acquaint-
ances the gravediggers." Among his published adaptations are
an opera, The Fairies (from Midsummer Night's Dream) (1755);
an opera The Tempest (1756); Catherine and Petruchio (1758);
Florizel and Perdita (1762). But not every generation has the
same notions of the way in which Shakespeare is best honoured.
Few sins of omission can be charged against Garrick as a
manager, but he refused Home's Douglas, and made the wrong
choice between False Delicacy and The Good Natur'd Man.
For the rest, he purified the stage of much of its grossness, and
introduced a relative correctness of costume and decoration
unknown before. To the study of English dramatic literature he
rendered an important service by bequeathing his then unrivalled
collection of plays to the British Museum.
After escaping from the chains of his passion for the beautiful
but reckless Mrs Woffington, Garrick had in 1749 married
Mademoiselle Violette (Eva Maria Veigel), a German lady who
had attracted admiration at Florence or at Vienna as a dancer,
and had come to England early in 1746, where her modest grace
and the rumours which surrounded her created a. furore, and where
she found enthusiastic patrons in the earl and countess of Burling-
ton. Garrick, who called her " the best of women and wives,"
lived most happily with her in his villa at Hampton, acquired by
him in 1754, whither he was glad to escape from his house in
Southampton Street. To this period belongs Garrick's quarrel
with Barry, the only actor who even temporarily rivalled him in
the favour of the public. In 1763 Garrick and his wife visited
Paris, where they were cordially received and made the acquaint-
ance of Diderot and others at the house of the baron d'Holbach.
It was about this time that Grimm extolled Garrick as the first
and only actor who came up to the demands of his imagination;
and it was in a reply to a pamphlet occasioned by Garrick's visit
that Diderot first gave expression to the views expounded in his
Paradoxe sur le comedien. After some months spent in Italy,
where Garrick fell seriously ill, they returned to Paris in the
autumn of 1764 and made more friends, reaching London in April
1765. Their union was childless, and Mrs Garrick survived her
husband until 1822. Her portrait by Hogarth is at Windsor
Castle.
Garrick practically ceased to act in 1766, but he continued the
management of Drury Lane, and in 1769 organized the Shake-
speare celebrations at Stratford-on-Avon, an undertaking which
ended in dismal failure, though he composed an " Ode upon
dedicating a building and erecting a Statue to Shakespeare " on
the occasion. (See, inter'alia, Garrick's Vagary, or England Run
Mad; with particulars of the Stratford Jubilee, 1769.) Of his best
supporters on the stage, Mrs Gibber, with whom he had been
reconciled, died in 1766, and Mrs (Kitty) Clive retired in 1769;
but Garrick contrived to maintain the success of his theatre.
He sold his share in the property in 1776 for 35,000, and took
leave of the stage by playing a round of his favourite characters
Hamlet, Lear, Richard and Benedick, among Shakespearian
parts; Lusignan in Zara, Aaron Hill's adaptation of Voltaire's
Zaire; and Kitely in his own adaptation of Ben Jonson's Every
Man in his Humour; Archer in Farquhar's Beaux' Stratagem;
GARRISON, W. L.
477
Abel Drugger in Ben Jonson's AUktmist; Sir John Brute in
Vanbrugh's Provoked Wife; Leon in Fletcher's Rule a Wife and
AOM a Wift. He ended the series, as Tate Wilkinson says,
" in full glory " with " the youthful Don Felix " in Mrs Centlivre's
Wonder on the loth of June 1776. He died in London on the
joth of January 1779. He was buried in Westminster Abbey at
the foot of Shakespeare's statue with imposing solemnities. An
elegy on his death was published by William Tasker, poet and
physiognomist, in the same year.
In person, Garrick was a little below middle height; in his
later yean he seems to have inclined to stoutness. The extra-
ordinary mobility of his whole person, and his power of as it were
transforming himself at will, are attested by many anecdotes and
descriptions, but the piercing power of his eye must have been his
most irresistible feature.
Johnson, of whose various and often merely churlish remarks
on Garrick and his doings many are scattered through the pages
of Boswell, spoke warmly of the elegance and sprightlincss of his
friend's conversation, as well as of his liberality and kindness of
heart; while to the great actor's art he paid the exquisite tribute
of describing Garrick's sudden death as having " eclipsed the
gaiety of nations, and impoverished the public stock of harmless
pleasure." But the most discriminating character of Garrick,
slightly tinged with satire, is that drawn by Goldsmith in his
poem 'of Retaliation. Beyond a doubt he was not without a
certain moral timidity contrasting strangely with his eager
temperament and alertness of intellect; but, though he was not
cast in a heroic mould, he must have been one of the most
amiable of men. Garrick was often happy in his epigrams and
occasional verse, including his numerous prologues and epilogues.
He had the good taste to recognize, and the spirit to make
public his recognition of, the excellence of Gray's odes at a time
when they were either ridiculed or neglected. His dramatic
pieces. The Lying Valet, adapted from Motteux's Novelty Lethe
(1740), The Guardian, Linco's Travels (1767), Miss in her Teens
(1747), Irish Widow, &c., and his alterations and adaptations of
old plays, which together fill four volumes, evinced his knowledge
of stage effect and his appreciation of lively dialogue and action;
but be cannot be said to have added one new or original character
to the drama. He was joint author with Colman of The Clan-
destine Marriage (1766), in which he is said to have written his
famous part of Lord Ogleby. The excellent farce, High Life
Male Stairs, appears to have been wrongly attributed to Garrick,
and to be by James Townley. His Dramatic Works (1798) fill
three, his Poetic (1735) two volumes.
Garrick's Private Correspondence (published in 1831-1832
with a short memoir by Boaden, in 2 vols. 410), which includes
his extensive Foreign Correspondence with distinguished French
men and women, and the notices of him in the memoirs of
Cumberland, Hannah More and Madame D'Arblay, and above
all in Boswell's Life of Johnson, bear testimony to his many
attractive qualities as a companion and to his fidelity as a friend^
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A collection of imprinted Garrick letters is in
the Forster library at South Kensington. A list of publications of
all kinds for and against Garrick will be found in R. Lowe's Biblio-
graphical History of English Theatrical Literature (1887). The earlier
biographies of Garrick are by Arthur Murphy (2 vols., 1801) and by
the bookseller Tom Davie* (2 vols., 4th ed., 1805), the latter a work
of some merit, but occasionally inaccurate and confused as to dates;
and a searching if not altogether sympathetic survey of his verses
b furnished by Joseph Knight's valuable Life (1894). A memoir of
Garrick is included in a volume of French Memoirt of Mile Clairon
mmd others, published by Levain (H. L. Cain) at Paris in 1846; and
an Italian BiograAa di Davide Garrick was published by C. Blasts at
Milan in 1840. Mr Percy Fitzgerald's Life (2 vols., 1868 ; new edition,
1899) is full and spirited, and has been reprinted, with additions,
among Sir Theodore Martin'* Monographs (1906). A delightful
escay on Garrick appeared in the Quarterly Renew (July 1868),
directing attention to the admirable criticisms of Garrick s acting
in 1775 in the letters of G. C. Lichtenberg (Verm. Schriften, iii.,
Gottingen, 1801). See also for a very valuable survey of Garrick's
labours as an actor, with a bibliography, C. Gaehde, David Carrick
uls Shakes peare-Darslfllfr, Ac. (Berlin, 1904). Mrs Parsons' Carrick,
and hit Circle and Some unpublished Correspondence of David Garrick,
ed. G. P. Baker (Boston, Mass., 1907), are interesting additions to
the literature of the subject. There is also a Life by James Smyth,
David Garrick (1887). T. W. Robertson's play David Garrick, first
acted by Sothern, and later associated with Sir Charles Wyndham,
is of course mere fiction.
As to the portraits of Garrick, see W. T. Lawrence in The
Connoisseur (April 1905). That by Gainsborough at Stratford-on-
Avon was preferred by Mrs Garrick to all others. Several remain
from the hand of Hogarth, including the famous picture of Garrick
as Richard III. The portraits by Reynolds include the celebrated
" Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy." Zoffany's are portraits
in character. Roubiliac's statue of Shakespeare, for which Garrick
sat, and for which he paid the sculptor three hundred guineas, was
originally placed in a small temple at Hampton, and is now in the
entrance hall at the British Museum. (R. I A ; A. W. W.)
GARRISON. WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879), the American
anti-slavery leader, was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., on the loth of December 1805. His parents were from
the British province of New Brunswick. The father, Abijah, a
sea-captain, went away from home when William was a child,
and it is not known whether he died at sea or on land. The
mother, whose maiden name was Lloyd, is said to have been a
woman of high character, charming in person and eminent for
piety. She died in 1823. William had a taste for books, and
made the most of his limited opportunities. His mother first set
him to learn the trade of a shoemaker, first at Newburyport, and
then, after 1815, at Baltimore, Maryland, and, when she found
that this did not suit him, let him try his hand at cabinet-making
(at Haverhill, Mass.). But this pleased him no better. In
October 1818, when he was in his fourteenth year, he was made
more than content by being indentured to Ephraim W. Allen,
proprietor of the Newburyport Herald, to learn the trade of a
printer. He soon became an expert compositor, and after a time
began to write anonymously for the Herald. His communications
won the commendation of the editor, who had not at first the
slightest suspicion that he was the author. He also wrote for
other papers with equal success. A series of political essays,
written by him for the Salem Gazette, was copied by a prominent
Philadelphia journal, the editor of which attributed them to the
Hon. Timothy Pickering, a distinguished statesman of Massa-
chusetts. His skill as a printer won for him the position of fore-
man, while his ability as a writer was so marked that the editor of
the Herald, when temporarily called away from his post, left the
paper in his charge.
The printing-office was for him, what it has been for many
another poor boy, no mean substitute for the academy and for the
college. He was full of enthusiasm for b'berty; the struggle of
the Greeks to throw off the Turkish yoke enlisted his warmest
sympathy, and at one time he seriously thought of entering the
West Point Academy and fitting himself for a soldier's career.
His apprenticeship ended in 1826, when he began the publication
of a new paper (actually the old one under a new name), the Free
Press, in his native place. The paper, whose motto was " Our
Country, our Whole Country, and nothing but our Country," was
full of spirit and intellectual force, but Newburyport was a sleepy
place and the enterprise failed. Garrison then went to Boston,
^where, after working for a time as a journeyman printer, he
became the editor of the National Philanthropist, the first journal
established in America to promote the cause of total abstinence
from intoxicating liquors. His work in this paper was highly
appreciated by the friends of temperance, but a change in the
proprietorship led to his withdrawal before the end of the year.
In 1828 he was induced to establish the Journal of the Times at
Bennington, Vermont, to support the re-election of John Quincy
Adams to the presidency of the United States. The new paper,
though attractive in many ways, and full of force and fire, was
too far ahead of public sentiment on moral questions to win a
large support. In Boston he had met Benjamin Lundy (q.v.) , who
had for years been preaching the abolition of slavery. Garrison
had been deeply moved by Lundy's appeals, and after going to
Vermont he showed the deepest interest in the slavery question.
Lundy was then publishing in Baltimore a small monthly paper,
entitled The Genius of Universal Emancipation, and he resolved
to go to Bennington and invite Garrison to join him in the editor-
ship. With this object in view Ke walked from Boston to
Bennington, through the frost and snow of a New England winter,
a distance of 125 m. His mission was successful. Garrison was
47 8
GARRISON, W. L.
deeply impressed by the good Quaker's zeal and devotion, and he
resolved to join him and devote himself thereafter to the work of
abolishing slavery.
In pursuance of this plan he went to Baltimore in the autumn
of 1829, and thenceforth the Genius was published weekly,
under the joint editorship of the two men. It was understood,
however, that Garrison would do most of the editorial work,
while Lundy would spend most of his time in lecturing and
procuring subscribers. On one point the two editors differed
radically, Lundy being the advocate of gradual and Garrison of
immediate emancipation. The former was possessed with the
idea that the negroes, on being emancipated, must be colonized
somewhere beyond the limits of the United States; the latter
held that they should be emancipated on the soil of the country,
with all the rights of freemen. In view of this difference it was
agreed that each should speak on his own individual responsibility
in the paper, appending his initial to each of his articles for the
information of the reader. It deserves mention here that Garrison
was then in utter ignorance of the change previously wrought in
the opinions of English abolitionists by Elizabeth Heyrick's
pamphlet in favour of immediate, in distinction from gradual
emancipation. The sinfulness of slavery being admitted, the
duty of immediate emancipation to his clear ethical instinct was
perfectly manifest. He saw that it would be idle to expose and
denounce the evils of slavery, while responsibility for the system
was placed upon former generations, and the duty of abolishing
it transferred to an indefinite future. His demand for immediate
emancipation fell like a tocsin upon the ears of slaveholders.
For general talk about the evils of slavery they cared little, but
this assertion that every slave was entitled to instant freedom
filled them with alarm and roused them to anger, for they saw
that, if the conscience of the nation were to respond to the
proposition, the system must inevitably fall. The Genius, now
that it had become a vehicle for this dangerous doctrine, was a
paper to be feared and intensely hated. Baltimore was then one
of the centres of the domestic slave trade, and upon this traffic
Garrison heaped the strongest denunciations. A vessel owned in
Newburyport having taken a cargo of slaves from Baltimore to
New Orleans, he characterized the transaction as an act of
" domestic piracy," and avowed his purpose to " cover with
thick infamy " those engaged therein. He was thereupon
prosecuted for libel by the owner of the vessel, fined $50, mulcted
in costs, and, in default of payment, committed to gaol. His
imprisonment created much excitement, and in some quarters,
in spite of the pro-slavery spirit of the time, was a subject of
indignant comment in public as well as private. The excitement
was fed by the publication of two or three striking sonnets,
instinct with the spirit of liberty, which Garrison inscribed on the
walls of his cell. One of these, Freedom of Mind, is remarkable
for freshness of thought and terseness of expression.
John G. Whittier, the Quaker poet, interceded with Henry
Clay to pay Garrison's fine and thus release him from prison.
To the credit of the slaveholding statesman it must be said that
he responded favourably, but before he had time for the requisite
preliminaries Arthur Tappan, a philanthropic merchant of New
York, contributed the necessary sum and set the prisoner free
after an incarceration of seven weeks. The partnership between
Garrison and Lundy was then dissolved by mutual consent, and
the former resolved to establish a paper of his own, in which,
upon his sole responsibility, he could advocate the doctrine of
immediate emancipation and oppose the scheme of African
colonization. He was sure, after his experiences at Baltimore,
that a movement against slavery resting upon any less radical
foundation than this would be ineffectual. He first proposed to
establish his paper at Washington, in the midst of slavery, but on
returning to New England and observing the state of public
opinion there, he came to the conclusion that little could be done
at the South while the non-slaveholding North was lending her
influence, through political, commercial, religious and social
channels, for the sustenance of slavery. He determined, therefore,
to publish his paper in Boston, and, having issued his prospectus,
set himself to the task of awakening an interest in the subject by
means of lectures in some of the principal cities and towns of the
North. It was an up-hill work. Contempt for the negro and
indifference to his wrongs were almost universal. In Boston,
then a great cotton mart, he tried in vain to procure a church or
vestry for the delivery of his lectures, and thereupon announced in
one of the daily journals that if some suitable place was not
promptly offered he would speak on the common. A body of
infidels under the leadership of Abner Kneeland (1774-1844),
who had previously been in turn a Baptist minister and the editor
of a Universalist magazine, proffered him the use of their small
hall ; and, no other place being accessible, he accepted it gratefully,
and delivered therein (in October 1830) three lectures, in which
he unfolded his principles and plans. He visited privately many
of the leading citizens of the city, statesmen, divines and
merchants, and besought them to take the lead in a national
movement against slavery; but they all with one consent made
excuse, some of them listening to his plea with manifest im-
patience. He was disappointed, but not disheartened. His
conviction of the righteousness of his cause, of the evils and
dangers of slavery, and of the absolute necessity of the contem-
plated movement, was intensified by opposition, and he resolved
to go forward, trusting in God for success.
On the ist of January 1831, without a dollar of capital, and
without a single subscriber, he and his partner Isaac Knapp
(1804-1843) issued the first number of the Liberator, avowing their
" determination to print it as long as they could subsist on bread
and water, or their hands obtain employment." Its motto was,
" Our country is the world our countrymen are mankind "; and
the editor, in his address to the public, uttered the words which
have become memorable as embodying the whole purpose and
spirit of his life: " I am in earnest I will not equivocate I will
not excuse I will not retreat a single inch and I will be
heard." Help came but slowly. For many months Garrison
and his brave partner, who died long before the end of the
conflict, made their bed on the floor of the room, " dark, un-
furnished and mean," in which they printed their paper, and
where Mayor Harrison Gray Otis of Boston, in compliance with
the request of Governor Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina,
" ferreted them out " in " an obscure hole," " their only visible
auxiliary a negro boy." But the paper founded under such
inauspicious circumstances exerted a mighty influence, and lived
to record not only President Lincoln's proclamation of emancipa-
tion, but the adoption of an amendment to the constitution of the
United States for ever prohibiting slavery. It was the beginning
and the nucleus of an agitation that eventually pervaded and
filled every part of the country. Other newspapers were after-
wards established upon the same principles; anti-slavery
societies, founded upon the doctrine of immediate emancipation,
sprang up on every hand; the agitation was carried into political
parties, into the press, and into legislative and ecclesiastical
assemblies; until in 1861 the Southern states, taking alarm from
the election of a president known to be at heart opposed to
slavery though pledged to enforce all the constitutional safe-
guards of the system, seceded from the Union and set up a
separate government.
Garrison sought the abolition of slavery by moral means alone.
He knew that the national government had no power over the
system in any state, though it could abolish it at the national
capital, and prohibit it in the territories. He thought it should
bring its moral influence to bear in favour of abolition; but
neither he nor his associates ever asked Congress to exercise any
unconstitutional power. His idea was to combine the moral
influence of the North, and pour it through every open channel
upon the South. To this end he made his appeal to the Northern
churches and pulpits, beseeching them to bring the power of
Christianity to bear against the slave system, and to advocate the
rights of the slaves to immediate and unconditional freedom.
He was a man of peace, hating war not less than he did slavery;
but he warned his countrymen that if they refused to abolish
slavery by moral power a retributive war must sooner or later
ensue. The conflict was irrepressible. Slavery must be over-
thrown, if not by peaceful means, then in blood. The first society
GARRISON, W. L.
479
organized under Garrison's auspices, and in accordance with his
principles, was the New England Anti-Slavery Society, which
adopted its constitution in January 1832. In the spring of this
year Garrison issued his Thoughts OH African Colonization, in
which he showed by ample citations from official documents that
the American Colonization Society was organized in the interest of
slavery, and that in offering itself to the people of the North as a
practical remedy for that system it was guilty of deception.
His book, aided by others taking substantially the same view,
smote the society with a paralysis from which it never recovered.
Agents of the American Colonization Society in England having
succeeded in deceiving leading Abolitionists there as to its
character and tendency, Garrison was deputed by the New
England Anti-Slavery Society to visit England for the purpose of
counteracting their influence. He went in the spring of 1833,
when he was but twenty-seven years of age, and was received
with great cordiality by British Abolitionists, some of whom had
heard of his bold assaults upon American slavery, and had seen a
few numbers of the Liberator. The struggle for emancipation in
the West Indies was then at the point of culmination; the leaders
of the cause, from all parts of the kingdom, were assembled in
London, and Garrison was at once admitted to their councils and
treated with distinguished consideration. He took home with
him a " protest " against the American Colonization Society,
signed by Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Samuel Gurney,
William Evans, S. Lushington, T. Powell Buxton, James Cropper,
Daniel O'Connell and others, in which they declared their de-
liberate judgment that " its precepts were delusive," and " its
real effects of the most dangerous nature." He also received
assurances of the cordial sympathy of British Abolitionists with
him in his efforts to abolish American slavery. He gained a
hearing before a large popular assembly in London, and won the
confidence of those whom he addressed byhisevident earnestness,
sincerity and ability.
Garrison's visit to England enraged the pro-slavery people
and press of the United States at the outset, and when he re-
turned home in September with the " protest " against the
Colonization Society, and announced that he had engaged the
services of George Thompson as a lecturer against American
slavery, there were fresh outbursts of rage on every hand. The
American Anti-Slavery Society was organized in December of
that year (1833), putting forth a masterly declaration of its
principles and purposes from the pen of Garrison. This added
fresh fuel to the public excitement, and when Thompson came
over in the next spring, the hostility to the cause began to mani-
fest itself in mobs organized to suppress the discussion of the
slavery question. Now began what Harriet Martineau called
" the martyr age in America." In the autumn of 183 5 Thompson
was compelled, in order to save his life, to embark secretly for
England. Just before his departure the announcement that
he would address the Woman's Anti-Slavery Society of Boston
created " a mob of gentlemen of property and standing," from
which, if be had been present, he could hardly have escaped with
his life. The whole city was in an uproar. Garrison, almost
denuded of his clothing, was dragged through the streets with a
rope by infuriated men. He was rescued with great difficulty,
and consigned to the gaol for safety, until he could be secretly
removed from the city.
Anti-slavery societies were greatly multiplied throughout the
North, and many men of influence, both in the church and in
the state, were won to the cause. Garrison, true to his original
purpose, never faltered or turned back. The Abolitionists of
the United States were a united body until 1839-1840, when
divisions sprang up among them. Garrison countenanced the
activity of women in the cause, even to the extent of allowing
them to vote and speak in the anti-slavery societies, and
appointing them as lecturing agents; moreover, he believed
in the political equality of the sexes, to which a strong party was
opposed upon social and religious grounds. Then there were
some who thought Garrison dealt too severely with the churches
and pulpits for their complicity with slavery, and who accused
him of a want of religious orthodoxy; indeed, according to the
standards of his time he was decidedly heterodox, though he had
an intensely religious nature and was far from being an infidel,
as he was often charged with being. He was, moreover, not only
a non-resistant but also an opponent of all political systems
based on force. " As to the governments of this world," he
said, " whatever their titles or forms we shall endeavour to prove
that in their essential elements, as at present administered,
they are all anti-Christ; that they can never by human wisdom
be brought into conformity with the will of God; that they
cannot be maintained except by naval and military power to
carry them into effect; that all their penal enactments, being
a dead letter without any army to carry them into effect, are
virtually written in human blood; and that the followers of
Jesus should instinctively shun their stations of honor, power,
and emolument at the same time ' submitting to every
ordinance of man for the Lord's sake' and offering no physical
resistance to any of their mandates, however unjust ortyrannical."
These views were very distasteful to many, who, moreover, felt
that Garrison greatly injured abolitionism by causing it to be
associated in men's minds with these unpopular views on other
subjects. The dissentients from his opinions determined to
form an anti-slavery political party, while he believed in working
by moral rather than political party instrumentalities. These
differences led to the organization of a new National Anti-
Slavery Society in 1840, and to the formation of the " Liberty
Party " (?..) in politics. (See BIRNEY, JAMES G.) The two
societies sent their delegates to the World's Anti-Slavery Con-
vention in London in 1840, and Garrison refused to take his seat
in that body, because the women delegates from the United
States were excluded. The discussions of the next few years
served to make clearer than before the practical workings of the
constitution of the United States as a shield and support of
slavery; and Garrison, after a long and painful reflection, came
to the conclusion that its pro-slavery clauses were immoral, and
that it was therefore wrong to take an oath for its support. The
Southern states had greatly enlarged representation in Congress
on account of their slaves, and the national government was
constitutionally bound to assist in the capture of fugitive slaves,
and to suppress every attempt on their part to gain their free-
dom by force. In view of these provisions, Garrison, adopting a
bold scriptural figure of speech, denounced the constitution as
" a covenant with death and an agreement with hell," and chose
as his motto, " No union with slaveholders."
One class of Abolitionists sought to evade the difficulty by
strained interpretations of the clauses referred to, while others,
admitting that they were immoral, felt themselves obliged,
notwithstanding, to support the constitution in order to avoid
what they thought would be still greater evils. The American
Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was the president
from 1843 to the day of emancipation, was during all this period
the nucleus of an intense and powerful moral agitation, which
was greatly valued by many of the most faithful workers in the
field of politics, who respected Garrison for his fidelity to his
convictions. On the other hand, he always had the highest
respect for every earnest and faithful opponent of slavery,
however far their special views might differ. When in 1861 the
Southern states seceded from the Union and took up arms against
it, he saw clearly that slavery would perish in the struggle, that
the constitution would be purged of its pro-slavery clauses, and
that the Union henceforth would rest upon the sure foundations
of liberty, justice and equality to all men. He therefore ceased
from that hour to advocate disunion, and devoted himself to
the task of preparing the way for and hastening on the inevitable
event. His services at this period were recognized and honoured
by President Lincoln and others in authority, and the whole
country knew that the agitation which made the abolition of
slavery feasible and necessary was largely due to his uncompro-
mising spirit and indomitable courage.
In 1865 at the close of the war, he declared that, slavery being
abolished, his career as an abolitionist was ended. He counselled
a dissolution of the American Anti-Slavery Society, insisting
that it had become functus officiis, and that whatever needed
480
GARRISON GARY
to be done for the protection of the freedmen could best be
accomplished by new associations formed for that purpose. The
Liberator was discontinued at the end of the same year, after an
existence of thirty-five years. He visited England for the second
time in 1846, and again in 1867, when he was received with
distinguished honours, public as well as private. In 1877, when
he was there for the last time, he declined every form of public
recognition. He died in New York on the 24th of May 1879, in
the seventy-fourth year of his age, and was buried in Boston,
after a most impressive funeral service, four days later. In
1843 a small volume of his Sonnets and other Poems was published,
and in 1852 appeared a volume of Selections from his Writings
and Speeches. His wife, Helen Eliza Benson, died in 1876.
Four sons and one daughter survived them.
Garrison's son, WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON (1838-1909), was a
prominent advocate of the single tax, free trade, woman's
suffrage, and of the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, and an
opponent of imperialism; another son, WENDELL PHILLIPS
GARRISON (1840-1907), was literary editor of the New York
Nation from 1865 to 1906.
The above article, with certain modifications, reproduces the
account given in the 9th edition of this work by OHver Johnson
(reprinted from his Garrison: an Outline of his Life, New York,
1879). The writer (1809-1889) was a prominent Abolitionist,
editor, and an intimate friend of Garrison; he edited the Liberator
during Garrison's absence in England in 1833, and later was an editor
or an associate editor of various journals, including, after the Civil
War, the New York Tribune and the New York Evening Post. He
also published an excellent brief biography in William Lloyd Garrison
and his Times (Boston, 1880).
The great authority on the life of Garrison is the thorough and
candid work of his sons, W. P. and F. J. Garrison, William Lloyd
Garrison 1805-1879: The Story of his Life told by his Children (4
vols., New York, 1885-1889), which is indispensable for the student
of the anti-slavery struggle in America. Goldwin Smith's The Moral
Crusader: a Biographical Essay on William Lloyd Garrison (New
York, 1892) is a brilliant sketch.
GARRISON, originally a term for stores or supplies, also a
defence or protection, now confined in meaning to a body of
troops stationed in a town or fortress for the purpose of defence.
In form the word is derived from O. Fr. garison, modern
guerison, from guerir, to furnish with stores, to preserve, but in
its later meaning it has been confused with the Fr. garnison, the
regular word for troops stationed for purposes of defence. In
English " garnison " was used till the i6th century, when " gar-
rison " took its place. In the British army " garrison troops,"
especially " garrison artillery," are troops trained and employed
for garrison work as distinct from field operations.
6ARROTE (Spanish for " cudgel "), an appliance used in
Spain and Portugal for the execution of criminals condemned
to death. The criminal is conducted to the place of execution
(which is public) on horseback or in a cart, wearing a black
tunic, and is attended by a procession of priests, &c. He is
seated on a scaffold fastened to an upright post by an iron collar
(the garrote), and a knob worked by a screw or lever dislocates
his spinal column, or a small blade severs the spinal, column at
the base of the brain. (See CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.) Originally a
stout cord or bandage was tied round the neck of the criminal,
who was seated in a chair fixed to a post. Between the cord and
the neck a stick was inserted (hence the name) and twisted till
strangulation ensued.
" Garrotting " is the name given in England to a form of
robbery with violence which became rather common in the
winter of 1862-1863. The thief came up behind his victim,
threw a cord over his head, and tightened it nearly to strangula-
tion point, while robbing him. An act of 1863, imposing the
penalty of flogging in addition to penal servitude for this offence,
nad the effect of stopping garrotting almost entirely.' At any
rate, the practice was checked; and, though the opponents of
any sort of flogging refuse to admit that this was due to the
penalty, that view has always been taken by the English judges
who had experience of such cases.
OARRUCHA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province
of Almeria; on the Mediterranean Sea and on the right bank of
the river Antas. Pop. (1900) 4461. The harbour of Garrucha,
which is defended by an ancient castle, affords shelter to large
ships, and is the natural outlet for the commerce of a thriving
agricultural and mining district. Despite its small size and the
want of railway communication, Garrucha has thus a consider-
able trade in lead, silver, copper, iron, esparto grass, fruit, &c.
Besides sea-going ships, many small coasters enter in ballast, and
clear with valuable cargoes. In 1902, 135 vessels of 390,000 tons
entered the harbour, the majority being British or Spanish; and
in the same year the value of the exports reached 478,000, and
that of the imports 128,000. Both imports and exports trebled
their value in the ten years 1892-1902.
GARSTON, a seaport in the Widnes parliamentary division of
Lancashire, England, on the Mersey, 6 m. S.E. of Liverpool.
Pop. (1891) 13,444; (1901) 17,289. The docks, belonging to the
London & North Western railway company, employ most of the
working population. There is about a mile of quayage, with
special machinery for the shipping of coal, which forms the chief
article of export.
GARTH, SIR SAMUEL (1661-1719), English physician and
poet, was born of a good Yorkshire family in 1661. He entered
Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1676, graduating B.A. in 1679 and
M.A. in 1684. He took his M.D. and became a member of the
College of Physicians in 1691. In 1697 he delivered the Harveian
oration, in which he advocated a scheme dating from some ten
years back for providing dispensaries for the relief of the sick
poor, as a protection against the greed of the apothecaries. In
1699 he published a mock-heroic poem, The Dispensary, in six
cantos, which had an instant success, passing through three
editions within a year. In this he ridiculed the apothecaries and
their allies among the physicians. The poem has little interest at
the present day, except as a proof that the heroic couplet was
written with smoothness and polish before the days of Pope.
Garth was a member of the Kit-Kat Club, and became the leading
physician of the Whigs, as Radcliffe was of the Tories. In 1714
he was knighted by George I. and he died on the i8th of January
1719. He wrote little besides his best-known work The Dispen-
sary and Claremont, a moral espistle in verse. He made a Latin
oration (1700) in praise of Dryden and translated the Life of
Otho in the fifth volume of Dryden's Plutarch. In 1 7 1 7 he edited
a translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, himself supplying the
fourteenth and part of the fifteenth book.
GARTOK, a trade-market of Tibet, situated on the bank of the
Indus on the road between Shigatse and Leh, to the east of Simla.
In accordance with the Tibet treaty of 1904, Gartok, together
with Yatung and Gyantse, was thrown open to British trade.
On the return of the column from Lhasa in that year Gartok was
visited by a party under Captain Ryder, who found only a few
dozen people in winter quarters, their houses being in the midst
of a bare plain. In summer, however, all the trade between
Tibet and Ladakh passes through this place.
GARY, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., at the southern
end of Lake Michigan, about 25 m. S.E. of Chicago, 111. Pop.
(1910 census) 16,802. Gary is served by the Baltimore &
Ohio, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Michigan Central,
the Pennsylvania, the Wabash, and (for freight only) the
Chicago, Lake Shore & Eastern, and the Indiana Harbor Belt
railways, and by several steamship lines plying the Great Lakes.
There are about 21 sq. m. within the municipal limits, but the
city lies chiefly within a tract of about 8000 acres composed at the
time of its settlement mainly of sand dunes and swamps inter-
sected from east to west by tha Grand Calumet and the Little
Calumet rivers, small streams respectively about i and 3 m. S.
of the lake shore. In 1906 the United States Steel Corporation
bought this tract to establish on it a great industrial community,
as direct water connexion with the Lake Superior ore region was
possible, and it was comparatively accessible to West Virginia
coal and Michigan limestone', with unusual railroad facilities.
The Steel Corporation began the actual building of the town in
June 1906, the first step being the installation of an elaborate
system of sewers, and of mains and conduits, for the distribution
of water, gas and electricity . The water-supply is taken from the
lake at a point 2 m. offshore by means of a tunnel. These public
GAS
481
utilities the Steel Corporation controls, and it has built about
500 dwellings, two hotels, a bank, and its own plant. A small
patch of land, now within the limits of the city, has been from the
beginning in the hands of private owners, but the remainder of
the lots (except those already sold) are owned by the Steel
Corporation, and are sold under certain restrictions intended to
prevent real estate speculation, to guarantee bona fide improve-
ment of the property, and to restrict the sale of intoxicating
drinks. Between the Grand Calumet river (which has been
dredged out into a canal) and the lake lies the plant of the Steel
Corporation, covering about 1200 acres. All the machinery in
this great plant is driven by electricity from generators whose
motive power is supplied by the combustion of gases from the
blast furnaces. From the same sources is also supplied the
electricity for lighting the city. The rail mill is operated by
three-phase induction motors of from 2000 to 6000 horse-power
capacity. The city was chartered in 1006 and was named in
honour of Elbert Henry Gary (b. 1846), chairman of the board of
directors and chairman of the finance committee of the United
States Steel Corporation.
GAS. a general term for one of the three states of aggregation
of matter; also more specifically applied to coal-gas, the gaseous
product formed in the destructive distillation of coal or other
carbonaceous matter (see below, section Gas Manufacture; for
gas engines see the separate heading GAS ENGINE).
The Gaseous Stale. Matter is studied under three physical
phases solids, liquids and gases, the latter two being sometimes
grouped as " fluids." The study of the physical properties of
fluids in general constitutes the science of hydromechanics, and
their applications in the arts is termed hydraulics; the special
science dealing with the physical properties of gases is named
pneumatics.
The gaseous fluid with which we have chiefly to do is our
atmosphere. Though practically invisible, it appeals in its
properties to other of our senses, so that the evidences of its
presence are manifold. Thus we feel it in its motion as wind,
and observe the dynamical effects of this motion in the quiver
of the leaf or the motion of a sailing ship. It offers resistance to
the passage of bodies through it, destroying their motion and
transforming their energy as is betrayed to our hearing in the
whiz of the rifle bullet, to our sight in the flash of the meteor.
The practically obvious distinction between solids and fluids
may be stated in dynamical language thus: solids can sustain
a longitudinal pressure without being supported by a lateral
pressure; fluids cannot. Hence any region of space enclosed
by a rigid boundary can be easily filled with a fluid, which then
takes the form of the bounding surface at every point of it. But
here we distinguish between fluids according as they are gases
or liquids. The gas will always completely fill the region, however
small the quantity put in. Remove any portion and the re-
mainder will expand so as to fill the whole space again. On the
other hand, it requires a definite quantity of liquid to fill the
region. Remove any portion and a part of the space will be
left unoccupied by liquid. Part of the liquid surface is then
otherwise conditioned than by the form of the wall or bounding
surface of the region; and if the portion of the wall not in con-
tact with the liquid is removed the form and quantity of the
liquid are in no way affected. Hence a liquid can be kept in an
open vessel; a gas cannot so be. To quote the differentia of
Sir Oliver Lodge: " A solid has volume and shape; a liquid
has volume, but no shape; a gas has neither volume nor shape."
It is necessary to distinguish between a gas and a " vapour."
The latter possesses the physical property stated above which
distinguishes a gas from a fluid, but it differs from a gas by being
readily condensible to a liquid, either by lowering the temperature
or moderately increasing the pressure. The study of the effects
of pressure and temperature on many gases led to the introduction
of the term " permanent gases " to denote gases which were
apparently not liquefiable. The list included hydrogen, nitrogen
and oxygen; but with improved methods these gases have been
liquefied and even solidified, thus rendering the term meaningless
(see LIQUID GASES). The term " perfect gas " is applied to an
XL 16
imaginary substance in which there is no frictional retardation
of molecular motion; or, in other words, the time during which
any molecule is influenced by other molecules is infinitesimally
small compared with the time during which it traverses its mean
free path. It serves as a means of research, more particularly
in mathematical investigations, the simple laws thus deduced
being subsequently modified by introducing assumptions in
order to co-ordinate actual experiences.
The gaseous state was well known to the ancients; for in-
stance, in Greek cosmology, " air "(urtCjia) was one of the funda-
mental elements. The alchemists used such terms as spiritus,
flatus, halitus, aura, emanatio nubila, &c., words implying a
" wind " or " breath." The word " gas " was invented by
J. B. van Helmont in his Ortus mcdicinae, posthumously published
in 1648, in the course of his description of the gas now known
as carbon dioxide. He found that charcoal on burning yielded
a " spirit," which he named spiritus sylvestris on account of its
supposed untamable nature (" Gas sylvestre sive incoercibile,
quod in corpus cogi non potest visibile"); and he invented
the word " gas " in the expression: "... this spirit, hitherto
unknown, ... I call by a new name gas " (" hunc spiritum,
incognitum hactenus, novo nomine gas voco"). The word was
suggested by the Gr. xios, chaos, for he also writes: " I have
called this spirit gas, it being scarcely distinguishable from* the
Chaos of the ancients " (" halitum ilium Gas vocavi, non longe
a Chao veterum secretum "). The view that the word was
suggested by the Dutch geest, spirit, is consequently erroneous.
Until the end of the i8th century the word " air," qualified by
certain adjectives, was in common use for most of the gases known
a custom due in considerable measure to the important part
which common air played in chemical and physical investigations.
The study of gases may be divided into two main branches:
the physical and the chemical. The former investigates essen-
tially general properties, such as the weight and density, the
relation between pressure, volume and temperature (piezometric
and thermometric properties), calorimetric properties, diffusion,
viscosity, electrical and thermal conductivity, &c., and generally
properties independent of composition. These subjects are
discussed in the articles DENSITY; THERMOMETKY; CALORI-
METRY; DIFFUSION; CONDUCTION OF HEAT; and CONDENSA-
TION OF GASES. The latter has for its province the preparation,
collection and identification of gases, and the volume relations
in which they combine; in general it deals with specific pro-
perties. The historical development of the chemistry of gases
pneumatic chemistry is treated in the article CHEMISTRY; the
technical analysis of gaseous mixtures is treated below under
Gas A nalysis. Connecting the experimental study of the physical
and chemical properties is the immense theoretical edifice
termed the kinetic theory of gases. This subject, which is dis-
cussed in the article MOLECULE, has for its purpose (i) the deriva-
tion of a physical structure of a gas which will agree with the
experimental observations of the diverse physical properties,
and (2) a correlation of the physical properties and chemical
composition.
Gas Analysis. The term " gas analysis " is given to that
branch of analytical chemistry which has for its object the
quantitative determination of the components of a gaseous
mixture. The chief applications are found in the analysis of flue
gases (in which much information is gained as to the complete-
ness and efficiency of combustion), and of coal gas (where it is
necessary to have a product of a definite composition within
certain limits). There are, in addition, many other branches
of chemical technology in which the methods are employed.
In general, volumetric methods are used, i.e. a component is
absorbed by a suitable reagent and the diminution in volume
noted, or it is absorbed in water and the amount determined
by titration with a standard solution. Exact analysis is difficult
and tedious, and consequently the laboratory methods are not
employed in technology, where time is an important factor and
moderate accuracy is all that is necessary. In this article an
outline of the technical practice will be given.
The apparatus consists of (i) a measuring vessel, and (2) a
482
GAS
series of absorption pipettes. A convenient form of measuring
vessel is that devised by W Hempel. It consists of two
vertical tubes provided with feet and connected at the bottom
by flexible rubber tubing. One tube, called the " measuring
tube," is provided with a capillary stopcock at the top and
graduated downwards; the other tube, called the " level tube,"
is plain and open. To use the apparatus, the measuring tube
is completely filled with water by pouring water into both tubes,
raising the level tube until water overflows at the stopcock,
which is then turned. The test gas is brought to the stopcock,
by means of a fine tube which has been previously filled with
water or in which the air has been displaced by running the gas
through. By opening the stopcock and lowering the level tube
any desired quantity of the gas can be aspirated over. In cases
where a large quantity of gas, i.e. sufficient for several tests, is
to be collected, the measuring tube is replaced by a large bottle.
The volume of the gas in the measuring tube is determined by
bringing the water in both tubes to the same level, and reading
the graduation on the tube, avoiding parallax and the other errors
associated with recording the coincidence of a graduation with a
(By permission of Messrs Baird & Tatlock.)
FIG. i. FIG. 2.
meniscus. The temperature and atmospheric pressure are simul-
taneously noted. If the tests be carried out rapidly, the tem-
perature and pressure may be assumed to be constant, and any
diminution in volume due to the absorption of a constituent may
be readily expressed as a percentage. If, however, the tem-
perature and pressure vary, the volumes are reduced to o and
760 mm. by means of the formula V = V(P />)/(i + -oo366<)76o,
in which V is the observed volume, P the barometric pressure, p
the vapour tension of water at the temperature t of the experi-
ment. This reduction is facilitated by the use of tables.
Some common forms of absorption pipettes are shown in figs,
i and 2. The simpler form consists of two bulbs connected
at the bottom by a wide tube. The lower bulb is provided with
a smaller bulb bearing a capillary through which the gas is led to
the apparatus, the higher bulb has a wider outlet tube. The
arrangement is mounted vertically on a stand. Sometimes the
small bulb on the left is omitted. The form of the pipette varies
with the nature of the absorbing material. For solutions which
remain permanent in air the two-bulbed form suffices; in other
cases a composite pipette (fig. 2) is employed, in which the
absorbent is protected by a second pipette containing water. In
the case of solid reagents, e.g. phosphorus, the absorbing bulb
has a tubulure at the bottom. To use a pipette, the absorbing
liquid is brought to the outlet of the capillary by tilting or by
squeezing a rubber ball fixed to the wide end, and the liquid is
maintained there by closing with a clip. The capillary is con-
nected with the measuring tube by a fine tube previously filled
with water. The clip is removed, the stopcock opened, and the
level tube of the measuring apparatus raised, so that the gas
passes into the first bulb. There it is allowed to remain, the
pipette being shaken from time to time. It is then run back into
the measuring tube by lowering the level tube, the stopcock is
closed, and the volume noted. The operation is repeated until
there is no further absorption.
The choice of absorbents and the order in which the gases are
to be estimated is strictly limited. Confining ourselves to cases
where titration methods are not employed, the general order is
as follows: carbon dioxide, defines, oxygen, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, methane and nitrogen (by difference). This scheme is
particularly applicable to coal-gas Carbon dioxide is absorbed
by a potash solution containing one part of potash to between
two and three of water; the stronger solution absorbs about 40
volumes of the gas. The defines ethylene, &c. are generally
absorbed by a very strong sulphuric acid prepared by adding
sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid to form a mixture which
solidifies when slightly cooled. Bromine water is also employed.
Oxygen is absorbed by stick phosphorus contained in a tubulated
pipette filled with water. The temperature must be above 18;
and the absorption is prevented by ammonia, defines, alcohol,
and some other substances. An alkaline solution of pyrogallol
is also used; this solution rapidly absorbs oxygen, becoming
black in colour, and it is necessary to prepare the solution
immediately before use. Carbon monoxide is absorbed by a
solution of cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid or, better, in
ammonia. When small in amount, it is better to estimate as
carbon dioxide by burning with oxygen and absorbing in potash;
when large in amount, the bulk is absorbed in ammoniacal
cuprous chloride and the residue burned. Hydrogen may be
estimated by absorption by heated palladium contained in a
capillary through which the gas is passed, or by exploding (under
reduced pressure) with an excess of oxygen, and measuring the
diminution in volume, two-thirds of which is the volume of
hydrogen. The explosion method is unsatisfactory when the gas
is contained over water, and is improved by using mercury.
Methane cannot be burnt in this way even when there is much
hydrogen present, and several other methods have been pro-
posed, such as mixing with air and aspirating over copper oxide
heated to redness, or mixing with oxygen and burning in a
platinum tube heated to redness, the carbon dioxide formed
being estimated by absorption in potash. Gases soluble in water,
such as ammonia, hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen,
sulphur dioxide, &c., are estimated by passing a known volume cf
the gas through water and titrating the solution with a standard
solution. Many types of absorption vessel are in use, and the
standard solutions are generally such that i c.c. of the solution
corresponds to i c.c. of the gas under normal conditions.
Many forms of composite gas-apparatus are in use. One of the
commonest is the Orsat shown in fig. 3. The gas is measured in
the graduated cylinder on the right, which is surrounded by a
water jacket and provided with a levelling bottle. At the top it is
connected by a capillary tube bent at right angles to a series of
absorbing vessels, the connexion
being effected by stopcocks. These
vessels consist of two vertical
cylinders joined at the bottom
by a short tube. The cylinder
direct communication with the
m
capillary is filled with glass tubes so
as to expose a larger surface of the
absorbing solution to the gas. The
other cylinder is open to the air
and serves to hold the liquid
ejected from the absorbing cylin-
der. Any number of bulbs can be
attached to the horizontal capillary;
in the form illustrated there are
four, the last being a hydrogen
pipette in which the palladium is
heated in a horizontal tube by
a spirit lamp. At the end of the
horizontal tube there is a three-
way cock connecting with the air or an aspirator. To use
the apparatus, the measuring tube is completely filled with
water by raising the levelling bottle. The absorbing vessels
are then about half filled with the absorbents, and, by
opening the cocks and aspirating, the liquid is brought so as
(By permission of Messrs Baird &
Tatlock.)
FIG. 3.
MANUFACTURE)
GAS
483
completely to fill the bulbs nearer the capillary. The cocks
are then dosed. By opening the three-way cock to the supply of
lite test gas and lowering the levelling bottle, any desired amount
can be drawn into the measuring tube. The absorption is effected
by opening the cock of an absorbing vessel and raising the level-
ling bottle. The same order of absorption and general directions
pertaining to the use of Hempel pipettes have to be adopted.
Although the earliest attempts at gas analysis were made by
Scheele. Priestley, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Dalton, Gay-Lussac and
others, the methods were first systematized by R. Bunsen, who
began his researches in 1 838. He embodied his results in his classical
Gasomttrische Melhoden (1857, second edition 1877), a work trans-
lated into English by 11. Koscoe. Clemens Winlcler contributed
two works, Atueilung snr ckemiscken Unlrrsurhuitf der Industricgasc
(1876-1877) and Lehrbuck der leckniscktn GasanaJyse (2nd ed., 1892),
both of which are very valuable for the commercial applications of
the methods. \V. Ilempcl's researches are given in his ,\eur Methode
(1880) and Gmanalytuche Afethoden (1890, 3rd
' A natyse der Case
ed. 1900).
GAS MANUFACTURE
i. Illuminating Gas. The first practical application of gas
distilled from coal as an illuminating agent is generally as-
^^^^ cribed to William Murdoch, who between the years
* rfc " 1 of 1792 and 1802 demonstrated the possibility of
making gas from coal and using it as a lighting agent on
a large scale. Prior to 1691, however, Dr John Clayton,
dean of Kildare, filled bladders with inflammable gas obtained
by the distillation of coal, and showed that on pricking the
bladders and applying a light to the escaping gas it burnt
with a luminous flame, and in 1726 Stephen Hales published
the fact that by the distillation of 158 grains of Newcastle
coal, 1 80 cub. in. of inflammable air would be obtained. Jean
Pierre Minckelers, professor of natural philosophy in the
university of Louvain, and later of chemistry and physics at
Maes t rich t, made experiments on distilling gas from coal with
the view of obtaining a permanent gas sufficiently light for
filling balloons, and in 1785 experimentally lighted his lecture
room with gas so obtained as a demonstration to his students,
but no commercial application was made of the fact. Lord Dun-
donald, in 1 787, whilst distilling coal for the production of tar and
oil, noticed the formation of inflammable gas, and even used it
for lighting the hall of Culross Abbey. It is clear from these
facts that, prior to Murdoch's experiments, it was known that
illuminating gas could be obtained by the destructive distillation
of coal, but the experiments which he began at Red ruth in 1792,
and which culminated in the lighting of Messrs Boulton, Watt &
Co.'s engine works at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1802, un-
doubtedly demonstrated the practical possibility of making the
gas on a large scale, and burning it in such a way as to make
coal-gas the most important of the artificial illuminants. An im-
pression exists in Cornwall, where Murdoch's early experiments
were made, that it was a millwright named Hornblower who
first suggested the process of making gas to Murdoch, but, as
has been shown, the fact that illuminating gas could be obtained
from coal by distillation was known a century before Murdoch
made his experiments,
and the roost that can
be claimed for him is
that he made the first
successful application of
it on a practical scale.
In 1709 a Frenchman
named Philippe Lebon
took out a patent in Paris for making an illuminating gas from
wood, and gave an exhibition of it in 1802, which excited a con-
siderable amount of attention on the European continent. It was
seen by a German, F.A. Winsor, who made Lebon an offer for his
secret process for Germany. This offer was, however, declined,
and Winsor returned to Frankfort determined to find out how
the gas could be made. Having quickly succeeded in discovering
this, he in 1803 exhibited before the reigning duke of Brunswick
a series of experiments with lighting gas made from wood and
from coal. Looking upon London as a promising field for
enterprise, he came over to England, and at the commencement
of 1804 took the Lyceum theatre, where he gave demonstrations
of his process. He then proceeded to float a company, and in
1807 the first public street gas lighting took place in Pall Mall,
whilst in 1809 he applied to parliament to incorporate the National
Heat and Light Company with a capital of half a million sterling.
This application was opposed by Murdoch on the ground of
his priority in invention, and the bill was thrown out, but coming
to parliament for a second time in 1810, Winsor succeeded in
getting it passed in a very much curtailed form, and, a charter
being granted later in 181 2, the company was called the Chartered
Gas Light and Coke Company, and was the direct forerunner of
the present London Gas Light and Coke Company. During this
period Frederick C. Accum (1760-1838), Dr W. Henry and
S. Clcgg did so much by their writings and by the improvements
they introduced in the manufacture, distribution and burning of
coal gas, that their names have become inseparably connected
with the subject.
In 1813 Westminster Bridge, and in the following year the
streets of Westminster, were lighted with gas, and in 1816 it
became common in London. After this so rapid was The
the progress of this new mode of illumination that in growth
the course of a few years it was adopted by all the of gat
principal towns in the United Kingdom for lighting UghUag.
streets as well as shops and public edifices. In private houses it
found its way more slowly, partly from an apprehension of
danger attending its use, and partly from the discomfort which
was experienced in many cases through the gas being distributed
without purification, and to the careless and imperfect manner
in which the service pipes were first fitted. It was during the
last four decades of the ic/ih century that the greatest advance
was made, this period having been marked net only by many
improvements in the manufacture of illuminating gas, but by a
complete revolution in the methods of utilizing it for the pro-
duction of light. In 1875 the London Argand, giving a duty of
3 2 candles illuminating power per cubic foot of ordinary 16 candle
gas, was looked upon as the most perfect burner of the day,
and little hope was entertained that any burner capable of
universal adoption would surpass it in its power of developing
light from the combustion of coal gas; but the close of the
century found the incandescent mantle and the atmospheric
burner yielding six times the light that was given by the Argand
for the consumption of an equal volume of gas, and to-day,
by supplying gas at an increased pressure, a light of ten times
the power may be obtained. Since the advent of the incandescent
mantle, the efficiency of which is dependent upon the heating
power of the gas more than on its illuminating power, the manu-
facture of coal gas has undergone considerable modifications.
Coal, the raw material from which the gas is produced by a
process of destructive distillation, varies very widely in composition
(seeCoAL),anditisonlytheclassofcoalsrichinhydrogen,
known as bituminous coal, that can with advantage be T * * "
utilized in gas manufacture. Coals of this character are ma %j a l
obtained in England from the Newcastleand Durham field,
South Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Barnsley districts, and an idea of
their ultimate composition may be derived from the following table :-
Carbon.
Hydrogen.
Sulphur.
Nitrogen.
Oxygen.
Ash.
Moisture.
Newcastle gas coal .
Durham gas coal
South Yorkshire silkstone
Derbyshire silkstone
Barnsley gas coal
82-16
84-34
80-46
76-06
75-64
4-83
5-30
5-09
5-4
4-94
I -00
?s
as
1-23
'73
1-67
'77
1-65
6-82
4-29
6-79
6-92
7-25
3-20
2-42
3-3
3-28
4-28
0-76
1-14
1-03
3-64
3-40
Our knowledge of the composition of coal is limited to the total
amount of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and foreign materials
which it contains; and at present we know practically put little of
the way in which these bodies are combined. This being so, the
ordinary analysis of a coal affords but little indication of its value
for gas-making purposes, which can only be really satisfactorily
arrived at by extended use on a practical scale. Bituminous coal,
however, may be looked upon as containing carbon and also simple
hydrocarbons, such at some of the higher members of the paraffin
series, and likewise organic bodies containing carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.
On submitting a complex substance of this character to destructive
distillation, it will be found that the yield and quality of the products
will vary very considerably with the temperature existing in the
retorts, with the size of the charge of coal used, with its distribution
4 8 4
GAS
Destruc-
tive dis-
tillation
ot coal.
in the retort, with the length of time the distillation has been going
on, and with an infinity of other factors of a more or less complex
nature. If bituminous coal is distilled at a low tempera-
ture, the tar is found to contain considerable quantities of
light paraffin oils; and there is no doubt that paraffin
hydrocarbons are present in the original coal. These
paraffins, under the influence of heat, split up into simpler
members of the same series and into olefines; and if we imagine the
action in its simplest form, we should have the gases, as they were
evolved, consisting of (say) ethane and ethylene. These have now
to pass down the heated retort on their way to the ascension pip,
and the contact with the heated sides of the retort, and the baking
from the radiant heat in the retort, set up an infinity of changes.
Ethane, when heated to this degree, splits up into ethylene and
hydrogen, whilst ethylene decomposes to methane and acetylene,
and the acetylene at once polymerizes to benzene, styrolene, retene,
&c. A portion also condenses, and at the same time loses some
hydrogen, becoming naphthalene; and the compounds so formed
by interactions amongst themselves build up the remainder of the
hydrocarbons present in the coal tar, whilst the organic substances
containing oxygen in the coal break down, and cause the formation
of the phenols in the tar.
There is very little doubt that the general course of the decom-
positions follows these lines ; but any such simple explanation of
the actions taking place is rendered impossible by the fact that,
instead of the breaking-down of the hydrocarbons being completed
in the coal, and only secondary reactions taking place in the retort,
in practice the hydrocarbons to a great extent leave the coal as the
vapours of condensible hydrocarbons, and the breaking down of these
to such simple gaseous compounds as ethylene is proceeding in the
retort at the same time as the breaking up of the ethylene already
formed into acetylene and methane, and the polymerization of the
former into higher compounds. Starting with a solid hydrocarbon
of definite composition, it would be theoretically possible to decom-
pose it entirely into carbon, hydrogen, ethylene and methane,
and, by rapidly removing these from the heating zone before any
secondary actions took place, to prevent formation of tar. But any
such ideal is hopeless in practice, as the coal is not a definite com-
pound, and it is impossible to subject it to a fixed temperature.
If the retorts are at a temperature of 1000 C. when the charge of
coal is put in, the temperature of the distillation will vary from about
800 C. close to the walls, to about 400 C. in the centre of
Effect of t he coa j . anc j m the game way, in the space above the coal,
tempera- t h e products which come in contact with the sides of the
tare la the Ktort are heated to 1000 C., whilst the gas near the coal
re ' ort> is probably heated to only 600 C. Moreover, the gases
and vapours in the retort are subjected to a period of heating which
varies widely with the distance from the mouth of the retort of the
coal that is undergoing carbonization. The gas developed by the
coal near the mouth of the retort is quickly washed out into the
ascension pipe by the push of the gas behind, and the period for
which it has been exposed to the radiant heat from the walls of the
retort is practically nil ; whilst the gas evolved in the portion of the
retort farthest from the mouthpiece has only its own rate of evolution
to drive it forward, and has to traverse the longest run possible in
the retort, exposed during the whole of that period to radiant heat
and to contact with the highly heated surface of the retort itself.
Hence we find that the tar is formed of two distinct sets of products,
the first due to incomplete decomposition and the second to secondary
reactions due to the products of the decomposition being kept too
long in the zone of heat.
Of the first class, the light paraffin oils and pitch may be taken as
examples; whilst benzene, naphthalene and retort carbon represent
the second. The formation of the second class of bodies is a great
loss to the gas manufacturer, as, with the exception of the trace of
benzene carried with the gas as vapour, these products are not only
useless in the gas, but one of them, naphthalene, is a serious trouble,
because any trace carried forward by the gas condenses with sudden
changed of temperature, and causes obstructions in the service pipes,
whilst their presence in the tar means the loss of a very large pro-
portion of the illuminating constituents of the gas. Moreover, these
secondary products cannot be successfully reduced, by further heat-
ing, to simpler hydrocarbons of any high illuminating value, and
such bodies as naphthalene and anthracene have so great a stability
that, when once formed, they resist any efforts again to decompose
them by heat, short of the temperature which breaks them up into
methane, carbon and hydrogen.
The ammonia is derived from the nitrogen present in the coal
combining with hydrogen during destructive distillation, the nitrogen
becoming distributed amongst all three classes of products. The
following table will give an approximate idea of the proportions
which go to each :
Per cent.
14-50
1-56
35-26
48-68
Nitrogen as ammonia
as cyanogen
free in gas and combined in tar
remaining in coke
Temperature.
Cubic ft. of
Gas per ton.
Illuminating
Power,
Candles.
Total
Candles
per ton.
I. Dull red ...
2. Hotter ....
3- -. ....
4. Bright orange .
8,250
9,693
10,821
12,006
20-5
17-8
16-7
15-6
33-950
34-510
36-140
37-460
Composition of the Gas.
i.
Per cent.
2.
Per cent.
4-
Per cent.
Hydrogen ....
Marsh gas ....
Olefines ....
Carbon monoxide .
Nitrogen ....
38-09
42-72
7-55
8-72
2-92
43-77
34-50
5-83
12-50
3-40
48-02
30-70
4-51
13-96
2-81
IOO-OO
IOO-OO
IOO-OO
100-00
[MANUFACTURE
The effect produced by alteration in the temperature of the retort
upon the composition of both gas and tar is very marked. As the
temperature is raised, the yield of gas from a given weight of coal
increases ; but with the increase of volume there is a marked decrease
in the illuminating value of the gas evolved. Lewis T. Wright found,
in a series of experiments, that, when four portions of the same coal
were distilled at temperatures ranging from a dull red heat to the
highest temperature attainable in an iron retort, he obtained the
following results as to yield and illuminating power:
The gas analysis of No. 3 was lost, but the illuminating power
shows that it was intermediate in composition between Nos. 2 and 4.
From this it will be seen that, with the increase of temperature, the
hydrocarbons the olefines and marsh gas series gradually break,
up, depositing carbon in the crown of the retort, and liberating
hydrogen, the percentage of which steadily increases with the rise of
temperature.
The tar formed is affected to an even greater extent than the gas by
alterations in the temperature at which the destructive distillation
takes place. The lower the temperature, the smaller will be the
volume of gas produced, and the lighter the specific gravity of the
tar, whilst with increase of temperature, the volume of gas rapidly
rises, and so does the specific gravity of the tar. Working with a
caking coal Wright obtained the following results :
Yield of Gas
per ton,
Cub. ft.
Specific Gravity
of Tar.
6,600
7,200
8,900
10,162
11,700
1-086
I -120
I-I40
I-I54
1-206
Analysis of the tar showed that the increase of the specific gravity
was due to the increase in the quantity of pitch, which rose from
28-89 to 64-08% in the residuals; whilst the ammonia, naphtha
and light oils steadily fell in quantity, the creosote and anthracene
oils doing the same, but to a smaller extent. Naphthalene also
begins to show in quantity in the tar as soon as the yield of gas reaches
10,000 cub. ft. per ton of coal carbonized.
In spite of these variations, however, the products in their main
characteristics will remain the same. They may be divided into
(a) Solids, such as the coke and retort carbon; (o) liquids, consisting
of the tar and ammoniacal liquor ; and (c) gases, consisting of the
unpurified coal gas. The proportions in which the products are
approximately obtained from a ton of gas coal have been given as
follows :
10,009 cub. ft. of gas = 380 ft = 17-0 per cent.
10 gallons of tar . = 115 = 5-1
Gas liquor 1 . . . = 177 = 7-9 .,
Coke .... =1568 =70-0
2240
100-0
The chief solid residue, coke, is not absolutely pure carbon, as it
contains the mineral non-volatile constituents which remain behind
as ash when the original coal is burnt, and which, to a
great extent, existed in the sap that filled the cells of the
plant from which the coal was formed. The retort carbon
formed as a dense deposit on the crown of the retort by the action
of the high temperature on the hydrocarbons is, however, carbon in
a very pure form, and, on account of its density, is largely used
for electrical purposes.
1 Liquor condensed from gas alone, without wash water.
MANUFACTURE]
GAS
485
The liquid products of the destructive distillation of coal are tar
nd ammonuir.il liquor. Tar derived from ordinary bituminous
coal is a black, somewhat viscid liquid, varying in specific
gravity from i-i to 1-3. The ultimate composition of
tar made in the London Gas Work* is approximately
as follows: .
5Jx>n 77-53
Hydrogen 6-33
Nitrogen 1-03
Sulphur 0-61
Oxygen 14-50
100-00
These elements in tar are built up into an enormous number of
compounds (see COAL TAR), and its value as a by-product may be
Kthered from the fact that on fractional distillation it yields (l)
nzene and its homologues, from which aniline, the source of most
of the coal-tar colours, can be derived ; (a) carbolic acid, from which
picric acid, used as a dye, a powerful explosive, and to give the bitter
flavour to some kinds of beer, is made, also many most valuable
disinfectants; (3) naphthalene, used for disinfecting, and also as the
" Albo-carbon ' employed in an enriching burner for gas; (4) pitch,
extensively used in path-making, from which such bodies as anthra-
cene and saccharin can be extracted.
The second liquid product of the destructive distillation of coal
is the ammoniacal or gas liquor, which consists of water containing
ammonia salts in solution, partly condensed from the hot gas, and
partly added to wash the gas in the scrubbers. _ It contains, as its
principal constituents, ammonia, partly combined with carbonic
acid and sulphuretted hydrogen to form compounds which are
decomposed on boiling, with evolution of ammonia gas, and part ly
combined with stronger acids tc form compounds which require to
be acted upon by a strong alkali before the ammonia contained in
them can be liberated. The ammonia in the first class of compounds
is technically spoken of as " free "; that present in the latter as
" fixed." The following analysis by L. T. Wright will give an idea
of the relative quantities in which these compounds exist in the
liquor:
Grammes per litre.
Ammonium sulphide ... . 3-0;
Kixol
3-03
9-16
Ammonium carbonate ... . 39-
.Ammonium chloride ... . 14-23
'Ammonium thiocyanate . . . i-Ho
Ammonium sulphate . .0-19
Ammonium thiosulphate . . . 2-80
Ammonium ferrocyanide . . . 0-41
From * scientific point of view, the term " free " is absolutely in-
correct, and in using it the fact must be clearly borne in mind that
in this case it merely stands for ammonia, which can be liberated on
simply boiling the liquor.
The fas which is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal,
mod which we employ as our chief illuminant, is not a definite com-
pound, but a mechanical mixture of several gases, some
of which are reduced to the lowest limit, in order to
develop as fully as possible the light-giving properties
of the most important constituents of the gas. The following analysis
gives a fair idea of the composition of an average sample of gas made
from coal, purified but without enrichment :
Hydrogen 52-22
Unsaturated hydrocarbons . 3-47
Saturated hydrocarbons . 34-76
Carbon monoxide . . . 4-23
Carbon dioxide .... 0-60
Nitrogen 4-23
Oxygen 0-49
IWOO
These constituents may be divided into (a) light-yielding hydro-
carbons, (A) combustible diluents and (c) impurities. The hydro-
carbons, upon which the luminosity of the flame entirely depends,
are divided in the analysis into two groups, saturated and unsatur-
ated, according to their behaviour with a solution of bromine in
potassium bromide, which has the power of absorbing those termed
unsaturated," but does not affect in diffused daylight the gaseous
members of the " saturated " series of hydrocarbons. They may be
separated in a similar way by concentrated sulphuric acid, which has
the same absorbent effect on the one class, and not on the other. The
chief unsaturated hydrocarbons present in coal gas are: ethylenc,
CiHt. butylene, CiHi, acetylene, CiH, benzene, CH, and naphtha-
lene,CH,and the saturated hydrocarbons consist chiefly of methane,
CH. and ethane, C\H,.
The light-giving power of coal gas is undoubtedly entirely due to
the hydrocarbons. The idea held up to about 1890 was that the
illuminating value depended upon the amount of ethylene present.
This, however, is manifestly incorrect, as, if it were true, 4% of
ethylene mixed with 96 % of a combustible diluent such as hydrogen
should give 1 6- to l '-candle gas, whereas a mixture of 10% of
ethylene and 90% of hydrogen is devoid of luminosity. In 1876
M .P.E.Berthclot came to the conclusion that the illuminating value of
the Paris coal gas was almost entirely due to benzene vapour. But
here again another mistaken idea arose, owing to a faulty method of
estimating the benzene, and there is no doubt that methane is one
of the most important of the hydrocarbons present, when the gas
is burnt in such a way as to evolve from it the proper illuminating
power, whilst the benzene vapour, small as the quantity is, comes
next in importance and the ethylene last. It is the combined action
of the hydrocarbons which gives the effect, not any one of them
acting alone.
The series of operations connected with the manufacture and
distribution of coal gas embraces the processes of distillation, con-
densation, exhaustion, wet purification by washing and scrubbing,
dry purification, measuring, storing and distribution to the mains
whence the consumer's supply is drawn.
The choice of a site 'or a gas works is necessarily governed by local
circumstances; but it is a necessity that there should be a ready
means of transport available, and for this reason the works .. .
should be built upon the banks of a navigable river or "? *
canal, and should have a convenient railway siding. By
this means coal may be delivered direct to the store or retort-
house, and in the same way residual products may be removed.
The fact that considerable area is required and that the works do
not improve the neighbourhood are important conditions, and
although economy of space should be considered, arrangements
should be such as to allow of extension. In the case of a works
whose daily make of gas exceeds four to five million cub. ft., jt is
usual to divide the works into units, there being an efficiency limit
to the size of apparatus employed. Under these conditions the gas
is dealt with in separate streams, which mix when the holder is
reached. From the accompanying ground plan of a works (fig. 4)
River.
FIG. 4. Plan of Works.
it will be possible to gain an idea of the order in which the operations
in gas manufacture are carried out and the arrangement of the plant.
The retorts in which the coal is carbonized arcalmost universally
made of fire-clay, and in all but small country works the old single-
ended retort, which was about 9 ft. in length, has given Retort*.
way to a more economical construction known as doubles,
double-ended, or " through " retorts. These are from 18 to 22 ft.
long, and as it is found inconvenient to produce this length in one
piece, they are manufactured in three sections, the jointing together
of which demands great care. The two outer pieces are swelled at
one end to take an iron mouthpiece. The cross sections generally
employed for retorts are known as " D-shaped," " oval " and
" round " (fig. ) The " D " form is mostly adopted owing to its
power of retaining its shape after long exposure to heat, and the
large amount of heating surface it presents at its base. The life of
this retort is about thirty working months. A cast iron mouthpiece
and lid is bolted to the
exterior end of each retort,
the mouthpiece carrying a
socket end to receive the
ascension pipe, through
which the gas passes on
leaving the retort. The
retorts are heated exter-
nally and are set in an arch,
the construction depending
upon the number ofretorts,
which varies from three to
twelve. The arch and its
/^ ~\
o
FIG. 5. Cross Section of Retorts.
retorts is termed a b>d or
setting, and a row of beds
constitutes a bench. It is
usual to have a separate furnace for each setting, the retorts resting
upon walls built transversely in the furnace.
The heating of the retorts is carried out either by the " direct
firing " or by the " regenerative " system, the latter affording
GAS
[MANUFACTURE
marked advantages over the former method, which is now becoming
extinct. In the regenerative system of firing, a mixture of carbon
monoxide and nitrogen is produced by passing air through incan-
descent gas coke in a generator placed below the bench of retorts,
and the heating value of the gases so produced is increased in most
cases by the admixture of a small proportion of steam with the
primary air supply, the steam being decomposed by contact with
the red-hot coke in the generator into water gas, a mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen (see FUEL : Gaseous). The gases so formed
vary in proportion with the temperature of the generator and the
amount of steam, but generally contain 32 to 38 % of combustible
gas, the remainder being the residual nitrogen of the air and carbon
dioxide. These gases enter the combustion chamber around the retorts
at a high temperature, and are there supplied with sufficient air to
complete their combustion, this secondary air supply being heated by
the hot products of combustion on their way to the exit flue. This
method of firing results in the saving of about one-third the weight
of coke used in the old form of furnace per ton of coal carbonized,
and enables higher temperatures to be obtained, the heat being also
more equally distributed.
There are a great number of methods of applying the regenerative
principle which vary only in detail. Fig. 6 gives an idea of the general
arrangement. The furnace A is built of fire-brick, coke is charged
at the top through the iron door B, and near the bottom are placed
fire bars C, upon which the fuel lies. The primary air necessary for
the partial combustion of the coke to " producer " gas enters between
these bars. The gases are conducted from the furnace to the com-
bustion chamber E through the nostrils D D, and the secondary air is
FIG. 6. Regenerative Setting.
admitted at the inlet F a little above, this air having been already
heated by traversing the setting. Complete combustion takes place
at this point with the production of intense heat, the gases on rising
are baffled in order to circulate them in every direction round the
retorts, and upon arriving at the top of the setting they are conducted
down a hollow chamber communicating with the main flue and shaft.
The amount of draft which is necessary to carry out the circulation
of the gases and to draw in the adequate amount of air is regulated
by dampers placed in the main flue. By analysis of the " producer "
and " spent gases this amount can be readily gauged.
Retorts are set in either the horizontal, inclined or vertical position,
and the advantages of the one over the other is a question upon which
almost every gas engineer has his own views.
The introduction of labour-saving appliances into gas works has
rendered the difficult work of charging and discharging horizontal
Ch nrl retorts comparatively simple. Formerly it was the
r practice to carry out such operations entirely by hand,
men charging the retorts either by means of shovel or
drawing, hand-scoop, and the coke produced being withdrawn with
hand rakes. Now, however, only the smaller gas works adhere to
this system, and this work is done by machinery driven by either
compressed air, hydraulic or electric power. In the first two cases a
scoop, filled with coal from an overhead hopper carried by the
travelling machine, is made to enter the retort and is turned over;
the operation is then repeated, but this time the scoop is turned over
in the opposite direction, the coal thus assuming such a position that
as much of its under surface as possible is exposed to the heated side
of the retort. With " through ' retorts charging machines feed the
retorts at both ends, the scoop, which has a capacity of about if cwt.,
entering and discharging its contents twice at each end, so that the
total charge is about 6 cwt., which is allowed from four to six hours
to distil off according to the quality of the gas required. The
machines charge simultaneously at each end, so that the lids of the
retorts may be shut immediately the coal enters. The charging
machines travel on lines in front of the retort bench, and the power
is transmitted by connexions made with flexible hose. A device of
more recent introduction is an electrically-driven charging machine,
in which the centrifugal force created by a fly-wheel revolving at high
speed is applied to drive coal into the retort. If the velocity is
sufficiently high the coal may be carried the whole length of a 2O-ft.
retort, the coal following banking up until an even layer is formed
throughout the length of the retort.
For the purpose of discharging the coke from the retort either
compressed air or hydraulic machinery is employed, a rake being
made to enter the retort and withdraw the coke on returning. With
this method it is necessary that the rake should enter and discharge
several times before the retort is clear, and thus the use of a telescopic
ram worked by hydraulic power, which pushes the coke before it
and discharges it at the other end, is an advantage. As much as
one-third on each ton of coal carbonized is saved by the use of
machinery in the retort-house. Taking into account the original
cost of such machines, and the unavoidable wear and tear upon the
retorts brought about by using labour-saving appliances, and the
fact that the coke-dust is very detrimental to the machinery, it is
clear that the suggestion of setting the retorts at an incline in order
to facilitate the work presented great inducements to the gas manager.
The object aimed at in thus setting retorts is to allow gravity to
play the part of charging and discharging the coal and coke, the
retorts being inclined at an angle to suit the slip of the class of coal
used; this angle is between 28 and 34. The coal, previously
elevated to hoppers, is dropped into the feeding chambers, which are
so arranged that they can travel from end to end of the retort-
house and feed the coal into the retorts. When the retort is to be
charged, an iron stop or barrier is placed in the lower mouthpiece,
and the door closed. The shoot is placed in the upper mouthpiece,
and the stop or door, which retains the coal in the chamber, is re-
leased ; the coal is then discharged into the retort, and rushing down
the incline, is arrested by the barrier, and banks up, forming a
continuous backing to the coal following. By experience with
the class of coal used and the adjustment of the stops in the shoot,
the charge can be run into the retort to form an even layer of any
desired depth. For the withdrawal of the residual coke at the end
of the carbonization, the lower mouthpiece door is opened, the barrier
removed and the coke in the lower part of the retort is " tickled "
or gently stirred with an iron rod to overcome a slight adhesion to
the retort; the entire mass then readily discharges itself. Guides
are placed in front of the retort to direct its course to the coke
hoppers or conveyer below, and to prevent scattering of the hot
material. This system shows a greater economy in the cost of
carbonizing the coal, but the large outlay and the wear and tear of
the mechanical appliances involved have so far prevented its very
general adoption.
The vertical retort was one of the first forms experimented with
by Murdoch, but owing to the difficulty of withdrawing the coke,
the low illuminating power of the gas made in it, and the damage
to the retort itself, due to the swelling of the charge during distil-
lation, it was quickly abandoned. About the beginning of the 2Oth
century, however, the experiments of Messrs Settle and Padfield at
Exeter, Messrs Woodall and Duckham at Bournemouth, and Dr
Bueb in Germany showed such encouraging results that the idea
of the vertical retort again came to the front, and several systems
were proposed and tried. The cause of the failure of Murdoch's
original vertical retort was undoubtedly that it was completely
filled with coal during charging, with the result that the gas liberated
from the lower portions of the retort had to pass through a deep
bed of red-hot coke, which, by over-baking the gas, destroyed the
illuminating hydrocarbons. There is no doubt that the question of
rapidly removing the gas, as soon as it is properly formed, from the
influence of the nighly-heated walls of the retort and residual coke,
is one of the most important in gas manufacture.
In the case of horizontal retorts the space between the top of the
coal and the retort is of necessity considerable in order to permit the
introduction of the scoop and rake; the gas has therefore a free
channel to travel along, but has too much contact with the highly
heated surface of the retort before it leaves the mouthpiece. In
the case of inclined retorts this disadvantage is somewhat reduced,
but with vertical retorts the ideal conditions can be more nearly
approached. The heating as well as the illuminating value of the
gas per unit volume is lowered by over-baking, and Dr Bueb gives
the following figures as to the heating value of gas obtained from the
same coal but by different methods of carbonization :
Vertical Retorts, 604 British thermal units per cub. ft.
Inclined ,, 584 ,, ,,
Horizontal ,, 570 ,, ,, ,,
Of the existing forms of vertical retort it remains a matter to be
decided whether the coal should be charged in bulk to the retort
or whether it should be introduced in small quantities at regular
and short intervals ; by this latter means (the characteristic feature
of the Settle- Padfield process) a continuous layer of coal is in process
of carbonization on the top, whilst the gas escapes without contact
with the mass of red-hot coke, a considerable increase in volume
and value in the gas and a much denser coke being the result.
From the retort the gas passes by the ascension pipe to the hy-
draulic main (fig. 7). This is a long reservoir placed in a horizontal
position and supported by columns upon the top of the Hydraulic
retort stack, and through it is maintained a slow but
constant flow of water, the level of which is kept uniform. '
The ascension pipe dips about 2 in. into the liquid, and so makes a
seal that allows of any retort being charged singly without the risk
of the gas produced from the other retorts in the bench escaping
MANUFACTURE)
GAS
487
Fie. 7. Hydraulic
Main.
through the open retort. Coal gas, being a mixture of gases and
vapour* of liquids having very varying boiling points, must neces-
sarily undergo physical changes when the temperature is lowered
Vapours of liquid* of high boiling point will DC condensed more
quickly than those having lower boiling
points, but condensation of each vapour win
take place in a definite ratio with the decrease
of temperature, the rate being dependent upon
the boiling point of the liquid from which it is
formed. The result is that from the time the
gaseous mixture leaves the retort it begins to
deposit condensation products owing to the
decrease in temperature. Condensation takes
place in the ascension pipe, in the arch piece
leading tc the hydraulic main, and to a still
greater extent in the hydraulic main itself
where the gas has to pass through water.
Ascension pipes give trouble unless they are
frequently cleared t>y an instrument called an
" auger," whilst the arch pipe is fitted with
hand holes through which it may be easily
cleared in case of stoppage. The most soluble
of the constituents of crude coal gas is
ammonia, 780 volumes of which are soluble
in one volume of water at normal tempera-
ture and pressure, and the water in the
hydraulic main absorbs a considerable quan-
tity of this compound from the gas and
helps to form the ammoniacal liquor, whilst,
although the liquor is well agitated by the gas
bubbling through it, a partial separation of tar
from liquor is effected by gravitation. The
liquor is run off at a constant rate from the hydraulic main to the
store tank, and the gas passes from the top of the hydraulic main to
the foul main.
The gas a* it leaves the hydraulic main is still at a temperature
of from 130* to 150 F., and should now be reduced as nearly as
powible to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere.
The operation of efficient condensing is net by any means as
simple as might be supposed. The tar and liquor when con-
densed have a dissolving action on various valuable light-giving con-
stituents of the gas, which in the ordinary way would not be deposited
by the lowering of temperature, and for this reason the heavy tar,
and especially that produced in the hydraulic main,' should come in
contact with the gas as little as possible, and condensation should
take place slowly.
The main difficulty which the condenser ought to overcome and
upon which its efficiency should depend is the removal of naphtha-
lene: this compound, which is present in the gas, condenses on
cooling to a solid which crystallizes out in the form of white flakes,
and the trouble caused by pipe stoppages in the works as well as in
the district supplied is very considerable. The higher the heat of
carbonization the more naphthalene appears to be produced, and
gas managers of to-day find the removal of naphthalene from the
gas a difficult problem to solve. It was for some time debated as
to whether naphthalene added materially to the illuminating value
of the gas, and whether an endeavour should be made to carry it
to the point of combustion ; but it is now acknowledged that it is a
troublesome impurity, and that the sooner it is extracted the better.
Gas leave* the retorts saturated with naphthalene, and its capacity
for holding that impurity seems to be augmented by the presence
of water vapour. The condenser, by effecting the condensation of
water vapour, also brings about the deposition of solid naphthalene,
pan from that which naturally condenses owing to reduction of
temperature.
Condensers are either air-cooled or water-cooled, or both. In the
former case the gas traverses pipes exposed to the atmosphere and
so placed that the resulting products of condensation may be collected
at the lowest point. Water is a more efficient cooling medium than
air. owing to its high specific heat, and the degree of cooling may be
more easily regulated by its use. In water-cooled condensers it is
osoal to arrange that the water passes through a large number of
mall pipe* contained in a larger one through which the gas flows,
and as it constantly happened that condenser pipes became choked
by naphthalene, the so-called reversible condenser, in which the
stream of gas may be altered from time to time and the walls of the
pipe* cleaned by pumping tar over them, is a decided advance.
The solubility of naphthalene by various oils has led some engineers
to put in naphthalene washers, in which gas is brought into contact
with a heavy tar oil or certain fractions distilled from it, the latter
being previously mixed with some volatile hydrocarbon to replace
in the gas those illuminating vapours which the oil dissolves out;
and by fractional distillation of the washing oil the naphthalene
and volatile hydrocarbons are afterwards recovered.
The exhauster is practically a rotary gas pump which serves the
purpose of drawing the (fas from the hydraulic main through the
6x*4>>ssr condensers, and then forcing it through the purifying
" vessels to the holder. Moreover, by putting the retorts
under a slight vacuum, the amount of gas produced is increased
by about 12%, and is of better quality, owing to its leaving the
heated retort more quickly. A horizontal compound steam-engine
is usually employed to drive the exhauster.
At this point in the manufacturing process the gas has already
undergone some important changes in its composition, but there yet
remain impurities which must be removed, these being ammonia,
sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon disulphide and carbon dioxide.
Ammonia is of considerable marketable value, and even in places
where the local Gas Act does not prescribe that it shall be removed,
it is extracted. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a noxious impurity, and
its complete removal from the gas is usually imposed by parlia-
ment. As nearly as possible all the carbon dioxide is extracted,
but most gas companies are now exempt from having to purify the
gas from sulphur compounds other than sulphuretted hydrogen.
Cyanogen compounds also are present in the gas, and in large works,
wnere the total quantity is sufficient, their extraction is effected
for the production of either prussiatc or cyanide of soda.
Atkinson Butterfield gives the composition of the gas at this
point to be about
per cent, by vol.
Hydrogen . . . from 42 to 53
Methane 32 39
Carbon monoxide 3 10
Hydrocarbons
Gases a-5 4'5
Light condensable
vapours . . ,, 0-5 ,, '*
Carbon dioxide. . ,, i ' ,. i'8
Nitrogen l-o 5-0
Sulphuretted hydrogen i-o 2-0
Ammonia 0-5 ,, 0-95
Cyanogen 0-05 ,, 0-12
Carbon disulphide . 0-02 0-035
Naphthalene . . ,, 0-005 0-015
It happens that ammonia, being a strong base, will effect the ex-
traction of a certain proportion of such compounds as sulphuretted
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrocyanic acid, and the washers,
gas is now washed with water and ammoniacal liquor.
Tin- process is termed washing or scrubbing, and is carried out in
various forms of apparatus, the efficiency of which is dependent
upon the amount of contact the apparatus allows between the finely
divided gas and water in a unit area and the facility with which
it may be cleared out. The " Livesey " washer, a well-known type,
is a rectangular cast iron vessel. The gas enters in the centre, and
to make its escape again it has to pass into long wrought iron
inverted troughs through perforations one-twentieth of an inch in
diameter. A constant flow of liquor is regulated through the washer,
and the gas, in order to pass through the perforations, drives the
liquor up into the troughs. The liquor foams up owing to agitation
by the finely divided streams of gas, and is brought into close contact
with it. Two or three of these washers are connected in series
according to the quantity of gas to be dealt with.
The final washing for ammonia is effected in an apparatus termed
a " scrubber," which is a cylindrical tower packed with boards Jin.
thick by ii in. broad, placed on end and close together; scrubber*.
water is caused to flow down over the surface of these
boards, the object being to break up the gas as much as possible
and bring it into close contact with the water. In this wet purifying
apparatus the gas is almost wholly freed from ammonia and from
part of the sulphuretted hydrogen, whilst carbon dioxide and carbon
disulphide are also partially extracted.
The final purification is carried out in rectangular vessels, known
as " dry purifiers " (fig. 8). Internally, each purifier is filled with
ranges of wooden trays or sieves A, made in the form of purlOtn.
grids (fig. 9), and covered with the purifying material B _
to a depth of about 6 in., the number of tiers and size of purifier boxes
being proportional to the quantity of gas to be purified. The gas
FIG. 8. Purifier.
enters at the bottom by the pipe C, the inlet being protected from
any falling material by the cover D; it forces its way upwards
through all the trays until, reaching the lid or cover E,it descends
by the exit tube F, which leads to the next purifier. The edges of the
lid dip into an external water seal or lute G, whereby the gas is
prevented from escaping.
488
GAS
FIG. 9. Purifier Grid.
When the gas had to be purified from carbon disulphide as well a
from sulphuretted hydrogen, slaked lime was employed for the re
moval of carbon dioxide and the greater quantity of the sulphu
compounds, whilst a catch box or purifier of oxide of iron served tc
remove the last traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. Not fewer than
lour lime purifiers were employed, and as the one which was firs
in the series became exhausted, i.e
began to show signs of allowing
carbon dioxide to pass through i
unabsorbed, it was filled with fresh
slaked lime and made the last ol
the series, the one which was
second becoming first, and this
procedure went on continuously
This operation was necessitated by
the fact that carbon dioxide has the
power of breaking up the sulphur compounds formed by the lime
so that until all carbon dioxide is absorbed with the formation ol
calcium carbonate, the withdrawal of sulphuretted hydrogen cannol
proceed, whilst since it is calcium sulphide formed by the absorption
of sulphuretted hydrogen by the slaked lime that absorbs the vapour
of carbon disulphide, purification from the latter can only be accom-
plished after the necessary calcium sulphide has been formed. The
foul gas leaving the scrubbers contains, as a general average, 30
grains of sulphuretted hydrogen, 40 grains of carbon disulphide
and 200 grains of carbon dioxide per 100 cub. ft. On entering the
first purifier, which contains calcium thiocarbonate and other com-
binations of calcium and sulphur in small quantity, the sulphuretted
hydrogen and disulphide vapour have practically no action upon the
material, but the carbon dioxide immediately attacks the calcium
thiocarbonate, forming calcium carbonate with the production of
carbon disulphide vapour, which is carried over with the gas into the
second box. In the connexion between the first and the second box
the gas is found to contain 500 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen
and 80 grains of carbon disulphide per 100 cub. ft., but no trace of
carbon dioxide. In the second box the formation of calcium thio-
carbonate takes place by the action of carbon disulphide upon the
calcium sulphide with the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen,
which is carried over to the third purifier. The gas in the connecting
pipe between the second and third purifier will be found to contain
400 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 20 grains of carbon di-
sulphide. The contents of the third box, being mostly composed of
slaked lime, take up sulphuretted hydrogen forming calcium sulphide,
and practically remove the remaining impurities, the outlet gas show-
ing 20 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 8 grains of carbon di-
sulphide per 100 cub. ft., whilst the catch box of oxide of iron then
removes all traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. It will be noticed
that in the earlier stages the quantity of sulphur impurities is
actually increased between the purifiers in fact, the greater amount
of sulphiding procures the ready removal of the carbon disulphide,
but it is the carbon dioxide in the gas that is the disturbing element,
inasmuch as it decomposes the combinations of sulphur and calcium ;
consequently it is a paramount object in this system to prevent this
latter impurity finding its way through the first box of the series.
The finding of any traces of carbon dioxide in the gas between the
first two boxes is generally the signal for a new clean purifier being
put into action, and the first one shut off, emptied and recharged with
fresh lime, the impregnated material being sometimes sold for
dressing certain soils.
The action of oxide of iron, which has now partly replaced the
lime purification, depends on its power of combining with sulphuretted
hydrogen to form sulphide of iron. Such is the affinity of the oxide
for this impurity that it may contain from 50 to 60% by weight of
free sulphur after revivification and still remain active. Upon re-
moving the material from the vessel and exposing it to the atmo-
sphere the sulphide of iron undergoes a revivifying process, the oxygen
of the air displacing the sulphur from the sulphide as free sulphur,
and with moisture converting the iron into hydrated oxide of iron.
This revivification can be carried on a number of times until the
material when dry contains about 50 % of free sulphur and even
occasionally 60% and over; it is then sold to manufacturers of
sulphuric acid to be used in the sulphur kilns instead of pyrites (see
SULPHURIC ACID).
Apart from the by-products coke, coke-breeze, tar and retort
carbon, which are sold direct, gas companies are now in many cases
preparing from their spent purifying material pure chemical pro-
ducts which are in great demand. The most important of these is
sulphate of ammonia, which is used for agricultural purposes as a
manure, and is obtained by passing ammonia into sulphuric acid
and crystallizing put the ammonium sulphate produced. To do" this,
saturated ammoniacal liquor is decomposed by lime in the presence
of steam, and the freed ammonia is passed into strong sulphuric acid,
the saturated solution of ammonium sulphate being carefully
crystallized. The market value of the salt varies, but an average
figure is 12 per ton, whilst the average yield is about 24 ft of salt
per ton of coal carbonized. In large works the sulphuric acid is
usually manufactured on the spot from the spent oxide, so that the
sulphuretted hydrogen, which in the gas is considered an undesirable
impurity, plays a valuable part in the manufacture of an important
by-product.
[MANUFACTURE
Cyanogen compounds are extracted either direct from the gas,
trom the spent oxide or from ammoniacal liquor, and some laree eas
works now produce sodium cyanide, this being one of the latest
developments in the gas chemical industry.
The purified gas now passes to a gasholder (sometimes known as
a gasometer), which may be either single lift, i.e. a simple bell in-
verted in a tank of water, or may be constructed on the
telescopic principle, in which case much ground space is aasholaer -
saved, as a holder of much greater capacity can be contained in the
-sized tank. The tank for the gasholder is usually made by
FIG. 10. Gasholder.
excavating a circular reservoir somewhat larger in diameter than
the proposed holder. A banking is allowed to remain in the centre
as shown in fig. 10, which is known as the " dumpling," this arrange-
ment not only saving work and water, but acting as a support for
:he king post of a trussed holder when the holder is empty. The
:ank must be water-tight, and the precaution necessary to be taken
n Border to ensure this is dependent upon the nature of the soil-
t is usual, however, for the tanks to be lined with concrete. Where
;he conditions of soil are very bad, steel tanks are built above ground
jut the cost of these is much greater. The holder is made of sheet
ron riveted together, the thickness depending upon the size of the
lolder. The telescopic form consists of two or more lifts which slide
n one another, and may be described as a single lift holder encircled
>y other cylinders of slightly larger diameter,
)ut of about the same length. Fig. 10 shows
the general construction. Gas on entering
at A causes the top lift to rise; the bottom of
this lift being turned up all round to form a
cup, whilst the top of the next lift is turned
down to form a so-called grip, the two interlock
see fig. n), forming what is known as the
lydraulic cup. Under these conditions the
cup will necessarily be filled with water, and
. seal will be formed, preventing the escape
>f gas. A guide framing is built round the
lolder, and guide rollers are fixed at various
ntervals round the grips of each lift, whilst at
he bottom of the cup guide rollers are also
fixed (fig. n). In the year 1892 the largest
existing gasholder was built at the East
Greenwich works of the South Metropolitan
Oas Company; it has six lifts, its diameter is
93 ft., and when filled with gas stands 1 80 ft.
igh. The capacity for gas is 12 million cub. ft.
The governor consists usually of a bell float-
ng in a cast iron tank partially filled with
water, and is in fact a small gas- ,
lolder, from the centre of which is Oovernor -
uspended a conical valve controlling the gas FIG. n. Cup
ilet and ^closing it as the bell fills. Any and Grip,
eviation in pressure will cause the floating
jell to be lifted or lowered, and the size of the inlet will be
ecreased or increased, thus regulating the flow.
The fact that coal gas of an illuminating power of from 14 to 16
candles can be made from the ordinary gas coal at a fairly low rate,
while every candle power added to the gas increases the cost in an
normous and rapidly growing ratio, has, from the earliest days of
MANUFACTURE]
GAS
489
meat by
the gas industry, caused the attention of inventors to be turned to
the enrichment of coal gas. Formerly cannel coal was used for
m^gtg^. producing a very rich gas which could be mixed with the
ordinary gas, thereby enriching it, but as the supply
became limited and the price prohibitive, other methods
were from time to time advocated to replace its use in the enrich-
ment of illuminating gas. These may be classified as follows:
i. Enriching the gas by vapours and permanent gases obtained
by decomposing the tar formed at the same time as the gas.
3. Mixing with the coal gas oil gas, obtained by decomposing
crude oils by heat.
j. The carburetting of low-power gas by impregnating it with
the vapours of volatile hydrocarbons.
A. Mixing the coal gas with water gas, which has been highly
carburet ted by passing it with the vapours of various hydrocarbons
through superheaters in order to give permanency to the hydro-
carbon glSfl
Very many attempts have been made to utilize tar for
the production and enrichment of gas, and to do this
two methods may be adopted :
(a) Condensing the tar in the ordinary way, and afterwards
using the whole or portions of it for cracking into a permanent gas.
(6) Cracking the tar vapours before condensation by passing the
gas and vapours through superheaters.
If the first method be adopted, the trouble which presents itself
is that the tar contains a high percentage of pitch, which tends
rapidly to choke and clog up all the pipes. A partly successful
attempt to make use of certain portions of the liquid products of
distillation of coal before condensation by the second method was
the Dinsmore process, in which the coal gas and vapours which,
if allowed to cool, would form tar, were made to pass through a
heated chamber, and a certain proportion of otherwise condensible
hydrocarbons was thus converted into permanent gases. Even with
poor class of coal it was claimed that 9800 cub. ft. of 20- to 2 1 -candle
gas could be made by this process, whereas by the ordinary process
9000 cub. ft. of is-candle gas would have been produced. This
process, although strongly advocated by the gas engineer who
experimented with it, was never a commercial success. The final
solution of the question of enrichment of gas by hydrocarbons de-
rived from tar may be arrived at by a process which prevents the
formation of part of the tar during the carbonization of the coal,
or by the process devised by C. B. Tully and now in use at Truro, in
which tar is injected into the incandescent fuel in a water-gas gener-
ator and enriches the water gas with methane and other hydro-
carbons, the resulting pitch and carbon being filtered off by the
column of coke tnrough which the gas passes.
The earliest attempts at enrichment by oil gas consisted in spray-
ing oil upon the red hot mass in the retort during carbonization;
but experience soon showed that this was not an econo-
mical method of working, and that it was far better to
decompose the liquid hydrocarbon in the presence of the
mtat by
"*** diluents which are to mingle with it and act as its carrier,
since, if this were done, a higher temperature could be employed
and more of the heavier portions of the oil converted into gas, with-
out at the same time breaking down the gaseous hydrocarbons
top much. In carburetting poor coal gas with hydrocarbons from
mineral oil it must be borne in mind that, as coal is undergoing
distillation, a rich gas is given off in the earlier stages, but towards
the end of the operation the gas is very poor in illuminants, the
methane disappearing with the other hydrocarbons, and the increase
in hydrogen being very marked. Lewis T. Wright employed a coal
requiring six hours for its distillation, and took samples of the gas
at different periods of the time. On analysis these yielded the
following results:
Time after beginning Distillation.
Enrich-
ment by
volatile
hydro-
carboai.
10
minutes.
I hour
30 minutes.
3 hours
25 minutes.
5 hours
35 minutes.
Sulphuretted hydrogen
Carbon dioxide ....
Hydrogen
Carbon monoxide .
Saturated hydrocarbons
Unsaturated
Nitrogen
1-30
2-21
2O- IO
6-19
10-62
2-20
1-43
2-09
38-33
5-66
2-47
0-49
1-49
52-68
6-21
33-54
3-04
2-55
O-II
1-50
67-12
6-12
22-58
1-79
0-78
This may be regarded as a fair example of the changes which take
place in the quality of the gas during the distillation of the coal.
In carburetting such a gas by injecting mineral oil into the retort,
many of the products ofthe decomposition of the oil being vapours,
it would be wasteful to do so for the first two hours, as a rich gas
is being given off which has not the power of carrying in suspension
a much larger quantity of hydrocarbon vapours without being
supersaturated with them. Consequently, to make it carry any
further quantity in a condition not easily deposited, the oil would
have to be completely decomposed into permanent gases, and the
temperature necessary to do this would seriously affect the quality
has gone on for three hours, the rich portions of coal have distilled
off and the temperature of the retort has reached its highest point,
and this is the best time to feed in the oil.
Undoubtedly the best process which has been proposed for the
production of oil gas to be used in the enrichment of coal gas is the
Young " or " Peebles " process, which depends on the principle
of washing the oil gas retorted at a moderate temperature by means
of oil which is afterwards to undergo decomposition, because in this
way it is freed from all condensible vapours, and only permanent
gases are allowed to escape to the purifiers. In the course of this
treatment considerable quantities of the ethylenes and other fixed
gases are also absorbed, but no loss takes place, as these are again
driven out by the heat in the subsequent retorting. The gas ob-
tained by the Young process, when tested by itself in the Burners
most suited for its combustion, gives on the photometer an illumin-
ating value averaging from 50 to 60 candle-power, but it is claimed,
and quite correctly^that the enriching power of the gas is consider-
ably greater. This is accounted for by the fact that it is impossible
to construct a burner which will do justice to a gas of such illu-
minating power.
The fundamental objections to oil gas for the enrichment of coal
gas are, first, that its manufacture is a slow process, requiring as
much plant and space for retorting as coal gas; and, sccondjy, that
although on a small scale it can be made to mix perfectly with coal
gas and water gas, great difficulties are found in doing this on the
large scale, because in spite of the fact that theoretically gases of
such widely different specific gravities ought to form a perfect
mixture by diffusion, layering of the gas is very apt to take place in
the holder, and thus there is an increased liability to wide variations
in the illuminating value of the gas sent out.
The wonderful carburetting power of benzol vapour is well known,
a large proportion of the total illuminating power of coal gas being
due to the presence of a minute trace of its vapour carried
in suspension. For many years the price of benzol has
been falling, owing to the large quantities produced in
the coke ovens, and at its present price it is by far the
cheapest enriching material that can be obtained. Hence
at many gas-works where it is found necessary to dp so
it is used in various forms of carburettor, in which it is volatilized
and its vapour used for enriching coal gas up to the requisite
illuminating power.
One of the most generally adopted methods of enrichment now
is by means of carburetted water gas mixed with poor coal gas.
When steam acts upon carbon at a nigh temperature the Earlc i,.
resultant action may be looked upon as giving a mixture mtat *.,
of equal volumes of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, both .
of which are inflammable out non-luminous gases. This c *
water gas is then carburetted, i.e. rendered luminous by w '
passing it through chambers in which oils arc decomposed by heat,
the mixture being made so as to give an illuminating value of 22
to 25 candles. This, mixed with the poor coal gas, brings up its
illuminating value to the required limit. Coke or anthracite is
heated to incandescence by an air blast in a generator lined with
fire-brick, and the heated products of combustion as they leave the
generator and enter the superheaters are supplied with more air,
which causes the combustion of carbon monoxide present in the
producer gas and heats up the fire-brick baffles with which the super-
heater is filled. When the necessary temperature of the fuel and
superheater has been reached, the air blast is cut off, and steam is
blown through the generator, forming water gas, which meets the
enriching oil at the top of the first superheater, called the carburettor,
and carries the vapours with it through the main superheaters,
where the fixing of the hydrocarbons takes place. The chief advan-
tage of this apparatus is that a low temperature can be used for
fixing owing to the enormous surface for super-
heating, and thus to a great extent the deposition
of carbon is avoided. This form of apparatus has
been very generally adopted in Great Britain as
well as in America, and practically all carburetted
water-gas plants are founded upon the same set
of actions. Important factors in the use of car-
buretted water gas for enrichment are that it can
be made with enormous rapidity and with a mini-
mum of labour; and not only is the requisite
increase in illuminating power secured, but the
volume of the enriched gas is increased by the
bulk of carburetted water gas added, which in
ordinary English practice amounts to from 25 to
50%. The public at first strongly opposed its introduction on
the ground of the poisonous properties of the carbon monoxide,
which is present in it to the extent of about 28 to 30%. Still
when this comes to be diluted with 60 to 75% of ordinary coal gas,
containing as a rule only 4 to 6% of carbon monoxide, the per-
centage of poisonous monoxide in the mixture falls to below 16%,
which experience has shown to be a fairly safe limit.
A rise in the price of oil suitable for carburctting has caused the
gas industry to consider other methods by which the volume of gas
obtainable from coal can be increased by admixture with blue or non-
luminous water gas. In Germany, at several important gas-works,
**/ j -mitt aa> in * jci Illilll y , ill aCVClail 1 III I >< )i lilill Ktla~ wui FVP,
of the gas given off by the coal. When, however, the distillation I non-luminous water gas is passed into the foul main or through
490
GAS
[MANUFACTURE
the retorts in the desired proportion, and the mixture of water gas
and coal gas is then carburetted to the required extent by benzol
vapour, a process which at the present price of oil and benzol is
distinctly more economical than the use of carburetted water gas.
In 1896 Karl Dellwik introduced a modification in the process of
making water gas which entirely altered the whole aspect of the
industry. In all the attempts to make water
gas, up to that date, the incandescence of the
fuel had been obtained by " blowing " so
deep a bed of fuel that carbon monoxide and
the residual nitrogen of the air formed the
chief products, this mixture being known as
" producer " gas. In the Dellwik process,
however, the main point is the adjustment of
the air supplied to the fuel in the generator
in such a way that carbon dioxide is formed
instead of carbon monoxide. Under these
conditions producer gas ceases to exist as a
by-product, and the gases of the blow consist
merely of the incombustible products of com-
plete combustion, carbon dioxide and nitrogen,
the result being that more than three times
the heat is developed for the combustion of
the same amount of fuel, and nearly double
the quantity of water gas can be made per
pound of fuel than was before possible. The
runs or times of steaming can also be con-
tinued for longer periods. The possibility of
making from 60,000 to 70,000 cub. ft. of water
gas per ton of coke used in the Dellwik
generator as against 34,000 to 45,000 cub. ft.
per ton made by previous processes reduces
the price of water gas to about 3d. per P
thousand, so that the economic value of using
it in admixture with coal gas and then enriching the mixture by
any cheap carburetting process is manifest. The universal adoption
of the incandescent mantle for lighting purposes has made it evident
that the illuminating value of the gas is a secondary consideration,
and the whole tendency now is to do away with enrichment and
produce a gas of low-candle power but good heating power at a
cheap rate for fuel purposes and incandescent lighting. (See also
LIGHTING: Gas.) (V. B. L.)
2. Gas for Fuel and Power. The first gas-producers, which
were built by Faber du Faur at Wasseralfingen in 1836 and
by C. G. C. Bischof at Magdesprung (both in Germany), con-
sisted of simple perpendicular shafts of masonry contracted
at the top and the bottom, with or without a grate for the
coal. Such producers, frequently strengthened by a wrought
iron casing, are even now used to a great extent. Some-
times the purpose of a gas-producer is attained in a very
simple manner by lowering the grate of an ordinary fireplace
so much that a layer of coal 4 or 5 ft. deep is maintained in the
fire. The effect of this arrangement is that the great body of
coal reaches a higher temperature than in an ordinary fireplace,
and this, together with the reduction of the carbon dioxide formed
immediately above the grate by the red-hot coal in the upper
part of the furnace, leads to the formation of carbon monox-
ide which later on, on the spot where the greatest heat is re-
quired, is burned into dioxide by admitting fresh air, preferably
pre-heated. This simple and inexpensive arrangement has the
further advantage that the producer-gas is utilized immediately
after its formation, without being allowed to cool down. But it
is not very well adapted to large furnaces, and especially not to
those cases where all the space round the furnace is required
for manipulating heavy, white-hot masses of iron, or for similar
purposes. In these cases the producers are arranged outside the
iron-works, glass-works, &c., in an open yard where all the
manipulations of feeding them with coal, of stoking, and of re-
moving the ashes are performed without interfering with the
work inside. But care must always be taken to place the
producers at such a low level that the gas has an upward tendency,
in order to facilitate its passage to the furnace where it is to be
burned. This purpose can be further promoted by various
means. The gas-producers constructed by Messrs Siemens
Brothers, from 1856 onwards, were provided with a kind of brick
chimney; on the top of this there was a horizontal iron tube,
continued into an iron down-draught, and only from this the
underground flues were started which sent the gas into the single
furnaces. This arrangement, by which the gas was cooled down
by the action of the air, acted as a'gas-siphon for drawing the
gas out of the producer, but it has various drawbacks and
has been abandoned in all modern constructions. Where the
" natural draught " is not sufficient, it is aided either by blowing
air under the grate or else by suction at the other end.
We shall now describe a few of the very large number of gas-
Siemens Producer (Sectional Elevation). Scale ?fa-
producers constructed, selecting some of the most widely applied
in practice.
The Siemens Producer in its original shape, of which hundreds
have been erected and many may be still at work, is shown in
fig. 12. A is the charging-
hole; B, the inclined front
wall, consisting of a cast
iron plate with fire-brick
lining; C, the equally in-
clined "step-grate"; D, a
damper by which the pro-
ducer may be isolated in
case of repairs; E, a water-
pipe, by which the cinders
at the bottom may be
quenched before taking
away; the steam here
formed rises into the pro-
ducer where it forms some
" semi-water gas " (see
FUEL: Gaseous). Openings
like that shown at G serve
for introducing a poker in
order to clean the brick-
work from adhering slags.
FIG. 13. Liirmann's Producer.
Scale T Jj,.
H is the gas flue; I, the perpendicularly ascending shaft, 10 or 12 ft.
h'gh; JJ, the horizontal iron tube; K, the descending branch men-
means
much
tioned above, for producing a certain amount of suction by
In the horizontal branch J J
of the gas-siphon thus formed.
FIGS. 14 and 15. Liegel's Producer. Scale rfoj.
of the tar and flue-dust is also condensed, which is of importance
where bituminous coal is employed for firing.
1 Figs. 12, 13, 14, is, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 of this article are from
Lunge's Coal-tar and Ammonia, by permission of Friedr. Vieweg u.
Sohn.
MANUFACTURE]
GAS
491
Thi a* well a most other descriptions of gas-producers, ii not
adapted to being worked with such coal a* softens in the heat and
where it is to be used. The retort E is charged with ordinary
bituminous coal which is submitted to destructive distillation
by the heat communicated through the flues // , and is thus
converted into coke. The gases formed during this process pass
into the upper portion of V and get mixed with the producer-
gas formed in the lower portion. From time to time, as the level
of the coke in V goes down, some of the freshly formed coke in E is
FIG. 16. Taylor s Producer. Scale
FIG. 17. Dowson Gas Plant. Scale
forms cakes, impenetrable to the air and impeding the regular sink- I pushed into V, whereby the level of the coke in V should assume
ing of the charge in the producer. The fuel employed should be | the shape shown by the dotted line I . . . m. If the level became
non-bituminous coal anthracite or coke, or at least so
much of these materials should be mixed with ordinary
coal that no semi-solid cakes of the kind just described
are formed. Whete it is unavoidable to work with coal
softening in the fire, Lurmann's producer may be
employed, which is shown in fig. 13. V shows a gas-
producer of the ordinary kind, which during regular
work is filled with the coke formed in the horizontal
retort E. The door 6 serves for removing the slags
and ashes from the bottom of V, as far as they do not
fall through the grate. The hot producer-gas formed
in V is passed round the retort E in the flues n n,,
and ultimately goes away through K to the furnace
FIG. 1 8. Mond Gas Plant.
FIG. 19. Mond Gas Plant. Scale
492
GAS
too low, such as is shown by the dotted line x . . . y, the working
of the producer would be wrong, as in this case the layer of coke
at the front side would be too low, and carbon dioxide would be
formed in lieu of monoxide.
Figs. 14 and 15 show Liegel's producer, the special object of
which is to deal with any fuel (coal or coke) giving a tough, pasty
slag on combustion. Such slags act very prejudicially by impeding
the up-draught of the air and the sinking of the fuel ; nor can they
[MANUFACTURE
holes Bi to B 4 , passing through the brick lining M. F is the con-
FIG. 20. Blass' Gas Plant.
be removed by falling through a grate, like ordinary coal-ashes.
To obviate these drawbacks the producer A is kept at a greater heat
than is otherwise usual, the air required for feeding the producer
being pre-heated in the channels e, e. The inside shape of the pro-
ducer is such that the upper, less hot portion cannot get stopped,
as it widens out towards the bottom; the lower, hotter portion,
where the ashes are already fluxed, is contracted to a slit a, through
which the air ascends. The grate b retains any small pieces of fuel,
but allows the liquid cinder to pass through. The lateral flues c, c
prevent the brickwork from being melted.
One of the best-known gas-producers for working with com-
pressed air from below is Taylor's, shown in fig. 16. A is the
feeding-hopper, on the same principle _as is used in blast-
furnaces. L is the producer-shaft, with an iron casing B and peep-
J vr- ft * i*i.v- \J y <l 1 1 L/C LUlIlcU
round K by means of the crank E from the outside. This is done
without interfering with the blast, in order to keep the fuel at the
proper level m L, according to the indications of the burning zone
as shown through the peep-holes B, to B 4 . The ashes collecting at
the bottom are from time to time removed
by the doors D. As the steam, introduced
by J, is decomposed in the producer, we
here obtain a " semi- water gas," with about
27 % CO and 12 % H 2 .
Fig. 17 shows the Dowson gas-producer,
together with the arrangements for purifying
the gas for the purpose of working a gas
engine, a is a vertical steam boiler, heated
by a central shaft filled with coke, with
superheating tubes b passing through the
central shaft, c is the steam-pipe, carrying
the dry steam into the air-injector d. This
mixture of steam and air enters into the
gas-producer e below the fire-grate /. g is
the feeding-hopper for the anthracite which
is usually employed in this kind of pro-
ducer, h, h are cooling-pipes for the gas
where most of the undecomposed steam
(say 10% of the whole employed in d) is
condensed. is a hydraulic box with water
seal;,;', a coke-scrubber; k, a filter; /, a saw-
dust-scrubber; m, inlet of gas-holder; n, gas-
holder; o, outlet of same; p, a valve with
weighted lever to regulate the admission of
steam to the gas-producer; q, the weight
which actuates the lever automatically by
the rise or fall of the bell of the gas-holder.
In practical work about J Ib of steam is
decomposed for each pound of anthracite
consumed, and no more than 5% of carbon
dioxide is found in the resulting gas. The
latter has an average calorific power of
1732 calories per cubic metre, or 161 B.T.U.
per cubic foot, at o and 760 mm.
The Mond plant is shown in figs. 18 and
lo.. The gases produced in the generators
G are passed through pipes r into washers
W, in which water is kept in violent motion
by means of paddle-wheels. The spray of
water removes the dust and part of the tar
and ammonia from the gases, much steam
being produced at the same time. This
water is withdrawn from time to time and
worked for the ammonia it contains. The
gases, escaping from W at a temperature of
about 100 C., and containing much steam,
pass though g and a into a tower, fed with
an acid-absorbing liquid, coming from the
tank s, which is spread into many drops
by the brick filling of the tower. This
liquid is a strong solution of ammonium
sulphate, containing about 2-5% free sul-
phuric acid which absorbs nearly all the
ammonia from the gases, without dissolving
much of the tarry substances. Most of the
liquor arriving at the bottom, after mechani-
cally separating the tar, is pumped back
into 5, but a portion is always withdrawn
and worked for ammonium sulphate. When
escaping from the acid tower, the gas con-
tains about 0-013% NHj, and has a tem-
perature of about 80 C. and is saturated
with aqueous vapour. It is passed through
c into a second tower B, filled with blocks
of wood, where it meets with a stream of
comparatively cold water. At the bottom
of this the water runs away, its temperature
being 78 C. ; at the top the gas passes away through d into the dis-
tributing main. The hot water from B, freed from tar, is pumped
into a third tower C, through which cold air is forced by means of a
Root's blower by the pipe w. This air, after being heated to 76 C.,
and saturated with steam in the tower C, passes through / into the
generator G. The water in C leaves this tower cold enough to be
used in the scrubber B. Thus two-thirds of the steam originally
employed in the generator is reintroduced into it, leaving only one-
third to be supplied by the exhaust steam of the steam-engine. The
gas-generators G have a rectangular section, 6X12 ft., several of
them being erected in series. The introduction of the air and the
removal of the ashes takes place at the narrower ends. The bottom
is formed by a water-tank and the ashes are quenched here. The
air enters just above the water-level, at a pressure of 4 in. The
GASCOIGNE, G.
493
Mood gas in the dry state contains 15 % carbon dioxide, 10%
monoxide, 23% hyurogen, 3% hydrocarbons, 49% nitrogen.
The yield of ammonium sulphate is 75 Ib from a ton of coal (slack
with 11-5% ashes and 55% fixed carbon).
One ol the best plants for the generation of water-gas is that
constructed by E. Bias* (fig. 20). Steam enters through the
valve V at D into the generator, filled with coke, and passes
way at the bottom through A. The pressure of the gas should
not be such that it could get into the pipe conveying the air-
blast, by which an explosive mixture would be formed. This is
prevented by the water-cooled damper S, which always closes the
air-blast when the gas-pipe is open and vice versa. Below the entry
\V of the air-blast there is a throttle valve d which is closed as soon
as the damper S opens the gas canal ; thus a second security against
the production of a mixture of air and gas is afforded. The water-
cooled ring channel K protects the bottom outlet of the generator
and causes the cinders to solidify, so that they can be easily removed.
But sometimes no such cooling is effected, in which case the cinders
run away in the liquid form. Below K the fuel is lying in a conical
heap, leaving the ring channel A free. During the period of hot-
blowing (heating-up) S is turned so that the air-blast communicates
with the generator; d and G are open; g (the damper connected
with the scrubber) and V are closed. During the period of gas-
making G and d are closed, S now closes the air-blast and connects
the generator with the scrubber; V is opened, and the gas passes
from the scrubber into the gas-holder, the inlet w being under a
pressure of 4 in. All these various changes in the opening of the
valves and dampen are automatically performed in the proper order
by mean* of a hand-wheel H, the shaft m resting on the standards t
and shaft . This hand-wheel has merely to be turned one way for
starting the hot-blowing, and the opposite way for gas-making, to
open and shut all the connexions, without any mistake being possible
on the part of the attendant. The feeding-hopper E is so arranged
that, when the cone e, opens, e\ is shut, and vice versa, thus no more
gas can escape, on feeding: fresh coke into the generator, than that
which is contained in E. G is the pipe through which the blowing-up
gas (Siemens gas) is carried away, either into the open air (where it
M at once burned) or into a pre-heater for the blast, or into some
place where it can be utilized as fuel. This gas, which .is made for
10 or II minutes, contains from 23 to 32% carbon monoxide, 7
to 1-5% carbon dioxide, 2 to 3% hydrogen, a little methane, 64
to 66% nitrogen, and has a heating value of 950 calories per
cub. metre. The water-gas itself is made for 7 minutes, and has an
average composition of 3-3 % carbon
dioxide, 44% carbon monoxide,
0-4% methane, 48-6% hydrogen,
3-7% nitrogen, and a heating value
of 2970 calories per cub. metre. I
kilogram coke yields 1-13 cub. metre
water-gas and 3-13 Siemens gas.
loo parts coke (of 7000 calories)
furnish 42% of their heat value as
water-gas and 42 % as Siemens gas.
Lastly we give a section of the
Dellwik-Fleischer gas-producer (fig.
"21). The feeding-hoppers A are
alternately charged every half-hour,
so that the layer of fuel in the
generator always remains 4 ft. deep.
B is the chimney-damper, C the
grate, D the door for removing the
slags, E the ash-door, F the inlet of
the air-blast, G the upper, Gi the
lower outlet for the water-gas which
is removed alternately at top and
bottom by means of an outside
valve, steam being always admitted
at the opposite end. The blowing-
up generally lasts l] minutes, the
gas-making 8 or 10 minutes. The
air-blast works under a pressure of
8 or 9 in. below the grate, or 4
to 4) in. above the coke. The
blowing-up gas contains 17 or 18 % carbon dioxide and 1-5%
oxygen, with mere traces of carbon monoxide. The water-gas
shows 4 to 5% carbon dioxide, 40% carbon monoxide, 0-8 %
methane, 48 to 51 % hydrogen, 4 or 5% nitrogen. About 2-5 cub.
metres is obtained per kilogram of best coke.
See Mills and Rowan, Fuel and its Application (London, 1889);
Samuel S. Wyer, Producer-Gas and Gas- Producers, published by the
Engineering end Mining Journal (New York) ; F. Fischer;, Chemische
Tecknologie der Brennsto/e (1897-1
Stoomaan and Kerfs Handbuch der
iii. 642 et seq.
1
Fic. 2i. Dellwik-Fleischer
Producer. Scale ii ( .
7-1901); Gasformige Heizstoffe, in
techniscken Chemie, 4th edition,
(G. L.)
GASCOIGNE, GEORGE (c. 1535-1577), English poet, eldest
son of Sir John Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, was born
probably between 1530 and 1535. He was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and on leaving the university is supposed to
have joined the Middle Temple. He became a member of Gray's
Inn in 1555. He has been identified without much show of
evidence with a lawyer named Gastone who was in prison in
1548 under very discreditable circumstances. There is no doubt
that his escapades were notorious, and that he was imprisoned
for debt. George Whetstone says that Sir John Gascoigne
disinherited his son on account of his follies, but by his own
account he was obliged to sell his patrimony to pay the debts
contracted at court. He was M.P. for Bedford in 1557-1558
and 1558-1559, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election
at Midhurst he was refused on the charges of being " a defamed
person and noted for manslaughter," " a common Rymer and
a deviser of slaunderous Pasquelles," " a notorious ruffianne,"
an atheist and constantly in debt. His poems, with the exception
of some commendatory verses, were not published before 1572,
but they were probably circulated in MS. before that date. He
tells us that his friends at Gray's Inn importuned him to write
on Latin themes set by them, and there two of his plays were
acted. He repaired his fortunes by marrying the wealthy widow
of William Breton, thus becoming step-father to the poet,
Nicholas Breton. In 1568 an inquiry into the disposition of
William Breton's property with a view to the protection of the
children's rights was instituted before the lord mayor, but the
matter was probably settled in a friendly manner, for Gascoigne
continued to hold the Walthamstow estate, which he had from
his wife, until his death. He sailed as a soldier of fortune to the
Low Countries in 1572, and was driven by stress of weather to
Brill, which luckily for him had just fallen into the hands of the
Dutch. He obtained a captain's commission, and took an active
part in the campaigns of the next two years, during which he
acquired a profound dislike of the Dutch, and a great admiration
for William of Orange, who had personally intervened on his
behalf in a quarrel with his colonel, and secured him against
the suspicion caused by his clandestine visits to a lady at the
Hague. Taken prisoner after the evacuation of Valkenburg
by the English troops, he was sent to England in the autumn
of 1574. He dedicated to Lord Grey of Wilton the story of his
adventures, " The Fruites of Warres " (printed in the edition
of 1575) and " Gascoigne's Voyage into Hollande." In 1575
he had a share in devising the masques, published in the next
year as The Princely Pleasures at the Cowrie at Kenelv/orth, which
celebrated the queen's visit to the Earl of Leicester. At Wood-
stock in 1575 he delivered a prose speech before Elizabeth, and
presented her with the Pleasant Tale of Hemetes the H eremite '
in four languages. Most of his works were actually published
during the last years of his life, after his return from the wars.
He died at Bernack, near Stamford, where he was the guest of
George Whetstone, on the 7th of October 1577. George Whet-
stone wrote a long dull poem in honour of his friend, entitled " A
Remembrance of the wel-imployed life and godly end of George
Gaskoigne, Esquire."
His theory of metrical composition is explained in a short
critical treatise, " Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the
making of verse or ryme in English, written at the request of
Master Edouardo Donati," 1 prefixed to his Posies (1575). He
acknowledged Chaucer as his master, and differed from the
earlier poets of the school of Surrey and Wyatt chiefly in the
added smoothness and sweetness of his verse. His poems were
published in 1572 during his absence in Holland, surreptitiously,
according to his own account, but it seems probable that the
" editor " who supplied the running comment was none other
than Gascoigne himself. A hundreth Sundrie Ploures bound up
in one small Paste. Gathered partely (by translation) in the fyne
outlandish Gardens of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarke, Ariosto and
others; and partely by Invention out of our owne fruitfull Orchardes
in Englande, Yelding Sundrie Savours of tragical, comical and
moral discourse, bothe pleasaunt and profitable, to the well-smelling
1 Printed in 1570 in a pamphlet called The Paradoxe, the
author of which, Abraham Fleming, does not mention Gascoigne's
name.
* Reprinted in vol. ii. of J. Haslewood's Ancient Critical Essays
(1811-1815), and in Gregory Smith's Elizabethan Critical Essays
(I904)-
494
GASCOIGNE, SIR W. GASCONY
noses of learned Readers, was followed in 1575 by an authorized
edition, The Posies of G. G. Esquire . . . (not dated).
Gascoigne had an adventurous and original mind, and was a
pioneer in more than one direction. In 1576 he published The
Steele Glas, sometimes called the earliest regular English satire.
Although this poem is Elizabethan in form and manner, it is
written in the spirit of Piers Plowman. Gascoigne begins with
a comparison between the sister arts of Satire and Poetry, and
under a comparison between the old-fashioned " glas of trustie
steele," and the new-fangled crystal mirrors which he takes as a
symbol of the " Italianate " corruption of the time, he attacks
the amusements of the governing classes, the evils of absentee
landlordism, the corruption of the clergy, and pleads for the
restoration of the feudal ideal. 1
His dramatic work belongs to the period of his residence at
Gray's Inn, both Jocasta (of which Acts i. and iv. were contributed
by Francis Kinwelmersh) and Supposes being played there in
1566. Jocasta was said by J. P. Collier (Hist, of Dram. Poetry
iii. 8) to be the " first known attempt to introduce a Greek
play upon the English stage," but it turns out that Gascoigne
was only very indirectly acquainted with Euripides. His play is
a literal version of Lodovico Dolce's Giocasta, which was derived
probably from the Phoenissae in the Latin translation of R.
Winter. Supposes* a version of Ariosto's / Suppositi, is notable
as an early and excellent adaptation of Italian comedy, and
moreover, as " the earliest play in English prose acted in public
or private." Udal's Ralph Roister Doister had been inspired
directly by Latin comedy; Gammer Gurlon's Needle was a purely
native product; but Supposes is the first example of the ac-
climatization of the Italian models that were to exercise so
prolonged an influence on the English stage. A third play of
Gascoigne's, The Glasse of Government (published in 1575), is
a school drama of the " Prodigal Son " type, familiar on the
continent at the time, but rare in England. It is defined by Mr
C. H. Herford as an attempt " to connect Terentian situation
with a Christian moral in a picture of school life," and it may
be assumed that Gascoigne was familiar with the didactic drama
of university life in vogue on the continent. The scene is laid at
Antwerp, and the two prodigals meet with retribution in Geneva
and Heidelberg respectively.
The Spoyle of Antwerpe, written by an eyewitness of the sack
of the city in 1576, has sometimes been attributed to Gascoigne,
but although a George Gascoigne was employed in that year
to carry letters for Walsingham, internal evidence is against
Gascoigne's authorship. A curious editorial preface by Gascoigne
to Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Discourse of a Discoiierie for a new
Passage to Cataia (1576) has led to the assertion that Gascoigne
printed the tract against its author's wish, but it is likely that
he was really serving Gilbert, who desired the publication, but
dared not avow it. The Wyll of the Devill . . . (reprinted for
private circulation by Dr F. J. Furnivall, 1871), an anti-popish
tract, once attributed, on slender evidence, to Gascoigne, is
almost certainly by another hand.
Gascoigne's works not already mentioned include: " G. G. in
commendation of the noble Arte of Venerie," prefixed to The Noble
Art of Venerie or Hunting (1575); The Complaynte of Phylomene,
bound up with The Steele Glas (1576); The Droomme of Doomes-day
(1576), a prose compilation from various authors, especially from
the De contemptu mundi sive de miseria humanae conditionis of
Pope Innocent III., printed with varying titles, earliest ed. (1470?);
A Delicate Diet for daintie mouthde droonkardes . . . (1576), a free
version of St Augustine's De ebrietate. The Posies (1572) included
Supposes, Jocasta, A Discourse of the Adventures of Master F[erdi-
nando] J[eronimi], in imitation of an Italian novella, a partly auto-
1 " Againe I see, within my glasse of Steele
But foure estates, to serve each country soyle,
The King, the Knight, the Pesant, and the Priest.
The King should care for al the subjects still,
The Knight should fight, for to defend the same,
The Pesant, he shoulde labor for their ease,
And Priests shuld pray, for them and for themselves."
(Arber's ed. p. 57.)
1 The influence of this play on the Shakespearian Taming of the
Shrew is dealt with by Prof. A. H. Tolman ip Shakespeare's Part in
the Taming of the Shrew (Pub. of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. vol. v.
No. 4, pp. 215, 216, 1890).
biographical Don Bartholomew of Bath, and miscellaneous poems.
Real personages, some of whom were well known at court, were sup-
posed to be concealed under fictitious names in The Adventures of
Master F. J., and the poem caused considerable scandal, so that the
names are disguised in the second edition. A more comprehensive
collection, The Whole Workes of G. G. . . . appeared in 1587. In
1868-1870 The Complete Poems of G. G. . . . were edited for the
Roxburghe Library by Mr W. C. Hazlitt. In his English Reprints
Prof. E. Arber included Certayne Notes of Instruction, The Steele
Glas and the Cpmplaynt of Philomene. The Steele Glas was also
edited for the Library of English Literature, by Henry Morley, vol. i.
p. 184 (1889). A new edition, The Works of George Gascoigne (The
Cambridge English Classics, 1907, &c.) is edited by Dr J.W. Cunliffe.
See also The Life and Writings of George Gascoigne, by Prof. Felix
E. Schelling (Publications of the Univ. of Pennsylvania series in
Philology, vol. ii. No. 4 [1894]) ; C. H. Herford, Studies in the Literary
Relations of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 149-
164 (1886); C. H. Herford, " Gascoigne's Glasse of Government,"
in Englische Studien, vol. ix. (Halle, 1877, &c.).
GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1350-1419), chief justice of
England in the reign of Henry IV. Both history and tradition
testify to the fact that he was one of the great lawyers who in
times of doubt and danger have asserted the principle that the
head of the state is subject to law, and that the traditional
practice of public officers, or the expressed voice of the nation in
parliament, and not the will of the monarch or any part of the
legislature, must guide the tribunals of the country. He was a
descendant of an ancient Yorkshire family. The date of his
birth is uncertain, but it appears from the year-books that he
practised as an advocate in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard
II. On the banishment of Henry of Lancaster Gascoigne was
appointed one of his attorneys, and soon after Henry's accession
to the throne was made chief justice of the court of king's bench.
After the suppression of the rising in the north in 1403, Henry
eagerly pressed the chief justice to pronounce sentence upon
Scrope, the archbishop of York, and the earl marshal Thomas
Mowbray, who had been implicated in the revolt. This he
absolutely refused to do, asserting the right of the prisoners to be
tried by their peers. Although both were afterwards executed,
the chief justice had no part in the transaction. It has been very
much doubted, however, whether Gascoigne could have displayed
such independence of action without prompt punishment or
removal from office following. The oft-told tale of his committing
the prince of Wales to prison must also be regarded as un-
authentic, though it is both picturesque and characteristic.
The judge had directed the punishment of one of the prince's
riotous companions, and the prince, who was present and enraged
at the sentence, struck or grossly insulted the judge. Gascoigne
immediately committed him to prison, using firm and forcible
language, which brought him to a more reasonable mood, and
secured his voluntary obedience to the sentence. The king is said
to have approved of the act, but there appears to be good ground
for the supposition that Gascoigne was removed from his post or
resigned soon after the accession of Henry V. He died in 1419,
and was buried in the parish church of Harewood in Yorkshire.
Some biographies of the judge have stated that he died in 1412,
but this is clearly disproved by Foss in his Lives of the Judges;
and although it is clear that Gascoigne did not hold office long
under Henry V. , it is not absolutely impossible that the scene in the
fifth act of the second part of Shakespeare's Henry I V. has some
historical basis, and that the judge's resignation was voluntary.
GASCONY (Wasconia), an old province in the S.W. of France.
It takes its name from the Vascones, a Spanish tribe which in
580 and 587 crossed the Pyrenees and invaded the district known
to the Romans as Novempopulana or Aquitania tertia. Basque,
the national language of the Vascones, took root only in a few of
the high valleys of the Pyrenees, such as Soule and Labourd; in
the plains Latin dialects prevailed, Gascon being a Romance
language. In the 7th century the name of Vasconia was sub-
stituted for that of Novempopulana. The Vascones readily
recognized the sovereignty of the Merovingian kings. In 602
they consented to be governed by a duke called Genialis, but
in reality they remained independent. They even appointed
national dukes, against whom Charlemagne had to fight at
the beginning of his reign. Finally Duke Lupus II. made his
GAS ENGINE
495
submission in Sig, and the Carolingians were able to establish
Prankish dukes in the country. Three of these are known:
Seguin ( Sight vinus) .William (Guillaume) , and Arnaud (Arnaldus) .
They were at the ume time counts of Bordeaux, and succumbed
to the Normans. After the death of Arnaud in 864 the history of
Gascony falls into the profoundest obscurity. The lists of the
toth -century dukes prepared by ancient and modern historians
can only be established by means of hypotheses based in many
cases on spurious documents (e.g. the charter of Alaon),'and little
confidence can be placed in them. During this troubled period
Gascony was from time to time attached to one or ot her of the other
Vascon states which had been formed on the southern slope of the
Pyrenees, but in the reign of Hugh Capet it was considered as
forming part of France, from which it has never been separated.
Disputed in the i ith century by the counts of Poitiers, who were
also dukes of Aquitaine, and by the counts of Armagnac, the
duchy finally passed to the house of Poitiers in 1073, when the
title of duke of Gascony was merged in that of duke of Aqui-
taine and disappeared. In the feudal period Gascony comprised
a great number of countships (including Armagnac, Bigorre,
Fezcnsac, Gaure and Pardiac), viscountships (including Beam,
Lomagne, Daz, Juliac, Soule, Marsan, Tartas, Labourd and
Maremne), and scigneuries (e.g. Albret, &c.). From the ecclesi-
astical point of view, it corresponded nearly to the archbishopric
of Auch.
From about 1073 to 1 137 Gascony was governed by the dukes of
Aquitaine and counts of Poitiers, one of whom, William IX., gave
the first charter of privileges to the town of Bayonne; but the
duchy was weakened by the increasing independence of its great
feudatories, especially the viscounts of Beam and the counts of
Armagnac. In 1137, the year of her father's death, Eleanor,
the daughter and heiress of Duke William X., married the king of
France, Louis VII., and with the rest of Aquitaine Gascony
passed under his direct rule. In 1 1 5 1 , however, this marriage was
annulled, and almost at once Eleanor married Henry of Anjou,
who three years later became king of England as Henry II. Thus
was the house of Plantagenet introduced into Gascony and a fresh
bone of contention was thrown between the kings of England and
of France. Having established himself in the duchy by force of
arms, Henry handed it over to his son Richard, against whom
many of the great Gascon lords revolted, and from Richard it
passed to his brother John. The crusade against the Albigenses
was carried into Gascony, and this warfare gave a new impetus
to the process of disintegration which was already at work in the
duchy. King John and his successor Henry III. were weak; the
neighbouring counts of Toulouse were powerful and aggressive;
and the house of Beam was growing in strength. Gascony
served Henry III. as headquarters during his two short and
disastrous wars (1230 and 1242) with Louis IX., and in 1259 he
did homage for it to this king; his son, Edward I., lost and then
regained the duchy.
During the Hundred Years' War Gascony was obviously a
battle-field for the forces of England and of France. The French
seized the duchy, but, aided by the rivalry between the powerful
houses of Foix and Armagnac, Edward III. was able to recover it,
and by the treaty of Bretigny in 1360 John II. recognized the
absolute sovereignty of England therein. Handed over as a
principality by Edward to his son, the Black Prince, it was used
by its new ruler as a base during his expedition into Spain, in
which he received substantial help from the Gascon nobles.
The renewal of the war between England and France, which took
place in 1369, was due in part to a dispute over the sovereignty of
Gascony, and during its course the position of the English was
seriously weakened, the whole of the duchy save a few towns and
fortresses being lost; but the victories of Henry V. in northern
France postponed for a time the total expulsion of the foreigner.
This was reserved for the final stage of the war and was one result
of the efforts of Joan of Arc, the year 1451 witnessing the capture
of Bayonne and the final retreat of the English troops from the
duchy. During this time the inhabitants of Gascony suffered
severely from the ravages of both parties, and the nobles ruled or
misruled without restraint.
The French kings, especially Louis XI., managed to restore the
royal authority in the duchy, although this was not really
accomplished until the close of the 1 5 th century when the house of
Armagnac was overthrown. It was by means of administrative
measures that these kings attained their object. Gascony was
governed on the same lines as other parts of France and from the
time of Henry IV., who was prince of B6arn, and who united his
hereditary lands with the crown, its history differs very slightly'
from that of the rest of the country. The Renaissance inspired
the foundation of educational institutions and the Reformation
was largely accepted in Bearn, but not in other parts of Gascony.
The wars of religion swept over the land, which was the scene of
some of the military exploits of Henry IV., and Louis XIV. made
some slight changes in its government. As may be surmised the
boundaries of Gascony varied from time to time, but just before
the outbreak of the Revolution they were the Atlantic Ocean,
Guienne, Languedoc and the Pyrenees, and from cast to west the
duchy at its greatest extent measured 170 m.
At the end of the ancien rigime Gascony was united with
Guienne to form a great military government. After the division
of France into departments, Gascony, together with Beam,
French Navarre and the Basque country, formed the depart-
ments of Basses-Pyrenees, Landes, Hautes-Pyrenees and Gers.
Parts of Gascony also now form arrondissements and cantons of
the departments of Lot-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne, Ariege and
Tarn-et-Garonne.
See Arnaud Oih<$nart, Notitia ulriusque Vascontae, tarn Ibericae
quam Aquitanicae (1637); L'Abb4 Monlczun, Histoire de la Gascogne
(1846-1850), comprising a number of useful but uncritically edited
documents; and Jean die Jaurgain, La Vasconie, itude historique el
critique sur les origines . . . du ducM de Gascogne . . . et des grands
fiefs du iluihf- de Gascogne (1898-1002), a learned and ingenious
work, but characterized by unbridled genealogical fancy. This last
work was rectified by Ferdinand Lot in his Etudes sur le regne
de Hugues _ Capet (1903; see especially appendix x.). See also
Barrau-Dihigo, " La Gascogne, "a bibliography of manuscript sources
and of printed works published in the Revue de synthese historique
(1903). (C B.-J
GAS ENGINE. A gas engine is a heat engine in which the work-
ing fluid is atmospheric air and the fuel an inflammable gas. It
differs from a hot-air or a steam engine in that the heat is given
to the working fluid by combustion within the motive power
cylinder. In most gas engines in fact, in all those at present on
the market the working fluid and the fuel that supplies it with
heat are mixed with each other before the combustion of the
fuel. The fuel which in the steam and in most hot-air engines
is burned in a separate furnace is, in the gas engine, introduced
directly to the motor cylinder and burned there; it is, indeed,
part of the working fluid. A gas engine, therefore, is an internal
combustion engine using gaseous fuel.
The commercial history of the gas engine dates from 1876, when
Dr N. A. Otto patented the well-known engine now in extensive
use, but long before that year inventors had been at work, attempting
to utilize gas for producing motive power. The first proposal made
in Great Britain is found in Street's Patent No. 1983 of 1794, where
an explosion engine is suggested, the explosion to be caused by
vaporizing spirits of turpentine on a heated metal surface, mixing
the vapour with air in a cylinder, firing the mixture, and driving a
piston by the explosion produced. Most of the early engines were
suggested by the fact that a mixture of an inflammable gas and
atmospheric air gives an explosion when ignited that is, produces
pressure which can be applied in a cylinder to propel a piston.
Lebon, in France, proposed a gas engine in which the gas and air
were raised to a pressure above that of the atmosphere before use
in the cylinder, but he did not appear to be clear in his ideas.
Some interesting particulars of early experiments are given in a
paper read at the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1820 entitled,
On the Application of Hydrogen Gas to produce a Moving Power
in Machinery, with a description of an Engine which is moved by
the pressure of the Atmosphere upon a Vacuum caused by Ex-
plosions of Hydrogen Gas and Atmospheric Air." In that paper
the Rev. W. Cecil describes an engine of his invention constructed
to operate on the explosion vacuum method. This engine was stated
to run with perfect regularity at 60 revolutions per minute, consum-
ing 1 7.6 cub. ft. of hydrogen gas per hour. The hydrogen explosion,
however, does not seem to nave been noiseless, because Mr Cecil
states that in building a larger engine "... to remedy the noise
which is occasioned by the explosion, the lower end of the cylinder
A, B, C, D may be buried in a well or it may be enclosed in a large
air-tight vessel." Mr Cecil also mentions previous experiments at
49 6
GAS ENGINE
Cambridge by Prof. Parish, who exhibited at his lectures on
mechanics an engine actuated by the explosion of a mixture of gas
and air within a cylinder, the explosion taking place from atmo-
spheric pressure. Prof. Parish is also stated to have operated an
engine by gunpowder. These engines of Parish and Cecil appear
to be the very earliest in actual operation in the world.
Samuel Brown, in patents dated 1823 and 1826, proposed to fill
a closed chamber with a gas flame, and so expel the air; then he
condensed the flame by injecting water, and operated an air engine
by exhausting into the partial vacuum so obtained. The idea was
evidently suggested by Watt's condensing steam engine, flame being
employed instead of steam to obtain a vacuum. Brown's engine is
said to have been actually employed to pump water, drive a boat
on the Thames, and propel a road carriage. L. W. Wright in 1833
described an explosion engine working at atmospheric pressure
and exploding on both sides of the piston. The cylinder is shown
as water-jacketed. In William Barnett's engine of 1838 two great
advances were made. The engine was so constructed that the mix-
ture of gas and air was compressed to a considerable extent in the
motor cylinder before ignition. The method of igniting the com-
pressed charge was also effective. The problem of transferring a
flame to the interior of a cylinder when the pressure is much in excess
of that of the external air was solved by means of a hollow plug cock
having a gas jet burning within the hollow. In one position the
hollow was opened to the atmosphere, and a gas jet issuing within
it was lit by an external flame, so that it burned within the hollow.
The plug was then quickly rotated, so that it closed to the external
air and opened to the engine cylinder; the flame continued to burn
with the air contained in the cock, until the compressed inflammable
mixture rushed into the space from the cylinder and ignited at the
flame. This mode of ignition is in essentials the one adopted by Otto
about thirty years later. To Barnett belongs the credit of being the
first to realize clearly the great idea of compression before explosion in
gas engines, and to show one way of carrying put the idea in practice.
Barnett appears to have constructed an engine, but he attained no
commercial success. Several attempts to produce gas engines were
made between 1838 and 1860, but they were all failures. Several
valuable ideas were published in 1855. Drake, an American, de-
scribed a mode of igniting a combustible gaseous mixture by raising
a thimble-shaped piece of metal to incandescence. In 1857 Barsanti
and Matteucci proposed a free-piston engine, in which the explosion
propelled a free piston against the atmosphere, and the work was
done on the return stroke by the atmospheric pressure, a partial
vacuum being produced under the piston. The engine never
came into commercial use, although the fundamental idea was
good.
Previous to 1860 the gas engine was entirely in the experimental
stage, and in spite of many attempts no practical success was
attained. E. Lenoir, whose patent is dated 1860, was the inventor
of the first gas engine that was brought into general use. The
piston, moving forward for a portion of its stroke by the energy
stored in the fly-wheel, drew into the cylinder a charge of gas and
air at the ordinary atmospheric pressure. At about half stroke
the valves closed, and an explosion, caused by an electric spark,
propelled the piston to the end of its stroke. On the return stroke
the burnt gases were discharged, just as a steam engine exhausts.
These operations were repeated on both sides of the piston, and
the engine was thus double-acting. Four hundred of these engines
were said to be at work in Paris in 1865, and the Reading Iron Works
Company Limited built and sold one hundred of them in Great
Britain. They were quiet, and smooth in running; the gas con-
sumption, however, was excessive, amounting to about 100 cub.
ft. per indicated horse-power per hour. The electrical ignition
also gave trouble. Hugon improved on the engine in 1865 by the
introduction of a flame ignition, but no real commercial success
was attained till 1867, when Otto and Langen exhibited their free-
piston engine in the Paris Exhibition of that year. This engine
was identical in principle with the Barsanti and Matteucci, but
Otto succeeded where those inventors failed. He worked out the
engine in a very perfect manner, used flame ignition, and designed
a practical clutch, which allowed the piston free movement in one
direction but engaged with the fly-wheel shaft when moved in the
other; it consisted of rollers and wedge-shaped pockets the same
clutch, in fact, as has since been so much used in free-wheel bicycles.
This engine consumed about 40 cub. ft. of gas per brake horse-power
per hour less than half as much as the Lenoir. Several thousands
were made and sold, but its strange appearance and unmechanical
operation raised many objections. Several inventors meanwhile
again advocated compression of the gaseous mixture before ignition,
among them being Schmidt, a German, and Million, a Frenchman,
both in 1861.
To a Frenchman, Alph. Beau de Rochas, belongs the credit of
proposing, with perfect clearness, the cycle of operations now
widely used in compression gas engines. In a pamphlet published
in Paris in 1862, he stated that to obtain economy with an explosion
engine four conditions are requisite: (i) The greatest possible
cylinder volume with the least possible cooling surface; (2) the
greatest possible rapidity of explosion; (3) the greatest possible
expansion; and (4) the greatest possible pressure at the beginning
of the expansion. The sole arrangement capable of satisfying
these conditions he stated would be found in an engine operating
as follows: (l) Suction during an entire outstroke of the piston;
(2) compression during the following instroke; (3) ignition at the
dead point, and expansion during the third stroke; (4) forcing out
of the burnt, gases from the cylinder on the fourth and last return
stroke. Beau de Rochas thus exactly contemplated, in theory at
least, the engine produced by Dr Otto fourteen years later. He did
not, however, put his engine into practice, and probably had no
idea of the practical difficulties to be overcome before realizing his
conception in iron and steel. To Dr Otto belongs the honour of
independently inventing the same cycle, now correctly known as
the Otto cycle, and at the same time overcoming all practical diffi-
culties and making the gas engine of world-wide application. This
he did in 1876, and his type of engine very rapidly surpassed all
others, so that now the Otto-cycle engine is manufactured over the
whole world by hundreds of makers. In 1876 Dr Otto used low
compression, only about 30 Ib per sq. in. above atmosphere. Year
by year compression was increased and greater power and economy
were obtained, and at present compressions of more than 100 Ib
per sq. in. are commonly used with most satisfactory results.
The history of the subject since 1876 is one of gradual improve-
ment in detail of construction, enabling higher compressions to
be used with safety, and of gradual but accelerating increase in
dimensions and power. In the same period light and heavy oil
engines have been developed, mostly using the Otto cycle (see
OIL ENGINE).
Gas engines may be divided, so far as concerns their working
process, into three well-defined types:
(1) Engines igniting at constant volume, but without previous
compression.
(2) Engines igniting at constant pressure, with previous
compression.
(3) Engines igniting at constant volume, with previous
compression.
For practical purposes engines of the first type may be dis-
regarded. Gas engines without compression are now considered
to be much too wasteful of gas to be of commercial importance.
Those of the second type have never reached the stage of extended
commercial application; they are scientifically interesting,
however, and may take an important place in the future develop-
ment of the gas engine. The expectations of Sir William Siemens
with regard to them have not been realized, although he spent
many years in experiments. Of other engineers who also
devoted much thought and work to this second type may be
mentioned Brayton (1872); Foulis (1878); Crowe (1883);
Hargreaves (1888); Clerk (1889); and Diesel (1892). Diesel's
engines are proving successful as oil engines but have not been '
introduced as gas engines.
The working cycles of the three types are as follows :
First Type. Four operations.
(a) Charging the cylinder with explosive mixture at atmo-
spheric pressure.
(6) Exploding the charge.
(c) Expanding after explosion.
(d) Expelling the burnt gases.
Second Type. Five operations.
(a) Charging the pump cylinder with gas and air mixture at
atmospheric pressure.
(6) Compressing the charge into an intermediate receiver.
(c) Admitting the charge to the motor cylinder, in a state of
flame, at the pressure of compression.
(d) Expanding after admission.
(e) Expelling the burnt gases.
Third Type. Five operations.
(a) Charging the cylinder with gas and air mixture at atmo-
spheric pressure.
(6) Compressing the charge into a combustion space.
(c) Exploding the charge.
(d) Expanding after explosion.
(e) Expelling the burnt gases.
In all these types the heating of the working fluid is accomplished
by the rapid method of combustion within the cylinder, and for
the cooling necessary in all heat engines is substituted the complete
rejection of the working fluid with the heat it contains, and its re-
placement by a fresh portion taken from the atmosphere at atmo-
spheric temperature. This is the reason why those cycles can be
repeated with almost indefinite rapidity, while the old hot-air
engines had to run slowly in order to give time for the working
fluid to heat or cool through metal surfaces.
Four-cycle Engines. Otto-cycle engines belong to the third
type, being explosion engines in which the combustible mixture
GAS ENGINE
497
to compressed previous to explosion. Fig. i is a side elevation,
fig. 2 is a sectional plan, and fig. 3 is an end elevation of an engine
built about 1892 by Messrs Crossley of Manchester, who were
the original makers of Otto engines in Great Britain*. In external
appearance it somewhat resembles a modern high-pressure
FIG. I. Side Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.
steam engine, of which the working parts are exceedingly strong.
In its motor and only cylinder, which is horizontal and open-
ended, works a long trunk piston, the front end of which carries
the crosshead pin. The crank shaft is heavy, and the fly-wheel
large, considerable stored energy being required to carry the
piston through the negative part of the cycle. The cylinder is
considerably longer than the stroke, so that the piston when full
in leaves a space into which it does not enter. This is the com-
bustion space, in which the charge is first compressed and then
burned. On the forward stroke, the piston A (fig. 2) takes into
the cylinder a charge of mixed gas and air at atmospheric
pressure, which is compressed by a backward stroke into the space
Z at the end of the cylinder. The compressed charge is then
ignited, and so the charge is exploded with the production of a
high pressure. The piston now makes a forward stroke under
the pressure of the explosion, and on its return, after the exhaust
valve is opened, discharges the products of combustion. The
engine is then ready to go through the same cycle of operations.
It thus takes four strokes or two revolutions of the shaft to
complete the Otto cycle, the cylinder being used alternately
as a pump and a motor, and the engine, when working at full
load, thus gives one impulse for every two
revolutions. The valves, which are all of the
conical-seated lift type, are four in number
charge inlet valve, gas inlet valve, igniting
valve, and exhaust valve. The igniting valve
is usually termed the timing valve, because it
determines the time of the explosion. Since
the valves have each to act once in every two
revolutions, they cannot be operated by cams
or eccentrics placed directly on the crank
shaft. The valve shaft D is driven at half
the rate of revolution of the crank shaft C by
means of the skew or worm gear E, one wheel
of which is mounted on the crank shaft and the
other on the valve shaft. Ignition is accom-
plished by means of a metal tube heated to
incandescence by a Bunsen burner. At the
proper moment the ignition or timing valve is
opened, and the mixed gas and air under pressure being admitted
to the interior of the tube, the inflammable gases come into con-
tact with the incandescent metal surface and ignite; the flame
at once spreads back to the cylinder and fires its contents, thus
producing the motive explosion.
The working part* are as follows: A the piston, B the connecting
rod, C the crank shaft, D the side or valve shaft, E the skew gearing,
F the exhaust valve, G the exhaust valve lever, H the exhaust valve
cam, I the charge inlet valve, I the charge inlet valve lever, K the
charging valve cam, L the gas inlet valve, M the gas valve cam, N
lever and link operating gas valve, O igniting or timing valve, P
timing valve cam, Q timing valve lever or tumbler, K igniting tnU-,
S governor, T water jacket and cylinder, U Bunsen burner for heating
ignition tube. On the first forward or charging
stroke the charge of gas and air is admitted by
the inlet valve I, which is operated by the lever J
from the cam K, on the valve shaft I >. The gas
supply is admitted to the inlet valve I by the lift
valve L, which is also operated by the lever and
link N from the cam M, controlled, however, by
the centrifugal governor S. The governor operates
either to admit gas wholly, or to cut it on com-
pletely, so that the variation in power is obtained
by varying the number of the explosions.
Since the engine shown in figs. I to 3 Was built
further modifications have been made, principally
in the direction of dispensing with or diminishing
port space, that is, so arranging the ports that
the compression space is not oroken up into
several separate chambers. In this way the cooling
surface in contact with the intensely hot gases is
reduced to a minimum. This is especially im-
portant when high compressions are used, as then
the compression space being small, the port spaces
form a large proportion of the total space. For
maximum economy it is necessary to get rid of
port space altogether; this is done by making the
lift valves open directly into the compression
space. This arrangement can be readily made
in small and medium-sized engines, but in the larger engines it
becomes necessary to provide ports, so as to allow the valves to be
more easily removed for cleaning.
The construction of pressure gas plant in 1878 by J. E. Dowson
for the production of inflammable gas from anthracite and coke
by the action of air mixed with steam, soon led to the develop-
ment of larger and larger Otto cycle engines. The gas obtained
consisted of a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and
some carbon dioxide and oxygen, having a lower heating value
of about 150 British thermal units per cubic foot. With this gas
these engines used about i lb of anthracite per b.h.p. per hour.
From the pressure producer sprang the suction producer first
placed on the market in practical form by M. Benier of Paris in
1804, but then presenting many difficulties which were not re-
moved till about nine years later when Dowson and others
placed effective suction plants in use in considerable numbers.
Such suction plants are now built by all the leading gas engine
constructors for powers varying from 10 to 500 i.h.p.
Dr Ludwig Mond and Crossley Bros, also attacked the problem
of the bituminous fuel producer, of which many examples are
now at work for powers as large as 2000 i.h.p. In 1895 B. H.
Fie. 2. Plan of Otto Cycle Engine.
Thwaite demonstrated that the so-called waste gas from blast
furnaces could be used in gas engines, and this undoubtedly
led to the design and construction of the very large gas engines
now becoming common both in Europe and in America. It
appears from Thwaite's experiments that the surplus gas from
the blast furnaces of Great Britain is capable of supplying at
least three-quarters of a million horse-power continuously day
498
GAS ENGINE
and night, and it is calculated that in America nearly three
million horse-power is available from this source. Thwaite's
system was put into operation in 1895 at the Glasgow Iron Works,
and it was also successfully applied near Barrow-in-Furness.
For many reasons the system did not take immediate root in
England, but in 1898 the Societe Cockerill of Seraing near Liege
applied an engine designed by Delamere-Deboutteville to utilize
blast furnace gas. This engine indicated 213 h.p. running at
105 revolutions per minute. This was followed in 1899 by an
engine giving 600 b.h.p. at 90 revolutions per minute used for
driving a blowing cylinder for a blast furnace. It had a single
cylinder of 51-2 in. diameter and a piston stroke of 55-1 in.
About 1900 the Gasmotoren Fabrik Deutz built an Otto cycle
engine of 1000 b.h.p. having four cylinders each 33 in. diameter
and 39-3 in. stroke, speed 135 revolutions per minute. It was
coupled direct to a dynamo. Crossley Bros. Ltd. took up the
FIG. 3. End Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.
large gas engine at an early date, and a 400 h.p. engine by them
was at work at Brunner, Mond & Co.'s works, Winnington, in
1900; it had two cyh'nders of 26 in. diameter and 36 in. stroke,
and it ran at 150 revolutions per minute.
Gas engines operating on the Otto cycle are usually of the single
acting open cylinder type up to about 200 b.h.p., but for the
larger engines closed cylinders of the double acting type are used.
The engine then closely resembles a double acting steam engine.
It has a cylinder cover with packing box of a special type, and,
in addition to the water jacket surrounding the cylinder and
combustion spaces, the piston and piston rod are hollow and
cooling water is forced through them by a pump. Such a double
acting cylinder gives two succeeding power impulses and then
two charging strokes so that one revolution of the crank shaft
is occupied in charging and compression, while the succeeding
revolution gets two power impulses. For still larger engines
two such double acting cylinders are arranged in tandem, so that
one piston rod runs through two pistons and connects to a slide
in front and to one crank pin by a connecting rod. Such an
engine gives two power impulses for every revolution of the crank
shaft. The greatest power developed in one double acting
cylinder is claimed by Ehrhardt and Sehmer for a cylinder of
4Si in. diameter by 51 J in. stroke, which at 94 revolutions per
minute gives nooi.h.p.
Two-Cycle Engine. While the Otto or four-cycle engine was
developing as above described, inventors were hard at work on
the two-cycle engine. In Britain this work fell mostly upon
Clerk, Robson and Atkinson, while on the continent of Europe
the most persevering and determined worker was Koerting.
Dugald Clerk began work on the gas engine at the end of 1876.
His first patent was dated 1877 and dealt with an engine of the
air pressure vacuum type. His next patent was No. 3045 of
1878, and the engine there described was exhibited at the Royal
Agricultural Show at Kilburn, London, 1879. In it a pump
compressed a mixture of air and gas into a reservoir, from which
it entered the motor cylinder during the first part of its stroke.
After cut-off ignition was caused by a platinum igniter, the piston
was driven forward, and exhausting was performed on the
return stroke. This engine gave three b.h.p., and it was the first
compression explosion engine ever run giving one impulse for
each revolution of the crank shaft. It had
difficulties, however, which prevented it from
reaching the market.
The particular type of engine now widely
known as operating on the Clerk cycle was
patented in 1881 (Brit. Pat. No. 1089). One
of the earliest of these engines was set up at
Lord Kelvin's laboratory at the Glasgow
university and used for the purpose of driving
a Siemens dynamo and supplying his house
with electric light. The engine was first ex-
hibited in the Paris Electrical Exhibition of
1 88 1 and the London Smoke Abatement Ex-
hibition of the same year. In this engine the
charge was not compressed by a separate
pump. A pumping cylinder, it is true, was
used, but its function was to act merely as a
displacer to take in a mixture of gas and air
and transfer it to the motor cylinder at as low
a pressure as possible, in such a way that the
entering charge displaced the exhaust gases
through ports which were opened by the over-
running of the piston. The motor piston thus
timed and controlled the exhaust discharge, and
gave a power impulse for every revolution of
the crank. Engines of the Clerk type were
built largely by Messrs Sterne & Co. of Glasgow,
the Clerk Gas Engine Co. of Philadelphia,
U.S.A., the Campbell Gas Engine Co., and a
modification was made and sold in consider-
able numbers by the Stockport Company.
The lapsing of the Otto patent, however, in
1876 caused engineers to neglect the two cycle for a time,
although a little later it was introduced for small engines in an
ingenious and simple modification known as the Day engine.
This two-cycle engine later became very popular, especially for
motor launch work. The Clerk cycle is now much in use for
large gas engines up to about 2000 horse as modified by Messrs
Koerting of Hanover.
The Clerk cycle engine, as built in 1881, is shown in sectional plan
at fig. 4. The engine contains two cylinders a power cylinder A
and a displacer cylinder B. The function of the displacer cylinder
is to take in a combustible charge of gas and air and transfer it
to the power cylinder, displacing as it enters the exhaust gases of
the previous explosion. A compression space G is formed at the end
of the motor cylinder A. It is of conical shape and communicates
with the displacer cylinder B by means of a large automatic lift
valve which opens into the compression space from a chamber
communicating by a pipe with the displacer cylinder. At the out-
end of the motor cylinder are placed V-shaped ports E which open
to the atmosphere by an exhaust pipe. The outward travel of the
motor piston C causes it to overrun these ports, as seen in fig. 4, and
allows the pressure in the cylinder to fall to atmosphere. The action
of the engine is as follows: The displacer piston D on its forward
movement draws in its charge of gas and air, and it is so timed with
reference to the motor piston C that it has returned a small portion
of its stroke just when the motor piston overruns the exhaust ports.
The overrunning of the exhaust ports at once causes the pressure
in the cylinder to fall to atmosphere, and then the pressure in the
displacer overcomes the pressure in the motor cylinder and opens
IF*
GAS ENGINE
499
the lilt valve, when the charge flow* in to the motor cylinder through
the r^irfl compression (pace and displaces the exhaust gases
through the port* K. while it fills up the cylinder A with the in-
flammable charge- The exhaust gases are sufficiently displaced
and the fresh charge introduced into the cylinder by the time the
motor piston has opened the exhaust ports t on the out-stroke and
doted them on the return stroke. The two cylinders are so proper-
FIG. 4. Sectional Plan of Clerk Cycle Engine, 1 88 1.
tioned that the exhaust gases are expelled as completely as possible
and replaced by fresh explosive mixture without any material part
of this mixture escaping with the exhaust. Unless the proportions
are carefully made such an escape is possible. The relative operations
of the motor piston C and the displacer piston D are secured by
advancing the crank of the displacer about a right angle compared
to the motor crank. The motor piston on its in-stroke compresses
the mixed charge into the conical space G; and, when compression
m complete, the mixture is ignited by the slide valve F. This
produces the power explosion which forces the piston forward
until the exhaust ports are opened again. By this cycle of opera-
tions one power impulse is given for every revolution of the crank.
The motor cylinder is surrounded by a water jacket in the usual
manner, but it is unnecessary to water-jacket the displacer, as the
gases are never hot.
Robson also invented two-cycle engines. His first patent was
taken out in 1877 (No. 2334)- The engines described in his patents
of 1879-1880 were of the two-cycle type, and in them no second
cylinder was used. The front end of the motor cylinder was enclosed
by a cover and packing box, and was used as a pump to force gas
and air into a reservoir at a few Ib above atmosphere. The motor
piston was arranged to overrun ports in the side of the cylinder, but
the r* Kant discharge was not timed in that way. A separate lift
valve controlled the overrun ports and determined when the ex-
haust should be discharged. When the exhaust was discharged at
the end of the stroke the pressure from the gas and air reservoir was
admitted by a lift valve to the cylinder to displace the remaining
exhaust gases and fill the cylinder with charge. This mixture was
compressed into a space at the end of the cylinder and ignited by
means of a flame ignition device. Robson s engine was built in
considerable numbers by Messrs Tangye of Birmingham, the first
exhibited by them at Bingley Hall at the end of 1880. The modern
Day engine closely resembles the Robson engine
so far as its broad operations are concerned.
Atkinson's work on the gas engine was begun
in 1878, his first patent being No. 3212 of 1879.
The engine described in that patent somewhat
resembled the 1878 engine of Clerk as exhibited at
Kilburn. Atkinson was ingenious and persever-
in the invention of two-cycle engines. Two
two impulses per revolution. Messrs Mather & Platt build a
Koerting engine of a modified type in England; an engine of
their construction with a power cylinder of about 29 in. and
4oJ in. stroke gives 700 b.h.p.
Fig. 5 shows in longitudinal section the power and pump cylinders
of a Mather & Platt Koerting engine on the Clerk cycle; the power
cylinder section is shown above that of the
pump cylinders, but it is to be understood that
both cylinders are in the same horizontal plane
as in the Clerk engine shown at fig. 4. The
Koerting engine, however, is double acting,
whereas the Clerk engine was single acting. The
power cylinder A. has a power piston A 1 and
compression spaces A*A'. At the centre of the
cylinders are exhaust ports E which open to the
atmosphere and are overrun by the piston A 1
at both ends of the stroke. A 4 and A' are inlet
valves for gas and air. The single acting pump
cylinders BB 1 supply the air required lor the
charge, and the double acting gas cylinder CC 1
supplies the gas. Both gas ana air are led from
these cylinders by separate passages to the inlet
Valvu A'A 6 . The air pump pistons are lettered
B*B* and the gas pump piston C*. The main
crank D connects as usual to the piston rod of
the power piston A 1 , and the pump crank F
to the trunk air pump piston B 1 which drives
the other air pump piston B 3 and the gas
pump piston C 1 by a piston rod passing through all three. The
gas mixture is not made until the inlet valves A*A 6 are reached, so
that no explosive mixture exists until it is formed within the cylinder
A. The air is first introduced into the power cylinder to discharge
some of the hot gases, and when the gas is also admitted the con-
tents of the cylinder are cooled to some extent. The action of the
engine is exactly as described with regard to the Clerk cycle, and
the arrangement of the two cranks at about right angles to each
other is also similar. The exhaust is discharged through the ports
E, and the incoming charge fills the cylinder in the same way as in
the Clerk engine.
Another large continental gas engine, known as the Oecnelhiiuser,
operates on a modified Clerk cycle and is shown in sectional plan
at fig. 6. The motor cylinder A has two pistons A'A*, A 1 beine
operated by a centre and A* by two outside cranks, side rods, and
cross head; the pistons A'A 1 thus move in opposite directions and
give an effective stroke of double that due to one crank. B is the
air and gas pump dealing with air on one side of its piston and gas
on the other. A chamber C opens to an air reservoir supplied from
the pump and to the power cylinder by ports C 1 ; a similar chamber
D opens to a gas reservoir supplied from the pump and to the power
cylinder by ports D 1 . The exhaust ports E are provided at the other
end of the cylinder. When the front piston overruns the exhaust
ports E the pressure within the power cylinder falls to atmosphere ;
the back piston then opens the air ports C 1 and air under slight
pressure Hows in, to be followed a little later by gas under slight
pressure from the gas ports D 1 . In this way the power cylinder A
is charged with gas and air mixture at each stroke, and when the
pistons A'A 1 approach each other the charge is compressed into the
space between and then ignited by the electric spark. The pistons
are then forced apart and perform their power stroke. The Oechel-
hauser engine, which is built in Great Britain by Messrs Beardmore
of
The
d
in considerable numbers.
as the " Differential
eng
first was known _
engine, exhibited at the Inventions Exhibition,
London, in 1885. A later engine produced by
him was called the " Cycle engine, and it
proved to be the most economical of all the
motors tested at the Society of Arts trials of
motors for electric lighting in 1888-1889.
Atkinson joined Crowley Bros., and many of his
ingenious contrivances are now at work on the
well-known engines of that firm. s. Longitudinal Section of Two-Cycle Engine (Koerting-Clerk), new type, by
Four-cycle engines now practically mono- Messrs Mather & Platt. Ltd.
polize the field of the smaller internal com-
' of Glasgow, has attained considerable success in driving blowing
pumps for blast furnaces, in producing electric light, and in driving
iron rolling mills.
Large gas engines are undoubtedly making great progress, as will be
seen from the following interesting particulars preparedin 1908 by Mr
bustion engines, and very large engines are also constructed
on this plan. The two-cycle, or Clerk cycle engines, how-
ever, compete strongly with the four-cycle for large gas
engines using blast furnace gas. Koerting engines on the
Clerk cycle are now built giving 1000 i.h.p. per double acting
motor cylinder, and one power cylinder on this method gives
R. E. Mat hot of Brussels giving the numbers and horse power of large
gas engines which had then been recently manufactured in Europe:
500
GAS ENGINE
Messrs Crossley Brothers, Limited, 57 motors, with an aggregate
of 23,660 h.p. ; Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer, 59 motors, total 69,790
h.p. ; the Otto Gasmotoren Fabrik, 82, total 47,400 h.p. ; Gebriider
Koerting, 198, total 165,760 h.p.; SociSte' Alsacienne, 55, total
23,410 h.p.; Societ6 John Cockerill, 148, total 102,925 h.p.; Societ6
Suisse, Winterthur, 67, total 8620 h.p.; Vereinigte Maschinen-
FIG. 6. Arrangement of Oechelhauser Gas Engine.
fabriken, Augsburg and Niirnberg, 215, total 256, 240 h.p. The mean
power of each gas engine made by Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer and
the Augsburg and Nurnberg companies is in each case 1200 h.p.
It is stated that in one factory there are gas engines representing
a total output of 35,000 h.p. These European large gas engines thus
give nearly 575,000 h.p. between them.
The installation of large gas engines has made considerable pro-
gress in America. Mr E. L. Adams estimated that 350,000 h.p.
was at work or in construction in the United States in 1908. The
first large engines were installed at the works of the Lackawanna
Steel Co., Buffalo, New York. They were of the Koerting-Clerk
type, and were built by the De La Vergne Co. of New York. They
included 16 blowing engines, each of 2000 h.p., and 8 engines of
1000 h.p. each, driving dynamos to produce electric light. This
large power plant was started in 1902. The Westinghouse Co. of
Pittsburg have also built large engines, several of which are in
operation at the various works of the Carnegie Steel Co. These
Westinghouse engines are of the horizontal twin tandem type, having
two cranks and four double-acting cylinders in each unit, the
cylinders being 38 in. in diameter and the stroke 54 in. The Snow
Steam Pump Co. have built similar horizontal tandem engines with
cylinders of 42 in. diameter and
54 in. stroke. The English West-
inghouse Co. have also designed
large gas engines, and they ex-
hibited a very interesting vertical
multiple cylinder gas engine hav-
ing four cranks and eight single-
acting cylinders, four pairs, in
tandem, at the Franco-British
Exhibition of 1908; it gave 750
h.p., and the pistons were not
watered.
Over two million horse-power
of the smaller gas engines are
now at work in the world, and
certainly above one million horse-
power of petrol motors.
The application of large gas
engines to marine work, the
compounding of the gas engine,
and many other matters are being strenuously pursued.
Capitaine of Frankfort-on-Main has built several vessels
used for towing purposes in which the vessel is driven by
gas engines operated by means of suction gas-producers con-
suming anthracite. Messrs Thornycroft and Messrs Beardmore
in Great Britain have adopted the Capitaine designs, and
both firms have applied them to sea-going vessels, Thorny-
croft to a gas launch which has been tested in the Solent,
and Beardmore to an old gunboat, the "Rattler." The
" Rattler " was fitted with five-cylinder Otto cycle engines and
suction gas-producers giving 500 i.h.p.; and has sailed some.
1500 m. under gas power only. There are many difficulties to
be overcome before large light and sufficiently slow-moving gas
engines can be installed on board ship, but progress is being
made, and without doubt all difficulties will be ultimately
surmounted and gas power successfully applied to ships for
both large and small power.
The flame and incandescent tube methods of ignition have
been displaced by electrical ignition of both high and low tension
types; all large gas engines are ignited electrically and generally
by more than one igniter per cylinder.
The governing of large gas engines, too, is now effected so as t
to keep up continuity of impulses by the method either of'
throttling the charge inlet or by varying the
point of admission of gas alone or air and gas
mixed.
It may be said, indeed, without exaggera-
tion, that the whole world is now alive to
the possibilities of the internal-combustion
motor, and that progress will be more and
more rapid. This motor has almost fulfilled
the expectations of those engineers who
have devoted a large part of their lives to
its study and advancement. They are look-
ing forward now to the completion of the
w'ork begun so many years ago, and expect,
at no distant date, to find the internal-com-
bustion motor competing with the steam
engine even in its latest form, the steam turbine, on sea as
vigorously as it does at present on land.
Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines. The Otto and Clerk
type engines are usually designated respectively four-cycle and
two-cycle, because in the Otto type four strokes are necessary to
complete the power-producing cycle of the engine and in the Clerk
engine two strokes complete the cycle.
Indicated thermal efficiency may be defined as the proportion of
the total heat of combustion which appears as work done by the
explosion and expansion upon the piston. Brake thermal efficiency
may be defined as the proportion of the total heat of combustion
which appears as work given out by the engine available for over-
coming external resistances; that is, brake thermal efficiency is the
effective efficiency of the engine for doing work. In the early gas
engines the indicated thermal efficiency was only 1 6%, as shown by
tests of Otto engines from about 1877 to 1882, but now indicated
thermal efficiencies of from 35 % to 37 % are often obtained. Some
experimenters claim even higher efficiencies, but even 37 % is higher
than ordinary best practice of 1909. Table I. has been prepared
to show this advance. It shows, in addition to indicated thermal
TABLE I. Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines from 1882 to
No.
Mechanical
Efficiency.
Names of
Experimenters.
Year.
Dimensions
of Engine.
Indicated
Thermal
Efficiency.
Brake
Thermal
Efficiency.
Type of
Engine.
Per cent.
Diam. Stroke.
Per cent.
Per cent.
i
87-6
Slaby
1882
6-75'Xi3-7"
16
14
Deutz
2
84-2
Thurston
1884
8-5* Xi4*
17
H-3
Crossley
3
86-1
Society of Arts
1888
9-5' Xi8"
22
18-9
Crossley
4
80-9
Society of Arts
1888
9-02*Xi4*
21
17
Griffin (6-cycle)
5
87-3
Kennedy
1888
7-5' Xi5"
21
18-3
Beck (6-cycle)
6
7
82-0
87-0
Capper
Robinson
1892
1898
8-5" Xi8"
10* Xi8*
22-8
28-7
17-4
25
Crossley
National
8
83
Humphrey
1900
26' X36'
31
257
Crossley
9
81-7
Witz
1900
51-2' X55-I3"
28
22-9
Cockerill
10
85-5
Inst. Civil. Eng.
1905
14" X22*
35 '
29-9
National
ii
77-1
Burstall
1907
16* X2 4 *
41-5'
32
Premier
12
87-5
Hopkinson
1908
n-5* X2i"
36-8
32-2
Crossley
efficiency, the brake thermal efficiency and the mechanical efficiency,
together with other particulars such as engine dimensions, types
and names of experimenters. It will be seen that brake thermal
efficiency has also increased from 14% to 32%; that is, practically
one-third of the whole heat of combustion is obtained by these
engines in effective work available for all motive power purposes.
Thermal Efficiency of Two-Cycle Engines. It has been found that
two-cycle engines present greater practical difficulties in regard to
obtaining high indicated and brake thermal efficiencies, but the
thermodynamic considerations are not affected by the practical
difficulties. As shown by Table II., these engines improved in
indicated thermal efficiency from the value of 16-4% attained in
1884 to 38% in 1903, while the brake thermal efficiency rose in the
same period from 14% to 29%. The numbers in Table II. are not
so well established as those in Table I. The four-cycle engines have
been so far subjected to much more rigid and authoritative tests
than those of the two-cycle. It is interesting to see from the table
The value 35% is deduced by the author from the Inst.C.E.
Committee's values.
* This value is, in the author's view, too high ; probably due to
indicator error.
GASKELL
that the mechanical efficiency of the early Clerk engines was 84%,
while in the later Urge engines of the same type it has fallen to 75 %.
Standards of Tkrrmal Efcitney. To set up an absolute standard
of thermal efficiency it U necessary to know in a complete manner
the physical and chemical properties and occurrences in a gaseous
explosion. A great deal of attention has been devoted to gaseous
explosions by experimenters in England and on the continent of
Europe, and much knowledge has been obtained from the work of
Mallard and Le Chateher, Clerk, Langen, Petavel, Hopkinson and
Bairstow and Alexander. From these and other experiments it is
poasiblr to measure approximately the internal energy or the specific
Beats of the gases of combustion at very high temperatures, such
a* 2000* C. ; and to advance the knowledge on the subject a com-
mittee of the British Association was formed at Leicester in 1907.
Recognizing, in 1882, that it was impossible to base any standard
cycle of efficiency upon the then existing knowledge of gaseous
explosions Dugalu Cferk proposed what is called the air standard.
This standard has been used for many years, and it was officially
adopted by a committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers ap-
pointed in 1903, this committee's two reports, dated March 1905
and December 1905, definitely adopting the air-standard cycle as
the standard of efficiency for internal combustion engines. This
standard assumes that the working fluid is air, that its specific heat
is CTHVrtmnt throughout the range of temperature, and that the
TABLB l\.lnduaUd and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Two-cycle Engines from 1884 to
adiabatic compression raises the pressure and temperature of the
working fluid through a certain range; the heat supply is added
while the volume remains constant, that is, the volume to which
the fluid is diminished by compression. Adiabatic expansion re-
duces the pressure and temperature of the working fluid until the
volume is the same as the original volume before compression, and
the necessary heat is discharged from the cycle at constant volume
during falling temperature. Here also it can be shown that the
thermal efficiency depends on the ratio between the temperature
before compression and the temperature after compression. It
is as before E I III,. Where / is the temperature and i> the volume
before compression, and /. the temperature and v, the volume after
adiabatic compression, it can be shown that ( ) r, so that E
may be written
&)"
and if r,/r i/r, the compression ratio, then
Mechanical
Efficiency.
Name of
Experimenter.
Year.
Dimensions
of Motor
Cylinders.
Indicated
Thermal
Efficiency.
Brake
Thermal
Efficiency.
Type of Engine.
Percent.
84
3
75
75
Garrett . . .
Stockport Co.
Clerk . . .
Atkinson .
Meyer
Mather & Platt
1884
18*7
1885
1903
1907
Diam. Stroke.
9' X 20*
26'X(2'X37i')
Per cent.
16-4
20-2
3JJ .
306
Per cent.
H
1 1 -2
16-9
15
29
23
Clerk-Sterne
Andrews & Co.
Clerk-Tangye
Atkinson
Oechelhauser
Koerting
value of the ratio between the specific heat at constant volume and
constant pressure is 1-4. The air-standard efficiency for different
cycles will be found fully discussed in the report of that committee,
but space here only allows of a short discussion of the various cycles
'on previous to ignition
For such engine* there are three symmetrical thermodynamic
cycle*, and each cycle has the maximum thermal efficiency possible
for the conditions assumed. The three types may be defined as
cycles of (l) constant temperature, (2) constant pressure, and (3)
rmtti"t volume.
The term constant temperature indicates that the supply of heat
is added at constant temperature. In this cycle adiabatic compres-
sion is assumed to raise the temperature of the working fluid from
the lowest to the highest point. The fluid then expands at constant
temperature, so that the whole of the heat is added at a constant
temperature, which U the highest temperature of the cycle. The
beat supply is stopped at a certain period, and then the fluid adia-
batically expands until the temperature falls to the lowest tempera-
ture. A compression operation then takes place at the lowest
temperature, so that the necessary heat is discharged by isothermal
compression at the lower temperature. It will be recognized that
this is the Carnot cycle, and the efficiency E is the maximum possible
between the temperature limits in accordance with the well-known
second law of tbenpo-dynamics. This efficiency is E = (T *P)/T
I TVT, where T is the absolute temperature at which heat is sup-
plied and "P the absolute temperature at which heat is discharged.
It is obvious that the temperatures before and after compression
are here the same a* the lower and the higher temperatures, so that
if < be the temperature before compression and t, the temperature
after compression, then E l lit,. This equation in effect says that
thermal efficiency operating on the Carnot cycle depends upon the
temperatures before and after compression.
The constant pressure cycle is so called because heat is added to
the working fluid at constant pressure. In this cycle adiabatic
compression raise* the pressure not the temperature from the
lower to the higher limit. At the higher limit of pressure, heat is
added while the working fluid expands at a constant pressure.
The temperature thus increases in proportion to increase of volume.
When the beat supply ceases, adiabatic expansion proceeds and
reduces the pressure of the working fluid from the higher to the lower
point. Again here we are dealing with pressure and not temperature.
The heat in this case is discharged from the cycle at the lower
pressure but at diminishing temperature. It can be shown in this
case also that E- 1-///,, that is, that although the maximum
temperature of the working fluid is higher than the temperature of
compression and the temperature at the end of adiabatic expansion
is higher than the lower temperature, yet the proportion of heat
convertible into work is determined here also by the ratio of the
temperatures before and after compression.
The constant volume cycle is so called because the heat required
is added to the working fluid at constant volume. In this cycle
i
A
rb
0-70
0-85
Thus in all three symmetrical cycles of constant temperature,
constant pressure and constant volume the thermal efficiency
depends only on the ratio of the
maximum volume before com-
pression to the volume after com-
pression; and, given this ratio,
called l/r, which does not depend
in any way upon temperature
determinations but only upon the
construction and valve-setting of
the engine, we have a means of
settling the ideal efficiency proper
for the particular engine. Any
desired ideal efficiency may be
obtained from any of the cycles
by selecting a suitable compres-
sion ratio. Table III., giving the
theoretical thermal efficiency for these three symmetrical cycles of
constant temperature, pressure and volume, extends from a
compression ratio of J to n ' HJ ili. Such compression ratios as
TABLE III. Theoretical Thermal Efficiency for the Three Symmetrical
Cycles of Constant Temperature, Pressure and Volume.
i/r E
0-246
0-36
o-43
0-48
loo are, of course, not used in practice. The ordinary value
in constant volume engines ranges from -,th to <tli. In the
Diesel engine, which is a constant pressure engine, the ratio is
usually i^th. As the value of l/r increases beyond certain limits,
the effective power for given cylinder dimensions diminishes,
because the temperature of compression is rapidly approaching the
maximum temperature possible by explosion; thus a compression
of i Joth raises the temperature of air from 17 C. to about 1600 C.,
and as 2000 C. is the highest available explosion temperature for
ordinary purposes, it follows that a very small amount of work
would be possible from an engine using such compressions, apart
from other mechanical considerations. It has long been recognized
that constant pressure and constant volume engines have the same
thermal efficiency for similar range of compression temperature,
but Prof. H. L. Callendar first pointed out the interesting fact that
a Carnot cycle engine is equally dependent upon the ratio of the
temperature before and after compression, and that its efficiency for
a given compression ratio is the same as the efficiencies proper for
constant pressure and constant volume engines. Prof. Callendar
demonstrated this at a meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers
Committee on thermal standards in 1904. The work of this com-
mittee, together with Clerk's investigations, prove that in modern
gas-engines up to to 5 h.p. it may be taken that the best result
possible in practice is given by multiplying the air-standard value
by -7. For instance, an engine with a compression ratio of one-third
has an air-standard efficiency of 0-36, and the actual indicated
efficiency of a well-designed engine should be -36 multiplied by ?
0-25. If, however, the compression ratio be raised to one-fifth, then
the air-standard value -48 multiplied by -7 gives -336. The ideal
efficiency of the real working fluid can be proved to DC about 20%
short of the air-standard values given. (D. C.)
GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLE6HORN (1810-1865), English
novelist and biographer, was born on the sglh of September 1810
in Lindsay Row, Chelsea, London, since destroyed to make way
for Cheyne Walk. Her father, William Stevenson (1772-1829),
came from Berwick-on-Tweed, and had been successively Uni-
tarian minister, farmer, boarding-house keeper for students at
Edinburgh, editor of the Scots Magazine, and contributor to the
502
GASKELL
Edinburgh Review, before he received the post of Keeper of the
Records to the Treasury, which he held until his death. His first
wife, Elizabeth Holland, was Mrs Gaskell's mother. She was a
Holland of Sandlebridge, Knutsford, Cheshire, in which county
the family name had long been and is still of great account. Mrs
Stevenson died a month after her daughter was born, and the
babe was carried into Cheshire to Knutsford to be adopted by her
aunt, Mrs Lumb. Thus her childhood was spent in the pleasant
environment that she has idealized in Cranford. At fifteen years
of age she went to a boarding-school at Stratford-on-Avon, kept
by Miss Byerley, where she remained until her seventeenth year.
Then came occasional visits to London to see her father and his
second wife, and after her father's death in 1829 to her uncle,
Swinton Holland. Two winters seem to have been spent in
Newcastle-on-Tyne in the family of William Turner, a Unitarian
minister, and a third in Edinburgh. On the 3oth of August 1832
she was married in the parish church of Knutsford to William
Gaskell, minister of the Unitarian chapel in Cross Street, Man-
chester, and the author of many treatises and sermons in support
of his own religious denomination. Mr Gaskell held the chair of
English history and literature in Manchester New College.
Henceforth MrsGaskell'slifebelongedto Manchester. Sheand
her husband lived first in Dover Street, then in Rumford Street,
and finally in 1850 at 84 Plymouth Grove. Her literary life
began with poetry. She and her husband aspired to emulate
George Crabbe and write the annals of the Manchester poor. One
poetic " Sketch," which 'appeared in Blackwood's Magazine for
January 1837, seems to have been the only outcome of this
ambition. Henceforth, while in perfect union in all else, husband
and wife were to go their separate literary ways, Mrs Gaskell to
become a successful novelist, whose books were to live side by side
with those of greater masters, Mr Gaskell to be a distinguished
Unitarian divine, whose sermons, lectures and hymns are now all
but forgotten. In her earlier married life Mrs Gaskell was mainly
occupied with domestic duties she had seven children and
philanthropic work among the poor. Her first published prose
effort was probably a letter that she addressed to William
Howitt on hearing that he contemplated a volume entitled
Visits to Remarkable Places. She then told the legend of Clopton
Hall, Warwickshire, as she had heard it in schooldays, and
Howitt incorporated the letter in that book, which was published
in 1840. Serious authorship, however, does not seem to have been
commenced until four or five years later. In 1844 Mr and Mrs
Gaskell visited North Wales, where their only son " Willie "
died of scarlet fever at the age of ten months, and it was, it is
said, to distract Mrs Gaskell from her sorrow that her husband
suggested a long work of fiction, and Mary Barton was begun.
There were earlier short stories in Hewitt's Journal, where
"Libbie Marsh's Three Eras" and "The Sexton's Hero" appeared
in 1847. But it was Mary Barton : A Tale of Manchester Life that
laid the foundation of Mrs Gaskell's literary career. It was
completed in 1847 and offered to a publisher who returned it
unread. It was then sent to Chapman & Hall, who retained the
manuscript for a year without reading it or communicating with
the author. A reminder, however, led to its being sought for,
considered and accepted, the publishers agreeing to pay the
author 100 for the copyright. It was published anonymously
in two volumes in 1848. This story had a wide popularity, and
its author secured first the praise and then the friendship of
Carl yle, Landor and Dickens. Dickens indeed asked her in 1850
to become a contributor to his new magazine Household Words,
and here the whole of Cranford appeared at intervals from
December 1851 to May 1853, exclusive of one sketch, reprinted
in the " World's Classics " edition (1907), that was published in
All the Year Round for November 1863. Earlier than this,
indeed, for the very first number of Household Words she had
written " Lizzie Leigh." Mrs Gaskell's second book, however, was
The Moorland Cottage, a dainty little volume that appeared at
Christmas 1850 with illustrations by Birket Foster. In the
Christmas number of Household Words for 1853 appeared " The
Squire's Story," reprinted in Lizzie Leigh and other Tales in 1865.
In 1853 appeared another long novel, Ruth, and the incomparable
Cranford. This last now the most popular of her books is an
idyll of village life, largely inspired by girlish memories of Knuts-
ford and its people. In Ruth, which first appeared in three
volumes, Mrs Gaskell turned to a delicate treatment of a girl's
betrayal and her subsequent rescue. Once more we are intro-
duced to Knutsford, thinly disguised, and to the little Unitarian
chapel in that town where the author had worshipped in early
years. In 1855 North and South was published. It had previously
appeared serially in Household Words. Then came in 1857
the Life of Charlotte Bronte, in two volumes. Miss Bronte, who
had enjoyed the friendship of Mrs Gaskell and had. exchanged
visits, died in March 1855. Two years earlier she had begged her
publishers to postpone the issue of her own novel Villelte in order
that her friend's Ruth should not suffer. This biography, by its
vivid presentation of the sad, melancholy and indeed tragic
story of the three Bronte sisters, greatly widened the interest in
their writings and gave its author a considerable place among
English biographers. But much matter was contained in the
first and second editions that was withdrawn from the third.
Certain statements made by the writer as to the school of
Charlotte Bronte's infancy, an identification of the "Lowood" of
Jane Eyre with the existing school, and the acceptance of the
story of Bramwell Bronte's ruin having been caused by the
woman in whose house he had lived as tutor, brought threats of
libel actions. Apologies were published, and the third edition of
the book was modified, as Mrs Gaskell declares, by " another
hand." The book in any case remains one of the best biographies
in the language. An introduction by Mrs Gaskell to the then
popular novel, Mabel Vaughan, was also included in her work of
this year 1857, but no further book was published by her until
1859, when, under the title of Round the Sofa, shecollectedmanyof
hercontributionstoperiodicalliterature. RoundtheSofaappesaed
in two volumes, the first containing only " My Lady Ludlow,"
the second five short stories. These stories reappeared the same
year in one volume as My Lady Ludlow and other Tales. In the
next year 1860 appeared yet another volume of short stories,
entitled Right at Last and other Tales. The title story had
appeared two years earlier in Household Words as " The Sin of a
Father." In 1862 Mrs Gaskell wrote a preface to a little book by
Colonel Vecchj, translated from the Italian Garibaldi and
Caprera, and in 1863 she published her last long novel, Sylvia's
Lovers, dedicated " to My dear Husband by her who best knows
his Value." After this we have in 1863 a one-volume story,
A Dark Night's Work, and in the same year Cousin Phyllis and
other Tales appeared. Reprinted short stories from All the
Year Round, Cornhill Magazine, and other publications, tend to
lengthen the number of books published by Mrs Gaskell during
her lifetime. The Grey Woman and other Tales appeared in 1865.
Mrs Gaskell died on the izth of November 1865 at Holyburn,
Alton, Hampshire, in a house she had just purchased with the
profits of her writings as a present for her husband. She was
buried in the little graveyard of the Knutsford Unitarian church.
Her unfinished novel Wives and Daughters was published in two
volumes in 1866.
Mrs Gaskell has enjoyed an ever gaining popularity since her
death. Cranford has been published in a hundred forms and
with many illustrators. It is unanimously accepted as a classic.
Scarcely less recognition is awarded to the Life of Charlotte
Bronte, which is in every library. The many volumes of novelsand
stories seemed of less secure permanence until the falling in of their
copyrights revealed the fact that a dozen publishers thought them
worth reprinting. The most complete editions, however, are the
" Knutsford Edition," edited with introductions by A. W. Ward, in
eight volumes (Smith, Elder) , and the " World's Classics " edition,
edited by Clement Shorter, in 10 volumes (Henry Froude, 1908).
There is no biography of Mrs Gaskell, she having forbidden the
publication of any of her letters. See, however, the biographical
introduction to the " Knutsford " Mary Barton by A. W. Ward;
the Letters of Charles Dickens; Women Writers, by C. I. Hamilton,
second series; H. B. Stowe's Life and Letters, edited by Annie Fields;
Autobiography of Mrs Fletcher; Mrs Caskell and Knutsford, by
G. A. Payne; Cranford, with a preface by Anne Thackeray Ritchie;
crivains modernes de I'Angleterre, by Emile Montegut. (C. K. S.)
GASSENDI
503
GASSENDI 1 (GASSEND), PIERRE (1592-1655), French philo-
sopher, scientist and mathematician, was born of poor parents
at Champtercicr, near Digne, in Provence, on the 32nd of January
1501. At a very early age he gave indications of remarkable
mental powers and was sent to the college at Digne. He showed
particular aptitude for languages and mathematics, and it is
said that at the age of sixteen he was invited to lecture on
rhetoric at the college. Soon afterwards he entered the university
of Aiz, to study philosophy under P. Fesaye. In 1612 he was
called to the college of Digne to lecture on theology. Four
years later he received the degree of doctor of theology at Avignon,
and in 1617 he took holy orders. In the same year he was
called to the chair of philosophy at Aix, and seems gradually to
have withdrawn from theology. He lectured principally on the
Aristotelian philosophy, conforming as far as possible to the
orthodox methods. At the same time, however, he followed
with interest the discoveries of Galileo and Kepler, and became
more and more dissatisfied with the Peripatetic system. It was
the period of revolt against the Aristotelianism of the schools,
and Gassendi shared to the full the empirical tendencies of the
age. He, too, began to draw up objections to the Aristotelian
philosophy, but did not at first venture to publish them. In
1624, however, after he had left Aix for a canonry at Grenoble,
he printed the first part of his Exerciialiones paradoxicae adrrrsus
Aristotdtof. A fragment of the second book was published
later at La Haye (1659), but the remaining five were never
composed, Gassendi apparently thinking that after the Discus-
stones Peripateticae of Francesco Patrizzi little field was left
for his labours.
After 1628 Gassendi travelled in Flanders and Holland.
During this time he wrote, at the instance of Mersenne, his
examination of the mystical philosophy of Robert Fludd (Epis-
lolifa dissertalio in qua pratcipua principia phihsophiae Ro.
Fluddi deteguntur, 1631), an essay on parhelia (Epistola de
parkdiif), and some valuable observations on the transit of
Mercury which had been foretold by Kepler. He returned to
France in 1631, and two years later became provost of the
cathedral church at Digne. Some years were then spent in
travelling through Provence with the duke of Angouleme,
governor of the department. The only literary work of this
period is the Life of Peiresc, which has been frequently reprinted,
and was translated into English. In 1642 he was engaged by
Mersenne in controversy with Descartes. His objections to the
fundamental propositions of Descartes were published in 1642;
they appear as the fifth in the series contained in the works
of Descartes. In these objections Gassendi's tendency towards
the empirical school of speculation appears more pronounced
than in any of his other writings. In 1645 be accepted the chair
of mathematics in the College Royal at Paris, and lectured for
many years with great success. In addition to controversial
writings on physical questions, there appeared during this period
the first of the works by which he is known in the history of
philosophy. In 1647 he published the treatise De vita, moribus,
tt doctrine Epicuri libri oclo. The work was well received, and
two yean later appeared bis commentary on the tenth book of
Diogenes Laertius, De vita, moribus, et ptacitis Epicuri, sen
Animadverriones in X. librum Diog. Lair. (Lyons, 1649; last
edition, 1675). In the same year the more important Syntagma
pkilosophiae Epicuri (Lyons, 1649; Amsterdam, 1684) was
published.
In 1648 ill-health compelled him to give up his lectures at the
College Royal. He travelled in the south of France, spending
nearly two years at Toulon, the climate of which suited him.
In 1653 he returned to Paris and resumed his literary work,
publishing in that year lives of Copernicus and Tycho Brahe.
The disease from which he suffered, lung complaint, had, how-
ever, established a firm bold on him. His strength gradually
failed, and he died at Paris on the 24th of October 1655. A
1 It was formerly thought that Gastendi was really the genitive
of the Latin form Ganendus. C. Cottier, however, holds that it is
a modernized form of the O. Fr. Cajsendy (see paper quoted in
bibBofraphy).
bronze statue of him was erected by subscription at Digne in
1852.
His collected works, of which the most important is the Syn-
tagma philosophicum (Opera, i. and ii.), were published in 1658
by Montmort (6 vols., Lyons). Another edition, also in 6 folio
volumes, was published by N. Averanius in 1727. The first
two are occupied entirely with his Syntagma philosophicum;
the third contains his critical writings on Epicurus, Aristotle,
Descartes, Fludd and Lord Herbert, with some occasional
pieces on certain problems of physics; the fourth, his Instilutio
astronomica, and his Commentarii de rebus celestibus; the
fifth, his commentary on the tenth book of Diogenes Lagrtius,
the biographies of Epicurus, N. C. F. de Peiresc, Tycho Brahe,
Copernicus, Georg von Peuerbach, and Regiomontanus, with
some tracts on the value of ancient money, on the Roman
calendar, and on the theory of music, to all which is appended
a large and prolix piece entitled Notitia ecclesiae Diniensis;
the sixth volume contains his correspondence. The Lives,
especially those of Copernicus, Tycho and Peiresc, have been
justly admired. That of Peiresc has been repeatedly printed;
it has also been translated into English. Gassendi was one of
the first after the revival of letters who treated the literature
of philosophy in a lively way. His writings of this kind, though
too laudatory and somewhat diffuse, have great merit; they
abound in those anecdotal details, natural yet not obvious
reflections, and vivacious turns of thought, which made Gibbon
style him, with some extravagance certainly, though it was true
enough up to Gassendi's time " le meilleur philosophe des
litterateurs, et le meilleur litterateur des philosophes."
Gassendi holds an honourable place in the history of physical
science. He certainly added little to the stock of human knowledge,
but the clearness of his exposition and the manner in which he, like
Baccn, urged the importance of experimental research, were of
inestimable service to the cause of science. To what extent any
place can be assigned him in the history of philosophy is more doubt-
ful. The Exercitationes on the whole seem to nave excited more
attention than they deserved. They contain little or nothing
beyond what had been already advanced against Aristotle. The
first book expounds clearly, and with much vigour, the evil effects of
the blind acceptance of the Aristotelian dicta on physical and philo-
sophical study; but, as is the case with so many of the anti-Aristo-
telian works of this period, the objections show the usual ignorance
of Aristotle's own writings. The second book, which contains the
review of Aristotle's dialectic or logic, is throughout Ramist in tone
and method. The objections to Descartes one of which at least,
through Descartes's statement of it in the appendix of objections
in the Mediiationes has become famous have no speculative value,
and in general are the outcome of the crudest empiricism. His
labours on Epicurus have a certain historical value, but the want of
consistency inherent in the philosophical system raised on Epicurean-
ism is such as to deprive it of genuine worth. Along with strong
expressions of empiricism we find him holding doctrines absolutely
irreconcilable with empiricism in any form. For while he maintains
constantly his favourite maxim " that there is nothing in the intellect
which has not been in the senses " (nihil in intellects quod non prius
fuerit in sensu), while he contends that the imaginative facujty
(phanlasia) is the counterpart of sense that, as it has to do with
material images, it is itself, like sense, material, and essentially the
same both in men and brutes; he at the same time admits that the
intellect, which he affirms to be immaterial and immortal the most
characteristic distinction of humanity attains notions and truths of
which no effort of sensation or imagination can give us the slightest
apprehension (Op. ii. 383). He instances the capacity of forming
" general notions " ; the very conception of universality itself (ib.
384), to which he says brutes, who partake as truly as men in the
faculty called phanlasia, never attain; the notion of God, whom he
says we may imagine to be corporeal, but understand to be in-
corporeal ; and lastly, the reflex action by which the mind makes its
own phenomena and operations the objects of attention.
The Syntagma philosophicum, in fact, is one of those eclectic
systems which unite, or rather place in juxtaposition, irreconcilable
dogmas from various schools of thought. It is divided, according to
the usual fashion of the Epicureans, into logic (which, with Gassendi
as with Epicurus, is truly canonic), physics and ethics. The logic,
which contains at least one praiseworthy portion, a sketch of the
history of the science, is divided into theory of right apprehension
(bent imaginarf), theory of right judgment (bene proponere), theory
of right inference (bene colltgere), theory of right method (bene
ordinare). The first part contains the specially empirical positions
which Gassendi afterwards neglects or leaves out of account. The
senses, the sole source of knowledge, are supposed to yield us im-
mediately cognition of individual things; phantasy (which Gassendi
54
GASTEIN GASTRIC ULCER
takes to be material in nature) reproduces these ideas; under-
standing compares these ideas, which are particular, and frames
general ideas. Nevertheless, he at the same time admits that the
senses yield knowledge not of things but of qualities only, and
holds that we arrive at the idea of thing or substance by induction.
He holds that the true method of research is the analytic, rising from
lower to higher notions; yet he sees clearly, and admits, that in-
ductive reasoning, as conceived by Bacon, rests on a general pro-
position not itself proved by induction. He ought to hold, and in
disputing with Descartes he did apparently hold, that the evidence
of the senses is the only convincing evidence ; yet he maintains, and
from his special mathematical training it was natural he should
maintain, that the evidence of reason is absolutely satisfactory.
The whole doctrine of judgment, syllogism and method is a mixture
of Aristotelian and Ramist notions.
In the second part of the Syntagma, the physics, there is more
that deserves attention; but here, too, appears in the most glaring
manner the inner contradiction between Gassendi's fundamental
principles. While approving of the Epicurean physics, he rejects
altogether the Epicurean negation of God and particular providence.
He states the various proofs for the existence of an immaterial,
infinite, supreme Being, asserts that this Being is the author of the
visible universe, and strongly defends the doctrine of the fore-
knowledge and particular providence of God. At the same time he
holds, in opposition to Epicureanism, the doctrine of an immaterial
rational soul, endowed with immortality and capable of free deter-
mination. It is altogether impossible to assent to the supposition
of La-nge (Gesch. des Materialismus, 3rd ed., i. 233), that all this
portion of Gassendi's system contains nothing of his own opinions,
but is introduced solely from motives of self-defence. The positive
exposition of atomism has much that is attractive, but the hypothesis
of the color vitalis (vital heat), a species of anima mundi (world-soul)
which is introduced as physical explanation of physical phenomena,
does not seem to throw much light on the special problems which
it is invoked to solve. Nor is his theory of the weight essential
to atoms as being due to an inner force impelling them to motion
in any way reconcilable with his general doctrine of mechanical
causes.
In the third part, the ethics, over and above the discussion on
freedom, which on the whole is indefinite, there is little beyond
a milder statement of the Epicurean moral code. The final end of
life is happiness, and happiness is harmony of soul and body
(tranquillitas animi et indolentia corporis). Probably, Gassendi
thinks, perfect happiness is not attainable in this life, but it may
be in the life to come.
The Syntagma is thus an essentially unsystematic work, and
clearly exhibits the main characteristics of Gassendi's genius. He
was critical rather than constructive, widely read and trained
thoroughly both in languages and in science, but deficient in specu-
lative power and original force. Even in the department of natural
science he shows the same inability steadfastly to retain principles
and to work from them; he wavers between the systems of Brahe
and Copernicus. That his revival of Epicureanism had an important
influence on the general thinking of the 1 7th century may be ad-
mitted ; that it has any real importance in the history of philosophy
cannot be granted.
AUTHORITIES. Gassendi's life is given by Sorbiere in the first
collected edition of the works, by Bugerel, Vie de Gassendi (1737;
2nd ed., 1770), and by Damiron, Memoire sur Gassendi (1839). An
abridgment of his philosophy was given by his friend, the celebrated
traveller, Bernier (Abrege de la phuosophie de Gassendi, 8 yols., 1678 ;
2nd ed., 7 vols., 1684). The most complete surveys of his work are
those of G. S. Brett (Philosophy of Gassendi, London, 1908), Buhle
(Geschichte der neuern Philosophic, lii. I, 87-222), Damiron (Memoires
pour seryir d I'histoire de philosophic au X VII' siecle),and P.F.Thomas
(La Philosophic de Gassendi, Paris, 1889). See also Ritter, Geschichte
der Philosophic, x. 543-571; Feuerbach, Gesch. d. neu. Phil, von
Bacon bis Spinoza, 127-150; F. X. Kiefl, P. Gassendis Erkenntnis-
theorie and seine Stellung zum Materialismus (1893) and " Gassendi's
Skepticismus " in Philos. Jahrb. vi. (1893); C. Guttler, " Gassend
oder Gassendi?" in Archiv f. Gesch. d. Phtlos. x. (1897), pp. 238-
242. (R.AD.;X.)
GASTEIN, in the duchy of Salzburg, Austria, a side valley of
the Pongau or Upper Salzach, about 25 m. long and ij m.
broad, renowned for its mineral springs. It has an elevation
of between 3000 and 3500 ft. Behind it, to the S., tower the
mountains Mallnitz or Nassfeld-Tauern (7907 ft.) and Ankogel
(10,673 ft-), and^rom the right and left of these mountains two
smaller ranges run northwards forming its two side walls. The
river Ache traverses the valley, and near Wildbad-Gastein forms
two magnificent waterfalls, the upper, the Kesselfall (196 ft.),
and the lower, the Barenfall (296 ft.). Near these falls is the
Schleierfall (250 ft.), formed by the stream which drains the
Bockhart-see. The valley is also traversed by the so-called
Tauern railway (opened, up to Wildbad-Gastein in September
1905), which goes to Mallnitz, piercing the Tauern range by a
tunnel 9260 yds. in length. The principal villages of the valley
are Hof-Gastein, Wildbad-Gastein and Bockstein.
HOF-GASTEIN, pop. (1900) 840, the capital of the valley, is
also a watering-place, the thermal waters being conveyed here
from Wildbad-Gastein by a conduit 5 m. long, constructed in
1828 by the emperor Francis I. of Austria. Hof-Gastein was,
after Salzburg, the richest place in the duchy, owing to its gold
and silver mines, which were already worked during the Roman
period. During the i6th century these mines were yielding
annually 1180 Ib of gold and 9500 Ib of silver, but since the
1 7th century they have been much neglected and many of them
are now covered by glaciers.
WILDBAD-GAS /BIN, commonly called Bad-Gastein, one of
the most celebrated watering-places in Europe, is picturesquely
situated in the narrow valley of the Gasteiner Ache, at an
altitude of 3480 ft. The thermal springs, which issue from
the granite mountains, have a temperature of 77-! 20 F., and
yield about 880,000 gallons of water daily. The water contains
only 0-35 to looo of mineral ingredients and is used for bathing
purposes. The springs are resorted to in cases of nervous
affections, senile and general debility, skin diseases, gout and
rheumatism. Wildbad-Gastein is annually visited by over
8500 guests. The springs were known as early as the 7th century,
but first came into fame by a successful visit paid to them by
Duke Frederick of Austria in 1436. Gastein was a favourite
resort of William I. of Prussia and of the Austrian imperial
family, and it was here that, on the I4th of August 1865, was
signed the agreement known as the Gastein Convention, which
by dividing the administration of the conquered provinces of
Schleswig and Holstein between Austria and Prussia postponed
for a while the outbreak of war between the two powers. It
was also here (August-September 1879) that Prince Bismarck
negotiated with Count Julius Andrissy the Austro-German
treaty, which resulted in the formation of the Triple Alliance.
See Proll, Gastein, Its Springs and Climate (Vienna, 5th ed.,
I893)-
GASTRIC ULCER (ulcer of the stomach), a disease of much
gravity, commonest in females, and especially in anaemic
domestic servants. It is connected in many instances with
impairment of the circuktion in the stomach and the formation
of a clot in a small blood-vessel (thrombosis). It may be due
to an impoverished state of the blood (anaemia), but it may also
arise from disease of the blood-vessels, the result of long-continued
indigestion and gastric catarrh.
When clotting takes place in a blood-vessel the nutrition of
that limited area of the stomach is cut off, and the patch under-
goes digestion by the unresisted action of the gastric juices, an
ulcer being formed. The ulcer is usually of the size of a silver
threepence or sixpence, round or oval, and, eating deeply, is apt
to make a hole right through the coats of the stomach. Its
usual site is upon the posterior wall of the upper curvature, near
to the pyloric orifice. It may undergo a healing process at any
stage, in which case it may leave but little trace of its existence;
while, on the other hand, it may in the course of cicatrizing
produce such an amount of contraction as to lead to stricture
of the pylorus, or to a peculiar hour-glass deformity of the stomach.
Perforation is in most cases quickly fatal, unless previously
the stomach has become adherent to some neighbouring organ,
by which the dangerous effects of this occurrence may be averted,
or unless the condition has been promptly recognized and an
operation has been quickly done. Usually there is but one ulcer,
but sometimes there are several ulcers.
The symptoms of ulcer of the stomach are often indefinite and
obscure, and in some cases the diagnosis has been first made on
the occurrence of a fatal perforation. First among the symptoms
is pain, which is present at all times, but is markedly increased
after food. The pain is situated either at the lower end of the
breast-bone or about the middle of the back. Sometimes it is
felt in the sides. It is often extremely severe, and is usually
accompanied with localized tenderness and also with a sense of
oppression, and by an inability to wear tight clothing. The pain
is due to the movements of the stomach set up by the presence
GASTRITIS
55
of the food, as well as to the irritation of the inflamed nerve
filaments in the floor of the ulcer. Vomiting is a usual symptom.
It occurs either soon after the food is swallowed or at a later
period, and generally relieves the pain and discomfort. Vomiting
of blood (haematemesis) is a frequent and important symptom.
The blood may show itself in the form of a brown or coffee-like
mixture, or as pure blood of dark colour and containing clots.
It comes from some vessel or vessels which the ulcerative process
has ruptured. Blood is also found mixed with the discharges
from the bowels, rendering them dark or tarry-looking. The
general condition of the patient with gastric ulcer is, as a rule,
that of extreme ill-health, with pallor, emaciation and debility.
The tongue is red, and there is usually constipation. In most
of the cases the disease is chronic, lasting for months or years;
and in those cases where the ulcers are large or multiple, in-
complete healing may take place, relapses occurring from time
to time. But the ulcers may give rise to no marked symptoms,
and there have been instances where fatal perforation suddenly
took place, and where post-mortem examination revealed the
existence of long-standing ulcers which had given rise to no
suggestive symptoms. While gastric ulcer is to be regarded as
dangerous, its termination, in the great majority of cases, is
in recovery. It frequently, however, leaves the stomach in a
delicate condition, necessitating the utmost care as regards diet.
Occasionally the disease proves fatal by sudden haemorrhage,
but a fatal result is more frequently due to perforation and the
escape of the contents of the stomach into the peritoneal cavity,
in which case death usually occurs in from twelve to forty-eight
hours, either from shock or from peritonitis. Should the stomach
become adherent to another organ, and fatal perforation be
thus prevented, chronic " indigestion " may persist, owing to
interference with the natural movements of the stomach.
Stricture of the pylorus and consequent dilatation of the stomach
may be caused by the cicatrization of an ulcer.
The patient should at once be sent to bed and kept there, and
allowed for a while nothing stronger than milk and water or
milk and lime water. But if bleeding has recently taken place
no food whatever should be allowed by the stomach, and the
feeding should be by nutrient cncmata. As the symptoms
quiet down, eggs may be given beaten up with milk, and later,
bread and milk and home-made broths and soups. Thus the
diet advances to chicken and vegetables rubbed through a
sieve, to custard pudding and bread and butter. As regards
medicines, iron is the most useful, but no pills of any sort should
be given. Under the influence of rest and diet most gastric
ulcers get well. The presence of healthy-looking scars upon the
surface of the stomach, which are constantly found in operating
upon the interior of the abdomen, or as revealed in post-mortem
examinations, are evidence of the truth of this statement. It
is unlikely that under the treatment just described perforation
of the stomach will take place, and if the surgeon is called in
to assist be will probably advise that operation is inadvisable.
Moreover, he knows that if he should open the abdomen to search
for an ulcer of the stomach he might fail to find it; more than
that, bis search might also be in vain if he opened the stomach
itself and examined t be interior. Serious haemorrhages, however,
may make it necessary that a prompt and thorough search should
be made in order that the surgeon may endeavour to locate the
ulcer, and, having found it, secure the damaged vessel and save
the patient from death by bleeding.
Perforation of a gastric ulcer having taken place, the septic
germs, which were harmless whilst in the stomach, escape with
the rest of the contents of the stomach into the general peritoneal
cavity. The immediate effects of this leakage are sudden and
severe pain in the upper part of the abdomen and a great shock
to the system (collapse). The muscles of the abdominal wall
become hard and resisting, and as peritonitis appears and
the intestines are distended with gas, the abdomen is distended
and becomes greatly increased in size and ceases to move,
the respiratory movements being short and quick. At first,
likely, the temperature drops below normal, and the
quickens. Later, the temperature rises. If nothing is
done, death from the septic poisoning of peritonitis is almost
certain.
The treatment of ruptured gastric ulcer demands immediate
operation. An incision should be made in the upper part of
the middle line of the abdomen, and the perforation should be
looked for. There is not, as a rule, much difficulty in finding it,
as there are generally deposits of lymph near the spot, and other
signs of local inflammation; moreover, the contents of the
stomach may be seen escaping from the opening. The ulcer is
to be closed by running a " purse-string " suture in the healthy
tissue around it, and the place is then buried in the stomach by
picking up small folds of the stomach-wall above and below it
and fixing them together by suturing. This being done, the
surface of the stomach, and the neighbouring viscera which have
been soiled by the leakage, are wiped clean and the abdominal
wound is closed, provision being made for efficient drainage. A
large proportion of cases of perforated gastric ulcer thus treated
recover. (E. O.*)
GASTRITIS (Gr. -ya<mjp, stomach), an inflammatory affection
of the stomach, of which the condition of catarrh, or irritation of
its mucous membrane, is the most frequent and most readily
recognized. This may exist in an acute or a chronic form, and
depends upon some condition, either local or general, which pro-
duces a congested state of the circulation in the walls of the
stomach (see DIGESTIVE ORGANS: Pathology).
Acute Gastritis may arise from various causes. The most
intense forms of inflammation of the stomach are the toxic
conditions which follow the swallowing of corrosive poisons,
such as strong mineral acids of alkalis which may extensively
destroy the mucous membrane. Other non-corrosive poisons
cause acute degeneration of the stomach wall (see POISONS).
Acute inflammatory conditions may be secondary to zymotic
diseases such as diphtheria, pyaemia, typhus fever and others.
Gastritis is also caused by the ingestion of food which has begun
to decompose, or may result from eating unsuitable articles
which themselves remain undigested and so excite acute catarrhal
conditions. These give rise to the symptoms well known as
characterizing an acute " bilious attack," consisting in loss of
appetite, sickness or nausea, and headache, frontal or occipital,
often accompanied with giddiness. The tongue is furred, the
breath foetid, and there is pain or discomfort in the region of the
stomach, with sour eructations, and frequently vomiting, first of
food and then of bilious matter. An attack of this kind tends to
subside in a few days, especially if the exciting cause be removed.
Sometimes, however, the symptoms recur with such frequency
as to lead to the more serious chronic form of the disease.
The treatment bears reference, in the first place, to any known
source of irritation, which, if it exist, may be expelled by an
emetic or purgative (except in cases due to poisoning). This,
however, is seldom necessary, since vomiting is usually present.
For the relief of sickness and pain the sucking of ice and counter-
irritation over the region of the stomach are of service. Further,
remedies which exercise a soothing effect upon an irritable
mucous membrane, such as bismuth or weak alkaline fluids, and
along with these the use of a light milk diet, are usually sufficient
to remove the symptoms.
Chronic Gastric Catarrh may result from the acute or may arise
independently. It is not infrequently connected with antecedent
disease in other organs, such as the lungs, heart, liver or kidneys,
and it is especially common in persons addicted to alcoholic
excess. In this form the texture of the stomach is more altered
than in the acute form, except in the toxic and febrile forms above
referred to. It is permanently in a state of congestion, and its
mucous membrane and muscular coat undergo thickening and
other changes, which markedly affect the function of digestion.
The symptoms are those of dyspepsia in an aggravated form
(see DYSPEPSIA), of. which discomfort and pain after food, with
distension and frequently vomiting, are the chief; and the
treatment must be conducted in reference to the causes giving
rise to it. The careful regulation of the diet, alike as to the
amount, the quality, and the intervals between meals, demands
special attention. Feeding on artificially soured milk may in
GASTROPODA
many cases be useful. Lavage or washing out of the stomach
with weak alkaline solutions has been used with marked success in
the treatment of chronic gastritis. Of medicinal agents, bismuth,
arsenic, nux vomica, and the mineral acids are all of acknow-
ledged efficacy, as are also preparations of pepsin.
GASTROPODA, the second of the five classes of animals
constituting the phylum Mollusca. For a discussion of the re-
lationship of the Gastropoda to the remaining classes of the
phylum, see MOLLUSCA.
The Gastropoda are mainly characterized by a loss of symmetry,
produced by torsion of the visceral sac. This torsion may be re-
solved into two successive movements. The first is a ventral flexure
in the antero-posterior or sagittal plane; the result of this is to
approximate the two ends of the alimentary canal. In develop-
ment, the openings of the mantle-cavity and the anus are always
originally posterior; later they are brought forward ventrally.
During this first movement flexure is also produced by the coiling
of the visceral sac and shell ; primitively the latter was bowl-shaped ;
but the ventral flexure, which brings together the two extremities
of the digestive tube, gives the visceral sac the outline of a more or
less acute cone. The shell necessarily takes this form also, and then
becomes coiled in a dorsal or anterior plane that is to say, it
becomes exogastric. This condition may be seen in embryonic
Patellidae, Fissurellidae and Trochidae (fig. I, A), and agrees with
the method of coiling of a mollusc without lateral torsion, such as
Nautilus. But ultimately the coil becomes ventral or endogastric,
in consequence of the second torsion movement then apparent.
pac
A.
From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
FIG. I. Three stages in the development of Trochus, during the
process of torsion. (After Robert.)
A, Nearly symmetrical larva /, Foot.
(veliger). op, Operculum.
B, A stage I i hours later than A. pac, Pallial cavity.
C, A stage 3 \ hours later than B. ve, Velum.
The shell is represented as fixed, while the head and foot rotate
from left to right. In reality the head and foot are fixed and the
shell rotates from right to left.
The second movement is a lateral torsion of the visceral mass, the
foot remaining a fixed point ; this torsion occurs in a plane approxi-
mately at right angles to that of the first movement, and carries the
pallia! aperture and the anus from behind forwards. If, at this
moment, the animal were placed with mouth and ventral surface
turned towards the observer, this torsion carries the circumanal
complex in a clockwise direction (along the right side in dextral
forms) through 1 80 as compared with its primitive condition. The
(primitively) right-hand organs of the complex thus become left-
hand, and vice versa. The visceral commissure, while still surround-
ing the digesdve tract, becomes looped; its right half, with its
proper ganglion, passes to the left side over the dorsal face of the
alimentary canal (whence the name supra-intestinal), while the left
half passes below towards the right side, thus originating the name
infra-intestinal given to this half and to its ganglion. Next, the
shell, the coil of which was at first exogastric, being also included
in this rotation through 180, exhibits an endogastric coiling (fig. I,
B, C). This, however, is not generally retained in one plane, and the
spire projects, little by little, on the side which was originally left,
but finally becomes right (in dextral forms, with a clockwise direction,
if viewed from the side of the spire; but counter-clockwise in sinistral
forms). Finally, the original symmetry of the circumanal complex
vanishes; the anus leaves the centre of the pallial cavity and passes
towards the right side (left side in sinistral forms) ; the organs of this
side become atrophied and disappear. The essential feature of the
asymmetry of Gastropoda is the atrophy or disappearance of the
primitively left half of the circumanal complex (the right half in
sinistral forms), including the gill, the auricle, the osphradium, the
hypobranchial gland and the kidney.
In dextral Gastropods the only structure found on the topo-
graphically right side of the rectum is the genital duct. But this is
not part of the primitive complex. It is absent in the most primitive
and symmetrical forms, such as Haliptis and Pleurotomaria. Origin-
ally the gonads opened into the kidneys. In the most primitive
existing Gastropods the gonad opens into the right kidney (Patellidae,
Trochidae, Fissurellidae). The gonaduct, therefore, is derived from
the topographically right kidney. The transformation has been
actually shown to take place in the development of Paludina. In
a dextral Gastropod the shell is coiled in a right-handed spiral from
apex to mouth, and the spiral also
projects to the right of the median
plane of the animal.
When the shell is sinistral the
asymmetry of the organs is usually
reversed, and there is a complete situs
inversus viscerum, the direction of the
spiral of the shell corresponding to
the position of the organs of the
body. Triforis, Physa, Clausilia are
examples of sinistral Gastropods, but
reversal also occurs as an individual
variation among forms normally dex-
tral. But there are forms in which
the involution is " hyperstrophic,"
that is to say, the turns of the spire From Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
projecting but slightly, the spire, c- T-. -1
after flattening out gradually, finally . Fl , G ' 2 '~ F u , r sta es m th <j
becomes re-entrant Ind transformed devel P m e n t of a Gastropod
into a false umbilicus; at the same Rowing the process of body
time that part which corresponds to torsion - (After Robert.)
the umbilicus of forms with a normal
coil projects and constitutes a false
spire; the coil thus appears to be
sinistral, although the asymmetry
remains dextral, and the coil of the
operculum (always the opposite to
that of the shell) sinistral (e.g.
Lanistes among Streptoneura, Lima-
cinidae among Opisthobranchia). The a >
same, mutatis mutandis, may occur />
in sinistral shells. *">
The problem of the causes of the P a
torsion of the Gastropod body has P ac > Pallial cavity,
been much discussed. E. R. Lan- ve. Velum,
kester in the ninth edition of this
work attributed it to the pressure of the shell and visceral hump
towards the right side. He referred also to the nautiloid shell of
the larva falling to one side. But these are two distinct processes.
In the larva a nautiloid shell is developed which is coiled exo-
gastrically, that is, dorsally, and the pallial cavity is posterior or
ventral (fig. 2, C) : the larva therefore resembles Nautilus in the
relations of body and shell. The shell then rotates towards the left
side through 180, so that it becomes ventral or endogastric (fig. 2,
D). The pallial cavity, with its organs, is by this torsion moved
up the right side of the larva to the dorsal surface, and thus the left
organs become right and vice versa. In the subsequent growth of
B,
C,
D,
Embryo without flexure.
Embryo with ventral flex-
ure of the intestine.
Embryo with ventral flex-
ure and exogastric shell.
Embryo with lateral tor-
sion and an endogastric
shell.
Anus.
Foot.
Mouth.
Mantle.
FIG. 3. Sketch of a model designed so as to show the effect of
torsion or rotation of the visceral hump in Streptoneurous Gastro-
poda.
A,
Unrotated ancestral condi-
tion.
Quarter-rotation.
Complete semi-rotation (the
limit).
an. Anus.
In, rn, Primarily left nephridium
and primarily right neph-
ridium.
Primarily left (subsequently
the sub-intestinal) visceral
B,
C,
Ivg,
cerg,
ganglion.
rug, Primarily right(subsequently
the sub-intestinal) visceral
ganglion.
Cerebral ganglion.
pig, Pleural ganglion.
pedg, Pedal ganglion.
abg, Abdominal ganglion.
bucc, Buccal mass.
W, Wooden arc representing
the base-line of the wall
of the visceral hump.
x, x', Pins fastening the elastic
cord (representing the vis-
ceral nerve loop) to W
the shell the spire comes to project on the right side, which was
originally the left. Neither the rotation of the shell as a whole nor
its helicoid spiral coiling is the immediate cause of the torsion of the
body in the individual, for the direction of the torsion is indicated
in the segmentation of the ovum, in which there is a complete
STREPTONEl'RAl
GASTROPODA
507
ft venal of the cleavage plane* in sinistral a* compared with dextral
form*. The facts, however, strongly suggest th.it tin- original cause
of the torsion was the weight of the exogastric shell and visceral
hump, which in an animal creeping on its ventral surface necessarily
fell over to one side. It is not certain that the projection of the spire
to the originally left side of the shell has anything to do with the
falling over of the shell to that tide. The facts do not support such
a suggestion. In the larva there is no projection at the time the
Ionian takes place. In some forms the coiling disappears in the
adult, leaving the shell simply conical as in PaieUidae, FissureUidae,
ftc.,and in some cases the shell is coiled in one plane, e.g. Plattorbis. In
all these case* the torsion and asy mim-t i y of the body arc un.ilTected.
The characteristic torsion attains its maximum effect among the
majority of the Streptoncura. It is followed in some specialized
Heteropoda and in the Euthyneura by a torsion in the opposite
direction, or detorsion, which brings the anus farther back and un-
twists the visceral commissure (see Euthvneura, below). This con-
clusion has shown that the Euthyneura do not represent an archaic
form of Gastropoda, but are themselves derived from streptoneurous
forms. The difference between the two sub-classes has been shown
to be slight; certain of the more archaic Tectibranchia (Aclaeon)
and Pulmonata (CkiJina) still have the visceral commissure long
and not untwisted. The fact that all the Euthyneura are herma-
phrodite is not a fundamental difference; several Streptoneura are so,
likewise Valtota. Oncidioptis, Marstnina, Odostomia, Bathysciadium,
CLosstfuatio*. The class Gastropoda is subdivided as follows:
Sub-class I. Streptoneura.
Order I. Aspidobranchia.
Sub-order I. Docoglossa.
2. Rhipidoglossa.
Order 2. Pcctinibranchia.
Sub-order I. Tacnioglossa.
Tribe l. Platypoda.
2. Heteropoda.
Sub-order 2. Stenoglossa.
Tribe i. Rachiglossa.
,. 2. Toxiglossa.
Sub-class II. Euthyneura.
Order I. Opisthobranchia.
Sub-order I. Tectibranchia.
Tribe I. Bullornorpha.
2. Anlysiomorpha.
,, 3. Plcurobranchomorpha.
Sub-order 2. Nudibranchia.
Tribe i. Tritoniomorpha.
.. 2. Doridomorpha.
3. Eolidomorpha.
.. 4. Elysiomorpha.
Order 2. Pulmonata.
Sub-order i. Basommatophora.
,, 2. Stylommatophora.
Tribe i. Holognatha.
2. Agnatha.
3. Ejasmognatha.
4. Ditremata.
Sub-Class I. STREKTONEURA
In this division the torsion of the visceral mass and visceral
commissure is at its maximum, the latter being twisted into a
figure of eight. The right half of the commissure with its ganglion
is supra-intestinal, the left half with its ganglion infra-intestinal.
In some cases each pleural ganglion is connected with the opposite
branch of the visceral commissure by anastomosis with the
pallia] nerve, a condition which is called dialyneury; or there
may be a direct connective from the pleural ganglion to the
visceral ganglion of the opposite side, which is called zygoneury.
The head bears only one pair of tentacles. The radular teeth arc
of several different kinds in each transverse row. The heart is
usually posterior to the branchia (proso-branchiate). The sexes
are usually separate.
The old division into Zygobranchia and Azygobranchia must
be abandoned, for the Azygobranchiate Rhipidoglossa have
much greater affinity to the Zygobranchiate Haliotidae and
FitturtUidae than to the Azygobranchia in general. This is
shown by the labial commissure and pedal cords of the nervous
system, by the opening of the gonadinto the right kidney, and by
other points. Further, the Plrurotomariidae\\a.\e been discovered
to possess two branchiae. The sub-class is now divided into two
orders: the Aspidobranchia in which the branchia or ctenidium
is bipectinate and attached only at its base, and the Pectini-
branchia in which the ctenidium is monopectinate and attached
to the mantle throughout its length.
Order i. ASPIDOBRANCHIA. These are the most primitive Gastro-
pods, retaining to a great degree the original symmetry of the
i
e
FIG. 4. The Common Limpet (Patella tin/goto) in its shell, seen from
the pedal surface. (Lankester.)
x,y, The median antero-posterior special pallial growths, corn-
axis, parable with those of Pleuro-
o, Cephalic tentacle. phyllidia). .
6, Plantar surface of the foot. |, The branchial efferent vessel.
c. Free edge of the shell. A, Factor of the branchial ad-
d, The branchial efferent vessel vehent vessel.
carrying aerated blood to the ', Interspaces between the mus-
auricle, and here interrupting cular bundles of the root of
the circlet of gill lamellae. the foot, causing the separate
e. Margin of the mantle-skirt. areae seen in fig. 5, c.
f, Gill lamellae (not ctenidia, but
organs of the pallial complex, having two kidneys, in some cases
two branchiae, and two auricles. The gonad has no accessory
organs and except in Neri-
tidae no duct, but discharges
into the right kidney.
Forms adapted to terres-
trial life and to aerial re-
spiration occur in various
divisions of Gastropods, and
do not constitute a single
homogeneous group. Thus
the llelicinidae, which are
terrestrial, are now placed
among the Aspidobranchia.
In these there are neither
branchia nor osphradium,
and the pallial chamber
which retains its large open-
ing serves as a lung. De-
generation of thc shell
occurs in some members of
the order. It is largely
covered by the mantle in
some FissureUidae, is en- F 5 ._ Dorsal sur(ace of the
tlr e'V .J nt '- rnal '.". **f Limpet removed from its shell and de-
and absent antuiae. .^ Q( jtg black pigmentecl epithe .
3?5 BBl e~JiSP l "S Hum; thc internal organs are^scen
. 1 1 1 ' I
the
more primitive Aspido-
branchia. Thc foot of the c < Muscular bundles forming the root
limpet is a nearly circular [ he f t, and adherent to the
disk of muscular tissue; in shell.
front, projecting from and <- ree mantle-skirt. [same,
raised above it, are the head <- Jentaculiferous margin of the
and neck (figs. 4, 13). The * Smaller (left) nephndium.
visceral hump forms a low *. Larger (right) nephndium.
conical dome above the sub- f Pericardium. [cardium.
circular foot, and standing lx < Fibrous septum, behind the pen-
out all round the base of this Liver. _
dome so as completely to "" Intestine.
overlap the head and foot, ecr - Antenpr area of the mantle-skirt
is the circular mantle-skirt. over-hanging the head (cephalic
The depth of free mantle- hood).
skirt is greatest in front, where the head and neck are covered
in by it. Upon the surface of the visceral dome, and extending
508
GASTROPODA
[STREPTONEURA
to the edge of the free mantle-skirt, is the conical shell. When
the shell is taken away (best effected by immersion in hot
water) the surface of the visceral dome is found to be covered by a
black-coloured epithelium, which may be removed, enabling the
observer to note the posi-
tion of some organs lying
below the transparent in-
tegument (fig. 5). The
muscular columns (c) at-
taching the foot to the
shell form a ring incom-
plete in front, external to
which is the free mantle-
skirt. The limits of the
large area formed by the
flap over the head and
neck (ecr) can be traced,
and we note the anal
papilla showing through
FIG. 6. Anterior portion of the same and opening on the right
Limpet, with the overhanging cephalic shoulder, so to speak, of
hood removed. (Lankester.) the animal into the large
a, Cephalic tentacle.
b, Foot.
c, Muscular substance forming the root
of the foot.
d, The capito-pedal organs of Lankester
( = rudimentary ctenidia).
e, Mantle-skirt.
/, Papilla of the larger nephridium.
f, Anus.
, Papilla of the smaller nephridium.
*', Smaller nephridium.
k, Larger nephridium.
I, Pericardium.
m, Cut edge of the mantle-skirt.
n, Liver.
*, Snout.
anterior region of the
sub-pallial space. Close
to this the small renal
organ (i, mediad) and the
the right and posteriorly)
are seen, also the peri-
cardium (I) and a coil of
the intestine (int) em-
bedded in the compact
liver.
On cutting away the
anterior part of the
mantle-skirt so as to
expose the sub-pallial
chamber in the
in the region
of the neck, we find the
right and left renal papillae (discovered by Lankester in 1867) on
either side of the anal papilla (fig. 6), but no gills. If a similar
examination be made of the allied genus Fissurella (fig. 17, d), we
find right and left of the two renal apertures a right and left gill-
plume or ctenidium, which here as in Haliotis and Pleurotomaria
retain their original paired condition. In Patella no such plumes
exist, but right and left of the neck are seen a pair of minute oblong
yellow bodies (fig. 6, d), which were originally described by Lankester
as orifices possibly connected with the evacuation of the generative
products. On account of their position they were termed by him
the " capito-pedal orifices," being placed near the junction of head
and foot. J. W. Spengel has, however, in a most ingenious way
shown that these bodies are the representatives of the typical pair
of ctenidia, here reduced to a mere rudiment. Near to each rudi-
mentary ctenidium Spengel has discovered an olfactory patch or
osphradium (consisting of modified epithelium) and an olfactory
nerve-ganglion (fig. 8). It will be remembered that, according to
Spengel, the osphradium of mollusca is definitely and intimately
related to the gill-plume or ctenidium, being always placed near the
base of that organ; fur-
ther, Spengel has shown
that the nerve-supply of
this olfactory organ is
always derived from the
visceral loop. Accord-
ingly, the nerve-supply
affords a means of test-
ing the conclusion that
we have in Lankester's
capito-pedal bodies the
rudimentary ctenidia.
The accompanying dia-
grams (figs. 9, 10) of
the nervous systems of
Patella and of Haliotis,
as determined by
FIG. 7. The same specimen viewed Spengel, show the iden-
from the left front, so as to show the sub- M V ln the on S m of e
anal tract (f) of the larger nephridium, nerves passing from the
by which it communicates with the peri- visceral loop to Spengel s
cardium. o, Mouth; other letters as in olfactory gang ion of the
g~ 6. Limpet, and that of the
nerves which pass from
the visceral loop of Haliotis to the olfactory patch or osphradium,
which lies in immediate relation on the right and on the left side
to the right and left gill-plumes (ctenidia) respectively. The same
diagrams serve to demonstrate the streptoneurous condition of the
visceral loop in Aspidobranchia.
Thus, the_n, we find that the limpet possesses a symmetrically
disposed pair of ctenidia in a rudimentary condition, and justifies
its position among Aspidobranchia. At the same time it possesses
a totally distinct series of functional gills, which are not derived
from the modification of the typical molluscan ctenidium. These gills
are in the form of delicate lamellae (fig. 4, f), which form a series
extending completely round the inner face of the depending mantle-
B
FIG. 8. A, Section in a plane vertical to the surface of the neck
of Patella through a, the rudimentary ctenidium (Lankester's organ),
and b, the olfactory epithelium (osphradium) ; c, the olfactory
(osphradial) ganglion. (After Spengel.)
B, Surface view of a rudimentary ctenidium of Patella excised
and viewed as a transparent object. (Lankester.)
skirt. This circlet of gill-lamellae led Cuvier to class the limpets
as Cyclobranchiata, and, by erroneous identification of them with
the series of metamerically repeated ctenidia of Chiton, to associate
the latter mollusc with the former. The gill-lamellae of Patella are
processes of the mantle comparable with the plait-like folds often
observed on the roof of the branchial chamber in other Gastropoda
(e.g. Buccinum and Haliotis). They are
termed pallia! gills. The only other mol-
luscs in which they are exactly repre-
sented are the curious Opisthobranchs
Phyllidia and Pleurophylliaia (fig. 55).
In these, as in Patella, the typical ctenidia
are aborted, and the branchial function is
assumed by close-set lamelliform pro-
cesses arranged in a series beneath the
mantle-skirt on either side of the foot. In
fig. 4, d, the large branchial vein of Patella
bringing blood from the gill-series to the
heart is seen; where it crosses the series
of lamellae there is a short interval devoid
of lamellae.
The heart in Patella consists of a single
auricle (not two as in Haliotis and
Fissurella) and a ventricle; the former
receives the blood from the branchial
vein, the latter distributes it through a
large aorta which soon leads into irregular
blood-lacunae.
The existence of two renal organs in -
Patella, and their relation to the peri- tern oi Patella-,
cardium (a portion of the coelom), is ceral loop
important. Each renal organ is a sac
lined with glandular epithelium (ciliated
cell, with concretions) communicating
with the exterior by its papilla, and by ce, Cerebral ganglia.
a narrow passage with the pericardium, c'e, Cerebral commissure.
The connexion with the pericardium of pi, Pleural ganglion,
the smaller of the two renal organs was pe, Pedal ganglion,
demonstrated by Lankester in 1867, at a p'e. Pedal nerve,
time when the fact that the renal organ s,s', Nerves (right and
of the Mollusca, as a rule, opens into the
pericardium, and is therefore a typical o,
nephridium, was not known. Subsequent
investigations carried on under the direc-
tion of the same naturalist have shown
that the larger as well as the smaller renal
sac is in communication with the pericardium. The walls of the renal
sacs are deeply plaited and thrown into ridges. Below the surface these
walls are excavated with blood-vessels, so that the sac is practically
a series of blood-vessels covered with renal epithelium, and forming
FIG. 9. Nervous sys-
the vis-
is lightly
shaded; " the buccal
are omitted.
Spengel.)
left) to the mantle.
Olfactory ganglion,
connected by nerve
to the streptoneur-
ous visceral loop.
STREPTONEURA]
GASTROPODA
59
within a apace communicating with the exterior. The
Larger renal sac (remarkably enough, that which is aborted in other
FIG. lo. Nervous system of Holwtis ; the visceral loop is lightly
the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After Spengel.)
ft. Cerebral ganglion.
pl.pt. The f used pleural and pedal
The right pedal nerve.
The ccrebro-pleural con-
nective, [tive.
ct.pt. The cerebro-pedal connec-
P*.
ct.pl.
t, **. Right and" lelt mantle
nerves. Ipf same,
oi, Abdominal ganglion or site
o, o, Right and left olfactory
ganglia and osphradia re-
ceiving nerve from vis-
ceral loop.
Anisopleura) extends between the liver and the integument of the
visceral dome very widely. It also bends round the liver as shown
FIG. II. Nervous system of
Funtretia. (From Gegenbaur,
after Jhering.)
pi, Pallial nerve.
p. Pedal nerve.
A, Abdominal ganglia in the strep-
toneurous visceral com mitMirr,
with supra- and sub-intestine
' i on each side.
B, Buccal ganglia.
C.C, Cerebral ganglia.
ft. Cerebral commissure.
, Otocysts attached to the cere-
bro-pedal connectives.
***
Flo. 1 2. Diagram of the two
renal organs (nephridia), to show
their relation to the rectum and
to the pericardium. (Lankester.)
/, Papilla of the larger neph-
ridium.
[, Anal papilla with rectum lead-
ing from it.
k. Papilla of the smaller ncph-
ridium, which is only repre-
sented by dotted outlines.
/, Pericardium indicated by a
dotted outline at its right
side are seen the two reno-
pericardial pores.
f. The sub-anal tract of the large
nephridium given off near its
papilla and seen through the
unshaded smaller nephri-
dium.
kt.a. Anterior superior lobe of
the large nephridium.
ksJ. Left lobe of same.
ki.p. Posterior lobe of same.
kt.i. Inferior sub-visceral lobe
of same.
in fig. ia, and forms a large sac on half of the upper surface of the
muscular mass of the foot. Here it lies close upon the genital body
(ovary or testis), and in such intimate relationship with it that,
when ripe, the gonad bursts into the renal sac, and its products are
carried to the exterior by the papilla on the right side of the anus
H/,1
FIG. 13. Diagram of a vertical antero-postero median section
of a Limpet. Letters as in figs. 6, 7, with following additions.
(Lankester.)
q, Intestine in transverse sec-
tion.
r, Lingual sac (radular sac).
nl, Radula.
s, Lamellated stomach.
(, Salivary gland.
, Duct of same,
r, Buccal cavity
w, Gonad.
br.a, Branchial advehent vessel
(artery),
frr.r, Branchial efferent vessel
(vein).
be. Blood-vessel.
odm, Muscles and cartilage of
the odontophore.
cor. Heart within the pericar-
dium.
(Robin, Dall). This fact led Cuvier erroneously to the belief that a
duct existed leading from the gonad to this papilla. The position
"I the gonad, best seen in the diagrammatic section (fig. 13), is, as
in other Aspidpbranchia, devoid of a special duct communicating
with the exterior. This condition, probably an archaic one, dis-
tinguishes the Aspidobranchia from other Gastropoda.
The digestive tract of Patella offers some interesting features.
The odpntophore is powerfully developed ; the radular sac is extra-
ordinarily long, lying coiled in a space between the mass of the liver
and the muscular foot. The radula has 160 rows of teeth with twelve
teeth in each row. Two pairs of salivary ducts, each leading from a
salivary gland, open into the buccal chamber. The oesophagus leads
into a remarkable stomach, plaited like the manyplies of a sheep,
and after this the intestine takes a very large number of turns em-
bedded in the yellow liver, until at last it passes between the
two renal sacs to the anal papilla. A curious ridge (spiral ? valve)
FIG. 14. Vertical section in a plane running right and left through
the anterior part of the visceral hump of Patella to show the two renal
organs and their openings into the pericardium. (J . T. Cunningham.)
a, Large or external or right /, Manyplies.
renal organ.
06, Narrow process of the same
running below the intestine
and leading by k into the
g. Epithelium of the dorsal sur-
pcricardium.
6, Small or median renal organ.
f. Pericardium.
d. Rectum.
e, Liver.
yjii
face.
h, Renal epithelium lining the
renal sacs.
i, Aperture connecting the
small sac with the peri-
cardium.
k, Aperture connecting the large
sac with the pericardium.
which secretes a slimy cord is found upon the inner wall of the intestine.
The general structure of the Molluscan intestine has not been
sufficiently investigated to render any comparison of this structure
of Patella with that of other Mollusca possible. The eyes of the
limpet deserve mention' as examples of the most primitive kind of
eye in the Molluscan series. They are found one on each cephalic
tentacle, and are simply minute open pits or depressions of the
epidermis, the epidermic cells lining them being pigmented and
connected with nerves (compare fig. 14, art. CEPHALOPODA).
GASTROPODA
[STREPTONEURA
The limpet breeds upon the southern English coast in the early
part of April, but its development has not been followed. It has
simply been traced as far as the formation of a diblastula which
acquires a ciliated band, and becomes a nearly spherical trochosphere.
It is probable that the limpet takes several years to attain full
growth, and during that period it frequents the same spot, which
becomes gradually sunk below the surrounding surface, especially
if the rock be carbonate of lime. At low tide the limpet (being a
strictly intertidal organism) is exposed to the air, and (according to
trustworthy observers) quits its attachment and walks away in
search of food (minute encrusting algae), and then once more returns
to the identical spot, not an inch in diameter, which belongs, as it
were, to it. Several million limpets twelve million in Berwickshire
alone are annually used on the east coast of Britain as bait.
Sub-order I. Docoglossa. Nervous system without dialyneury.
Eyes are open invaginations without crystalline lens. Two osphradia
present but no hypobranchial glands nor operculum. Teeth of radula
beam-like, and at most three marginal teeth on each side. Heart
has only a single auricle, neither heart nor pericardium traversed
by rectum. Shell conical without spire.
Fam. i. Acmaeidae. A single bipectinate ctenidium on left side.
Acmaea, without pallial branchiae, British. Scurria, with
pallial branchiae in a circle beneath the mantle.
Fam. 2. Tryblidiidae. Muscle scar divided into numerous
impressions. Tryblidium, Silurian.
Fam. 3. Patellidae. No ctenidia but pallial branchiae in a circle
between mantle and foot. Patella, pallial branchiae forming
a complete circle, no epipodial tentacles, British. Ancistro-
mesus, radula with median central tooth. Nacella, epipodial
tentacles present. Helcion, circlet of branchiae interrupted
anteriorly, British.
Fam. 4. Lepetidae. Neither ctenidia nor pallial branchiae.
Lepeta, without eyes. Pilidium. Propilidium.
Fam. 5. Bathysciadidae. Hermaphrodite; head with append-
age on right side ; radula without central tooth. Bathysciadium,
abyssal.
Sub-order 2. RHIPIDOGLOSSA. Aspidobranchia with a pallio-
visceral anastomosis (dialyneurous) ; eye-vesicle closed, with
crystalline lens; ctenidia, osphradia and hypobranchial glands
paired or single. Radula with very numerous marginal teeth ar-
ranged like the rays of a fan. Heart with two auricles; ventricle
traversed by the rectum, except in the Helicinidae. An epipodial
ridge on each side of the foot and cephalic expansions between the
tentacles often present.
Fam. i. Pleurotomariidae. Shell spiral; mantle and shell with
an anterior fissure; two ctenidia; a horny operculum. Pleuro-
tomaria, epipodium without tentacles. Genus includes several
hundred extinct species ranging from the Silurian to the Ter-
tiary. Five living species from the Antilles, Japan and the
Moluccas. Moluccan species is 19 cm. in height.
Fam. 2. Bellerophontidae. 300 species, all fossil, from Cambrian
to Trias.
Fam. 3. Euomphalidae. Also extinct, from Cambrian to Creta-
ceous.
Fam. 4. Haliotidae. Spire of shell much reduced; two bi-
pectinate ctenidia, the right being the smaller; no operculum.
Haliotis.
Fam. 5. Velainiellidae, an extinct family from the Eocene.
FIG. 15. Halio listuberculata. d, Foot; *, tentacular processes
of the mantle. (From Owen, after Cuvier.)
Fam. 6. Fissurellidae. Shell conical; slit or hole in anterior
part of mantle; two symmetrical ctenidia; no operculum.
Emarginula, mantle and shell with a slit, British. Scutum,
mantle split anteriorly and reflected over shell, which has no
slit. Punctvrella, mantle and shell with a foramen in front of
the apex, British. Fissurella, mantle and shell perforated at
apex, British.
Fam. 7. Cocculinidae. Shell conical, symmetrical, without slit
or perforation. Cocculina, abyssal.
Fam. 8. Trochidae. Shell spirally coiled; a single ctenidium;
eyes perforated; a horny operculum; lobes between the
tentacles. Trochus, shell umbilicated, spire pointed and pro-
minent, British. Monodonta, no jaws, spire not prominent,
no umbilicus, columella toothed. Gibbula, with jaws, three
pairs of epipodial cirri without pigment spots at their bases,
British. Margarita, five to seven pairs of epipodial cirri with a
pigment spot at base of each.
Fam. 9. Stomatellidae. Spire of shell much reduced; a single
ctenidium. Stomatella, foot truncated posteriorly, an oper-
FIG. 16. Scutum,
seen from the pedal
surface. (Lankester.)
o, Mouth.
T, Cephalic tentacle.
br. One of the two
symmetrical gills
placed on the neck.
FIG. 17. Dorsal aspect of
a specimen of Fissurella from
which the shell has been re-
moved, whilst the anterior
area of the mantle-skirt has
been longitudinally slit and its
sides reflected. (Lankester.)
a, Cephalic tentacle.
b. Foot. [plume.
d. Left (archaic right) gill-
e, Reflected mantle-flap.
fi, The fissure or hole in the
mantle-flap traversed by
the longitudinal incision.
/, Right (archaic left) nephri-
dium's aperture.
f, Anus.
, Left (archaic right) aper-
ture of nephridium.
p, Snout.
culum present, no epipodial tentacles. Gena, foot elongated
posteriorly, no operculum.
Fam. 10. Delphinulidae. Shell spirally coiled; operculum
horny ; intertentacular lobes absent. Delphinula.
Fam. ii. Liotiidae, shell globular, margin of aperture thickened.
Liotia.
Fam. 12. Cydostrematidae. Shell flattened, umbilicated; foot
anteriorly truncated with angles produced into lobes. Cyclo-
strema. Teinostoma.
Fam. 13. Trochonematidae. All extinct, Cambrian to Cretaceous.
Fam. 14. Turbinidae. Shell spirally coiled; epipodial tentacles
present; operculum thick and calcareous. Turbo. Astralium.
Molleria. Cydonema.
Fam. 15. Phasianelliaae. Shell not nacreous, without um-
bilicus, with prominent spire and polished surface. Phasia-
nella.
Fam. 16. Umboniidae. Shell flattened, not umbilicated, gener-
ally smooth; operculum horny. Umbonium. Isanda.
Fam. 17. Neritopsidae. Shell semi-globular, with short spire;
operculum calcareous, not spiral. Neritopsis. Naticopsis, ex-
tinct.
Fam. 18. Macluritidae. Extinct, Cambrian and Silurian.
Fam. 19. Neritidae. Shell with very low spire, without um-
bilicus, internal partitions frequently absorbed; a single
ctenidium; a cephalic penis present. Neriia, marine. Neri-
tina, freshwater, British. Septaria, shell boat-shaped.
Fam. 20. Titiscaniidae. Without shell and operculum, but
with pallial cavity and ctenidium. Titiscania, Pacific.
Fam. 21. Helicinidae. No ctenidium, but a pulmonary cavity;
heart with a single auricle, not traversed by the rectum. Heli-
cina. Eutrochatetta. Stoastoma. Bpurceria.
Fam. 22. Hydrocenidae. No ctenidium, but a pulmonary
cavity; operculum with an apophysis. Hydrocena, Dalmatia.
Fam. 23. Proserpinidae. No operculum. Proserpina, Central
America.
Order 2. PECTINIBRANCHIA. In this order there is no longer any
trace of bilateral symmetry in the circulatory, respiratory and
excretory organs, the topographically right half of the pallial com-
plex having completely disappeared, except the right kidney, which is
STREPTONEfRA)
GASTROPODA
represented by the genital duct. There is usually a penis in the male. I movement. The " introvert " in these Gastropods is not the pharynx
Toe ctenidium U monopectinate and attached to the mantle along | as in the Chaetopod worms, but a prac-oral structure, its apical
limit being formed by the true lips and jaws,
whilst the apical limit of the Chaetopod's
introvert is formed by the jaws placed at the
junction of pharynx and oesophagus, so that
the Chaetopod's introvert is part of the stomo-
il.ii-iiin or fore-gut, whilst that of the Gastropod
is external to the alimentary canal altogether,
being in front of the mouth, not behind it, as
is the Chaetopod's. Further, the Gastronod's
introvert is pleurembolic (and therefore acrec-
bolic), and is limited both in cversion and in
introversion; it cannot be completely everted
owing to the muscular bands (fig. 19, G), nor
can it be fully introverted owing to the bands
(fig. 19, F) which tie the axial pharynx to the
adjacent wall of the apical part of the intro-
vert. As in all such intro- and e-versible
organs, cversion of the Gastropod proboscis is
effected by pressure communicated by the
muscular body-wall to the liquid contents
(blood) of the body-space, accompanied by
the relaxation of the muscles which directly
pull upon t-ii IHT the sides or the apex of the
FlG. 18. Animal and shell of Pyrula laemgata. (From Owen.)
a. Siphon. d. The foot, expanded as in crawling.
b. Head-tentacle*. A, The mantle-skirt reflected over the sides
C, Head, the letter placed near the right eye. of the shell.
its whole length, except in Adeorbis and Vaivata; in the latter alone
it is bipectinate. There is a single well-developed, often pectinated
osphradium. The eye is always a closed vesicle, and the internal
"i is extensive. In the radula there is a single central tooth or
Tbe former classification into Holochlamyda, Pneumochlamyda
and Siphonochlamyda has been abandoned, as it was founded on
adaptive characters not always indicative of true affinities. The
order U now divided into two sub-orders: the Tacnioglossa, in
which there are three teeth on each side of the median tooth of the
radula, and the Stenoglossa, in which there is only one tooth on each
side of the median tooth. In the latter a pallial siphon, a well-
developed proboscis and an unpaired ocsophageal gland are always
present, in the former they are usually absent. The siphon is an
incompletely tubular outgrowth of the mantle margin on the left
side, contained in a corresponding outgrowth of the edge of the
shell-mouth, and serving to conduct water to the respiratory cavity.
The condition usually spoken of as a " proboscis appears to be
derived from the condition of a simple rostrum (having the mouth
at its extremity) by the process of incomplete introversion of that
simple rostrum. There is no reason in the actual significance of
the word why the term " proboscis " should be applied to an alter-
nately introversible and eversible tube connected with an animal's
body, and vet such is a very customary use of the term. The intro-
verable tube may be completely closed, as in the " proboscis " of
Neroertine worms, or it may have a passage in it leading into a
oon-evenible oesophagus, as in the present case, and in the case of
the eversible pharynx of the predatory Chaetopod worms. The
diagrams here introduced (fig. 19} are intended to show certain
important distinctions which obtain amongst the various " intro-
verts." or intro-and e-versible tubes so frequently met with in animal
bodies. Supposing the tube to be completely introverted and to
commence its eversion, we then find that eversion may take place,
either by a forward movement of the side of the tube near its at-
tached base, as in the proboscis of the Ncmertinc worms, the pharynx
of Cbaetopods and the eye-tentacle of Gastropods, or by a forward
movement of the inverted apex of the tube, as in the proboscis of
the Rhabdocoel Planarians, and in that of Gastropods here under
consideration. The former case we call " plcurccbolic " (fig. 19,
A. B, C. H, I, K), the latter " acrccbolic " tubes or introverts (fig.
19. D, E, F, G). It is clear that, if we start from the condition of
full eversion of the tube and watch the process of introversion, we
shall find that the pleurecbolic variety is introverted by the apex
of the tube sinking inwards; it may be called acrembolic, whilst
conversely the acrccbolic tubes are pleurembolic. Further, it is
obvious enough that the process either of introversion or of cversion
of the tube may be arrested at any point, by the development of
fibres connecting the wall of the introverted tube with the wall of
the body, or with an axial structure such as the oesophagus; on
the other hand, the range of movement of the tubular introvert may
be unlimited or complete. The acrembolic proboscis or frontal
introvert of the Ncmertine worms has a complete range. So has the
acrembolic pharynx of Chaetopod*, if we consider the organ as ter-
Huaating at that point where the jaws are placed and the oesophagus
commence*. So too the acrembolic eye-tentacle of the snail has a
complete range of movement, and also the pleurcmbolic proboscis of
the Rhabdocoel prostoma. The introverted rostrum of the Pectini-
brancb Gastropod* presents in contrast to these a limited range of
muscles. In various members of the Pectini-
branchia the mouth-bearing cylinder is in-
troversible ('.. is a proboscts) with rare
exceptions these forms have a siphonate
FlO. 19. Diagrams explanatory of the nature of so-called
proboscides or " introverts." (Lankester.)
A, Simple introvert completely introverted.
B, The same, partially everted by eversion of the sides, as in the
Nemertine proboscis and Gastropod eye-tentacle = pleurecbo!ic.
C, The same, fully everted.
D, E, A similar simple introvert in course of eversion by the for-
ward movement, not of its sides, but of its apex, as in the probos-
cidean Rhabdocoels = acrecbolic.
F, Acrecbplic ( = pleurembolic) introvert, formed by the snout of
the proboscidiferous Gastropod, al, alimentary canal; d, the true
mouth. The introvert is not a simple one with complete range both
in eversion and introversion, but is arrested in introversion by the
fibrous bands at c, and similarly in eversion by the fibrous bands at b.
G, The acrecbolic snout of a proboscidiferous Gastropod, arrested
short of complete eversion by trie fibrous band b.
H, The acrembolic ( pleurecbolic) pharynx of a Chaetopod fully
introverted, al, alimentary canal; at d, the jaws; at a, the mouth;
therefore a to d is stomodaeum, whereas in the Gastropod (F) a to d
is inverted body-surface.
I, Partial eversion of H. K, Complete eversion of H.
mantle-skjrt. On the other hand, many which have a siphonate
mantle-skirt are not provided with an introversible mouth-bearing
GASTROPODA
[STREPTONEURA
cylinder, but have a simple non-introversible rostrum, as it
has been termed, which is also the condition presented by the
mouth-bearing region in nearly all other Gastropoda. One of
the best examples of the introversible mouth-cylinder or proboscis
which can be found is that of the common whelk (Buccinum
undatum) and its immediate allies. In fig. 23 the proboscis is
seen in an everted state; it is only so carried when feeding, being
withdrawn when the animal is at rest. Probably its use is to enable
FIG. 20. yia\eo{Littorindlitioralis,
Lin., removed from its shell; the
mantle-skirt cut along its right line of
attachment and thrown over to the
left side of the animal so as to expose
the organs on its inner face.
a, Anus.
*, Intestine.
r, Nephridium (kidney).
r'. Aperture of the nephridium.
c. Heart.
br, Ctenidium (gill-plume).
pbr, Parabranchia ( = the osphradium
or olfactory patch).
x, Glandular lamellae of the inner
face of the mantle-skirt.
y, Adrectal (purpuriparous) "gland.
t, Testis.
vd, Vas deferens.
p, Penis.
me, Columella muscle (muscular pro-
cess grasping the shell).
v, Stomach.
h, Liver.
N.B. Note the simple snout or
rostrum not introverted as a " pro-
boscis."
FIG. 21. Nervous
system of Paludina
as a type of the
streptoneurous con-
dition. (From Gegen-
baur, after Jhering.)
B, Buccal (suboeso-
phageal) gan-
glion.
C, Cerebral gan-
glion.
Co, Pleural ganglion.
P, Pedal ganglion
with otocyst at-
tached.
P, Pedal nerve.
A, Abdominal gan-
glion at the ex-
tremity of the
twisted visceral
" loop."
sp. Supra -intestinal
visceral gan-
glion on the
course of the
right visceral
cord.
sb, Sub- intestinal
ganglion on the
course of the
left visceral
cord.
the animal to introduce its rasping and licking apparatus into very
narrow apertures for the purposes of feeding, e.g. into a small hole
bored in the shell of another mollusc.
The very large assemblage of forms coming under this order com-
prises the most highly developed predaceous sea-snails, numerous
vegetarian species, a considerable number of freshwater and some
terrestrial forms. The partial dissection of a male specimen of the
common periwinkle, Littorina littoralis, drawn in fig. 20, will serve
to exhibit the disposition of viscera which prevails in the group.
The branchial chamber formed by the mantle-skirt overhanging
the head has been exposed by cutting along a line extending back-
ward from the letters vd to the base of the columella muscle me, and
the whole roof of the chamber thus detached from the right side of
the animal's neck has been thrown over to the left, showing the
organs which lie upon the roof. No opening into the body-cavity
has been made; the organs which lie in the coiled visceral hump
show through its transparent walls. The head is seen in front
resting on the foot and carrying a median non-retractile snout or
rostrum, and a pair of cephalic tentacles at the base of each of which
is an eye. In many Gastropoda the eyes are not thus sessile but
raised upon special eye-tentacles (figs. 25, 56). To the right of the
head is seen trie muscular penis p, close to the termination of the yas
deferens (spermatic duct) vd. The testis / occupies a median
position in the coiled visceral mass. Behind the penis on the same
side is the hook-like columelja muscle, a development of the retractor
muscle of the foot, which clings to the spiral column or columella of
the shell (see fig. 33). This columella muscle is the same thing as the
muscles adhering to the shell in Patella, and the posterior adductor ol
Lamellibranchs.
The surface of the neck is covered by integument forming the
floor of the branchial cavity. It has not been cut into. Of the
organs lying on the reflected mantle-skirt, that which in the natural
state lay nearest to the vas deferens on the right side of the median
line of the roof of the branchial chamber is the rectum ', ending in
the anus a. It can be traced back to the intestine i near the surface
of the visceral hump, and it is found that the apex of the coil formed
by the hump is occupied by the liver h and the stomach v. Pharynx
and oesophagus are concealed in the head. The enlarged glandular
structure of the walls of the rectum is frequent in the Pectini-
branchia, as is also though not universal the gland marked y, next
to the rectum. It is the adrectal gland, and in the genera Murex
and Purpura secretes a colourless liquid which turns purple upon
exposure to the atmosphere, and was used by the ancients as a dye.
Neat this and less advanced into the branchial chamber is the single
renal organ or nephridium r with its opening to the exterior r'.
Internally this glandular sac presents a second slit or aperture which
leads into the pericardium (as is now found to be the case in all
Mollusca). The heart c lying in the pericardium is seen in close
proximity to the renal organ, and consists of a single auricle receiv-
ing blood from the gill, and of a single ventricle which pumps it
through the body by an anterior and posterior aorta. The surface
x of the mantle between the rectum and the gill-plume is thrown into
folds which in many sea-snails (whelks or Buccinidae, &c.) are very
strongly developed. The whole of this surface appears to be active
in the secretion of a mucous-like substance. The single gill-plume
br lies to the left of the median line in natural position. It corre-
sponds to the right of the two primitive ctenidia in the untwisted
archaic condition of the moiluscan body, and does not project freely
into the branchial cavity, but its axis is attached (by concrescence)
to the mantle-skirt (roof of the branchial chamber). It is rare for
the gill-plume of a Pectinibranch Gastropod to stand out freely
as a plume, but occasionally this more archaic condition is exhibited
as in Valvata (fig. 30). Next beyond (to the left of) the gill-plume
we find the so-called parabranchia, which is here simple, but some-
times lamellated as in Purpura (fig. 22). This organ has, without
reason, been supposed to represent the second ctenidium of the
typical mollusc, which it cannot do on account of its position. It
should be to the right of the anus were this the case. Spengel showed
that the parabranchia of Gastropods is the typical olfactory organ
or osphradium in a highly developed condition. The minute struc-
ture of the epithelium which clothes it, as well as the origin of the
nerve which is distributed to the para-
branchia, proves it to be the same organ
which is found universally in molluscs at
the base of each gill-plume, and tests the
indrawn current of water by the sense of
smell. The nerve to this organ is given
off from the superior (original right, see
fig- 3) visceral ganglion.
The figures which are given here of
various Pectinibranchia are in most cases
sufficiently explained by the references
attached to them. As an excellent general
type of the nervous system, attention
may be directed to that of Paludina
drawn in fig. 21. On the whole the
ganglia are strongly individualized in the
Pectinibranchia, nerve-cell tissue being
concentrated in the ganglia and absent
from the cords. At the same time, the
junction of the visceral loop above the I 6 ' 1 hne of attachment
intestine prevents in all Streptoneura the a . n d thrown over to the
shortening of the visceral loop, and it is right side of the animal
rare to find a fusion of the visceral so as to expose the organs
ganglia with either pleural, pedal or on its inner face,
cerebral a fusion which can and does
take place where the visceral loop is not
above but below the intestine, e.g. in
the Euthyneura (fig. 48), Cephalopoda
and Lamellibranchia. As contrasted
with the Aspidobranchia, we find that in
the Pectinibranchia the pedal nerves are
distinctly nerves given off from the pedal
ganglia, rather than cord-like nerve-
tracts containing both nerve-cells or
ganglionic elements and nerve-fibres.
Yet in some Pectinibranchia (Paludina)
a ladder-like arrangement of the two
pedal nerves and their lateral branches has been detected. _ The
histology of the nervous system of Mollusca has yet to be seriously
inquired into.
The alimentary canal of the Pectinibranchia presents little diversity
of character, except in so far as the buccal region is concerned.
Salivary glands are present, and in some carnivorous forms (Dolium)
these secrete free sulphuric acid (as much as 2 % is present in the
secretion), which assists the animal in boring holes by means of its
FIG. 22. Female of
Purpura lapillus removed
from its shell ; the mantle-
skirt cut along its
a, Anus.
vg, Vagina.
gp, Adrectal purpuri-
parous gland.
r', Aperture of the neph-
ridium (kidney).
br, Ctenidium (branchial
plume).
br', Parabranchia ( = the
comb-like osphra-
dium or olfactory
organ).
STREPTOXEURA1
GASTROPODA
through the shells of other molluscs upon which it
preys. A crop-tike dilatation of the gut and a recurved intestine,
embedded in the compact yellowish -brown liver, the ducts of which
open into it, form the rest of the digestive tract and occupy a Urge
bulk of the visceral hump. The buccal region presents a pair of
belly jaws placed laterally upon the lips, and a wide range of
variation in the form of the denticles of the lingual ribbon or radula.
Well-developed glandular inva^inations occur in different positions
on the foot in I'tvtinibranehia. The most important of these opens
by the ventral pedal pore, situated in the median line in the anterior
half of the foot. This organ is prol>ably homologous with the bysso-
J of Lamcllibranchs. The aperture, which was formerly
I to be an aquiferous pore, leads into an extensive and nil en
cavity surrounded by glandular tubules. The gland has
__.) found in both sub-orders oft he IVctinibranchia, in Cyclosloma
and Cypraea among the Taeniuglossa, in Ilrmtfusus, Cassis, Nassa,
Uurei. Fascioltiriidae, TurbiHtlltdae. Oltvidae, MarrineUidae and
Cfmidfi among the Stenoelossa. It was discovered by J . T. Cunning-
ham that in Buccinum the egg-capsules are formed by this pedal
gland and not by any accessory organ of the generative system.
Such horny egg-capsules doubtless have the same origin in all other
species in which they occur, e.g. Fusus, Pyrvla, Purpura, Murex,
N&sta. Trophon, Valuta. &c. The float of the pelagic Janthina, to
which the egg-capsules are attached, probably is also formed by the
secretion of the pedal gland.
Other glands opening on or near the foot are: (i) The supra-
pedal gland opening in the middle line between the snout and the
anterior border of the foot. It is most commonly found in sessile
FlG. 2J. A, Triton variegalum, to show the proboscis or buccal
introvert (t) in a state of eversion.
notch of the shell e. Everted buccal introvert (pro-
boscis).
/, Foot.
e, Opcrculum.
A, Penis.
, Under surface of the mantle-
skirt forming the roof of the
d. Sipbooal
occupied by the siphonal
fold of the mantle-skirt
(Sipbonochlamyda).
/>. Edge of the mantle-skin n -;-
ing on the shell.
.-. Cephalic eye.
d. Cephalic tentacle
sub-pallial chamber.
B, Sole of the foot of Pyrula tuba, to show a, the pore usually said
to be " aquiferous " but probably the orifice of a gland ; 6, median
line of foot.
forms and in terrestrial genera such as Cyclostoma ; (2) the anterior
pedal gland opening into the anterior groove of the foot, generally
present in aquatic species; (3) dorsal posterior mucous glands in
certain Cytlottomalidae.
The foot of the Pectinibranchia, unlike the simple muscular disk
of the Isopleura and Aspidobranchia, is very often divided into
lobes, a fore, middle and hind lobe (pro-, meso- and meta-podium,
see figs. 24 and 25). Very usually, but not universally, the meta-
podium carries an operrulum. The division of the foot into lobes is
a ample case of that much greater elaboration or breaking up into
processes and regions which it undergoes in the class Cephalopoda.
Kven among some Gastropoda (viz. the Opisthobranchia) we find
the lobation of the foot still further carried out by the development
of lateral lobes, the parapodia, whilst there are many Pectini-
branchia. on the other hand, in which the foot has a simple oblong
form without any trace of lobes.
The development of the Pectinibranchia has been followed in
several examples, e.t- Paludina, Purpura, Nassa, Vtrmetus, Ntritina.
As in other Molluscan groups, we find a wide variation in the early
process of the formation of the first embryonic cells, and their
arrangement as a diblastula, dependent on the greater or less amount
of food-yolk which is present in the egg-cell when it commences
its embryonic changes. In fig. 26 the early stages of Paludina
viriptu* are represented. There is but very little food-material in
the egg of this Pectinibram-h, and consequently the diblastula forms
by invagination : the blatoporc or orifice of invagination coincides
with the anus, and never closes entirely. A well-marked troche-
sphere is formed by the development of an equatorial ciliated band ;
uently. by the disproportionate growth of the lower
, the trorhosphcrc becomes a veliger. The primitive
n. 17
shell-sac or shell-gland is well marked at this stage, and the pharynx
is seen as a new ingrowth (the stomodacum), about to fuse with and
open into the primitively invaginated arch-enteron (fig. 26, F).
In other Pectinibranchia (and such variations arc representative
for all Mollusca, and not characteristic only of Pectinibranchia) we
find that there is a very unequal division of the egg-cell at the com-
mencement of embryonic development, as in Nassa. Consequently
FIG. 24. Animal and shell of Phorus exutus.
a, Snout (not introversible). d, Pro- and meso-podium ; to the right
b, Cephalic tentacles. of this is seen the metapodium
c, Right eye. bearing the sculptured operculum.
there is, strictly speaking, no invagination (emboly), but an over-
growth (epiboly) of the smaller cells to enclose the larger. The
general features of this process and of the relation of the blastopore
to mouth and anus have been explained in treating of the develop-
ment of Mollusca generally. In such cases the blastopore may
entirely close, and both mouth and anus develop as new ingrowths
(stomodaeum and proctodaeum), whilst, according to the observa-
tions of N. Bobretzky, the closed blastopore may coincide in
position with the mouth in some instances (Nassa, &c.), instead of
with the anus. But in these epibolic forms, just as in the embolic
Paludina, the embryo proceeds to develop its ciliated band and shell-
gland, passing through the earlier condition of a trochosphere to
that of the veliger. In the veliger stage many Pectinibranchia
(Purpura, Nassa, &c.) exhibit, in the dorsal region behind the head,
a contractile area of the body-wall. This acts as a larval heart, but
ceases to pulsate after a time. Similar rhythmically contractile
Fie. 25. Animal and shell of Rostellaria rectirostris. (From
Owen.)
Snout or rostrum. /, Operculum.
Cephalic tentacle. /('.Prolonged siphonal notch of the
Eye. shell occupied by the siphon,
Propodium and mcsopodium. or trough-like process of the
e, Metapodium.
mantle-skirt.
areas arc found on the foot of the embryo Pulmonate I.imax and on
the yolk-sac (distended foot-surface) of the Cephalopod Lolieo.
The preconchylian invagination or shell-gland is formed in thr
embryo behind the velum, on the surface opposite the blastopore.
It is surrounded by a ridge of cells which gradually extends over the
visceral sac and secretes the shell. In forms which are naked in the
adult state, the shell falls off soon after the rerluction of the velum,
but in Crnia. Runcina and Vaginula the shell-gland and shell are not
developed, and the young animal when hatched has already the
naked form of the adult.
GASTROPODA
[STREPTONEURA
One further feature of the development of the Pectinibranchia
deserves special mentien. Many Gastropoda deposit their eggs, after
fertilization, enclosed in capsules; others, as Paludina, are vivi-
parous; others, again, as the Zygobranchia, agree with the. Lamelli-
branch Conchifera (the bivalves) in having simple exits for the ova
without glandular walls, and therefore discharge their eggs unen-
closed in capsules freely into the sea- water; such unencapsuled
eggs are merely enclosed each in its own delicate chorion. When
FIG. 26. Developmentof the River-Snail, Paludina, vivipara.
(After Lankester, 17.)
dc, Directive corpuscle (outcast cell).
ae, Arch-enterpn or cavity lined by
the enteric cell-layer or endo-
derm.
U, Blastopore.
vr, Velum or circlet of ciliated cells.
dv, Velar area or cephalic dome.
sm, Site of the as yet unformed
mouth.
/, Foot.
mes, Rudiments of the
skeleto-trophic tissues.
pi, The pedicle of invagina-
tion, the future rectum.
shgl, The primitive shell-sac
or shell-gland.
m, Mouth.
an, Anus.
A, Diblastula phase (optical section).
B, The diblastula has become a trochosphere by the development
of the ciliated ring vr (optical section).
C, Side view of the trochosphere with commencing formation of the
foot.
D, Further advanced trochosphere (optical section).
E, The trochosphere passing to the veliger stage, dorsal view
showing the formation of the primitive shell-sac.
F, Side view of the same, showing foot, shell-sac (shgl), velum (vr),
mouth and anus.
N.B. In this development the blastopore is not elongated; it
persists as the anus. The mouth and stomodaeum form independ-
ently of the blastopore.
egg-capsules are formed they are often of large size, have tough
walls, and in each capsule are several eggs floating in a viscid fluid.
In some cases all the eggs in a capsule develop; in other cases one
egg only in a capsule (Neritina), or a small proportion (Purpura,
Buccinum), advance in development; the rest are arrested either
after the first process of cell-division (cleavage) or before that process.
The arrested embryos or eggs are then swallowed and digested by
those in the same capsule which have advanced in development.
This is clearly the same process in essence as that of the formation
of a vitellogenous gland from part of the primitive ovary, or of the
feeding of an ovarian egg by the absorption of neighbouring potential
eggs ; but here the period at which the sacrifice of one egg to another
takes place is somewhat late. What it is that determines the arrest
of some eggs and the progressive development of others in the same
capsule is at present unknown.
In the tribe of Pectinibranchia called Heteropoda the foot takes
the form of a swimming organ. The nervous system and sense
organs are highly developed. The odontophore also is remarkably
developed, its lateral teeth being mobile, and it serves as an efficient
organ for attacking the other pelagic forms on which the Hetero-
poda prey. The sexes are distinct, as in all Streptoneura ; and
genital ducts and accessory glands and pouches are present, as in
all Pectinibranchia. The Heteropoda exhibit a series of modi-
fications in the form and proportions of the visceral mass and foot,
leading from a condition readily comparable with that of a typical
Pectimbranch such as Rostellana, with the three regions of the foot
strongly marked and a coiled visceral hump of the usual proportions,
up to a condition in which the whole body is of a tapering cylindrical
shape, the foot a plate-like vertical fin, and the visceral hump almost
completely atrophied. Three steps of this modification may be
*'
FIG. 27. Oxygyrus Keraudrenii (magnified 20 diameters).
(From Owen.)
a, Mouth and odontophore.
b, Cephalic tentacles.
c, Eye.
d, Propodium (B) and meso-
podium.
e, Metapodium.
/, Operculum.
h, Mantle-chamber.
i, Ctenidium (gill-plume).
k, Retractor muscle of foot.
I, Optic tentacle.
m, Stomach.
n, Dorsal surface overhung by
the mantle-skirt; the letter
is close to the salivary gland.
o, Rectum and anus.
p, Liver.
q, Renal organ (nephridium).
s, Ventricle.
a, The otocyst attached to the
cerebral ganglion.
w, Testis.
x, Auricle of the heart.
y, Vesicle on genital duct.
z, Penis.
distinguished as three families: Atlantidae, Carinariidae and
Pterotrachaeidae. They are true Pectinibranchia which have taken
to a pelagic life, and the peculiarities of structure which they exhibit
are strictly adaptations consequent upon their changed mode of
life. Such adaptations are the transparency and colourlessness of
the tissues, and the modifications of the foot, which still shows in
Atlanta the form common in Pectinibranchia (compare fig. 27 and
fig. 2^.). The cylindrical body of Pterotrachaea is paralleled by the
slug-like forms of Euthyneura. ]. W. Spengel has shown that the
visceral loop of the Heteropoda is streptoneurous. Special to the
Heteropoda is the high elaboration of the lingual ribbon, and, as an
agreement with some of the opisthobranchiate Euthyneura, but as
a difference from the Pectinibranchia, we find the otocysts closely
attached to the cerebral ganglia. This is, however, less of a difference
than it was at one time supposed to be, for it has been shown by
H. Lacaze-Duthiers, and also by F. Leydig, that the otocysts of
Pectinibranchia even when lying close upon the pedal ganglion (as
in fig. 21) yet receive their special nerve (which can sometimes be
readily isolated) from the cerebral ganglion (see fig. n). Accord-
ingly the difference is one of position of the otocyst and not of its
nerve-supply. The Heteropoda are further remarkable for the high
development of their cephalic eyes, and for the typical character
of their osphradium (Spengel's olfactory organ). This is a groove,
the edges of which are raised and ciliated, tying near the branchial
plume in the genera which possess that organ, whilst in Firoloida,
which has no branchial plume, the osphradium occupies a corre-
sponding position. Beneath the ciliated groove is placed an elongated
ganglion (olfactory ganglion) connected by a nerve to the supra-
intestinal (therefore the primitively dextral) ganglion of the long
STREPTONEURA)
GASTROPODA
one another this
visceral nerve-loop, the strands of which
bring characteristic of Streptoneura (Spengel).
The Heteropoda belong to the " pelagic fauna " occurring near
the surface in the Mediterranean and great oceans in company with
the Pteropodd. the SiphonophorousHydrozoa.Salpae, Lcptocephali,
ad other specially-modified transparent swimming representatives
pedal
right
abit.
FIG. 28. Carinaria medilerranea. (From Owen.)
A, The animal. B, The shell removed. C, D, Two views of the shell of Cardiopoda.
a. Mouth and odpntophore. h. Border of the mantle-flap, u, Cerebral ganglion.
', Ctenidium (gill-plume).
6, Cephalic tentacle*.
c. Eye.
4, The fin-like mesopodium.
f. Its sucker.
e, Metapodium. .
f. Salivary glands.
m. Stomach.
. Intestine.
o. Anus.
p. Liver. [ventricle.
/. Aorta, springing from the
phibious. Ampullaria, shell <le\tr.il, coiled. Lanistes, shell
sinistral, spire short or obsolete. Mcladomui.
Fam. 4. Littorinidae. Oesophageal pouches present;
nerve-centres concentrated; a pedal penis near the
tentacle. Liltorina, shell not umbilicated, littoral hab
Lacuna, foot with two posterior appendages, marine, entirely
aquatic. Cremnoconchus, entirely
aerial, Indian. Risella. Tectarius.
Fam. 5. Fossaridae. Head with two
lobes in some Rhipidoglossa. Fos-
saria.
Fam. 6. Purpurinidae, extinct.
Fam. 7. Planaxidae. Shell with
pointed spire; a short pallial
siphon. J'lanaxis.
Fam. 6.Cyclostomatidae. Pallial
cavity transformed into a lung;
pedal centres concentrated ; a deep
pedal groove. Cyclostoma, shell
turbinated, operculum calcareous,
British. Omphalotropis.
Fam. 9. Aciculidae. Pallial cavity
transformed into a lung; oper-
culum horny; shell narrow and
elongated. Acicula.
Fam. 10. Valvatidae. Ctenidium bi-
pectinate, free; hermaphrodite;
fluviatile. Valvata, British.
Fam. II. Rissoidae. Epipodial fila-
',mcnts present; one or two pallial
tentacles. Rissoa. Rissoina. Stiva.
Fam. 12. Litiopidae. An epipodium
bearing three pairs of tentacles and
an operculigerous lobe with two
appendages; inhabitants of the
Sargasso weed. Litiopa.
Fam. 13. Adeorbiidae. Mantle with
two posterior appendages ; ctenidium
;e and capable of protrusion from
v, Pleural and pedal ganglion
te, Testis.
x, Visceral ganglion.
v, Vesicula seminalis.
s, Penis.
large and capable of protrusion froi
pallial cavity,, Aileorbis, British.
Fam. 14. Jeffreysiidae. Head wit
of various groups of the animal kingdom. In development they pass
through the typical trochosphere and veliger stages provided with
boat-like shell.
Sub-order I. TAEXIOGLOSSA. Radula with a median tooth and
three teeth on each side of it. Formula 3:1 : 3.
Tribe i. PLATYPODA. Normal Taenioglossa of creeping habit.
The foot is flattened ventraily, at all events in its anterior part
(Strombidae). OtocysU situated close to the pedal nerve-centres.
Accessory organ* arc rarely found on the genital ducts, but occur
in Paludina. Cyclostoma, Naticidae, Calyptraeidae, &c. Mandibles
usually prevent. This is the largest group of Mollusca, including
nearly sixty families, some of which are insufficiently known from
the anatomical point of view.
Fam. i . Paludinidae. Pedal centres in the form of ganglionated
cords; kidney provided with a ureter; viviparous; fluviatile.
Paluditta. Neotkaunta, from Lake Tanganyika. Tylopoma,
extinct. Tertiary.
Fam. 2. Cyclopkoridae. No Ctenidium, pallial cavity trans-
formed into a lung; aperture of shell circular; terrestrial.
ml
FlG. 29. Plerolrackea mutica seen from the right side.
(After Keferstein.)
a. Pouch for reception of the , Stomach.
snout when retracted. i, Intestine.
(. Pericardium. n, So-called nucleus.
pk, PWrym. br. Branchial plume (ctenidium).
oc, fn^Mlir eye. v>, Osphradium.
[. Cerebral ganglion. ml, Foot (metapodium).
['. Pleuro-ord.il ganglion. *, Caudal appendage.
pr. Foot (oMsopodium).
PimtHn. shell turriculated. Diplommatina. Jlybocystis. Cyclo-
pkoria, shell umbilicated, with a short spire and horny pper-
caiam. Cyclosunu, shell uncoiled. Dermalocera, foot with a
horn-shaped protuberance at it* posterior end. Spiratulum.
Fam. j. Amffullariidae. To the left of the ctenidium a pul-
ic, separated from it by an incomplete septum, am-
prominent spire; penis
two long labial palps; shell ovoid;
operculum horny, semicircular, car-
inated. Jeffreysia.
Fam. 15. IJomalogyridae. SheU flattened ; no cephalic tentacles.
Homalogyra, British. Ammoniceras.
Fam. 16. Skeneidae. Shell depressed, with rounded aperture;
cephalic tentacles long. Skenea, British.
Fam. 17. Choristidae. Shell spiral; four cephalic tentacles;
eyes absent ; two pedal appendages. Choristes.
Fam. 1 8. Assimineidac. Eyes at free extremities of tentacles.
Assiminea, estuarine, British.
Fam. 19. Truncatcttidae, Snout very long, bilobed ; foot short.
TruncaUUa.
Fam. 20. Hydrobiidae. Shell with
distant from right tentacle, generally
appendiculated; brackish water or
fluviatile. Hydrobia, British. Baik-
alia, from Lake Baikal. Pomatiopsis.
Bithynetta. Lithoglyphus. Spekia,
viviparous, from Lake Tanganyika.
Tanganyika. Limnotrochus, from
Lake Tanganyika. Chytra. Lit-
torinida. Bithynia, British, fluvia-
tile. Stenothyra.
Fam. 21. Melaniidae. Spire of shell
somewhat elongated ; mantle-border
fringed; viviparous; fluviatile.
Mttania. Faunus. Paludomus.
Melanopsis. Nassopsis. Bythoceras,
from Lake Tanganyika.
Fam. 22. Typhobiidae. Foot wide;
shell turriculated, with carinated
whorls, the carinae tuberculated or
spiny. Typhobia. Bathanalia, from
Lake Tanganyika.
Fam. 23. Pleuroceridae. Like
Melaniidae, but mantle-border not
fringed and reproduction oviparous, ctenidium of typical form
Pleurocera. Anculotus. not having its axis fused
Fam. 24. Pseudomelaniidae. All ex-
tinct.
Fam. 25. Subulitidae.
Fam. 26. Nerineidae..
Fam. 27. Cerithiidae. Shell with numerous tuberculated whorls ;
aperture canaliculated anteriorly; short pallial siphon. Ceri-
tnium. Bitiium. Potamides. Triforis. Laeococnlis. Ceri-
thiopiis.
Fam. 28. Modulidae. Shell with short spire; no siphon.
Modulus.
FIG. 30. Valvata cristata,
MUll.
o, Mouth.
op, Operculum.
br, Ctenidium (branchial
plume).
x. Filiform appendage (?
rudimentary cteni-
dium).
The freely projecting
to the roof of the branchial
chamber is the notable
All extinct, character of this genus.
All rxtinct.
5 i6
GASTROPODA
[STREPTONEURA
Fam. 29. Vermetidae. Animal fixed by the shell, the last whorls
of which are not in contact with each other; foot small; two
anterior pedal tentacles. Vermetus. Siliquaria.
Fam. 30. Caecidae. Shell almost completely uncoiled, in one
plane, with internal septa. Caecum, British.
Fam. 31. Turritellidae. Shell very long; head large; foot
broad. Turritella, British. Mesalia. Mathilda.
Fam. 32. Struthiolariidae. Shell conical; aperture slightly
canaliculated ; siphon slightly developed. Struthiolaria.
Fam. 33. Chenopodidae. Shell elongated; aperture expanded;
siphon very short.
Chenopus, British.
A I aria, Spinigera,
Diartema, extinct.
Fam. 34. Strombidae.
Foot narrow, com-
pressed, without sole.
Strbmbus. Pteroceras.
Rostellaria. Terebel-
lum.
Fam. 35. Xenophori-
dae. Foot trans-
versely divided into
two parts. Xeno-
phorus. Eotrochus,
Silurian.
Fam. 36. Capulidae.
Shell conical, not
coiled.but slightly in-
curved posteriorly ;
a tongue-shaped pro-
jection between snout
FIG. 31. Shell of Crucibulum, seen
from below so as to show the inner whorl
b, concealed by the cap-like outer whorl o.
and foot. Capulus. Thyca, parasitic on asterids. Platyceras,
extinct.
Fam. 37. Hipponycidae. Shell conical ; foot secreting a ventral
calcareous plate; animal fixed. Hipponyx. Mitrularia.
Fam. 38. Calyptraeidae. Shell with short spire; lateral cervical
lobes present; accessory genital glands. Calyptraea, British.
Crepidula. Crucibulum.
Fam. 39. Naricidaf. Foot divided into two, posterior half
bearing the operculum; a wide epipodial velum; shell tur-
binated. Narica.
Fam. 40. Naticidae. Foot large, with aquiferous system;
propodium reflected over head; eyes degenerate; burrowing
habit. Natica, British. Amaura. Sigaretus.
Fam. 41. Lamellariidae. Shell thin, more or less covered by the
mantle; no operculum. Lamettaria. Velutina. Marsenina,
Oncidiopsis, hermaphrodite.
Fam. 42. Trichotropidae. Shell with short spire, cannate and
pointed. Trichotropis.
Fam. 43. Seguenziidae. Shell trochiform, with canaliculated
aperture and twisted columella. Seguenzia, abyssal.
Fam. ^.Janthinidae. Shell thin; operculum absent; ten-
tacles bifid; foot secretes a float; pelagic. Janthina. Recluzta.
Fam. 45. Cypraeidae. Shell inrolled, solid, polished, aperture
very narrow in adult; short siphon; anus posterior; os-
phradium with three lobes; mantle reflected over shell. Cypraea.
Pustularia. foula. Pedicularia, attached to corals. Erato.
Fam. 46. Tritonidae. Shell turriculated and siphonated, thick,
each whorl with varices; foot broad and truncated anteriorly;
pallial siphon well
developed ; proboscis
present. Triton. Per-
sona. Ranella.
Fam. 47. Columbel-
linidae. All extinct.
Fam. 48. Cassididae.
Shell ventricose.with
elongated aperture,
and short spire ; pro-
boscis and siphon
long ;pperculum with
marginal nucleus.
Cassis. Cassidaria.
Oniscia..
Fam-49 Oocorythidae.
Shell globular and
ventricose; aperture
oval and canaliculated ; operculum spiral. Oocorys, abyssal.
Fam. 50. Doliidae. Shell ventricose, with short spire, and wide
aperture; no varices and no operculum; foot very broad, with
projecting anterior angles ; siphon long. Dolium. Pyrula.
Fam. 51. Solariidae. Solarium. Torinia. Fluxina.
Fam. 52. Scalariidae. Shell turriculated, with elongated spire;
proboscis short; siphon rudimentary. Scalaria. Eglisia.
Crossea. Aclis.
The three following families have neither radula nor jaws, and
are therefore called Aglossa. They have a well-developed proboscis
which is used as a suctorial organ ; some are abyssal, but the majority
are either commensals or parasites of Echinoderms.
FIG. 32. Animal and shell of Ovula.
b, Cephalic tentacles.
d, Foot.
h, Mantle-skirt, which is naturally
carried in a reflected condition so as
to cover the sides of the shell.
FIG. 33. Section of the
shell of Triton, Cuv. (From
Fam. 53. Pyramidellidae. Summit of spire heterostrophic ; a
projection, the mentum, between head and foot; operculum
present. Pyramidella. Turbonilla.
Odostomia, British. Myxa.
Fam. 54. Eulimidae. Visceral mass
still coiled spirally; shell thin
and shining. Eulima, foot well
developed, with an operculum,
animal usually free, but some live
in the digestive cavity of Holo-
thurians. Mucronalia, foot re-
duced, but still operculate, eyes
present, animal fixed by its very
long proboscis which is deeply
buried in the tissues of an Echino-
derm, no pseudopallium. Stylifer,
the operculum is lost, animal fixed
by a large proboscis which forms a
pseudopallium covering the whole
shell except the extremity of the
spire, parasitic on all groups of
Echinoderms. Entosiphon, viscera!
mass still coiled; shell much re-
duced, proboscis very long forming
a pseudopallium which covers the
whole body and projects beyond
in the form of a siphon, foot and
nervous system present, eyes,
branchia and anus absent, para-
site in the Holothurian Deima
blakei in the Indian Ocean.
Fam. 55. Entoconchidae. No shell ; Owen.)
visceral mass not coiled; no a, Apex,
sensory organs, nervous system, ac, Siphonal notch of the
branchia or anus; body reduced mouth of the shell,
to a more or less tubular sac; ac to pc. Mouth of the shell,
hermaphrodite and viviparous ; <u>, w, Whorls of the shell,
parasitic in Holothurians; larvae s, s, Sutures,
are veligers, with shell and oper- Occupying the axis, and
culum. Entocolax, mouth at free exposed by the section, is
extremity, animal fixed by aboral seen the " columella " or
orifice of pseudopallium, Pacific, spiral pillar. The upper
Entoconcha, body elongated and whorls of the shell are seen
tubular, animal fixed by the oral to be divided into separate
extremity, protandric herma- chambers by the iorma-
phrodite, parasitic in testes of tion of successively formed
Holothurians causing their abor- " septa."
tion. Enteroxenos, no pseudo-
pallium and no intestine, hermaphrodite, larvae with operculum.
Tribe 2. HETEROPODA. Pelagic Taenioglossa with foot large
and laterally compressed to form a fin.
Fam. i. Atlantidae. Visceral sac and shell coiled in one plane;
foot divided transversely into <wo parts, posterior part bearing
an operculum, anterior part forming a fin provided with a
sucker. Atlanta. Oxygyrus.
Fam. 2. Carinariidae. Visceral sac and shell small in proportion to
the rest of the body, which cannot be withdrawn into the shell ;
foot elongated, fin-shaped, with sucker, but without operculum.
Carinaria. Cardiopoda.
Fam. 3. Pterotrachaeidae. Visceral sac very much _ reduced;
without shell or mantle; anus posterior; foot provided with
sucker in male only. Pterotrachaea. Firoloida. Pterosoma.
Sub-order 2. STENOGLOSSA. Radula narrow with one lateral
tooth on each side, and one median tooth or none.
Tribe I . RACHIGLOSSA. Radula with a median tooth and a single
FIG. 34. Female Janthina, with egg-float (a) attached to the foot;
b, egg-capsules; c, ctenidium (gill-plume); d, cephalic tentacles.
tooth on each side of it. Formula i : I : I. Rudimentary jaws
Fam. i.Turbinellidae. Shell solid, piriform, with thick folded
columella; lateral teeth of radula bicuspidate. Turbinella.
Cynodonta. Fulgur. Hemifusus. Tudicla. Slrepsidura.
Fam. 2. Fasciolariidae. Shell elongated, with long siphon;
lateral teeth of radula multicuspidate. Fasciolaria. Fusus.
Clavella. Latirus.
Fam. 3. Mitridae. Shell fusiform and solid, aperture elongated,
columella folded; no operculum; eyes on sides of tentacles.
Mitra. Turricula. Cylindromitra. Imbricaria.
Fam. 4. Buccinidae. Foot large and broad; eyes at base of
EUTHYNEURA]
GASTROPODA
tentacles ; operculum horny. Buccinum. CkrysuJamus.
Liameius. ComauUa. Tritonidea. Pisania. Euthria.
Pkos. Dipsacus.
Fam. 5- Ntundat. Foot broad, with two slender posterior
appendages; operculum unguiculate. Nassa, marine, British.
Csmidio, fluviatue. BuUui.
Fam. 6. Uuricidae. Shell with moderately long spire and canal,
ornamented with ribs, often spiny; foot truncated anteriorly.
Utaex. British. Tropkon, British. Tvphis. Urosalpinx.
Latktsis.
Fam. 7. Purpuridae. Shell thick, with short spire, last whorl
large and canal short; aperture wide; operculum horny.
Purpura,' British. Rapana. ilonoceros. Sistrttm. Con-
chaUpos.
Fam. 8. Haliidae. Shell ventricose, thin and smooth, with wide
aperture : foot large and thick, without operculum. Ilalia.
Fam. 9. CanceUanidaf. Shell ovoid, with short spire and folded
columelU; foot small, no operculum; siphon short. Can-
(tUaria.
Fam. 10. CotumbeUidae. Spire of shell prominent, aperture
narrow, canal very short, colmm-llu crenelated; foot large.
CotumtxUa.
Fam. ll. CoraUiophilidae. Shell irregular; radula absent;
foot and siphon short; sedentary animals, living in corals.
CoraUiophUa. Rhisockilus. Lcploconchus. Mafilus. Rapa.
Fam. IJ. Voiutidae. Head much flattened and wide, with eyes
on sides; foot broad; siphon with internal appendages.
Valuta. CuifiUta. Cymba.
Fam. 13. Olieidae. Foot with anterior transverse groove; a
posterior pallial tentacle; generally burrowing. Olivia.
OUttlia. AnciUaria. Agaronia.
Fara. 14. UarfineUidae. Foot very large; mantle reflected over
shell. UarrineUa. Psevdomarginella.
Fam. 15. Ilarpidat. Foot very large; without operculum;
shell with short spire and longitudinal ribs; siphon long.
Tribe 2. TOXIGLOSSA. No jaws. No median tooth in radula.
Formula: 1:0:1. Poison-gland present whose duct traverses
the nerve-collar.
Fam. I. Plfurotomatidae. Shell fusiform, with elongated spire;
margin of shell and mantle notched. Pleurotoma. Clavatula.
t/angilia. Bfla. Pusionella. Pontiolhauma.
Fam. 2. Terebridce. Shell turriculated, with numerous whorls;
aperture and operculum oval; eyes at summits of tentacles;
siphon long. Trrebra.
Fam. 3. Conidae. Shell conical, with very short spire, and
narrow aperture with parallel borders; operculum unguiform.
CfMtt*.
Sub-Class II. EUTHYNEURA
The most important general character of the Euthyncura
is the absence of torsion in the visceral commissure, and the
more posterior position of the anus and pallial organs. Compara-
tive anatomy and embryology prove that this condition is due,
not as formerly supposed to a difference in the relations of the
visceral commissure which prevented it from being included in
the torsion of the visceral hump, but to an actual detorsion which
has taken place in evolution and is repeated to a great extent
in individual development. In several of the more primitive
forms the same torsion occurs as in Streptoneura, viz. in Actaeon
and Limacina among Opisthobranchia, and Chilina among
Pulmonata. Aclaeon is prosobranchiate, the visceral commissure
is twisted in Actaeon and Chilina, and even slightly still in Bulla
and Scaphander; in Aetaton and Limacina the osphradium is
to the left, innervated by the supra-intestinal ganglion. But
in the other members of the sub-class the detorsion of the visceral
mass has carried back the anus and circumanal complex from the
anterior dorsal region to the right side, as in flulla and Aplysia,
or even to the posterior end of the body, asin Philine,Oncidium
Doris, &c. Different degrees of the same process of detorsion are
as we have seen, exhibited by the Heteropoda among the Strepto-
neura, and both in them and in the Euthyncura the detorsion
is associated with degeneration of the shell. Where the modifica
tion is carried to its extreme degree, not only the shell but the
pallial cavity, ctenidium and visceral hump disappear, and the
body acquires a simple elongated form and a secondary external
symmetry, as in Pterotrachaea and in Doris, Eolis, and other
Nudibranchia. These facts afford strong support to the hypo-
thesis that the weight of the shell is the original cause of the
torsion of the dorsal visceral mass in Gastropods. But this
hypothesis leaves the elevation of the visceral mass and the
exogastric coiling of the shell in the ancestral form unexplained.
In those Euthyneura in which the shell is entirely absent in the
adult, it is, except in the three genera Cenia, Runcina and
r<j.i;iM/ii, developed in the larva and then falls off. In other
cases (Tectibranchs) the reduced shell is enclosed by upgrowths
of the edge of the mantle and becomes internal, as in many
Cephalopods. A few Euthyneura in which the shell is not much
reduced retain an operculum in the adult state, e.g. Actaeon,
Limacina, and the marine Pulmonate, . I mphibola. The detorted
visceral commissure shows a tendency to the concentration
of all its elements round the oesophagus, so that except in the
Bullomorpha and in Aplysia the whole nervous system is aggre-
gated in the cephalic region, cither dorsally or ventrally. The
FIG. 35. Accra bullata. A single row of teeth of the Radula.
(Formula, x.l.x.)
radula has a number of uniform teeth on each side of the median
tooth in each transverse row. The head in most cases bears
two pairs of tentacles. All the Euthyneura arc hermaphrodite.
In the most primitive condition the genital duct is single
throughout its length and has a single external aperture; it is
therefore said to be monaulic. The hermaphrodite aperture is
on the right side near the opening of the pallial cavity, and a
ciliated groove conducts the spermatozoa to the penis, which is
situated more anteriorly. This is the condition in the Bullo-
morpha, the Aplysiomorpha, and in one Pulmonate, Pythia.
In some cases while the original aperture remains undivided,
the seminal groove is closed and so converted into a canal.
This is the modification found in Cavolinia longirostris among
the Bullomorpha, and in all the Auriculidae except Pythia. A
further degree of modification occurs when the male duct takes
its origin from the hermaphrodite duct above the external
opening, so that there are two distinct apertures, one male and
one female, the latter being the original opening. The genital
duct is now said to be diaulic, as in Valvata, Oncidiopsis, Actaeon,
and Lobiger among the Bullomorpha, in the Pleurobranchidae,
in the Nudibranchia, except the Doridomorpha and most of
the Elysiomorpha, and in the Pulmonata. Originally in this
condition the female aperture is at some distance from the male,
as in the Basommatophora and in other cases; but in some
forms the female aperture itself has shifted and come to be
contiguous with the male opening and penis as in the Stylom-
matophora. In all these cases the female duct bears a bursa
copulatrix or receptaculum scminis. In some forms this recept-
acle acquires a separate external opening remaining connected
with the oviduct internally. There are thus two female openings,
one for copulation, the other for oviposit ion, as well as a male
opening. The genital duct is now trifurcated or triaulic, a
condition which is confined to certain Nudibranchs, viz. the
Doridomorpha and most of the Elysiomorpha.
The Pteropoda, formerly regarded as a distinct class of the
Mollusca, were interpreted by E. R. Lankestcr as a branch of
the Cephalopoda, chiefly on account of the protrusible sucker-
bearing processes at the anterior end of Pneumonoderma. These
he considered to be homologous with the arms of Cephalopods.
He fully recognized, however, the similarity of Pteropods to
Gastropods in their general asymmetry and in the torsion of the
visceral mass in Limacinidae. It is now understood that they
are Euthyncurous Gastropods adapted to natatory locomotion
and pelagic life. The sucker-bearing processes of Pneumono-
derma are outgrowths of the proboscis. The fins of Pteropods
arc now interpreted as the expanded lateral margins of the foot,
termed parapodia, not homologous with the siphonof Cephalopods
which is formed from epipodia. The Thecosomatous Pteropoda
are allied to Bulla, the Gymnosomatous forms to Aplysia. The
Euthyncura comprises two orders, Opisthobranchia and Pul-
monata.
5 i8
GASTROPODA
[EUTHYNEURA
Order I. OPISTHOBRANCHIA. Marine Euthyneura, the more
archaic forms of which have a relatively large foot and a small
visceral hump, from the base of which projects on the right side a
short mantle-skirt. The anus is placed in such forms far back beyond
the mantle-skirt. In front of the anus, and only partially covered
FIG. 36.
A, Veliger-larva of an Opisthobranch (Polycera). f, Foot; op,
operculum; mn, anal papilla; ry, dry, two portions of unabsorbed
nutritive yolk on either side of the intestine. The right otocyst is
seen at the root of the foot.
B, Trochosphere of an Opisthobranch (Pieurobranchidium)
showing shgr, the shell-gland or primitive shell-sac ; y, the cilia of
the velum ; ph, the commencing stomodaeum or oral invagination ;
ot, the left otocyst; pg, red-coloured pigment spot.
C, Diblastula of an Opisthobranch (Polycera) with elongated
blastopore oi.
(All from Lankester.)
by the mantle-skirt, is the ctenidium with its free end turned back-
wards. The heart lies in front of, instead of to the side of, the attach-
ment of the ctenidium hence Opisthobranchia as opposed to
" Prosobranchia," which correspond to the Streptoneura. A shell
is possessed in the adult state by but few Opisthobranchia, but all
pass through a veliger larval stage with a nautiloid shell (fig. 36).
Many Opisthobranchia have by a process of atrophy lost the typical
ctenidium and the mantle-
/,' .7 skirt, and have developed
other organs in their place.
As in some Pectinibranchia,
the free margin of the
mantle-skirt is frequently
reflected over the shell
when a shell exists; and,
as in some Pectinibranchia,
broad lateral outgrowths
of the foot (parapodia) are
FIG. 37.-PhylUrhoe bucephala, twice f developed which may
the natural size, a transparent pisc.form ^ h , er the shel ,
pelagic Opisthobranch. The internal
organs are shown as seen by transmitted
light. (After W. Keferstein.)
0, Mouth.
b, Radular sac.
c, Oesophagus.
d, Stomach.
c'. Intestine.
/', Anus.
f. g'. g'. '". The four lobes of the liver.
, The heart (auricle and ventricle).
1, The renal sac (nephridium).
I', The ciliated communication of the
renal sac with the pericardium.
m, The external opening of the renal sac.
n, The cerebral ganglion.
o, The cephalic tentacles.
/, The genital pore.
y, The ovo-testes.
or naked dorsal surface of
The variety of special
developments of structure
accompanying the atrophy
of typical organs in the
Opisthobranchia and
general degeneration of
organization is very great.
The members of the order
present the same wide
range of superficial appear-
ance as do the Pectini-
branchiate Streptoneura,
forms carrying well-de-
veloped spiral shells and
large mantle-skirts being
included in the
in the group
_ together with flattened or
w, The parasitic hydromedusa Mnesra, f; ndrical s i ug .ii ke forms,
usually found attached in this B > . ct s o{ the sub .
position by the aboral pole of its stitution O f other parts for
umbrella, the mantle-skirt and for
the gill which the more degenerate Opisthobranchia exhibit, this order
stands alone. Some Opisthobranchia are striking examples of de-
generation (some Nudibranchia), having none of those regions or
processes of the body developed which distinguish the archaic
Mollusca from such flat-worms as the Dendrocoel Planarians. In-
deed, were it not for their retention df the characteristic odonto-
phore we should have little or no indication that such forms as
Phyllirhoe and Limapontia really belong to the Mollusca at all.
The interesting little Rhodope veranyii, which has no odontophore,
has been associated by systematists both with these simplified
Opisthobranchs and with Rhabdocoel Planarians.
In many respects the sea-hare (Aplysia), of which several species
are known (some occurring on the English coast), serves as a con-
venient example of the fullest development of the organization
characteristic of Opisthobranchia. The woodcut (fig. 38) gives a
faithful representation of the great mobility of the various parts
of the body. The head is well marked and joined to the body by a
somewhat constricted neck. It carries two pairs of cephalic tentacles
and a pair of sessile eyes. The visceral hump is low and not drawn
out into a spire. The foot is long, carrying the oblong visceral mass
upon it, and projecting (as metapodium) a little beyond it(/). Later-
ally the foot gives rise to a pair of mobile fleshy lobes, the parapodia
(ep), which can be thrown up so as to cover in the dorsal surface of
the animal. Such parapodia are common, though by no means
universal, among Opisthobranchia. The torsion of the visceral
hump is not carried out very fully, the consequence being that the
anus has a posterior position a little to the right of the median line
above the metapodium, whilst the branchial chamber formed by the
overhanging mantle-skirt faces the right side of the body instead of
lying well to the front as in Streptoneura and as in Pulmonate Euthy-
neura. The gill-plume,which in A plysia is the typicalMolluscan cteni-
dium, is seen in fig. 39 projecting from the branchial sub-pallial space.
FIG. 38. Three views of Aplysia sp., in various conditions of
expansion and retraction. (After Cuvier.)
/, Anterior cephalic tentacles. m, Mantle-flap reflected over the
f, Posterior cephalic tentacles. thin oval shell.
e, Eyes. OS, s, Orifice formed by the un-
/, Metapodium. closed border of the reflected
ep, Epipodium. mantle-skirt, allowing the
g, Gill-plume (ctenidium). shell to show.
pe, The spermatic groove.
The relation of the delicate shell to the mantle is peculiar, since it
occupies an oval area upon the visceral hump, the extent of which
is indicated in fig. 38, C, but may be better understood by a glance
at the figures of the allied genus Umbrella (fig. 40), in which the
margin of the mantle-skirt coincides, just, as it does in the limpet,
with the margin of the shell. But in Aplysia the mantle is reflected
over the edge of the shell, and grows over its upper surface so as to
completely enclose it, excepting at the small central area s where
the naked shell is exposed. This enclosure of the shell is a permanent
development of the arrangement seen in many Streptoneura (e.g.
Pyrula, Ovula, see figs. 18 and 32), where the border of the mantle
can be, and usually is, drawn over the shell, though it is withdrawn
(as it cannot be in Aplysia) when they are irritated. From the fact
that Aplysia commences its life as a free-swimming veliger with a
nautiloid shell not enclosed in any way by the border of the mantle,
it is clear that the enclosure of the shell in the adult is a secondary
process. Accordingly, the shell of Aplysia must not be confounded
with a primitive shell in its shell-sac, such as we find realized in the
shells of Chiton and in the plugs which form in the remarkable
transitory " shell-sac " or " shell-gland " of Molluscan embryos (see
figs. 26, 60). Aplysia, like other Mollusca, develops a primitive shell-
sac in its trochosphere stage of development, which disappears and
is succeeded by a nautiloid shell (fig. 36). This forms the nucleus
of the adult shell, and, as the animal grows, becomes enclosed by a
reflection of the mantle-skirt. When the shell of an A plysia enclosed
in its mantle is pushed well to the left, the sub-pallial space is fully
exposed as in fig. 39, and the various apertures of the body are seen.
EUTHYNEURA1
GASTROPODA
Posteriorly we have the anus, in front of this the lobate eill-plume,
between the two (hence corresponding in position to that of the
Pectinibranchia) we have the aperture of the renal organ. In front,
near the anterior attachment of the gill-plume, is the osphradium
(olfactory organ) dis-
V ^- V * covered by J. \Y.
Spengel, yellowish in
colour, in the typical
position, and overlying
an olfactory ganglion
with typical nerve-con-
nexion (see fig. 43). To
the right of Spengcl's
osphradium is the open-
ing of a peculiar gland
which has, when dis-
sected out, the form of
a bunch of grapes; its
secretion is said to be
poisonous. On the
under side of the free
edge of the mantle arc
situated the numerous
small cutaneous glands
which, in the large
Aplysia camel us (not
in other species), form
the purple secretion
which was known to
the ancients. In front
Fie. 39. Aplysia leporina (camelus, of the osphradium is
Cuv.), with epipodia and mantle reflected the single genital pore,
away from the mid-line. (Lankester.) the aperture of the cqm-
a. Anterior cephalic tentacle.
6, Posterior cephalic tentacle; between a
and 6, the eyes.
c. Right epipodium.
d. Left epipodium.
e. Hinder part of visceral hump.
fp. Posterior extremity of the foot.
Sr
mon or hermaphrodite
duct. From this point
there passes forward to
the nght side of the
head a groove the
spermatic groove
down which tne sper-
fp, vwtonji trjfciitriiiii} v/t mi; luut. .
fa. Anterior part of the foot underlying the "
head, other Euthyneura this
tTbe ctenidium (branchial plume). groove may close up
The mantle-skirt tightly spread over the and form a . cana , 1 - At
horny shell and pushed with it towards '" termination by the
tne |ef t ,y e side of the head is the
i. The spermatic groove. muscular introverted
*, The ^common genital pore (male and P 6 " 1 "- f In . th f e hlnder
female) P 31 * ' tne ' oot ( not
/. Orifice of the grape-shaped (supposed * hown '" . anv . of tne
poisonous) gland diagrams) is the open-
m, ThTosphradium (olfactory organ of j n * ? f a large mucus-
Spenttei) forming gland very
, Outline of part of the renal sac (neph- ? te . n found in the
ridium) below the surface. Moluscan foot.
. External aperture of the nephridium. Wl . th re a . rd . to '"-
P, Anus. ternal organization we
may commence with
the disposition of the
renal organ (nephridium), the external opening of which has already
been noted. The position of this opening and other features of the
renal organ were determined by J. T. Cunningham.
There U considerable uncertainty with respect to the names of
the species of Aplysia. There are two forms which are very common
in the Gulf of Naples. One is quite black in colour, and measures when
Flo. 40. L'mbreUa mtditerranea. a, mouth; b, cephalic tentacle ;
k, gill (ctenidium). The free edge of the mantle is seen just below
the margin of the shell (compare with Aplysia, fig. 39). (From
Owen.)
outstretched 8 or 9 in. in length. The other is light brown and some-
what smaller, its length usually not exceeding 7 in. The first is
flaccid and sluggish in its movements, and has not much power of
contraction ; its epipodial lobes are enormously developed and extend
far forward along the body ; it gives out when handled an abundance
of purple liquid, whkh is derived from cutaneous glands situated
on the under side of the free edge of the mantle. According to F.
HI. H Inn. i mi it is identical with A. camelus of Cuvier. The other
species is A. depilans; it is firm to the touch, and contracts forcibly
when irritated; the secretion of the mantle-glands is not abundant,
and is milky white in appearance. The kidney has similar relations
in both species, and is identical with the organ spoken of by many
authors as the triangular gland. Its superficial extent is seen when
the folds covering the shell are cut away and the shell removed ; the
external surface forms a triangle with its base bordering the peri-
cardium, and its apex directed posteriorly and reaching to the left-
hand posterior corner of the shell-chamber. The dorsal surface of
the kidney extends to the left beyond the shell-chamber beneath the
skin in the space between the shell-chamber and the left parapodium.
When the animal is turned on its left-hand side and the mantle-
chamber widely opened, the gill being turned over to the left, a
part of the kidney is seen beneath the skin between the attachment
of the gill and the right parapodium (fig. 39). On examination
this is found to be the under surface of the posterior limb of the
gland, the upper surface of which has just been described as lying
beneath the shell. In the posterior third of this portion, close to
that edge which is adjacent to the base of the gill, is the external
opening (fig. 39, ff).
When tne pericardium is cut open from above in an animal
otherwise entire, the anterior face of the kidney is seen forming
the posterior wall of the pericardia! chamber; on the deep edge of
this face, a little to the left of the attachment of the auricle to the
floor of the pericardium, is seen a depression; this depression con-
tains the opening from the pericardium into the kidney.
To complete the account of the relations of the organ : the right
anterior corner can be seen superficially in the wall of the mantle-
chamber above the gill. Thus the base of the gill passes in a slant-
ing direction across the right-hand side of the kidney, the posterior
end being dorsal to the apex of the gland, and the anterior end
ventral to the right-hand corner.
As so great a part of the whole surface of the kidney lies adjacent
to external surfaces of the body, the remaining part which faces
the internal organs is small; it consists of the left part of the under
surface; it is level with the floor of the pericardium, and lies over
the globular mass formed by the liver and convoluted intestine.
Thus the renal organ of Aplysia is shown to conform to the
Molluscan type. The heart lying within the adjacent pericardium
has the usual form, a single auricle and
ventricle. The vascular system is not
extensive, the arteries soon ending in the
well-marked spongy tissue which builds
up the muscular foot, parapodia, and
dorsal body-wall.
The alimentary canal commences with
the usual buccal mass; the lips are car-
tilaginous, but not armed with horny
jaws, though these are common in other
Opisthobranchs; the lingual ribbon is
multidenticulatc, and a pair of salivary
glands pour in their secretion. The oeso-
phagus expands into a curious gizzard,
which is armed internally with large
horny processes, some broad and thick,
others spinous, fitted to act as crushing
instruments. From this we pass to a
stomach and a coil of intestine embedded
in the lobes of a voluminous liver; a
caecum of large size is given off near the
commencement of the intestine. The liver
opens by two ducts into the digestive
tract.
The generative organs lie close to the ducts of Aplysia.
coil of intestine and liver, a little to the kester.)
left side. When dissected out they ap- , Ovo-testis
pear as represented in fig. 41. The H Hermaphrodite duct,
essential reproductive organ or gonad . Albummiparous gland,
consists of both ovarian and testicular J Vesicula seminahs.
cells (see fig. 42). It is an ovo-testis. J k Opening of the albu-
From it passes a common or hcrma- miniparous gland into
phrodite duct, wh.cli very soon becomes t h e hermaphrodite
entwined in the spire of a gland the ^uct
albuminiparous gland. The latter opens ,,, Hermaphrodite duct
into the common duct at the point *. (uterine portion),
and here also is a small diverticulum of j, Vaginal portion of the
the duct /. Passing on, we find not uterine ciuct.
i. - m i^i e fu P 01 *!. 3 Glandular e, Spermatheca.
spherical body (the spermatheca c) open- a Jt s d uct
ing by means of a longish duct into a \ Genital pore,
the common duct, and then we reach
the pore (fig. 39, A). Here the female apparatus terminates. But
when the male secretion of the ovo-testis is active, the seminal
fluid passes from the genital pore along the spermatic groove (fig. 39)
to the penis, and is by the aid of that cversible muscular organ intro-
duced into the genital pore of a second Aplysia, whence it passes
into the spermatheca, there to await the activity of the female
element of the ovo-testis of this second Aplysia. After an interval
FIG. 41. Gonad, and
accessory glands and
(Lan-
520
GASTROPODA
of some days possibly weeks the ova of the second Aplysia I
commence to descend the hermaphrodite duct; they become en-
[EUTHYNEURA
digestive tract, but we find very numerous hepatic diverticula on a
shortened axial tract (fig. 47). These diverticula extend usually one
into each of the dorsal papillae or " cerata " when these are present
They are not merely digestive glands, but are sufficiently wide to act
as receptacles of food, and in them the digestion of food proceeds iust
as in the axial portion of the canal. A precisely similar modification
FIG. 42. Follicles of the hermaphrodite gonads of Euthyneurous
Gastropods. A, of Helix; B, of Eolis; a, ova; 6, developing
spermatozoa ; c, common efferent duct.
closed in a viscid secretion at the point where the albuminiparous
gland opens into the duct intertwined with it; and on reaching the
point where the spermathecal duct debouches they are impregnated
by the spermatozoa which escape now
from the spermatheca and meet the ova.
The development of Aplysia from the
egg presents many points of interest from
n\ the point of view of comparative embry-
ology, but in relation to the morphology
of the Opisthobranchia it is sufficient to
point to the occurrence of a trochosphere
and a veliger stage (fig. 36), and of a
shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 36,
shgr), which is succeeded by a nautiloid
shell.
In the nervous system of Aplysia the
reat ganglion-pairs are well developed and
istinct. The euthyneurous visceral loop
is long, and presents only one ganglion (in
Aplysia camelus, but two distinct ganglia
joined to one another in Aplysia hybrida
of the English coast), placed at its extreme
limit, representing both the right and left
visceral ganglia and the third or abdominal
ganglion, which are so often separately
present. The diagram (fig. 43) shows the
nerve connecting this abdomino-visceral
fanglion with the olfactory ganglion of
pengel. It is also seen to be connected
with a more remote ganglion the genital.
Such special irregularities in the develop-
ment of ganglia upon the visceral loop,
and on one or more of the main nerves
connected with it, are very frequent. Our
figure of the nervous system of Aplysia
does not give the small pair of buccal
ganglia which are, as in all glossophorous
FIG. 43. Nervous Molluscs, present upon the nerves 'passing
system of Aplysia, as from the cerebral region to the odontophore.
a type of the long- For a comparison of various Opistho-
looped Euthyneurous branchs, Aplysia will be found to present
condition. The un- a convenient starting-point. It is one of
twisted visceral loop the more typical Opisthobranchs, that is
is lightly shaded, to say, it belongs to the section Tecti-
(After Spengel.) branchia, but other members of the sub-
ce. Cerebral ganglion, order, namely, Bulla and Actaeon (figs. 44
pi, Pleural ganglion, and 45), are less abnormal than Aplysia
pe. Pedal ganglion. in regard to their shells and the form of the
ab. sp. Abdominal gan- visceral hump. They have naked spirally
glion which re- twisted shells which may be concealed from
presents also the view in the living animal by the expansion
supra-intestinal and reflection of the parapodia, but are not
ganglion of Strep- enclosed by the mantle, whilst Actaeon is
toneura and gives remarkable for possessing an operculum
off the nerve to like that of so many Streptoneura.
the osphradium The great development of the parapodia
(olfactory organ) seen in Aplysia is usual in Tectibranchiate
o, and another to Opisthobranchs. The whole surface of the
an unlettered so- body becomes greatly modified in those
called " genital " Nudibranchiate forms which have lost, not
ganglion. The only the shell, but also the ctenidium. Many
buccal nerves of these have peculiar processes developed
and ganglia are on the dorsal surface (fig. 46, A, B), or
omitted. retain purely negative characters (fig. 46,
D). The chief modification of internal
organization presented by these forms, as compared with Aplysia,
is found in the condition of the alimentary canal. The liver is no
longer a compact organ opening by a pair of ducts into the median
FIG. 44. Bulla vexillum (Chemnitz), as seen crawling, a, oral
hood (compare with Tethys, fig. 46, B), possibly a continuation of
tneepipodia; b, b', cephalic tentacles. (From Owen.)
of the liver or great digestive gland is found in the scorpions, where
the axial portion of the digestive canal is short and straight, and the
lateral ducts sufficiently wide to admit food into the ramifications
ot the gland there to be digested; whilst in the spiders the eland is
reduced to a series of simple caeca.
The typical character is retained by the heart, pericardium and
the communicating nephridium or renal organ in all Opisthobranchs
An interesting example of this is furnished by the fish-like trans-
parent -Phylhrhoe (fig. 37), in which it is possible most satisfactorily
to study in the living animal, by means of the microscope, the course
ot the blood-stream, and also the reno-pericardial communication
In many of the Nudibranchiate Opisthobranchs the nervous system
presents a concentration of the ganglia (fig. 48), contrasting greatly
with what we have seen in Aplysia. Not only are the plcural ganglia
fused to the cerebral, but also the visceral to these (see in further
illustration the condition attained by the Pulmonate Limnaeus
ng. 59), and the visceral loop is astonishingly short and insignificant
(ng. 48,6). That the parts are rightly thus identified is probable
from J. W. Spengel s observation of the osphradium and its nerve-
supply in these forms; the nerve to that organ, which is placed
somewhat anteriorly on the dorsal surface being given off from
the hinder part (visceral) of the right compound ganglion the
fellow to that marked A in fig. 48. The Eolid-like Nudibranchs,
amongst other specialities of structure, possess (in some cases at any
rate) apertures at the apices of the " cerata " or dorsal papillae,
which lead from the exterior into the hepatic caeca. Some amongst
them (Tergipes, Eolis) are also remarkable for possessing peculiarly
modified cells placed in sacs (cnidosacs) at the apices of these same
papillae, which resemble the " thread-cells " of the Coelentera.
According to T. S. Wright and J. H. Grosvenor these nematocysts
are derived from the hydroids on which the animals feed.
The development of many Opisthobranchia has been examined
e.g. Aplysia, Pleurobranchidium, Elysia, Polycera, Doris, Tergipes.
All pass through trochosphere and veliger stages, and in all a nauti-
loid or boat-like shell is developed, preceded by a well-marked
" shell-gland " (see fig. 36). The transition from the free-swimming
veliger larva with its nautiloid shell
(fig. 36) to the adult form has not _^ _^^ _
been properly observed, and many
interesting points as to the true nature
of folds (whether parapodia or mantle
or velum) have yet to be cleared up
by a knowledge of such development
in forms like Tethys, Doris, Phyllidia, ^-=_ -.
&c: As in other Molluscan groups,
we find even in closely-allied genera
(for instance, in Aplysia and Pleuro-
branchidium, and other genera), the f^*'? B8! '
greatest differences as to the amount Jl ope
of food-material by which the egg-shell is encumbered. Some
form their diblastula by emboly, others by epiboly; and in the
later history of the further development of the enclosed cells (arch-
enteron) very marked variations occur in closely-allied forms, due
to the influence of a greater or less abundance .of food-material
mixed with the protoplasm of the egg.
Sub-order I. TECTIBRANCHIA. Opisthobranchs provided in the
adult state with a shell and a mantle, except Runcina, Pleura-
branchaea, Cymbuliidae, and some Aplysiomorpha. There is a
ctenidium, except in some Thecosomata and Gymnosomata, and an
osphradium.
Tribe I. BULLOMORPHA. The shell is usually well developed,
except in Runcina and Cymbuliidae, and may be external or internal.
No operculum, except in Actaeonidae and Limacinidae. The pallial
cavity is always well developed, and contains the ctenidium, at least
in part; ctenidium, except in Lophocercidae , of folded type. With
. h,
foot;
Kl THYNEURA]
GASTROPODA
the exception of the Aptustridae, Lophofrrcidat and Thtcosomala,
the head is devoid of tentacle*, and it* dorsal surface forma a digging
FIG. 46.
A, Eoiis papillosa (Lin.), dorsal view.
a, 6, Posterior and anterior cephalic tentacles, c, The dorsal"ccrata."
B, Tttkyi leporina, dorsal view.
a. The cephalic hood. e. Anus.
6, Cephalic tentacles. /, Large ccrata.
c , Neck. * , Smaller cerata.
d. Genital pore. A, Margin of the foot.
C, Doris (Actinocyclus) luberculaius (Cuv.), seen from the pedal
surface.
m, Mouth. /, Sole of the foot.
6, Margin of the head. it>. The mantle-like epipodium.
D, E, Dorsal and lateral view of Elysia (Actaeon) viridit. ep,
epipodial outgrowths. (After Keferstcin.)
disk or shield. The edges of the loot form parapodia, often trans-
formed into fins. Posteriorly the mantle forms a large pallial lobe
Fie. 47. Enteric Canal
of Eolu papiUota, (From
Gegenbaur, after Alder and
Hancock.)
pk. Pharynx.
m, Midgut, with its hepatic
appendages k, all of
which arc not figured.
e. Hind gut.
am. Anus.
FIG. 48. Central Nervous
System of Fiona (one of the
Nudibranchia), showing a tend-
ency to fusion of the great
ganglia. (From Gegenbaur,
after Bergh.)
A, Cerebral, plcural and visceral
ganglia united.
B, Pedalganglion.
C, Buccafganglion.
D, Oesophagcal ganglion con-
nected with the buccal.
a. Nerve to superior cephalic
tentacle.
b. Nerves to inferior cephalic
tentacles.
c . Nerve to generative organs.
d. Pedal nerve.
e. Pedal commissure.
e". Visceral loop or con.niU-
surc (>).
under the pallial aperture. Stomach generally provided with
chitinous or calcified masticatory plates, visceral commissure fairly
shell external, with
inconspicuous spire.
Tornatina, British. Re-
tusa. Volvula.
Fam. 4. Scaphandridae. d,
Cephalic shield short,
truncated posteriorly ;
eyes deeply embedded;
three calcareous stom-
achal plates; shell ex-
ternal, with reduced
fi
long, except in Runcina, Lobiger and Thecosomata. Herma-
phrodite genital aperture, romuru-d with the penis by a ciliated
groove, except in Actaeon, Lobiger and Carotin ia longirostrts, in
which the spcrmiduct is a closed tube. Animals either swim or
burrow.
Fam. i. Actaeonidae. Cephalic shield bifid posteriorly ; margins
of foot slightly developed ; genital duct diaulic ; visceral com-
missure Htreptoneur-
ous; shell thick, with
prominent spire and
elongated aperture; a
horny opcrculum.
Actaeon, British. -S'/i-
dula. Tornatellaea, ex-
tinct. Adelactaeon.
Bullina. Bullinula.
Fam. 2. Ringiculidae.
Cephalic disk enlarged
anteriorly, forming an
open tube posteriorly;
shell external, thick,
with prominent spire;
no opcrculum. Ringi-
cula. Pugnus.
Fam. 3. Tornatinidae. _ _ ,,.,,, r-
Margins of foot not , FlG :49- Cavolinta tndenlata,Fon\t.
prominent; no radula; from the Mediterranean, magnified two
diameters. (From Owen.)
a, Mouth.
b. Pair of cephalic tentacles.
C, C, Pteropodial lobes of the foot.
Median web connecting these.
Processes of the mantle-skirt re-
flected over the surface of the
shell.
The shell enclosing the visceral
hump.
The median spine of the shell,
spire. Scaphander,
British. Atys. Smaragdinella. Cylichna, British. A mphisphyra,
British.
Fam. 5. Bullidae. Margins of foot well developed ; eyes super-
ficial; three chitinous stomachal plates; shell external, with
reduced spire. Bulla, British. Haminea, British.
Fam. 6. Aceraiidae. Cephalic shield continuous with neck;
twelve to fourteen stomachal plates; a posterior pallial fila-
ment passing through a notch in shell. Accra, British. Cylin-
drobulia. Volutella.
Fam. 7. Aplustridae. Foot very broad; cephalic shield with
four tentacles; shell external, thin, without prominent spire.
Aplustrum. Hydatina. Micromelo.
Fam. 8. Philintdae. Cephalic shield broad, thick and simple;
shell wholly internal, thin, spire much reduced, aperture
very large. Philine, British. Cryplophthalmus. Chelinodura.
Phanerophthalmus. Colpodaspis, British. Colobocf.phalus.
Fam. 9. Doridiidae. Cephalic shield ending posteriorly in a
median point; shell internal, largely membranous; no radula
or stomachal plates. Doridium. Navarchus.
Fam. 10. Gastropteridae. Cephalic shield pointed behind ; shell
internal, chiefly membranous, with calcified nucleus, nautiloid;
parapodia forming fins. Gastropteron.
Fam. n. Runcinidae. Cephalic shield continuous with dorsal
integument; no shell; ctcnidium projecting from mantle
cavity. Runcina.
Fam. 12. Lophocercidae. Shell external, globular or ovoid; foot
elongated, parapodia separate
from ventral surface; genital
duct diaulic. Lobiger. Lopho-
cercus.
The next three families form the
group formerly known as Theco-
somatous Ptcropods. They are
all pelagic, the foot being entirely
transformed into a pair of anterior
fins; eyes arc absent, and the nerve
centres are concentrated on the ven-
tral side of the oesophagus.
Fam. 13. Limaciniaae. Dextral
animals, with shell coiled
pseudo-sinist rally; operculum
with sinistral spiral; pallial
cavity dorsal. Limacina, British.
Fam. 14. Cymbuliidae. Adult without shell; a sub-epithelial
pseudoconch formed by connective tissue; pallial cavity
ventral. Cymbulio. Cymbuliopsis. Gleba. Desmopterus.
Fam. 15. Cavoliniidae. Shell not coiled, symmetrical; pallial
cavity ventral. Cavolinia. Clio. Cuvierina.
Tribe 2. APLYSIOMORPHA. Shell more or less internal, much
reduced or absent. Head bears two pairs of tentacles. Parapodia
separate from ventral surface, and generally transformed into
FIG. 50. Shell of Cavolinia
tridentata, seen from the side.
/, Postero-dorsal surface.
, Antero-ventral surface.
, Median dorsal spine.
Mouth of the shell.
Peraclis, ctenidium present.
522
GASTROPODA
[EUTHYNEURA
swimming lobes. Visceral commissure much shortened, except in
Aplysia. Genital duct monaulic; hermaphrodite duct connected
' with penis by a ciliated groove. Animals either swim or crawl.
Earn. i. Aplysiidae. Shell partly or wholly internal, or absent;
foot long, with well-developed ventral surface. Aplysia.
Dolabella. Dolabrifer. Aplysiella. Phyllaplysia. Not-
archus.
The next six families include the animals formerly known as
Gymnosomatous Pteropods, characterized by the absence of mantle
and shell, the reduction of the ventral surface of the foot, and the
parapodial fins at the anterior end of the body. They are all pelagic.
Earn. 2. Pneumonodermatidae. Pharynx evaginable, with
suckers. Pneumonoderma. Dexiobranchaea. Spongiobranchaea.
Schizobrachium.
Earn. 3. Clionopsidae. No buccal appendages or suckers; a
very long evaginable proboscis ;
a quadriradiate terminal bran-
chia. Clionopsis.
Earn. 4. Notobranchaeidae. Pos-
terior branchia triradiate. Noto-
branchaea.
Earn. 5. Thliptodontidae. Head
very large, not marked off from
the body; neither branchia nor
suckers; fins situated near the
middle of the body. Thliptodon.
Earn. 6. Clionidae. No branchia
FIG. 52. Styliola acicula,
Rang. sp. enlarged. (From
Owen.)
C, C, The wing-like lobes of
the foot.
Median fold of same.
Copulatory organ.
Pointed extremity of the
shell.
Anterior margin of the
Stomach. (shell.
Liver.
Hermaphrodite gonad.
FIG. 51. Embryo of Cavolinia
tridentata. (From Balfour, after Fol.)
a, Anus.
/, Median portion of the foot.
r, Pteropodial lobe of the foot.
Heart.
*, Intestine.
m, Mouth.
ot, Otocyst.
q, Shell.
r, Nephridium.
s. Oesophagus.
a. Sac containing nutritive yolk.
mb. Mantle-skirt.
me, Sub-pallial chamber.
Kn, Contractile sinus.
of any kind ; a short evaginable pharynx, bearing paired conical
buccal appendages or " cephalocones." Clione. Paraclione.
Fowlerina.
Earn. 7. Halopsychidae. No branchia; two long and branched
buccal appendages. Halopsyche.
Tribe 3. PLEUROBRANCHOMORPHA. Two pairs of tentacles.
Foot without parapodia; no pallia! cavity, but always a single
ctenidium situated on the right side between mantle and foot.
Genital duct diaulic, without open seminal groove; male and
female apertures contiguous. Visceral commissure short, tendency
to concentration of all ganglia in dorsal side of oesophagus.
Earn. i. Tylodinidae. Shell external and conical; anterior
tentacles form a frontal veil; ctenidium extending only over
right side; a distinct osphradium. Tylodina.
Fam. 2. Umbrellidae. Shell external, conical, much flattened;
anterior tentacles very small, and situated with the mouth in
a notch of the foot below the head; ctenidium very large.
Umbrella.
Fam. 3. Pleurobranchidae. Shell covered by mantle, or absent;
anterior tentacles form a frontal veil ; mantle contains spicules.
Pleurobranchus. Berthella. Haliolinella. Oscanius, British.
Oscaniella. Oscaniopsis. Pleurobranchaea.
Sub-order 2. NUDIBRANCHIA. Shell absent in the adult; no
ctenidium or osphradium. Body generally slug-like, and externally
symmetrical. Visceral mass not marked off from the foot, except in
Hedylidae. Dorsal respiratory appendages frequently present.
Visceral commissure reduced; nervous system concentrated on
dorsal side of oesophagus. Marine; generally carnivorous, and
brightly coloured, affording many instances of protective resem-
blance.
Tribe i. TRITONIOMORPHA. Liver wholly or partially contained
in the visceral mass. Anus lateral, on the right side. Usually two
rows of ramified dorsal appendages. Genital duct diaulic; male
and female apertures contiguous.
Fam. i. Tritoniidae. Anterior tentacles form a frontal veil;
foot rather broad. Tritonia, British. Marionia.
Fam. 2. Scyllaeidae. No anterior tentacles ; dorsal appendages
broad and foliaceous; foot very narrow; stomach with horny
plates. Scyttaea. pelagic.
Fam. 3. Phyllirhoidae. No anterior tentacles, and no dorsal
appendages; body laterally compressed, transparent; pelagic.
Phyllirhoe.
Fam. 4. Tethyidae. Head broad, surrounded by a funnel-shaped
velum or hood; no radula; dorsal appendages foliaceous.
Tethys. Melibe.
Fam. 5. Dendronotidae. Anterior tentacles forming a scalloped
frontal veil ; dorsal appendages and tentacles similarly ramified.
Dendronotus. Campaspe.
Fam. 6. Bornellidae. Dprsum furnished on either side with
papillae, at the base of which are ramified appendages. Bornella.
Fam. 7. Lomanotidae. Body flattened, the two dorsal borders
prominent and foliaceous. Lomanotus, British.
Tribe 2. DORIDOMORPHA. Body externally symmetrical; anus
median, posterior, and generally dorsal, surrounded by ramified
pallial appendages, constituting a secondary branchia. Liver not
ramified in the integuments. Genital duct tnaulic. Spicules present
in the mantle.
Fam. I. Polyceratidae. A more or less prominent frontal
FIG. 53. Halopsyche gaudichaudii,
Soul. (From Owen.) Much enlarged;
tHe body-wall removed.
a, The mouth.
c, The pteropodial lobes of the foot.
/, The centrally-placed hind-foot.
d, I, e, Three pairs of tentacle-like
processes placed at the sides of
the mouth, and developed (in all
probability) from the fore-foot.
o'. Anus.
y, Genital pore.
k, Retractor muscles.
o and p, The liver.
u, v, ic, Genitalia.
FIG. 54. Ancula
cristata, one of the
pygobranchiate Opis-
thobranchs (dorsal
view). (From Gegen-
baur, after Alder and
Hancock.)
o, Anus.
br, Secondary branchia
surrounding the
anus.
t, Cephalic tentacles.
External to the
branchia are seen ten
club-like processes of
the dorsal wall, these
are the " cerata "
which are character-
istically developed in
another sub-order of
Opisthobranchs.
veil ; branchiae non-retractile. Euplocamus. Polycera, British.
Thecacera, British. Aegirus, British. Plocamopherus. Polio.
Crimora. Triopa, British. Triopella.
Fam. 2. Goniodorididae. Mantle-border projecting; frontal
veil reduced, and often covered by the anterior border of the
EUTHYNEURA]
GASTROPODA
523
mantle. Coniodoris, British. Acantkodoris, British. Idalia,
British. Amenta, British. DoridunfuJus. Lamellidoris. An-
tylodaru. the only fresh-water Nudibranch, from Lake Baikal.
Fam. 3. Hetertdorididat. No branchia. Ileterodoris.
Fm. 4. Derididae. Mantle oval, covering the head and the
gretter part of the body; anterior tentacles, ill-developed;
branchiae generally retractile. Doris, British. Hrxabranchus.
Fare. 5. Doridoptidat. Pharynx suctorial ; no radula ; branchial
rosette on the dorsal surface, above the mantle-border.
D^ndoptis.
Fam. 6. Coramtidae. Anus and branchia posterior, below the
mantle-border. Corambe.
Fam. 7. PkyUidiidae. Pharynx suctorial; branchiae surround-
ing the body, between the mantle and foot. PhyUidia.
Frytria.
The last three families constitute the sub-tribe Porostomata,
characterized by the reduction of the buccal mass, which is modified
into a suctorial apparatus.
Tribe A. EOLIDOMORPHA (Cladokr'palica), The whole of the liver
contained in the integuments and tegumentary papillae. Genital
duct diaulic; male and female apertures contiguous. The anus is
antero-lateral, except in the Proctonotidae, in which it is median.
Tegumentary papillae not ramified, and containing cnidosacs with
nematocysts.
Fara. l. Eolididae. Dorsal papillae spindle-shaped or club-
shaped. Eolii, British. Paulina, British. Terrifies, British.
Gonieolis. Culhcma. Emblelonia. Galvina. Calma. Hero.
Fam. a. Glaufidae. Body furnished with three pairs of lateral
lobes, bearing the tegumentary papillae; foot very narrow;
pelagic. Glautus.
Fam. 3. Htdytidae. Body elongated; visceral mass marked
off from foot posteriorly; dorsal appendages absent, or reduced
to a single pair; tpicules in the integument. Hedyle.
Fam. .Pse*dovermidae. Head without tentacles; body
elongated ; anus on right side. Pseudoyermis.
Fam. 5. Proctonotidae. Anus posterior, median; anterior
tentacles, atrophied; foot broad. Janus, British. Procto-
notus, British.
Fam. 6. Dolonidae. Bases of the rhinophores surrounded by
a sheath; dorsal papillae tuberculated and club-shaped, in a
single row on either side of the dorsum; no cnidosacs. Doto,
British. Grtlina. Heromorpha.
Fam. 7. Fionidae. Dorsal papillae with a membranous ex-
pansion; male and female apertures at some distance from
each other; pelagic. Fiona.
Fam. 8. Plruropkyllidae. Anterior tentacles in the form of a
digging shield; mantle without appendages, but respiratory
papillae beneath the mantle-border. Pleurophyllidia.
Fam. 9. Drrmatobranchidae. Like the last, but wholly without
branchiae. Drrmatobrenchus.
Tribe 4. ELYSIOMOBFHA. Liver ramifies in integuments and ex-
tends into dorsal papillae, but there are no cnidosacs. Genital duct
always triaulic, and male and female apertures distant from each
other. No mandibles, and radula unisonal. Never more than one
pair of tentacles, and these are absent in Alderia and some species
of I.imapontia.
Fam. i.Hermotioae. Foot narrow; dorsal papillae linear or
fusiform, in several
series. Hermaea,
British. Stiliger. Al-
deria, British.
Fam. 2. Phyllo-
branchidae. Foot
broad; dorsal papillae
flattened and folia-
ceous. Phyllobranchus.
Cyerce.
Fam. 3. Plakobran-
chidae. Body de-
pressed, without dorsal
papillae, but with two
very large lateral ex-
pansions, with dorsal
plications. Plako-
oranchus.
Fam. 4. Elysiidae.
Body elongated, with
lateral expansions ;
tentacles large; foot
narrow. Ely si a,
British. Tridathia.
Fam. 5. Limapontiidae.
No lateral expansions,
and no dorsal papillae;
body planariform ; anus
Limaponlia, British. Actaeonia,
II
FIG. 55. Dorsal and Ventral View of
PleuropkyUidia lineata (Otto), one of
the Eotidomorph Nudibranchs. (After
Keferstein.)
*. The mouth.
/. The lamelliform sub-pallial gills,
which (as in Patella) replace the
typical Molluscan ctenidium.
dorsal, median and posterior.
British. Cenia.
Order 2 (of the Euthyneura). PULMONATA. Euthyneurous
Gastropoda, probably derived from ancestral forms similar to the
Tectibranchiate Opisthobranchia by adaptation to a terrestrial life.
The ctenidium is atrophied, and the edge of the mantle-skirt is fused
to the dorsal integument by concrescence, except at one point which
forms the aperture of the mantle-chamber, thus converted into a
nearly closed sac. Air is admitted to this sac for respiratory and
hydrostatic purposes, and it thus becomes a lung. An operculum
is present only in A mphibola ; a contrast being thus afforded with the
pperculatc pulmonate Streptoneura (Cyclostoma, &c.), which differ
in other essential features of structure from the Pulmonata. The
I'liliiHiiutu are, like the other Euthyneura, hermaphrodite, with
elaborately developed copulatory organs and accessory glands.
Like other Euthyneura, they have very numerous small denticles
on the lingual ribbon. In aquatic Pulmonata the osphradium is
retained.
In some Pulmonata (snails) the foot is extended at right angles
to'the visceral hump, which rises from it in the form of a coil as in
Streptoneura; in others the visceral hump is not elevated, but is
extended with the foot, and the shell is small or absent (slugs).
Pulmonata are widely distinguished from a small number of
Streptoneura atone time associated with them on account of their
mantle-chamber being converted, as in Pulmonata, into a lung, and
the ctenidium or branchial plume aborted. The terrestrial Strepto-
neura (represented in England by the common genus Cyclostoma)
FIG. 56. A Series of Stylommatophorous Pulmonata, showing
transitional forms between snail and slug.
A, Helix pomatia. (From Keferstein.)
B, Helicophanta brevipes. (From Keferstein, after Pfeiffer.)
C, Testacella haliotidea. (From Keferstein.)
D, Arion ater, the great black slug. (From Keferstein.)
a. Shell in A, B, C, shell-sac (closed) in D ; b, orifice leading
into the subpallial chamber (lung).
have a twisted visceral nerve-loop, an operculum on the foot, a
complex rhipidoglossate or taenio-glossate radula, and are of distinct
sexes. The Pulmonata have a straight visceral nerve-loop, usually
no operculum even in the embryo, and a multidenticulate radula,
the teeth being cqui-formal; and they are hermaphrodite. Some
Pulmonata (Limnaea, &c.) live in fresh waters although breathing
air. The remarkable discovery has been made
that in deep lakes such Limnaei do not
breathe air, but admit water to the lung-sac
and live at the bottom. The lung-sac serves
undoubtedly as a hydrostatic apparatus in
the aquatic Pulmonata, as well as assisting
respiration.
The same general range of body-form is FIG. 57. Ancylus
shown in Pulmonata as in the Heteropoda fluvialifis, a patelli-
and in the Opisthobranchia; at one extreme form aquatic Pul-
we have snails with coiled visceral hump, at monate.
the other cylindrical or flattened slugs (see
fig. 56). Limpet-like forms are also found (fig. 57, Ancylus). The
foot is always simple, with its flat crawling surface extending from
end to end, but in the embryo Limnaea it shows a bilobcd char-
acter, which leads on to the condition characteristic of Pteropoda.
524
GASTROPODA
The adaptation of the Pulmonata to terrestrial life has entailed
little modification of the internal organization. In one genus
(Planorbis) the plasma of the blood is coloured red by haemoglobin,
this being the only instance of the presence of this body in the blood
of Glosspphorous Mollusca, though it occurs in corpuscles in the blood
of the bivalves Area and Solen (Lankester).
The generative apparatus of the snail (Helix) may serve as an
example of the hermaphrodite apparatus common to the Pulmonata
and Opisthobranchia (fig. 58). From
the ovo-testis, which lies near the apex
of the visceral coil, a common herma-
phrodite duct tie proceeds, which
receives the duct of the compact white
albuminiparous gland, Ed, and then
becomes much enlarged, the additional
width being due to the development 'of
glandular folds, which are regarded as
forming a uterus u. Where these folds
cease the common duct splits into two
portions, a male and a female. The
male duct vd becomes fleshy and
muscular near its termination at the
genital pore, forming the penis p.
Attached to it is a diverticulum ft, in
which the spermatozoa which have
descended from the ovo-testis are
stored and modelled into sperm ropes
or spermatophores. The female por-
tion of the duct is more complex. Soon
after quitting the uterus it is joined by
a long duct leading from a glandular
sac, the spermatheca (Rf). In this duct
and sac the spermatophores received
in copulation from another snail are
lodged. In Helix hortensis the sperma-
theca is simple. In other species of
Helix a second duct (as large in Helix
FIG. 58. Hermaphrodite ^persa as the chief one) is given off
Reproductive Apparatus of from tne spermathecal duct, and in the
the Garden Sn&il (Helix hor- natural state is closely adherent to the
wall of the uterus. This second duct
has normally no spermathecal gland at
its termination, which is simple and
blunt. But in rare cases in Helix
Ed, Albuminiparous gland, aspersa a second spermatheca is found
u, Utenne dilatation of at the end of this second duct. Tracing
the hermaphrodite the widening female duct onwards we
duct. now come to the openings of the
Jigitate accessory digitate accessory glands d, d, which
glands on the female probably assist in the formation of the
duct. egg-capsule. Close to them is the re-
Calciferous gland or niarkable dart-sac ps, a thick-walled
dart-sac on the female ^^ ; n t h e lumen of which a crystalline
duct. four-fluted rod or dart consisting of
Rf, bpermatheca or recep- carbonate of lime is found. It is sup-
tacle of the sperm in posed to act in some way as a stimulant
copulation, opening m copulation, but possibly has to do
into the female duct. w ; t h t h e calcareous covering of the
Male duct (vas de- egg-capsule. Other Pulmonata exhibit
ferens). variations of secondary importance in
P< ems ;, the details of this hermaphrodite ap-
fl, Flagellum. paratus.
The nervous system of Helix is not
favourable as an example on account of the fusion of the ganglia
to form an almost uniform ring of nervous matter around the
oesophagus. The pond-snail (Limnaeus) furnishes, on the other
hand, a very beautiful case of distinct ganglia and connecting
cords (fig. 59). The demonstration which it affords of the ex-
treme shortening of the Euthyneurous visceral nerve-loop is most
instructive and valuable for comparison with and explanation of
the condition of the nervous centres in Cephalopoda, as also of
some Opisthobranchia. The figure (fig. 59) is sufficiently described
in the letterpress attached to it; the pair of buccal ganglia joined
by the connectives to the cerebrals are, as in most of our figures,
omitted. Here we need only further draw attention to the osphra-
dium, discovered by Lacaze-Duthiers, and shown by Spengel to
agree in its innervation with that organ in all other Gastropoda.
On account of the shortness of the visceral loop and the proximity
of the right visceral ganglion to the oespphageal nerve-ring, the nerve
to the osphradium and olfactory ganglion is very long. The position
of the osphradium corresponds more or less closely with that of the
vanished right ctenidium, with which it is normally associated. In
Helix and Umax the osphradium has not been described, and
possibly its discovery might clear up the doubts which have
been raised as to the nature _ of the mantle-chamber of those
genera. In Planorbis, which is sinistral (as are a few other genera
or exceptional varieties of various Anisopleurous Gastropods),
instead of being dextral, the osphradium is on the left side,
and receives its nerve from the left visceral ganglion, the
whole series of unilateral organs being reversed. This is, as
ft.
tensis).
z, Ovo-testis.
ve, Hermaphrodite duct.
d,
PS,
vd
[EUTHYNEURA
1 reversed '
might be expected, what is found to be the case in all
Gastropods.
The shell of the Pulmonata, though always light and delicate, is in
many cases a well-developed spiral " house," into which the creature
can withdraw itself; and, although the foot possesses nooperculum,
yet in Helix the aperture of the shell is closed in the winter by a
complete lid, the " hybernaculum," more or less calcareous in nature,
which is secreted by the foot. In Clausilia a peculiar modification of
this lid exists permanently in the adult, attached by an elastic stalk
to the mouth of the shell, and known as the " clausilium." In
Limnaeus the permanent shejl is preceded in the embryo by a well-
marked shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 60), at one time sup-
posed to be the developing anus, but shown by Lankester to be
identical with the " shell-gland " discovered by him in other Mol-
lusca (Pisidium, Pleurobranchidium, Neritina, &c.). As in other
Gastropoda Anisopleura, this shell-sac may abnormally develop
a plug of chitinous matter, but normally it flattens out and dis-
appears, whilst the cap-like rudiment of the permanent shell is shed
out from the dome-like surface of the visceral hump, in the centre of
which the shell-sac existed for a brief period.
In Clausilia, according to the observations of C. Gegenbaur, the
primitive shell-sac does not flatten out and disappear, but takes the
form of a flattened closed sac. Within this closed sac a plate of cal-
careous matter is developed, and after a time the upper wall of the
sac disappears, and the calcareous plate continues to grow as the
nucleus of the permanent shell. In the slug Testacella (fig. 56, C)
the shell-plate never attains a large size, though naked. In other
slugs, namely, Umax and Arion, the shell-sac remains permanently
closed over the shell-plate, which in the latter genus consists of a
granular mass of carbonate of lime. The permanence of the primi-
tive shell-sac in these slugs is a point of considerable interest. It is
clear enough that the sac is of a different origin from that of Aplysia
(described in the section treating of Opisthobranchia), being primi-
tive instead of secondary. It seems probable that it is identical
with one of the open sacs in which each shell-plate of a Chiton is
formed, and the series of plate-like imbrications which are placed
behind the single shell-sac on the dorsum of the curious slug, Plectro-
phorus, suggest the possibility of the formation of a series of shell-
sacs on the back of that animal similar to those which we find in
Chiton. Whether the closed primitive shell-sac of the slugs (and
with it the transient embryonic shell-gland of all other Mollusca) is
precisely the same thing as the closed sac in which the calcareous
pen or shell of the Cephalopod Sepia and its allies is formed,
is a further question
which we shall con-
sider when dealing
with the Cephalopoda.
It is important here
to note that Clausilia
furnishes us with an
exceptional instance
of the continuity of the
shell or secreted pro-
duct of the primitive
shell - sac with the
adult shell. In most
other Mollusca (Aniso-
pleurous Gastropods,
Pteropods and Con-
chifera) there is a want
of such continuity ;
the primitive shell-sac
contributes no factor
to the permanent shell,
or only a very minute FIG. 59. Nervous System of the Pond-
knob - like particle Snail, Limnaeus stagnalis, as a type of the
(Neritina and Palu- short-looped euthyneurous condition. The
dina). It flattens out short visceral " loop " with its three ganglia
and disappears before is lightly-shaded,
the work of forming C e, Cerebral ganglion.
pe, Pedal ganglion.
the permanent shell
commences. And just pi' t PleuraT ganglion.
as there is a break a b, Abdominal ganglion.
at this stage, so (as sp, Visceral ganglion of the left side; op-
_i > u.. & v,~i.~ posite to it is the visceral ganglion of
the right side, which gives off the long
nerve to the olfactory ganglion and
osphradium o.
In Planorbis and in Auricula (Pulmonata,
observed by A. Krohn
in Marsenia = Echino-
spira) there may be a
break at a later stage,
the nautiloid shell
formed on the larva allied to Limnaeus) the olfactory organ is
being cast, and a new on the left side and receives its nerve from
shell of a different form the left visceraljganglion. (After Spengel.)
being formed afresh on
the surface of the visceral hump. It is, then, in this sense that we
may speak of primary, secondary and tertiary shells in Mollusca,
recognizing the fact that they may be merely phases fused by con-
tinuity of growth so as to form but one shell, or that in other cases
they may be presented to us as separate individual things, in virtue
of the non-development of the later phases, or in virtue of sudden
changes in the activity of the mantle-surface causing the shedding
EUTHYNEURAI
GASTROPODA
525
or disappearance ot one phase of shell-formation before a later one
is entered upon.
The development of the aquatic Pulmon.ua from the egg offers
considerable facilities for study, and that of Limnaeus has been
elucidated by K. R. Lankester, whilst H. Kabl has with remarkable
skill applied the method of sections to the study of the minute
embryos of Pktnortnt. The chief features in the development of
Limmafus are exhibited in fie. 60. There is not a very large amount
of food-material present in the egg of this snail, and accordingly the
cells resulting from division are not so unequal as in many other
oases. The four cells first formed are of equal size, and then four
smaller cell* are formed by division of these four so as to lie at one
end of the first four (the pole corresponding to that at which the
" directive corpuscles " are extruded and remain). The smaller cells
oow divide and spread over the four larger cells; at the same time
a space the cleavage cavity or blast ocoel forms in the centre of
the mulberry-like mass. Then the large cells recommence the
process of division and sink into the hollow of the sphere, leaving
an elongated groove, the blastopore, on the surface. The invaginated
cells (derived from the division of the four big cells) form the endo-
derm or arch-enteron ; the outer cells are the ectoderm. The blasto
pore now doses along the middle part of its course, which coincides
FtG. 60. Embryo of Limnaeus slagnalis. at a stage when the
Trochosphere is developing foot and shell-gland and becoming a
Veliger, seen as a transparent object under slight pressure. (Lan-
attachment to the ecto-
derm is coincident with the
hindmost extremity of the
elongated blastoporc of fig.
3. C.
Mcsoblastic (skeletotrophic
and muscular) cells invest-
ing gs, the bilobed arch-
enteron or lateral vesicles
of invaginated endoderm,
whichwill develop into liver.
The foot.
One end of the blastopore
kester.)
pit. Pharynx (stomodaeal in-
vagi nation),
t, r. The ciliated band marking
out the velum.
H(. Cerebral nerve-ganglion.
re, Stiebel's canal (left side), iff,
probably an evanescent
embryonic nephridium.
>*. The primitive shell-sac or
sbeilgUnd.
pi. The rectal peduncle or
pedicle of imagination ; its /,
in position with the future " foot."
becomes nearly closed, and an ingrowth of ectoderm takes place
around it to form the stomodaeum or fore-gut and mouth. The
other extreme end closes, but the invaginated cndodcrm cells remain
in continuity with this extremity of the blastopore, and form the
" rectal peduncle " or " pedicle of invagination " of Lankester,
although the endoderm cells retain no contact with the middle region
of the now dosed-up blastopore. The anal opening forms at a late
period by a very short ingrowth or proctodaeum coinciding with the
blind termination of the rectal peduncle (fig. 60, pi).
The body-cavity and the muscular, fibrous and vascular tissues
are traced partly to two symmetrically disposed " mesoblasts,"
which bud off from the invaginated arch-enteron, partly to cells
derived from the ectoderm, which at a very early stage is connected
by long processes with the invaginated endoderm. The external
form of the embryo goes through the same changes as in other
Gastropods, and is not, as was held previously to Lankester's obser-
vations, exceptional. When the middle and hinder regions of the
btmopoTf are closing in, an equatorial ridge of ciliated cells is
formed, convening the embryo into a typical trochosphere.
The foot now protrudes below the mouth, and the post -oral hemi-
sphere of the trochosphere grows more rapidly then the anterior or
velar area. The young foot shows a bilobed form. Within the velar
area the eves and the cephalic tentacles commence to rise up, and
on the surface of the post -oral region is formed a cap-like shell and
an encircling ridge, which gradually increases in prominence and
becomes the freely depending mantle-skin. The outline of the velar
area becomes strongly emarginated and can be traced through the
more mature embryos to the cephalic lobes or labial processes of the
adult Limnaeus (fig. 61).
The increase of the visceral dome, its spiral twisting, and the
gradual closure of the space overhung by the mantle-skirt so as to
FIG. 61. A, B, C. Three views of Limnaeus stagnalis, in order to
show the persistence of the larval velar area v, as the circum-oral lobes
of the adult, m. Mouth; /, foot; v, velar area, the margin v corre-
sponding with the ciliated band which demarcates the velar area
or velum of the embryo Gastropod (see fig. 4, D, E, F, H, I, t;).
(Original.)
convert it into a lung-sac with a small contractile aperture, belong to
stages in the development later than any represented in our figures.
We may now revert briefly to the internal organization at a period
when the trochosphere is beginning to show a prominent foot growing
out from the area where the mid-region of the elongated blastopore
was situated, and having therefore at one end of it the mouth and
at the other the anus. Fig. 60 represents such an embryo under
slight compression as seen by transmitted light. The ciliated band
of the left side of the velar area is indicated by a line extending
from v to v; the foot / is seen between the pharynx ph and the
pedicle of invagination pi. The mass of the arch-enteron or in-
vaginated endodermal sac has taken on a bilobed form, and its cells
are swollen (gs and tge). This bilobed sac becomes entirely the liver
in the adult; the intestine and stomach are formed from the pedicle
of invagination, whilst the pharynx, oesophagus and crop form from
the stomodaeal invagination ph. To the right (in the figure) of the
rectal peduncle is seen the deeply invaginated shell-gland w, with a
secretion sh protruding from it. The shell-gland is destined in
Limnaeus to become very rapidly stretched out, and to disappear.
Farther up, within the velar area, the rudiments of the cerebral
nerve-ganglion ng are seen separating from the ectoderm. A remark-
able cord of cells having a position just below the integument occurs
on each side of the head. In the figure the cord of the left side is
seen, marked re. This paired organ consists of a string of cells which
are perforated by a duct opening to the exterior and ending internally
in a flame-cell. Such cannulated cells are characteristic of the neph-
ridia of many worms, and the organs thus formed in the embryo
Limnaeus are embryonic nephridia. The most important fact about
them is that they disappear, and arc in no way connected with the
typical nephridium of the adult. In reference to their first observer
they were formerly called " Stiebel's canals." Other Pulmonata
possess, when embryos, Stiebel's canals in a more fully developed
state, for instance, the common slug Limax. Here top they dis-
appear during embryonic life. Similar larval nephridia occur in
other Gastropoda. In the marine Streptoneura they are ectodermic
projections which ultimately fall off; in the Opisthobranchs they
are closed pouches; in Paludina and Bilhynia they are canals as in
Pulmonata.
Marine Pulmonata. Whilst the Pulmonata are essentially a
terrestrial and fresh-water group, there is one genus of slug-like
FIG. 62. Oncidium tonganum, a littoral Pulmonate, found on the
shores of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Mauritius, Japan).
Pulmonates which frequent the sea-coast (Oncidium, fig. 62). Karl
Semper has shown that these slugs have, in addition to the usual
pair of cephalic eyes, a number of eyes developed upon the dorsal
integument. These dorsal eyes are very perfect in elaboration,
possessing lens, retinal nerve-end cells, retinal pigment and optic
nerve. Curiously enough, however, they differ from the cephalic
Molluscan eye in the fact that, as in the vertebrate eye, the filaments
of the optic nerve penetrate the retina, and are connected with the
526
GASTROTRICHA
surfaces of the nerve-end cells nearer the lens instead of with the
opposite end. The significance of this arrangement is not known,
but it is important to note, as shown by V. Henson, S. J. Hickson and
others, that in the bivalves Pecten and Spondylus, which also have
eyes upon the mantle quite distinct from typical cephalic eyes,
there is the same relationship as in Oncidiidae of the optic nerve to
the retinal cells. In both Oncidiidae and Pecten the palhal eyes have
probably been developed by the modification of tentacles, such as
coexist in an unmodified form with the eyes. The Oncidiidae are,
according to K. Semper, pursued as food by the leaping fish Perioph-
thalmus, and the dorsal eyes are of especial value to them in qiding
them to escape from this enemy.
Sub-order I. BASOMMATOPHORA. Pulmonata with an external
shell. The head bears a single pair of contractile but not invaginable
tentacles, at the base of which are the eyes. Penis at some distance
from the female aperture, except in Amphibola and Siphonaria.
All have an osphradium, except the Auriculidae, which are terres-
trial, and it is situated outside the pallial cavity in those forms in
which water is not admitted into the lung. There is a veliger stage
in development, but the velum is reduced.
Fam. i. Auriculidae. Terrestrial and usually littoral; genital
duct monaulic, the penis being connected with the aperture by
an open or closed groove; shell with a prominent spire, the
internal partitions often absorbed and the aperture denticulated.
Auricula. Cassidula. Alexia. Melampus. Carychium,
terrestrial, British. Scarabus. Leuconia, British. Blauneria.
Pedipes.
Fam. 2. Otinidae. Shell with short spire, and wide oval aperture;
tentacles short. Otina, British. Camptonyx, terrestrial.
Fam. 3. Amphibolidae. Shell spirally coiled; head broad,
without prominent tentacles; foot short, operculated; marine.
Amphibela.
Fam. 4. Siphonariidae. Visceral mass and shell conical; ten-
tacles atrophied; head expanded; genital apertures con-
tiguous; marine animals, with an aquatic pallial cavity con-
taining secondary branchial laminae. Siphonaria.
Fam. 5. Gadiniidae. Visceral mass and shell conical; head
flattened; pallial cavity aquatic, but without a branchia;
genital apertures separated. Gadinia.
Fam. 6. Chilinidae. Shell ovoid, with short spire, wide aperture
and folded cplumella; inferior pallial lobe thick; visceral
commissure still twisted. Chilina.
Fam. 7. Limnaeidae. Shell thin, dextral, with prominent spire
and oval aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. Limnaea, British.
Amphipeplea, British.
Fam. 8. Pompholygidae. Shell dextral, hyperstrophic, animal
sinistral. Pompholyx. Choanomphalus.
Fam. 9. Planorbidae. Visceral mass and shell sinistral ; inferior
pallial lobe very prominent, and transformed into a branchia.
Planorbis, British. Bulinus. Miratesta.
Fam. 10. Ancylidae. Shell conical, not spiral; inferior pallial
lobe transformed into a branchia. Ancylus, British. Latia.
Grundlachia.
Fam. II. Physidae. Visceral mass and shell sinistrally coiled;
shell thin, with narrow aperture ; no inferior pallial lobe. Physa,
British. Aplexa, British.
Sub-order 2. STYLOMMATOPHORA. Pulmonata with two pairs
of tentacles, except Janellidae and Vertigo; these tentacles are in-
vaginable, and the eyes are borne on the summits of the posterior
pair. Male and female genital apertures open into a common vesti-
bule, except in VaginuTidae and Oncidiidae. Except in Oncidium,
there is no longer a veliger stage in development.
Tribe I. HOLOGNATHA. Jaw simple, without a superior ap-
pendage.
Fam. i. Selenitidae. Radula with elongated and pointed teeth,
like those of the Agnatha; a jaw present. Plutonia. Trigo-
nochlamys.
Fam. 2.Zonitidae. Shell external, smooth, heliciform or
flattened; radula with pointed marginal teeth. Zonites,
British. Ariophanta. Orpiella. Vitrina. Helicarion.
Fam. 3. Limacidae. Shell internal. Limax, British. Parma-
cella. Urocyclus. Parmarion. Amalia. Agriolimax.
Mesolimax. Monochroma. Paralimax. Metalimax.
Fam. 4. PhUomycidae. No shell; mantle covers the whole
surface of the body; radula with squarish teeth. Philomycus.
Fam. 5. Ostracolethidae. Shell largely chitinous, not spiral, its
calcareous apex projecting through a small hole in the mantle.
Ostracolethe.
Fam. 6. Arionidae. Shell internal, or absent; mantle restricted
to the anterior and middle part of the body; radula with
squarish teeth. Arion, British. Geomalacus. Ariolimax. Ana-
denus.
Fam. 7. Helicidae. Shell with medium spire, external or partly
covered by the mantle; genital aperture below the right pos-
terior tentacle; genital apparatus generally provided with a
dart-sac and multifid vesicles. Helix, British. Bulimus.
Hemphillia. Berendtia. Cochlostyla. Rhodca.
Fam. 8. Endodontidae. Shell external, spiral, generally orna-
mented with ribs; borders of aperture thin and not reflected;
radula with square teeth; genital ducts without accessory
organs. Endodonta. Punctum. Sphyradium. Laoma. Pyra-
midula.
Fam. 9. Orthalicidae. Shell external, ovoid, the last whorl
swollen, aperture oval with a simple border; radular teeth in
oblique rows. Orthalicus.
Fam. 10. Bulimulidae. Jaw formed of folds imbricated exter-
nally and meeting at an acute angle near the base. Bulimulus.
Peltella. Amphibulimus.
Fam. n. Cylindrellidae. Shell turriculated, with numerous
whorls, the last more or less detached. Cylindrella.
Fam. 12. Pupidae. Shell external, with elongated spire and
numerous whorls, aperture generally narrow; male genital
duct without multifid vesicles. Pupa, British. Eucalodium.
Vertigo, British. Buliminus, British. Clausilia, British. Balea.
Zospeum. Megaspira. Strophia. Anostoma.
Fam. 13. Stenogyridae. Shell elongated, with a more or less
obtuse summit; aperture with a simple border. Achatina.
Stenogyra. Ferussacia, British. Cionetta. Caecilianella.
Azeca. Opeas.
Fam. 14. Helicteridae. Shell bulimoid, dextral or sinistral;
radular teeth, expanded at their extremities and multicuspidate.
Helicter. Tornatellina.
Tribe 2. AGNATHA. No jaws; teeth narrow and pointed;
carnivorous.
Fam. l.Oleacinidae. Shell oval, elongated, with narrow aper-
ture; neck very long; labial palps prominent. Oleacina
(Glandina). Streptostyla.
Fam. 2. Testacellidae. Shell globular or auriform, external or
partly covered by the mantle. Streptaxis. Gibbulina. Aerope.
Rhytida. Daudebardia. Testacella. Chlamydophorus. Schizo-
glossa.
Fam. 3. Rathouisiidae. No shell, a carinated mantle covering
the whole body ; male and female apertures distant, the female
near the anus. Rathouisia. Atopos.
Tribe 3. ELASMOGNATHA. Jaw with a well-developed dorsal
appendage.
Fam. i. Succineidae. Anterior tentacles much reduced; male
and female apertures contiguous but distinct; shell thin,
spiral, with short spire. Succinea, British. Homalonyx. Hya-
limax. Neohyalimax.
Fam. 2. Janeilidae. Limaciform, with internal rounded shell;
mantle very small and triangular; pulmonary chamber with
tracheae; no anterior tentacles. Janella. Aneitella. Aneitea.
Triboniophorus.
Tribe 4. DITREMATA. Male and female apertures distant.
Fam. I. Vaginulidae. No shell; limaciform; terrestrial;
female aperture on right side in middle of body ; anus posterior.
Vaginula.
Fam. 2. Oncidiidae. No shell; limaciform; littoral; female
aperture posterior, near anus; a reduced pulmonary cavity
with a distinct aperture. Oncidium. Oncidiella, British.
Peronia.
AUTHORITIES. L. Boutan, " La Cause principale de I'asymetrie
des mollusques gasteropodes," Arch, de zool. exper. (3), vii. (1899);
A. Lang, " Versuch einer Erklarung der Asymmetric der Gastro-
poder," Vierteljahrsschr. naturforsch. Gesellschaft, Zurich, 36 (1892);
A. Robert, " Recherches sur le developpement des Troques," Arch,
de zool. exper. (3), x. (1903); P. Pelseneer, " Report on the Ptero-
poda," Zool. " Challenger Expedit. pts. Iviii., Ixv., Ixvi. (1887,
1888) ; P. Pelseneer, " Protobranches a^riens et Pulmonei branchi-
feres," Arch, de biol. xiv. (1895) ; W. A. Herdman, " On the Structure
and Functions of the Cerata or Dorsal Papillae in some Nudi-
branchiate Mollusca," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. (1892) : J. T. Cunning-
ham, " On the Structure and Relations of the Kidney in Aplysia,"
Mitt. Zool. Slat. Neapel, iv. (1883) ; Bohmig, " Zur feineren Anatomie
von Rhodope veranyi, Kolliker," Zeitschr.f. wiss. Zool. vol. Ivi. (1893).
TREATISES. S. P. Woodward, Manual of the Mollusca (2nd ed.,
with appendix, London, 1869) ; E. Forbes and S. Hanley, History
of British Mollusca (4 vols., London, 1853); Alder and Hancock,
Monograph of British Nudibranchiate Mollusca (London, Roy.
Society, 1845); P. Pelseneer, Mollusca. Treatise on Zoel., edited
by E. Ray Lankester, pt. v. (1906); E. Ray Lankester, "Mollusca,"
in gth ed. of this Encyclopaedia, to which this article is much in-
debted. (J T. C.)
GASTROTRICHA, a small group of fairly uniform animals
which live among Rotifers and Protozoa at the bottom of ponds
and marshes, hiding amongst the recesses of the algae and
sphagnum and other fresh-water plants and eating organic
d6bris and Infusoria. They are of minute size varying from one-
sixtieth to one-three-hundredth of an inch, and they move by
means of long cilia. Two ventral bands composed of regular
transverse rows of cilia are usually found. The head bears some
especially large cilia. The cuticle which covers the body is here
and there raised into overlapping scales which may be prolonged
into bristles. An enlarged, frontal scale may cover the head, and
a row of scales separates the ventral ciliated areas from one
GATAKER GATE
527
another, whilst two series of alternating rows cover the back and
side. The body, otherwise circular in section, is slightly flattened
vrnt rally. The mouth is anterior and slightly ventral; it leads
into a protrusible pharynx armed with recurved teeth that can be
everted. This leads to a muscular
oesophagus with a triradiate lumen,
which acts as a sucking pump and
ends in a funnel-valve projecting
into the stomach. The last named
is oval and formed of four rows of
large cells; it is separated by a
sphincter from the rectum, which
opens posteriorly and dorsally.
The nitrogenous excretory appara-
tus consists of a coiled tube on each
side of the stomach; internally the
tubes end in large flame-cells, and
externally by small pores which lie
on the edges of the ventral row of
scales. A cerebral ganglion rests on
the oesophagus and supplies the
cephalic cilia and hairs; it is con-
tinued some way back as two dorsal
nerve trunks. The sense organs are
the hairs and bristles and in some
species eyes. The muscles are simple
and unstriated and for the most part
run longitudinally.
The two ovaries lie at the level of
the juncture of the stomach and
rectum. The eggs become very
large, sometimes half the length of
?f^,imMm'' f*Tiiif nTi P Eaf- tne mother ; tn y are laid amongst
water weeds. The male reproductive
system is but little known, a small
gland lying between the ovaries has
been thought to be a testis, and if
it be, the Gastrotricha are herma-
phrodite.
Zelinka classifies the group as fol-
lows:
Sub-order i. EUICHTHYDINA with a
forked tail.
(i.) Fam. Ichthydidae, without
bristles. Genera : Ichthydium, Lepido-
derma.
(ii.) Fam. Chaetonotidae, with
bristles. Genera : Chaetonotus,
Chaetura.
Sub-order 2. APODINA, tail not
Dasydytes, Gossea,
latxkntl fir Wiiint-
Zulitit, vol. dtx. p. ion,
'* of WOhdrn Engcl-
<lus maximus,
Ehrb.. ventral side. (After
Zelinka.)
Bo, Bristles surrounding
the mouth.
ds, Donal bristles.
hCi. Posterior lateral cilia.
Ke, Cuticular dome.
tlr. Oral cavity.
/ r. Lateral sensory hairs.
PI. Cuticular plates.
-So, Donal bristle of the
basal pan.
Sck, Plates.
St, Lateral bristles.
K4, Point of union of cili-
ated tract.
fCi, Anterior group of cilia, forked. Genera:
S, Ventral bristles of the Stylochaeta.
basal pan.
The genus Aspidiophorus recently
described by Voigt seems in some
respects intermediate between Lepidoderma and Chaetonotus.
Ztttnkta and Pktiosyrtis are two slightly aberrant forms described
by Giard from certain diatomaceous sands. Altogether there must
be some forty to fifty described species.
The group is an isolated one and shows no clear affinities with any
of the great phyla. Those that are usually dwelt on are treated
with the Rotifers and Nematoda and Turbcllaria.
LITI*ATU. A. C. Stokes, The Microscope (Detroit, 1887-1888) ;
C. Zelinka, Ztitstkr. visi. Zool. xlix., 1890, p. 209; M. Voigt,
Forukber. Pl6n. Th. ix.. 1904. p. i ; A. Giard, C. R. Soc. Biol. Ivi.
pp. 1061 and 1063; E. Daday. Termes. Futetek. xxiv. p. i; F.
S. II lava, Zool. Am.
(A. E. S.)
Zichokke, Denk. Sckwei*. Get. xxzvii. p. 109;
xxviii., 1005, p. 331.
GATAKER. THOMAS (1574-1654), English divine, was born
in London in September 1574, and educated at St John's College,
Cambridge. From loot to 1611 be held the appointment of
preacher to the society of Lincoln's Inn, which he resigned on
accepting the rectory of Rotherhithe. In 1642 he was chosen a
member of the assembly of divines at Westminster, and annotated
for that assembly the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Lamenta-
tions. He disapproved of the introduction of the Covenant,
and declared himself in favour of episcopacy. He was one of
the forty-seven London clergymen who disapproved of the
trial of Charles I. He was married four times, and died in July
His principal works, besides some volumes of sermons arc On
the Nature and Use of Lots (1619), a curious treatise which led to his
being accused of favouring games of chance; Dissertatio de stylo
Novt Testament! (1648); Cinnus, sive Adversaria miscellanea, in
quibus Sacrae Scripturae prime, deinde aliorum scriptorum, locis
aliquam multis lux redditur (1651), to which was afterwards sub-
joined Adversaria Poslhuma; and his edition of Marcus Antoninus
(1652), which, according to Hallam, is the " earliest edition of any
classical writer published in England with original annotations, '
and, for the period at which it was written, possesses remarkable
merit. His collected works were published at Utrecht in 1698.
GATCHINA, a town of Russia, in the government of St Peters-
burg, 29 m. by rail S. of the city of St Petersburg, in 59 "34' N. and
30 6' E. Pop. (1860) 9184; (1897) 14,735. I' i s situated in a
flat, well-wooded, and partly marshy district, and on the south
side of the town are two lakes. Among its more important
buildings are the imperial palace, which was founded in 1770 by
Prince Orlov, and constructed according to the plans of the
Italian architect Rinaldi; a military orphanage, founded in
1803; and a school for horticulture. Among the few industrial
establishments is a porcelain factory. At Gatchina an alliance
was concluded between Russia and Sweden on the 29th of October
1799.
GATE, an opening into any enclosure for entrance or exit,
capable of being closed by a barrier at will. The word is of wide
application, embracing not only the defensive entrance ways into
a fortified place, with which this article mainly deals, or the
imposing architectural features which form the main entrances to
palaces, colleges, monastic buildings, &c., but also the common
five-barred barrier which closes an opening into a field . The most
general distinction that can be made between " door " and
" gate " is that of size, the greater entrance into a court contain-
ing other buildings being the " gate," the smaller entrances
opening directly into the particular buildings the " doors," or
that of construction, the whole entrance way being a " gate " or
gateway, the barrier which closes it a " door." A further dis-
tinction is drawn by applying " door " to the solid barriers or
" valves " of wood, metal, &c., made in panels and fitted to a
framework, and " gate " to an openwork structure, whether of
metal or wood (see further DOOR and METAL- WORK). The
ultimate origin of the word is obscure; the early forms appear
with a palatalized initial letter, still surviving in such dialectical
forms as " yate," or in Scots " yett." It is probably connected
with the root of " get," in the sense either of " means of access "
or of " holding,"" receptacle " ;cf. Dutch gat, hole. There may be
a connexion, however, with " gate," now usually spelled " gait,"
a manner of walking, 1 but originally a way, passage; cf. Ger.
Gasse, narrow street, lane.
The entrance through the enclosing walls of a city or fortifica-
tion has been from the earliest times a place of the utmost
importance, considered'architecturally, socially or from the point
of view of the military engineer. In the East .the " gate " was
and still is in many Mahommedan countries the central place of
civic life. Here was the seat of justice and of audience, the most
important market-place, the spot where men gathered to receive
and exchange news. The references in the Bible to the gates of
the city in all these varied aspects are innumerable (cf. Gen. xix.
i; Deut. xxv. 7; Ruth iv. i; 2 Sam. xix. 8; 2 Kings vii. i). Later
the seat of justice and of government is transferred to the gate of
the palace of the king (cf. Dan. ii. 49, and Esther ii. 19), and this
use is preserved to-day in the official title of the seat of govern-
ment of the Turkish empire at Constantinople, the " Sublime
Porte," a translation of the Turkish Bab Aliy (bob, gate, and aliy,
high). A full account with many modern instances of Eastern
customs will be found in Sir Charles Warren's article " Gate " in
1 The spelling " gait " is confined to this meaning the only literary
one surviving. In the form " gate " it appears dialectally in this
sense and in such particular meanings as a right to run cattle on
common or private ground or as a passage way in mines. The prin-
cipal survival is in names of streets in the north and midlands of
England and in Scotland, e.g. Briggate at Leeds, Wheeler Gate and
Castle Gate at Nottingham, Gallow Tree Gate at Leicester, and
Canongate and Cowgate at Edinburgh.
GATE
Hastings's Diet, of Bible. For the " pylon," the typical gate of
Egyptian architecture, see ARCHITECTURE.
The gates into a walled town or other fortified place were
necessarily in early times the chief points on which the attack
concentrated, and the features, common throughout the ages, of
flanking or surmounting towers and of galleries over the entrance
way, are found in the Assyrian gate at Khorsabad (cf. 2 Chron.
xxvi. 9; 2 Sam. xviii. 24). With the coming of peaceful times to
a city or the removal of the fear of sudden attack, the gateways
would take a form adapted more for ready exit and entrance
than for defence, though the possibility of defending them was
not forgotten. Such city gates often had separate openings
for entrance and exit, and again for foot passengers and for
vehicles. The Gallo-Roman gate at Autun has four entrances,
two just wide enough to admit carriages, and two narrow alleys
for foot passengers. A fine example of a Roman city gate, dating
from the time of Gonstantine, is at Treves. It is four storeys
high, with ornamental windows, and decorated with columns
on each storey. The two outer wings project beyond the central
part, the two entrance ways are 14 ft. wide, and could be closed by
doors and a portcullis. The chambers in the storeys above were
used for the purposes of civil administration. In more modern
times city gateways have often followed the type of the Roman
triumphal arch, with a single wide opening and purely ornamental
superstructure. On the other hand, the defensive gate formed
by an archway entering as it were through a tower has been
constantly followed as a type of entrance to buildings of an
entirely peaceful character. A fine example of such a gateway,
originally built for defence, is at Battle Abbey; this was built
by Abbot Retlynge in 1338, when Edward III. granted a licence
to fortify and crenellate the abbey. Such gateways are typical
of Tudor palaces, as at St James's or at Hampton Court, and are
the most common form in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge.
The Tom Gate at Christ Church, Oxford, with its surmounted
domed bell tower, or the cupola resting on columns at Queen's
College, Oxford, are further examples of the gate architecturally
considered.
The changes the fortified gateway has undergone in construction
and the varying relative importance it has held in the scheme
of defence follow the lines of development taken by the history
of FORTIFICATION AND SIEGECRAFT (q.v.). The following is a
short sketch of the main stages in its history. A good example
of the Roman fortified city gate still remains at Pompeii. Here
there is one passage way for vehicles, 14 ft. wide; this is open to
the sky. The two footways on either side are arched, with
openings in the centre on to the central way. The doors of the
gate are on the city side, but a portcullis (cataracta) closed it
on the country side. The gateways of the Roman permanent
camps (castra slativa) were four in number, the porla praeloria
and Decumana at either end, with principalis dextra and sinistra
on the side (see also CAMP). At Pevensey (Anderida) a small
postern on the north side of the Roman walls was laid bare
in 1906-1907, in which the passage curves in the thickness of the
wall, and from a width admitting two men abreast narrows so
that one alone could block it. Flanking towers or bastions
guarded the main entrances, while in front were built outworks,
of palisades, &c., to protect it; these were known as pro-
castra or anlemuralia, and the entrances to these were placed
so that they could be flanked from the main walls.
In the defence of a fortified place the gate had not only to be
protected from sudden surprise, but also had to undergo pro-
tracted attacks concentrated upon it during a siege. Thus until
the coming of gunpowder, the ingenuity of military engineers
was exhausted in accumulating the most complicated defences
round the gateways, and the strength of a fortified place could
be estimated by the fewness of its gates. Viollet-le-Duc (Diet,
de I'arch. du moyen Age, s.v. Porte) takes the Narbonne and Aude
gates (E. and W.) of Carcassonne as typical instances of this
complication. The following brief account of the Narbonne
Gate (fig. i),one of the principal parts of the work on the fortifica-
tions begun by Philip the Bold in 1285, will give some idea of
the varied means of defence, which may be found individually if
not always in such collective abundance in the fortified gateways
of the middle ages. Two massive towers flanked the actual
entrance and were linked across by an iron chain; over the
entrance (E) was a machicolation, further added to in time of
war by a hoarding of timber; and an outer portcullis fell in
front of the heavy iron-lined doors. On to the passage way
between the first and second doors opened a square machicolation
(G) from which the defenders in the upper chambers of the gate
could attack an enemy that had succeeded in breaking through
the first entrance or had been trapped by the falling of the first
portcullis. Another machicolation (I) opened from the roof in
front of the second portcullis and second door. So much for the
gate itself; but before an attack could reach that point, the
following defences had to be passed: an immense circular
barbican (A) protected the entrance across the moat and through
the outer enceinte of the city. This entrance was flanked by a
masked return of the wall (C), while palisades (P) still further
hampered the assailant in his passage across the " lists " to the
foot of the gate towers. Here sappers would find themselves
exposed to a fire from the loopholes and from the machicolated
hoardings above them, while the projecting horns with which
The City
The
Ditch
FIG. I. Plan of the Narbonne Gate of the city of Carcassonne.
the face of the towers terminated forced them to uncover them-
selves to a flanking fire from the indents in the main curtain on
either side of the towers.
The later history of the gateway is merged in that of modern
fortification. The more elaborate the gate defences the greater
was the inducement for the besieger to attack the walls, and
improvements in methods of siegecraft ultimately compelled the
defender to develop the enceinte from its medieval form of a ring
wall with flanking towers to the i7th century form of bastions,
curtains, tenailles and ravelins, all intimately connected in one
general scheme of defence. By Vauban's time there is little to
distinguish the position and defences of the gateways from the
rest of the fortifications surrounding a town. A road from the
country usually entered one of the ravelins, sinking into the
glacis, crossing the ditch of the ravelin and piercing the parapet
almost at right angles to its proper direction (see fig. 2, which
also shows a typical arrangement of minor communications
such as ramps and staircases). From the interior of the ravelin
it passed across the main ditch to a gate in the curtain of the
enceinte. The road was in fact artificially made to wind in such a
way that it was kept under fire from the defences throughout, while
the part of it inside the works was bent so as to place a covering
mass between the enemy's fire and troops using the road for a
sortie. Thus the gate itself was merely a barrier against a coup
de main and to keep out unauthorized persons. In conditions
precluding the making of a breach in the walls, i.e. in surprises
and assaults de viw force, the gateway and accompanying
drawbridge continue to play their part in the i6th, lyth and
1 8th centuries, but they seldom or never appear as the objectives
of a siege en regie. In Vauban's works, and those of most other
engineers, there was generally a postern giving access to the
floor of the main ditch, in the centre of the curtain escarp. The
gates of Vauban's and later fortresses are strong heavy wooden
GATEHOUSE GATESHEAD
529
doors, and the gateways more or less ornamental archways,
exactly as in many private mansions of castellar form. In
modern fortresses the gate of a detached fort or an enceinte de
surctt is intended purely as a defence against an unexpected
rush. The usual method is to have two gates, the outer one a
lattice or portcullis of iron bars and the inner one a plate of half-
inch steel armour, backed by wood and loopholed. The defenders
of the gate can by this arrangement fire from the inner loopholes
through the outer gate upon the approaches, and also keep the
enemy under fire whilst he is trying to force the outer gate
Fig. J. Plan of Gate Arrangements of an l8th Century Fortress.
itself. The ditches are crossed either by drawbridges or by ramps
leading the road down to the floor of the ditch.
The " gate " as a barrier to be removed and as an entrance
to bf passed is of constant occurrence in figurative language
and in symbolical usage. The gates of the temple of Janus (q.v.)
at Rome stood open in war and closed in peace. The pylon of
ancient Egypt had a symbolical meaning in the Book of the Dead,
and religious significance attaches to the lorii, one of the outward
signs of the Shinto religion in Japan, the Buddhist toran, and to
the Chinese pji-loo, the honorific gateways erected to ancestors.
The gates of heaven and hell, the gates of death and darkness,
the wide and narrow gates that lead to destruction and life
(Matt. vii. 13 and 14), are familiar metaphorical phrases in the
Bible. In Greek and Roman legend dreams pass through
gates of transparent horn if true, if deceptive and false
through opaque gates of ivory (Horn. Od. xix. 560 sq.; Virg.
Aen. vi. 893). (C. WE.)
GATEHOUSE. In the second half of the i6th century in
England the entrance gateway, which formed part of the principal
front of the earlier feudal castles, became a detached feature
attached to the mansions only by a wall enclosing the entrance
court. The gatehouse then constituted a structure of some
importance, and included sometimes many rooms as at Stanway
Hall, Gloucestershire, where it measures 44 ft. by 22 ft. and has
three storeys; at Westwood, Worcestershire, it had a frontage
of 54 ft. with two storeys; and at Burton Agnes, Yorkshire,
it was still larger and was flanked by great octagonal towers
at the angles and had three storeys. At a later period smaller
accommodation was provided so that it virtually became a lodge,
but being designed to harmonize with the mansion it presented
sometimes a monumental structure. On the continent of
Europe the gatehouse forms a much more important building,
as it formed part of the town fortifications, where it sometimes
defended the passage of a bridge across the stream or moat.
There are numerous examples in France and Germany.
GATES. HORATIO (1728-1806), American general, was born
at Maldon in Essex, England, in 1728. He entered the English
army at an early age, and was rapidly promoted. He accom-
panied General Braddock in his disastrous expedition against
Fort Duquesne in 1755, and was severely wounded in the battle
of July 9; and he saw. other active service in the Seven Years'
War. After the peace of 1 763 he purchased an estate in Virginia,
where he lived till the outbreak of the War of Independence in
1775, when he was named by Congress adjutant-general. In 1776
he was appointed to command the troops which had lately
retreated from Canada, and in August 1777, as a result of a
successful intrigue, was appointed to supersede General Philip
Schuyler in command of the Northern Department. In the two
battles of Saratoga (g.v.) his army defeated General Burgoyne,
who, on the i7th of October, was forced to surrender his whole
army. This success was, however, largely due to the previous
manoeuvres of Schuyler and to Gates's subordinate officers. The
intrigues of the Conway Cabal to have Washington superseded
by Gates completely failed, but Gates was president for a time
of the Board of War, and in 1780 was placed in chief command in
the South. He was totally defeated at Camden, S.C., by Corn-
wallis on the i?th of August 1780, and in December was super-
seded by Greene, though an investigation into his conduct
terminated in acquittal (1782). He then retired to his Virginian
estate, whence he removed to New York in 1790, after emancipat-
ing his slaves and providing for those who needed assistance.
He died in New York on the loth of April 1806.
GATESHEAD, a municipal, county and parliamentary
borough of Durham, England; on the S. bank of the Tyne
opposite Newcastle, and on the North Eastern railway. Pop.
(1891) 85,692; (1901) 109,888. Though one of the largest
towns in the county, neither its streets nor its public buildings,
except perhaps its ecclesiastical buildings, have much claim
to architectural beauty. The parish church of St Mary is an
ancient cruciform edifice surmounted by a lofty tower; but
extensive restoration was necessitated by a fire in 1834 which
destroyed a considerable part of the town. The town-hall, public
library and mechanic's institute are noteworthy buildings.
Education is provided by a grammar school, a large day school
for girls, and technical and art schools. There is a service of
steam trams in the principal streets, and three fine bridges
connect the town with Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There are large
iron works (including foundries and factories for engines, boilers,
chains and cables), shipbuilding yards, glass manufactories,
chemical, soap and candle works, brick and tile works, breweries
and tanneries. The town also contains a depot of the North
Eastern railway, with large stores and locomotive works. Exten-
sive coal mines exist in the vicinity; and at Gateshead Fell are
large quarries for grindstones, which are much esteemed and are
exported to all parts of the world. Large gas-works of the
Newcastle and Gateshead Gas Company arc also situated in the
borough. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
The corporation consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 27
councillors. Area, 3132 acres.
Gateshead (Gateshewed) probably grew up during late Saxon
times, the mention of the church there in which Bishop Walcher
was murdered in 1080 being the first evidence of settlement.
The borough probably obtained its charter during the following
century, for Hugh de Puiset, bishop of Durham (1153-1195),
confirmed to his burgesses similar rights to those of the burgesses
of Newcastle, freedom of toll within the palatinate and other
privileges. The bishop had a park here in 1348, and in 1438
Bishop N'evill appointed a keeper of the " tower." The position
of the town led to a struggle with Newcastle over both fishing
and trading rights. An inquisition of 1322 declared that the
water of the Tyne was divided into three parts: the northern,
belonging to Northumberland; the southern to Durham; and
the central, common to all. At another inquisition held in 1336
the men of Gateshead claimed liberty of trading and fishing
along the coast of Durham, and freedom to sell their fish where
they would. In 1552, on the temporary extinction of the
diocese of Durham, Gateshead was attached to Newcastle, but
in 1554 was regranted to Bishop Tunstall. As compensation
the bishop granted to Newcastle, at a nominal rent, the Gateshead
salt-meadows, with rights of way to the High Street, thus
abolishing the toll previously paid to the bishop. During the
next century Bishop Tunstall's successors incoroorated nearly
all the various trades of Gateshead, and Cromwell continued
this policy. The town government during this period was by
530
GATH GAUDEN
the bishop's bailiff, and the holders of the burgages composed
the juries of the bishop's courts leet and baron. No charter of
incorporation is extant, but in 1563 contests were carried on
under the name of the bailiffs, burgesses and commonalty, and
a list of borough accounts exists for 1696. The bishop appointed
the last borough bailiff in 1681, and though the inhabitants in
1772 petitioned for a bailiff the town remained under a steward
and grassmen until the igth century. As part of the palatinate
of Durham, Gateshead was not represented in parliament until
1832. At the inquisition of 1336 the burgesses claimed an annual
fair on St Peter's Day, and depositions in 1 5 7 7 mention a borough
market held on Tuesday and Friday, but these were apparently
extinct in Camden's day, and no grant of them is extant. The
medieval trade seems to have centred round the fisheries and the
neighbouring coal mines which are mentioned in 1364 and also
by Leland.
GATH, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is
frequently mentioned in thehistorical booksof theOld Testament,
and from Amos vi. 2 we conclude that, like Ashdod, it fell to
Sargon in 711. Its site appears to have been known in the 4th
century, but the name is" now lost. Eusebius (in the Onomasticon)
places it near the road from Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin) to
Diospolis (Ludd) about five Roman miles from the former. The
Roman road between these two towns is still traceable, and its
milestones remain in places. East of the road at the required
distance rises a white cliff, almost isolated, 300 ft. high and
full of caves. On the top is the little mud village of Tell es-Safi
(" the shining mound "), and beside the village is the mound
which marks the site of the Crusaders' castle of Blanchegarde
(Alba Custodia), built in 1144. Tell es-Safi was known by its
present name as far back as the iath century; but it appears
not improbable that the strong site here existing represents
the ancient Gath. The cliff stands on the south side of the
mouth of the Valley of Elah, and Gath appears to have been
near this valley (i Sam. xvii. 2, 52). This identification is not
certain, but it is at least much more probable than the theory
which makes Gath, Eleutheropolis, and Beit Jibrin one and the
same place. The site was partially excavated by the Palestine
Exploration Fund in 1899, and remains extending in date
back to the early Canaanite period were discovered.
CATLING, RICHARD JORDAN (1818-1903), American in-
ventor, was born in Hertford county, North Carolina, on the
I2th of September 1818. He was the son of a well-to-do planter
and slave-owner, from whom he inherited a genius for mechanical
invention and whom he assisted in the construction and perfecting
of machines for sowing cotton seeds, and for thinning the plants.
He was well educated and was successively a school teacher and a
merchant, spending all his spare time in developing new inven-
tions. In 1839 he perfected a practical screw propeller for steam-
boats, only to find that a patent had been granted to John
Ericsson for a similar invention a few months earlier. He estab-
lished himself in St Louis, Missouri, and taking the cotton-
sowing machine as a basis he adapted it for sowing rice, wheat and
other grains, and established factories for its manufacture. The
introduction of these machines did much to revolutionize the
agricultural system in the country. Becoming interested in the
study of medicine through an attack of smallpox, he completed a
course at the Ohio Medical College, taking his M. D . degree in 1 8 50.
In the same year he invented a hemp-breaking machine, and in
1857 a steam plough. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was
living in Indianapolis, and devoted himself at once to the perfect-
ing of fire-arms. In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid fire
machine-gun which is associated with his name. By 1862 he
had succeeded in perfecting a gun that would discharge 350
shots per minute ; but the war was practically over before the
Federal authorities consented to its official adoption. From that
time, however, the success of the invention was assured, and
within ten years it had been adopted by almost every civilized
nation. Catling died in New York City on the 26th of February
1903.
GATTY, MARGARET (1809-1873), English writer, daughter of
the Rev. Alexander Scott (1768-1840), chaplain to Lord Nelson,
was born at Burnham, Essex, in 1809. She early began to draw
and to etch on copper, being a regular visitor to the print-room
of the British Museum from the age of ten. She also illuminated
on vellum, copying the old strawberry borders and designing
initials. In 1839 Margaret Scott married the Rev. Alfred Gatty,
D.D., vicar of Ecclesfield near Sheffield, subdean of York
cathedral, and the author of various works both secular and re-
ligious. In 1842 she published in association with her husband a
life of her father; but her first independent work was The Fairy
Godmother and other Tales, which appeared in 1851. This was
followed in 1855 by the first of five volumes of Parables from
Nature, the last being published in 1871. It was under the nom
de plume of Aunt Judy, as a pleasant and instructive writer for
children, that Mrs Gatty was most widely known. Before start-
ing Aunt Judy's Magazine in May 1866, she had brought out
Aunt Judy's Tales (1858) and Aunt Judy's Letters (1862), and
among the other children's books which she subsequently
published were Aunt Judy's Song Book for Children and The
Mother's Book of Poetry. " Aunt Judy " was the nickname given
by her daughter Juliana Horatia Ewing (q.v.). The editor of the
magazine was on the friendliest terms with her young corre-
spondents and subscribers, and her success was largely due to the
sympathy which enabled her to look at things from the child's
point of view. Besides other excellences her children's books
are specially characterized by wholesomeness of sentiment and
cheerful humour. Her miscellaneous writings include, in addition
to several volumes of tales, The Old Folks from Home, an account
of a holiday ramble in Ireland; The Travels and Adventures of
Dr Wolf the Missionary (1861), an autobiography edited by
her; British Sea Weeds (1862); Waifs and Strays of Natural
History (1871); A Book of Emblems and The Book of Sun-
Dials (1872). She died at Ecclesfield vicarage on the 4th of
October 1873.
GAU, JOHN (c. 1495-? 1553), Scottish translator, was born at
Perth towards the close of the i5th century. He was educated
in St Salvator's College at St Andrews. He appears to have been
in residence at Malmo in 1533, perhaps as chaplain to the Scots
community there. In that year John Hochstraten, the exiled
Antwerp printer, issued a book by Gau entitled: The Richt vay
to the Kingdome of Heuine, of which the chief interest is that it is
the first Scottish book written on the side of the Reformers. It is
a translation of Christiern Pedersen's Den rette vey till Hiemmerigis
Rige (Antwerp, 1531), for the most part direct, but showing
intimate knowledge in places of the German edition of Urbanus
Rhegius. Only one copy of Gau's text is extant, in the library of
Britwell Court, Bucks. It has been assumed that all the copies
were shipped from Malmo to Scotland, and that the cargo was
intercepted by the Scottish officers on the look out for the
heretical works which were printed abroad in large numbers.
This may explain the silence of all the historians of the Reformed
Church Knox, Calderwood and Spottiswood. Gau married in
1536 a Malmo citizen's daughter, bearing the Christian name
Birgitta. She died in 1531, and he in or about 1553.
The first reference to the Richt Vay appeared in Chalmers's
Caledonia, ii. 616. Chalmers, who was the owner of the unique
volume before it passed into the Britwell Court collection, considered
it to be an original work. David Laing printed extracts for the
Bannatyne Club (Miscellany, iii., 1855). The evidence that the
book is a translation was first given by Sonnenstein Wendt in a
paper " Om Reformatorerna i Malmo, ' in Rordam's Ny Kirke-
historiske Samlinger, ii. (Copenhagen, 1860). A complete edition was
edited by A. F. Mitchell for the Scottish Text Society (1888). See
also Lonmer's Patrick Hamilton.
GAUDEN, JOHN (1605-1662), English bishop and writer,
reputed author of the Eikon Basilike, was born in 1605 at May-
land, Essex, where his father was vicar of the parish. Educated
at Bury St Edmunds school and at St John's College, Cambridge,
he took his M.A. degree in 1625/6. He married Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir William Russell of Chippenham, Cambridgeshire,
and was tutor at Oxford to two of his wife's brothers. He seems
to have remained at Oxford until 1630, when he became vicar of
Chippenham. His sympathies were at first with the parlia-
mentary party. He was chaplain to Robert Rich, second earl of
Warwick, and preached before the House of Commons in 1640.
GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRE GAUDY
In 1641 be was appointed to the rural deanery of Booking.
Apparently hii views changed as the revolutionary tendency of
the Presbyterian party became more pronounced, for in 1648/9
'he addressed to Lord Fairfax A Religious and Loyal Pro-
testation . . . ajpunst the proceedings of the parliament. Under
the Commonwealth he faced both ways, keeping his ecclesiastical
preferment . but publishing from time to time pamphlets on behalf
of the Church of England. At the Restoration he was made
bishop of Kxeter. He immediately began to complain to Hyde,
earl of Clarendon, of the poverty of the see, and based claims for a
better benefice on a certain secret service, which he explained on
the joth of January 1661 to be the sole invention of the Eikon
Basilike, The Powtraicture of his sacred Majestic in his Solitudes
and Su/erings put forth within a few hours after the execution of
Charles I. as written by the king himself. To which Clarendon
replied that he had been before acquainted with the secret and
had often wished he had remained ignorant of it. Gauden
was advanced in 1662, not as he had wished to the see of
Winchester, but to Worcester. He died on the 23rd of May of
the same year.
The evidence in favour of Gauden's authorship rests chiefly on
his own assertions and those of his wife (who after his death sent
to her son John a narrative of the claim), and on the fact that it
was admitted by Clarendon, who sould have had means of being
acquainted with the truth. Gauden's letters on the subject are
printed in the appendix to vol. iii. of the Clarendon Papers. The
argument is that Gauden had prepared the book to inspire
sympathy with the king by a representation of his pious and
forgiving disposition, and so to rouse public opinion against his
execution. In 1693 further correspondence between Gauden,
Clarendon, the duke of York, and Sir Edward Nicholas was
published by Mr Arthur North, who had found them among the
papers of his sister-in-law, a daughter-in-law of Bishop Gauden;
but doubt has been thrown on the authenticity of these papers.
Gauden stated that he had begun the book in 1647 and was
entirely responsible for it. But it is contended that the work was
in existence at Naseby, 1 and testimony to Charles's authorship
is brought forward from various witnesses who had seen Charles
himself occupied with it at various times during his imprisonment.
It is stated that the MS. was delivered by one of the king's agents
to Edward Symmons, rector of Raine, near Hocking, and that it
was in the handwritingof Oudart, Sir Edward Nicholas'ssecretary.
The internal evidence has, as is usual in such cases, been brought
forward as a conclusive argument in favour of both contentions.
Doubt was thrown on Charles's authorship in Milton's Eikonok-
&ufej(i64Q), which was followed almost immediately by aroyalist
answer, The Princely Pelican. Royall Resolves Extracted from
his Majesty's Divine Meditations, with satisfactory reasons . . .
that his Sacred Person was the only Author of them (1649). The
history of the whok controversy; which has been several times
renewed, was dealt with in Christopher Wordsworth's tracts in
a most exhaustive way. He eloquently advocated Charles's
authorship. Since he wrote in 1829, some further evidence has
been forthcoming in favour of the Naseby copy. A correspond-
ence relating to the French translation of the work has also
come to light among the papers of Sir Edward Nicholas. None of
the letters show any doubt that King Charles was the author.
S. R. Gardiner (Hist, of the Great Civil War, iv. 325) regards Mr
Doble's ankles in the Academy (May and June 1883) as finally
disposing of Charles's claim to the authorship, but this is by no
means the attitude of other recent writers. If Gauden was the
author, he may have incorporated papers, &c., by Charles, who
may have corrected the work and thus been joint-author. This
theory would reconcile the conflicting evidence, that of those who
saw Charles writing parts and read the MS. before publication,
and the deliberate statements of Gauden.
See also the article by Richard Hooper in the Diet. Nat. Bio;. :
Christopher Word worth. Who wrote Eikon Basilike? two letters
addreMed to the archbishop of Canterbury (1824), and King Charles
Ike Pint, the Author of Icon Basilike (1828)* H. J. Todd, A Letter
1 See a note in Archbishop Tenison's handwriting in his copy of the
Eikon Basilike preserved at Lambeth Palace, and quoted in Almack's
Bthitograpky. p. 15.
to the Archbishop of Canterbury concerning Eikon Basilike (1825);
RisHop Gauden. The Author of the Icon Basil ikr (1829); W. G.
Broughton, A Letter to a Frund (1826), Additional Reasons . . .
(1829), supporting the contention in favour of Dr Gauden; Mr
E. J. L. Scott's introduction to his reprint (1880) of the original
edition; articles in the Academy, May and June 1883, by Mr C. K.
Doble; another reprint edited by Mr Edward Almack for the King's
Classics (1004); and Edward Almack, Bibliography of the King's
Book (1896). This last book contains a summary of the arguments
on either side, a full bibliography of works on the subject, and
facsimiles of the title pages, with full descriptions of the various
extant copies.
GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRE, CHARLES (1789-1854), French
botanist, was born at AngoulCme on the 4th of September 1789.
He studied pharmacy first in the shop of a brother-in-law at
Cognac, and then under P. J. Robiquet at Paris, where from
R. L. Desfontaines and L. C. Richard he acquired a knowledge
of botany. In April 1810 he was appointed dispenser in the
military marine, and from July 181 1 to the end of 1814 he served
at Antwerp. In 1817 he joined the corvette " Uranie " as
pharmaceutical botanist to the circumpolar expedition com-
manded by D. de Freycinet. The wreck of the vessel on the
Falkland Isles, at the close of 1819, deprived him of more than
half the botanical collections he had made in various parts of
the world. In 1830-1833 he visited Chile, Peru and Brazil, and
in 1836-1837 he acted as botanist to " La Bonite " during its
circumnavigation of the globe. His theory accounting for the
growth of plants by the supposed coalescence of elementary
" phytons " involved him, during the latter years of his life,
in much controversy with his fellow-botanists, more especially
C. F. B. de Mirbel. He died in Paris on the i6th of January 1854.
Besides accounts of his voyages round the world, Gaudichaud-
Beauprd wrote " Lettres sur iWganographie et la physiologic,"
Arch, de botanique, ii., 1883; " Recherches gdnerales sur 1'organo-
graphie," &c. (prize essay, 1835), Mem. de I Acadimie des Sciences,
t. viii. and kindred treatises, with memoirs on the potato-blight, the
multiplication of bulbous plants, the increase in diameter of dicoty-
ledonous plants, and other subjects; and Rffutation de loutes les
objections centre Us nouveaux principes physiologiques (1852).
GAUDRY, JEAN ALBERT (1827-1908), French geologist and
palaeontologist, was born at St Germain-en-Laye on the i6th
of September 1827, and was educated at the college, Stanislas.
At the age of twenty-five he made explorations in Cyprus and
Greece, residing in the latter country from 1855 to 1860. He
then investigated the rich deposit of fossil vertebrata at Pikermi
and brought to light a remarkable mammalian fauna, Miocene
in age, and intermediate in its forms between European, Asiatic
and African types. He also published an account of the geology
of the island of Cyprus (Mem. Soc. Gtol. de France, 1862). In
1853, while still in Cyprus, he was appointed assistant to A.
d'Orbigny, who was the first to hold the chair of palaeontology
in the museum of natural history at Paris. In 1872 he succeeded
to this important post; in 1882 he was elected member of the
Academy of Sciences; and in 1900 he presided over the meetings
of the eighth International Congress of Geology then held in
Paris. He died on the 27th of November 1908. He is distin-
guished for his researches on fossil mammalia, and for the support
which his studies have rendered to the theory of evolution.
PUBLICATIONS. A nimaux fossiles et giologie de VAtlique (2 vols.,
1862-1867); Cours de paUontologie (1873); Animaux fossiles du
Mont Leberon (1873); Les Enchatnements du monde animal dans
les temps geohgiques (Mammiferes Tertiaires, 1878 ; Fossiles
primaires, 1883; Fossiles secondaires, 1890); Essai de paleon-
tolotie philosophique (1896). Brief memoir with portrait inCeol.
Mag. (1903), f <-49. (H. B.W.)
GAUDY, an adjective meaning showy, very bright, gay,
especially with a sense of tasteless or vulgar extravagance, of
colour or ornament. The accurate origin of the various senses
which this word and the substantive " gaud " have taken are
somewhat difficult to trace. They are all ultimately to be referred
to the Lat. gaudere, to rejoice, gaudium, joy, some of them
directly, others to the French derivative gaudir, to rejoice, and
O.r'r. gaudie. As a noun, in the sense of rejoicing or feast,
" gaudy " is still used of a commemoration dinner at a college
at the university of Oxford. " Gaud," meaning generally a toy,
a gay adornment, a piece of showy jewelry, is more specifically
applied to larger and more decorative beads in a rosary.
532
GAUERMANN GAUL
GAUERMANK. FRIEDRICH (1807-1862), Austrian painter,
son of the landscape painter Jacob Gauermaun (1773-1843),
was born at Wiesenbach near Gutenstein in Lower Austria
on the 2Oth of September 1807. It was the intention of his father
that he should devote himself to agriculture, but the example
of an elder brother, who, however, died early, fostered his inclina-
tion towards art. Under his father's direction he began studies
in landscape, and he also diligently copied the works of the chief
masters in animal painting which were contained in the academy
and court library of Vienna. In the summer he made art tours
in the districts of Styria, Tirol and Salzburg. Two animal pieces
which he exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1824 were regarded
as remarkable productions for his years, and led to his receiving
commissions in '1825 and 1826 from Prince Metternich and
Caraman, the French ambassador. His reputation was greatly
increased by his picture " The Storm," exhibited in 1829, and
from that time his works were much sought after and obtained
correspondingly high prices. His " Field Labourer " was regarded
by many as the most noteworthy picture in the Vienna exhibition
of 1834, and his numerous animal pieces have entitled him to a
place in the first rank of painters of that class of subjects. The
peculiarity of his pictures is the representation of human and
animal figures in connexion with appropriate landscapes and in
characteristic situations so as to manifest nature as a living
whole, and he particularly excels in depicting the free life of
animals in wild mountain scenery. Along with great mastery
of the technicalities of his arl, his works exhibit patient and keen
observation, free and correct handling of details, and bold and
clear colouring. He died at Vienna on the 7th of July 1862.
Many of his pictures have been engraved, and after his death a
selection of fifty-three of his works was prepared for this purpose
by the Austrian Kunstverein (Art Union).
GAUGE, or GAGE (Med. Lat. gauja, jaugia, Fr. jauge, perhaps
connected with Fr. jale, a bowl, galon, gallon), a standard of
measurement, and also the name given to various instruments
and appliances by which measurement is effected. The word
seems to have been primarily used in connexion with the process
of ascertaining the contents of wine casks; the name gauger
is still applied to certain custom-house officials in the United
States, and in Scotland it means an exciseman. Thence it was
extended to other measurements, and used of the instruments
used in making them or of the standards to which they ( were
referred. In the mechanical arts gauges are employed in great
variety to enable the workmen to ascertain whether the object
he is making is of the proper dimensions (see TOOL), and similar
gauges of various forms are employed to ascertain and to specify
the sizes of manufactured articles such as wire and screws. A
rain gauge is an apparatus for measuring the amount of the
rainfall at any locality, and a wind gauge indicates the pressure
and force of the wind. The boilers of steam engines are provided
with a water gauge and a steam or pressure gauge. The purpose
of the former is to enable the attendant to see whether or not
there is a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler. It consists of
two cocks or taps communicating with the interior, one being
placed at the lowest point to which it is permissible for the water
to fall, and the other at the point above which it should not rise;
a glass tube connects the two cocks, and when they are both open
the water in this stands at the same level as in the boiler. The
steam gauge shows the pressure of the steam in the boiler. One
of the commonest forms, known as the Bourdon gauge, depends
on the fact that a curved tube tends to straighten itself if the
pressure within it is greater than that outside it. This gauge
therefore consists of a curved or coiled tube of elastic material,
and preferably of elliptic section, connected with the boiler and
arranged with a multiplying gear so that its bending or unbending
actuates a pointer moving over a graduated scale. If the pressure
within the tube is less than that outside it, the tube tends to
bend or coil itself up further; with a pointer arranged as before,
the gauge then becomes a vacuum gauge, indicating how far
the pressure in the vessel to which it is attached is below that
of the atmosphere. In railway engineering the gauge of a line
is the distance between the two rails (see RAILWAY). In nautical
language, a ship is said to have the weather gage when she is
to windward of another, and similarly the lee gage when to
leeward of another; in this sense the word is usually spelt " gage,"
a spelling which prevails in America for all sense?,.
GAUHATI, a town of British India, in the Kamrup district
of Eastern Bengal and Assam, mainly on the left or south, but
partly on the right bank of the Brahmaputra. Pop. (1001)
14,244. It is beautifully situated, with an amphitheatre of
wooded hills to the south, but is not very healthy. There are
many evidences, such as ancient earthworks and tanks, of its
historical importance. During the i7th century it was taken
and retaken by Mahommedans and Ahoms eight times in fifty
years, but in 1681 it became the residence of the Ahom governor
of lower Assam, and in 1786 the capital of the Ahom raja. On
the cession of Assam to the British in 1826 it was made the seat
of the British administration of Assam, and so continued till
1874, when the headquarters were removed to Shillong in the
Khasi hills, 67 m. distant, with which Gauhati is connected
by an excellent cart-road. Two much-frequented places of
Hindu pilgrimage are situated in the immediate vicinity, the
temple of Kamakhya on a hill 2 m. west of the town, and the
rocky island of Umananda in the mid-channel of the Brahma-
putra. Gauhati is still the headquarters of the district and of
the Brahmaputra Valley division, though no longer a military
cantonment. It is the river terminus of a section of the Assam-
Bengal railway. There are a second-grade college, a government
high school, a law class and a training school for masters.
Gauhati is an important centre of river trade, and the largest
seat of commerce in Assam. Cotton-ginning, flour-milling, and
an export trade in mustard seed, cotton, silk and forest produce
are carried on. Gauhati suffered very severely from the earth-
quake of the I2th of June 1897.
GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855- ), American artist,
was born in Jersey City, New Jersey, on the 3ist of March 1855.
He was a pupil of J. G. Brown and L. E. Wilmarth, and he
became a painter of military pictures, portraying incidents of
the American Civil War. He was elected an associate of the
National Academy of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a full
academician, and in the latter year became a member of the
Society of American Artists. His important works include:
" Charging the Battery," " News from Home," " Cold Comfort
on the Outpost," " Silenced," " On the Look-out," and " Guerillas
returning from a Raid."
GAUL, the modern form of the Roman Gallia, the name
of the two chief districts known to the Romans as inhabited
by Celtic-speaking peoples, (a) Gallia Cisalpina (or Cilerior,
" Hither "), i.e. north Italy between Alps and Apennines and
(6) the far more important Gallia Transalpina (or Ulterior,
" Further "), usually called Gallia (Gaul) simply, the land
bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, the
Atlantic, the Rhine, i.e. modern France and Belgium with parts
of Holland, Germany and Switzerland. The Greek form of
Gallia was FaXarta, but Galatia in Latin denoted another Celtic
region in central Asia Minor, sometimes styled Gallograecia.
(a) Gallia Cisalpina was mainly conquered by Rome by 222
B.C.; later it adopted Roman civilization; about 42 B.C. it
was united with Italy and its subsequent history is merged in that
of the peninsula. Its chief distinctions are that during the later
Republic and earlier Empire it yielded excellent soldiers, and
thus much aided the success of Caesar against Pompey and of
Octavian against Antony, and that it gave Rome the poet Virgil
(by origin a Celt), the historian Livy, the lyrist Catullus, Cornelius
Nepos, the elder and the younger Pliny and other distinguished
writers. 1
( b) Gaul proper first enters ancient history when the Greek
colony of Massilia was founded (?6oo B.C.)- Roman armies
began to enter it about 218 B.C. In 121 B.C. the coast from
1 When Cisalpine Gaul became completely Romanized, it was
often known as " Gallia Togata," while the Province was dis-
tinguished as " Gallia Bracata " (bracae, incorrectly braccae,
" trousers "), from the long trousers worn by the inhabitants, and
the rest of Gaul as " Gallia Comata," from the inhabitants wearing
their hair long.
GAUL
533
Montpellier to the Pyrenees (i.t. all that was not Mossiliot) with
its port of Narbo (mod. \arbonnf) and its trade route by Toulouse
to the Atlantic, was formed into the province of Gallia Narbonensis
and Narbo itself into a Roman municipality. Commercial
motives prompted the step, and Roman traders and land specu-
lators speedily flocked in. Gradually the province was extended
north of Massilia, up the Rhone, while the Greek town itself
became weak and dependent on Rome.
It is not, however, until the middle of the ist century B.C. that
we have any detailed knowledge of pre- Roman Gaul. The earliest
account is that contained in the Comm<-ntarifs of Julius Ca
According to this authority, Gaul was at that time divided among
three peoples, more or less distinct from one another, the Aquitani,
the Gauls, who called themselves Celts, and the Belgae. The
first of these extended from the Pyrenees to the Garumna
(Garonne); the second, from that river to the Sequana (Seine)
and its chief tributary the Matrona (Marne), reaching eastward
presumably as far as the Rhcnus (Rhine); and the third, from
this bounding line to the mouth of the last-named river, thus
bordering on the Germans. By implication Caesar recognizes
as a fourth division the province of Gallia Narbonensis. By
far the greater pan of the country was a plain watered by
numerous rivers, the chief of which have already been mentioned,
with the exception of its great central stream, the Liger or Ligcris
(Loire). Its principal mountain ranges were Cebennaor Gebenna
(Cevennes) in the south, and Jura, with its continuation Vosegus
or Vogesus (Vosges), in the east. The tribes inhabiting Gaul in
Caesar's time, and belonging to one or other of the three races
distinguished by him, were numerous. Prominent among them,
and dwelling in the division occupied by the Celts, were the
Helvetii, the Sequani and the Aedui, in the basins of the
Rhodanus and its tributary' the Arar (Sa6ne), who, he says, were
reckoned the three most powerful nations in all Gaul; the
Arverni in the mountains of Cebenna; the Senones and Carnutes
in the basin of the Lager; the Veneti and other Armorican tribes
between the mouths of the Liger and Sequana. The Nervii,
Bellovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, Menapii and Aduatuci
were Belgic tribes; the Tarbelli and others were Aquitani;
while the Allobroges inhabited the north of the Provincia, having
been conquered in 121 B.C. The ethnological divisions thus set
forth by Caesar have been much discussed (see CELT, and articles
on the chief tribes).
The Gallic Wars (58-51) of Caesar (q.v.) added all the rest of
Gaul, north-west of the CeVennes, to the Rhine and the Ocean,
and in 40 also annexed Massilia. All Gaul was now Roman
territory. Now the second period of her history opens; it
remained for Roman territory to become romanized.
Caesar bad no time to organize his conquest; this work was
left to Augustus. As settled by him, and in part perhaps also
by his successor Tiberius, it fell into the following five adminis-
trative areas.
(i) Narbonensis, that is, the land between Alps, sea and
CeVennes, extending up the Rhone to Vienne, was as Augustus
found it, distinct in many ways from the rest of Gaul. By nature
it is a sun-steeped southern region, the home of the vine and
olive, of the minstrelsy of the Provencal and the exuberance of
Tartarin, distinct from the colder and more sober north. By
history it had already (in the time of Augustus) been Roman
for from So to 100 years and was familiar with Roman ways. It
was ready to be Italianized and it was civilized enough to need
no garrison. Accordingly, it was henceforward governed by a
proconsul (appointed by the senate) and freed from the burden
of troops, while its local government was assimilated to that of
Italy. The old Celtic tribes were broken up: instead, munici-
palities of Roman citizens were founded to rule their territories.
Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the colonia of Vienna
takes their place: the Volcae vanish and we find Nemausus
(Nlmes). Thus thrown into Italian fashion, the province took
rapidly to Italian ways. By A.D. 70 it was " Italia verius quam
provincia " (Pliny). The Gauls obviously had a natural bias
towards the Italian civilization, and there soon became no
difference between Italy and southern Gaul. But though educa-
tion spread, the results were somewhat disappointing. Trade
flourished; the corporations of bargemen and the like on the
Rhone made money ; the many towns grew rich and could afford
splendid public buildings. But no great writer and no great ad-
ministrator came from Narbonensis; itinerant lecturers and jour-
nalists alone were produced in plenty, and at times minor poets.
(ii.-iv.) Across the Cevennes lay Caesar's conquests, Atlantic
in climate, new to Roman ways. The whole area, often col-
lectively styled " Gallia Comata," often " Tres Provinciae," was
divided into three provinces, each under a legalus pro praetore
appointed by the emperor, with a common capital at Lugudunum
(Lyons). The three provinces were: Aquitania, reaching from
the Pyrenees almost to the Loire; Luguduncnsis, the land
between Loire and Seine, reaching from Brittany in the west to
Lyons in the south-cast; and Belgica in the north. The
boundaries, it will be observed, were wholly artificial. Here also
it was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because
the provinces were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the
Rhine army was close at hand. As befitted an unromanized
region, the local government was unlike that of Italy or Narbon-
ensis. Roman municipalities were not indeed unknown, but
very few: the local authorities were the magistrates of the old
tribal districts. Local autonomy was here carried to an extreme.
But the policy succeeded. The Gauls of the Three Provinces, or
some of them, revolted in A.D. 21 under Florus and Sacrovir, in
68 under Vindex, and in 70 under Classicus and Tutor (see CIVILIS,
CLAUDIUS). But all five leaders were romanized nobles, with
Roman names and Roman citizenship, and their risings were
directed rather against the Roman government than the Roman
empire. In general, the Gauls of these provinces accepted
Roman civilization more or less rapidly, and in due course became
hardly distinguishable from the Italian. In particular, they
eagerly accepted the worship of " Augustus and Rome," devised
by the first emperor as a bond of state religion connecting
the provinces with Rome. Each August, despite the heat,
representatives from the 60 (or 64) tribes of Gallia Comata met
at Lyons, elected a priest, " sacerdos ad aram August! et Romae,"
and held games. The post of representative, and still more that
of priest, was eagerly coveted and provided a scope for the
ambitions which despotism usually crushes. It agrees with the
vigorous development of this worship that the Three Provinces,
though romanized, retained their own local feeling. Even in the
3rd century the cult of Celtic deities (Hercules Magusanus,
Deusoniensis, &c.) were revived, the Celtic Icuga reintroduced
instead of the Roman mile on official milestones, and a brief
effort made to establish an independent, though romanized, Gaul
under Postumus and his short-lived successors (A.D. 250-273).
Not only was the area too large and strong to lose its individu-
ality: it was also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean
to be romanized as fully and quickly as Narbonensis. It is even
probable that Celtic was spoken in forest districts into the 4th
century A.D. Town life, however, grew. The chefs-lieux of the
tribes became practically, though not officially, municipalities,
and many of these towns reached considerable size and magnifi-
cence of public buildings. But they attest their tribal relations
by their appellations, which are commonly drawn from the name
of the tribe and not of the town itself. Thus the capitals of the
Remi and Parisii were actually Durocortorum and Lutetia: the
appellations in use were Remis or Remus, Parisiis or Parisius
these forms being indeclinable nouns formed from a sort of
locative of the tribe names. Literature also flourished. In the
latest empire Ausonius, Symmachus, Apollinaris, Sidonius and
other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia Comata, kept alive the
classical literary tradition, not only for Gaul but for the world.
(v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military
frontier. Augustus had planned the conquest of Germany up to
the Elbe. His plans were foiled by the courage of Arminius and
the inability of the Roman exchequer to pay a larger army.
Instead, his successor Tiberius organized the Rhine frontier in
two military districts. The northern one was the valley of the
Mouse and that of the Rhine to a point just south of Bonn: the
southern was the rest of the Rhine valley to Switzerland. Each
534
GAULT GAUR
district was garrisoned at first by four, later by fewer legions,
which were disposed at various times in some of the following
fortresses: Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (Neuss), Bonne (Bonn),
Moguntiacum (Mainz), Argentorate (Strassburg) and Vindonissa
(Windisch in Switzerland). At first the districts were purely
military, were called, after the garrisons, " exercitus Germanicus
superior" (south) and "inferior" (north). Later one or two
municipalities were founded Colonia Agrippinensis at Cologne
(A.D. 51), Colonia Augusta Treverorum at Trier (date uncertain),
Colonia Ulpia Traiana outside Vetera and about 80-90 A.D. the
two " Exercitus " were turned into the two provinces of Upper
and Lower Germany. The armies in these districts formed the
defence of Gaul against German invaders. They also helped to
keep Gaul itself in order and their presence explains why the four
provinces of Gaul proper contained no troops.
These provincial divisions were modified by Diocletian but
without seriously affecting the life of Gaul. The whole country,
indeed, continued Roman and fairly safe from barbarian invasions
till after 400. In 407 a multitude of Franks, Vandals, &c., burst
over Gaul : Roman rule practically ceased and the three kingdoms
of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks began to form. There
were still a Roman general and Roman troops when Attila was
defeated in the campi Catalaunici in A.D. 451, but the general,
Aetius, was " the last of the Romans," and in 486 Clovis the
Frank ended the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul.
For Roman antiquities in Gaul see, beside articles on the modern
towns (ARLES, NfMES, ORANGE, &c.), BIBRACTE, ALESIA, ITIUS
PORTUS, AQUEDUCT, ARCHITECTURE, AMPHITHEATRE, &c. ; for
religion see DRUIDISM; for the famous schools of Autun, Lyons,
Toulouse, Nimes, Vienne, Marseilles and Narbonne, see J. E. Sandys,
History of Classical Scholarship (ed. 1906-1908), i. pp. 247-250;
for the Roman provinces, Th. Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman
Empire (trans. 1886), vol. i. chap. iii. See also Desjardins, Geo-
graphie historique et administrative de la Gaule romaine (Paris, 1877) ;
Fustel de Coulanges, Histoire des institutions politiques de I'ancienne
France (Paris, 1877); for Caesar's campaigns, article CAESAR,
JULIUS, and works quoted; for coins, art. NUMISMATICS and articles
in the Numismatische Zeitschrift and Revue numismatique (e.g.
Blanchet, 1907, pp. 461 foil.). (F. J. H.)
GAULT, in geology, one of the members of the Lower Creta-
ceous System. The name is still employed provincially in parts
of England for a stiff blue clay of any kind; by the earlier
writers it was sometimes spelt " Gait " or " Golt."
The formation now known as Gault in England has been
variously designated "Blue Marie," "Brick Earth," "Golt
Brick Earth " and " Oak-tree-soil." In certain parts of the
south of England the Gault appears as a well-marked deposit of
clay, lying between two sandy formations; the one above came
to be known as the " Upper Greensand," the one below being
the " Lower Greensand " (see GREENSAND). Since the typical
clayey Gault is continually taking on a sandy facies as it is traced
both horizontally and vertically; and since the fossils of the
Upper Greensand and Gault are inseparably related, it has been
proposed by A. J. Jukes-Browne that these two series of beds
should be regarded as the arenaceous and argillaceous phases of a
single formation, to which he has given the name " Selbornian "
(from the village of Selborne where the beds are well developed).
Lithologically, then, the Selbornian includes the blue and grey
clays and marls of the Gault proper; the glauconitic sands of the
Upper Greensand, and their local equivalent, the " malm,"
" malm rock " or " firestone," which in places passes into the
micaceous sandstone containing sponge spicules and globules of
silica, the counterpart of the rock called " gaize " on the same
horizon in northern France. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and parts
of Norfolk the Selbornian is represented by the Red Chalk. The
malm is a ferruginous siliceous rock, the silica being mainly in the
colloidalcondition in the form of globules and sponge spicules;
some quartz grains, mica and glauconite are usually present
along with from 2 to 2 5 % of calcareous matter. Chert-bands and
nodules are common in the Upper Greensand of certain districts;
and calcareous concretions, locally recognized as cowstones
(Lyme Regis), doggers or buhrstones, are not infrequent.
The principal divisions of the Selbornian stage with their
characteristic zonal fossils are as follows:
Warminster Beds Pecten asper and Cardiaster fossarius.
Upper Gault Devizes Beds or Merstham Beds with Schloen-
bachia restrains,
(Hoplites lautus.
Lower Gault -i. H. interruptus.
\Acanthoceras mammillatum.
The Gault (with Upper Greensand) crops out all round the Wealden
area; it extends beneath the London basin and reappears from
beneath the northern scarp of the Chalk along the foot of the Chiltern
Hills to near Tring. In the south of England the Gault clay is
fairly constant in the lower part, with the Greensand above; the
clay, however, passes into sand as it is followed westward and, as
already pointed out, the clay and sand appear to pass into a red
chalk towards the north-east. The Gault overlaps the Lower Green-
sand towards the east, where it rests upon the old Paleozoic axis;
it also overlaps the same formation towards the west about Frome,
and thence passes unconformably across the Portlandian beds, Kime-
ridge Clay, Corallian beds and Oxford Clay; in south Dorsetshire
it rests upon the Wealden Series. The Gault (with Upper Greensand)
passes on to the Jurassic and Rhaetic rocks near Axmouth, and over-
steps farther westward, in the Haldon Hills, on to the Permian. A
large outlier occurs on the Blackdown Hills of Devonshire. Good
localities for fossils are Folkestone where many of the shells are
preserved with their original pearly nacre, Burnham, Merstham,
Isle of Wight, the Blackdown and Haldon Hills, Warminster,
Hunstanton and Speeton, Black Venn near Lyme Regis, and Devizes
(malmstone and gaize). The beds are well developed in the vale of
Wardour, and in the Isle of Wight; the Gault forms the so-called
" blue slipper " at Ventnor which has been the cause of the landslip
or underchff.
The Gault of north France is very similar to that in the south
of England, but the French term Albien includes only a portion of
the Selbornian formation. The Gault of north-west Germany
embraces beds that would be classed as Albien and Aptien by French
authors; it comprises the " Flammenmergel " a pale siliceous
marl shot with flame-shaped darker patches a clay with Belemnites
minimus, and the " Gargasmergel " (Aptian). In the Diester and
Teutoberger Wald, and in the region of Halberstadt, the clays and
marls are replaced by sandstones, the so-called Gault-Quader.
Continental writers usually place the Gault or Albian at the summit
of the Lower Cretaceous; while with English geologists the practice
is to commence the Upper Cretaceous with this formation. In
addition to the fossils already noticed, the following may be men-
tioned: Acanthoceras Desmoceras Beaudanti, Hoplites splendens,
Hamites, Scaphites, Turrilites, Aporrhais retusa, Trigonia aliforme,
also Ichthyosaurus and Ornithocheirus (Pterodactyl). From the clays,
bricks and tiles are made at Burham, Barnwell, Dunton Green,
Arlesey, Hitchin, &c. The cherts in the Greensand portion are used
for road metal, and in the Blackdown Hills, for scythe stones;
hearthstone is obtained about Merstham ; phosphatic nodules occur
at several horizons.
See CRETACEOUS SYSTEM; ALBIAN; APTIAN; also A. J. Jukes-
Browne, " The Gault and Upper Greensand of England, ' vol. i.,
Cretaceous Rocks of Britain; Mem. Geol. Survey, 1900.
GAUNTLET (a diminutive of the Fr. gant, glove), a large
form of glove, and especially the steel-plated glove of medieval
armour. To " run the gauntlet," i.e. to run between two rows
of men who, armed with sticks, rope-ends or other weapons,
beat and strike at the person so running, was formerly a punish-
ment for military and naval offences. It was abolished in the
Prussian army by Scharnhorst. As a method of torturing
prisoners, it was employed among the North American Indians.
Gauntlet " (earlier " gantlet ") in this expression is a corruption
of " gantlope," from a Swedish gatlope, from gala, lane, and lopp,
a course (cf. Ger. gassenlaufen, to run the gauntlet). According
to the New English Dictionary the word became familiar in
England at the time of the Thirty Years' War.
GAUR, or LAKHNAUTI, a ruined city of British India, in Malda
district of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The ruins are situated
about 8m. to the south of English Bazar, the civil station of
the district of Malda, and on the eastern bank of the Bhagirathi,
an old channel of the Ganges. It is said to have been founded
by Lakshman, and its most ancient name was Lakshmanavati,
corrupted into Lakhnauti. Its known history begins with its
conquest in A.D. 1198 by the Mahommedans, who retained it
as the chief seat of their power in Bengal for more than three
centuries. When the Afghan kings of Bengal established their
independence, they transferred their seat of government (about
1350) to Pandua (q.v.), also in Malda district, and to build
their new capital they plundered Gaur of every monument that
could be removed. When Pandua was in its turn deserted
(A.D. 1453), Gaur once more became the capital under the
GAUR GAUSS
535
8 ol Jannat abad ; it remained so as long as the Mahommedan
king* retained their independence. In A.D. 1564 Sulaiman
Kirani, a Pat ban adventurer, abandoned it for Tanda, a place
somewhat nearer the Ganges. Gaur was sacked by Sher Shah
in 15.50. and was occupied by Akbar's general in 1575, when
Daud Shah, the last of the Afghan dynasty, refused to pay
homage to the Mogul emperor. This occupation was followed
by an outbreak of the plague, which completed the downfall of
the city, and since then it has been little better than a heap of
ruins, almost overgrown with jungle.
The city in its prime measured ;J m. from north to south,
with a breadth of i to 2 m. With suburbs it covered an area
of JO to 30 sq. m., and in the i6th century the Portuguese
historian Faria y Sousa described it as containing 1,200,000
inhabitants. The ramparts of this walled city, which was
surrounded by extensive suburbs, still exist; they were works
of vast labour, and were on the average about 40 ft. high, and
180 to 200 ft. thick at the base. The facing of masonry and the
buildings with which they were covered have now disappeared,
and the embankments themselves are overgrown with dense
jungle. The western side of the city was washed by the Ganges,
and within the space enclosed by these embankments and the
river stood the city of Gaur proper, with the fort containing
the palace in its south-west corner. Radiating north, south and
east from the city, other embankments are to be traced running
through the suburbs and extending in certain directions for 30
or 40 m. Surrounding the palace is an inner embankment of
similar construction to that which surrounds the city, and even
more overgrown with jungle. A deep moat protects it on the
outside. To the north of the outer enbankment lies the Sagar
Dighi, a great reservoir, 1600 yds. by 800 yds., dating from
A.D. 1126.
Fergusson in his History of Eastern Architecture thus describes
the general architectural style of Gaur:" It is neither like that
of Delhi nor Jaunpore, nor any other style, but one purely local
and not without considerable merit in itself; its principal
characteristic being heavy short pillars of stone supporting
pointed arches and vaults in brick whereas at Jaunpore, for
instance, light pillars carried horizontal architraves and flat
ceilings." Owing to the lightness of the small, thin bricks, which
were chiefly used in the making of Gaur, its buildings have not
well withstood the ravages of time and the weather; while
much of its enamelled work has been removed for the ornamenta-
tion of the surrounding cities of more modern origin. Moreover,
the ruins long served as a quarry for the builders of neighbouring
towns and villages, till in 1 900 steps were taken for their preserva-'
tion by the government. The finest ruin in Gaur is that of the
Great Golden Mosque, also called Bara Darwaza, or twelve-
doored ( 1 526). An arched corridor running along the whole front
of the original building is the principal portion now standing.
There are eleven arches on either side of the corridor and one at
each end of it, from which the mosque probably obtained its
name. These arches are surmounted by eleven domes in fair
preservation; the mosque had originally thirty-three.
The Small Golden or Eunuch's mosque, in the ancient suburb
of Firozpur, has fine carving, and is faced with stone fairly well
preserved. The Tantipara mosque (1475-1480) has beautiful
moulding in brick, and the Lotan mosque of the same period
is unique in retaining its glazed tiles. The citadel, of the
Mahommedan period, was strongly fortified with a rampart
and entered through a magnificent gateway called the Dakhil
Darwaza (? 1459-1474). At the south-east corner was a palace,
surrounded by a wall of brick 66 ft. high, of which a part is
standing. Near by were the royal tombs. Within the citadel
is the Kadam Rasu' mosque (1530), which is still used, and close
outside is a tall tower called the Firoz Minar (perhaps signifying
" tower of victory "). There are a number of Mahommedan
buildings on the banks of the Sagar Dighi, including, notably,
the tomb of the saint Makhdum Shaikh Akhi Siraj (d. 1357),
and in the neighbourhood is a burning ghat, traditionally the
only one allowed to the use of the Hindus by their Mahommedan
conquerors, and still greatly venerated and frequented by them.
Many inscriptions of historical importance have been found in the
ruins.
See M . Martin (Buchanan Hamilton), Eastern India, vol. iii. ( 1 831 ) ;
G. H. Ravenshaw, Gaur (1878); James Fergusson, History of Indian
and Eastern Architecture (1876); Reports of the Archaeological
Surveyor, Bengal Circle (1900-1904).
GAUR, the native name of the wild ox, Bos (Bibos) gaurus,
of India, miscalled bison by sportsmen. The gaur, which extends
into Burma and the Malay Peninsula, where it is known as
scladang, is the typical representative of an Indo-Malay group
of wild cattle characterized by the presence of a ridge on the
withers, the compressed horns, and the white legs. The gaur,
which reaches a height of nearly 6 ft. at the shoulder, is specially
characterized by the forward curve and great elevation of the
ridge between the horns. The general colour is blackish-grev.
Hill-forests are the resort of this species.
GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH (1777-1855), German mathe-
matician, was born of humble parents at Brunswick on the 3oth
of April 1777, and was indebted for a liberal education to the
notice which his talents procured him from the reigning duke.
His name became widely known by the publication, in his
twenty-fifth year (1801), of the Disquisiliones arithmeticae.
In 1807 he was appointed director of the Gottingen observatory,
an office which he retained to his death: it is said that he never
slept away from under the roof of his observatory, except on
one occasion, when he accepted an invitation from Baron von
Humboldt to attend a meeting of natural philosophers at Berlin.
In 1809 he published at Hamburg his Theoria motus corporum
coelestium, a work which gave a powerful impulse to the true
methods of astronomical observation; and his astronomical
workings, observations, calculations of orbits of planets and
comets, &c., are very numerous and valuable. He continued
his labours in the theory of numbers and other analytical subjects,
and communicated a long series of memoirs to the Royal Society
of Sciences (Kdnigliche Gesellsckaft der Wissenschaften) at
Gottingen. His first memoir on the theory of magnetism,
Intensitas vis magneticae lerrestris ad mensuram absolutam
revocata, was published in 1833, and he shortly afterwards
proceeded, in conjunction with Wilhelm Weber, to invent new
apparatus for observing the earth's magnetism and its changes;
the instruments devised by them were the declination instrument
and the bifilar magnetometer. With Weber's assistance he
erected in 1833 at Gottingen a magnetic observatory free from
iron (as Humboldt and F. J. D. Arago had previously done on a
smaller scale), where he made magnetic observations, and from
this same observatory he sent telegraphic signals to the neighbour-
ing town, thus showing the practicability of an electromagnetic
telegraph. He further instituted an association (Magnetischer
Verein), composed at first almost entirely of Germans, whose
continuous observations on fixed term-days extended from
Holland to Sicily. The volumes of their publication, Resultate
aus den Beobachtungen des magnetischen Vereins, extend from
1836 to 1839; and in those for 1838 and 1839 are contained the
two important memoirs by Gauss, Allgemeine Theorie des Erd-
magnetismus, and the Allgemeine Lehrstitze on the theory of
forces attracting according to the inverse square of the distance.
The instruments and methods thus due to him are substantially
those employed in the magnetic observatories throughout the
world. He co-operated in the Danish and Hanoverian measure-
ments of an arc and trigonometrical operations (1821-1848),
and wrote (1843, 1846) the two memoirs Vber Gegensldnde der
hoheren Geodasie. Connected with observations in general
we have (1812-1826) the memoir Theoria combinationis obsenia-
lionum erroribus minimis obnoxia, with a second part and a
supplement. Another memoir of applied^ mathematics is the
Dioptrische U nlersuchungen (1840). Gauss was well versed in
general literature and the chief languages of modern Europe,
and was a member of nearly all the leading scientific societies
in Europe. He died at Gottingen on the 23rd pf February 1855.
The centenary of his birth was celebrated (1877) at his native
place, Brunswick.
Gauss's collected works were published by the Royal Society of
Gottingen, in 7 vols. 4to(Gott., 1 863- 1871), edited by E.J.Schering
536
GAUSSEN GAUTIER, THEOPHILE
(i) the Disquisitiones arithmetical, (2) Theory of Numbers, (3)
Analysis, (4) Geometry and Method of Least Squares, (5) Mathematical
Physics, (6) Astronomy, and (7) the Theoria motus corporum
coelestium. Additional volumes have since been published, Funda-
mente der Geometric usw. (1900), and Geodalische Nachtrdge zu
Band iv. (1903). They include, besides his various works and
memoirs, notices by him of many of these, and of works of other
authors in the Gottingen gelehrte Anzeigen, and a considerable amount
of previously unpublished matter, Nachlass. Of the memoirs in pure
mathematics, comprised for the most part in vols. ii., iii. and iv.
(but to these must be added those on Attractions in vol. v.), it may
be safely said there is not one which has not signally contributed
to the progress of the branch of mathematics to which it belongs,
or which would not require to be carefully analysed in a history of
the subject. Running through these volumes in order, we have in
the second the memoir, Summatio quarundam serierum singularium,
the memoirs on the theory of biquadratic residues, in which the notion
of complex numbers of the form o+6i was first introduced into the
theory of numbers; and included in the Nachlass are some valuable
tables. That for the conversion of a fraction into decimals (giving
the complete period for all the prime numbers up to 997) is a speci-
men of the extraordinary love which Gauss had for long arithmetical
calculations; and the amount of work gone through in the construc-
tion of the table of the number of the classes of binary quadratic
forms must also have been tremendous. In vol. iii. we have memoirs
relating to the proof of the theorem that every numerical equation
has a real or imaginary root, the memoir on. the Hypergeometric
Series, that on Interpolation, and the memoir Determinatio attrac-
tionis in which a planetary mass is considered as distributed over
its orbit according to the time in which each portion of the orbit is
described, and the question (having an implied reference to the theory
of secular perturbations) is to find the attraction of such a ring. In
the solution the value of an elliptic function is found by means of
the arithmetico-geometrical mean. The Nachlass contains further re-
searches on this subject, and also researches (unfortunately very
fragmentary) on the lemniscate-function, &c., showing that Gauss
was, even before 1800, in possession of many of the discoveries which
have made the names of N. H. Abel and K. G. J. Jacobi illustrious.
In vol. iv. we have the memoir Allgemeine A uflosung, on the graphical
representation of one surface upon another, and the Disquisitiones
generates circa superficies curuas. (An account of the treatment of
surfaces which he originated in this paper will be found in the article
SURFACE.) And in vol. v. we have a memoir On the Attraction of
Homogeneous Ellipsoids, and the already mentioned memoir Allge-
meine Lehrsatze, on the theory of forces attracting according to the
inverse square of the distance. (A. CA.)
GAUSSEN, FRANCOIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS (1790-
1863), Swiss Protestant divine, was born at Geneva on the 25th of
August 1790. His father, Georg Markus Gaussen, a member of
the council of two hundred, was descended from an old Languedoc
family which had been scattered at the time of the religious
persecutions in France. At the close of his university career at
Geneva, Louis was in 1816 appointed pastor of the Swiss Reformed
Church at Satigny near Geneva, where he formed intimate rela-
tions with J. E. Cellerier, who had preceded him in the pastorate,
and also with the members of the dissenting congregation at
Bourg-de-Four, which, together with the Eglise du temoignage,
had been formed under the influence of the preaching of James
and Robert Haldane in 1817. The Swiss revival was distasteful
to the pastors of Geneva ( Venerable Compagnie des Pasteur s) , and
on the 7th of May 1817 they passed an ordinance hostile to it.
As a protest against this ordinance, in 1819 Gaussen published in
conjunction with Cellerier a French translation of the Second
Helvetic Confession, with a preface expounding the views he had
reached upon the nature, use and necessity of confessions of
faith; and in 1830, for having discarded the official catechism of
his church as being insufficiently explicit on the divinity of
Christ, original sin and the doctrines of grace, he was censured
and suspended by his ecclesiastical superiors. In the following
year he took part in the formation of a Sociele Evangelique
(Evangelische Gesellschaff). When this society contemplated,
among other objects, the establishment of a new theological
college, he was finally deprived of his charge. After some time
devoted to travel in Italy and England, he returned to Geneva
and ministered to an independent congregation until 1834, when
he joined Merle d'Aubigne as professor of systematic theology in
the college which he had helped to found. This post he continued
to occupy until 1857, when he retired from the active duties of
the chair. He died at Les Grottes, Geneva, on the i8th of June
1863.
His best-known work, entitled La Tlieopneuslie ou pleine
inspiration des saintes ecritures, an elaborate defence of the
doctrine of " plenary inspiration," was originally published in
Paris in 1840, and rapidly gained a wide popularity in France, as
also, through translations, in England and America. It was
followed in 1860 by a supplementary treatise on the canon
(Le Canon des saintes ecritures au double point de line de la science
et de lafoi) , which, though also popular, has hardly been so widely
read.
See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie (1899).
GAUTIER, 6MILE THEODORE L&)N (1832-1897), French
literary historian, was born at Havre on the 8th of August 1832.
He was educated at the Ecole des Charles, and became succes-
sively keeper of the archives of the department of Haute-Marne
and of the imperial archives at Paris under the empire. In 1871
he became professor of palaeography at the Ecole des Charles.
He was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1887,
and became chief of the historical section of the national archives
in 1893. Leon Gautier rendered great services to the study of
early French literature, the most important of his numerous
works on medieval subjects being a critical text (Tours, 1872)
with translation and introduction of the Chanson de Roland, and
Les Epopees franqaises (3 vols., 1866-1867; 2nd ed., 5 vols., 1878-
1897, including a Bibliographie des chansons de geste). He died in
Paris on the 25th of August -1897.
GAUTIER, THEOPHILE (1811-1872), French poet and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Tarbes on the 3ist of August
1 8 1 1 . He was educated at the grammar school of that town, and
afterwards at the College Charlemagne in Paris, but was almost as
much in the studios. He very early devoted himself to the study
of the older French literature, especially that of the 1 6th and the
early part of the i7th century. This study qualified him well to
take part in the Romantic movement, and enabled him to
astonish Sainte-Beuve by the phraseology and style of some
literary essays which, when barely eighteen years old, he put into
the critic's hands. In consequence of this introduction he at
once came under the influence of the great Romantic cfnacle, to
which, as to Victor Hugo in particular, he was also introduced by
his gifted but ill-starred schoolmate Gerard de Nerval. With
Gerard, Petrus Borel, Corot, and many other less known painters
and poets whose personalities he has delightfully sketched in the
articles collected under the titles of Histoire du Romantisme, &c.,
he formed a minor romantic clique who were distinguished for a
time by the most extravagant eccentricity. A flaming crimson
waistcoat and a great mass of waving hair were the outward
signs which qualified Gautier for a chief rank among the enthusi-
astic devotees who attended the rehearsals of Hernani with red
tickets marked " Hierro," performed mocking dances round the
bust of Racine, and were at all times ready to exchange word or
blow with the perruques and gris&tres of the classical party. In
Gautier's case these freaks were not inconsistent with real genius
and real devotion to sound ideals of literature. He began (like
Thackeray, to whom he presents in other ways some striking
points of resemblance) as an artist, but soon found that his true
powers lay in another direction.
His first considerable poem, Alberlus (1830), displayed a good
deal of the extravagant character which accompanied rather than
marked the movement, but also gave evidence of uncommon
command both of language and imagery, and in particular of a
descriptive power hardly to be excelled. The promise thus
given was more than fulfilled in his subsequent poetry, which, in
consequence of its small bulk, may well be noticed at once and by
anticipation. The Comedie de la mart, which appeared soon after
(1832), is one of the most remarkable of French poems, and
though never widely read has received the suffrage of every
competent reader. Minor poems of various dates, published in
1840, display an almost unequalled command over poetical form,
an advance even over A Ibertus in vigour, wealth and appropriate-
ness of diction, and abundance of the special poetical essence.
All these good gifts reached their climax in the Emaux et camees,
first published in 1856, and again, with additions, just before the
poet's death in 1872. These poems are in their own way such as
GAUTIER D'ARRAS GAUZE
537
cannot be surpassed. Gautier's poetical work contains in little
an expression of his literary peculiarities. There are, in addition
to the peculiarities of style and diction already noticed, an extra-
ordinary feeling and affection for beauty in art and nature, and a
strange indifference to anything beyond this range, which has
doubtless injured the popularity of his work.
But it was not, after all, as a poet that Gautier was to achieve
either profit or fame. For the theatre, he had but little gift, and
his dramatic efforts (if we except certain masques or ballets in
which his exuberant and graceful fancy came into play) an- by
far his weakest. It was otherwise with his prose fiction. His
first novel of any size, and in many respects his most remarkable
work, was Uademoiseile de Alaupin (1835). Unfortunately this
book, while it establishes his literary reputation on an impcri>h-
able basis, was unfitted by its subject, and in parts by its treat-
ment, for general perusal, and created, even in ! ranee, a prejudice
against its author which he was very far from really deserving.
During the years from 1833 onwards, his fertility in novels and
tales was very great. Les J runes-France (1833), which may rank
as a sort of prose Albertus in some ways, displays the follies of i he
youthful Romantics in a vein of humorous and at the same time
half -pathetic satire. Fortunio (1838) perhaps belongs to the same
class. Jettatura, written somewhat later, is less extravagant -and
more pathetic. A crowd of minor tales display the highest
literary qualities, and rank with Merimee's at the head of all
contemporary works of the class. First of all must be mentioned
the ghost -story of La Morte amoureuse, a gem of the most perfect
workmanship. For many years Gautier continued to write
novels. La Belle Jenny (1864) is a not very successful attempt to
draw on his English experience, but the earlier Militona (1847) is
a most charming picture of Spanish life. In Spirite (1866) he
endeavoured to enlist the fancy of the day for supernatural
manifestations, and a Roman de la momie (1856) is a learned study
of ancient Egyptian ways. His most remarkable effort in this
kind, towards the end of his life.was Le Capitaine Fracasse (1863),
a novel, partly of the picaresque school, partly of that which
Dumas was to make popular, projected nearly thirty years earlier,
and before Dumas himself had taken to the style. This book
contains some of the finest instances of his literary power.
Yet neither in poems nor in novels did the main occupation
of Gautier as a literary man consist. He was early drawn to
the more lucrative task of feuilleton-writing, and for more than
thirty years he was among the most expert and successful
practitioners of this an. Soon after the publication of Made-
moiselle de Moupin, in which he bad not been too polite to
journalism, he became irrevocably a journalist. He was actually
the editor of L'Artisle for a time: but his chief newspaper
connexions were with La Prase from 1836 to 1854 and with the
UonUew later. His work was mainly theatrical and art criticism.
The rest of his life was spent either at Paris or in travels of
considerable extent to Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, Turkey,
England, Algeria and Russia, all undertaken with a more or less
definite purpose of book-making. Having absolutely no political
opinions, he had no difficulty in accepting the Second Empire,
and received from it considerable favours, in return for which,
however, he in no way prostituted his pen, but remained a
literary man pure and simple. He died on the 23rd of December
1872.
Accounts of his travels, criticisms of the theatrical and literary
works of the day, obituary notices of his contemporaries and,
above all, art criticism occupied him in turn. It has sometimes
been deplored that this engagement in journalism should have
diverted Gautier from the performance of more capital work in
literature. Perhaps, however, this regret springs from a certain
misconception. Gauticr's power was literary power pure and
simple, and it is as evident in his slightest sketches and criticisms
as in Emaux et camtes or La Morte amoureuse. On the other hand,
his weakness, if he had a weakness, lay in his almost total in-
difference to the matters which usually supply subjects for art
and therefore for literature. He has thus been accused of " lack
of ideas " by those who have not cleared their own minds of cant ;
and in the recent set-back of the critical current against form and
in favour of " philosophic " treatment, comment upon him has
sometimes been unfavourable. But this injustice will, beyond
all question, be redressed again. He was neither immoral,
irreligious nor unduly subservient to despotism, but morals,
religion and politics (to which we may add science and material
progress) were matters of no interest to him. He was to all
intents a humanist, as the word was understood in the isth
century. But he was a humorist as well, and this combination,
joined to his singularly kindly and genial nature, saved him
from some dangers and depravations as well as some absurdities
to which the humanist temper is exposed. As time goes on it
may be predicted that, though Gautier may not be widely read,
yet his writings will never cease to be full of indescribable charm
and of very definite instruction to men of letters. Besides those
of his works which have been already cited, we may notice Une
Larmt du diubie (1839), a charming mixture of humour and tender-
ness; Les Grotesque* (1844), a volume of early criticisms on some
oddities of 17th-century literature; Caprices et zigzags (1845),
miscellanies dealing in part with English life; Voyage en Espagne
(1845), Constantinople (1854), Voyage en Russie (1866), brilliant
volumes of travel; Menagerie intime (1869) and Tableaux de
siege (1872), his two latest works, which display his incomparable
style in its quietest but not least happy form.
There is no complete edition of Gautier's works, and the vicomte
Spoelberch de Lovenjoul'l Histoire des <suvres de Theophile Gautier
(1887) shows how formidable such an undertaking would be. But
since his death numerous further collections of articles have been
made: Fusains et eaux-fortes and Tableaux A la plume (1880);
L'Orient (2 vols., 1881); Les Vacances du lundi (new cd., 1888);
La Nature chez elle (new cd., 1891). In 1879 his son-in-law, E.
Bergerat, who had married his younger daughter Estcllc (the elder,
Mme Judith Gautier herself a writer of distinction was at one
time Mme Catulle Mendds), issued a biography, Theophile Gautier,
which has been often reprinted. With it should becpmparcdMaxime
du Camp's volume in the Grands Ecrivains franc,ais (1890) and the
numerous references in the Journal des Goncourt. Critical eulogies,
from Sainte-Beuve (repeatedly in the Causeries) and Baudelaire (two
articles in L'Art romantique) downwards, are numerous. The chief
of the decriers is Emile Faguet in his Etudes litteraires sur le XIX"
siecle. In 1902 and 1903 there appeared two respectable academic
eloges by H. Menal and H. Potez. (G. SA.)
GAUTIER D'ARRAS, French trouvere, nourished in the second
half of the i2th century. Nothing is known of his biography
except what may be gleaned from his works. He dedicated his
romance of Oracle to Theobald V., count of Blois (d. 1191);
among his other patrons were Marie, countess of Champagne,
daughter of Louis VII. and Eleanor of Guiennc and Baldwin IV.,
count of Hainaut. Eracle, the hero of which becomes emperor
of Constantinople as Heraclius, is purely a roman d'aveniures
and enjoyed great popularity. His second romance, Ille et
Galcron, dedicated to Beatrix, the second wife of Frederick
Barbarossa, treats of a similar situation to that outlined in the
lay of " Eliduc " by Marie de France.
See the CEuvres de Gautier d' Arras, ed. E. Loseth (2 vols., Paris,
1890); Hist. lilt, de la France, vol. xxii. (1852); A. Dinaux, Les
Trouveres (1833-1843), vol. iii.
GAUZE, a light, transparent fabric, originally of silk, and
now sometimes made of linen or cotton, woven in an open manner
with very fine yarn. It is said to have -been originally made at
Gaza fn Palestine, whence the name. Some of the gauzes from
eastern Asia were brocaded with flowers of gold or silver. In
the weaving of gauze the warp threads, in addition to being
crossed as in plain weaving, are twisted in pairs from left to
right and from right to left alternately, after each shot* of weft,
thereby keeping the weft threads at equal distances apart, and
retaining them in their parallel position. The textures are
woven either plain, striped or figured; and the material receives
many designations, according to its appearance and the purposes
to which it is devoted. A thin cotton fabric, woven in the same
way, is known as leno, to distinguish it from muslin made by
plain weaving. Silk gauze was a prominent and extensive
industry in the west of Scotland during the second half of the
1 8th century, but on the introduction of cotton-weaving it
greatly declined. In addition to its use for dress purposes silk
gauze is much employed for bolting or sifting flour and other
finely ground substances. The term gauze is applied generally
538
GAVARNI GAVELKIND
to transparent fabrics of whatever fibre made, and to the fine-
woven wire-cloth used in safety-lamps, sieves, window-blinds, &c.
GAVARNI, the name by which SULPICE GUILLAUME CHEVALIER
(1801-1866), French caricaturist, is known. He is said to have
taken the nom de plume from the place where he made his first
published sketch. He was born in Paris of poor parents, and
started in life as a workman in an engine-building factory. At
the same time he attended the free school of drawing. In his
first attempts to turn his abilities to some account he met with
many disappointments, but was at last entrusted with the
drawing of some illustrations for a journal of fashion. Gavarni
was then thirty-four years of age. His sharp and witty pencil
gave to these generally commonplace and unartistic figures a
life-likeness and an expression which soon won fbr him a name
in fashionable circles. Gradually he gave greater attention to
this more congenial work, and finally ceased working as an
engineer to become the director of the journal Les Gens du monde.
His ambition rising in proportion to his success, Gavarni from
this time followed the real bent of his inclination, and began a
series of lithographed sketches, in which he portrayed the most
striking characteristics, foibles and vices of the various classes
of French society. The letterpress explanations attached to his
drawings were always short, but were forcible and highly
humorous, if sometimes trivial, and were admirably adapted
to the particular subjects. The different stages through which
Gavarni's talent passed, always elevating and refining itself,
are well worth being noted. At first he confined himself to the
study of Parisian manners, more especially those of the Parisian
youth. To this vein belong Les Lorettes, Les Actrices, Les Coulisses,
Les Fashionables, Les Gentilshommes bourgeois, Les Artistes, Les
Debardeurs, Clichy, Les Etudiants de Paris, Les Baliverneries
parisiennes, Les Plaisirschampetres, Les Bals masques, Le Carnaval,
Les Souvenirs du carnaval, Les Souvenirs du bal Chicard, La Vie
des jeunes hommes, Les Patois de Paris. He had now ceased to
be director of Les Gens du monde; but he was engaged as ordinary,
caricaturist of Le Charivari, and, whilst making the fortune
of the paper, he made his own. His name was exceedingly
popular, and his illustrations for books were eagerly sought for
by publishers. Le Juif errant, by Eugene Sue (1843, 4 vols.
8vo), the French translation of Hoffman's tales (1843, 8vo), the
first collective edition of Balzac's works (Paris, Houssiaux, 1850,
20 vols. 8vo), Le Diable a Paris (1844-1846, 2 vols. 4to), Les
Fran^ais peints par eux-memes (1840-1843, 9 vols. 8vo), the
collection of Physiologies published by Aubert in 38 vols. i8mo
(1840-1842), all owed a great part of their success at the time,
and are still sought for, on account of the clever and telling
sketches contributed by Gavarni. A single frontispiece or
vignette was sometimes enough to secure the sale of a new book.
Always desiring to enlarge the field of his observations, Gavarni
soon abandoned his once favourite topics. He no longer limited
himself to such types as the lorelte and the Parisian student,
or to the description of the noisy and popular pleasures of the
capital, but turned his mirror to the grotesque sides of family
life and of humanity at large. Les Enfants lerribles, Les Parents
terribles, Les Fourberies des femmes, La Politique des femmes, Les
Marisvenges, Les N nances du sentiment, Les Reves, Les Pelits Jeux
de societe, Les Petits Malheurs du bonheur, Les Impressions de
menage, Les Interjections, Les Traductions en langue iiulgaire, Les
Propos de Thomas Vireloque, &c., were composed at this time,
ana are his most elevated productions. But whilst showing the
same power of irony as his former works, enhanced by a deeper
insight into human nature, they generally bear the stamp of a
bitter and even sometimes gloomy philosophy. This tendency
was still more strengthened by a visit to England in 1849. He
returned from London deeply impressed with the scenes of misery
and degradation which he had observed among the lower classes
of that city. In the midst of the cheerful atmosphere of Paris he
had been struck chiefly by the ridiculous aspects of vulgarity
and vice, and he had laughed at them. But the debasement of
human nature which he saw in London appears to have affected
him so forcibly that from that time the cheerful caricaturist
never laughed or made others laugh again. What he had
witnessed there became the almost exclusive subject of his
drawings, as powerful, as impressive as ever, but better calculated
to be appreciated by cultivated minds than by the public, which
had in former years granted him so wide a popularity. Most of
these last compositions appeared in the weekly paper L'lllustra-
tion. In 1857 he published in one volume the series entitled
Masques et visages (i vol. I2mo), and in 1869, about two years
after his death, his last artistic work, Les Douze Mois (i vol. fol.),
was given to the world. Gavarni was much engaged, during the
last period of his life, in scientific pursuits, and this fact must
perhaps be connected with the great change which then took
place hi his manner as an artist. He sent several communications
to the Academic des Sciences, and till his death on the 23rd of
November 1866 he was eagerly interested in the question of
aerial navigation. It is said that he made experiments on a large
scale with a view to find the means of directing balloons; but
it seems that he was not so successful in this line as his fellow-
artist, the caricaturist and photographer, Nadar.
Gavarni's CEuvres choisies were edited in 1845 (4 vols. 4to) with
letterpress by J. Janin, Th. Gautier and Balzac, followed in 1850
by two other volumes named Perles et parures; and some essays in
prose and in verse written by him were collected by one of his bio-
graphers, Ch. Yriarte, and published in 1869. See also E. and J. de
Goncourt, Gavarni, Ihomme et Vceuvre (1873, 8vo). J. Claretie has
also devoted to the great French caricaturist a curious and interest-
ing essay. A catalogue raisonnt of Gavarni's works was published
by J. Armelhault and E. Bocher (Paris, 1873, 8vo).
GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO (1809-1889), Italian preacher and
patriot, was born at Bologna on the 2ist of March 1809. He
at first became a monk (1825), and attached himself to the
Barnabites at Naples, where he afterwards (1829) acted as
professor of rhetoric. In 1840, having already expressed liberal
views, he was removed to Rome to fill a subordinate position.
Leaving his own country after the capture of Rome by the
French, he carried on a vigorous campaign against priests and
Jesuits in England, Scotland and North America, partly by
means of a periodical, the Gavazzi Free Word. While in England
he gradually went over (1855) to the Evangelical church, and
became head and organizer of the Italian Protestants in London.
Returning to Italy in 1860, he served as army-chaplain with
Garibaldi. In 1870 he became head of the Free Church (Chiesa
libera) of Italy, united the scattered Congregations into the
"Unione delle Chiese libere in Italia," and in 1875 founded in
Rome the theological college of the Free Church, in which he
himself taught dogmatics, apologetics and polemics. He died
in Rome on the 9th of January 1889.
Amongst his publications are No Union with Rome (1871); The
Priest in Absolution (1877); My Recollections of the Last Four Popes,
&c., in answer to Cardinal Wiseman (1858); Orations, 2 decades
(1851).
GAVELKIND, 1 a peculiar system of tenure associated chiefly
with the county of Kent, but found also in other parts of England.
In Kent all land is presumed to be holden by this tenure until
the contrary is proved, but some lands have been disgavelled
by particular statutes. It is more correctly described as socage
tenure, subject to the custom of gavelkind. The chief peculiari-
ties of the custom are the following, (i) A tenant can alienate
his lands by feoffment at fifteen years of age. (2) There is no
escheat on attainder for felony, or as it is expressed in the old
rhyme
" The father to the bough,
The son to the plough."
(3) Generally the tenant could always dispose of his lands by
will. (4) In case of intestacy the estate descends not to the eldest
son but to all the sons (or, in the case of deceased sons, their
representatives) in equal shares. " Every son is as great a
gentleman as the eldest son is." It is to this remarkable peculi-
arity that gavelkind no doubt owes its local popularity. Though
1 This word is generally taken to represent in O. Eng. gafolgecynd,
from gafol, payment, tribute, and gecynd, species, kind, and origin-
ally to have meant tenure by payment of rent or non-military ser-
vices, cf . gafol-land, and thence to have been applied to the particular
custom attached to such tenure in Kent. Gafol apparently is
derived from the Teutonic root seen in "to give ' ; the Med.
Lat. gabulum, gablum gives the Fr. gabelle, tax.
GAVESTON GAWAIN
539
female* claiming in their own right are postponed to males,
yet by representation they may inherit together with them.
(5) A wife is dowable of one-half, instead of one-third of the land.
(6) A widower may be tenant by courtesy, without having had
any issue, of one-half, but only so long as he remains unmarried.
An act of 18 ;i, for commuting manorial rights in respect of lands
of copyhold and customary tenure, contained a clause specially
exempting from the operation of the act " the custom of gavelkind
as the same now exists and prevails in the county of Kent."
Gavelkind is one of the most interesting examples of the
customary law of England; it was, previous to the Conquest,
the general custom of the realm, but was then superseded by
the feudal law of primogeniture. Its survival in this instance in
one pan of the country is regarded as a concession extorted
from the Conqueror by the superior bravery of the men of Kent.
Irish fmdkind was a species of tribal succession, by which the
land, instead of being divided at the death of the holder amongst
his sons, was thrown again into the common stock, and redivided
among the surviving members of the sept. The equal division
amongst children of an inheritance in land is of common occur-
rence outside the United Kingdom and is discussed under SUC-
CESSION.
See ISHBKITANCE: TENURE. Also Robinson, On Gavelkind ; Digby,
History of tin Law of Real Property; Pollock and Maitland, History
f English Lu*\ Challis, Real Property.
GAVESTON, PIERS (d. 1312), earl of Cornwall, favourite of
the F-ngli*h king Edward II., was the son of a Gascon knight,
and was brought up at the court of Edward I. as companion
to his son, the future king. Strong, talented and ambitious,
Gaveston gained great influence over young Edward, and early
in 1307 he was banished from England by the king; but he
returned after the death of Edward I. a few months later, and
at once became the chief adviser of Edward II. Made earl of
Cornwall, he received both lands and money from the king, and
added to his wealth and position by marrying Edward's niece,
Margaret, daughter of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester (d.
IJQS). He was regent of the kingdom during the king's short
absence in France in 1308, and took a very prominent part at
Edward's coronalion in February of this year. These proceedings
aroused the anger and jealousy of the barons, and their wrath
was diminished neither by Gaveston's superior skill at the
tournament, nor by his haughty and arrogant behaviour to
themselves. They demanded his banishment; and the king,
forced to assent, sent his favourite to Ireland as lieutenant,
where he remained for about a year. Returning to England in
July 1304, Edward persuaded some of the barons to sanction this
proceeding; but as Gaveston was more insolent than ever the
old jealousies soon broke out afresh. In 1311 the king was
forced to agree to the election of the " ordainers," and the
ordinances they drew up provided inter alia for the perpetual
banishment of his favourite. Gaveston then retired to Flanders,
but returned secretly to England at the end of 1311. Soon he
was publicly restored by Edward, and the barons had taken up
arms. Deserted by the king he surrendered to Aymer de Valence,
earl of Pembroke (d. 1324), at Scarborough in May 1312, and was
taken to Deddington in Oxfordshire, where he was seized by Guy
de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (d. 1 3 1 5) . Conveyed to Warwick
castle he was beheaded on Blacklow Hill near Warwick on the
igth of June 1312. Gaveston, whose body was buried in 1315
at King's Langley, left an only daughter.
See W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896); and
Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward II., edited by W.
Stubbs. Rolls series (London, 1882-1883).
GAVOTTE (a French word adopted from the Provencal gavoto),
properly the dance of the Gavots or natives of Gap, a district
in the Upper Alps, in the old province of Dauphine. It is a
dance of a brisk and lively character, somewhat resembling
the minuet, but quicker and less stately (see DANCE); hence
also the use of this name for a corresponding form of musical
composition.
GAWAIN (Fr. Walvain (Brut), Contain, Caugain; Lat.
Walganus. Walvanus, Dutch, Walvein, Webb, Gwalchmei),
son of King Loth of Orkney, and nephew to Arthur on his
mother's side, the most famous hero of Arthurian romance.
The first mention of his name is in a passage of William of Malmes-
bury, recording the discovery of his tomb in the province of Ros
in Wales. He is there described as " Walwen qui fuit haud
degener Arturis ex sorore nepos." Here he is said to have reigned
over Galloway; and there is certainly some connexion, the
character of which is now not easy to determine, between the
two. In the later Historia of Goeffrey of Monmouth, and its
French translation by Wace, Gawain plays an important and
" pseudo-historic " role. On the receipt by Arthur of the
insulting message of the Roman emperor, demanding tribute,
it is he who is despatched as ambassador to the enemy's camp,
where his arrogant and insulting behaviour brings about the
outbreak of hostilities. On receipt of the tidings of Mordred's
treachery, Gawain accompanies Arthur to England, and is slain
in the battle which ensues on their landing. Wace, however,
evidently knew more of Gawain than he has included in his
translation, for he speaks of him as
Li qucns Walwains
Qui tant fu preudom de ses mains (n. 9057-58).
and later on says
Prous lu et de mult grant mesure,
D'orgoil et de forfait n'ot (jure
Plus vaut fairc qu'il ne dist
Et plus doncr qu'il ne pramist (10. 106-109).
The English Arthurian poems regard him as the type and model of
chivalrous courtesy, " the fine father of nurture," and as Pro-
fessor Maynadier has well remarked, " previous to the appearance
of Malory's compilation it was Gawain rather than Arthur, who
was the typical English hero." It is thus rather surprising to
find that in the earliest preserved MSS. of Arthurian romance, i.e.
in the poems of Chretien de Troyes, Gawain, though generally
placed first in the list of knights, is by no means the hero par
excellence. The latter part of the Perceval is indeed devoted to the
recital of his adventures at the Chastel Meroeilleus, but of none of
Chretien's poems is he the protagonist. The anonymous author
of the Chevalier a I'epfe indeed makes this apparent neglect of
Gawain a ground of reproach against Chret ien. At the same time
the majority of the short episodic poems connected with the cycle
have Gawain for their hero. In the earlier form of the prose
romances, e.g. in the Merlin proper, Gawain is a dominant
personality, his feats rivalling in importance those ascribed to
Arthur, but in the later forms such as the Merlin continuations,
the Tristan., and the final Lancelot compilation, his character and
position have undergone a complete change, he is represented as
cruel, cowardly and treacherous, and of indifferent moral
character. Most unfortunately our English version of the
romances, Malory's Morte Arthur, being derived from these later
forms (though his treatment of Gawain is by no means uniformly
consistent), this unfavourable aspect is that under which the hero
has become known to the modern reader. Tennyson, who only
knew the Arthurian story through the medium of Malory, has,
by exaggeration, largely contributed to this misunderstanding.
Morris, in The Defence of Guinevere, speaks of " gloomy Gawain " ;
perhaps the most absurdly misleading epithet which could possibly
have been applied to the " gay, gratious, and gude " knight of
early English tradition.
The truth appears to be that Gawain, the Celtic and mythic
origin of whose character was frankly admitted by the late M.
Gaston Paris, belongs to the very earliest stage of Arthurian
tradition, long antedating the crystallization of such tradition into
literary form. He was certainly known in Italy at a very early
date; Professor Rajna has found the names of Arthur and
Gawain in charters of the early 1 2th century, the bearers of those
names being then grown to manhood; and Gawain is figured in
the architrave of the north doorway of Modena cathedral, a i 2th-
century building. Recent discoveries have made it practically
certain that there existed, prior to the extant romances, a collec-
tion of short episodic poems, devoted to the glorification of
Arthur's famous nephew and his immediate kin (his brother
Ghaeris, or Gareth, and his son Guinglain), the authorship of
which was attributed to a Welshman, Bleheris; fragments of this
540
GAWLER GAY, JOHN
collection have been preserved to us alike in the first continuation
of Chretien de Troyes Perceval, due to Wauchier de Denain,
and in our vernacular Gawain poems. Among these " Bleheris "
poems was one dealing with Gawain's adventures at the Grail
castle,where the Grail is represented as non-Christian, and presents
features strongly reminiscent of the ancient Nature mysteries.
There is good ground for believing that as Grail quester and
winner, Gawain preceded alike Perceval and Galahad, and that
the solution of the mysterious Grail problem is to be sought
rather in the tales connected with the older hero than in those
devoted to the glorification of the younger knights. The explana-
tion of the very perplexing changes which the character of Gawain
has undergone appears to lie in a misunderstanding of the original
sources of that character. Whether or no Gawain was a sun-
hero, and he certainly possessed some of the features we are
constantly told how his strength waxed with the waxing of the sun
till noontide, and then gradually decreased; he owned a steed
known by a definite name le Gringalet; and a light-giving sword,
Escalibur (which, as a rule, is represented as belonging to Gawain,
not to Arthur) all traits of a sun-hero he certainly has much in
common with the primitive Irish hero Cuchullin. The famous
head-cutting challenge, so admirably told in Syr Gawayne and the
Grene Knighte, was originally connected with the Irish champion.
Nor was the lady of Gawain's love a mortal maiden, but the
queen of the other-world. In Irish tradition the other-world is
often represented as an island, inhabited by women only; and
it is this " Isle of Maidens " that Gawain visits in Diu Crone;
returning therefrom dowered with the gift of eternal youth.
The Chastel Merveilleus adventure, related at length by Chretien
and Wolfram is undoubtedly such an " other-world " story. It
seems probable that it was this connexion which won for Gawain
the title of the " Maidens' Knight," a title for which no satis-
factory explanation is ever given. When the source of the name
was forgotten its meaning was not unnaturally misinterpreted,
and gained for Gawain the reputation of a facile morality,
which was exaggerated by the pious compilers of the later Grail
romances into persistent and aggravated wrong-doing; at the
same time it is to be noted that Gawain is never like Tristan and
Lancelot, the hero of an illicit connexion maintained under
circumstances of falsehood and treachery. Gawain, however,
belonged to the pre-Christian stage of Grail tradition, and it is not
surprising that writers, bent on spiritual edification, found him
somewhat of a stumbling-block. Chaucer, when he spoke of
Gawaincoming" again out of faerie, "spoke better than he knew;
the home of that very gallant and courteous knight is indeed
Fairy-land, and the true Gawain-tradition is informed with
fairy glamour and grace.
See Syr Gawayne, the English poems relative to that hero, edited
by Sir Frederick Madden for the Bannatyne Club, 1839 (out of print
and difficult to procure) ; Histoire litteraire de la France, vol. xxx. ;
introduction and summary of episodic " Gawain " poems by Gaston
Paris; The Legend of Sir Gawain, by Jessie L. Weston, Grimm
Library, vol. vii. ; The Legend of Sir Perceval, by Jessie L. Weston,
Grimm Library, vol. xvii.; " Sir Gawain and the Green Knight,"
" Sir Gawain at the Grail Castle " and " Sir Gawain and the Lady of
Lys," vols. i., vi and vii. of Arthurian Romances (Nutt).
GAWLER, a town of Gawler county, South Australia, on the
Para river, 24? m. by rail N.E. of Adelaide. It is one of the most
thriving places in the colony, being the centre of a large wheat-
growing district; it has also engineering works, foundries, flour-
mills, breweries and saw-mills, while gold, silver, copper and
lead are found in the neighbouring bills. The inhabitants of the
town and its extensive suburbs number about 7000; though the
population of the town itself in 1901 was 1996.
GAY, JOHN (1685-1732), English poet, was baptized on the
i6th of September 1685 at Barnstaple, where his family had
long been settled. He was educated at the grammar school of the
town under Robert Luck, who had published some Latin and
English poems. On leaving school he was apprenticed to a silk
mercer in London, but being weary, according to Dr Johnson,
" of either the restraint or the servility of his occupation," he
soon returned to Barnstaple, where he spent some time with his
uncle, the Rev. John Hanmer, the Nonconformist minister of the
town. He then returned to London, and though no details are
available for his biography until the publication of Wine in 1708,
the account he gives in Rural Sports (1713), of years wasted in
attending on courtiers who were profuse in promises never
kept, may account for his occupations. Among his early literary
friends were Aaron Hill and Eustace Budgell. In The Present
Slate of Wit (1711) Gay attempted to give an account of " all our
periodical papers, whether monthly, weekly or diurnal." He
especially praised the Taller and the Spectator, and Swift, who
knew nothing of the authorship of the pamphlet, suspected it
to be inspired by Steele and Addison. To Lintot's Miscellany
(1712) Gay contributed " An Epistle to Bernard Lintot," con-
taining some lines in praise of Pope, and a version of the story of
Arachne from the sixth book of the Metamorphoses of Ovid. In
the same year he was received into the household of the duchess
of Monmouth as secretary, a connexion which was, however,
broken before June 1714.
The dedication of his Rural Sports (1713) to Pope was
the beginning of a lasting friendship. Gay could have no
pretensions to rivalry with Pope, who seems never to have
tired of helping his friend. In 1713 he produced a comedy,
The Wife of Bath, which was acted only three nights, and The
Fan, one of his least successful poems; and in 1714 The Shepherd's
Week, a series of six pastorals drawn from English rustic life.
Pope had urged him to undertake this last task in order to
ridicule the Arcadian pastorals of Ambrose Philips, who had been
praised by the Guardian, to the neglect of Pope's claims as the
first pastoral writer of the age and the true English Theocritus.
Gay's pastorals completely achieved this object, but his ludicrous
pictures of the English swains and their loves were found to be
abundantly entertaining on their own account. Gay had just
been appointed secretary to the British ambassador to the court
of Hanover through the influence of Jonathan Swift, when the
death of Queen Anne three months later put an end to all his
hopes of official employment. In 1715, probably with some help
from Pope, he produced What d'ye call it ? a dramatic skit on
contemporary tragedy, with special reference to Otway's Venice
Preserved. It left the public so ignorant of its r.eal meaning that
Lewis Theobald and Benjamin Griffin (1680-1740) published a
Complete Key to what d'ye call it by way of explanation. In 1716
appeared his Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London, a
poem in three books, for which he acknowledged having received
several hints from Swift. It contains graphic and humorous
descriptions of the London of that period. In January 1717 he
produced the comedy of Three Hours after Marriage, which was
grossly indecent without being amusing, and was a complete
failure. There is no doubt that in this piece he had assistance
from Pope and Arbuthnot, but they were glad enough to have it
assumed that Gay was the sole author.
Gay had numerous patrons, and in 1720 he published Poems
on Several Occasions by subscription, realizing 1000 or more.
In that year James Craggs, the secretary of state, presented
him with some South Sea stock. Gay, disregarding the prudent
advice of Pope and other of his friends, invested his all in South
Sea stock, and, holding on to the end, he lost everything. The
shock is said to have made him dangerously ill. As a matter of
fact Gay had always been a spoilt child, who expected everything
to be done for him. His friends did not fail him at this juncture.
He had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath,
in the third earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him
at Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the third earl of
Queensberry. He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received
unvarying kindness from Congreve and Arbuthnot. In 1724
he produced a tragedy called The Captives. In 1727 he wrote
for Prince William, afterwards duke of Cumberland, his famous
Fifty-one Fables in Verse, for which he naturally hoped to gain
some preferment, although he has much to say in them of the
servility of courtiers and the vanity of court honours. He was
offered the situation of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa,
who was still a child. He refused this offer, which all his friends
seem to have regarded, for no very obvious reason, as an indignity.
As the Fables were written for the amusement of one royal child,
GAY, M. F. S. GAYA
there would appear to have been a measure of reason in giving
him a sinecure in the service of another. His friends thought
him unjustly neglected by the court, but he had already received
(1722) a sinecure as lottery commissioner with a salary of 150
a year, and from 1722 to 1729 he had lodgings in the palace at
Whitehall. He had never rendered any special services to the
court.
He certainly did nothing to conciliate the favour of the govern-
ment by his next production, the Beggars' Opera, a lyrical
drama produced on the .-gth of January 1728 by Rich, in which
Sir Robert Walpole was caricatured. This famous piece, which
was said to have made " Rich gay and Gay rich," was an innova-
tion in many respects, and for a time it drove Italian opera of!
the English stage. Under cover of the thieves and highwaymen
who figured in it was disguised a satire on society, for Gay made
it plain that in describing the moral code of his characters he had
in mind the corruptions of the governing class. Part of the
success of the Beggars' Opera may have been due to the acting
of Lavinia Fenton, afterwords duchess of Bolton, in the part of
Polly Peachum. The play ran for sixty-two nights, though the
representations, four of which were " benefits " of the author,
were not, as has sometimes been stated, consecutive. Swift is
said to have suggested the subject, and Pope and Arbuthnot
were constantly consulted while the work was in progress, but
Gay must be regarded as the sole author. He wrote a sequel,
Polly, the representation of which was forbidden by the lord
chamberlain, no doubt through the influence of Walpole. This
act of " oppression " caused no loss to Gay. It proved an
excellent advertisement for Polly, which was published by sub-
scription in 1729, and brought its author more than 1000. The
duchess of Quecnsberry was dismissed from court for enlisting
subscribers in the palace. The duke of Quecnsberry gave him a
home, and the duchess continued her affectionate patronage
until Gay's death, which took place on the 4th of December
1732. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. The epitaph
on his tomb is by Pope, and is followed by Gay's own mocking
couplet:
" Life is a jest, and all things show it,
1 thought so once, and now I know it."
Acts and Galatea, an English pastoral opera, the music of which
was written by Handel, was produced at the Haymarket in
1 732. The profits of his posthumous opera of Achilles (i 733), and
a new volume of Fables (1738) went to his two sisters, who
inherited from him a fortune of 6000. He left two other pieces,
The Distressed Wife (1743), a comedy, and The Rehearsal at
Goalkam (1754), a farce. The Fables, slight as they may appear,
cost him more labour than any of his other works. The narratives
are in nearly every case original, and are told in clear and lively
verse. The moral which rounds off each little story is never
strained. They are masterpieces in their kind, and the very
numerous editions of them prove their popularity. They have
been translated into Latin, French and Italian, Urdu and
Bengali.
See his Poetical Works (1803) in the Muses' Library, with an intro-
duction by Mr John Underbill; also Samuel Johnson's Lives of the
Potts, John Gay * Singspiele (1898), edited by G. Sarrazin (Engfische
TextoMiotkeh II.); and an article by Austin Dobson in vol. 21 of
the Dictionary of National Biography; Cay's Chair (1820), edited
by Henry Lee, a fellow-townsman, contained a biographical sketch
by his nephew, the Rev. Joseph Bailer.
GAY, MARIE FRAMBOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852), French
author, was born in Paris on the ist of July 1776. Madame
Gay was the daughter of M. Nichault de la Valette and of
Francesca Peretti, an Italian lady. In 1793 she was married
to M. Liotlicr. an exchange broker, but she was divorced from
him in 1799, and shortly afterwards was married to M. Gay,
receiver-general of the department of the Roer or Ruhr. This
union brought her into intimate relations with many distinguished
personages; and her salon came to be frequented by all the
distinguished litterateurs, musicians, actors and painters of the
time, whom she attracted by her beauty, her vivacity and her
many amiable qualities. Her first literary production was a
letter written in 1802 to the Journal de Paris, in defence of
Madame de Stall's novel, Delphine; and in the same year she
published anonymously her first' novel Laure d'Estell. Ltonie
de Montbreuse, which appeared in 1813, is considered by Saint.
Beuve her best work; but Anatole (1815), the romance of a
deaf-mute, has perhaps a higher reputation. Among her other
works, Salons ctlebres (3 vols., 1837) may be especially mentioned.
Madame Gay wrote several comedies and opera libretti which
met with considerable success. She was also un accomplished
musician, and composed both the words and music of a number
of songs. She died in Paris on the 5th of March 1852. For an
account of her daughter, Delphine Gay, Madame de Girardin,
see GIRARDIN.
See her own Souvenirs d'une vieille femme (1834) ; also Th6ophile
Gauticr, Portraits contemporains; and Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du
lundi, vol. vi.
GAY, WALTER (1856- ), American artist, was born at
Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1856. In
1876 he became a pupil of Leon Bonnat in Paris. He received
an honourable mention in the Salon of 1885; a gold medal in
1888, and similar awards at Vienna (1894), Antwerp (1895),
Berlin (1896) and Munich (1897). He became an officer of the
Legion of Honour and a member of the Society of Secession,
Munich. Works by him are in the Luxembourg, the Tate
Gallery (London), and the Boston and Metropolitan (New York)
Museums of Art. His compositions are mainly figure subjects
portraying French peasant life.
GAYA, a city and district of British India, in the Patna
division of Bengal. The city is situated 85 m. S. of Patna by
rail. Pop. (1901) 71,288. It consists of two distinct parts,
adjoining each other; the part containing the residences of the
priests is Gaya proper; and the other, which is the business
quarter, is called Sahibganj. The civil offices and residences of
the European inhabitants are situated here. Gaya derives its
sanctity from incidents in the life of Buddha. But a local
legend also exists concerning a pagan monster of great sanctity,
named Gaya, who by long penance had become holy, so that all
who saw or touched him were saved from perdition. Yama, the
lord of hell, appealed to the gods, who induced Gaya to lie down
in order that his body might be a place of sacrifice; and once
down, Yama placed a large stone on him to keep him there. The
tricked demon struggled violently, and, in order to pacify him,
Vishnu promised that the gods should take up their permanent
residence in him, and that any one who made a pilgrimage to the
spot where he lay should be delivered from the terrors of the
Hindu place of torment. This may possibly be a Brahmanic
rendering of B uddha's life and work. There are forty-five sacred
spots (of which the temple of Vishnupada is the chief) in and
around the city, and these are visited by thousands of pilgrims
annually. During the Mutiny the large store of treasure here was
conveyed safely to Calcutta by Mr A. Money. The city contains
a government high school and an hospital, with a Lady Elgin
branch for women.
The DISTRICT OF GAYA comprises an area of 4712 sq. m.
Generally speaking, it consists of a level plain, with a ridge of
prettily wooded hills along the southern boundary, whence the
country falls with a gentle slope towards the Ganges. Rocky
hills occasionally occur, either detached or in groups, the loftiest
being Maher hill about 1 2 m. S.E. of Gaya city, with an elevation
of 1620 ft. above sea-level. The eastern part of the district is
highly cultivated; the portions to the north and west are less
fertile; while in the south the country is thinly peopled and
consists of hills, the jungles on which are full of wild animals.
The principal river is the Son, which marks the boundary between
Gaya and Shahabad, navigable by small boats throughout the
year, and by craft of 2o-tons burden in the rainy season. Other
rivers are the Punpun, Phalgu and Jamuna. Two branches of
the Son canal system, the eastern main canal and the Patna
canal, intersect the district. In 1901 the population was
2,059,933, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. Among the
higher castes there is an unusually large proportion of Brahmans,
a circumstance due to the number of sacred places which the
district contains. The Gayawals, or priests in charge of the holy
542
GAYAL GAY-LUSSAC
places, are held in high esteem by the pilgrims ; but they are not
pure Brahmans, and are looked down upon by those who are.
They live an idle and dissolute life, but are very wealthy, from
contributions extorted from the pilgrims. Buddh Gaya, about
6 m. S. of Gaya city, is one of the holiest sites of Buddhism, as
containing the tree under which Sakyamuni attained enlighten-
ment. In addition to many ruins and sculptures, there is a
temple restored by the government in 1881. Another place of
religious interest is a temple of great antiquity, which crowns the
highest peak of the Barabar hills, and at which a religious fair is
held each September, attended by 10,000 to 20,0000 pilgrims.
At the foot of the hill are numerous rock caves excavated about
200 B.C. The opium poppy is largely cultivated. There are a
number of lac factories. Manufactures consist of common brass
utensils, black stone ornaments, pottery, tussur-silk and cotton
cloth. Formerly paper-making was an important manufac-
ture in the district, but it has entirely died out. The chief
exports are food grains, oil seeds, indigo, crude opium (sent to
Patna for manufacture), saltpetre, sugar, blankets, brass utensils,
&c. The imports are salt, piece goods, cotton, timber, bamboos,
tobacco, lac, iron, spices and fruits. The district is traversed by
four branches of the East Indian railway. In 10.01 it suffered
severely from the plague.
See District Gazetteer (1906); Sir A. Cunningham, Mdhabodhi
(1892).
GAYAL, a domesticated ox allied to the Gaur, but dis-
tinguished, among other features, by the more conical and
straighter horns, and the straight line between them. Gayal
are kept by the natives of the hill-districts of Assam and parts
of Tenasserim and Upper Burma. Although it has received
a distinct name, Bos (Bibos) frontalis, there can be little doubt
that the gayal is merely a domesticated breed of the gaur, many
gayal-skulls showing characters approximating to those of the
gaur.
GAYANGOS Y ARCE, PASCUAL DE (1800-1897), Spanish
scholar and Orientalist, was born at Seville on the 2ist of June
1809. At the age of thirteen he was sent to be educated at
Pont-le-Voy near Blois, and in 1828 began the study of Arabic
under Silvestre de Sacy. After a visit to England, where he
married, he obtained a post in the Spanish treasury, and was
transferred to the foreign office as translator in 1833. In 1836 he
returned to England, wrote extensively in English periodicals, and
translated Almakkari's History of the Mahommedan Dynasties in
Spain ( 1 840-1 843) for the Royal Asiatic Society. In England he
also, made the acquaintance of Ticknor, to whom he was very
serviceable. In 1843 he returned to Spain as professor of Arabic
at the university of Madrid, which post he held until 1881, when
he was made director of public instruction. This office he re-
signed upon being elected senator for the district of Huelva.
His latter years were spent in cataloguing the Spanish manu-
scripts in the British Museum; he had previously continued
Bergenroth's catalogue of the manuscripts relating to England
in the Simancas archives. His best-known original work is his
dissertation on Spanish romances of chivalry in Rivadeneyra's
Biblioteca de autores espanoles. He died in London on the 4th
of October 1897.
GAYARRE, CHARLES ETIENNE ARTHUR (1805-1895),
American historian, w.as born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on the
9th of January 1805. After studying at the College d'Orleans he
began, in 1826, to study law in Philadelphia, and three years later
was admitted to the bar. In 1830 he was elected a member of the
House of Representatives of Louisiana, in 1831 was appointed
deputy attorney-general of his state, in 1833 became presiding
judge of the city court of New Orleans, and in 1834 was elected
as a Jackson Democrat to the United States Senate. On account
of ill-health, however, he immediately resigned without taking his
seat, and for the next eight years travelled in Europe and collected
historical material from the French and the Spanish archives.
In 1844-1845 and in 1856-1857 he was again a member of the
state House of Representatives, and from 1845 to 1853 was
secretary of state of Louisiana. He supported the Southern
Confederacy during the Civil War, in which he lost a large fortune,
and after its close lived chiefly by his pen. He died in New-
Orleans on the nth of February 1895. He is best known as the
historian of Louisiana. He wrote Histoire de la Louisiana (1847) ;
Romance of the History of Louisiana (1848); Louisiana: its
Colonial History and Romance (1851), reprinted in A History of
Louisiana; History of Louisiana: the Spanish Domination
(1854); Philip II. of Spain (1866); and A History of Louisiana
(4 vols., 1866), the last being a republication and continuation
of his earlier works in this field, the whole comprehending the
history of Louisiana from its earliest discovery to 1861. He
wrote also several dramas and romances, the best of the latter
being Fernando de Lemos (1872).
GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS (1778-1850), French chemist
and physicist, was born at St Leonard, in the department of
Haute Vienne, on the 6th of December 1778. He was the elder
son of Antoine Gay, procureur du roi and judge at Pont-de-
Noblac, who assumed the name Lussac from a small property he
had in the neighbourhood of St Leonard. Young Gay-Lussac
received his early education at home under the direction of the
abbe Bourdieux and other masters, and in 1 794 was sent to Paris to
prepare for the Ecole Polytechnique, into which he was admitted
at the|end of 1 797 after a brilliant examination. Three years later
he was transferred to the Ecole des Pouts et Chaussees, and
shortly afterwards was assigned to C. L. Berthollet, who wanted
an able student to help in his researches. The new assistant
scarcely came up to expectations in respect of confirming certain
theoretical views of his master's by the experiments set him to
that end, and appears to have stated the discrepancy without
reserve; but Berthollet nevertheless quickly recognized the
ability displayed, and showed his appreciation not only by desiring
to be Gay-Lussac's " father in science," but also by making him in
1807 an original member of the Societe d'Arcueil. In 1802 he was
appointed demonstrator to A. F. Fourcroy at the Ecole Poly-
technique, where subsequently (1809) he became professor of
chemistry, and from 1808 to 1832 he was professor of physics at
the Sorbonne, a post which he only resigned for the chair of
chemistry at the Jardin des Plantes. In 1831 he was elected to
represent Haute Vienne in the chamber of deputies, and in 1839
he entered the chamber of peers. He died in Paris on the gth of
May 1850.
Gay-Lussac's earlier researches were mostly physical in
character and referred mainly to the properties of gases, vapour-
tensions, hygrometry, capillarity, &c. In his first memoir (Ann.
de Chimie, 1802) he showed that different gases are dilated in
the same proportion when heated from o to 100 C. Apparently
he did not know of Dalton's experiments on the same point,
which indeed were far from accurate; but in a note he explained
that " le cit. Charles avait remarque depuis 15 ans la meme
propriete dans ces gaz; mais n'ayant jamais public ses resultats,
c'est par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus." In con-
sequence of his candour in thus rescuing from oblivion the
observation which his fellow-citizen did not think worth publish-
ing, his name is sometimes dissociated from this law, which instead
is known as that of Charles. In 1804 he had an opportunity
of prosecuting his researches on air in somewhat unusual condi-
tions, for the French Academy, desirous of securing some observa-
tions on the force of terrestrial magnetism at great elevations
above the earth, through Berthollet and J. E. Chaptal obtained
the use of the balloon which had been employed in Egypt, and
entrusted the task to him and J. B. Biot. In their first ascent
from the garden of the Conservatoire des Arts on the 24th of
August 1804 an altitude of 4000 metres (about 13,000 ft.) was
attained. But this elevation was not considered sufficient
by Gay-Lussac, who therefore made a second ascent by himself
on the i6th of September, when the balloon rose 7016 metres
(about 23,000 ft.) above sea-level. At this height, with the
thermometer marking 9! degrees below freezing, he remained
for a considerable time, making observations not only on
magnetism, but also on the temperature and humidity of the air,
and collecting several samples of air at different heights. The
magnetic observations, though imperfect, led him to the con-
clusion that the magnetic effect at all attainable elevations above
GAZA
543
the earth's surface remains constant; and on analysing the
samples of air he could find no difference of composition at
different heights. (For an account of both ascents see Journ.
de pkyi. for 1804.) On the ist of October in the same year, in
conjunction with Alexander von Humboldt, he read a paper on
euiliometric analysis (Ann. de Ckim., 1805), which contained the
germ of his most important generalization, the authors noting
that when oxygen and hydrogen combine together by volume,
it is in the proportion of one volume of the former to two volumes
of the latter. But his law of combination by volumes was not
enunciated in its general form until after his return from a scientific
journey through Switzerland, Italy and Germany, on which with
Humboldt he started from Paris in March 1805. This journey
was interrupted in the spring of 1806 by the news of the death
of M. J. Brisson, and Gay-Lussac hurried back to Paris in the
hope, which was gratified, that he would be elected to the seat
thus vacated in the Academy. In 1807 an account of the
magnetic observations made during the tour with Humboldt
was published in the first volume of the Mimoires d'Arcueil, and
the second volume, published in 1809, contained the important
memoir on gaseous combination (read to the Societe Philo-
mathique on the last day of 1808), in which he pointed out that
gases combining with each other in volume do so in the simplest
proportions i to i, i to t, i to 3 and that the volume of the
compound formed bears a simple ratio to that of the constituents.
About this time Gay-Lussac's work, although he by no means
entirely abandoned physical questions, became of a more chemical
character; and in three instances it brought him into direct
rivalry with Sir Humphry Davy. In the first case Davy's
preparation of potassium and sodium by the electric current
spurred on Gay-Lussac and his collaborator L. J. Thcnard, who
had no battery at their disposal, to search for a chemical method
of obtaining those metals, and by the action of red-hot iron on
fused potash a method of which Davy admitted the advantages
they succeeded in' 1808 in preparing potassium, going on to
make a full study of its properties and to use it, as Davy also
did, for the reduction of boron from boracic acid in 1809. The
second concerned the nature of " oxymuriatic acid " (chlorine).
While admitting the possibility that it was an elementary body,
after many experiments they finally declared it to be a compound
(Mtm. d'Arcueil, 1809). Davy, on the other hand, could see no
reason to suppose it contained oxygen, as they surmised, and
ultimately they had to accept his view of its elementary character.
The third case roused most feeling of all. Davy, passing through
Paris on his way to Italy at the end of 1813, obtained a few
fragments of iodine, which had been discovered by Bernard
Courtois (1777-1838) in 1811, and after a brief examination by
the aid of his limited portable laboratory perceived its analogy
to chlorine and inferred it to be an element. Gay-Lussac, it is
said, was nettled at the idea of a foreigner making such a dis-
covery in Paris, and vigorously took up the study of the new
substance, the result being the elaborate " Memoire sur 1'iode,"
which appeared in the Ann. de Mm. in 1814. He too saw its
resemblance to chlorine, and was obliged to agree with Davy's
opinion as to its simple nature, though not without some hesita-
tion, due doubtless to his previous declaration about chlorine.
Davy on his side seems to have felt that the French chemist was
competing with him, not altogether fairly, in trying to appropriate
the honour of discovering the character of the substance and of
its compound, hydriodic acid.
In 1810 he published a paper which contains some classic
experiments on fermentation, a subject to which he returned
in a second paper published in 1815. At the same time he was
working with The'nard at the improvement of -the methods of
organic analysis, and by combustion with oxidizing agents,
first potassium chlorate and subsequently copper oxide, he
determined the composition of a number of organic substances.
But his last great piece of pure research was on prussic acid.
In a note published in 1811 he described the physical properties
of this acid, but he said nothing about its chemical composition
till 1815, when he described cyanogen as a compound radicle,
prussic acid as a compound of that radicle with hydrogen alone,
and the prussiates (cyanides) as compounds of the radicle with
metals. The proof that prussic acid contains hydrogen but no
oxygen was a most important support to the hydrogen-acid
theory, and completed the downfall of Lavoisier's oxygen theory;
while the isolation of cyanogen was of equal importance for the
subsequent era of compound radicles in organic chemistry.
After this research Gay-Lussac's attention began to be dis-
tracted from purely scientific investigation. He had now secured
a leading if not the foremost place among the chemists of the
French capital, and the demand for his services as adviser in
technical problems and matters of practical interest made great
inroads on his available time. He had been a member of the
consultative committee on arts and manufactures since 1805;
he was attached to the " administration despoudresetsalpelres "
in 1818, and in 1829 he received the lucrative post of assayer to
the mint. In these new fields he displayed the powers so con-
spicuous in his scientific inquiries, and he was now to introduce
and establish scientific accuracy where previously there had been
merely practical approximations. His services to industry in-
cluded his improvements in the processes for the manufacture
of sulphuric acid (1818) and oxalic acid (1829); methods of
estimating the amount of real alkali in potash and soda by the
volume of standard acid required for neutralization, and for
estimating the available chlorine in bleaching powder by a solution
of arsenious acid; directions for the use of the centesimal
alcoholometer published in 1824 and specially commended by
the Institute; and the elaboration of a method of assaying
silver by a standard solution of common salt, a volume on which
was published in 1833. Among his research work of this period
may be mentioned the improvements in organic analysis and the
investigation of fulminic acid made with the help of Liebig, who
gained the privilege of admission to his private laboratory in
1823-1824.
Gay-Lussac was patient, persevering, accurate to punctilious-
ness, perhaps a little cold and reserved, and not unaware of his
great ability. But he was also bold and energetic, not only in
his work but also in support and defence of his friends. His
early childish adventures, as told by Arago, herald the fearless
aeronaut and the undaunted investigator of volcanic eruptions
(Vesuvius was in full eruption when he visited it during his
tour in 1805); and the endurance he exhibited under the labora-
tory accidents that befell him shows the power of will with which
he would face the prospect of becoming blind and useless for the
prosecution of the science which was his very life, and of which he
was one of the most distinguished ornaments. Only at the very
end, when the disease from which he was suffering left him no hope,
did he complain with some bitterness of the hardship of leaving
this world where the many discoveries being made pointed to
yet greater discoveries to come.
The most complete list of Gay-Lussac's papers is contained in
the Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers, which enumerates
148, exclusive of others written jointly with Humboldt, TMnard,
Welter and Liebig. Many of them were published in the A nnales de
chimie, which after it changed its title to Annales de chimie et
physique he edited, with Arago, up to nearly the end of his life; but
some are to be found in the Mimoires d'Arcueil and the Camples
rendus, and in the Recherches physiques et chimiques, published
with Thcnard in 1811.
OAZA, THEODORUS (c. 1400-1475), one of the Greek scholars
who were the leaders of the revival of learning in the i $th century,
was born at Thessalonica. On the capture of his native city by
the Turks in 1430 he fled to Italy. During a three years' residence
in Mantua he rapidly acquired a competent knowledge of Latin
under the teaching of Vittorino da Feltre, supporting himself
meanwhile by giving lessons in Greek, and by copying manuscripts
of the ancient classics. 1 In 1447 he became professor of Greek
in the newly founded university of Ferrara, to which students
in great numbers from all parts of Italy were soon attracted
by his fame as a teacher. He had taken some part in the councils
which were held in Siena (1423), Ferrara (1438), and Florence
(1439), with the object of bringing about a reconciliation between
1 According to Voigt, Gaza came to Italy some ten years later from
Constantinople, where he had been a teacher or held some clerical
office.
544
GAZA GAZALAND
the Greek and Latin Churches; and in 1450, at the invitation of
Pope Nicholas V., he went to Rome, where he was for some years
employed by his patron in making Latin translations from
Aristotle and other Greek authors. After the death of Nicholas
(1455), being unable to make a living at Rome, Gaza removed
to Naples, where he enjoyed the patronage of Alphonso the
Magnanimous for two years (1456-1458) . Shortly afterwards he
was appointed by Cardinal Bessarion to a benefice in Calabria,
where the later years of his life were spent, and where he died
about 1475. Gaza stood high in the opinion of most of his
learned contemporaries, but still higher in that of the scholars
of the succeeding generation. His Greek grammar (in four
books), written in Greek, first printed at Venice in 1495, and
afterwards partially translated by Erasmus in 1521, although
in many respects defective, especially in its syntax, was for a
long time the leading text-book. His translations into Latin
were very numerous, including the Problemata, De partibus
animalium and De generatione animalium of Aristotle; the
Historia planlarum of Theophrastus; the Problemata of Alexander
Aphrodisias; the De instruendis aciebus of Aelian; the De
compositione verborum of Dionysius of Halicarnassus; and some
of the Homilies of John Chrysostom. He also turned into Greek
Cicero's De senectute and Somnium Scipionis with much success,
in the opinion of Erasmus; with more elegance than exactitude,
according to the colder judgment of modern scholars. He was
the author also of two small treatises entitled De mensibus and
De origine Turcarum.
See G. Voigt, Die Witderbelebung des klassischen Alterlums
(1893). and article by C. F. Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine
Encyklopddie. For a complete list of his works, see Fabricius,
BMiotheca Graeca (ed. Harles), x.
GAZA (or "AZZAH, mod. Ghuzzeh), the most southerly of the
five princely Philistine cities, situated near the sea, at the point
where the old trade routes from Egypt, Arabia and Petra to
Syria met. It was always a strong border fortress and a place
of commercial importance, in many respects the southern
counterpart of Damascus. The earliest notice of it is in the
Tell el-Amarna tablets, in a letter from the local governor, who
then held it for Egypt, with which country it always stood in
close connexion. It never passed for long into Israelite hands,
though subject for a while to Hezekiah of Judah; from him it
passed to Assyria. In Amos i. 6 the city is denounced for giving
up Hebrew slaves to Edom. To Herodotus ( iii. 5 ) the place
seemed as important as Sardis. The city withstood Alexander
the Great for five months (332 B.C.), and in 96 B.C. was razed to
the ground by Alexander Jannaeus. It was rebuilt by Aulus
Ga'oinius, 57 B.C., but on a new site; the old site was remembered
and spoken of as "Old" or "Desert Gaza": compare Acts
viii. 26. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries Gaza was a thriving
Greek city, with good schools and famous temples, especially
one to the local god Marna (i.e. " Lord " or " Our Lord "). A
statue of this god has been found near Gaza; it much resembles
the Greek representation of Zeus. The struggle with Christianity
here was long and intense. Egyptian monks gradually won over
the country folk, and in 402, under the influence of Theodosius
and Porphyry the local bishop, the Marneion was destroyed
and the cross made politically supreme. In the sth and 6th
centuries Gaza was held in high repute as a place of learning.
But after it passed into Moslem hands (635) it gradually lost
all save commercial importance, and even the Crusaders did
little to revive its old military glory. It finally was captured
by the Moslems in 1244. Napoleon captured it in 1799.
The modern town (pop. 16,000) is divided into four quarters,
one of which is built on a low hill. A magnificent grove of very
a'ncient olives forms an avenue 4 m. long to the north. There
are many lofty minarets in various parts of the town, and a
fine mosque built of ancient materials. A 1 2th century church
towards the south side of the hill has also been converted into
a mosque. On the east is shown the tomb of Samson (an
erroneous tradition dating back to the middle ages) . The ancient
walls are now covered up beneath green mounds of rubbish.
The water-supply is from wells sunk through the sandy soil to
the rock; of these there are more than twenty an unusual
number for a Syrian town. The land for the 3 m. between
Gaza and the sea consists principally of sand dunes. There is
no natural harbour, but traces of ruins near the shore mark the
site of the old Maiuma Gazae or Port of Gaza, now called el
Mineh, which in the 5th century was a separate town and episcopal
see, under the title Constantia or Limena Gaza. Hashem, an
ancestor of Mahomet, lies bwried in the town. On the east are
remains of a race-course, the corners marked by granite shafts
with Greek inscriptions on them. To the south is a remarkable
hill, quite isolated and bare, with a small mosque and a grave-
yard. It is called el Muntar, " the watch tower," and is supposed
to be the mountain "before (or facing) Hebron," to which
Samson carried the gates of Gaza (Judg. xvi. 3). The bazaars
of Gaza are considered good. An extensive pottery exists in
the town, and black earthenware peculiar to the place is manu-
factured there. The climate is dry and comparatively healthy,
but the summer temperature often exceeds 110 Fahr. The
surrounding country is partly cornland, partly waste, and is
inhabited by wandering Arabs. The prosperity of Ghuzzeh
has partially revived through the growing trade in barley, of
which the average annual export to Great Britain for 1897-1899
was over 30,000 tons. The dress of the people is Egyptian
rather than Syrian. Gaza is an episcopal see both of the Greek
and the Armenian church. The Church Missionary Society
maintains a mission, with schools for both sexes, and a hospital.
GAZALAND, a district of Portuguese East Africa, extending
north from the Komati or Manhissa river, Delagoa Bay, to the
Pungwe river. It is a well-watered, fertile country. Gazaland
is one of the chief recruiting grounds for negro labour in the
Transvaal gold mines. The country derives its name from a
Swazi chief named Gaza, a contemporary of Chaka, the Zulu
king. Refugees from various clans oppressed by Dingaan
(Chaka's successor) were welded into one tribe by Gaza's son
Manikusa, who took the name of Sotshangana, his followers
being known generally as Matshangana. A section of them was
called Maviti or Landeens (i.e. couriers), a designation which
persists as a tribal name. Between 1833 and 1836 Manikusa
made himself master of the country as far north as the Zambezi
and captured the Portuguese posts at Delagoa Bay, Inhambane,
Sofala and Sena, killing nearly all the inhabitants. The Portu-
guese reoccupied their posts, but held them with great difficulty,
while in the interior the Matshangana continued their ravages
unchecked, depopulating large regions. Manikusa died about
1860, and his son Umzila, receiving some help from the Portuguese
at Delagoa Bay in a struggle against a brother for the chieftain-
ship, ceded to them the territory south of the Manhissa river.
North of that stream as far as the Zambezi and inland to the
continental plateau Umzila established himself in independence,
a position he maintained till his death (c. 1884). His chief
rival was a Goanese named Gouveia, who came to Africa about
1850. Having obtained possession of a prazo in the Gorongoza
district, he ruled there as a feudal lord while acknowledging
himself a Portuguese subject. Gouveia recovered from the Mat-
shangana and other troublers of the peace much of the country
in the Zambezi valley, and was appointed by the Portuguese
captain-general of a large region. From 1 868 onward the country
began to be better known. Probably the first European to
penetrate any distance inland from the Sofala coast since the
Portuguese gold-seekers of the i6th century was St Vincent W.
Erskine, who explored the region between the Limpopo and
Pungwe (1868-1875). Portugal's hold on the coast had been
more firmly established at the time of Umzila's death, and
Gungunyana, his successor, was claimed as a vassal, while efforts
were made to open up the interior. This led in 1890-1891 to
collisions on the borderland of the plateau with the newly
established British South Africa Company, and to the arrest
by the company's agents of Gouveia, who was, however, set at
liberty and returned to Mozambique via Cape Town. An offer
made by Gungunyana ( 1891 ) to come under British protection
was not accepted. In 1892 Gouveia was killed in a war with a
native chief. Gungunyana maintained his independence until
GAZEBO GEBER
545
189$, when he was captured by a Portuguese force and exiled,
urst to Lisbon and afterwards to Angola, where he died in 1906.
With the capture of Gungunyana opposition to Portuguese rule
largely ceased.
la flora, fauna and commerce Gazaland resembles the neigh-
bouring regions of Portuguese East Africa. (?..).
Sec G. McCall Theal, History of South Africa since 1795, vol. v.
(London. 1908).
GAZEBO (usually explained as a comic Latinism, for " I will
gue "; the New Englisk Dictionary suggests a possible oriental
origin now lost), a term used in the iSth century for a structure
on the outer wall of a garden, having an upper storey with
windows on each side so as to overlook the road. Similar build-
ings are found in Holland on the borders of the canals, which in
some cases form very picturesque features.
GAZETTE, a name given to news-sheets or newspapers having
an abstract of current events (see NEWSPAPERS). The London
Gatette is the title of the English official organ for announcements
by the government, and is published every Tuesday and Friday.
It contains ill proclamations, orders of council, promotions and
appointments to commissions in the army and navy, all appoint-
ments to offices of state, and such other orders, rules and regula-
tions as are directed by act of parliament to be published therein.
It also contains notices of proceedings in bankruptcy, dissolutions
of partnership, &c. By the Documentary Evidence Act 1868 the
production of a copy of the Gazette is prima facie evidence of royal
proclamations and government orders and regulations. Similar
gazettes are also published in Edinburgh and Dublin. Most
countries (the United States excepted) have official journals
containing information more or less similar to that of the London
Gatette, as the French Journal officiel, the German Deutschcr
Reicks-und Kgl. Preuss. Stoats- A nzeiger, &c. The word " gazet-
teer " was originally applied to one who wrote for " gazettes,"
but is now only used for a geographical dictionary arranged on
an alphabetical plan.
GEAR (connected with " garb," properly elegance, fashion,
especially of dress, and with " gar," to cause to do, only found in
Scottish and northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the
Old Teut. gancjan. to make ready), an outfit, applied to the
wearing apparel of a person, or to the harness and trappings of a
horse or any draft animal, as riding-gear, hunting-gear, &c.;
abo to household goods or stuff. The phrase " out of gear,"
though now connected with the mechanical application of the
word, was originally used to signify " out of harness " or con-
dition, not ready to work, not fit. The word is also used of
apparatus generally, and especially of the parts collectively in a
machine by which motion is transmitted from one part to another
by a series of cog-wheels, continuous bands, &c. It is used in a
special sense in reference to a bicycle, meaning the diameter of an
imaginary wheel, the circumference of which is equal to the
distance accomplished by one revolution of the pedals (see
BICYCLE).
GEBER. The name Geber has long been used to designate the
author of a number of Latin treatises on alchemy, entitled Summa
perfectionis mogisterii, De investigatione perfectionis, De imentione
ttrilatis, Liber fomacum, Testamentum Geberi Regis Indiae and
AUkemia Geberi, and these writings were generally regarded as
translations from the Arabic originals of Abu Abdallah Jaber
ben Hayyam (Haiyan) ben Abdallah al-Kufi, who is supposed to
have lived in the 8th or pth century of the Christian era. About
him , however, there is considerable uncertainty. According to the
Kitdb-al-FiMrist (loth century), which gives his name as above,
the authorities disagree, some asserting him to have been a writer
on philosophy and rhetoric, and others claiming for him the first
place among the adepts of his time in the art of making gold and
silver. The writer of the Kiidb-al-Fikrist says he had been
assured that Jaber only wrote one book and even that he never
existed at all, but these statements he scouts as ridiculous, and
expressing the conviction that Jaber really did exist, and that his
works were numerous and important, goes on to quote the titles
of some 500 treatises attributed to him. He is said to have resided
most frequently at Kufa. where he prepared the " elixir," but,
xi 18
according to others, he never spent long in one place, having
reason to keep his whereabouts unknown. His patron or master
is variously given as Ja'far ben Yahya, and as Ja'far es-Sadiq;
in the Arabic Book of Royalty, professedly written by him, he
addresses the last-named as his master. In addition to these
details the Fihrist mentions a tradition that he originally came
from Khorasan. Another story given by d'Herbelot (Biblio-
theque orientate, s.v. " Giaber ") makes him a native of Harran
in Mesopotamia and a Sabaean. Leo Africanus, who in 1526
gave an account of the Alchemists of Fez in Africa (see the
English translation of his Africae descriptio by John Pory, A
Geographical History of Africa, London, 1600, p. 155), states that
their principal authority was Geber, a Greek who had apostatized
to Mahommedanism and lived a century after Mahomet. In
Albertus Magnus the name Geber occurs only once and then with
the epithet " of Seville "; doubtless the reference is to the
Arabian Jabir ben Allah, who lived in that city in the nth
century, and wrote an astronomy in 9 books which is of import-
ance in the history of trigonometry.
The great puzzle connected with the name Geber lies in the
character of the writings attributed to him, their style and matter
differentiating them strongly from those of even the best authors
of the later alchemical period, and making it difficult to account
for their existence at all. The researches of M. P. E. Berthelot
threw a great deal of light on this question. Taking the six
treatises enumerated above he concluded, after critical examina-
tion, that the two last may be disregarded as of later date than the
others, and that the De investigatlone perfectionis, the De in-
ventione and the Liber fornacum are merely extracts from or
summaries of the Summa perfectionis with later additions. The
Summa he therefore regarded as representative of the work of the
Latin Geber, and study of it convinced him that it contains no
indication of an Arabic origin, either in its method, which is
conspicuous for clearness of reasoning and logical co-ordination of
material, or in its facts, or in the words and persons quoted.
Without going so far as to deny that some words and phrases may
be taken from the writings of the Arabian Jaber, he was disposed
to hold that it is the original work of some unknown Latin
author, who wrote it in the second half of the ijth century and
put it under the patronage of the venerated name of Geber. The
MS. of this work in the B ibl lot heque Nationale at Paris dates from
about the year 1300. Berthelot further investigated Arabic
MSS. existing in the Paris library and in the university of Leiden,
and containing works attributed to Jaber, and had translations
made of six treatises two, of which he gives the titles as Litre
de la royauti and Petit Lime de la mistricorde, from Paris, and
four Litre des balances, Litre de la mistricorde, Livre de la
concentration and Livre de la mercure orienlale from Leiden.
Berthelot was not prepared to assert that these treatises were
actually written by Jaber, but he held it certain that they are
works written in Arabic between the oth and i2th centuries, at a
period anterior to the relations of the Latins with the Arabs. In
style these treatises are entirely different from the Summa of
Geber. Their language is vague and allegorical, full of allusions
and pious Mussulman invocations; the author continually
announces that he is about to speak without mystery or reserve,
but all the same never gives any precise details of the secrets
he professes to reveal. He holds the doctrine that everything
endowed with an apparent quality possesses an opposite occult
quality in much the same terms as it is found in Latin writers of
the middle ages, but he makes no allusion to the theory of the
generation of the metals by sulphur and mercury, a theory
generally attributed to Geber, who also added arsenic to the list.
Again he fully accepts the influence of the stars on the production
of the metals, whereas the Latin Geber disputes it, and in general
the chemical knowledge of the two is on a different plane. Here
again the inference is that the Latin treatises printed from the
i $th century onwards as the work of Geber are not authentic,
regarded as translations of the Arabic author Jaber, always
supposing that the Arabic MSS. transcribed and translated for
Berthelot are really, as they profess to be, the work of Jaber, and
as representative of his opinions and attainments.
5
54-6
GEBHARD GECKO
But while Berthelot thus deprived the world of what were long
regarded as genuine Latin versions of Jaber's works, he also gave
it something in their place, for among the Paris MSS. he found a
mutilated treatise, hitherto unpublished, entitled Liber de
Septuaginta (Johannis) , translates a Magistro Renaldo Cremonensi,
which he considered the only known Latin work that can be
regarded as a translation from the Arabic Jaber. The latter
states in the Arabic works referred to above that under that title
he collected 70 of the 500 little treatises or tracts of which he was
the author, and the titles of those tracts enumerated in the
KUab-al-Fihrist as forming the chapters of the Liber de Septua-
ginta correspond in general with those of the Latin work, which
further is written in a style similar to that of the Arabic Jaber
and contains the same doctrines. Hence Berthelot felt justified
in assigning it to Jaber, although no Arabic original is known.
The evidence collected by Berthelot has an important bearingon
the history of chemistry. Most of the chemical knowledge attri-
buted to the Arabs has been attributed to them on the strength
of the reputed Latin writings of Geber. If, therefore, these are
original works rather than translations, and contain facts and
doctrines which are not to be found in the Arabian Jaber, it
follows that, on the one hand,the chemical knowledge of the Arabs
has been overestimated and, on the other, that more progress was
made in the middle ages than has generally been supposed.
See M. P. E. Bsrthelot's works on the history of alchemy and
especially his Chimie au moyen age (3 vols., Paris, 1893), the third
volume of which contains a French translation of Jaber's works
together with the Arabic text.
GEBHARD TRUCHSESS VON WALDBURG (1547-1601),
elector and archbishop of Cologne, was the second son of William,
count of Waldburg, and nephew of Otto, cardinal bishop of
Augsburg (1514-1573). Belonging thus to an old and dis-
tinguished Swabian family, he was born on the loth of November
1547, and after studying at the universities of Ingolstadt, Perugia,
Louvain and elsewhere began his ecclesiastical career at Augs-
burg. Subsequently he held other positions at Strassburg,
Cologne and Augsburg, and in December 1577 was chosen elector
of Cologne after a spirited contest. Gebhard is chiefly noted for
his conversion to the reformed doctrines, and for his marriage
with Agnes, countess of Mansfeld, which was connected with this
step. After living in concubinage with Agnes he decided, perhaps
under compulsion, to marry her, doubtless intending at the same
time to resign his see. Other counsels, however, prevailed.
Instigated by some Protestant supporters he declared he would
retain the electorate,and in December 1 582 heformally announced
his conversion to the reformed faith. The marriage with Agnes
was celebrated in the followipg February, and Gebhard remained
in possession of the see. This affair created a great stir in
Germany, and the clause. concerning ecclesiastical reservation in
the religious peace of Augsburg was interpreted in one way by
his friends, and in another way by his foes; the former holding
that he could retain his office, the latter that he must resign.
Anticipating events Gebhard had collected some troops, and had
taken measures to convert his subjects to Protestantism. In
April 1 583 he was deposed and excommunicated by Pope Gregory
XIII.; a Bavarian prince, Ernest, bishop of Liege, Freising and
Hildesheim, was chosen elector, and war broke out between the
rivals. The cautious Lutheran princes of Germany, especially
Augustus I., elector of Saxony, were not enthusiastic in support of
Gebhard, whose friendly relations with the Calvinists were not to
their liking; and although Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry
IV. of France, tried to form a coalition to aid the deposed elector,
the only assistance which he obtained came from John Casimir,
administrator of the Palatinate of the Rhine. The inhabitants of
the electorate were about equally divided on the question, and
Ernest, supported by Spanish troops, was too strong for Gebhard.
John Casimir, who acted as commander-in-chief , returned to the
Palatinate in October 1583, and early in' the following year
Gebhard was driven from Bonn and took refuge in the Nether-
lands. The electorate was soon completely in the possession of
Ernest, and the defeat of Gebhard was a serious blow to Protes-
tantism, and marks a stage in the history of the Reformation.
Living in the Netherlands he became very intimate with Eliza-
beth's envoy, Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, but he failed to
get assistance for renewing the war either from the English queen
or in any other quarter. In 1 589 Gebhard took up his residence at
Strassburg, where he had held the office of dean of the cathedral
since 1574. Before his arrival some trouble had arisen in the
chapter owing to the fact that three excommunicated canons
persisted in retaining their offices. He joined this party, which
was strongly supported in the city, took part in a double election
to the bishopric in 1592, and in spite of some opposition retained
his office until his death at Strassburg on the 3ist of May 1601.
Gebhard was a drunken and licentious man, who owes his promi-
nence rather to his surroundings than to his abilities.
See M. Lossen, Der Tiolnische Krieg (Gotha, 1882), and the article
on Gebhard in band viii. of the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic
(Leipzig, 1878); J. H. Hennes, Der Kampf urn das Erzstift K6ln
(Cologne, 1878); L. Ennen, Geschichte der Stadt Koln (Cologne, 1 863-
1880); and Nunliaturberichte aus Deutschland. Der Kampf um
Koln, edited by J. Hansen (Berlin, 1892).
GEBWEILER (Fr. Guebwitter), a town of Germany in the
imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, at the foot of the Vosges,
on the Lauch, 13 m. S. of Colmar, on the railway Bollweiler-
Lautenbach. Pop. (1905) 13,259. Among the principal buildings
are the Roman Catholic church of St Leodgar, dating from the
1 2th century, the Evangelical church, the synagogue, the town-
house, and the old Dominican convent now used as a market and
concert hall. The chief industries are spinning and dyeing, and
the manufacture of cloth and of machinery; quarrying is carried
on and the town is celebrated for its white wines.
Gebweiler is mentioned as early as 774. It belonged to the
religious foundation of Murbach, and in 1759 the abbots chose it
for their residence. In 1789, at the outbreak of the Revolution,
the monastic buildings were laid in ruins, and, though the archives
were rescued and removed to Colmar, the library perished.
GECKO, 1 the common name applied to all the species of the
Geckones, one of the three sub-orders of the Lacertilia. The
geckoes are small creatures, seldom exceeding 8 in. in length
including the tail. With the head considerably flattened, the
body short and thick, the legs not high enough to prevent the
body dragging somewhat on the ground,the eyes large and almost
destitute of eyelids, and the tail short and in some cases nearly as
thick as the body, the geckoes altogether lack the litheness and
grace characteristic of most lizards. Their colours also are dull,
Leaf-tailed Gecko (Gymnodactylus platurus) of Australia.
and to the weird and forbidding aspect thus produced the general
prejudice against those creatures in the countries where they
occur, which has led to their being classed with toads and
snakes, is no doubt to be attributed. Their bite was supposed
to be venomous, and their saliva to produce painful cutaneous
eruptions; even their touch was thought sufficient to convey a
dangerous taint. It is needless to say that in this instance the
popular mind was misled by appearances. The geckoes are not
only harmless, but are exceedingly useful creatures, feeding on
insects, which, owing to the great width of their oesophagus, they
are enabled to swallow whole, and in pursuit of which they do not
hesitate to enter human dwellings, where they are often killed on
1 The Malay name ge-koq imitates the animal's cry.
GED GEDDES, ANDREW
547
Lower Surface of the Toe of
(a) Getko. (b) Hemidaetyltis
enlarged.
suspicion The structure of the toes in these lizards forms one of
their most characteristic anatomical features.
Moot geckoes have adhesive digits and toes, by means of which
they are enabled not only to climb absolutely smooth and vertical
surfaces, for instance a window-pane, but to run along a white-
washed ceiling, back downwards. The adhesion is not produced
by sticky matter but by numerous transverse lamellae, each
of which is further beset with tiny hair-like excrescences. The
arrangement of the lamellae and pads differs much in the various
genera and is used for classificactory purposes. Those which
live on sandy ground have narrow digits without the adhesive
apparatus. Most species have sharp, curved daws, often
retractile between some of the
lamellae or into a special
sheath. The tail is very brittle
and can be quickly regener-
ated; it varies much in size
and shape; the most extra-
ordinary is that of the leaf-
tailed gecko. Ptyckotoon
homalocephalon of the Malay
countries has membranous ex-
pansions on the sides of the
head, body, limbs and tail, which
look like parachutes, but more
probably they aid in conceal-
ing the creature when it is
closely pressed to the similarly colourful bark of a tree. Most
geckoes are dull coloured, yellow to brown, and they soon change
colour from lighter to dark tints. They arc insectivorous and
chiefly nocturnal, but are fond of basking in the sun, motionless
on the bark of a tree, or on a rock the colour of which is then
imitated to a nicety. Some species are more or less transparent.
Geckoes, of which about 270 species are known, subdivided into
about 50 genera, are' cosmopolitan within the warmer zones,
including New Zealand, and even the remotest volcanic islands.
This wide distribution is due partly to the great age of the
suborder (although fossils are unknown), partly to their being
able to exist for several months without food so that, concealed
in hollow trunks of trees, they may float about for a very long
time. Ships, also, act as distributors. In south Europe occur
only Hemidoctylus lurcicus, Tarentola mouritanica (Platydactylus
fatelaints) and Phyllodactylus europaeus.
GED. WILLIAM (1600-1749), the inventor of stereotyping,
was born at Edinburgh in 1690. In 1725 he patented his in-
vention, developed from the simple process of soldering together
loose types of Van der Mey. Ged, although he succeeded in
obtaining a cast in similar metal, of a type page, could not
persuade Edinburgh printers to take up his invention, and
finally entered into partnership with a London stationer named
Jenner and Thomas James, a typefounder. The partnership,
however, turned out very ill; and Ged, broken-hearted at his
want of success due to trade jealousy and the compositors'
dislike of the innovation, died in poverty on the ipth of October
1749. Two prayer-books for the university of Cambridge and
an edition of Sallust were printed from his stereotype plates.
In bis time the best type was imported from Holland, and Ged's
daughter reports that he had repeated offers from the Dutch
which, from patriotic motives, he refused. His sons tried to
carry out his patent, and it was eventually perfected by Andrew
Wilson.
OEDDES, ALEXANDER (1737-1802), Scottish Roman Catholic
theologian, was born in Rathven, BanfTshire, on the i4th of
September 1737. He was trained at the Roman Catholic
seminary at Scalan and at the Scottish College in Paris, where
be studied biblical philology, school divinity and modern
languages. In 1764 he officiated as a priest in Dundee, but in
May 1765 accepted an invitation to live with the earl of Traquair,
where, with abundance of leisure and the free use of an adequate
library, he made further progress in his favourite biblical studies.
After a second visit to Paris, which was employed by him in
reading and making extracts from rare books and manuscripts,
he was appointed in 1769 priest of Auchinhalrig and Preshomc
in his native county. The freedom with which he fraternized
with his Protestant neighbours called forth the rebuke of his
bishop (George Hay), and ultimately, for hunting and for
occasionally attending the parish church of Cullen, where one
of his friends was minister, he was deprived of his charge and
forbidden the exercise of ecclesiastical functions within the
diocese. This happened in 1779; and in 1780 he went with his
friend Lord Traquair to London, where he spent the rest of his
life. Before leaving Scotland he had received the honorary
degree of LL.D. from the university of Aberdeen, and had been
made an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries, in the
institution of which he had taken a very active part. In London
Geddes soon received an appointment in connexion with the
chapel of the imperial ambassador, and was also helped by Lord
Petre in his scheme for a new Catholic version of the Bible.
In 1786, supported also by such scholars as Benjamin Kennicott
and Robert Lo'wth, Geddes published a Prospectus of a new
Translation of the Holy Bible, a considerable quarto volume, in
which the defects of previous translations were fully pointed
out, and the means indicated by which these might be removed.
It was well received, and led to the publication in 1788 of Pro-
posals for Printing, with a specimen, and in 1790 of a General
Answer to Queries, Counsels and Criticisms. The first volume
of the translation itself, which was entitled The Holy Bible . , .
faithfully translated from corrected Texts of the Originals, with
various Readings, explanatory Notes and critical Remarks,
appeared in 1792, and was the signal for a storm of hostility on
the part of both Catholics and Protestants. It was obvious
enough no small offence in the eyes of some that as a critic
Geddes had identified himself with C. F. Houbigant (1686-1783),
Kennicott and J. D. Michaelis, but others did not hesitate to
stigmatize him as the would-be " corrector of the Holy Ghost."
Three of the vicars-apostolic almost immediately warned all the
faithful against the " use and reception " of his translation, on
the ostensible ground that it had not been examined and ap-
proved by due ecclesiastical authority; and by his own bishop
(Douglas) he was in 1793 suspended from the exercise of his
orders in the London district. The second volume of the transla-
tion, completing the historical books, published in 1797, found
no more friendly reception; but this circumstance did not dis-
courage him from giving forth in 1800 the volume of Critical
Remarks on the Hebrew Scriptures, which presented in a some-
what brusque manner the then novel and startling views of
Eichhorn and his school on the primitive history and early
records of mankind.
Geddes was engaged on a critical translation of the Psalms
(published in 1807) when he was seized with an illness of which
he died on the 26th of February 1802. Athough under ecclesi-
astical censures, he had never swerved from a consistent pro-
fession of faith as a Catholic; and on his death-bed he duly
received the last rites of his communion.
Besides pamphlets on the Catholic and slavery questions, as well
as several fugitive jeux d'esprit, and a number of unsigned articles
in the Analytical Review, Geddes also published a free metrical
version of Select Satires of Horace (1779), and a verbal rendering of
the First Book of the Iliad of Homer (1792). The Memoirs of his life
and writings by his friend John Mason Good appeared in 1803.
OEDDES, ANDREW (1783-1844), British painter, was born
at Edinburgh. After receiving a good education in the high
school and in the university of that city, he was for five years in
the excise office, in which his father held the post of deputy
auditor. After the death of his father, who had opposed his
desire to become an artist, he came to London and entered the
Royal Academy schools. His first contribution to the exhibitions
of the Royal Academy, a " St John in the Wilderness," appeared
at Somerset House in 1806, and from that year onwards Geddes
was a fairly constant exhibitor of figure-subjects and portraits.
His well-known portrait of Wilkie, with whom he was on terms
of intimacy, was at the Royal Academy in 1816. He alternated
for some years between London and Edinburgh, with some
excursions on the Continent, but in 1831 settled in London, and
was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1832; and he
GEDDES, J. L. GEDYMIN
died in London of consumption in 1844. A very able executant,
a good colourist, and a close student of character, he made his
chief success as a portrait-painter, but he produced occasional
figure subjects and landscapes, and executed some admirable
copies of the old masters as well. He was also a good etcher.
His portrait of his mother, and a portrait study, called " Summer,"
are in the National Gallery of Scotland, and his portrait of Sir
Walter Scott is in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery.
See Art in Scotland: its Origin and Progress, by Robert Brydall
(1889); TIte Scottish School of Painting, by William D. McKay,
R.S.A. (1906).
GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE (1827-1887), American soldier
and writer, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the ipth of
March 1827. In his boyhood he was taken to Canada, but in
1843 he returned to Scotland; then studied at Calcutta in the
military academy, entered the army, and after distinguishing
himself in the Punjab campaign, returned to Canada, whence
in 1857 he removed to Vinton, Iowa. In the American Civil
War he served in the Federal army first as lieutenant-colonel
and after February 1862 as colonel of volunteers, taking part
in the fighting at Shiloh, Vicksburg and Corinth. He was
captured at Shiloh and was imprisoned for a time at Madison,
Ga., and in Libby prison, Richmond, Va., and in 1865 was
brevetted brigadier-general of volunteers. He was principal
of the College for the Blind at Vinton after the war, and until
his death was connected with the Iowa College of Agriculture
at Ames, being military instructor and cashier in 1870-1882,
acting president in 1876-1877, librarian in 1877-1878, vice-
president and professor of military tactics in 1880-1882, and
treasurer in 1884-1887. He died at Ames on the zist of
February 1887. He wrote a number of war songs, including
" The Soldiers' Battle Prayer " and " The Stars and Stripes."
GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID (1828-1900), Scottish
scholar and educationist, was born in Aberdeenshire. He was
educated at Elgin academy and university and King's College,
Aberdeen, and after having held various scholastic posts he was
appointed in 1860 professor of Greek and in 1885 principal of
the (united) university of Aberdeen. He was knighted in 1892.
He died in Aberdeen on the 9th of February 1900. It is chiefly
as a teacher that Geddes will be remembered, and in his enthusi-
astic and successful efforts to raise the standard of Greek at the
Scottish universities he has been compared with the humanists
of the Renaissance. Amongst other works he was the author
of A Greek Grammar (1855; i7th edition, 1883; new and revised
edition, 1893); a meritorious edition of the Phaedo of Plato
(and ed., 1885); and The Problem of the Homeric Poems (1878),
in which, while supporting Grote's view that the Iliad consisted
of an original Achilleis with insertions or additions by later
hands, he maintains that these insertions are due to the author
of the Odyssey.
GEDYMIN (d. 1342), grand-duke of Lithuania, was supposed
by tBe earlier chroniclers to have been the servant of Witen,
prince of Lithuania, but more probably he was Witen's younger
brother and the son of Lutuwer, another Lithuanian prince.
Gedymin inherited a vast domain, comprising Lithuania proper,
Samogitia, Red Russia, Polotsk and Minsk; but these possessions
were environed by powerful and greedy foes, the most dangerous
of them being the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian knights of
the Sword. The systematic raiding of Lithuania by the knights
under the pretext of converting it had long since united all the
Lithuanian tribes against the common enemy; but Gedymin
aimed at establishing a dynasty which should make Lithuania
not merely secure but mighty, and for this purpose he entered
into direct diplomatic negotiations with the Holy See. At the
end of 1322 he sent letters to Pope John XXII. soliciting his
protection against the persecution of the knights, informing him
of the privileges already granted to the Dominicans and the
Franciscans in Lithuania for the preaching of God's Word, and
desiring that legates should be sent to receive him also into the
bosom of the church. On receiving a favourable reply from the
Holy See, Gedymin issued circular letters, dated 25th of January
1325, to the principal Hanse towns, offering a free access into his
domains to men of every order and profession from nobles and
knights to tillers of the soil. The immigrants were to choose their
own settlements and be governed by their own laws. Priests
and monks were also invited to come and build churches at
Vilna and Novogrodek. Similar letters were sent to the Wendish
or Baltic cities, and to the bishops and landowners of Livonia
and Esthonia. In short Gedymin, recognizing the superiority
of western civilization, anticipated Ivan the Terrible and Peter
the Great by throwing open the semi-savage Russian lands to
influences of culture.
In October 1323 representatives of the archbishop of Riga,
the bishop of Dorpat, the king of Denmark, the Dominican and
Franciscan orders, and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order
assembled at Vilna, when Gedymin confirmed his promises and
undertook to be baptized as soon as the papal legates arrived.
A compact was then signed at Vilna, " in the name of the whole
Christian World," between Gedymin and the delegates, confirm-
ing the promised privileges. But the christianizing of Lithuania
was by no means to the liking of the Teutonic Knights, and they
used every effort to nullify Gedymin's far-reaching design. This,
unfortunately, it was easy to do. Gedymin's chief object was to
save Lithuania from destruction at the hands of the Germans.
But he was still a pagan reigning over semi-pagan lands; he
was equally bound to his pagan kinsmen in Samogitia, to his
orthodox subjects in Red Russia, and to his Catholic allies in
Masovia. His policy, therefore, was necessarily tentative and
ambiguous, and might very readily be misinterpreted. Thus
his raid upon Dobrzyn, the latest acquisition of the knights on
Polish soil, speedily gave them a ready weapon against him.
The Prussian bishops, who were devoted to the knights, at a synod
at Elbing questioned the authority of Gedymin's letters and
denounced him as an enemy of the faith; his orthodox subjects
reproached him with leaning towards the Latin heresy; while
the pagan Lithuanians accused him of abandoning the ancient
gods. Gedymin disentangled himself from his difficulties by
repudiating his former promises; by refusing to receive the papal
legates who arrived at Riga in September 1323 ; and by dismissing
the Franciscans from his territories. These apparently retrogres-
sive measures simply amounted to a statesmanlike recognition
of the fact that the pagan element was still the strongest force
in Lithuania, and could not yet be dispensed with in the coming
struggle for nationality. At the same time Gedymin through his
ambassadors privately informed the papal legates at Riga that
his difficult position compelled him for a time to postpone his
steadfast resolve of being baptized, and the legates showed
their confidence in him by forbidding the neighbouring states
to war against Lithuania for the next four years, besides ratifying
the treaty made between Gedymin and the archbishop of Riga.
Nevertheless in 1325 the Order, disregarding the censures of the
church, resumed the war with Gedymin, who had in the meantime
improved his position by an alliance with Wladislaus Lokietek,
king of Poland, whose son Casimir now married Gedymin's
daughter Aldona.
While on his guard against his northern foes, Gedymin from
1316 to 1340 was aggrandizing himself at the expense of the
numerous Russian principalities in the south and east, whose
incessant conflicts with each other wrought the ruin of them all.
Here Gedymin's triumphal progress was irresistible; but the
various stages of it are impossible to follow, the sources of its
history being few and conflicting, and the date of every salient
event exceedingly doubtful. One of his most important
territorial accretions, the principality of Halicz- Vladimir, was
obtained by the marriage of his son Lubart with the daughter
of the Haliczian prince; the other, Kiev, apparently by conquest.
Gedymin also secured an alliance with the grand-duchy of
Muscovy by marrying his daughter, Anastasia, to the grand-
duke Simeon. But he was strong enough to counterpoise the
influence of Muscovy in northern Russia, and assisted the re-
public of Pskov, which acknowledged his overlordship, to break
away from Great Novgorod. His internal administration bears
all the marks of a wise ruler. He protected the Catholic as well
as the orthodox clergy, encouraging them both to civilize his
GEE GEFFROY
549
subjects, be raised the Lithuanian army to the highest state
of efficiency then attainable; defended his borders with a chain
of strong fortresses; and built numerous towns including Vilna,
the capital (c. 1321). Gedymin died in the winter of 1342 of
a wound received at the siege of Wielowa. He was married
three times, and left seven sons and six daughters.
See Teodor Narbutt, History of the Lithuanian nation (Pol.)
(Vilna, 1835); Antoni Prochaska. On the Genuineness of the Letters
( GtJymin (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895); Vladimir Bonifatovich Antono-
vich. Uonopapk concerning the History of Western and South-
wtsitn Russia (Ru.) (Kiev, 1885). (R. N. Hi
GEE, THOMAS (1815-1808), Welsh Nonconformist preacher
and journalist, was born at Denbigh on the 24th of January 1815.
At the age of fourteen he went into his father's printing office, but
continued to attend the grammar school in the afternoons. In
1837 he went to London to improve his knowledge of printing,
and on his return to Wales in the following year ardently threw
himself into literary, educational and religious work. Among his
publications were the well-known quarterly magazine Y Trae-
tkodydd (" The Essayist "), Gvyddoniadur Cymreig (" Encyclo-
paedia Cambrensis "), and Dr Silvan Evans's English-Welsh
Dictionary (1868), but his greatest achievement in this field was
the newspaper Bitner Cymru (" The Banner of Wales ") , founded
in 1857 and amalgamated with Yr Amserau ("The Times")
two years later. This paper soon became an oracle in Wales,
and played a great part in stirring up the nationalist movement in
the principality. In educational matters he waged a long and
successful struggle on behalf of undenominational schools and for
the establishment of the intermediate school system. He was an
enthusiastic advocate of church disestablishment, and had a
historic newspaper duel with Dr John Owen (afterwards bishop
of St David's ) on this question. The Eisteddfod found in him
a thorough friend and a wise counsellor. His commanding
presence, mastery of diction, and resonant voice made him an
effective platform speaker. He was ordained to the Calvinistic
Methodist ministry at Bala in 1847, and gave his time and talents
ungrudgingly to Sunday school and temperance work. Through-
out his life he believed in the itinerant unpaid ministry rather
than in the settled pastorate. He died on the 28th of September
1898, and his funeral was the most imposing ever seen in North
Whim
6KBL. JACOB (1780-1862), Dutch scholar and critic, was born
at Amsterdam on the mh of November 1789. In 1823 he was
appointed sub-librarian, and in 1833 chief librarian and honorary
professor at Leiden, where he died on the nth of November 1862.
Geel materially contributed to the development of classical
studies in Holland. He was the author of editions of Theocritus
(1820), of the Vatican fragments of Polybius (1829), of the
'OXvftriaxAf of Dio Chrysostom ( 1 840) and of numerous essays in
the Rktinisches Museum and BMiotheca criiica nova, of which he
was one of the founders. He also compiled a valuable catalogue
of the MSS. in the Leiden library, wrote a history of the Greek
sophists, and translated various German works into Dutch.
GEELONG, a seaport of Grant county, Victoria, Australia,
situated on an extensive land-locked arm of Port Phillip known
as Corio Bay, 45 m. by rail S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. of the city
proper (1901) 12,399; with the adjacent boroughs of Geelong
West, and Newton-and-Chilwell, 23,311. Geelong slopes to the
bay on the north and to the Barwon river on the south, and its
position in this respect, as well as the shelter it obtains from the
Bellarine hills, renders it one of the healthiest towns in Victoria.
As a manufacturing centre it is of considerable importance.
The first woollen mill in the colony was established here, and the
tweeds, cloths and other woollen fabrics of the town are noted
throughout Australia. There are extensive tanneries, flour-mills
and salt works, while at Fyansford, 3 m. distant, there are
important cement works and paper-mills. The extensive vine-
yards in the neighbourhood of the town were destroyed under
the Phylloxera Act, but replanting subsequently revived this
industry. Corio Bay, a safe and commodious harbour, is entered
by two channels across its bar, one of which has a depth of 23} ft.
There is extensive quayage, and the largest wool ships are able
to load alongside the wharves, which are connected by rail with
all parts of the colony. The facilities given for shipping wool
direct to England from this port have caused a very extensive
wool-broking trade to grow up in the town. The country
surrounding Geelong is agricultural, but there are large limestone
quarries east of the town, and in the Otway Forest, 23 m. distant,
coal is worked. Geelong was incorporated in 1849.
GEESTEMUNDE, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hanover, on the right bank of the Weser, at the
mouth of the Geeste, which separates it from Brcmerhaven, 32 m.
N. from Bremen by rail. Pop. (1005) 23,625. The interest of the
place is purely naval and commercial, its origin dating no farther
back than 1857, when the construction of the harbour was begun.
The great basin, which can accommodate large sea-going vessels,
was completed in 1863, the petroleum basin was opened in 1874,
and additional wharves have been constructed for the reception
of vessels engaged in the fishing industry. The fish market of
Geestemunde is the most important in Germany, and the auction
hall practically determines the price of fish throughout the empire.
The whole port is protected by powerful fortifications. Among
the industrial establishments of the town are shipbuilding yards,
foundries, engineering works and saw-mills.
GEFFCKEN, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1830-1896), German
diplomatist and jurist, was born on the 9th of December 1830 at
Hamburg, of which city his father was senator. After studying
law at Bonn, Gottingen and Berlin, he was attached in 1854 to
the Prussian legation at Paris. For ten years (1856-1866) he
was the diplomatic representative of Hamburg in Berlin, first
as charge 1 d'affaires, and afterwards as minister-resident, being
afterwards transferred in a like capacity to London. Appointed
in 1872 professor of constitutional history and public law in the
reorganized university of Strassburg, Gcffcken became in 1880 a
member of the council of state of Alsace-Lorraine. Of too nervous
a temperament to withstand the strain of the responsibilities of
his position, he retired from public service in 1882, and lived
henceforth mostly at Munich, where he died, suffocated by an
accidental escape of gas into his bedchamber, on the ist of May
1 896. Geffcken was a man of great erudition and wide knowledge
and of remarkable legal acumen, and from these qualities pro-
ceeded the personal influence he possessed. He was moreover a
clear writer and made his mark as an essayist. He was one of the
most trusted advisers of the Prussian crown prince, Frederick
William (afterwards the emperor Frederick), and it was he (it is
said, at Bismarck's suggestion) who drew up the draft of the New
German federal constitution, which was submitted to the crown
prince's headquarters at Versailles during the war of 1870-71.
It was also Geffcken who assisted in framing the famous docu-
ment which the emperor Frederick, on his accession to the
throne in 1888, addressed to the chancellor. This memoran-
dum gave umbrage, and on the publication by Geffcken in the
Deutsche Rundschau (Oct. 1888) of extracts from the emperor
Frederick's private diary during the war of 1870-71, he was, at
Bismarck's instance, prosecuted for high treason. The Reichs-
gericht (supreme court), however, quashed the indictment, and
Geffcken was liberated after being under arrest for three months.
Publications of various kinds proceeded from his pen. Among
these are Zur Geschichle des orienlalischen Krieges 1853-1836
(Berlin, 1881); Frankreich, Rutland und der Dreibund (Berlin,
1894); and Staat und Kirche (1875), English translation by
E. F. Fairfax (1877). His writings on English history have been
translated by S. J. Macmullan and published as The British
Empire, with essays on Prince Albert, Palmerslon, Beaconsfield,
Gladstone, and reform of the House of Lords (1889).
GEFFROY, HATHIEU AUGUSTE (1820-1895), French
historian, was born in Paris. After studying at the Ecole
Normale Supe'ricure he held history professorships at various
lyctes. His French thesis for the doctorate of letters, Elude sur
les pamphlets politiques et religieux de Milton (1848), showed
that he was attracted towards foreign history, a study for which
he soon qualified himself by mastering the Germanic and
Scandinavian languages. In 1851 he published a Histoire des
Hats scandinaves, which is especially valuable for clear arrange-
ment and for the trustworthiness of its facts. Later, a long
55
GEFLE GEIBEL
stay in Sweden furnished him with valuable documents for a
political and social history of Sweden and France at the end of
the i8th century. In 1864 and 1865 he published in the Revue
des deux mondes a series of articles on Gustavus III. and the
French court, which were republished in book form in 1867.
To the second volume he appended a critical study on Marie
Antoinette et Louis XVI apocryphes, in which he proved, by
evidence drawn from documents in the private archives of the
emperor of Austria, that the letters published by Feuillet de
Conches (Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth,
1864-1873) and Hunolstein (Corresp. inedite de Marie Antoinette,
1864) are forgeries. With the collaboration of Alfred von
Arneth, director of the imperial archives at Vienna, he edited
the Correspondance secrete entre Marie-Th6rese et le comte de
Mercy- Argenteau (3 vols., 1874), the first account based on trust-
worthy documents of Marie Antoinette's character, private
conduct and policy. The Franco-German War drew Geffrey's
attention to the origins of Germany, and his Rome et les Barbares:
etude sur la Germanic de Tacite (1874) set forth some of the results
of German scholarship. He was then appointed to superintend
the opening of the French school of archaeology at Rome, and
drew up two useful reports (1877 and 1884) on its origin and early
work. But his personal tastes always led him back to the study
of modern history. When the Paris archives of foreign affairs
were thrown open to students, it was decided to publish a collec-
tion of the instructions given to French ambassadors since 1648
(Recueil des instructions donnees aux ambassadeurs et ministres
de France depuis le traite de Westphalie), and Geffroy was com-
missioned to edit the volumes dealing with Sweden (vol.ii., 1885)
and Denmark (vol. xiii., 1895). In the interval he wrote Madame
de Maintenon d'apres sa correspondance authentique (2 vols.,
1887), in which he displayed his penetrating critical faculty in
discriminating between authentic documents and the additions
and corrections of arrangers like La Beaumelle and Lavall6e.
His last works were an Essai sur la formation des collections
d' antiques de la Suede and Des institutions et des mceurs du
paganisme scandinave: Vlslande avant le Christianisme, both
published posthumously. He died at Bievre on the i6th of
August 1895.
GEFLE, a seaport of Sweden on an inlet of the Gulf of Bothnia,
chief town of the district (Ian) of Gefleborg, 112 m. N.N.W. of
Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900) 29,522. It is the chief port of
the district of Kopparberg, with its iron and other mines and
forests. The exports consist principally of timber and wood-
pulp, iron and steel. The harbour, which has two entrances
about 20 ft. deep, is usually ice-bound in mid-winter. Large
vessels generally load in the roads at Graberg, 6 m. distant.
There are slips and shipbuilding yards, and a manufacture of
sail-cloth. The town is an important industrial centre, having
tobacco and leather factories, electrical and other mechanical
works, and breweries. At Skutskar at the mouth of the Dal
river are wood-pulp and saw mills, dealing with the large
quantities of timber floated down the river; and there are large
wood-yards in the suburb of Bomhus. Gefle was almost destroyed
by fire in 1869, but was rebuilt in good style, and has the ad-
vantage of a beautiful situation. The principal buildings are a
castle, founded by King John HJ. (1568-1592), but rebuilt later,
a council-house erected by Gustavus III., who held a diet here in
1792, an exchange, and schools of commerce and navigation.
GEGENBAUR, CARL (1826-1903), German anatomist, was
born on the 2ist of August 1826 at Wiirzburg, the university of
which he entered as a student in 1845. After taking his degree
in 1851 he spent some time in travelling in Italy and Sicily,
before returning to Wiirzburg as Privatdocent in 1854. In 1855
he was appointed extraordinary professor of anatomy at Jena,
where after 1865 his fellow- worker, Ernst Haeckel, was professor
of zoology, and in 1858 he became the ordinary professor. In
1873 he was appointed to Heidelberg, where he was professor
of anatomy and director of the Anatomical Institute until his
retirement in 1901. He died at Heidelberg on the I4th of June
1903. The work by which perhaps he is best known is his
Grundriss der vergleichenden Anatomie (Leipzig, 1874; and
edition, 1878). This was translated into English by W. F.
Jeffrey Bell (Elements of Comparative Anatomy, 1878), with
additions by E. Ray Lankester. While recognizing the import-
ance of comparative embryology in the study of descent, Gegen-
baur laid stress on the higher value of comparative anatomy
as the basis of the study of homologies, i.e. of the relations
between corresponding parts in different animals, as, for example,
the arm of man, the foreleg of the horse and the wing of a fowl.
A distinctive piece of work was effected by him in 1871 in supple-
menting the evidence adduced by Huxley in refutation of the
theory of the origin of the skull from expanded vertebrae, which,
formulated independently by Goethe and Oken, had been
championed by Owen. Huxley demonstrated that the skull
is built up of cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur showed that " in
the lowest (gristly) fishes, where hints of the original vertebrae
might be most expected, the skull is an unsegmented gristly
brain-box, and that in higher forms the vertebral nature of the
skull cannot be maintained, since many of the bones, notably
those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin." Other publica-
tions by Gegenbaur include a Text-book of Human Anatomy
(Leipzig, 1883, new ed. 1903), the Epiglottis (1892) and Com-
parative Anatomy of the Vertebrates in relation to the Invertebrates
(Leipzig, 2 vols., 1898-1901). In 1875 he founded the Morpho-
logisches Jahrbuch, which he edited for many years. In 1901
he published a short autobiography under the title Erlebtes und
Erstrebtes.
See Fiirbrineer in Heidelberger Professoren aus dent iglen Jahr-
hundert (Heidelberg, 1903).
GEGENSCHEIN (Ger. gegen, opposite, and schein, shine), an
extremely faint luminescence of the sky, seen opposite the direc-
tion of the sun. Germany was the country in which it was first
discovered and described. The English rendering " counter-
glow " is also given to it. Its faintness is such that it can be
seen only by a practised eye under favourable conditions. It
is invisible during the greater part of June, July, December
and January, owing to its being then blotted out by the superior
light of the Milky Way. It is also invisible during moonlight
and near the horizon, and the neighbourhood of a bright star
or planet may interfere with its recognition. When none of
these unfavourable conditions supervene it may be seen at nearly
any time when the air is clear and the depression of the sun
below the horizon more than 20. (See ZODIACAL LIGHT.)
GEIBEL, EMANUEL (1815-1884), German poet, was born
at Liibeck on the i?th of October 1815, the son of a pastor in
the city. He was originally intended for his father's profession,
and studied at Bonn and Berlin, but his real interests lay not in
theology but in classical and romance philology. In 1838 he
accepted a tutorship at Athens, where he remained until 1840.
In the same year he brought out, in conjunction with his friend
Ernst Curtius, a volume of translations from the Greek. His
first poems, Zeitslimmen, appeared in 1841; a tragedy, Konig
Roderick, followed in 1843. In the same year he received a
pension from the king of Prussia, which he retained until his
invitation to Munich by the king of Bavaria in 1851 as honorary
professor at the university. In the interim he had produced
Konig Sigurds Brautfahrt (1846), an epic, and Juniuslieder
(1848, 33rd ed. 1901), lyrics in a more spirited and manlier style
than hisearly poems. A volume of Neue Gedichte, published at
Munich in 1857, and principally consisting of poems on classical
subjects, denoted a further considerable advance in objectivity,
and the series was worthily closed by the Spatherbstblatter, pub-
lished in 1877. He had quitted Munich in 1869 and returned
to Lubeck, where he died on the 6th of April 1884. His works
further include two tragedies, Brunhild(i&s&, 5th ed. 1890), and
Sophonisbe (1869), and translations of French and Spanish
popular poetry. Beginning as a member of the group of political
poets who heralded the revolution of 1848, Geibel was also the
chief poet to welcome the establishment of the Empire in 1871.
His strength lay not, however, in his political songs but in his
purely lyric poetry, such as the fine cycle Ada and his still popular
love-songs. He may be regarded as the leading representative
of German lyric poetry between 1848 and 1870.
GEIGE GEIJER
Geibel's Gtsammellt tt'rrke were published in 8 vols. (1883, 4th ed.
1906) ; hU Gtduku have gone through about 130 editions. An excel-
lent selection in one volume appeared in 1904. For biography and
, tun. we K. Goedeke. . Geibel (1869) ; W. Scherer's address on
Geibel (1884); K. T. Gardens. Geibel-Denkmirdigkeiten (1886);
C. C. T. Litiraann, E. Grtbtl, aus Erinnerungen, Bnefen und Tage-
kttluiH (1887), and biographies by C. Leimbach (2nd ed., 1894), and
K. T. Gaederu (1897).
GEIGB (O. Fr. gigut, gige; O. Ital. and Span, giga; Prov.
gigmi;O. Dutch gigke), in modem German the violin ; in medieval
German the name applied to the first stringed instruments
played with a bow, in contradistinction to those whose strings
were plucked by fingers or plectrum such as the cithara, rotta and
fidula, the first of these terms having been very generally used
to designate various instruments whose strings were plucked.
The name gtge in Germany, of which the origin is uncertain, 1 and
its derivatives in other languages, were in the middle ages applied
to rebecs having fingerboards. As the first bowed instruments
in Europe were, as far as we know, those of the rebab type, both
boat-shaped and pear-shaped, it seems probable that the name
clung to them long after the bow had been applied to other
stringed instruments derived from the cithara, such as the fiddle
(videl) or vielle. In the romances of the 1 2th and ijth centuries
the gige is frequently mentioned, and generally associated with
the rotta. Early in the i6th century we find definite information
concerning the Geige in the works of Sebastian Virdung (1511),
Hans Judenkilnig (1523), Martin Agricola (1532), Hans Gerle
(i533); nd from the instruments depicted, of two distinct types
and many varieties, it would appear that, the principal idea
attached to the name was still that of the bow used to vibrate the
strings. Virdung qualifies the word Geige with Klein (small) and
Gross (large), which do not represent two sizes of the same
instrument but widely different types, also recognized by
Agricola, who names three or four sizes of each, discant, alto,
tenor and bass. Virdimg's Klein Geige is none other than the
rebec with two C-shaped soundholes and a raised fingerboard cut
in one piece with the vaulted back and having a separate flat
soundboard glued over it, a change rendered necessary by the
arched bridge. Agricola's Klein Geige with three strings was of a
totally different construction, having ribs and wide incurvations
but no bridge; there was a rose soundhole near the tailpiece
and two C-shaped holes in the shoulders. Agricola (Musica
instrumenlaiis) distinctly mentions three kinds of Geigen with
three, four and five strings. From him we learn that only one
position was as yet used on these instruments, one or two higher
notes being occasionally obtained by sliding the little finger
along. A century later Agricola's Geige was regarded as anti-
quated by Praetorius, who reproduces one of the bridgeless ones
with five strings, a rose and two C-shaped soundholes, and calls
it an old fiddle; under Geige he gives the violins. (K. S.)
GEIGER. ABRAHAM (1810-1874), Jewish theologian and
orientalist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 24th of May
1810, and educated at the universities of Heidelberg and Bonn.
As a student be distinguished himself in philosophy and in philo-
logy, and at the close of his course wrote on the relations of
Judaism and Mahommedanism a prize essay which was after-
wards published in 1833 under the title Was hat Mohammed aus
dem Judentum aufgenommen? (English trans. Judaism and
Islam, Madras, 1808). In November 1832 he went to Wiesbaden
as rabbi of the synagogue, and became in 1835 one of the most
' The words gtge, gtgen, geic appear suddenly in the M. H. German
of toe 1 2th century, and thence passed apparently into the Romance
languages, though some would reverse the process (e.g. Weigand,
Deutttkfs Worlerbuek). An elaborate argument in the Deutsches
Worterlmch of J. and W. Grimm (Leipzig, 1897) connects the word
with an ancient common Teut. root gag meaning to sway to and
fro. as preserved in numerous forma: t. g. M.H.G gagen, gugen,
" to sway to and fro " (gugen. gagen, the rocking of a cradle), the
Swabian gigen, gagen. in the same sense, the Tirolese gaigtern, to
sway, doubt, or the old Norse gtiga, to go astray or crooked. The
reference is to the swaying motion of the violin bow. The English
jig " is derived from gige through the O. Fr. gigue (in the sense
of a stringed instrument); the modern French figue (a dance) is
the English " jig " re-imported (Hatzfcld and Darmesteter, Diction-
natrt). This opens up another possibility, of the origin of the name
of the instrument in the dance which it accompanied. (W. A. P.)
active promoters of the Zeitschrift fUr judische Tlieologic (1835-
1839 and 1842-1847). From 1838 to 1863 he lived in Breslau,
where he organized the reform movement in Judaism and wrote
some of his most important works, including Lehr- und Lcsebuch
zur Spracht der Mischna (1845), Studien horn Ma.imomdes(i&so),
translation into German of the poems of Juda ha-Levi (1851),
and Urschrijt und Ubersttiungen der Bibel in ihrer AbhUngigkeit
von der innern Entwickelung des Judentums (1857). The last-
named work attracted little attention at the time, but now
enjoys a great reputation as a new departure in the methods of
studying the records of Judaism. The Urschrift has moreover
been recognized as one of the most original contributions to
biblical science. In 1863 Geiger became head of the synagogue of
his native town, and in 1870 he removed to Berlin, where, in
addition to his duties as chief rabbi, he took the principal charge
of the newly established seminary for Jewish science. The
Urschrift was followed by a more exhaustive handling of one of
its topics in Die SadducOer und PharisHer (1863), and by a more
thorough application of its leading principles in an elaborate
history of Judaism (Das Judentum und seine Geschichte) in 1865-
1871. Geiger also contributed frequently on Hebrew, Samaritan
and Syriacsubjects to IheZeitschriftderdeutschen morgenlUndischen
Gesellschaft, and from 1862 until his death (on the 23rd of October
1874) he was editor of a periodical entitled Jildiscke Zeitschrift
ftir Wissenschajt und Leben. He also published a Jewish prayer-
book (Isra&itisches Gebetbuch) and a variety of minor monographs
on historical and literary subjects connected with the fortunes of
his people. (I. A.)
An Allgemeine Einleitung and five volumes of Nachgelassene
Schriften were edited in 1875 by his son LUUWIG GEIGER (b. 1848),
who in 1880 became extraordinary professor in the university of
Berlin. Ludwig Geiger published a large number of biographical
and literary works and made a special study of German humanism.
He edited the Goethe- Jahrbuch from 1880, Vier teljahr sschrift ftir
Kultur und Lilteratur der Renaissance (1885-1886), Zeitschr. Jtir
die Gesch. der Juden im Deutschland (1886-1801), Zeitschr. fur
vergleichende Litleralurgeschichle und Renaissance-Lilleratur
(1887-1891). Among his works are Johann Reuchlin, sein Leben
und seine Werke (Leipzig, 1871); and Johann Reuchlin's Brief-
wechsel (Tubingen, 1875); Renaissance und Humanismus in
I inl ifii und Deutschland (1882, 2nd ed. 1901) ; Gesch. des geistigen
Lebens der preussischen Hauptsladt (1892-1894) ; Berlin's geistiRfs
Leben (1894-1896).
See also J. Derenbourg in Jud. Zeitschrift, xi. 299-308; E.
Schrieber, Abraham Geiger als Reformatpr des Judentums (1880),
art. (with portrait) in Jewish Encyclopedia.
Abraham Geiger's nephew LAZARUS GETGER (1820-1870),
philosopher and philologist, born at Frankfort-on-Main, was
destined to commerce, but soon gave himself up to scholarship
and studied at Marburg, Bonn and Heidelberg. From 1861 till
his sudden death in 1870 he was professor in the Jewish high
school at Frankfort. His chief aim was to prove that the
evolution of human reason is closely bound up with that of
language. He further maintained that the origin of the I ml"
Germanic language is to be sought not in Asia but in central
Germany. He was a convinced opponent of rationalism in religion.
His chief work was his Ursprung und Entwickelung der mensch-
lichen Sprache und Vernunfl (vol. i., Stuttgart, 1868), the principal
results of which appeared in a more popular form as Der Ursprung
der Sprache- (Stuttgart, i86gand 1878). The second volume of the
former was published in an incomplete form (1872, 2nd ed. 1899)
after his death by his brother Alfred Geiger, who also published a
number of his scattered papers as Zur Entwickelung der Mensch-
heit (1871, and ed. 1878; Eng. trans. D. Asher, Hist, of the
Development of the Human Race, Lend., 1880).
See L. A. Rosenthal, Lat. Geiger: seine Lehre vom Urspr'ung d.
Sprache und Vernunft und sein Leben (Stuttgart, 1883); E. Peschier,
L. Geiger, sein Leben und Denken (1871); J. Keller, L. Gtiger und
d. Kritik d. Vernunft (Wertheim, 1883) and Der Ursprung d. Ver-
nunft (Heidelberg, 1884).
GEIJER, ERIK GUSTAP (1783-1847), Swedish historian, was
born at Kansater in Varmland, on the I2th of January 1783, of a
family that had immigrated from Austria in the iyth century.
552
GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD
He was educated at the university of Upsala, where in 1803 he
carried off the Swedish Academy's great prize for his Areminne
o'fver Sten Store den dldre. He graduated in 1806, and in 1810
returned from a year's residence in England to become decent in
his university. Soon afterwards he accepted a post in the public
record office at Stockholm, where, with some friends, he founded
the " Gothic Society," to whose organ Iduna he contributed a
number of prose essays and the songs Manhem, Vikingen, Den
siste kdmpen, Den sisle skalden, Odalbonden, Kolargossen, which he
set to music. About the same time he issued a volume of hymns,
of which several are inserted in the Swedish Psalter.
Geijer's lyric muse was soon after silenced by his call to be
assistant to Erik Michael Fant, professor of history at Upsala,
whom he succeeded in 1817. In 1824 he was elected a member of
the Swedish Academy. A single volume of a great projected
work, Svea Rikes Hdfder, itself a masterly critical examination of
the sources of Sweden's legendary history, appeared in 1825.
Geijer's researches in its preparation had severely strained his
health, and he went the same year on a tour through Denmark
and part of Germany, his impressions from which are recorded in
his Minnen. In 1832-1836 he published three volumes of his
Svenska folkets historia (Eng. trans, by J. H. Turner, 1845), a
clear view of the political and social development of Sweden
down to 1654. The acute critical insight, just thought, and
finished historical art of these incomplete works of Geijer entitle
him to the first place among Swedish historians. His chief other
historical and political writings are his Teckning of Sveriges
tillst&nd 1718-1772 (Stockholm, 1838), and Feodalism och
republikanism, ett bidrag till Samhallsforfattningens historia ( 1 844) ,
which led to a controversy with the historian Anders Fryxell
regarding the part played in history by the Swedish aristocracy.
Geijer also edited, with the aid of J. H. Schroder, a continuation
of Fant's Scriptores rerum svecicarum medii aevi (1818-1828), and,
by himself, Thomas Thorild's Samlade skrifler (1819-1825), and
Konung Gustaf III.'s efterlemnade Popper (4 vols., 1843-1846).
Geijer's academic lectures, of which the last three, published in
1845 under the title Om var tids inre samhallsforhallanden, i
synnerhet med afseende pa Fdderneslandet, involved him in another
controversy with Fryxell, but exercised a great influence over his
students, who especially testified to their attachment after the
failure of a prosecution against him for heresy. A number of his
extempore lectures, recovered from notes, were published in 1856.
He also wrote a life of Charles XIV. (Stockholm, 1844). Failing
health forced Geijer to resign his chair in 1846, after which he
removed to Stockholm for the purpose of completing his Svenska
folkets historia, and died there on the 23rd of April 1847. His
Samlade skrifler (13 vols., 1849-1855; new ed., 1873-1877) include
a large number of philosophical and political essays contributed
to reviews, particularly to Litteraturbladet (1838-1839), a periodi-
cal edited by himself, which attracted great attention in its day
by its pronounced liberal views on public questions, a striking
contrast to those he had defended in 1828-1830, when, as again
in 1840-1841, he represented Upsala University in the Swedish
diet. His poems were collected and published as Skaldestycken
(Upsala, 1835 and 1878).
Geijer's style is strong and manly. His genius bursts out in
sudden flashes that light up the dark corners of history. A few
strokes, and a personality stands before us instinct with life.
His language is at once the scholar's and the poet's; with his
profoundest thought there beats in unison the warmest, the
noblest, the most patriotic heart. Geijer came to the writing of
history fresh from researches in the whole field of Scandinavian
antiquity, researches whose first-fruits are garnered in numerous
articles in Iduna, and his masterly treatise Om den gamla nordiska
folkvisan, prefixed to the collection of Svenska folkvisor which he
edited with A. A. Afzelius (3 vols., 1814-1816). The development
of freedom is the idea that gives unity to all his historical
writings.
For Geijer's biography, see his own Minnen (1834), which contains
copious extracts from his letters and diaries; B. E. Malmstrom,
Minnestal Sfver E. G. Geijer, addressed to the Upsala students
(June 6, 1848), and printed among his Tal och eslhetiska afhandlingar
(1868), and Grunddragen af Svenska vitterhetens hdfder (1866-1868);
and S. A. Hollander, Minne afE. G. Geijer (Orebro, 1869). See also
lives of Geijer by J. Hellstenius (Stockholm, 1876) and J. Niekson
(Odense, 1902).
GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD (1835- ), Scottish geologist,
was born at Edinburgh on the 28th of December 1835. He was
educated at the high school and university of Edinburgh, and
in 1855 was appointed an assistant on the Geological Survey.
Wielding the pen with no less facility than the hammer, he
inaugurated his long list of works with The Story of a Boulder;
or, Gleanings from the Note-Book of a Geologist (1858). His ability
at once attracted the notice of his chief, Sir Roderick Murchison,
with whom he formed a lifelong friendship, and whose biographer
he subsequently became. With Murchison some of his earliest
work was done on the complicated regions of the Highland
schists; and the small geological map of Scotland published in
1862 was their joint work: a larger map was issued by Geikie in
1892. In 1863 he published an important essay " On the Pheno-
mena of the Glacial Drift of Scotland," Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow,
in which the effects of ice action in that country were for the first
time clearly and connectedly delineated. In 1865 appeared
Geikie's Scenery of Scotland (3rd edition, 1901), which was, he
claimed, " the first attempt to elucidate in some detail the history
of the topography of a country." In the same year he was
elected F.R. S. At this time the Edinburgh school of geologists
prominent among them Sir Andrew Ramsay, with his Physical
Geology and Geography of Great Britain were maintaining the
supreme importance of denudation in the configuration of land-
surfaces, and particularly the erosion of valleys by the action of
running water. Geikie's book, based on extensive personal
knowledge of the country, was an able contribution to the
doctrines of the Edinburgh school, of which he himself soon
began to rank as one of the leaders.
In 1867, when a separate branch of the Geological Survey
was established for Scotland, he was appointed director. On
the foundation of the Murchison professorship of geology and
mineralogy at the university of Edinburgh in 1871, he became
the first occupant of the chair. These two appointments he
continued to hold till 1881, when he succeeded Sir Andrew
Ramsay in the joint offices of director-general of the Geological
Survey of the United Kingdom and director of the museum of
practical geology, London, from which he retired in February
1901. A feature of his tenure of office was the impetus given to
microscopic petrography, a branch of geology to which he had
devoted special study, by a splendid collection of sections of
British rocks. Later he wrote two important and interesting
Survey Memoirs, The Geology of Central and Western Fife and
Kinross (1900), and The Geology of Eastern Fife (1902). .
From the outset of his career, when he started to investigate the
geology of Skye and other of the Western Isles, he took a keen
interest in volcanic geology, and in 1871 he brought before the
Geological Society of London an outline of the Tertiary volcanic
history of Britain. Many difficult problems, however, remained
to be solved. Here he was greatly aided by his extensive travels,
not only throughout Europe, but in western America. While the
canyons of the Colorado confirmed his long-standing views on
erosion, the eruptive regions of Wyoming, Montana and Utah
supplied him with valuable data in explanation of volcanic
phenomena. The results of his further researches were given in an
elaborate and charmingly written essay on " The History of Vol-
canic Action during the Tertiary Period in the British Isles,"
Trans. Roy, Soc. Edin., (1888). His mature views on volcanic
geology were given to the world in his presidential addresses
to the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892, and afterwards
embodied in his great work on The A ncient Volcanoes of Great
Britain (1897). Other results of his travels are collected in his
Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad (1882).
His experience as a field geologist resulted in an admirable
text-book, Outlines of Field Geology (sth edition, 1900). After
editing and practically re-writing Jukes's Student's Manual of
Geology in 1872, he published in 1882 a Text-Book and in 1886 a
Class-Book of geology, which have taken rank as standard works
of their kind. A fourth edition of his Text-Book, in two vols., was
GEIKIE, JAMES GEISHA
cued in 1903. His writings are marked in a high degree by charm
of style and power of vivid description. His literary ability has
given him peculiar qualifications as a writer of scientific bio-
graphy, and the Memoir of Edward Forbes (with G. Wilson), and
those of his old chiefs, Sir R. I. Murchison (2 vols., 1875) and Sir
Andrew Crombie Ramsay (1895), are models of what such works
should be. His Founders of Otology consists of the inaugural
course of Lectures (founded by Mrs G. H. Williams) at Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore, delivered in 1897. In 1897 he
issued an admirable Geological Map of England and Wales, with
Dtscriptnt Notes. In 1898 he delivered the Romanes Lectures,
and his address was published under the title of Types of Scenery
and their Influence on Literature. The study of geography owes
its improved position in Great Britain largely to his efforts.
Among his works on this subject is The Teaching of Geography
(1887). His Scottish Reminiscences (1904) and Landscape in
History and other Essays (1905) are charmingly written and full
of instruction. He was foreign secretary of the Royal Society
from 1890 to 1894, joint secretary from 1903 to 1908, president
in 1909, president of the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892,
and president of the British Association, 1892. He received the
honour of knighthood in 1891.
GEIKIE. JAMES (1830- ), Scottish geologist, younger
brother of Sir Archibald Geikie, was born at Edinburgh on the
23rd of August 1839. He was educated at the high school and
university of Edinburgh. He served on the Geological Survey
from 1861 until 1882, when he succeeded his brother as Murchi-
son professor of geology and mineralogy at the university of
Edinburgh. He took as his special subject of investigation the
origin of surface-features, and the part played in their formation
by fU"l action. His views are embodied in his chief work, The
Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man (1874;
3rd ed., 1894). He was elected F.R.S. in 1875. James
Geikie became the leader of the school that upholds the all-
important action of land-ice, as against those geologists who
assign chief importance to the work of pack-ice and icebergs.
Continuing this line of investigation in his Prehistoric Europe
(1881), he maintained the hypothesis of five inter-Glacial periods
in Great Britain, and argued that the palaeolithic deposits of
the Pleistocene period were not post- but inter- or pre-Glacial.
His Fragments of Earth Lore: Sketches and Addresses, Geological
mm Geographical (1893) and Earth Sculpture (1898) are mainly
concerned with the same subject. His Outlines of Geology (1886),
a standard text-book of its subject, reached its third edition
in 1896; and in 1905 he published an important manual on
Structural and Field Geology. In 1887 he displayed another side
of his activity in a volume of Songs and Lyrics by H. Heine and
other German Poets, done into English Verse. From 1888 he was
honorary editor of the Scottish Geographical Magazine.
GEIKIE, WALTER (1795-1837), Scottish painter, was born at
Edinburgh on the 9th of November 1795. In his second year
he was attacked by a nervous fever by which he permanently lost
the faculty of hearing, but through the careful attention of his
father he was enabled to obtain a good education. Before he had
the advantage of the instruction of a master he had attained con-
siderable proficiency in sketching both figures and landscapes from
nature, and in 1812 he was admitted into the drawing academy
of the board of Scottish manufactures. He first exhibited
in 1815, and was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish
Academy in 1831, and a fellow in 1834. He died on the ist of
August 1837, and was interred in the Greyfriars churchyard,
Edinburgh. Owing to his want of feeling for colour, Geikie was
not a successful painter in oils, but he sketched in India ink with
great truth and humour the scenes and characters of Scottish
lower-class life in his native city. A series of etchings which
exhibit very high excellence were published by him in 1829-1831,
and a collection of eighty-one of these was republished posthu-
mously in 1841, with a biographical introduction by Sir Thomas
Dick Lander, Bart.
6HLKR (or GIYLEI) VON KAISERSBERG. JOHANN (1445-
1510), " the German Savonarola," one of the greatest of the
popular preachers of the i sth century, was born at Schaffhausen
553
on the i6th of March 1445, but from 1448 passed his childhood
and youth at Kaisersberg in Upper Alsace, from which place his
current designation is derived. In 1460 he entered the university
of Freiburg in Baden, where, after graduation, he lectured for
some time on the Sententiae of Peter Lombard, the commentaries
of Alexander of Hales, and several of the works of Aristotle. A
living interest in theological subjects, awakened by the study of
John Gerson, led him in 1471 to the university of Basel, a centre
of attraction to some of the most earnest spirits of the time.
Made a doctor of theology in 1475, ne received a professorship
at Freiburg in the following year; but his tastes, no less than the
spirit of the age, began to incline him more strongly to the vocation
of a preacher, while his fervour and eloquence soon led to his
receiving numerous invitations to the larger towns. Ultimately
he accepted in 1478 a call to the cathedral of Strassburg, where
he continued to work with few interruptions until within a short
time of his death on the loth of March 1510. The beautiful
pulpit erected for him in 1481 in the nave of the cathedral, when
the chapel of St Lawrence had proved too small, still bears
witness to the popularity he enjoyed as a preacher in the im-
mediate sphere of his labours, and the testimonies of Sebastian
Brant, Beatus Rhenanus, Johann Reuchlin, Melanchthon and
others show how great had been the influence of his personal
character. His sermons bold, incisive, denunciatory, abounding
in quaint illustrations and based on texts by no means confined
to the Bible, taken down as he spoke them, and circulated
(sometimes without his knowledge or consent) by his friends,
told perceptibly on the German thought as well as on the German
speech of his time. H <*
Among the many volumes published under his name only two
appear to have had the benefit of his revision, namely, Der Seelen
Parodies von waren und volkomnen Tugenden, and that entitled Das
irrig Schaf. Of the rest, probably the best-known is a series of
lectures on his friend Seb. Brant's work, Das Narrenschiff or the
Navicula or Speculum fatuorum, of which an edition was published
at Strassburg in 1511 under the following title: Navicula sivc
speculum fatuorum praestantissimi sacrarumliterarumdoctorisjoannis
Geiler Keysersbergit.
See F. W. von Ammon, Geyler's Leben, Lehren und Predigten
(1826); L. Dacheux, Un Reformateur catholique a la fin du XV
siecle, J. G. de K. (Paris, 1876); R. Cruel, Gesch. der deutschen
Predigt, pp. 538-576 (1879); P. de Lorenzi, Geiler' 's ausgewahlte
Schriften (4 vols., 1881); T. M. Lindsay, History of the Reformation,
i. 118 (1906); and G. Kawerau in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie,
vi.427.
GEINITZ, HANS BRUNO (1814-1000), German geologist, was
born at Altenburg, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Altenburg,
on the i6th of October 1814. He was educated at the uni-
versities of Berlin and Jena, and gained the foundations of his
geological knowledge under F. A. Quenstedt. In 1837 he took
the degree of Ph.D. with a thesis on the Muschelkalk of Thuringia.
In 1850 he became professor of geology and mineralogy in the
Royal Polytechnic School at Dresden, and in 1857 he was made
director of the Royal Mineralogical and Geological Museum;
he held these posts until 1894. He was distinguished for his
researches on the Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks and fossils
of Saxony, and in particular for those relating to the fauna and
flora of the Permian or Dyas formation. He described also the
graptolites of the local Silurian strata; and the flora of the
Coal-formation of Altai and Nebraska. From 1863 to 1878 he
was one of the editors of the Neues Jahrbuch. He was awarded
the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London in 1878.
He died at Dresden on the z8th of January 1000. His son
FRANZ EUGEN GEINITZ (b. 1854), professor of geology in the
university of Rostock, became distinguished for researches on
the geology of Saxony, Mecklenburg, &c.
H. B. Geinitz's publications were Das Ouadersandsteingebirge oder
Kreidegebirge in DeutscUand (1849-1850); Die Versteinerungen der
Sleinkohlenformation in Sachsen (1855); Dyas, oder die Zechstein-
formation und das RoMiegende (1861-1862); Das Elbthalgebirge in
Sachsen (1871-1875).
GEISHA (a Chino- Japanese word meaning " person of pleasing
accomplishments "), strictly the name of the professional dancing
and singing girls of Japan. The word is, however, often loosely
used for the girls and women inhabiting Shin Yoshiwara, the
prostitutes' quarter of Tokyo. The training of the true Geisha
554
GEISLINGEN GELATIN
or singing girl, which includes lessons in dancing, begins often
as early as her seventh year. Her apprenticeship over, she
contracts with her employer for a number of years, and is seldom
able to reach independence except by marriage. There is a
capitation fee of two yen per month on the actual singing girls,
and of one yen on the apprentices.
See Jukichi Inouye, Sketches of Tokyo Life.
GEISLINGEN, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Wurttem-
berg, on the Thierbach, 38 m. by rail E.S.E. of Stuttgart. Pop.
(1905) 7050. It has shops for the carving and turning of bone,
ivory, wood and horn, besides iron-works, machinery factories,
glass-works, brewing and bleaching works, &c. The church of
St Mary contains wood-carving by Jorg Syrlin the Younger.
Above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Helfenstein, which
was destroyed in 1552. Having been for a few years in the
possession of Bavaria, the town passed to Wurttemberg in 1810.
See Weitbrecht, Wanderungen durch Geislingen und seine Umge-
bung (Stuttgart, 1896).
GEISSLER, HEINRICH (1814-1879), German physicist, was
born at the village of Igelshieb in Saxe-Meiningen on the 26th
of May 1814 and was educated as a glass-blower. In 1854 he
settled at Bonn, where he speedily gained a high reputation for
his skill and ingenuity of conception in the fabrication of chemical
and physical apparatus. With Julius Plucker, in 1852, he as-
certained the maximum density of water to be at 3-8 C. He
also determined the coefficient of expansion for ice between
-24 and -7, and for water freezing at o. In 1869, in con-
junction with H. P. J. Vogelsang, he proved the existence of
liquid carbon dioxide in cavities in quartz and topaz, and later
he obtained amorphous from ordinary phosphorus by means of
the electric current. He is best known as the inventor of the
sealed glass tubes which bear his name, by means of which are
exhibited the phenomena accompanying the discharge of electri-
city through highly rarefied vapours and gases. Among other
apparatus contrived by him were a vaporimeter, mercury air-
pump, balances, normal thermometer, and areometer. From
the university of Bonn, on the occasion of its jubilee in 1868, he
received the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. He died
at Bonn on the 24th of January 1879.
See A. W. Hofmann, Ber. d. deut. diem. Ges. p. 148 (1879).
GELA, a city of Sicily, generally and almost certainly identified
with the modern Terranova (q.v.). It was founded by Cretan
and Rhodian colonists in 688 B.C., and itself founded Acragas
(see AGRIGENTUM) in 582 B.C. It also had a treasure-house at
Olympia. The town took its name from the river to the east
(Thucydides vi. 2), which in turn was so called from its winter
frost (yk\a in the Sicel dialect; cf. Lat. gelidus). The Rhodian
settlers called it Lindioi (see LINDUS). Gela enjoyed its greatest
prosperity under Hippocrates (498-491 B.C.), whose dominion
extended over a considerable part of the island. Gelon, who
seized the tyranny on his death, became master of Syracuse in
485 B.C., and transferred his capital thither with half the in-
habitants of Gela, leaving his brother Hiero to rule over the rest.
Its prosperity returned, however, after the expulsion of Thrasy-
bulus in 466 B.C., "but in 405 it was besieged by the Carthaginians
and abandoned by Dionysius' order, after his failure (perhaps
due to treachery) to drive the besiegers away (E. A. Freeman,
Hist, of Sic. iii. 562 seq.). The inhabitants later returned and
rebuilt the town, but it never regained its position . In 311 B.C.
Agathocles put to death 5000 of its inhabitants; and finally,
after its destruction by the Mamertines about 281 B.C., Phintias
of Agrigentum transferred the remainder to the new town of
Phintias (now Licata, q.v.). It seems that in Roman times they
still kept the name of Gelenses or Geloi in their new abode (Th.
Mommsen in C.l.L. x., Berlin, 1883, p. 737). (T. As.)
GELADA, the Abyssinian name of a large species of baboon,
differing from the members of the genus Papio (see BABOON)
by the nostrils being situated some distance above the extremity
of the muzzle, and hence made the type of a separate genus,
under the name of Theropithecus gelada. In the heavy mantle
of long brown hair covering the fore-quarters of the old males,
1 Aeschylus died there in 456 B.C.
with the exception of the bare chest, which is reddish flesh-colour,
the gelada recalls the Arabian baboon (Papio hamadryas), and
from this common feature it has been proposed to place the two
species in the same genus. The gelada inhabits the mountains of
Abyssinia, where, like other baboons, it descends in droves to
pillage cultivated lands. A second species, or race, Theropithecus
obscurus, distinguished by its darker hairs and the presence of
a bare flesh-coloured ring round each eye, inhabits the eastern
confines of Abyssinia. (R. L.*)
GELASIUS, the name of two popes.
GELASIUS I., pope from 492 to 496, was the successor of Felix
III. He confirmed the estrangement between the Eastern and
Western churches by insisting on the removal of the name of
Acacius, bishop of Constantinople, from the diptychs. He is the
author of De duabus in Christo naturis adversus Eutychen et
Nestorium. A great number of his letters has also come down
to us. His name has been attached to a Liber Sacramentorum
anterior to that of St Gregory, but he can have composed only
certain parts of it. As to the so-called Decretum Gelasii de libris
recipiendis et non recipiendis, it also is a compilation of documents
anterior to Gelasius, and it is difficult to determine Gelasius's
contributions to it. At all events, as we know it, it is of Roman
origin, and 6th-century or later. (L. D.*)
GELASIUS II. (Giovanni Coniulo), pope from the 24th of
January 1118 to the 29th of January 1119, was born at Gaeta
of an illustrious family. He became a monk of Monte Cassino,
was taken to Rome by Urban II., and made chancellor and
cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Cosmedin. Shortly after his
unanimous election to succeed Paschal II. he was seized by
Cencius Frangipane, a partisan of the emperor Henry V., but freed
by a general uprising of the Romans in his behalf. The emperor
drove Gelasius from Rome in March, pronounced his election
null and void, and set up Burdinus, archbishop of Braga, as
antipope under the name of Gregory VIII. Gelasius fled to
Gaeta, where he was ordained priest on the gth of March and on
the following day received episcopal consecration. He at once
excommunicated Henry and the antipope and, under Norman
protection, was able to return to Rome in July; but the dis-
turbances of the imperialist party, especially of the Frangipani,
who attacked the pope while celebrating mass in the church
of St Prassede, compelled Gelasius to go once more into exile.
He set out for France, consecrating the cathedral of Pisa on the
way, and arrived at Marseilles in October. He was received
with great enthusiasm at Avignon, Montpellier and other cities,
held a synod at Vienne in January 1119, and was planning to
hold a general council to settle the investiture contest when he
died at Cluny. His successor was Calixtus II.
His letters are in J. P. Migne, Patrol. Lat. vol. 163. The original
life by Pandulf is in J. M. Watterich, Pontif. Roman, vitae (Leipzig,
1862), and there is an important digest of his bulls and official acts
in Jaffe-Wattenbach, Regesta pontif. Roman. (1885-1888).
See J. Langen, Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis
Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle
Ages, vol. 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896); A.
Wagner, Die unieritaiischen Normannen und das Papsttum, 1086-
1150 (Breslau, 1885); W. von Giesebrecht, Geschichte der deutschen
Kaiserzeit, Bd. iii. (Brunswick, 1890); G. Richter, Annalen der
deutschen Geschichte im Mittelalter, iii. (Halle, 1898); H. H. Milman,
Latin Christianity, vol. 4 (London, 1899). (C. H. HA.)
GELATI, a Georgian monastery in Russian Transcaucasia,
in the government of Kutais, n m. E. of the town of Kutais,
standing on a rocky spur (705 ft. above sea-level) in the valley of
the Rion. It was founded in 1109 by the Georgian king David
the Renovator. The principal church, a sandstone cathedral,
dates from the end of the preceding century, and contains the
royal crown of the former Georgian kingdom of Imeretia, besides
ancient MSS., ecclesiological furniture, and fresco portraits of
the kings of Imeretia. Here also, in a separate chapel, is the
tomb of David the Renovator (1089-1125) and part of the iron
gate of the town of Ganja (now Elisavetpol), which that monarch
brought away as a trophy of his capture of the place.
GELATIN, or GELATINE, the substance which passes into
solution when " collagen," the ground substance of bone,
cartilage and white fibrous tissue, is treated with boiling water
GELDERLAND
555
or dilute acids. It is especially characterized by its property of
forming a jelly at ordinary temperature, becoming liquid when
heated, and resolidifying to a jelly on cooling. The word is
derived from the Fr. gflatine, and Ital. geialinit, from the Lat.
pfate, that which is frozen, congealed or stiff. It is, therefore, in
origin cognate with " jelly," which came through the Fr. gtlee
from the same Latin original.
The " collagen," obtained from tendons and connective
tissues, also occurs in the cornea and sclerotic coat of the eye,
and in fish scales. Cartilage was considered to be composed of a
substance chondrigen, which gave chondrin or cartilage-glue on
boiling with water. Recent researches make it probable that
cartilage contains (i) chondromucoid, (2) chondroitin-sulphuric
acid, (3) collagen, (4) an albumoid present in old but not in
young cartilage; whilst chondrin is a mixture of gelatin and
mucin. " Bone collagen," or " ossein," constitutes, with calcium
salts, the ground substance of bones. Gelatin consists of two
substances, glutin and chondrin; the former is the main con-
stituent of skin-gelatin, the latter of bone-gelatin.
True gelatigenous tissue occurs in all mature vertebrates, with
the single exception, according to E. F. I. Hoppe-Seyler, of the
Ampkioiui liinerolalus. Gelatigenous tissue was discovered by
Hoppe-Seyler in the cephalopods Octopus and Sepiolii, but in an
extension of his experiments to other invertebrates, as cock-
chafers and Anodon and tfnio, no such tissue could be detected.
Neither glutin nor chondrin occurs ready formed in the animal
kingdom, but they separate when the tissues are boiled with
water. A similar substance, vegetable gelatin, is obtained from
certain mosses.
Pure gelatin is an amorphous, brittle, nearly transparent
substance, faintly yellow, tasteless and inodorous, neutral in
reaction and unaltered by exposure to dry air. Its com-
position is in round numbers C 50, H = y, N = i8, 0=25%;
sulphur is also present in an amount varying from 0-25 to
0-7%. .
Nothing is known with any certainty as to its chemical con-
stitution, or of the mode in which it is formed from albuminoids.
It exhibits in a general way a connexion with that large and im-
portant class of animal substances called proteids, being, like them,
amorphous, soluble in acids and alkalis, and giving in solution a
left-handed rotation of the plane of polarization. Nevertheless, the
ordinary well-recognized reactions for proteids are but faintly
observed in the cue of gelatin, and the only substances which at
once and freely precipitate it from solution are mercuric chloride,
strong alcohol and tannic acid.
Although gelatin in a dry state is unalterable by exposure to air,
it solution exhibits, like all the proteids, a remarkable tendency
to putrefaction; but a characteristic feature of this process in the
case of gelatin is that the solution assumes a transient acid reaction.
The ultimate products of this decomposition are the same as are
produced by prolonged boiling with acid. It has been found that
oxalic acid, over and above the action common to all dilute acids
of preventing the solidification of gelatin solutions, has the further
property of preventing in a large measure this tendency to putrefy
when the gelatin is treated with hot solutions of this acid, and then
freed from adhering acid by means of calcium carbonate. Gelatin
to treated has been called melaftiitin.
ID spite of the marked tendency of gelatin solutions to develop
ferment-organisms and undergo putrefaction, the stability of the
substance in the dry state is such that it has even been used, and
with some success, as a means of preserving perishable foods. The
process, invented by Dr Campbell Morfit, consists in impregnating
the foods with gelatin, and then drying them till about 10% or
lew of water is present. Milk gelatinized in this way is superior in
several respects to the products of the ordinary condensation process,
more especially in the retention of a much larger proportion of
albuminoids.
Gelatin has a marked affinity for water, abstracting it from ad-
! ure with alcohol, for example. Solfe gelatin steeped for some
s in water absorbs a certain amount and swells up, in which
condition a gentle heat servo to convert it into a liquid ; or this
may be readily produced by the addition of a trace of alkali or
mineral acid, or by strong acetic acid. In the last case, however,
or d we use the mineral acids in a more concentrated form, the
solution obtained has lost its power of solidifying, though not that
o* cut a glue. This property is utilized in the preparation
of liquid glue (see GLUE). By prolonged boiling of strong aqueous
solutions at a high, or of weak solutions at a lower temperature, the
characteristic propertie* of gelatin are impaired and ultimately
destroyed. Alter this treatment it acts less powerfully as a glue,
" itt tendency to solidify, and becomes increasingly soluble in
cold water; nevertheless the solutions yield on precipitation with
alcohol a substance identical in composition with gelatin.
By prolonged boiling in contact with hydrolytic agents, such as
sulphuric acid or caustic alkali, it yields quantities of leucin and
glvcocoll (so-called " sugar of gelatin," this being the method by
which glycocoll was first prepared), but no tyrosin. In this last
respect it differs from the great body of proteids, the characteristic
solid products of the decomposition of which are leucin and tyrosin.
Gelatin occurs in commerce in varying degrees of purity; the
purer form obtained from skins and bones (to which this article
is restricted) is named gelatin; a preparation of great purity is
" patent isinglass," while isinglass (q.v.) itself is a fish-gelatin;
less pure forms constitute glue (q.v.), while a dilute aqueous
solution appears in commerce as size (q.v.). The manufacture
follows much the same lines as that of glue; but it is essential
that the raw materials must be carefully selected, and in view of
the consumption of most of the gelatin in the kitchen for soups,
jellies, &c. great care must be taken to ensure purity and
cleanliness.
In the manufacture of bone-gelatin the sorted bones are de-
greased as in the case of glue manufacture, and then transferred
to vats containing a dilute Hydrochloric acid, by which means most
of the mineral matter is dissolved out, and the bones become flexible.
Instead of hydrochloric acid some French makers use phosphoric
acid. After being well washed with water to remove all traces of
hydrochloric acid, the bones are bleached by leading in sulphur
dioxide. They are now transferred to the extractors, and heated
by steam, care being taken that the temperature does not exceed
85 C. The digestion is repeated, and the runnings are clarified,
concentrated, re-bleached and jellied as with glue. Skin-gelatin
is manufactured in the same way as skin-glue. After steeping in
lime pits the selected skins are digested three times; the first and
second runnings are worked up for gelatin, while the third are
filtered for " size."
Vegetable gelatin is manufactured from a seaweed, genus Lamin-
aria; from the tengusa, an American seaweed, and from Irish moss.
The Laminaria is first extracted with water, and the residue with
sodium carbonate; the filtrate is acidified with hydrochloric acid
and the precipitated alginic acid washed and bleached. It is then
dissolved in an alkali, the solution concentrated, and cooled down
by running over horizontal glass plates. Flexible colourless sheets
resembling animal gelatin are thus obtained. In America the weed
is simply boiled with water, the solution filtered, and cooled to a
thick jelly. Irish moss is treated in the same way. Both tengusa
and Irish moss yield a gelatin suitable for most purposes; tengusa
gelatin clarifies liquids in the same way as isinglass, and forms a
harder and firmer jelly than ordinary gelatin.
Applications of Gelatin. First and foremost is the use of gelatin
as a food-stuff in jellies, soups, &c. Referring to the articles GLUE,
ISINGLASS and SIZE for the special applications of these forms of
gelatin, we here enumerate the more important uses of ordinary
gelatin. In photography it is employed in carbon-processes, its
use depending on the fact that when treated with potassium bi-
chromate and exposed to light, it is oxidized to insoluble com-
pounds; it plays a part in many other processes. A solution of
gelatin containing readily crystallized salts alum, nitre, &c.
solidifies with the formation of pretty designs; this is the basis of
the so-called " crystalline glass used for purposes of ornament-
ation. It is also used for coating pills to prevent them adhering
together and to make them tasteless. Compounded with various
mineral salts, the carbonates and phosphates of calcium, magnesium
and aluminium, it yields a valuable ivory substitute. It also plays
a part in the manufacture of artificial leather, of India inks, and of
artificial silk (the Vanduara Company processes).
GELDERLAND, GELDERS, or GUELDERS, formerly a duchy of
the Empire, on the lower Rhine and the Yssel, bounded by
Friesland, Westphalia, Brabant, Holland and the Zuider Zee;
part of which has become the province of Holland, dealt with
separately below. The territory of the later duchy of Gelderland
was inhabited at thebcginningof theChristian era by the Teutonic
tribes of the Sicambri and the Batavi, and later, during the
period of the decline of the Roman empire, by the Chamavi and
other Frank peoples. It formed part of the Caroling kingdom of
Austrasia, and was divided into pagi or gauen, ruled by official
counts (comites-graven). In 843, by the treaty of Verdun, it
became part of Lotharingia (Lorraine), and in 879 was annexed
to the kingdom of East Francia (Germany) by the treaty of
Meerssen. The nucleus of the later county and duchy was the
gau or district surrounding the town of Gelder or Gelre, lying
between the Meuse and the Niers, and since 1715 included in
Rhenish Prussia.
The early history is involved in much obscurity. There were in
556
GELDERLAND
the nth century a number of counts ruling in various parts of
what was afterwards known as Gelderland. Towards the close
of that century Gerard of Wassenburg, who besides the county of
Gelre ruled over portions of Hamalant and Teisterbant, acquired
a dominant position amongst his neighbours. He is generally
reckoned as the first hereditary count of Gelderland (d. 1117/8).
His son, Gerard II. the Long (d. 1131), married Irmin-
gardis, daughter and heiress of Otto, count of Zutphen, and
their son, Henry I. (d. 1182), inherited both countships. His
successors Otto I. (1182-1207) and Gerard III. (1207-1229)
were lovers of peace and strong supporters of the Hohenstaufen
emperors, through whose favour they were able to increase their
territories by acquisitions in the districts of Veluwe and Betuwe.
He acted as guardian to his nephew Floris IV. of Holland during
his minority. Otto II., the Lame (1220-1271), fortified several
towns and bestowed privileges upon them for the purpose of
encouraging trade. He became a person of so much importance
that he was urged to be a candidate for the dignity of emperor.
He preferred to support the claims of his cousin, William II. of
Holland. In return for the loan of a considerable sum of money
William gave to him the city of Nijmwegen in pledge. His son
Reinald I. (d. 1326) married Irmingardis, heiress of Limburg,
and in right of his wife laid claim to the duchy against Adolf of
Berg, who had sold his rights to John I. of Brabant. War
followed, and on the sth of June 1288 Reinald, who meantime
had also sold his rights to the count of Luxemburg, was defeated
and taken prisoner at the battle of Woeringen. In this battle the
count of Luxemburg was slain, and Reinald had to surrender his
claims as the price of his defeat to John of Brabant. In 1310, in
return for his support, Reinald received from the emperor Henry
VII. for all his territories privilegium de non evocando, i.e. the
exemption of his subjects from the liability to be sued before any
court outside his jurisdiction. In 1317 he was made a prince of
the Empire. A wound received at the battle of Woeringen had
affected his brain, and an insurrection against him was in 1316
headed by his son Reinald, who assumed the government under
the title of " Son of the Count." Reinald I. was finally in 1320
immured in prison, where he died in 1326.
Reinald II., the Black (1326-1343), was one of the foremost
princes in the Netherlands of his day. He married (i) Sophia,
heiress of Mechlin, and (2) in 1331 Eleanor, sister of Edward III.
of England. By purchase or conquest he added considerably to
his territories. He did much to improve the condition of the
country, to foster trade, to promote the prosperity of the towns,
and to maintain order and security in his lands by wise laws and
firm administration. In 1338 the title of duke was bestowed
upon him by the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who at the same
time granted to him the fief of East Friesland. He died in 1343,
leaving three daughters by his first marriage, and two sons,
Reinald and Edward, both minors, by Eleanor of England. His
elder son was ten years of age, and succeeded to the duchy under
the guardianship of his mother Eleanor. Declared of age two
years later, the youthful Reinald III. found himself involved in
many difficulties through the struggles between the rival factions
named after the two noble families of Bronkhorst and Hekeren.
What was the quarrel between them, and what the causes they
represented, cannot now be ascertained with certainty. There is
good reason, however, to believe that they were the counterparts
of the contemporary Cod and Hook parties in Holland, and of
the Schieringers and Vetkoopers in Friesland. In Gelderland the
quarrel between them was converted into a dynastic struggle,
the Hekeren recognizing Duke Reinald, while the Bronkhorsten
set up his younger brother Edward. At the battle of Tiel (1361)
Reinald was defeated and taken prisoner, and Edward held the
duchy till 1371. He was a good and successful ruler, and his
death by an arrow wound, after a brilliant victory over the duke
of Brabant near Baesweller (August 1371), was a loss to his
country. He was in his thirty-fifth year and left no heirs.
Reinald was now taken from the prison in which he had been
confined to reign once more, but his health was broken and he
died childless three years afterwards.- The war of factions again
broke out, the half-sisters of Reinald III. and Edward both
claiming the inheritance; the elder, Matilda (Machteld), in her
own right, the younger Maria on behalf of her seven-year-old boy
William of Julich, as the only male representative of the family.
The Hekeren supported Matilda, the Bronkhorsten William of
Julich. The war of succession lasted till 1379, and ended in
William's favour, the emperor Wenceslas (Wenzel) recognizing
him as duke four years later.
Duke William was able, restless and adventurous, an ideal
knight of the palmy days of chivalry. He took part in no less
than five crusades with the Teutonic order against the heathen
Lithuanians and Prussians. In 1393 he inherited the duchy of
Julich, and died in 1402. He was succeeded by his brother,
Reinald IV. (d. 1423), in the united sovereignty of Gelderland,
Zutphen and Julich, who, in accordance with a promise made
before his accession, ceded the town of Emmerich to Duke Adolf
of Cleves. He took the part of his brother-in-law, John of Arkel,
against William VI. of Holland, and in a war of several years'
duration was not successful in preventing the Arkel territory
being incorporated in Holland. On his death without legitimate
issue, Gelderland passed to the young Arnold of Egmont, grand-
son of his sister Johanna, who had married John, lord of Arkel,
their daughter Maria (d. 1415) being the wife of John, count of
Egmont (d. 1451). Arnold was recognized as duke in 1424 by
the emperor Sigismund, but in the following year the emperor
revoked his decision and bestowed the duchy upon Adolf of Berg.
Arnold in retaliation laid claim to the duchy of Julich, which had
likewise been granted to Adolf by Sigismund, and a war followed
in which the cities and nobles of Gelderland stood by Arnold; it
ended in Arnold retaining Gelderland and Zutphen, and Gerard,
the son of Adolf (d. 1437), being acknowledged as duke of Julich.
To gain the support of the estates of Gelderland in this war of
succession, Arnold had been compelled to make many concessions
limiting the ducal prerogatives, and granting large powers to a
council consisting of representatives of the nobles and the four
chief cities, and his extravagance and exactions led to continual
conflicts, in which the prince was compelled to yield to the de-
mands of his subjects. In his later years a conspiracy was formed
against him, headed by his wife, the violent and ambitious
Catherine of Cleves, and his son Adolf. Arnold was at first
successful and Adolf had to go into exile; but he returned, and in
1465, having taken his father prisoner by treachery, interned him
in the castle of Buren. Charles the Bold of Burgundy now seized
the opportunity to intervene. In 1471 he forced Adolf to release
his father, who sold the reversion of the duchy to the duke of
Burgundy for 92,000 golden gulden. On the 23rd of February
1473 Arnold died, and Charles of Burgundy became duke of
Gelderland. His succession was not unopposed. Nijmwegen
offered an heroic resistance and only fell after a long siege. After
Charles's death in 1477 Adolf was released from the captivity in
which he had been held, and placed himself at the head of a party
in the powerful city of Ghent, which sought to settle the disputed
succession by forcing a match between him and Mary, the heiress
of Burgundy. On the 29th of June 1477, however, he was killed
at the siege of Tournai; and Mary gave her hand to Maximilian
of Austria, afterwards emperor. Catherine, Adolf's sister, made
an attempt to assert the rights of his son Charles to the duchy,
but by 1483 Maximilian had crushed all opposition and estab-
lished himself as duke of Gelderland.
Charles of Egmont, however, did not surrender his claims, but
with the aid of the French collected an army, and in the course
of 1492 and 1493 succeeded in reconquering his inheritance. The
efforts of Maximilian to recover the country were vain, and the
successive governors of the Netherlands, Philip the Fair and his
sister Margaret, fared no better. In 1507 Charles of Egmont
invaded Holland and Brabant, captured Harderwijk and Bommel
in 1511, threatened Amsterdam in 1512, and took Groningen.
It was, undoubtedly, a great and heroic achievement for the ruler
of a petty state like Gelderland thus to assert and maintain his
independence for a long period against the overwhelming power
of the house of Austria. It was not till 1528 that the emperor
Charles V. could force him to accept the compromise of the treaty
of Gorichen, by which he received Gelderland and Zutphen for
GELDERLAND
557
hie as fiefs of the Empire. In 1544 the duke, who was childless,
attempted to transfer the reversion of Gelderland to France, but
this project was violently resisted by the estates of the duchy, and
Charles was compelled by them in 1 538 to appoint as his successor
William V. the Rich of Cleves (d. 1592). Charles died the
same year, aad William, with the aid of the French, succeeded in
maintaining his position in Gelderland for several years. The
Habsburg power was, however, in the end too great for him, and
he was forced to cede the duchy to Charles V. by the treaty of
Venloo, signed on the ;th of September 1543.
Gelderland was now definitely amalgamated with the Habsburg
dominions in the Netherlands, until the revolt of the Low
Countries led to its partition. In 1579 the northern and greater
part, comprising the three " quarters " of Nijmwegen, Arnhem
and Zutphen, joined the Union of Utrecht and became the
province of Gelderland in the Dutch republic. Only the quarter
of Roermonde remained subject to the crown of Spain, and was
called Spanish Gelderland. By the treaty of Utrecht (1715) this
was ceded to Prussia with the exception of Venloo, which fell to
the United Provinces, and Roermonde, which, with the remaining
Spanish Netherlands, passed to Austria. Of this, part was ceded
to France at the peace of Basel in 1795, and the whole by the
treaty of Luneville in 1801, when it received the name of the
department of the Roer. By the peace of Paris of 1814 the bulk
of Gelderland was incorporated in the United Netherlands, the
remainder falling to Prussia, where it forms the circle of
DflMddorf.
The rise of the towns in Gelderland began in the ijth century,
river commerce and markets being the chief cause of their
prosperity, but they never attained to the importance of the
larger cities in Holland and Utrecht, much less to that of the
great Flemish municipalities. They differed also from the Flemish
cities in the nature of their privileges and immunities, as they did
not possess the rights of communes, but only those Of " free
cities " of the Rhenish type. The power of the feudal lord over
them was much greater. The states of Gelderland first became a
considerable power in the land during the reign of Arnold of
Egmont (1423-1473). Their claim to large privileges and a
considerable share in the government of the county were formu-
lated in a document drawn up at Nijmwegen in April 1436.
These the duke had to concede, and to agree further to the appoint-
ment of a council to assist him in his administration. From this
time the absolute authority of the sovereign in Gelderland was
broken. The states consisted of two members the nobility and
the towns. The towns were divided into four separate districts
or " quarters " named after the chief town in each Nijmwegen,
Arnhem, Zutphen and Roermonde. In the time of the republic,
as has been stated above, the province of Gelderland comprised
the three first-named " quarters " only. The three quarters had
each of them peculiar rights and customs, and their representa-
tives met together in a separate assembly before taking part in
the diet (landdaf) of the states. The nobility possessed great
influence in Gelderland and retained it in the time of the
republic. (G. E.)
GELDERLAND (Gueldtrs), a province of Holland, bounded S.
by Rhenish Prussia and North Brabant, W. by Utrecht and
South Holland, N. by the Zuider Zee, N.E. by Overysel, and S.E.
by the Prussian province of Westphalia. It has an area of 1906
sq. m. and a pop. (1900) of 566,549. Historically it was part of
the duchy of Gelderland, which is treated separately above.
The main portion of Gelderland north of the Rhine and the
Old Ysel forms as it were an extension of the province of Overysel,
being composed of diluvial sand and gravel, covered with sombre
heaths and patches of fen. South of this line, however, the soil
consists of fertile river-clay. The northern portion is divided by
the New (or Gelders) Ysel into two distinct regions, namely, the
Veluwe (" bad land ") on the west, and the former countship of
Zutphen on the east. In this last division the ground slopes
downwards from south-east to north-west (131 to 26 ft.) and is
intersected by several fertilizing streams which flow in the same
direction to join the Ysel. The extreme eastern corner is occupied
by older Tertiary loam, which is used for making bricks, and
upon this and the river-banks are the most fertile spots, woods,
cultivated land, pastures, towns and villages. The highlands of
the Veluwe lying west of the Ysel really extend as far as the
Crooked Rhine and the Vecht in the province of Utrecht, but are
slightly detached from the Utrecht hills by the so-called Gelders
valley, which forms the boundary between the two provinces.
This valley extends from the Rhine along the Grift, the Luntersche
Beek, and the Eem to the Zuider Zee, and would still offer an
outlet in this direction to the Rhine at high water if it were not for
the river dikes. The two main ridges of the Veluwe hills (164 and
360 ft.) extend from the neighbourhood of Arnhem north to
Harderwyk and north-east to Hattem. In the south they stretch
themselves along the banks of the Rhine, forming a strip of
picturesque river scenery made up of the varied elements of
sandhills and trees, clay-lands and pastures. A large number of
country-houses and villas are to be found here, and the river-side
villages of Dieren, Velp and Renkum. All over the Veluwe are
heaths, scantily cultivated, with fields of rye and buckwheat,
cattle of inferior quality, and sheep, and a sparse population.
There is also a considerable cultivation of wood, especially of fir
and copse, while tobacco plantations are found at Nykerk and
Wageningen.
The southern division of the province presents a very different
aspect, and contains many old towns and villages. It is watered
by the three large rivers, the Rhine, the Waal and the Maas, and
has a level clay soil, varied only by isolated hills and a sandy,
wooded stretch between Nijmwegen and the southern border.
The region enclosed between the Rhine and the Waal and
watered by the Linge is called the Betuwe (" good land "), and
gave its name to the Germanic tribe of Batavians, who are some-
times wrongly regarded as the parent stock of the Dutch people.
There is here a denser population, occupied in the cultivation
of wheat, beetroot and fruit, the breeding of excellent cattle,
shipping and industrial pursuits. The principal centres of
population, such as Zutphen, Arnhem (the chief town of the
province) , Nijmwegen and Tiel, lie along the large rivers. Smaller,
but of equal antiquity, are the riverside towns of Doesburg,
which is strongly fortified; Wageningen, with the State agri-
cultural schools; Doetinchem, with a bridge over the Old Ysel
which is mentioned as early as the i4th century; Zalt-Bommel,
with an old church (1304), and a railway bridge over the Waal;
and Kuilenburg, with a fine railway bridge (1863-1868) over the
Rhine. Five m. S. of Zalt-Bommel, on the Maas, is the medieval
castle of Ammerzode or Ammersooi, also called Amelroy during
the French occupation in 1674. It is in an excellent state of
preservation and has been restored in modern times. The first
authentic record of the castle is its possession by John de Herlar
of the noble family of Loo at the end of the I3th century. In
1480 it passed by marriage to the powerful lords van Arkel, and
was partly destroyed by fire at the end of the i6th century.
The chapel dates from the isth century, and the keep from
1 564. Among the family portraits are works by Albert Diirer.
Zetten, on the railway between Nijmwegen and Tiel, is famous
for the charitable institutions founded here by the preacher
Otto Gerhard Heldring (d. 1876). They comprise a penitentiary
(1849) for women; an educational home (1858) for girls; a
theological training college (1864); and a Magdalen hospital.
Nykerk, Harderwyk and Elburg are fishing towns on the Zuider
Zee. Apeldoorn is situated on the edge of the sand-grounds.
Heerenberg on the south-eastern border is remarkable for its
ancient castle near the seat of the powerful lords van den Bergh.
Other ancient and historical towns bordering on the Prussian
frontier are Zevenaar, which was for long the cause of dispute
between the houses of Cleves and Gelder and was finally attached
to the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1816; Breedevoort, once
the seat of a lordship of the same name belonging to the counts
van Loon or Lohn, who built a castle here in the beginning of
the I3th century which was destroyed in 1646 the lordship
was presented to Prince William III. in 1697; Winterswyk, now
an important railway junction, and of growing industrial im-
portance; and Borkeloo, or Borkulo, the seat of an ancient
lordship dating from the first half of the izth century, which
558
GELDERN GELLIUS
finally came into the possession of Prince William V. of Orange
Nassau in 1777. The castle was formerly of importance.
Gelderland is intersected by the main railway lines, which
are largely supplemented by steam-tram railways. Steam-
tramways connect Arnhem and Zutphen,Wageningen, Nijmwegen,
Velp, Doetinchem (by way of Dieren and Doesburg), whence
there are various lines to Emmerich and Gendringen on the
Prussian borders. Groenlo and Lichtenvorde, Borkulo and
Deventer are also connected.
GELDERN, a town of Germany, in Rhenish Prussia, on the
Niers, 28 m. N. W. of Diisseldorf, at the junction of railways to
Wesel and Cologne. Pop. (1905) 6551. It has an Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches and a town hall with a fine
council chamber. Its industries include the manufacture of
buttons, shoes, cigars and soap. The town dates from about
noo and was early an important fortified place; until 1371 it
was the residence of the counts and dukes of Gelderland. Having
passed to Spain, its fortifications were strengthened by Philip
II., but they were razed by Frederick the Great, the town having
been in the possession of Prussia since 1703.
See Nettesheim, Geschichle der Stadt und des Amies Geldern
(Crefeld, 1863); Henrichs, Beitrage zur innern Geschichle der Stadt
Geldern (Geldern, 1893) ; and Real, Chronik der Stadt und Umgegend
von Geldern (Geldern, 1897).
CELL, SIR WILLIAM (1777-1836), English classical archaeo-
logist, was born at H.opton in Derbyshire. He was educated at
Jesus College, Cambridge, and subsequently elected a fellow of
Emmanuel College (B.A. 1798, M.A. 1804). About 1800 he was
sent on a diplomatic mission to the Ionian islands, and on his
return in 1803 he was knighted. He went with Princess (after-
wards Queen) Caroline to Italy in 1814 as one of her chamber-
lains, and gave evidence in her favour at the trial in 1820 (see
G. P. Clerici, A Queen of Indiscretions, Eng. trans., London,
1907). He died at Naples on the 4th of February 1836. His
numerous drawings of classical ruins and localities, executed
with great detail and exactness, are preserved in the British
Museum. Cell was a thorough dilettante, fond of society and
possessed of little real scholarship. None the less his topo-
graphical works became recognized text-books at a time when
Greece and even Italy were but superficially known to English
travellers. He was a fellow of the Royal Society and the Society
of Antiquaries, and a member of the Institute of France and the
Berlin Academy.
His best-known work is Pompeiana; the Topography, Edifices and
Ornaments of Pompeii (1817-1832), in the first part of which he was
assisted by J. P. Candy. It was followed in 1834 by the Topography
of Rome and its Vicinity (new ed. by E. H. Bunbury, 1896). He
wrote also Topography of Troy and its Vicinity ( 1 804) ; Geography
and Antiquities of Ithaca (1807); Itinerary of Greece, with a Com-
mentary on Pausanias and Strabo (1810, enlarged ed. 1827); Itiner-
ary of the Morea (1816; republished as Narrative of a Journey in
the Morea, 1823). All these works have been superseded by later
publications.
GELLERT, CHRISTIAN FURCHTEGOTT (1715-1769), German
poet, was born at Hainichen in the Saxon Erzgebirge on the 4th
of July 1715. After attending the famous school of St Afra in
Meissen, he entered Leipzig University in 1734 as a student of
theology, and on completing his studies in 1739 was for two years
a private tutor. Returning to Leipzig in 1741 he contributed
to the Bremer Beitrage, a periodical founded by former disciples
of Johann Christoph Gottsched, who had revolted from the
pedantry of his school. Owing to shyness and weak health
Gellert gave up all idea of entering the ministry, and, establishing
himself in 1745 as privatdocent in philosophy at the university
of Leipzig, lectured on poetry, rhetoric and literary style with
much success. In 1 7 5 1 he was appointed extraordinary professor
of philosophy, a post which he held until his death at Leipzig
on the I3th of December 1769.
The esteem and veneration in which Gellert was held by the
students, and indeed by persons in all classes of society, was
unbounded, and yet due perhaps less to his unrivalled popularity
as a lecturer and writer than to his personal character. He was
the noblest and most amiable of men, generous, tender-hearted
and of unaffected piety and humility. He wrote in order to
raise the religious and moral character of the people, and to this
end employed language which, though at times prolix, was always
correct and clear. He thus became one of the most popular
German authors, and some of his poems enjoyed a celebrity out
of proportion to thpr literary value. This is more particularly
true of his Fabeln und Erzahlungen (1746-1748) and of his
Geistliche Oden und Lieder (1757). The fables, for which he took
La Fontaine as his model, are simple and didactic. The
" spiritual songs," though in force and dignity they cannot
compare with the older church hymns, were received by Catholics
and Protestants with equal favour. Some of them were set to
music by Beethoven. Gellert wrote a few comedies: Die
Betschwester (1745), Die kranke Frau (1748), Das Los in der
Lotterie (1748), and Die zdrllichen Schwestern (1748), the last of
which was much admired. His novel Die schwedische Grdfin
von G. (1746), a weak imitation of Richardson's Pamela, is
remarkable as being the first German attempt at a psychological
novel. Gellert's Briefe (letters) were regarded at the time as
models of good style.
See Gellert's Samtliche Schriften (first edition, 10 vols., Leipzig,
17691774; last edition, Berlin, 1867). Samtliche Fabeln und Erzah-
lungen have been often published separately, the latest edition in
1896. A selection of Gellert's poetry (with an excellent introduction)
will be found in F. Muncker, Die Bremer Beitrage (Stuttgart, 1899).
A translation by J. A. Murke, Gellert's Fables and other Poems
(London, 1851). For a further account of Gellert's life and work
see lives by J. A. Cramer (Leipzig, 1774), H. Doring (Greiz, 1833),
and H. O. Nietschmann (2nd ed., Halle, 1901); also Gellerts
Tagebuch aus dem Jahre 1761 (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1863) and Gellerts
Briefwechsel mil Demoiselle Lucius (Leipzig, 1823).
GELLERT, or KILLHART, in Welsh traditional history, the dog
of Llewellyn, prince of Wales. The dog, a greyhound, was
left to guard the cradle in which the infant heir slept. A wolf
enters, and is about to attack the child, when Gellert flies at him.
In the struggle the cradle is upset and the infant falls underneath.
Gellert kills the wolf, but when Prince Llewellyn arrives and
sees the empty cradle and blood all around, he does not for the
moment notice the wolf, but thinks Gellert has killed the baby.
He at once stabs him, but almost instantly finds his son safe
under the cradle and realizes the dog's bravery. Gellert is
supposed to have been buried near the village of Beddgelert
(" grave of Gellert "), Snowdon, where his tomb is still pointed
out to visitors. The date of the incident is traditionally given
as 1205. The incident has given rise to a Welsh proverb, " I
repent as much as the man who slew his greyhound." The whole
story is, however, only the Welsh version of a tale long before
current in Europe, which is traced to the Indian Panchatantra
and perhaps as far back as 200 B.C.
See W. A. Clouston, Popular Tales and Fictions (1887); D. E.
Jenkins, Beddgelert, its Facts, Fairies and Folklore (Portmadoc,
1899).
GELLIUS, AULUS (c. A.D. 130-180), Latin author and gram-
marian, probably born at Rome. He studied grammar and
rhetoric at Rome and philosophy at Athens, after which he
returned to Rome, where he held a judicial office. His teachers
and friends included many distinguished men Sulpicius
Apollinaris, Herodes Atticus and Pronto. His only work, the
Nodes Alticae, takes its name from having been begun during
the long nights of a winter which he spent in Attica. He after-
wards continued it at Rome. It is compiled out of an Adversaria,
or commonplace book, in which he had jotted down everything
of unusual interest that he heard in conversation or read in
books, and it comprises notes on grammar, geometry, philosophy,
history and almost every other branch of knowledge. The work,
which is utterly devoid of sequence or arrangement, is divided
into twenty books. All these have come down to us except
the eighth, of which nothing remains but the index. The
Nodes Atticae is valuable for the insight it affords into the nature
of the society and pursuits of those times, and for the numerous
excerpts it contains from the works of lost ancient authors.
Editio princeps (Rome, 1469); the best editions are those of
Gronovius (1706) and M. Hertz (1883-1885; editio minor, 1886,
revised by C. Hosius, 1903, with bibliography). There is a trans-
lation in English by W. Beloe (1795), and in French by various
hands (1896). See Sandys, Hist. Class. Schol. i. (1906), 210.
GELLIVARA GELSEMIUM
559
GELLIVARA [GELUVAIE], a mining town of Sweden in the
district (U*) of Norrbotten, 815 m. N. by E. of Stockholm by
rail. It lies in the well-nigh uninhabited region of Swedish
Lapland, 43 m. N. of the Arctic Circle. It owes its importance
to the iron mines in the mountain Malmberget 4) m. to the north,
rising to 1024 ft. above sea-level (830 ft. above Gellivara town).
During the dark winter months work proceeds by the aid of
electric light. In 1864 the mines were acquired by an English
company, but abandoned in 1867. In 1884 another English
company took them up and completed a provisional railway
from Malmberget to Lulei at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia
(117 m. S.S.E.), besides executing a considerable portion of the
preliminary works for the continuation of the line on the
Norwegian side from Ofoten Fjord upwards (see NARVIK). But
this company, after extracting some 150,000 tons of ore in 1888-
1880, went into liquidation in the latter year. Two years later
the mines passed into the hands of a Swedish company, and the
railway was acquired by the Swedish Government. The output
of ore was insignificant until 1892, when it stood at 178,000 tons;
but in 1902 it amounted to 1,074,000 tons. Three miles S.W.
rises the hill Gellivara Dundret (2700 ft.), from which the sun is
visible at midnight from June 5 to July n. The population
of the parish (about 6500 sq. m.) in 1900 was 11,745; tne greater
part of the population being congregated at the town of Gellivara
and at Malmberget.
QBLNHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hesse-Nassau, on the Kinzig, 27 m. E.N.E. of Frankfort -on-
Main, on the railway to Bcbra. Pop. 4500. It is romantically
situated on the slope of a vine-clad hill, and is still surrounded
by ancient walls and towers. On an island in the river are the
ivy-covered ruins of the imperial palace which Frederick I.
(Barbarossa) built before 1170, and which was destroyed by the
Swedes during the Thirty Years' War. It has an interesting
and beautiful church (the Marion Rirche), with four spires (of
which that on the transept is curiously crooked), built in the
13th century, and restored in 1876-1879; also several other
ancient buildings, notably the town-hall, the Fiirstenhof (now
administrative offices), and the Hexenthurm. India-rubber
goods are manufactured, and wine is made. Gelnhausen became
an imperial town in 1 169, and diets of the Empire were frequently
held within its walls. In 1634 and 1635 it suffered severely from
the Swedes. In 1803 the town became the property of Hesse-
Cassel, and in 1866 passed to Prussia.
GELO. son of Deinomenes, tyrant of Gela and Syracuse. On
the death of Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela (491 B.C.), Gelo, who
had been his commander of cavalry, succeeded him; and in 485,
his aid having been invoked by the Gamori (the oligarchical
landed proprietors) of Syracuse who had been driven out by
the populace, be seized the opportunity of making himself despot.
From this time Gelo paid little attention to Gela, and devoted
himself to the aggrandizement of Syracuse, which attained
extraordinary wealth and influence. When the Greeks solicited
his aid against Xerxes, he refused it, since they would not give
him command of the allied forces (Herodotus vii. 171). In the
same year the Carthaginians invaded Sicily, but were totally
defeated at Himera, the result of the victory being that Gelo
became lord of all Sicily. After he had thus established his
power, he made a show of resigning it; but his proposal was
rejected by the multitude, and he reigned without opposition
till his death (478). He was honoured as a hero, and his memory
was held in such respect that when all the brazen statues of
tyrants were condemned to be sold in the time of Timoleon
(150 years later) an exemption was made in favour of the statue
of Gelo.
Herodotus vii.; Diod. Sic. xi. 20-38; see also SICILY: History,
and SYRACUSE; for his coin* gee NUMISMATICS: Sicily.
GELSEMIUM. a drug consisting of the root of Gtlsemium
nitidum, a clinging shrub of the natural order Loganiaceae, having
a milky juice, opposite, lanceolate shining leaves, and axillary
clusters of from one to five large, funnel-shaped, very fragrant
yellow flowers, whose perfume has been compared with that of
the wallflower. The fruit is composed of two separable jointed
pods, containing numerous flat-winged seeds. The stem often
runs underground for a considerable distance, and indiscriminately
with the root it is used in medicine. The plant is a native of
the United States, growing on rich clay soil by the side of streams
near the coast, from Virginia to the south of Florida. In the
United States it is commonly known as the wild, yellow or
Carolina jessamine, although in no way related to the true
jessamines, which belong to the order Oleaceae. It was first
described in 1640 by John Parkinson, who grew it in his garden
from seed sent by Tradescant from Virginia; at the present time
it is but rarely seen, even in botanical gardens, in Great Britian.
The drug contains a volatile oil and two potent alkaloids,
gelseminine and gelsemine. Gelseminine is a yellowish, bitter
substance, readily soluble in ether and alcohol. It is not em-
ployed therapeutically. Gelsemine has the formula CnHnNOi,
and is a colourless, odourless, intensely bitter solid, which is
insoluble in water, but readily forms a soluble hydrochloride.
Gclsemium nitidum, half natural size ; flower, nut . size.
The dose of this salt is from j'jth to Vuth of a grain. The British
Pharmacopoeia contains a tincture of gelsemium, the dose of
which is from five to fifteen minims.
The drug is essentially a nerve poison. It has no action on
the skin and no marked action on the alimentary or circulatory
systems. Its action on the cerebrum is slight, consciousness
being retained even after toxic doses, but there may be headache
and giddiness. The drug rapidly causes failure of vision, diplopia,
ptosis or falling of the upper eyelid, dilatation of the pupil, and
a lowering of the intra-ocular tension. This last action is
doubtful. The symptoms appear to be due to a paralysis of
the motor cells that control the internal and external ocular
muscles. The most marked action of the drug is upon the anterior
cornua of grey matter in the spinal cord. It can be shown by a
process of experimental exclusion that to an arrest of function
of these cells is due the paralysis of all the voluntary muscles of
the body that follows the administration of gelsemium or gelse-
mine. Just before death the sensory part of the spinal cord
is also paralysed, general anaesthesia resulting. The drug kills
by its action on the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata.
Shortly after the administration of even a moderate dose the
respiration is slowed and is ultimately arrested, this being the
cause of death. In cases of poisoning the essential treatment is
artificial respiration, which may be aided by the subcutaneous
exhibition of strychnine.
Though the drug is still widely used, the rational indications
for its employment are singularly rare and uncertain. The con-
ditions in which it is most frequently employed are convulsions,
bronchitis, severe and purposeless coughing, myalgia or muscular
pain, neuralgia and various vague forms of pain.
560
GELSENKIRCHEN GEM
GELSENKIRCHEN, a town of Germany in the Prussian
province of Westphalia, 27 m. W. of Dortmund on the railway
Duisburg-Hamm. Pop. (1905) 147,037. It has coal mines, iron
furnaces, _steel and boiler works, and soap, glass and chemical
factories. In 1903 various neighbouring industrial townships
were incorporated with the town.
GEM (Lat. gemma, a bud, from the root gen, meaning
" to produce," or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek
term is ^0os), a word applied in a wide sense to certain minerals
which, by reason of their brilliancy, hardness and rarity, are valued
for personal decoration; it is extended to include pearl. In a
restricted sense the term is applied only to precious stones after
they have been cut and polished as jewels, whilst in their raw
state the minerals are conveniently called " gem-stones." Some-
times, again, the term " gem " is used in a yet narrower sense,
being restricted to engraved stones, like seals and cameos.
The subject is treated here in two sections: (i) Mineralogy
and general properties; (2) GemsinArt, i.e. engraved gems, such
as seals and cameos. The artificial products which simulate
natural gem-stones in properties and chemical composition are
treated in the separate article GEM, ARTIFICIAL.
i. MINERALOGY AND GENERAL PROPERTIES
The gem-stones form a small conventional group of minerals,
including principally the diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald and
opal. Other stones of less value such as topaz, spinel, chryso-
beryl, chrysolite, zircon and tourmaline are sometimes called
" fancy stones." Many minerals still less prized, yet often used
as ornamental stones, like moonstone, rock-crystal and agate,
occasionally pass under the name of " semi-precious stones,"
but this is rather a vague term and may include the stones of the
preceding group. The classification of gem-stones is, indeed, to
some extent a matter of fashion.
Descriptions of the several gem-stones will be found under
their respective headings, and the present article gives only a
brief review of the general characters of the group.
A high degree of hardness is an essential property of a gem-
stone, for however beautiful and brilliant a mineral may be it is
^ useless to the jeweller if it lack sufficient hardness to
withstand the abrasion to which articles of personal
decoration are necessarily subjected. Even if not definitely
scratched, the polished stone becomes dull by wear. Imitations
in paste may be extremely brilliant, but being comparatively
soft they soon lose lustre when rubbed. In the article MINERA-
LOGY it is explained that the varying degrees of hardness are
registered on a definite scale. The exceptional hardness of the
diamond gives it a supreme position in this scale, and to it the
arbitrary value of 10 has been assigned. The corundum gem-
stones (ruby and sapphire), though greatly inferior in hardness
to the diamond, come next, with the value of 9; and it is notable
that the sapphire is usually rather harder than ruby. Then
follows the topaz, which, with spinel and chrysoberyl, has a
hardness of 8; whilst quartz falls a degree lower. Most gem-
stones are harder than quartz, though precious opal, turquoise,
moonstone and sphene are inferior to it in hardness. Those
stones which are softer than quartz have been called by jewellers
demi-dures. To test the hardness of a cut stone, one of its sharp
edges may be drawn, with firm pressure, across the smooth
surface of a piece of quartz; if it leave a scratch its hardness must
be above 7. The stone is then applied in like manner to a
fragment of topaz, preferably a cleavage-piece, and if it fail to
leave a distinct scratch its hardness is between 7 and 8, whereas
if the topaz be scratched it is above 8. An expert may obtain a
fair idea of hardness by gently passing the stone over a fine
steel file, and observing the feel of the stone and the grating
sound which it emits. If a stone be scratched by a steel knife its
hardness is below 6. The degree of hardness of a precious stone
is soon ascertained by the lapidary when cutting it.
Gem-stones differ markedly among themselves in density or
specific weight; and although this is a character which does not
directly affect their value for ornamental purposes, it furnishes
by its constancy an important means of distinguishing one stone
from another. Moreover, it is a character very easily determined
and can be applied to cut stones without injury. The relative
weightiness of a stone is called its specific gravity, and
is often abbreviated as S.G. The number given in
the description of a mineral as S.G. shows how many
times the stone is heavier than an equal bulk of the standard
with which it is compared, the standard being distilled water at
4 C. If, for example, the S.G. of diamond is said to be 3-5 it
means that a diamond weighs 3! times as much as a mass of water
of the same bulk. The various methods of determining specific
gravity are described under DENSITY. The readiest method of
testing precious stones, especially when cut, is to use dense
liquids. Suppose it be required to determine whether a yellow
stone be true topaz or false topaz (quartz), it is merely necessary
to drop the stone into a liquid made up to the specific gravity of
about 3; and since topaz has S.G. of 3-5 it sinks in this medium,
but as quartz has S.G. of only 2-65 it floats. The densest gem-
stone is zircon, which may have S.G. as high as 4-7, whilst the
lowest is opal with S.G. 2-2. Amber, it is true, is lighter still,
being scarcely denser than water, but this substance can hardly
be called a gem.
Although the great majority of precious stones occur crystal-
lized, the characteristic form is destroyed in cutting. The
crystal-forms of the several stones are noticed under
their respective headings, and the subject is discussed %%^"% e
fully under CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. A few substances cleavage.
used as ornamental stones like opal, turquoise,
obsidian and amber are amorphous or without crystalline
form; whilst others, like the various stones of the chalcedony-
group, display no obvious crystal-characters, but are seen under
the microscope to possess a crystalline structure. Gem-stones
are frequently found in gravels or other detrital deposits, where
they occur as rolled crystals or fragments of crystals, and in
many cases have been reduced to the form of pebbles. By the
disintegration of the rock which formed the original matrix, its
constituent minerals were set free, and whilst many of them
were worn away by long-continued attrition, the gem-stones
survived by virtue of their superior hardness.
Many crystallized gem-stones exhibit cleavage, or a tendency
to split in definite directions. The lapidary recognizes a " grain "
in the stone. When the cleavage is perfect, as in topaz, it may
render the working of the stone difficult, and produce incipient
cracks in the cut gem. Flaws due to the cleavage planes are
called " feathers." The octahedral cleavage of the diamond is
taken advantage of in dressing the stone before cutting it. The
cutting of gem-stones is explained under LAPIDARY.
The beauty and consequent value of gems depend mainly
on their colour. Some stones, it is true, are valued for entire
absence of colour, as diamonds of pure " water." colour
Certain kinds of sapphire and topaz, too, are " water
clear," as also is pure rock-crystal; but in most stones colour is a
prime element of attraction. The colour, however, is not generally
an essential property of the mineral, but is due to the presence of
foreign pigmentary matter, often in very small proportion and in
some cases eluding determination. Thus, corundum when pure
is colourless, but the presence of traces of certain mineral sub-
stances imparts to it not only the red of ruby and the blue of
sapphire, but almost every other colour. The tinctorial matter
may be distributed either uniformly throughout the stone or in
regular zones, or in quite irregular patches. A tourmaline, for
instance, may be red at one end of a prismatic crystal and green
at the other extremity, or the colour may be so disposed that in
transverse section the centre will be red and the outer zone
green. A beryl may be yellow and green in the same crystal.
Sapphire, again, is often parti-coloured, one portion of the stone
being blue and other portions white or yellow; and the skilful
lapidary, in cutting the stone, will take advantage of the blue
portion. The character of the pigment is in many cases not
definitely known. It by no means follows that the material
capable of imparting a certain tint to glass is identical with that
which naturally colours a stone of the same tint ; thus a glass of
sapphire-blue may be obtained by the use of cobalt, yet cobalt
GEM
56,
fttfrme-
Horn.
has not been detected in the sapphire. Probably the most common
mineral pigments are compounds of iron, manganese, copper and
chromium. If the colour of the stone be discharged by heat, an
organic pigment is presumably present . Some ornamental stones
change their colour, or even lose it, on exposure to sunlight and
air: such is the case with rose-quartz, chrysoprase and certain
kinds of topaz and turquoise. Exposure to heat alters the colour
of some stones so readily that the change is taken advantage
of commercially; thus, sherry-yellow topaz may be rendered
pink, smoky and amethystine quartz may become yellow, and
coloured zircons may be decolorized, so as to resemble diamonds.
The colours of some gem-stones are greatly affected by radio-
activity, and Prof. F. Bordas has found this to be particularly
the case with sapphire. From his experiments he believes that
yellow corundum, or oriental topaz, may have been formed from
blue corundum under the influence of radioactive substances
present in the soil in which the sapphire was embedded. Different
shades of colour may be presented by different stones of the same
species; and it was formerly the custom of lapidaries to regard
the darker stones as masculine and the paler as feminine, a full
blue sapphire, for instance, being called a " male sapphire "
and a delicate blue stone a " female sapphire." It is notable
that some stones appear to change colour by candle-light and
by most other artificial means of illumination; some amethysts
thus become inky, and certain sapphires acquire a murky tint,
whilst others become amethystine. For an example of a remark-
able change of this character, see ALEXANDRITE.
As the optical properties of minerals are fully explained under
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, little need be said here on this subject.
The brilliancy of a cut stone depends on the amount
of light reflected from its faces; and in the form
known as the " brilliant " the gem is so cut that much
of the incident light, after entering the stone and suffering
refraction, is totally reflected from the facets at the back. The
amount of light which is thus returned to the eye of the observer
will be greater as the angle of total reflection, or critical angle, is
smaller, but this angle will be small if the refractive power of the
stone is great, so that the brilliancy directly depends on the re-
fractivity. The diamond has the highest refractive index of any
gem-stone (2-43). Jargoon, or zircon, has also a high index
(mean 1-95), and sphene, which is occasionally cut as a gem, is
likewise very notable in this respect. The index of refraction
generally bears a relation to the specific gravity of the stone,
the heaviest gems having the highest indices, though a few
minerals offer exceptions. The refractive index, which is thus
a very important character in the scientific discrimination of
gem-stones, may be conveniently determined, within certain
limits, by means of the refractometer devised by Dr G. F.
Herbert Smith. This instrument is an improved form of the
total reflectometer, in which the refractive power of a given
substance is determined by the method of total reflection. It
may be used for indices ranging from 1-300 to 1-775, and may
be applied to faceted stones without removal from their settings.
The play of prismatic colours exhibited by a cut stone, often
known as its " fire," is due to the decomposition of the white
_^^ light which enters the stone, and is returned, by internal
reflection, after resolution intoits coloured components.
This decomposition depends on the dispersive power
of the substance. The exceptional beauty of the fiery flashes
in the diamond is due to its high dispersion, in other words, to
the difference between the refractive indices for the red rays and
the violet rays at the extremities of the spectrum. The peculiar
lustre exhibited by the diamond is called adamantine, and is
shared to some extent by certain other stones which have a
high refractive index and high dispersion, such as zircon.
The UK of the spectroscope may be valuable in discriminating
between certain precious stones. It was shown by Sir A. H.
Church that almandine garnet and zircon when simply
viewed through this instrument give, under proper
conditions, characteristic absorption spectra, due to
the light reflected from the stone having penetrated
to some extent into the substance of the mineral and suffered
Dkhn-
lua.
absorption. It is sometimes useful to examine the behaviour
of a stone under the action of the R5ntgen rays.
A very useful means of discriminating between certain stones
is found in their dichroism, or, to use a more general term,
pleochroism. Neither amorphous minerals, like opal,
nor minerals crystallizing in the cubic system, like
spinel and garnet, possess this property; but coloured
minerals which are doubly refracting may show different colours,
when properly examined, in different directions. Occasionally
this is so marked as to be detected by the naked eye, as in iolite
or dichroite, but usually the stone needs to be examined with such
an instrument as Haidinger's dichroscope (see CRYSTALLO-
GRAPHY). It must be remembered that in the direction of an
optic axis the two images will be of the same colour in all positions
of the instrument, and it is therefore necessary before reaching
a definite conclusion to turn the stone about and examine
it in various directions. The use of the dichroscope is so
simple that it can be applied by any one to the examination
of a cut stone, but there are other means of determining the nature
of a stone by its optical properties available to the mineralogist
and more suitably discussed under CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
In chemical composition the gem-stones present great variety.
Diamond is composed of only a single element; ruby, sapphire
and the quartz-group are oxides; spinel and chryso-
beryl may be regarded as aluminates; turquoise and
beryllonite are phosphates; and a great number of
ornamental stones are silicates of greater or less
complexity, such as emerald, topaz, chrysolite, garnet, zircon,
tourmaline, kunzite, sphene and benitoite. In the examination
of a cut stone chemical tests are not available, since they usually
involve the partial destruction of the mineral. The artificial
production of certain gems by chemical processes which yield
products identical in composition and physical properties with
the natural stones, is described in the article GEM, ARTIFICIAL.
Doublets and triplets are composite stone, sometimes prepared
for fraudulent purposes. In a doublet a slab of real gem-stone
covers the face of a paste, whilst in a triplet the paste is both
faced and backed by a slice of genuine stone. By the action of
a suitable solvent, such as chloroform or in some cases even hot
water, the cement uniting the pieces gives way and the compound
character of the structure is detected.
Before the chemical composition of gem-stones was understood,
their classification remained vague and unscientific. As the
ancients depended almost entirely on the eye, the colour of the
stone naturally became the chief factor in classification. A
variety of stones agreeing roughly in colour would be grouped
together under a common name, widely as they might differ in
other respects. Thus the emerald, the peridot, green fluorspar,
malachite, and certain kinds of quartz and jade seem to have been
united under the general name of <r/j<4pa7$os; whilst the ruby,
red spinel and garnet were probably grouped together as car-
bunculus. In this way minerals radically different were associated
on the ground of what is generally a superficial and accidental
character, and rarely of any classificatory value. On the other
hand, a grouping based only on colour led to several names being
in some cases applied to the same mineral species. Thus the
ruby and sapphire are essentially identical in chemical composi-
tion and in all physical characters, save colour.
Descriptions of precious stones by ancient writers generally are
too vague for exact diagnosis. The principal classical authorities
are Theophrastus and the elder Pliny. Stones were
formerly held in esteem not only for their beauty and
rarity but for the medicinal and magical powers with
which they were reputed to be endowed. Up to comparatively
recent years the loadstone, for example, was worn not for beauty
but for sake of occult virtue; and even at the present day
certain stones, like jade, are valued for a similar reason. Prof.
W. Ridgeway has suggested that jewelry took its origin not, as
often supposed, in an innate love of personal decoration, but
rather in the belief that the objects used possessed magical virtue.
Small stones peculiar in colour or shape, especially those with
natural perforations, are usually valued by uncivilized peoples
Supentl-
tloa*.
562
GEM
as amulets. The Orphic poem Ai0t/td, reputed to be of very early
though unknown date, is rich in allusions to the virtues of many
of the gem-stones. Many of the medical and other virtues of
precious stones were evidently attributed to them on the well-
known doctrine of signatures. Thus, the blood-red colour of a
fine jasper suggested that the stone would be useful in haemor-
rhage; a green jasper would bring fertility to the soil; and the
purple wine-colour of amethyst pointed to its value as a pre-
ventive of intoxication. Many of the superstitions came down
to modern times, and even at the present day the belief in " lucky
stones " is by no means extinct.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most comprehensive work on gem-stones is
Professor Max Bauer's Edelsteinkunde (1896), translated, with
additions, by L. J. Spencer under the title Precious Stones (1904).
Less detailed are Professor P. Groth's Grundriss der Edelsteinkunde
(1887) and Professor C. Doelter's Edelsteinkunde (1893). Sir A.
H. Church's Precious Stones (1905), intended as a guide to the
collections in the Victoria and Albert Museum, is a convenient
introduction; and Professor H. A. Miers's Cantor Lectures at the
Society of Arts on Precious Stones (1896) may be studied with
advantage. For American stones, the valuable work of Dr G. F.
Kunz, The Gems and Precious Stones of N. America, is a standard
authority; and the Annual Reports of this writer and others,
published by the Geological Survey of the United States in the
Mineral Resources, form a repertory of valuable information on
precious stones in general. The articles in The Mineral Industry
(founded by R. P. Kothwell) should also be consulted. See likewise
O. C. Farrington, Gems and Gem Minerals (Chicago, 1903). For
optical characters reference should be made to G. F. H. Smith, The
Herbert Smith Refractometer (London, 1907) ; L. Claremont, The Gem-
Cutter's Craft (London, 1906); W. Goodchild, Precious Stones
(London, 1908). (F. W. R.*)
2. GEMS IN ART
In art, the word Gem is the general term for precious stones
when engraved with designs, whether adapted for sealingfa^po-yis,
sigillum, intaglio) , or mainly for artistic effect (imagines ectypae,
cameo). They exist in a very large number of undoubtedly
genuine old examples, extending from the mists of Babylonian
antiquity to the decline of Roman civilization, and again starting
with a new, but less original impulse on the revival of art. Apart
from workmanship they possess the charms of colour deep, rich,
and varied, of material unequalled for its endurance, and of
scarcity, which in many instances has been enhanced by the
remoteness of the lands whence they came or the fortuity of their
occurrence. These qualities united within the small compass of
a gem were precisely such as were required in a seal as a thing
of constant use, so inalienable in its possession as to become
naturally a personal ornament and an attractive medium of
artistic skill, no less than the centre of traditions or of religious
and legendary associations. As regards the nations of classical
antiquity, all seals are classed as gems, though in many cases the
material is not such as would strictly come under that heading,
and precious stones in the modern sense are hardly known to
occur. On the other hand it must not be supposed that gems
engraved in intaglio were necessarily employed as seals. At all
periods many intaglios are found which could not have been so
employed without great difficulty. In Greece and Rome, within
historic times, gems were worn engraved with designs to show
that the bearer was an adherent of a particular worship, the
follower of a certain philosopher, or the attached subject of an
emperor. However, speaking generally, the intaglio engraving is
a means to an end, namely, a seal-impression, while an engraving
in relief is complete in itself.
Methods of Engraving (see also under LAPIDARY). In gem-
engraving the principal modern implement is a wheel or minute
copper disk, driven in the manner of a lathe, and moistened with
olive oil mixed with emery or diamond dust. There is no clear
proof of the use among the ancients of a wheel mounted lathe-
wise, but we have abundant indications of drilling with a revolving
tool, which might be either a tubular drill making a ring-like
depression, a pointed tool making a cup-like sinking, or a small
wheel with a cutting edge, making a boat-shaped depression.
We have one sepulchral monument from Philadelphia show-
ing the tool of an intaglio engraver (ieuTuXoKoiXo'yiK^os; see
Athrnische Mitleilungen des Arch. Inst. xv. p. 333). Un-
fortunately the relief is incomplete, and the published illustra-
tion inadequate. It would seem, however, that a revolving tool
was supported by a kind of mandrel, and actuated in primitive
fashion by a bow. An alternative plan of working was to use a
splinter of diamond set in a handle and applied like a graver.
Both systems are clearly indicated by Pliny, who in one passage
(H.N. xxxvii. 60) states that diamond splinters are sought out by
gem engravers and set in iron, and so easily hollow out stones of
any degree of hardness; while elsewhere (H.N. xxxvii. 200) he
speaks of the special efficacy of the fervor terebrarum, the vehement
action of drills. A third method is also indicated by Pliny (ibid.)
when he speaks of the use of a blunted tool, which must have been
moistened and supplied with emery of Naxos.
A four-sided pendant of the Hellenistic period published by
Furtwangler (Antike Gemmen, Gesch. p. 400) shows clearly the
successive stages of the operation. On side a the subject is
slightly sketched in with the diamond point. On side b the
deepest parts of the figure have also been roughly scooped out
with the wheel. On sides c and d the wheel work is fairly com-
plete, but the finer internal work has not been begun.
After the design had been completed the stone must have
received a final polish on its surface, to obliterate any erroneous
strokes of the first sketch; but this process was not carried as far
as in modern work. It is a popular error to suppose that a high
degree of internal polish is a proof of antiquity. If the interior of
the design has a high degree of polish it may be either ancient or
modern, or it may be an ancient stone repolished in modern times.
If it has a matt surface uniformly produced by intention, it is
probably modern. If the design is slightly dimmed and worn or
scratched the stone may be antique, but is not necessarily so,
since modern engravers have observed this peculiarity, and have
imitated it with a success which, were there no other grounds of
suspicion, might escape detection.
History. It has been a subject of controversy whether the
first infancy of the art was passed in Egypt or in Babylonia, but
it seems highly probable that it was developed in Babylonia,
whence at any rate the oldest examples of engraved gems at
present known are obtained. It does not necessarily follow,
however, that Egypt was therefore a pupil. It may well be that
the art was developed independently in the two countries, although
certain points of possible contact in respect of .the forms employed
will be described below in the section dealing with primitive
Egypt.
Babylonia. At a very remote period the cylindrical form of
stone was introduced and became the approved shape, while the
technical skill of the artist was still slight, and the traces of the
tools employed (drill and pencil point) were still unconcealed.
The cylinder was suspended by a string and used as a seal.
Impressions of cylinders are frequent on contract tablets. If one
of the parties cannot use a seal he makes a nail-mark in lieu
thereof, as is recorded in the document.
But from a time that was still comparatively early the en-
gravers could work with considerable skill in the hard stone. In
particular a cylinder may be quoted in the de Clercq Collection
bearing the name of Sargon I. of Agade, who is placed about
3500 B.C. The cylinder is engraved with the king's name and
titles and two symmetrically disposed renderings of Izdubar, with
a vase of flowing water giving drink to a bull. The whole is
treated in a conventionalized style that indicates long traditions.
An important early cylinder in the British Museum is inscribed
with the name of a viceroy of Ur-Gur, king of Ur (about 2500 B.C.).
The engraving shows Ur-Gur being led into the presence of Sin,
the moon-god.
The cylinder seal was adopted by the Assyrians, and so was
carried on continuously till the time of the Persian conquest of
Babylon (538 B.C.). Meanwhile, as an alternative form the
conoidal seal, rounded at the top and having a flat base for the
intaglio, came into use beside the cylinder.
In style the Assyrians carried on the Babylonian tradition, but
with no freedom of design. Subjects and treatment became
rigidly conventional.
After the Persian conquest the victors adopted the cylinder
GEMS
PLATE I.
,
19
I-J.-OR1ENTU
1.
t.
) Cylinder of a Viceroy of Ur-Gur (or Ur-Engur),
Woman adorinc Goddot.
Aasur worshipped by two Aatyrian kings, and
Lion Hunt.
Hunt.
5. Gnrro-PmiM SnralMrad.
61S- CRETAN AND MYCENAEAN INTAGLIOS.
ft. Cretan Snnbak.
7. Mao aod Bull. Crete.
8. Ltmaod Column lalrsus.
9 Darauo. Crete
10. lionrn and Drrr
ll-lj. Thrre-rVH Stnoe. ._
14. Mao and Bull. Crete.
15- Boll and Palm. UlrH>.
16-18. GEMS OF THE ISLANDS.
16. Goddew on Waves. Birds.
17. Lion and Goal.
18. Herade* and Nemii.
19. PHOENICIAN SEAL, inscribed.
Jo-i6. GRAECO-PHOENICIAN SCARABS FROM THARROS.
90. King, enthroned,
ll. Bn with Anlrlope and Hound.
. Bes with Lions.
2j. Warrior.
4. Egrpiian Device.
11, Reand GoaU.
16. Hawk of Horus.
n .
All Ik above an in the British Muvam.
PLATE II.
GEMS
70
72
27-34- EARLY GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.
27. Pluto and Persephone. (New York.)
28. Boreas and Oreithyia. (New York.)
29. Youth and Dog.
30. Archer feeling Arrow Tip. (Lord Southcsk.)
31. Satyr and Wine Cup.
32. Archer and Dog.
33. Satyr with Wineskin.
34. Athena with Gorgon Spoils.
35-44-- FINEST GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.
35. Head of Young \\ arrior.
36. Lyre Player. (Cockerel! Coll.)
37. Crane, with Deer's Antler.
38. Head of Ecs.
39. Lyre Player. (Woodhouse Coll. and B.M.)
40. Lyre Player, signed by Syries.
41. Stork and Grasshopper, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.)
42. Flying Crane, signed by Dexamenos. (St. Petersburg.)
43. Flying Goose.
44. Lion and Stag.
45-54 ETRUSCAN SCARABS.
45. Achilles in Retirement.
46. Victory.
47. Capaneus struck by the Bolt.
48. Heracles.
49. Capaneus struck by the Bolt.
50. Achilles.
51. Heracles and Cycnus.
52. Heracles.
53. Heracles and (he Lion.
54. Machaon bandaging Philocletes.
55-57- GREEK GEMS.
55. Girl with Scroll and Lyre.
56. Girl with Water-Jar.
57. Head of Aristippus Deities.
58-61, SIGNED GEMS.
58. Asclepius of Aulos.
59. Citharist of Allion.
60. Medus;- of Scion.
61. Heracles of Gnaios.
62-70. ROMAN GEMS.
62. Portrait.
63. Heud of Trajan Decius.
64. Arcs and Aphrodiie.
65. Jupiter of Heliopolis.
66. Artemis of Ephesus.
67. So-railed Psyche.
68. So-railed Psyche.
69. Minerva with Mask, Stamp for ihc Eye Balsam of Herophilus.
70. Helios.
7 i- 7 a. CHRISTIAN GEMS.
71. Crucifixion.
72. Good Shepherd. Jonah.
73 - 7 6 EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GEMS.
73. Achilles of Pamphilus, copied from the antique.
74. Eros and Psyche, by Pichler.
75. Head of Athena.
76. Athena, from Townley Bust by Marchant.
All the above are in the British Museum, unless otherwise stated.
GEM
563
form of the conquered, and continued to use it. A Persian
cylinder seal of Darius (probably about 500 B.C.) in the British
Museum shows the king in his chariot, transfixing a lion with his
arrows, in a palm wood. Above is the winged emblem of the
Persian deity Ahuramazda. The inscription gives the name and
titles of Darius in the Persian, Scythic and Babylonian languages.
The style is accurate and minute. The idea of the lion hunt is
borrowed from the Assyrian monuments, but the engraver has
been careful to make the necessary changes of costume and
treatment. The cylinder was, as might be anticipated, imitated
to a certain extent by peoples of the Eastern world in touch with
Babylonia. It occurs in Armenia, Media and Elam. It has been
found in Crete (British School Annual, viii. p. 77) and is frequent
in the early Cypriote deposits. In some instances it has been
found unfinished and therefore must be supposed to be of local
manufacture. Sometimes a direct imitation of cuneiform
characters occurs on the Cypriote cylinders. The same form was
also employed by the Phoenicians (about the 8th century-
7th century B.C.). By the Greeks and Etruscans it was used,
but only rarely, and by way of exception.
Egypt. We must go back to the remotest periods for the
origin of intaglio engraving in Egypt. Recent discoveries of
tombs of the earliest dynasties at Abydos and Nagada have
thrown much light on the early stages of Egyptian art, and have
revealed the remarkable fact that in Egypt (as in Babylonia) the
cylinder was the earliest form used for the purpose of a seal.
The cylinders that have been found are comparatively few in
number; but a large number of jar-stoppings of clay are pre-
served on which cylinder designs have been rolled off while the
clay was still soft. Such early incised cylinders as are extant are
made either of hard wood or (as in an instance in the British
Museum) of stone. The identity of form has been thought to
indicate a connexion with Babylonia, but none can be traced in
the designs of the respective cylinders.
The Egyptians of the earliest dynasties had an admirable
command of hard stones, as shown by their beads and stone
vases, but with the exception of the cylinders quoted they are
not known to have applied their skill to the production of
intaglios. At this early period the scarab (or beetle) was still
unknown as a gem-form. It was only about the time of the
4th dynasty that the scarab (q.v.) was first introduced, and
gradually took the place of the cylinder as the prevailing shape.
The Scaratxjfus sactr (Egyptian, Kheperer), rolling its eggs in
a ball of mud, became the accepted emblem of the sun-god, and
so the form had an amulctic value. Scarabs of obsidian and
crystal date back to the 4th dynasty. Others, coarse and
uninscribed, belong to the beginning of the first Theban empire.
After the i8th dynasty they are counted by thousands. While
the beetle form was naturalistically treated, the flat surface
underneath was well adapted to receive a hieroglyphic sign.
The scarabs, howevcr,.are by no means the only product of the
an. We have also figures of all kinds in the round and in
intaglio statuettes, figures of animals and of deities, and sacred
emblems such as the ankh (or crux ansata) and the eye. Among
interesting variations from the scarab form is the oblong intaglio
of green jasper in the Louvre (Gazette arch., 1878, p. 41) with a
design on both sides. It represents on the obverse Tethmosis
(Tbothmes) II. (1800 B.C.) slaying a lion, and identified by his
cartouche. On the reverse we have the same king drawing his
bow against his enemies from a war chariot. The scarabs of
Egypt though uninteresting in themselves, considered as examples
of engraving, have this accidental importance in the history of
an, that they furnished the Phoenicians with a model which
they were able to improve as regards the intaglio by a more
free spirit of design, gathered partly from Egypt and partly
from Assyria. The scarab thus improved exercised a lasting
influence on the later history, since, as will be seen below, it was
adopted and modified both by Greeks and Etruscans.
Engraved Gems in Ike Bible While the Phoenicians have left
actual specimens to show with what skill they could adopt the
systems of gem-engraving prevailing at their time in Egypt and
Assyria, the Israelites, on the other band, have left records to
prove, if not their skill, at least the estimation in which they held
engraved gems. " The sin of Judah is written with a pen of
iron and with the point of a diamond " (Jcrem. xvii. i). To
pledge his word Judah gave Tamar his signet, with its cord for
suspension, and staff (Gen. xxxviii. 18); whence if this passage
be compared with the frequent use of " seal " in a metaphorical
sense in the Bible, and with the usage of the Babylonians of
carrying a seal with an emblem engraved on it recorded by
Herodotus, it may be concluded that among the Israelites also
every man of mark at least wore a signet. Their acquaintance
with the use of seals in Egypt and Assyria is seen in the statement .
that Pharaoh gave Joseph his signet ring as a badge of investiture
(Gen. xli. 42), and that the stone which closed the den of lions
was sealed by Darius with his own signet and with the signet of
his lords (Daniel vi. 17). Then as to the stones which were most
prized, Ezekiel (xxviii. 13), speaking of the prince of Tyre,
mentions " the sardius, the topaz and the diamond, the beryl,
the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald and the
carbuncle," stones which again occur in that most memorable
of records, the description of the breastplate of the high priest
I 1 .' ROW
!!!
P
1 1 ^WW^^WH^^^*
l
FIG. I. Jewish High Priest's Breastplate.
(Exodus xxviii. 16-21, and xxxix. 8-14). Twelve stones
grouped in four rows, each with three specimens, may be
arranged on a square, so as to have the rows placed either verti-
cally or horizontally. If they are to cover the whole square, then,
unless the gold mounts supplied the necessary compensation,
they must be cut in an oblong form, and if the names engraved
on them are to run lengthwise, as is the manner of Assyrian
cylinders, then the stones, to be legible, must be grouped in four
horizontal rows of three each. There is in fact no reason to
suppose that the gems of the breastplate were in any other form
than that of cylinders such as abounded to the knowledge of
the Israelites, with this possibility, however, that they may
have been cut lengthways into half-cylinders like a fragmentary
one of sard in the British Museum, which has been mounted in
bronze, and, as a remarkable exception, has been set with three
small precious stones now missing. It could not have been a
seal, because of this setting, and because the inscription is not
reversed. The names of the twelve tribes, not their standards,
as has been thought, may have been engraved in this fashion,
just as on the two onyx stones in the preceding verses (Exodus
xxviii. 9-1 1), where there can be no question but that actual
names were incised. On these two stones the order of the names
was according to primogeniture, and this, it is likely, would
apply to the breastplate also. The accompanying diagram will
show how the stones, supposing them to have been, cylinders or
half-cylinders, may have been arranged consistently with the
5 6 4
GEM
descriptions of the Septuagint. In the arrangement of Josephus
(iii. 7. 5) the jasper is made to change places with the sapphire,
the amethyst with the agate, and the onyx with the beryl, while
our version differs partly in the order and partly in the names
of the stones; but probably in all these accounts the names had
in some cases other meanings than those which they now carry.
It must be remembered that we have two series of equivalents,
namely, the Hebrew compared with the Septuagint, and the
Greek words of the Septuagint compared with the modern
names, which in many cases, though derived from the Greek,
have changed their applications. From the fact that to each
tribe was assigned a stone of different colour, it may be taken
that in each case the colour was one which belonged prescriptively
to the tribe and was symbolic, as in Assyria, where the seven
planets appropriated each a special colour [see Brandis in
Hermes, 1867, p. 259 seq., and de Saulcy, Revue archeologique,
1869, ii. p. 91; and compare Revelation xxi. 12, 13, where the
twelve gates, which have the names of the twelve tribes written
upon them, are grouped in four threes, and 19, 20, where the
twelve precious stones of the walls are given]. The precious
stones which occur among the cylinders of the British Museum
are sard, emerald, lapis lazuli (sapphire of the ancients), agate,
onyx, jasper and rock crystal.
Gem-Engraving in Greek Lands. We must now turn to the his-
tory of gem-engraving in Greek lands. The excavations in Crete in
the first years of the 2oth century revealed a previously unknown
culture, which lasted on the lowest computation for more than
two thousand years, and was only interrupted by the national
upheavals which preceded the opening of Greek history proper.
(See CRETE; Archaeology; and AEGEAN CIVILIZATION.) Through-
out the whole period the products of the gem-engraver occupy
an important place among the surviving remains. It must suffice,
however, in this place to indicate the chief groups of stones.
The earliest engraved stones of Minoan Crete are three-sided
prism seals, made of a soft steatite, native in S.E. Crete (Journ.
of Hellenic Studies, xvii. p. 328). These are incised with pictorial
signs evidently belonging to a rudimentary hieroglyphic system,
and are dated before 3000 B.C. At a period placed by A. J.
Evans between 2800 and 2200 the method was fully systematized
and employed on the signets, as well as on tablets and other
materials. This development of the hieroglyphic system was
accompanied by an increasing power of working in hard material,
and cornelian and chalcedony superseded soft steatite (Journ.
of Hell. Studies, xvii. p. 334).
Towards 2000 B.C. a highly developed linear form began to
supersede the pictorial signs. It is abundant on the tablets,
but the gems thus inscribed are comparatively rare. The linear
form in turn died out some six hundred years later.
The signs of the pictorial script incised on the gems are re-
presentations of objects, expressed with precision, but giving
little scope for the higher side of the gem-engraver's art.
Simultaneously, however, with the use of the script, a high
degree of skill was acquired by the engravers in rendering animal
and human forms. Scenes occur of ritual observance, hunting,
animal life, and strange compounded forms of demons. The
excavations did not yield a large number of original gems of this
class, but a great number of clay sealings from such signets were
discovered. That they were synchronous with the use of the
forms of script described above is proved by the fact that in the
palace at Cnossus deposits were found, both in the linear and
the hieroglyphic script, sealed with these signets, the seal
impressions being again endorsed in the script (Brit. School
Annual, xi. pp. 56, 62). For a remarkable group of sealings
found at Zakro see Journ. of Hell. Studies, xxii. pll. 6-10. The
finest naturalistic engravings are placed towards the close of the
" Mid-Minoan " and beginning of the " Late-Minoan " periods
(about 2200-1800 B.C.). During the progress of the " Late-
Minoan " period the subjects tended to assume a more formal
and heraldic character. The forms of stones in favour were the
disk convex on each side (lenticular or lentoid stones), and during
the " Mid-Minoan " period, elaborate signets in the form of
modern fob-seals. Apart from the use of intaglios for sealing,
the excavations have shown that the Cretan lapidaries were
largely employed in the working of gems for purposes of decora-
tion. Fragments of lapis lazuli and crystal for inlaying (the
crystals having coloured designs on their lower surfaces) were
found in the throne room at Cnossus; the royal gaming-board,
also from the palace at Cnossus, had inlaid crystal disks and
plaques. The workshop of a lapidary, with unfinished works in
marble, steatite, jasper and beryl, was also found within the
precincts of the palace (Brit. School Annual, vii. pp. 20, 77).
Examples were also found of work in relief, substantially antici-
pating the art of cameo-cutting.
The area over which the Cretan influence extended was wide.
Its manifestations in Greek lands proper, first revealed by
Schliemann's excavation of the royal tombs of Mycenae, ran
parallel with and outlasted the later
periods of the Cretan culture to which
it stood in close relation (see AEGEAN
CIVILIZATION). Its gems and intaglio
works in gold are known to us from the
finds at Mycenae, and at analogous
sites, such as Menidi, Vaphio and
lalysus. They have much in com-
mon with the finer class of Cretan
stones already described. The en-
graved gems fall principally into
two groups in respect of form, FIG. 2. Lenticular Rock-
namely, the lenticular (or lentoid) Crystal from lalysus. (Brit,
stones already mentioned, and (more
rarely) glandular stones, so called from their resemblance to a
glans or sling bolt. A Cretan fresco shows a figure wearing an
agate lenticular stone suspended from the left wrist. The finer
specimens of the Aegean gems are engraved with the' wheel and
the point in hard stones, such as chalcedony, amethyst, sard,
rock-crystal and haematite. A lapidary's workshop similar
to that at Cnossus has been found at Mycenae, with a store of
unused gems, and an unfinished lenticular stone (Ephemeris
Archaiologike, 1897, p. 121). The characteristic of the Aegean
engraver is the free expression of living forms. His subjects are
figures of animals, men and demons in combat, and heraldic
compositions recalling the Gate of Lions at Mycenae. It was
almost inevitable that the scarab should be found in the Cretan
and Aegean deposits, but in such cases we have the Egyptian
scarab directly imported, and not, as at a later period, non-
Egyptian adaptations of the form. The
cylinder also (except in Cyprus, the border-
land between east and west) only occurs as
an importation, and not as a currently
manufactured shape.
The " Island Gems." The Aegean culture
was swept away probably by that dimly
seen upheaval which separated Mycenaean
from historical Greece, and which is com-
monly known as the Dorian invasion. One
of the few facts which indicate a certain
continuity of tradition in later Greece is this, that we again find
the same characteristic forms, the glandular and lenticular
stones, in the cemeteries, of Melos and elsewhere. It is only
recently that archaeologists have learnt to distinguish between
the later lenticular and glandular stones " of the Greek Islands,"
as they are commonly called, and those of the Aegean age.
Engravings of the later class are worked in soft materials only,
such as steatite. They have not the power of expressing action
peculiar to the Aegean artist. In general, the continuity of
tradition between the gems of the Mycenaean and the historical
periods is in respect of shape rather than of art . The subjects are
for the most part decorative forms (the Gryphon, the winged
Sphinx, the winged horse, &c.) in course of development into
characters of Greek myth.
The Phoenicians and the Greeks. About the end of the 8th
and beginning of the 7th century B.C. the Phoenicians began to
exercise a powerful influence as intermediaries between Egypt
and Assyria and the Mediterranean. Porcelain and other
FIG. 3. Lenticular
Sard from lalysus.
(Brit. Mus.)
GEM
imitations of Egyptian ornaments, and especially of Egyptian
scarabs, are found in great numbers on such sites as Amathus in
Cyprus, Camirus in Rhodes, in Et ruria, and at Thurros in Sardinia.
The Egyptian hieroglyphics are imitated with mistakes, the
figures introduced are stiff and formal, the animals as a rule
heraldic. The scarab form, which in Egypt had had its sacred
significance, was now become nothing more than a convenient
shape for an object of jewelry or for the reverse side of a stone.
It was adopted from the Phoenicians both by Greeks and
Etruscans. By the Greeks, with whom we are at present con-
cerned, its use was occasional, and about 500 B.C. it was super-
seded by the scarabaeoid. Under this name two forms, some-
what similar but independent in origin, are usually grouped
without sufficient discrimination. The scarabaeoid proper is a
simplification of the scarab, effected by the omission of all details
of the beetle. But many of the stones known as scarabaeoids,
with a fiat and oval base and a convex back, are in respect of
their form probably of North Syrian origin (so Furtwangler).
The earliest examples of archaic Greek gem-engraving (other
than the later " Island gems " already described) are works of
Ionian art. They show a desire, only limited by imperfect
power of expression, to represent the human figure, though the
particular theme may be a god or other mythical personages.
By the beginning of the 5th century the engravers had reached the
FIG. 4. Victory.
Early Greek Scarab.
(Brit. Mus.)
FIG. 5. Citharirt.
Early Greek Scara-
baeoid. (Brit. Mus.)
FIG. 6. Head
of Eos. (Brit.
Mus.)
point of full development, and the scarabaeoids of the time
embody its results. As an example of fine scarabaeoids the
Woodhouse intaglio of a seated citharist (fig. 5; Cat. of Gems in
Brit. Mus. No. 555) may be quoted as perhaps the very finest
example of Greek gem-engraving that has come down to us. It
would stand early in the 5th century B.C., a date which would
also suit the head of Eos from It home in Messenia (fig. 6). The
number, however, of fine scarabaeoids known to us has been
considerably increased in recent years. They are marked by a
broad and simple treatment, which attains a large effect without
excessive minuteness or laboured detail. In these respects the
style has something in common with the reliefs of the 5th century.
Literary History. The literary references to the early gem-
engravers are no longer of the same importance as before in view
of UK fuller knowledge we possess as to the quality of early gem-
engraving, but it is necessary that they should be taken into
account.
The records of gem-engravers in Greece begin in the island of
Same*, where Mnesarchus, the father of the philosopher Pytha-
goras, earned by his art more of praise than of wealth. " Not to
carry the image of a god on your seal," was a saying of Pytha-
goras; and, whatever his reason for it may have been, it is
interesting to observe him founding a maxim on his father's
profession of gem-engraving (Diogenes Laert. viii. i, 17). From
Same* also came Theodoras, who made for Polycrates the seal of
emerald (Herodotus iii. 41), which, according to the curious
story, was cast in vain into the deep sea on purpose to be lost.
That the design on it was a lyre, as is stated in one authority, is
unlikely, at least if we accept Benndorf' s ingenious interpretation
of Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 83). He has suggested that the
portrait statue of Theodoras made by himself was in all proba-
bility a figure holding in one hand a graving tool, and in the other,
not, as previously supposed, a quadriga so diminutive that a
fly could cover it with its wings, but a scarab with the engraving
of a quadriga on its face (Zeitscliriftftirdiedsterreich. Gymnasien,
1873, pp. 401-411), whence it is not unreasonable to conclude
that this scarab in fact represented the famous seal of Polycrates.
Shortly after 600 B.C. there was a law of Solon's forbidding en-
gravers to retain impressions of the seals they made, and this date
would fall in roundly with that of Theodorus and Mnesarchus,
as if there had in fact been at that time a special activity and
unusual skill. That the use of seals had been general long before,
in Cretan and Mycenaean times, we have seen above, and it is
singular to find, as Pliny points out (xxxiii. 4), no direct mention
of seals in Homer, not even in the passage (Iliad, vi. 168) where
Bellerophon himself carries the tablets on which were written the
orders against his life. From the time of Theodorus to that of
Pyrgoteles in the 4th century B.C. is a long bknkas to names, but
not altogether as to gems, the production of which may be
judged to have been carried on assiduously from the constant
necessity of seals for every variety of purpose. The references to
them in Aristophanes, for example, and the lists of them in the
ancient inventories of treasures in the Parthenon and the
Asclepieion at Athens confirm this frequent usage during the
period in question. The mention of a public seal for authenti-
cating state documents also becomes frequent in the inscriptions.
In the reign of Alexander the Great we meet the name of Pyr-
goteles, of whom Pliny records that he was no doubt the most
famous engraver of his time, and that Alexander decreed that
Pyrgoteles alone should engrave his portrait. Nothing else is
known of Pyrgoteles. A portrait of Alexander in the British
Museum (No. 2307), purporting to be signed by him, is palpably
modern.
From literary sources we also learn the names of the engravers
Apollonides, Chronius and Dioscorides, but the date of the last-
mentioned only is certain. He is said to have made an excellent
portrait of Augustus, which was used as a seal by that emperor
in the latter part of his reign and also by his successors. In-
scriptions on extant gems make it probable that Dioscorides was
a native of Aegeae in Cilicia, and that three sons, Hyllos, Hero-
philus and Eutyches, followed their father's occupation. We
have also a few scattered notices of amateurs and collectors of
gems, but it will be seen that for the whole period of classical
antiquity the literary notices give little aid, and we must return
to the gems.
Early Inscribed Gems. Various early gems are inscribed with
proper names, which may be supposed to indicate either the
artist or the owner of the gem. In some cases there is no
ambiguity, e.g. on a scarab is inscribed, " I am the seal of Thersis.
Do not open me "; and a scarabaeoid (fig. 7) is inscribed, " Syries
made me." But when we have the name alone, the general
principle on which we must distinguish be-
tween owner and artist is that the name of
the owner is naturally meant to be con-
spicuous (as in a gem in the British Museum
inscribed in large letters with the name of
Isagor[as]), while the name of an artist is
naturally inconspicuous and subordinate to
the design.
The early engravers known to us by their
signatures are: Syries, who was author of
the modified scarab in the British Museum,
mentioned above, with a satyr's head in place
of the beetle, and a citharist on the base a
work of the middle of the 6th century; Semon,
who engraved a black jasper scarab now at
Berlin, with a nude woman kneeling at a fountain filling her
pitcher, of the close of the 6th century; Epimenes, who was the
author of an admirable chalcedony scarabaeoid of a nude youth
restraining a spirited horse formerly in the Tyszkiewicz
Collection, and of about the beginning of the 5th century. But
better known to us than any of these artists is the sth-century
engraver, Dexamcnus of Chios, of whose work four examples'
survive, viz.:
'For No*. 1-4 see Furtwangler, pi. 14; for Nos. 2-4 see Evans,
Rev. archeologiqve, xxxii. (1898) pi. 8.
FIG. 7 Scara-
baeoid by Syries.
(Brit. Mus.)
566
GEM
1. A chalcedony scarabaeoid from Greece, in the Fitzwilliam
Museum at Cambridge, with a lady at her toilet, attended by
her maid. Inscribed AESAMENOS, and with the name of the
lady, MIKHS.
2. An agate with a stork standing on one leg, inscribed
AEEAMENOS simply.
3. A chalcedony with the figure of a stork flying, and inscribed
in two lines, the letters carefully disposed above each other,
AEEAMENOS EIIOIE XIOS.
4. A gem, apparently by the same Dexamenus, is a cornelian
formerly belonging to Admiral Soteriades in Athens, and sub-
sequently in the collection of Dr Arthur Evans.
It has a portrait head, bearded and inscribed
AESAMENOS EHOIE.
The design of a stork flying occurs on an
agate scarab in the British Museum, from the
oldCracherode Collection,and therefore beyond
all suspicion of having been copied from the
more recently discovered Kertch gem.
For the period immediately following that
early prime to which the gems above de-
scribed belong, our materials are less copious.
Some of the finest examples are derived from
the Greek tombs in the Crimea and South
Russia. Reckoned among the best of the
Crimean gems, and that is equivalent to saying
among the best of all gems, are the follow-
ing: (i) a burnt scarabaeoid with an eagle carrying off a
hare; (2) a gem with scarab border and the figure of a
youth seated playing on the trigonon, very much resembling
the Woodhouse intaglio (both engraved, Compte rendu, 1871,
pi. vi. figs. 16, 17). In these, and in almost all Greek
gems belonging to this period of excellence, the material
is of indifferent quality, consisting of agate, chalcedony or cor-
nelian, just as in the older specimens. Brilliant colour and
translucency are as yet not a necessary element, and accordingly
the design is worked out solely with a view to its own artistic
merit. The scarab tends to die out. The scarabaeoid in its
turn is abandoned for the simple ring stone. The subjects
chosen take by degrees a different character. Aphrodite (nude),
FIG. 8. Greek
Sard. 5th Cent.
B.C. (Brit. Mus.)
FIG. 9. Amethyst Pendant. (Brit. Mus.)
Eros, children and women tend to replace the older and severer
themes. The motives of 4th-century sculpture appear by degrees
on the gems.
Etruscan Gems. At this point it is convenient to discuss the
gem-engraving of the Etruscans, which came into being towards
the close of the archaic period of Greek art. In the early Etruscan
deposits, such as that of the Polledrara tomb in the British Museum
(towards 600 B.C.), we find nothing except Phoenician imports of
porcelain or stone scarabs, both strongly Egyptian in character.
During the 6th century a few of the semi-Egyptian stones of
Sardinia make their appearance. But in the latter part of the
century these oriental products tend to die out, and we have in
their place the native works of Etruscan artists. These engrav-
ings stand in the closest relation to Greek works of the close of
the 6th century and many imported Greek scarabs also occur.
The Etruscan scarab has its beetle form more minutely
engraved than that cf the Greeks. It is further distinguished
in the Lettei examples, alike from the Greek and the Egyptian
form, bj a small border of a sort of petal ornament round the
lower edge of the beetle. Like the earlier Greek scarabs it has
the cable border round the design, but the border continued in
use in Etruria when it had been abandoned in Greece. Ths
scarabaeoid form does not occur in Etruscan deposits. Etruscan
engraving begins when Greek art was approaching maturity,
with studies, sometimes stiff and cramped, of the heroic nude
form. Some of the Greek deities such as Athena and Hermes
occur, together with the winged personages of Greek mythology.
To the heroic types the names of Greek legend are attached, with
modifications of form, such as TTTE for Tydeus, and RATINE
for Capaneus. Sometimes the names are appropriate and some-
times they are assigned at random. The subjects include certain
favourite incidents in the Trojan and Theban cycles (e.g. the
death of Capaneus); myths of Heracles; athletes, horsemen, a
few scenes of daily life. Certain schemes of composition are
frequent. In particular, a figure too large for the field, standing
and bending over, is made to serve for many types. The engrav-
ing of the finer Etruscan gems is minute and precise, marked with
elegance and command of the material. Its fault is its want of
original inspiration. Special mention must be made of a very
numerous group of cornelian scarabs, roughly engraved for the
most part with cup-shaped sinkings (whence they are known as
gems a globolo tondo) roughly joined 'together by furrows. Not-
withstanding their apparent rudeness, these gems are shown,
by the conditions in which they are found, to be comparatively
late works of the 4th century. Furtwiingler ingeniously suggests
that the rough execution was intended to emphasize the shining'
surfaces of the cup-sinkings, rather than to produce any particular
intaglio subject. (For an elaborate classification of the Etruscan
scarabs see Furtwangler, Geschichte, p. 170.)
The Cameos. After the beginning of the regal period, in the
4th century B.C., the introduction of more splendid materials
from the East was turned to good account by the development
of the cameo, i.e. of gem-carving in relief (for the origin of the
word see CAMEO). But in its simpler forms the principle of the
cameo necessarily dates from the beginning of the art. Thus a
lion in rock-crystal was found in the very early royal tomb of
Nagada (de Morgan, Recherches, Tombeau de Negadah, p. 193).
The Egyptian scarab, on its rounded side, had been naturalisti-
cally carved in relief in beetle form. Steatite engravings in
relief (notably the harvest festival vase from Hagia Triada)
were found in the Cretan deposits. Subjects are found carved in
the round in hard stone in Mycenaean graves. When we come
to historical Greece and to Etruria the cameo cf later times is
anticipated by various attempts to modify the traditional form
of the scarab. An example in cornelian was found at Orvieto in
1874 in a tomb along with vases dating from the beginning of
the 5th century B.C., and it will be seen from the engraving of
this gem (Arch. Zeit., 1877, pi. xi. fig. 3) that, while the design
on the face is in intaglio, the half-length figure of a Gorgon on
the back is engraved in relief. Compare a cornelian fragment,
apparently cut from the back of a scarabaeoid, now in the British
Museum. As further examples of the same rare form of cameo,
the following gems in the British Museum may be mentioned:
(i) a cornelian cut from back of a scarabaeoid, with head of
Gorgon surrounded by wings; (2) cornelian scarabaeoid:
Gorgon running to left; on face of the gem an intaglio of Thetis
giving armour to Achilles; (3) steatite scarabaeoid, already
mentioned, signed by Syries, head of a satyr, full face, with
intaglio of citharist. There is, however, no evidence at present
available to show that the cameo proper had been introduced
in Greece before the time of Alexander. The earliest examples
found in known conditions are derived from Crimean tombs of
the middle of the 3rd century B.C.
Among the most splendid of ancient cameos are those at St
Petersburg and Vienna, each representing a monarch of the
Diadochi and his consort (Furtwangler, pi. 53). There is much
controversy as to the persons represented, but the cameos are
probably works of the 3rd century.
The materials which ancient artists used for cutting into
cameos were chiefly those siliceous minerals which, under a
variety of names, present various strata or bands of two or more
distinct colours. The minerals, under different names, are
GEM
567
ru tally the chalcedonic variety of quartz, and the differences
of colour they present are due to the presence of variable pro-
portions of iron and other foreign ingredients. These banded
stones, when cut parallel to the layers of different colours, and
when only two coloured bands white and black, or sometimes
white and black and brown are present, are known as onyxes;
but when they have with the onyx bands layers of cornelian or
sard, they are termed sardonyxes. The sardonyx, which was the
favourite stone of ancient cameo-engravers, and the material in
which their masterpieces were cut, was procured from India, and
the increased intercourse with the East after the death of
Alexander the Great had a marked influence on the development
of the art.
Akin in their nature to the great regal cameos, which from the
nature of the case are cut on a nearly plane surface, are the cups
and vases cut out of a homogeneous stone and therefore capable of
being worked in the round. A few examples of such works survive.
The most famous are the Farnese Tazza and the cup of the
Ptolemies. The Tazza, which is now in the National Museum at
Naples, was bought by Lorenzo dc' Medici from Pope Paul II. in
1471. It is a large shallow bowl of sardonyx, 8 in. in diameter.
On its exterior surface is a Gorgoneion upon an aegis; in the
interior is an allegorical design, relating to the Nile flood. The
cup of the Ptolemies, formerly known as the cup of St Denis, is
preserved in the Cabinet des Medailles of the French Bibliotheque
Nationale. It is a cup 4} in. high and si in. in diameter, carved
out of oriental sardonyx, and richly decorated with Dionysiac
emblems and attributes in relief.
Tht Cameo in the Roman Empire. During the ist century of
the empire the engraver's art alike in cameo and in intaglio was
at a high degree of excellence. The artist in cameo took full
advantage of his rich opportunities in the way of sumptuous
materials, and of the requirements of an imperial court. The two
most famous examples of this art which have come down to the
present day are the Great Agate of the Sainte Chapelle in the
Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, and the Augustus Cameo in the
Vienna Collection. The former was pledged amongother valuables
in 1 244 by Baldwin II. of Constantinople to Saint Louis. It is
mentioned in 1344 as " Le Camahieu,"
having been sent in that year to Rome
for the inspection of Pope Clement VI.
It is a sardonyx of five layers of ir-
regular shape, like all classical gems,
measuring 12 in. by 10$ in. It repre-
sents on its upper part the deified
members of the Julian house. The
centre is occupied with the reception
p IG |o _ \ctaeon Frag-
Germanicus on his return from his
_ -
ment of Sardonyx Cameo, great German campaign by the em-
(Brit. Mus.) peror Tiberius and his mother Livia.
The lower division is filled with a
group of captives in attitudes expressive of woe and deep
dejection. The Vienna gem (Gemma, augustea), an onyx of
two layers measuring 8| in. by 7 J, is a work of still greater
artistic interest. The upper portion is occupied with an
allegorical representation of the coronation of Augustus, the
emperor being represented as Jupiter with Livia as the god-
dess Roma at his side. In the composition deities of Earth
and Sea, and several members of the family of Augustus, are
introduced; on the exergue or lower portion are Roman soldiers
preparing a trophy, barbarian captives and female figures.
This gem was in the 1 5th century at the abbey of St Sernin at
Toulouse. According to tradition it had been placed there by
Charlemagne. It came into the possession of the emperor
Rudolph II. in the i6th century for the enormous sum of 12,000
gold ducats. The principal cameo in the collection of the British
Museum was acquired at the final dispersion of the Marlborough
Collection in 1899. It is a sardonyx measuring 8} in. by 6 in.,
and appears to represent a Roman emperor and empress in the
forms of Serapis and Isis. Here also, in imperial times as in the
Hellenistic period, side by side with the great cameos, we meet
with works carved out in the round. Noted examples of such
work arc the Brunswick vase (at Brunswick), with the subject
of Triptolemus; the Berlin vase with the lustration of a new-born
imperial prince; and the Waddesdon vase in the British Museum,
with a vine in relief set in a rich enamelled Renaissance mount.
Hardly less precious than the cameos in sardonyx were the
imitations carved out of coloured glass. The material was not
costly, but its extreme fragility made the work of extreme
difficulty. Examples of such work are the Barberini or Portland
vase, deposited in the British Museum, with scenes supposed to be
connected with the story of Peleus and Thetis; and the " vase of
blue glass " from Pompeii, in the museum at Naples (see Mau and
Kelsey, p. 408). The world's great cameos, which are hardly
more than a dozen in number, have not been found by excavation.
They remained as precious objects in imperial and ecclesiastical
treasuries and passed thence to the royal and national collections
of modern Europe.
The Intaglio in the Roman Empire. The art of engraving in
intaglio was also at a high level of excellence in the beginning of
the Roman empire. This is to be inferred alike from the admir-
able portraits of the ist century A.D., and from the number of
signed gems bearing Roman artists' names, such as Aulus,
Gnaius and the like, which could hardly belong to any other
period. It is impossible, however, to found any argument upon
the artists' signatures without taking into account the intricate
questions of authenticity which are discussed in the following
section.
Signed Gems. The number of gems which have, or purport to
have, the name of the artist inscribed upon them is very large.
A great many of the supposed signatures are modern forgeries,
dating from the period between 1724 (when the book of Stosch,
Gemmae antiquae caelatae, scalptorum nominibus insignitae,
first drew general attention to the subject) and 1833, when the
multitude of forged signatures (about 1800 in number) in the col-
lection of Prince Poniatowski made the whole pursuit ridiculous.
It is known, however, that forged signatures were current before
1724 (see Stosch, p. xxi.), and in the period immediately following
they were very numerous. Thus Laurence Natter (Methode de
graver en pierres fines (1754), p. xxx.) confesses that, whenever
desired, he made copies. For example, he copied a Venus (Brit.
Mus. No. 2296), converting the figure into a Danae and affixing
the name of Aulos which he found on the Venus. Cf. Mariette,
Traitt (1750), i. p. 101.
The question which of the multitude of supposed signatures
can be accepted as genuine has been a subject of prolonged and
intricate controversy. In the period immediately following the
Poniatowski forgeries the extreme height of scepticism is repre-
sented by Koehler, who only acknowledged five gems (Koehler,
iii. p. 206) as having genuine signatures. In recent years the
subject has been principally dealt with by Furtwangler, whose
conclusion is to admit a considerable number of gems rejected
by his predecessors.
It must suffice here to point out a few general principles.
In the first place a certain number of gems recently discovered
have inscriptions which are undoubtedly genuine and which
record the names of the engravers. The form of the signature
may be a nominative with a verb, a nominative without a verb
or a genitive. The artists in this class are Syries, Dexamenus,
Epimenes and Semon, mentioned above, and a few others.
Another group of gems which must be accepted consists of stones
whose known history goes back to a period at which a forged
inscription was impossible. Thus a bust of Athena in the Berlin
Collection, signed by Eutyches, was seen by Cyriac of Ancona in
1445. A glass cameo signed by Herophilus, son of Dioscorides,
now at Vienna, was, in the I7th century, in the monastery of
Echternach, where it had probably been from old times. The
portrait of Julia, daughter of Titus, by Euodos (now in the Biblio-
theque Nationale) was formerly a part of a reliquary presented to
the abbey of St Denis by Charles the Bold. Another group of
undoubtedly genuine signatures occurs on cameos (in stone and
paste) which have the inscriptions in relief, and therefore as part
of the original design. Such are the works of Athenion, and of
Quintus, son of Alexas.
568
GEM
For the great majority of signed gems which do not fall into
these categories the reader must refer to the discussions of
Furtwangler and others (see Bibliography below). It must
suffice to say that Furtwangler arrives at the result that we have
in all genuine signatures of at least fifty ancient gem-engravers.
Gem-Engraving in the Later Empire. In the following centuries
the art of intaglio engraving, which was still at a high degree of
perfection in the first century of the Roman empire, became
more mechanical. The designs have a very characteristic ap-
pearance, due to the method of production with rough and hasty
strokes of the wheel only. A collection of gems found in England,
such as that in the possession of the corporation of Bath, shows
the feeble character in particular of the gems current in the
provinces. Except in portraiture, and in grylli or conceits, in
which various things are combined into one, often with much
skill, the subjects were as a rule only variations or adaptations
of old types handed down from the Greeks. When new and
distinctly Roman subjects occur, such as the finding of the head
on the Capitol, or Faustulus, or the she-wolf with the twins,
both the stones and the workmanship are poor. In such cases,
where the design stirs a genuine national interest, it may happen
that very little of artistic rendering will be acceptable rather than
otherwise, and much more is this true when the design is a symbol
of some article of faith, as in the early Christian gems. There
both the art and the material are at what may be called the lowest
level. The usual subjects on the early Christian gems are the
fish, anchor, ship, dove, the good shepherd, and, according to
FIG. n. Chris- FIG. 12. Gnostic FIG. 13. Sassanian
tianGem. The Good Gem. (Brit. Mus.) Gem. (Brit. Mus.)
Shepherd.(Brit.Mus.)
Clemens, the lyre. Under the Gnostics, however, with whom
there was more of speculation than of faith, symbolism was
developed to an extent which no art could realize without the
aid of writing. A gem was to them a talisman more or less
elaborate with long, but for the most part quite unintelligible,
engraved formulae. The difficulty is to make out how the stones
were carried; many specimens exist, but none show signs of
mounting. The materials are usually haematite or jasper. As
regards the designs, it is clear that Egyptian sources have been
most drawn upon. But the symbolism is also largely associated
with Mithraic worship. The name Abraxas, or more correctly
Abrasax, which, from its frequency on these gems, has led to
their being called also " Abraxas gems," is, when the Greek
letters of which it is composed are treated as Greek numerals,
equal to 365, the number of days in a year, and the same is the
case with MEI0PA2.
More interesting, from the occasionally forcible portraiture
and the splendour of some of the jacinths employed, are the
Sassanian gems, which as a class may be said to represent the
last stage of true gem-engraving in ancient times.
The art of cameo-engraving, which, as we have seen, attained
its greatest splendour at the beginning of the empire, followed on
the whole a similar course. It waned in the early part of the
3rd century after the death of the emperor Severus, but under
the first Christian emperor Constantine it enjoyed a brief period
of revival. Fine cameo portraits of Constantine are extant;
and it was during or shortly after his reign that Christian
Scripture subjects began to appear on cameos. That class of
subjects constituted the staple of such work generally rude
and artistically debased as continued to be cultivated under the
Byzantine empire down to nearly the epoch of the Renaissance.
From the Byzantine period downward one peculiarly of gem-
engraving becomes noticeable. Cameo-work as compared with
intaglios in classical times was rare and infrequent, but now and
onwards the opposite is the case, intaglio-sinking having almost
died out, and cameos being chiefly produced. Commercial
intercourse with the East still secured for the engravers a supply
of magnificent sardonyxes, although blood-stone and other
non-banded stones were very commonly used for works in relief.
Cameos during the long dark ages were used chiefly for the decora-
tion of reliquaries and other altar furniture, and as such their
designs were purely ecclesiastical or scriptural. To this period
also belongs the class of complimentary or motto cameos, which,
containing only inscriptions and an ornamental border, executed
in nicolo stones, were used as personal gifts and adornments.
In medieval times antique cameos were held in peculiar venera-
tion on account of the belief, then universal, in their potency
as medicinal charms. This power was supposed to be derived
from their origin, of which two theories, equally satisfactory,
were current. By the one they were held to be the work of the
children of Israel during their sojourn in the wilderness (hence
the name Pierres d' Israel), while the other theory held them to
be direct products of nature, the engraved figures pointing to
the peculiar virtue lodged in them. Interpreters less mystically
inclined found Biblical interpretations for the subjects. Thus
the cameo of the Sainte Chapelle was supposed to represent the
triumph of Joseph in Egypt. A cameo with Poseidon, Athena
and her serpent was Adam and Eve.
The revival of the glyptic arts in western Europe dates from
the pontificate of the Venetian Paul II. (1464-1471), himself
an ardent lover and collector of gems, to which passion, indeed,
it is gravely affirmed he was a martyr, having died of a cold
caught by the multiplicity of gems exposed on his fingers. The
cameos of the early part of the i6th century rival in beauty of
execution the finest classical works, and, indeed, many of them
pass in the cabinets of collectors for genuine antiques, which
they closely imitated. The Oriental sardonyx was not available
for the purposes of the Renaissance artists, who were conse-
quently obliged to content themselves with the colder German
agate onyx. The scarcity of worthy materials led them to use
the backs of ancient cameos, or to improve on classical works of
inferior value executed on good material, and probably to this
cause must also be assigned the development of shell cameos,
which are rarely found, of an older period.
Among the means of distinguishing antique cameos from
cinquecento work, the kind of stone is one of the best tests, the
classical artists having used only rich and warm-tinted Oriental
stones, which further are frequently drilled through their dia-
meter with a minute hole, from having been used by their original
Oriental possessors in the form of beads. The cinquecento artists
also, as a rule, worked their subjects in high relief, and resorted
to undercutting, no case of which is found in the flat low work
of classical times. The projecting portions of antique work
exhibit a dull chalky appearance, which,
however, fabricators learned to imitate
in various ways, one of which was by
cramming the gizzards of turkey fowls
with the gems. Another 'index of an-
tiquity is found in the different methods
of working adopted in classical and
Renaissance times. The tools employed
by the Renaissance engraver were the
drill and the wheel, while the ancient
artist also employed the diamond point.
The gem-engraver's art again during
the 1 8th century revived under an even
greater amount of encouragement from
men of wealth and rank. In this last
period the names of engravers who
succeeded best in imitating classical
Fie. 14. Muse, by
Pichler. (Brit. Mus.)
designs were Natter,
Pichler (fig. 14), and the Englishmen Marchant (fig. 15) and
Burch. Compared with Greek gems, it will be seen that what
GEM, ARTIFICIAL
569
at first sight is Attractive as refined and delicate is after all an
exaggerated minuteness of execution, entirely devoid of the
ancient spirit. The success with which modern engravers imposed
on collectors is recorded in many instances, of which one may be
__^___^_____^_____^ taken as an instructive
type. In the Biblio-
theque Nationale is a
gem (Chabouillet's cata-
logue, No. 2337), famil-
iarly known as the
signet of Michelangelo,
the subject being a
Bacchanalian scene. So
much did he admire it,
the story says, that he
FIG. 15.-
Marchant.
-Nereid and
(Brit. Mu.)
Sea-bull by
copied from it one of the groups in his paintings in the Sistine
chapel. The gem, however, is evidently in this part of it a mere
copy from Michelangelo's group, and therefore a subsequent
production, probably by da Peseta.
In our own day the engraving of cameos has practically ceased
to be pursued as an art. Roman manufacturers cut stones in
large quantities to be used as shirt-studs and for setting in finger-
rings; and in Rome and Paris an extensive trade is carried on in
the cutting of shell cameos, which are largely imported into
England and mounted as brooches by Birmingham jewelry
manufacturers. The principal shell used is the large bull's-
mouth shell (Cassis rufa), found in East Indian seas, which has
a sard-like underlayer. The black helmet (Cassis tuberosa) of
the West Indian seas, the horned helmet (C. cornuta) of Mada-
gascar, and the pinky queen's conch (Strombus gigas) of the
West Indies are also employed. The famous potter Josiah
Wedgwood introduced a method of making imitations of cameos
in pottery by producing white figures on a coloured ground,
this constituting the peculiarity of what is now known as
Wedgwood ware.
Gem Collectors. The habit of gem-collecting is recorded first
in the instance of Ismenias, a musician of Cyprus, who appears
to have lived in the 4th century B.C. But though individual
collectors are not again mentioned till the time of Mithradates,
whose cabinet was carried off to Rome by Pompey, still it is to
be inferred that they existed, if not pretty generally, yet in such
places as Cyrene, where the passion for gems was so great that
the thriftiest person owned one worth 10 minas, and where,
according to Aelian (Far. hist. xii. 30), the skill in engraving
was astonishing. The first cabinet (dactyliotheca) in Rome was
that of Scaurus, a stepson of Sulla. Caesar is said to have formed
six cabinets for public exhibition, and from the time of Augustus
all men of refinement were supposed to be judges both of the art
and of the quality of the stones.
In the middle ages the chief collections were incorporated in
works of art in the church treasuries. The first collector of
modern times was, as already mentioned, Pope Paul II., who was
followed by a long succession of princely and noble collectors such
as Lorenzo de' Medici and the great earl of Arundel. The col-
lection of the latter passed into the hands of the dukes of Marl-
borough and thence into the possession of Mr David Bromilow.
The collection was finally dispersed by auction in June 1809.
In modern times the principal collections are contained in state
museums. The cabinets of Vienna and of the Bibliothdque
Nationale are incomparably rich in the historic cameos. Those
of the British Museum and of Berlin are the strongest in their
range over the whole field of the gem-engraver's art.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the fullest general account of the subject
(with especial attention to the gems of classical antiquity) see A.
Furtwangler, Die anttken Gemmen. Geschichle der Steinschneiderkunst
im Uassuchen AUertum, in 3 vols (1900). See also E. Babelon, La
Grttfure en pierres fines, camlet it intailles (1894); A. H. Smith,
" Gemma " and " Sculptura," in the 3rd edition of Smith'* Diet, of
A ml utilities; J. H. Middleton, The Engraved Gems of Classical Times
'1891). Much curious information is in the works of C. W. King:
Handbook of Engraved Gems (1866); Antique Gems (1866); The
Natural History. Ancient and Modem, of Precious Stones and Gems,
and of Ike Precious Uetals (1865); Antique Gems and Rings (2 vols.,
1872).
Babylonia, Sfc. Menant, " Lea Pierres gnivr
Special Periods :-
de l.i haute Asie," Recherches sur la glypttque orientate (1883-1886).
Egypt. For the early cylinder sealing*, &c., see Petrie, " Royal
Tombs of the First Dynasty" (Egypt Explor. Fund, XVIIIth
Memoir), p. 24; pis. 12, figs. 3 to 7, and pis. 18-29; Amelineau,
" Nouvellcs Fouillcs d'Abydos, 1897-1898," Compte rendu, pp. 78,
433; pi. 25, figs. I -3.
The Bible. Petrie, " Stones (Precious)," in Hastings' Diet, of the
Bible.
Phoenician. See M. A. Levy, Siegel und Gemmen, with three
plates of gems having Phoenician, Aramaic, old Hebrew and other
inscriptions (Breslau, 1869); and, on the same subject, De Vogut,
in the Revue archiologique, 2nd series (1868), xvii. p. 432, pis. 14-16.
Crete. Articles by A. J. Evans in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiv.,
xvii., xxi., and in Annual of British School at Athens, vi. and onwards.
Classical Gems. See Furtwangler, op. cit.
Gnostic Gems. Cabrol, Diet, d archiologie chritienne, s.v.
" Abrasax."
For the controversy as to gems with artists' signatures, see
Koehlcr, Abhandlunt iiber die geschnittenen Steine, mil den Namen
der Kunstler; Koemer's collected works, ed. Stephani, vol. iii.
(1851); Stephani, Notes to Koehler as above; also (iber finite
angebliche Steinschneider des Alterthums (St Petersburg, 1851);
Brunn, Geschichle der griechischen Kunstler, ii. (1859), pp. 442-637;
Furtwangler, Jahrbuch d. k. deutsch. arch. Inst. iii. (1888), pp. 105,
193, 297; iv. (1889), p. 46, and Geschichle, passim.
For the history of the Poniatowski gems, see Reinach, Pierres
gravies, p. 151.
Catalogues. The chief catalogues dealing with modern public
collections are: Berlin, A. Fuitwangler, Beschreibung der ge-
fchnittenen Steine im Antiquarium (1896); British Museum, A. H.
Smith, A Catalogue of Engraved Gems in the British Museum (Dept.
of Greek and Roman Antiquities) (1888); Paris, Bibliotheque
Nationale, Chabouillet, Catalogue . . . des camtes et pierres gravies
de la Bibliothdque imperial,- (1858); E. Babelon, Catalogue des
earners . . . de la BibliotMque Nationale (1897).
Modern Engraving. Vasari vii. p. 113 (ed. Siena, 1792); con-
tinued by Mariette, Traiti des pierres gravies (1750), i. p. 105. The
older books on gems are very numerous, but those of present-day
importance are not many. Faber, Illustrium imagines . . . apud
Fulvium Ursinum (Antwerp, 1606); Stosch, Gemmae anliquae
taelalae, scalptorum nominibus insignitae (Amsterdam, 1724) ;
Winckelmann, Description des pierres gravies du feu Baron de Stosch
(1760); Krause, Pyrgoteles, oder die edlen Steine der Allen (1856);
a convenient reissue of Stosch, and seven others of the older works,
by S. Reinach, Pierres gravees, &c. . . . riunies et ritdities, avec
un texle nouveau (1895).
Pastes. The principal collection of glass and sulphur pastos from
gems was that issued by James Tassie of Glasgow, with A Descriptive
Catalogue of a General Collection of . , . Engraved Gems . . .
arranged and described by R. E. Raspe (the author of Baron Mun-
chausen) (1791). (A. S. M.; A. H. SM.)
GEM, ARTIFICIAL. The term " Artificial Gems " does not
mean imitations of real gems, but the actual formation by arti-
ficial means of the real precious stone, so that the product is
identical, chemically, physically and optically, with the one
found in nature. For instance, in chemical composition the
lustrous diamond is nothing but crystallized carbon. Could we
take black amorphous carbon in the form of charcoal or lamp-
black and dissolve it in a liquid, and by the slow evaporation of
that liquid allow the dissolved carbon to separate out, it would
probably crystallize in the transparent form of diamond. This
would be a true synthesis of diamond, and the product would be
just as much entitled to the name as the choicest products of
Kimberley or Golconda. But this is a very different thing from
the imitation diamond so common in shop windows. Here the
chemist has only succeeded in making a paste or glass having
limpidity and a somewhat high refractivity, but wanting the
hardness and " fire " of the real stone.
The Diamond. Within recent years chemists have actually
succeeded in making the real diamond by artificial means, and
although the largest yet made is not more than one-fiftieth of
an inch across, the process itself and the train of reasoning leading
up to such an achievement are sufficiently interesting to warrant
a somewhat full description. Attempts to make diamonds
artificially have been numerous, but, with the sole exception of
those of Henri Moissan, all have resulted in failure. The nearest
approach to success was attained by J. B. Hannay in 1880 and
R. S. Marsden in .1881; but their results have not been verified
by others who have tried to repeat them, and the probability
is that what was then thought to be diamond was in reality
carborundum or carbide of silicon.
GEM, ARTIFICIAL
Attempts have been made by two methods to make carbon
crystallize in the transparent form. One is to crystallize it slowly
from a solution in which it has been dissolved. The difficulty is
to find a solvent. Many organic and some inorganic bodies hold
carbon so loosely combined that it can be separated out under the
influence of chemical action, heat or electricity, but invariably
the carbon assumes the black amorphous form. The other
method is to try to fuse the carbon by fierce heat, when from
analogy it is argued that on cooling it will solidify to a clear limpid
crystal. The progress of science in other directions has now
made it pretty certain that the true mode of making diamond
artificially is by a combination of these two methods. Until
recently it was assumed that carbon was non-volatile at any
attainable temperature, but it is now known that at a tempera-
ture of about 3600 C. it volatilizes readily, passing without
liquefying directly from the solid to the gaseous state. Very few
bodies act in this manner, the great majority when heated at
atmospheric pressure to a sufficient temperature passing through
the intermediate condition of liquidity. Some few, however,
which when heated at atmospheric pressure do not liquefy, when
heated at higher pressures in closed vessels obey the common rule
and first become liquid and then volatilize. Sir James Dewar
found the critical pressure of carbon to be about 15 tons on the
sq. in.; that is to say, if heated to its critical temperature (3600
C.), and at the same time subjected to a pressure of 15 tons to
the sq. in., it will assume the liquid form. Enormous as such
pressures and temperatures may appear to be, they have been
exceeded in some of Sir Andrew Noble's and Sir F. Abel's re-
searches; in their investigations on the gases from gunpowder
and cordite fired in closed steel chambers, these chemists ob-
tained pressures as great as 95 tons to the sq. in., and temperatures
as high as 4000 C. Here then, if the observations are correct,
we have sufficient temperature and enough pressure to liquefy
carbon; and, were there only sufficient time for these to act on
the carbon, there is little doubt that the artificial formation of
diamonds would soon pass from the microscopic stage to a scale
more likely to satisfy the requirements of science, if not those
of personal adornment.
It has long been known that the metal iron in a molten state
dissolves carbon and deposits it on cooling as black opaque
graphite. Moissan carried out a laborious and systematic series
of experiments on the solubility of carbon in iron and other
metals, and came to the conclusion that whereas at ordinary
pressures the carbon separates from the solidifying iron in the
form of graphite, if the pressure be greatly increased the carbon
on separation will form liquid drops, which on solidifying will
assume the crystalline shape and become true diamond. Many
other metals dissolve carbon, but molten iron has been found to
be the best solvent. The quantity entering into solution increases
with the temperature of the metal. But temperature alone is not
enough; pressure must be superadded. Here Moissan ingeniously
made use of a property which molten iron possesses in common
with some few other liquids water, for instance of increasing
in volume in the act of passing from the liquid to the solid state.
Pure iron is mixed with carbon obtained from the calcination of
sugar, and the whole is rapidly heated in a carbon crucible in an
electric furnace, using a current of 700 amperes and 40 volts. The
iron melts like wax and saturates itself with carbon. After a few
minutes' heating to a temperature above 4000 C. a tempera-
ture at which the lime furnace begins to melt and the iron
volatilizes in clouds the dazzling, fiery crucible is lifted out and
plunged beneath the surface of cold water, where it is held till it
sinks below a red heat. The sudden cooling solidifies the outer
skin of molten metal and holds the inner liquid mass in an iron
grip. The expansion of the inner liquid on solidifying produces
enormous pressure, and under this stress the dissolved carbon
separates out in a hard, transparent, dense form in fact, as
diamond. The succeeding operations are long and tedious.
The metallic ingot is attacked with hot aqua regia till no iron is
left undissolved. The bulky residue consists chiefly of graphite,
together with translucent flakes of chestnut-coloured carbon,
hard black opaque carbon of a density of from 3-0 to 3-5, black
diamonds carbonado, in fact and a small quantity of trans-
parent colourless diamonds showing crystalline structure.
Besides these there may be corundum and carbide of silicon,
arising from impurities in the materials employed. Heating
with strong sulphuric acid, with hydrofluoric acid, with nitric
acid and potassium chlorate, and fusing with potassium fluoride
operations repeated over and over again at last eliminate the
graphite and impurities and leave the true diamond untouched.
The precious residue on microscopic examination shows many
pieces of black diamond, and other colourless transparent pieces,
some amorphous, others crystalline. Although many fragments
of crystals are seen, the writer has scarcely ever met with a
complete crystal. All appear broken up, as if, on being liberated
from the intense pressure under which they were formed, they
burst asunder. Direct evidence of this phenomenon has been
seen. A very fine piece of diamond, prepared in the way just
described and carefully mounted on a microscopic slide, exploded
during the night and covered the slide with fragments. This
bursting paroxysm is not unknown at the Kimberley mines.
Sir William Crookes in 1906 communicated to the Royal
Society a paper on a new formation of diamond. Sir Andrew
Noble has shown that in the explosion of cordite in closed steel
cylinders pressures of over 50 tons to the sq. in. and a temperature
probably reaching 5400 were obtained. Here then we have
conditions favourable for the liquefaction of carbon, and if the
time of explosion were sufficient to allow the reactions to take
place we should expect to get liquid carbon solidified in the
crystalline state. Experiment proved the truth of these anticipa-
tions. Working with specially prepared explosive containing a
little excess of carbon Sir Andrew Noble collected the residue
left in the steel cylinder. This residue was submitted by Sir
William Crookes to the lengthy operations already described
in the account of H. Moissan's fused iron experiment. Finally,
minute crystals were obtained which showed octahedral planes
with dark boundaries due to high refracting index. The position
and angles of their faces, and cleavages, the absence of bi-
refringence, and their high refractive index all showed that the
crystals were true diamond.
The artificial diamonds, so far, have not been larger than
microscopic specimens, and none has measured more than about
half a millimetre across. That, however, is quite enough to show
the correctness of the train of reasoning leading up to the achieve-
ment, and there is no reason to doubt that, working on a larger
scale, larger diamonds will result. Diamonds so made burn in
the air when heated to a high temperature, with formation of
carbonic acid; and in lustre, crystalline form, optical properties,
density and hardness, they are identical with the natural stone.
It having been shown that diamond is formed by the separation
of carbon from molten iron under pressure, it became of interest
to see if in some large metallurgical operations similar conditions
might not prevail. A special form of steel is made at some
large establishments by cooling the molten metal under intense
hydraulic pressure. In some samples of the steel so made
Professor Rosel, of the university of Bern, has found microscopic
diamonds. The higher the temperature at which the steel has
been melted the more diamonds it contains, and it has even been
suggested that the hardness of steel in some measure may be
due to the carbon distributed throughout its mass being in this
adamantine form. The largest artificial diamond yet formed
was found in a block of steel and slag from a furnace in Luxem-
bourg; it is clear and crystalline, and measures about one-fiftieth
of an inch across.
A striking confirmation of the theory that natural diamonds
have been produced from their solution in masses of molten
iron, the metal from which has gradually oxidized and been
washed away under cycles of atmospheric influences, is afforded
by the occurrence of diamonds in a meteorite. On a broad open
plain in Arizona, over an area of about 5 m. in diameter, lie
scattered thousands of masses of metallic iron, the fragments
varying in weight from half a ton to a fraction of an ounce. There
is little doubt that these fragments formed part of a meteoric
shower, although no record exists as to when the fall took place.
GEM, ARTIFICIAL
Near the centre, where moat of the fragments have been found,
is a crater with raised edges, three-quarters of a mile in diameter
and 600 ft. deep, bearing just the appearance which would be
produced had a mighty mass of iron a falling star struck the
ground, scattered it in all directions, and buried itself deeply
under the surface, fragments eroded from the surface forming
the pieces now met with. Altogether ten tons of this iron have
been collected, and specimens of the Canyon Diablo meteorite
are in most collectors' cabinets. Dr A. . Foote, a mineralogist,
when cutting a section of this meteorite, found the tools injured
by something vastly harder than metallic iron, and an emery
wheel used for grinding it was ruined. He attacked the specimen
chemically, and soon afterwards announced to the scientific
world that the Canyon Diablo meteorite contained diamonds,
both black and transparent. This startling discovery was
subsequently verified by Professors C. Friedel and H. Moissan,
and also by Sir W. Crookcs.
Tkt Ruby. It is evident that of the other precious stones only
the most prized are worth producing artificially. Apart from
their inferior hardness and colour, the demand for what are
known as " semi-precious stones " would not pay for the
necessarily great expenses of the factory. Moreover, were it to
be known that they were being produced artificially the demand
never very great would almost cease. The only other gems,
therefore, which need be mentioned in connexion with their
artificial formation are those of the corundum or sapphire class,
which include all the most highly prized gems, rivalling, and
sometimes exceeding, the diamond in value. Here a remarkable
and little-known fact deserves notice. Excepting the diamond
and sapphire, each of the precious stones the emerald, the
topaz and amethyst possesses a more noble, a harder, and
more highly-prized counterpart of itself, alike in colour, but
superior in brilliancy and hardness; still more strange, the
precious stone to which its special name is usually attached
is the variety the least prized. The ruby itself might almost
be included in the same category. The true ruby consists of
the earth alumina, in a clear, crystalline form, having a minute
quantity of the element chromium as the colouring matter. It
is often called the " Oriental Ruby," or red sapphire, and when
of a paler colour, the " Pink Sapphire." But the ruby as met
with in jewellers' shops of inferior standing is usually no true
ruby, but a " spinel ruby " or " balas ruby," sometimes very
beautiful in colour, but softer than the Oriental ruby, and
different in chemical composition, consisting essent iallyof alumina
and magnesia and a little silica, with the colouring matter
chromium. The colourless basis of the true Oriental precious
stones being taken as crystallized alumina or white sapphire,
when the colouring matter is red the stone is called ruby, when
blue sapphire, when green Oriental emerald, when orange-yellow
Oriental topaz, and when violet Oriental amethyst. Clear,
colourless crystals are known as white sapphire, and are very
valuable. It is evident, therefore, that whosoever succeeds in
making artificially clear crystals of white sapphire has the
power, by introducing appropriate colouring matter, to make
the Oriental ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz and amethyst. All
of these stones, even when of small size, are costly and readily
saleable, while when they are of fine quality and large size they
are highly prized, a ruby of fine colour, and free from flaws, a
few carats in weight, being of more value than a diamond of
the same weight.
This being the case, it is not surprising that repeated attempts
have been made to effect the crystallization of alumina. This
is not a matter of difficulty, but unfortunately the crystals
generally form thin plates, of good colour, but too thin to be
useful as gems. In 1837 M. A. A. Gaudin made true rubies, of
microscopic size, by fusing alum in a carbon crucible at a very
high temperature, and adding a little chromium as colouring
matter. In- 1847 J- J- Ebelmen produced the white sapphire
and rose-coloured spinel by fusing the constituents at a high
temperature in boracic acid. Shortly afterwards he produced
the ruby by employing borax as the solvent. The boracic acid
was found to be too volatile to allow the alumina to crystallize,
but the use of borax made the necessary difference. But it was
not till about the year 1877 that E. Frmy and C. Feil first
published a method whereby it was possible to produce a crys-
tallized alumina from which small stones could be cut. They
first formed lead aluminate by the fusion together of lead oxide
and alumina. This was kept in a state of fusion in a fireclay
crucible (in the composition of which silica enters largely).
Under the influence of the high temperature the silica of the
crucible gradually decomposes the lead aluminate, forming lead
silicate, which remains in the liquid state, and alumina, which
crystallizes as white sapphire. By the admixture of 2 or 3%
of a chromium compound with original materials the resulting
white sapphire became ruby. More recently Edmond Fr6my
and A. Vcrneuil obtained artificial rubies by reacting at a red
heat with barium fluoride on amorphous alumina containing
a small quantity of chromium. The rubies obtained in this
manner are thus described by Fr6my and Verneuil: " Their
crystalline form is regular; their lustre is adamantine; they
present the beautiful colour of the ruby; they are perfectly
transparent, have the hardness of the ruby, and easily scratch
topaz. They resemble the natural ruby in becoming dark when
heated, resuming their rose-colour on cooling." Des Cloizeaux
says of them that " under the microscope some of the crystals
show bubbles. In converging polarized light the coloured rings
and the negative black cross are of a remarkable regularity."
Other experimentalists have attacked the problem in other
directions. Besides those already mentioned, L. Eisner, H. H. De'
Senarmont, Sainte-Claire Deville, and H Caron and H. Debray
have succeeded with more or less success in producing rubies.
The general plan adopted has been to form a mixture of salts
fusible at a red heat, forming a liquid in which alumina will
dissolve. Alumina is now added till the fused mass will take up
no more, and the crucible is left in the furnace for a long time,
sometimes extending over weeks. The solvent slowly volatilizes,
and the alumina is deposited in crystals, coloured by whatever
colouring oxide has been added.
Mention has been made above of a stone frequently substituted
for the true ruby, called the " spinel " or " balas " ruby. The
spinel and ruby occur together in nature, stones from Burma
being as often spinel as true Oriental ruby. In the artificial
production of the ruby it sometimes happens that spinel crystal-
lizes out when true Oriental ruby is expected. The fusion bath
is so arranged that only red-coloured alumina shall crystallize out,
but it is difficult to have all the materials of such purity as to
ensure the complete absence of silica and magnesia. In this
case, when these impurities have accumulated to a certain point
they unite with the alumina, and spinel then separates, as it
crystallizes more easily than ruby. When all the magnesia and
silica have been eliminated in this way the bath resumes its
deposition of crystalline ruby. Rubies of fine colour and of
considerable size have been shown in London, made on the
Continent by a secret process. The writer has seen several cut
stones so made weighing over a carat each, the uncut crystals
measuring half an inch along a crystal edge, and weighing over
70 grains, and a clear plate of ruby cut from a single crystal
weighing over 10 grains. Ruby has been made by Sir W.
Roberts-Austen as a by-product in the production of metallic
chromium. Oxide of chromium and aluminium powder are
intimately mixed together in a refractory crucible, and the
mixture is ignited at the upper part. The aluminium and
chromium oxide react with evolution of so much heat that the
reduced chromium is melted. Such is the intensity of the reaction
that the resulting alumina is also completely fused, floating as a
liquid on the molten chromium. Sometimes the alumina takes
up the right amount of chromium to enable it to assume the ruby
colour. On cooling the melted alumina crystallizes in large
flakes, which on examination by transmitted light are seen to be
true ruby. The development of the red colour is said by C.
Grevillc-Williamspnly to take place at a white heat. It is not due
to the presence of chromic acid, but to a reaction between alumina
and chromic oxide, which requires an elevated temperature.
Artificially made but real rubies have been put on the market,
572
GEMBLOUX GEMINIANI
prepared by a process of fusion by A. Verneuil. He finds that
certain conditions have to be fulfilled in order to get the alumina in
a transparent form. The temperature must not be higher than is
absolutely necessary for fusion. The melted product must always
be in the same part of the oxyhydrogen flame, and the point of
contact between the melted product and the support should be
reduced to as small an area as possible. M. Verneuil uses a
vertical blowpipe flame directed on a support capable of move-
ment up and down by means of a screw, so that the fused product
may be removed from the zone of fusion as it gets higher by
addition of fresh material. The material employed is either
composed of small, valueless rubies, or alumina coloured with the
right amount of chromium. It is very finely powdered and fed in
through the blowpipe orifice, whence it is blown in a highly
heated condition into the zone of fusion. The support is a small
cylinder of alumina placed in the axis of the blowpipe. As the
operation proceeds the fine grains of powder driven on to the
support in the zone of fusion form a cone which gradually rises
and broadens out until it becomes of sufficient size to be used for
cutting. Rubies prepared in this way have the same specific
gravity and hardness as the natural ruby, and they are also
dichroic, and in the vacuum tube under the influence of the
cathode stream they phosphoresce with a discontinuous spectrum
showing the strong alumina line in the red. When properly cut
and mounted it is almost impossible to distinguish them from
natural stones.
The Sapphire. Auguste Daubree has shown that when a full
quantity of chromium is added to the bath from which white
sapphire crystallizes the colour is that of ruby, but when much
less chromium is added the colour is blue, forming the true
Oriental sapphire. The real colouring matter of the Oriental
sapphire is not definitely known, some chemists considering it to
be chromium and others cobalt. Artificial sapphires have been
made of a fair size and perfectly transparent by the addition
of cobalt to the igneous bath of alumina, but the writer does
not consider them equal in colour to true Oriental sapphire.
The Oriental Emerald. The stone known as emerald consists
chemically of silica, alumina and glucina. Like the ruby, it owes
its colour to chromium, but in a different state of oxidation. As
already mentioned, there is another stone which consists of
crystallized alumina coloured with chromium, but holding the
chromium in a different state of oxidation. This is called the
Oriental emerald, and, owing to its beauty of colour, its hardness
and rarity, it is more highly prized than the emerald itself and
commands higher prices. The Oriental emerald has been
produced artificially in the same way as the ruby, by adding a
larger amount of chromium to the alumina bath and regulating
the temperature.
The Oriental Amethyst. The amethyst is rock crystal (quartz)
of a bluish-violet colour. It is one of the least valuable of the
precious stones. The sapphire, however, is found occasionally of
a beautiful violet colour; it is then called the Oriental amethyst,
and, on account of its beauty and rarity, is of great value. It is
evident that if to the igneous bath of alumina some colouring
matter, such as manganese, is added capable of communicating
a violet colour to the crystals of alumina, the Oriental amethyst
will be the result. Oriental amethyst has been so formed artifici-
ally, but the stone being known only as a curiosity to mineralogists
and experts in precious stones, and the public not being able to
discriminate between the violet sapphire and amethystine quartz,
there is no demand for the artificial stone.
The Oriental Topaz. The topaz is what is called a semi-
precious stone. It occurs of many colours, from clear white to
pink, orange, yellow and pale green. The usual colour is from
straw-yellow to sherry colour. The exact composition of the
colouring matter is not known; it is not entirely of mineral
origin, as it changes colour and sometimes fades altogether on
exposure to light. Chemically the topaz consists of alumina,
silica and fluorine. It is not so hard as the sapphire. There is
also a yellow variety of quartz, which is sometimes called " false
topaz." The Oriental topaz, on the other hand, is a precious
stone of great value. It consists of clear crystalline sapphire
coloured with a small quantity of ferric oxide. It has been
produced artificially by adding iron instead of chromium to the
matrix from which the white sapphire crystallizes.
The Zircon. The zircon is a very beautiful stone, varying in
colour, like the topaz, from red and yellow to green and blue.
It is sometimes met with colourless, and such are its refractive
powers and brilliancy that it has been mistaken for diamond.
It is a compound of silica and zirconia. H. Sainte-CIaire Deville
formed the zircon artificially by passing silicon fluoride at a red
heat over the oxide zirconia in a porcelain tube. Octahedral
crystals of zircon are then produced, which have the same
crystalline form, appearance and optical qualities as the natural
zircon.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Sir William Crookes, " A New Formation of
Diamond," Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. Ixxvi. p. 458; " Diamonds," a
lecture delivered before the British Association at Kimberley,
South Africa, 5th September, 1905, Chemical News, vol. xcii. pp.
'JSi '47> '59! J- J- Ebelmen, " Sur la production artificielle des
pierres dures," Comptes rendus, vol. xxv. p. 279; " Sur unenouvelle
me'thode pour obtenir, par la voie seche, des combinations crystal-
lis^es, et sur ses applications a la reproduction de plusieurs especes
mineVales," Comptes rendus, vol. xxv. p. 661 ; Edmond Fremy and
C. Feil, " Sur la production artificielle du corindon, du rubis, et de
differents silicates crystallisdes," Comptes rendus, vol. Ixxxv. p.
1029 ; C. Friedel, " Sur 1'existence du diamant dans le fer me'tdorique
de Canon Diablo," Comptes rendus, vol. cxv. p. 1037, vol. cxvi.
p. 290; H. Moissan, "fitude de la mfite'orite de Canon Diablo,"
Comptes rendus, vol. cxvi. p. 288; " Experiences sur la reproduction
du diamant," Comptes rendus, vol. cxviii. p. 320; "Sur quelques
experiences relatives & la preparation du diamant," Comptes rendus,
vol. cxxiii. p. 206; Le Four electrique (Paris, 1897); H. Sainte-CIaire
Deville and H. Caron, " Sur un nouveau mode de production a
I'etat cristallis6 d'un certain nombre d'especes chimiques et mine'ra-
logiques," Comptes rendus, vol. xlvi. p. 764; A. Verneuil, " Pro-
duction artificielle des rubis par fusion," ibid. vol. cxxxv. p. 791;
J. Boyer, La Synthbse des pierres pricieuses (Paris, 1909). (W.'C.)
GEMBLOUX, a town in the province of Namur and on the
borders of Brabant, Belgium, 25 m. S.E. of Brussels on the main
line to Namur and Luxemburg. Pop. (1904) 4643. It is a busy
place with large railway and engine works, and the junction for
several branch lines. On the 3ist of January 1578 Don John
of Austria gained here a signal victory over the army of the
provinces led by Antony de Goignies.
GEMINI (" The Twins," i.e. Castor and Pollux), in astronomy,
the third sign in the zodiac, denoted by the symbol II. It is
also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.)
and Aratus (3rd century B.C.), and catalogued by Ptolemy, 25
stars, Tycho Brahe 25, and Hevelius 38. By the Egyptians this
constellation was symbolized as a couple of young kids; the
Greeks altered this symbol to two children, variously said to be
Castor and Pollux, Hercules and Apollo, or Triptolemus and
lasion; the Arabians used the symbol of a pair of peacocks.
Interesting objects in this constellation are: a Geminorum or
Castor, a very fine double star of magnitudes 2-0 and 2-8, the
fainter component is a spectroscopic binary; i\ Geminorum, a
long period (231 days) variable, the extreme range in magnitude
being 3-2 to 4;^ Geminorum, a short period variable, 10-15 days,
the extreme range in magnitude being 3-7 to 4-5; Nova
Geminorum, a " new " star discovered in 1903 by H. H. Turner
of Oxford; and the star cluster M-35 Geminorum, a fine and
bright, but loose, cluster, with very little central condensation.
GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO (c. 1680-1762), Italian violinist,
was born at Lucca about 1680. He received lessons in music
from Alessandro Scarlatti, and studied the violin under Lunati
(Gobbo) and afterwards under Corelli. In 1714 he arrived in
London, where he was taken under the special protection of the
earl of Essex, and made a living by teaching and writing music.
In 1715 he played his violin concertos with Handel at the English
court. After visiting Paris and residing there for some time,
he returned to England in 1755- In 1761 he went to Dublin,
where a servant robbed him of a musical manuscript on which
he had bestowed much time and labour. His vexation at this
loss is said to have hastened his death on the i?th of September
1762. He appears to have been a first-rate violinist, but most
of his compositions are dry and deficient in melody. His Art
of Playing the Violin is a good work of its kind, but his Guida
GEMISTUS PLETHO GENEALOGY
573
armonica it an inferior production. Fie published a number of
solos for the violin, three sets of violin concertos, twelve violin
trios, Tlu Art of Accompaniment on the Harpsichord, Organ, &c.,
Lessons for tkt Harpsichord and some other works.
GEMISTUS PLETHO [or PLBTHON), GEORGIUS (c . 1355-1450),
Greek Platonic philosopher and scholar, one of the chief
pioneers of the revival of learning in Western Europe, was
a Byzantine by birth who settled at Mistra in the Peloponnese,
the site of ancient Sparta. He changed his name from
Ciemistus to the equivalent Pletho (" the full "), perhaps
owing to the similarity of sound between that name and
that of his master Plato. He invented a religious system
founded on the speculative mysticism of the Neoplatonists, and
founded a sect, the members of which believed that the new
creed would supersede all existing forms of belief. But he is
chiefly memorable for having introduced Plato to the Western
world. This took place upon his visit to Florence in 1439, as
one of the deputies from Constantinople on occasion of the general
council. Cardinal Bessarion became his disciple; he produced
a great impression upon Cosimo de' Medici; and though not
himself making any very important contribution to the study
of Plato, he effectually shook the exclusive domination which
Aristotle had exercised over F.uropcan thought for eight centuries.
He promoted the union of the Greek and Latin Churches as far
as possible, but his efforts in this direction bore no permanent
fruit. He probably died before the capture of Constantinople.
The most important of his published works are treatises on the
distinction between Plato and Aristotle as philosophers (published
at Venice in 1540); on the religion of Zoroaster (Paris, 1538);
on the condition of the Peloponnese (ed. A. Ellissen in Analekten
met mittel- und nevgrieckischen Literatur, iv.); and the NOJKH (ed.
C. Alexandre, Paris, 1858). In addition to these he compiled
several volumes of excerpts from ancient authors, and wrote a
number of works on geography, music and other subjects, many
of which still exist in MS. in various European libraries.
See especially F. Schultze, Geschiehle der Philosophie der Renais-
tance. i. (1874); also J. A. Symonds, The Renaissance in Italy
(1877). ii. p. 198; H. F. Torer, " A Byzantine Reformer," in Journal
of Hellenic Studies, vii. (1886), chiefly on Pletho's scheme of political
and social reform for the Peloponnese, as set forth in the pamphlets
addressed to Manuel II. Palaeologus and his son Theodore, despot
of the Morea; W. Gass, Gennadius und Pletho (1844). Most of
Pletho'* works will be found in J. P. Migne, Patroloeia Graeta, clx. ;
for a complete list see Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeta (ed. Harles), xii.
[ PASS, a pass (7641 ft.) leading from Frutigcn in the
Swist canton of Bern to Leukerbad in the Swiss canton of the
Valais. It is much frequented by travellers in summer. From
Kandersteg (7) m. by road above Frutigen, which is 12 m. by
rail fiom Spiez on the Bernc-Intcrlaken line) a mule path leads
to the summit of the pass, passing over the Spitalmatte plain,
where in 1782 and again in 1895 a great avalanche fell from the
Altels (11.930 ft.) to the S.E., causing on both occasions great
loss of life and property. The mule path descends on the south
side of the pass by an extraordinary series of zigzags, made
accessible for mules (though no rider is now allowed to descend
on mule-back) by a band of Tirolese workmen in 1740-1741.
They are cut in a very steep wall of rock, about 1800 ft. in height,
and lead down to the village of Leukerbad, which is 9} m. by
carriage road past Leuk above the Susten station tn the Rh6ne
valley and on the Simplon line. (W. A. B. C.)
GENDARMERIE, originally a body of troops in France
composed of gendarmes or men-at-arms. In the days of chivalry
they were mounted and armed cap-a-pie, exactly as were the
lords and knights, with whom they constituted the most important
put of an army. They were attended each by five soldiers of
inferior rank and more lightly armed. In the later middle ages
the men-at-arms were furnished by owners of fiefs. But after
the Hundred Years' War this feudal gendarmerie was replaced
by the compagnies fordonnance which Charles VII. formed when
the English were driven out of France, and which were distributed
throughout the whole extent of the kingdom for preserving order
and maintaining the king's authority. These companies, fifteen
in number, were composed of 100 lances or gendarmes fully
equipped, each of whom was attended by at least three archers,
one coutillier (soldier armed with a cutlass) and one varlet (soldier's
servant). The states-general of Orleans (1439) had voted a
yearly subsidy of 1,200,000 livres in perpetuity to keep up this
national soldiery, which replaced, and in fact was recruited
chiefly amongst, the bands of mercenaries who for about a
century had made France their prey. The number and com-
position of the compagnies d'ordonnance were changed more than
once before the reign of Louis XIV. This sovereign on his
accession to the throne found only eight companies of gendarmes
surviving out of an original total of more than one hundred, but
after the victory of Fleurus (1690), which had been decided by
their courage, he increased their number to sixteen. The four
first companies (which were practically guard troops) were
designated by the names of Gendarmes tcossais, Gendarmes
anglais, Gendarmes bourguignons and Gendarmes flamands, from
the nationality of the soldiers who had originally composed them ;
but at that time they consisted entirely of French soldiers and
officers. These four companies had a captain-general, who was
the king. The fifth company was that of the queen; and the
others bore the name of the princes who respectively commanded
them. This organization was dissolved in 1788. The Revolution
swept away all these institutions of the monarchy, and, with
the exception of a short revival of the Gendarmes de la garde at
the Restoration, henceforward the word " gendarmerie "
possesses an altogether different significance viz. military
police.
GENEALOGY (from the Gr. ylvas, family, and \byo<;,
theory), a pedigree or list of ancestors, or the study of family
history.
i. Biblical Genealogies. The aims and methods of ancient
genealogists require to be carefully considered before the value
of the numerous ancestral lists in the Bible can be properly
estimated. Many of the old " genealogies," like those of Greece,
have arisen from the desire to explain the origin of the various
groups which they include. Information relating to the sub-
division of tribes, their relation to each other, the intermingling
of populations and the like are thus frequently represented in
the form of genealogies. The " sons " of a " father " often stand
merely for the branches of a family as they existed at some one
period, and since in course of time tribal relations would vary,
lists which have originated at different periods will present
discrepancies. It is obvious that many of the Biblical names are
nothing more than personifications of nations, tribes, towns,
&c., which are grouped together to convey some idea of the bond
by which they were believed to be connected.
For the personification of a people or tribe, cp. Gen. xxxiv. 30
(" Jacob said ... I am a few men "), Josh. xvii. 14 (" the children
of Joseph said ... I am a numerous people "), Ex. xiv. 25 (" Egypt
said, let me flee"), Jos. ix. 7, i Sam. v. 10, &c. ; see G. B. Gray on
Numbers, xx. id (Internal. Crit. Comm.). Thus we find among the
"sons" of Japnet: (the nations) Corner, Javan, Tubal; Canaan
"begat" Sidon and Heth; the "sons" of Ishmael include the
well-known tribes Kedar and Jetur; Jacob, or the synonym Israel,
personifies the " children of Israel " (cf. use of " I," " thou " of the
Israelites in Deut., and in poetical passages). The recognition of
this characteristic usage often furnishes an ethnological interpre-
tation to those genealogical stories which obviously do not relate
to persons, but to tribes or peoples personified. The Edomitesand
Israelites are regarded as " brothers " (cf. Num. xx. 14, Deut. ii. 4,
Am. i. n), and since Esau (Edom) was born before Jacob (Israel)
it would appear that the Edomites were held to be the older nation.
The union of two clans is expressed as a marriage, or the wife is the
territory which is dominated by the husband (tribe); see CALEB.
If the woman is not of noble blood, but is a handmaiden or concubine,
her children are naturally not upon the same footing as those of the
wife; consequently the descendants of Ishmael, the son of Hagar
(Sarah's maid), are inferior to Isaac and his descendants, whilst the
children of Keturah (" incense "J, Abraham's concubine, are still
lower from the Israelite point of view. This application of the
terms of relationship is characteristic of the Semites. The " father "
of the Rechabites is their head or founder (cf. I Sam. x. 12: " who
is their father?"), and a common bond, which is not necessarily
physical, unites all " sons;" whether they are " sons of the prophets
(members of prophetic guilds) or " sons of Belial " (worthless men).
The interpretation of ethnological or statistical genealogies
may easily be pushed too far. Every case has to be judged upon
574
GENEALOGY
its own merits, and due allowance must be made both for the
ambition of the weaker to claim or to strengthen an alliance with
the stronger, and for the not unnatural desire of clans or indi-
viduals to magnify the greatness of their ancestry. The first
step must always be the careful comparison of related lists in
order to test the consistency of the tradition. Next, these must
be critically studied in the light of all available historical material,
though indeed such evidence is not necessarily conclusive.
Finally, (a) literary criticism must be employed to determine if
possible the dates of such lists, since obviously a contemporary
register is more trustworthy than one which is centuries later; (b)
a critical estimate of the character of the names and of their use
in various periods of Old Testament history is of importance in
estimating the antiquity of the list 1 for examole, many of the
names in Chronicles attributed to the time of David are indubit-
ably exilic or post-exilic; and (c) principles of ordinary historical
probability are as necessary here as in dealing with the genealogies
of other ancient peoples, and attention must be paid to such
features as fluctuation in the number of links, representation of
theories inconsistent with the growth of national life, schemes of
relationship not in accordance with sociological conditions, &c.
The Biblical genealogies commence with " the generations of
the heaven and earth," and by a process of elimination pass from
Adam and Eve by successive steps to Jacob and to his sons
(the tribes), and finally to the subdivisions of each tribe (cp.
i Chron. i.-ix. i). According to this theory every Israelite could
trace back his descent to Jacob, the common father of the whole
nation (Josh. vii. 17 seq., i Sam. x. 21). Such a scheme, however,
is full of manifest improbabilities. It demands that every tribe
and every clan should have been a homogeneous group which had
preserved its unity from the earliest times, that family records
extending back for several centuries were in existence, and that
such a tribe as Simeon was able to maintain its independence in
spite of the tradition that it lost its autonomy in very early
times (Gen. xlix. 7). The whole conception of the unity of
the tribes cannot be referred to a date previous to the time
of David, and in the older writings a David or a Jeroboam
was sufficiently described as the son of Jesse or of Nebat. The
genealogical zeal as represented in the Old Testament is chiefly of
later growth, and the exceptions are due to interpolation (Josh.
vii. i 18, contrast v. 24), or to the desire to modify or qualify an
older notice. This, in the case of Saul (i Sam. ix. i), has led to
textual corruption; a list of such a length as his should have
reached back to one of the " sons " of Benjamin (cf. e.g. Gen.
xlvi. 21), else it were purposeless. The genealogies, too, are often
inconsistent amongst themselves and in contradiction to their
object. They show, for example, that the population of southern
Judah, so far from being " Israelite " was half-Edomite (see
JUDAH), and several of the clans in this district bear names
which indicate their original affinity with Midian or Edom.
Moreover, there was a free intermixture of races, and many cities
had a Canaanite (i.e. pre-Israelite) population which must have
been gradually absorbed by the Israelites (cf. Judg. i.). That
spirit of religious exclusiveness which marked later Judaism did
not become prominent before the Deuteronomic reformation (see
DEUTERONOMY), and it is under its influence that the writings
begin to emphasize the importance of maintaining the purity of
Israelite blood, although by this time the fusion was complete
(see Judg. iii. 6) and for practical purposes a distinction between
Canaanites and Israelites within the borders of Palestine could
scarcely be discerned.
Many of the genealogical data are intricate. Thus, the' interpre-
tation of Gen. xxxiv. is particularly obscure (see LEVITES ad fin. ;
SIMEON). As regards the sons of Jacob, it is difficult to explain
their division amonj* the four wives of Jacob; viz. (a) the sons of
Leah are Reuben, Simeon, Levi and Judah (S. Palestine), Issachar
and Zebulun (in the north), and Dinah (associated with Shechem) ;
(b) of Leah's maid Zilpah, Gad and Asher (E. and N. Palestine) ;
(c) of Rachel, Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim, i.e. central Palestine)
and Benjamin; (d) of Rachel's maid Bilhah, Dan and Naphtali
1 G. B. Gray's Hebrew Proper Names (1896), with his article in
the Expositor (Sept. 1897), pp. 173-190, should be consulted for the
application and range of Hebrew names in O.T. genealogies and
lists.
(N. Palestine). It has been urged that (b) and (d) stood upon a lower
footing than the rest, or were of later origin; or that Bilhah points
to an old clan associated with Reuben (Gen. xxxv. 22) or Edom
(Bilhan, Gen. xxxvi. 27), whilst Zilpah represents an Aramaean
strain. Tradition may have combined distinct schemes, and the
belief that the wives were Aramaean at least coincides with the
circumstance that Aramaean elements predominated in certain of
the twelve tribes. The number " twelve " is artificial and can be
obtained only by counting Manasseh and Ephraim as one or by
omitting Leyi, and a careful study of Old Testament history makes it
extremely difficult to recover the tribes as historical units. See, on
these points, the articles on the several tribes, B. Luther, Zeit. d.
alttest. Wissens. (1901), pp. I sqq.; G. B. Gray, Expositor (March
1902), pp. 225-240, and in Ency. Bib., art. " Tribes "; and H..W.
Hogg's thorough treatment of the tribes in the last-mentioned work.
The ideal of purity of descent shows itself conspicuously in
portions of Deuteronomic law (Deut. vii. i-3,xxiii. 2-8), and in the
reforms of Nehemiah and Ezra (Ezr. ix. 1-4, n sqq.; Neh. xiii.
1-3). The desire to prove the continuity of the race, enforced
by the experience of the exile, gave the impetus to genealogical
zeal, and many of the extant lists proceed from this age when the
true historical succession of names was a memory of the past.
This applies with special force to the lists in Chronicles which
present finished schemes of the Levitical divisions by the side of
earlier attempts, with consequent confusion and contradiction.
Thus the immediate ancestors of Ethan appear in the time of
Hezekiah (2 Chron. xxix. 12), but he with Asaiah and Heman are
contemporaries of David, and their genealogies from Levi down-
wards contain a very unequal number of links (i Chron. vi.).
By another application of genealogical method the account of the
institution of priests and Levites by David (i Chron. xxiv.)
presents many names which belong solely to post-exilic days, thus
suggesting that the scribes desired to show that the honourable
families of their time were not unknown centuries previously.
Everywhere we find the results of much skill and labour, often in
accordance with definite theories, but a thorough investigation
reveals their weakness and often quite incidentally furnishes
valuable evidence of another nature.
The intricate Levitical genealogies betray the result of successive
genealogists who sought to give effect to the development of the
nierarchal system (see LEVITES). The climax is reached when all
Levites are traced back to Gershon, Kehath and Merari, to which
are ascribed respectively Asaph, Heman and Ethan (or Jeduthun).
The last two were not originally Levites in the later accepted sense
of the term (see I Kings iv< 31 ). To Kehath is reckoned an important
subdivision descended from Korah, but in 2 Chron. xx. 19 the two
are distinct groups, and Korah's name is that of an Edomite clan
(Gen. xxxvi. 5, 14, 18) related to Caleb, and thus included among the
descendants of Judah (i Chron. ii. 45). Cases of adjustment, re-
distribution and " Leyitizing " of individuals are frequent. There
are traces of varying divisions both of the singers (Neh. xi. 17) and of
the Levites (Num. xxvi. 58; Ezr._ ii. 40, iii. 9; i Chron. xv. 5-10,
xxiii.), and it is noteworthy that in the case of the latter we nave
mention of such families as Hebroni (Hebronite), Libni (from Libnah)
ethnics of South Judaean towns. In fact, a significant number of
Levitical names find their analogy in the lists of names belonging to
Judah, Simeon and even Edom, or are closely connected with the
family of Moses; e.g. Mushi (i.e. Mosa'ite), Gershon and Eleazar(cp.
Gershom and Eliezer, sons of Moses). The Levites bear a class-
name, and the genealogies show that many of them were connected
with the minor clans and families of South Palestine which included
among them Moses and his kin. Hence, it is not unnatural that
Obed-edom, for example, obviously a southerner, should have been
reckoned later as a Levite, and the work ascribed by the chronicler's
history to the closing years of David's life may be influenced by
the tradition that it was through him these mixed populations first
attained importance. See further DAVID ; JEWS; LEVITES.
In the time of Josephus every priest was supposed to be able
to prove his descent, and perhaps from the time of Ezra down-
wards lists were carefully kept. But when Anna is called an
Asherite (Luke ii. 36), or Paul a Benjamite (Rom. xi. i), family
tradition was probably the sole support to the claim, although the
tribal feeling had not become entirely extinct. The genealogies of
Jesus prefixed to two of the gospels are intended to prove that He
was a son of David. But not that alone, for in Matt. i. he is
traced back to Abraham the father of the Jews, whilst in Luke iii.
He, as the second Adam, is traced back to the first man. The
two lists are hopelessly inconsistent; not because one of them
follows the line of Mary, but because they represent independent
attempts. That in Matthew is characteristically arranged in
GENEALOGY
575
three series of fourteen generations each through the kings oi
Judah, whilst Luke's passes through an almost unknown son ol
David; in spite of this, however, both converge in the person ol
Zerubbabd.
See further. A. C. Hervey , Gtntalopts of Our Lord ; H. von Soden
Ency. Bib. it. col. 1666 qq. ; B. VV. Bacon, Hastings' Diet. Bib. ii,
pp. 138 seq. On the subject generally ace J. F. M'Lennan's Studies
(2nd er.. ch. U., "fabricated genealogies "} ; S. A. Cook, Ency.
Bib. ii. col. 1657 sqq. (with references) ; W. R. Smith, Kinship and
Harriot? (and ed.. especially ch. i.). (S. A. C.)
3. Greek and Roman Genealogies. A passing reference only is
needed to the intricate genealogies of gods and sons of gods
which form so conspicuous a feature in classical literature. 1 In
every one of the numerous states in'o which ancient Greece was
divided there were aristocratic families, whose genealogies as a
rule went back to prehistoric times, their first ancestor being
some hero of divine descent, from whom, or from some distin-
guished younger ancestor, they derived their names. Many of
these families were, as families, undoubtedly of great antiquity
even at the beginning of the historical period; and in several
instances they continued to maintain a conspicuous and separate
existence for centuries. The element of family pride is prominent
in the poetry of the Megarian Theognis; and in an inscription
belonging to the *nd century B.C. the recipient of certain honours
from the community of Gythium is represented as the thirty-
ninth in direct descent from the Dioscuri and the forty-first from
Heracles. Even in Athens, long after the constitution had
become thoroughly democratic, some of the clans continued to be
known as Eupatridae (of noble family); and Alcibiades, for
example, as a member of the phratria of the Eurysacidae, traced
bis origin through many generations to Eurysaces, who was
represented as having been the first of the Aeacidae to settle in
Attica. The Corinthian Bacchiadae traced their descent back to
Heracles, but took their name from Bacchis, a younger ancestor.
It is very doubtful, however, whether such pedigrees as this were
very seriously put forward by those who claimed them; and it is
certain that, almost along the whole line, they were unsupported
by evidence. 1 We have the authority of Pollux (viii. in) for
stating that the Athenian -yen), of which there were thirty in each
*parpia, were organized without any exclusive regard being
had to blood-relationship; they were constantly receiving
accessions from without; and the public written registers of
births, adoptions and the like do not appear to have been pre-
served with such care as would have made it possible to verify a
pedigree for any considerable portion even of the strictly historical
period.'
The great antiquity of the early Roman (patrician) gentes, who
universally traced themselves {jack to illustrious ancestors, is
indisputable; and the rigid exclusiveness with which each pre-
served its kereditates genliliciae or sacra genttiicia is sufficiently
illustrated by the fact that towards the close of the republic
there were not more than fifty patrician families (Dion. Halic. i.
85). Yet even in these it is obvious that, owing to the frequency
of resort to the well-recognized practice of adoption, while there
was every guarantee for the historical identity of the family,
there was none (documents apart) for the personal genealogy of
the individual. There is no evidence that sufficient records of
'O Jhe subject generally see articles " Genos " and "Gens,"
by A. H. Greemdge, in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman
Al $S ti ' i t t ( y* ed - I8 9?' where the chief authorities are given.
The fondness of Euripides for genealogies is ridiculed by Aris-
tophanes (Ackarnians. 47).
All the earlier Greek historians appear to have constructed their
narratives on assumed genealogical bases. The four books of
lecataeus of Miletus dealt respectively with the traditions about
Deucalion, about Heracles and the Heraclidae, about the early
settlements in Peloponnesus, and about those in Asia Minor; he
further made a pedigree for himself, in which his sixteenth ancestor
was a god. The works of Hellanicus of Lesbos bore titles
M""?* 1 *? 1 * and the like) which sufficiently explain their nature;
is disciple Damastes of Sigeum, was the author of genealogical
e of Trojan heroes; Apollodorus of Athens made use of three
books of rtrMAoyui by Acusilaus of Argos; Pherecydes of Leros
alw wrote yMrtgyfa*. See J. A. F. T&pffer, Auiiche Genealogie
(I8o); also J. H Schubart, QuaeM. t eneal. kistoricae (1832);
G. MarclucbeHel. De genealogies Graecorum poesi (1840).
pedigree were kept during the earlier centuries of the Roman
commonwealth, although the leading houses drew up genealogical
tables, and their family pedigree was painted on the walls of the
entrance hall. In later times, it is true, even plebeian families
began to establish a prescriptive right (known as the jus imaginum)
to preserve in small wooden shrines in their halls the busts (or
rather, wax portrait masks fastened on to busts) of those of their
members who had attained to curule office, and to exhibit these
in public on appropriate occasions. Under these imagines
majorum 4 it became usual to inscribe on the wall their respective
tituli, the relationship of each to each being indicated by means of
connecting lines; and thus arose the stemmata gentilicia, which
at a later time began to be copied into family records. In the
case of plebeian families (whose stemmata in no case went
farther back than 366 B.C.) these written genealogies were
probably trustworthy enough; but in the case of patricians who
went back to Aeneas, 5 so much cannot, it is obvious, be said;
and from a comparatively early period it was clearly fecognized
that such records lent themselves too readily to the devices of the
falsifier and the forger to deserve confidence or reverence (Pliny,
H.N. xxxv. 2; Juv. viii. i).
Thus, parvenus were known to place the busts of fictitious
ancestors in the shrines and to engage needy literary men to trace
back their descent even to Aeneas himself.
The many and great social changes which marked the closing
centuries of the Western empire almost invariably militated
with great strength against the maintenance of an aristocracy
of birth; and from the time of Constantine the dignity of patrician
ceased to be hereditary. 6
3. Modern. Two forces have combined to give genealogy
its importance during the period of modern history: the laws
of inheritance, particularly those which govern the descent of
real estate, and the desire to assert the privileges of a hereditary
aristocracy. But it is long before genealogies are found in the
possession of private families. The succession of kings and princes
are in the chronicle book; the line of the founders and patrons
of abbeys are recorded by the monks with curious embellishment
of legend. But the famous suit of Scrope against Grosvenor
will illustrate the late appearance of private genealogies in
England. In 1385 Sir Richard Scrope, lord of Bolton, displaying
tiis banner in the host that invaded Scotland, found that his
arms of a golden bend in a blue field were borne by a knight of
the Chester palatinate, one Sir Robert Grosvenor. He carried
the dispute to a court of chivalry, whose decision in his favour
was confirmed on appeal to the king. Grosvenor asserted that
he derived his right from an ancestor, Sir Gilbert Grosvenor,
who had come over with the Conqueror, while an intervening
claimant, a Cornish squire named Thomas Carminowe, boasted
.hat his own ancestors had borne the like arms since the days of
K.ing Arthur's Round Table. It is remarkable that in support of
.he false statements made by the claimants no written genealogy
s produced. The evidence of tombs and monuments and the
reports of ancient men are advanced, but no pedigree is exhibited
n a case which hangs upon genealogy. It is possible that the art
of pedigree-making had its first impulse in England from the
many genealogies constructed to make men familiar with the
claims of Edward III. to the crown of France, a second crop of
iuch royal pedigrees being raised in later generations during
he contests of York and Lancaster. But it is not until after
he close of the middle ages that genealogies multiply in men's
louses and are collected into volumes. The medieval baron,
knight or squire, although proud of the nobility of his race,
was content to let it rest upon legend handed down the
4 The chief authority on this subject is Polybius (vi. 53) ; see also
P. Mommsen, Romisches Staalsrecht, i. (1887), p. 442.
_'At the funeral of Drusus the images of Aeneas, of the Alban
rings, of Romulus, of the Sabine nobles, of Attus Clausus, and of
1 the rest of the Claudians " were exhibited (Tac. Ann. iv. 9).
'The Roman stemmata had, as will be seen afterwards, great
merest for the_ older modern genealogists. Reference may be made
o J. Glandorp's Descriptio gentis Antoniae (1557); to the Descriptio
entit Juliae (1576) of the same author; and to J. Htibner's Genea-
ogiscke TabeUen. See also G. A. Ruperti's Tabulae geneahgicae
we stemmata nobiliss. gent. Rom. (1794). (A.)
GENEALOGY
generations. The exact line of his descent was sought only when
it was demanded for a plea in the king's courts to support his
title to his lands.
From the first the work of the genealogist in England had that
taint of inaccuracy tempered with forgery from which it has
not yet been cleansed. The medieval kings, like the Welsh
gentry of later ages, traced their lines to the household of Eden
garden, while lesser men, even as early as the i4th century,
eagerly asserted their descent from a companion of the Conqueror.
Yet beside these false imaginations we find the law courts,
whose business was often a clash of pedigrees, dealing with
genealogies centuries long which, constructed as it would seem
from worthy evidences, will often bear the test of modern
criticism.
Genealogies in great plenty are found in manuscripts and
printed volumes from the i6th century onward. Remarkable
among these are the descents recorded in the Visitation Books
of the heralds, who, armed with commissions from the crown,
the first of which was issued in 20 Hen. VIII., perambulated
the English counties, viewing arms and registering pedigrees.
The notes in their register books range from the simple registra-
tion of a man's name and arms to entries of pedigrees many
generations long. To the heralds these visitations were rare
opportunities of obtaining fees from the visited, and the value
of the pedigrees registered is notably unequal. Although it
has always been the boast of the College of Arms that Visitation
records may be produced as evidence in the law courts, few of
these officially recorded genealogies are wholly trustworthy.
Many of the officers of arms who recorded them were, even by
the testimony of their comrades, of indifferent character, and
even when the visiting herald was an honourable man and an
industrious he had little time to spare for the investigation of
any single genealogy. Deeds and evidences in private hands
may have been hastily examined in some instances indeed, a
herald's summons invites their production and monuments
were often viewed in the churches, but for the most part men's
memories and the hearsay of the country-side made the backbone
of the pedigree. The further the pedigree is carried beyond the
memory of living men the less trustworthy does it become. The
principal visitations took place in the reigns of Elizabeth, James
I. and Charles II. No commission has been issued since the
accession of William and Mary, but from that time onwards
large numbers of genealogies have been recorded in the registers
of the College of Arms, the modern ones being compiled with a
care which contrasts remarkably with the unsupported state-
ments of the Tudor heralds.
Outside the doors of the College of Arms genealogy has now
been for some centuries a favourite study of antiquaries, whose
researches have been of the utmost value to the historian, the
topographer and the biographer. County histories, following
the example of Dugdale's Warwickshire folios, have given much
space to the elucidation of genealogies and to the amassing of
material from which they may be constructed. Dugdale's
great work on the English baronage heads another host of works
occupied with the genealogy of English noble families, and the
second edition of " G.E.C.'s " Complete Peerage shows the mighty
advance of the modern critical spirit. Nevertheless, the zoth
century has not yet seen the abandoning of all the genealogical
fables nourished by the Elizabethan pedigree-mongers, and the
ancestry of many noble houses as recorded in popular works of
reference is still derived from mythical forefathers. Thus the
dukes of Norfolk, who, by their office of earl marshal are patrons
of the heralds, are provided with a loth-century Hereward for an
ancestor; the dukes of Bedford, descendants of a isth-century
burgess of Weymouth, are traced to the knightly house of
Russell of Kingston Russell, and the dukes of Westminster to
the mythical Gilbert le Grosvenor who " came over in the
train of the Conqueror."
Genealogical research has, however, made great advance
during the last generation. The critical spirit shown in such
works as Round 'sStitdies in Peerage and Family History (i9Oi)lias
assailed with effective ridicule the methods of dishonest pedigree-
makers. Much raw material of genealogy has been made
available for all by the publication of parish registers, marriage-
licence allegations, monumental inscriptions and the like, and
above all by the mass of evidences contained in the volumes
issued by the Public Record Office.
Within a small space it is impossible to set forth in detail the
methods by which an English genealogy may be traced. But
those who are setting out upon the task may be warned at the
outset to avoid guesswork based upon the possession of a surname
which may be shared by a dozen families between whom is no
tie of kinship. A man whose family name is Howard may be
presumed to descend from an ancestor for whom Howard was
a personal name: it may not be presumed that this ancestor
was he in whom the dukes of Norfolk have their origin. A
genealogy should not be allowed to stray from facts which can
be supported by evidence. A man may know that his grand-
father was John Stiles who died in 1850 at the age of fifty-five.
It does not follow that this John is identical with the John Stiles
who is found as baptized in 1795 at Blackacre, the son of William
Stiles. But if John the grandfather names in his letters a sister
named Isabel Nokes, while the will of William Stiles gives legacies
to his son and daughter John Stiles and Isabel Nokes, we may
agree that reasonable proof has been given of the added genera-
tion. A new pedigree should begin with the carefully tested
statements of living members of a family. The next step should
be to collate such family records as bible entries, letters and
diaries, and inscriptions on mourning rings, with monumental
inscriptions of acknowledged members of the family. From
such beginnings the genealogist will continue his search through
the registers of parishes with which the family has been connected ;
wills and administrations registered in the various probate courts
form, with parish registers, the backbone of most middle-class
family histories. Court rolls of manors in which members of the
family were tenants give, when existing and accessible, proofs
which may carry back a line, however obscure, through many
descents. When these have been exhausted the records of legal
proceedings, and notably those of the court of chancery, may be
searched. Few English households have been able in the past
to avoid an appeal to the chancery court, and the bill and answer
of a chancery plaintiff and defendant will often tell the story of a
family quarrel in which a score of kinsfolk are involved, and the
pleadings may contain the material for a family tree of many
branching generations. Coram Rege and De Banco rolls may
even, in the course of a dispute over a knight's fee or a manor
carry a pedigree to the Conquest of England, although such good
fortune can hardly be expected by the searcher out of an un-
distinguished line. In proving a genealogy it must be remembered
that in the descent of an estate in land must be sought the best
evidence for a pedigree.
At the present time the study of genealogy grows rapidly in
English estimation. It is no less popular in America, where
societies and private persons have of late years published a vast
number of genealogies, many of which combine the results of
laborious research in American records with extravagant and
unfounded claims concerning the European origin of the families
dealt with. A family with the surname of Cuthbert has been
known to hail St Cuthbert of Lindisfarne as its progenitor, and
one surnamed Eberhardt has'incorporated in its pedigree such
German princes of old times as were found to have Eberhardt
for a Christian name.
Genealogy in modern France has, with a few honourable
exceptions, fallen into the hands of the popular pedigree-makers,
whose concern is to gratify the vanity of their employers. Italy
likewise has not yet shaken off the influence of those venal
genealogists who, three hundred years ago, sold pedigrees cheaply
to all comers. But much laborious genealogical inquiry had
been made in Germany since the days of Hiibner, and even in
Russia there has been some attempt to apply modern standards
of criticism to the chronicles of the swarming descendants of the
blood of Rurik.
In no way is the gap made by the Dark Ages between ancient
and modern history more marked than by the fact that no
GENELLI GENERAL
577
European family makes a serious claim to bridge it with its
genealogy. The unsupported claim of the Roman house of
Massimo to a descent from Fabius Maximus is respectable beside
acfa legends as that which made Levis-Mirepoix head of the
priestly tribe of Levi, but even the boast of such remote ancestry
has now become rare. The ancient sovereign houses of Europe
are, for the most part, content to attach themselves to some
ancestor who, when the mist that followed the fall of the Western
empire begins to lift, is seen rallying with his sword some group
of spearmen.
AUTHORITIES. Genealogical works have been published in such
abundance that the bibliographies of the subject are already sub-
stantial volumes. Amongst the earlier books from the press may be
noted Benvenuto de San Georgio's Montisferrati marchionum
el principum regiae propagium successionumque series (1515):
Pingooius's Arbor gentilitiae Sabaudiae Saxoniarque domus (1521);
Gebwrtler's Epitome regii ac tetustissimi ortus Caroli V. et Frrdinandi
/., omniumque arckiducum Austriae et comitum Habsburgiensium
., _r w^i I y._-.\ I r-v..
e, and we may cite Henninges's Genealogiae
Saxonicae (1587) and Theatrum genealogicum (1598). and Reusner's
Opus gtnfalogicum catkolicum (1589-1592). For the politically in-
convenient falseness of Francois de Rostdres' Stemmata Lotharingiae
ac Barn ducum ("1580), wherein the dukes of Lorraine were deduced
from the line of Charlemagne, the author was sent to the Bastille by
the parlement of Paris and his book suppressed.
The 1 7th century saw the production in England of Dugdale s
great Baronage (1675-1676), a work which still holds a respectable
place by reason of its citation of authorities, and of Sandford's
history of the royal house. In the same century AndrS Duchesne,
the historian of the Montmorencys, Pierre d'Hozier, the chronicler
of the bouse of La Rochefoucauld, Ritt'crshusius, Imhoff, Spener,
Lohmeier and many others contribute to the body of continental
genealogies. Pierre de Guibours, known as Pre Anselme de Ste
Marie, published in 1674 the first edition of his magnificent Histoirt
gtmtategimu de la matson royale de France, dies pairs, grands
tfciers de la couronne et de la maison du roy et des ancient barons
du royaume. Of this encyclopaedic work a third and complete
edition appeared in 1726-1733. A modern edition under the editor-
ship of M. Potier de Courcy began to be issued in 1873, but remains
incomplete. Among 18th-century work Johann HUbner's Biblio-
Uteca genealogica (1729) and Genealogische Tabellen (1725-1733).
with Lenzen^ commentary on the latter work (c. 1756), may be
signalized, with Gatterer's Handbuch der Genealogie (1761) and his
Abriss der Genealogie (1788), the latter an early manual on the
science of genealogy. Hergott's Genealogia diplomatics augustae
gentis Habsburgicae (1737) u tne ' m Perial genealogy compiled by
the emperor's own historiographer.
Modern peerages in England may be said to date from that of
Arthur Collins, whose one-volume first edition was published in
1709. The fifth edition appeared in 1778, in eight volumes, to be
repubtished in 1812 by Sir Egerton Brydges, the Baptist Hatton "
of Disraeli's novel, who corrected many legendary pedigrees, besides
inserting his own forged descent from a common ancestor with the
dukes of Chandos. From this work and from the Irish peerage of
Lodge (as re-edited by Archdall) most of the later peerages nave
quarried their material. With these may be named the baronetages
of Wotton and Betham. Of modern popular peerages and baronet-
ages that of Burke has been published since 1822 in many editions
and now appears yearly. Most important for the historian are the
Complete Peerage of G. E. C(ockayne) (2nd ed., 1910), and the
Complele Baronetage of the same author. The Peerage of Scotland
(1769) of Sir Robert Douglas of Glenbervie came to a second edition
in 1813, edited by I. P. Wood, and the whole work has been revised
and re-edited by Sir James Balfour Paul (1904, &c.). Of the popular
manuals of English untitled families, Burke's Genealogical and
Heraldic Dictionary of the Commoners (1833-1838) is now brought
up to date from time to time and reissued as the Landed Gentry.
Lists of pedigrees in English printed works are supplied by Mar-
shall's Genealogist's Guide (1903), while pedigrees in the manuscript
collections of the British Museum are indexed in the list of R. Sims
(1849). Valuable genealogical material will be found in such
periodicals as the Genealogist, the Herald and Genealogist, the Topo-
grapher and Genealogist, Collectanea topographica et genealogica,
Miscellanea genealogica et keraldica and the Ancestor. In Germany
the Deutscher Herald is the organ of the Berlin Heraldic and Genea-
logical Society. The Nederlandsche Leeuw is a similar publication
in the Low Countries.
Modern criticism of the older genealogical methods will be found
in J. H. Round's Peerage and Pedigree, 3 vols. (London, 1910),
and in other volumes by the same author. The Harleian Society
has published many volumes of the Herald's Visitations; and the
British Record Society'* publications, supplying a key to a vast
mas* of wills, Chancery suits and marriage licences, are of still
greater importance. The Victoria History of the Counties of England
XI. 10
includes genealogies of the anciant English county families still
.inning the land-owning classes. English pedigrees of the age before
tin I'onquest are collected in W. G. Searlc'g Anglo-Saxon Bishops,
Kings and Nobles (1899).
Genealogical dictionaries of noble French families include Victor
de Saint AUais's Nobiliaire untversel (21 vols., 1872-1877) and Aubert
de la Chenayc-Desbois' Dictionnaire de la noblesse (15 vols., 1863-
1876). A sumptuous work on the genealogy and heraldry of the
ancient duchy of Savoy by Count Am6d6e deForas began to appear
in 1863. Spain has Lopez dc Haro's Nobtliario genealogico de Io3
reyes y litulos de Espana. Italy has the Teatro araldico of Tettoni
and Saladini (1841-1848), Litti's Famiglie celebri and an Annuario
della nobilild. Such annuals are now published more or less inter-
mittently in many European countries. Finland has a Ridderscap
ock Adds Kalender, Belgium the Annuaire de la noblesse, the Dutch
Netherlands an Adelsboek, Denmark the Adels-Garbog and Russia
the Annuaire of Ermerin. But chief of all such publications is the
ancient Almanack de Golka, containing the modern kinship of royal
and princely houses, and now accompanied by volumes dealing with
the nouses of German and Austrian counts and barons, and with
houses ennobled in modern times by patent. A useful modern
reference book for students of history is Stokvis's Manuel d'histoire
et de genialogie de lous les Hats du globe (1888-1893). The best
manual for the English genealogist is Walter Rye's Records and
Record Searching (1897), while an ill-arranged but valuable biblio-
S-aphy of English and foreign works on the subject is that of George
atfield (1892). (O. BA.)
GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONA VENTURA (1798-1868),
German painter, was born at Berlin on the zSth of September
1798. He was the son of Janus Genclli, a painter whose land-
scapes are still preserved in the Schloss at Berlin, and grandson
to Joseph Genelli, a Roman embroiderer employed to found a
school of gobelins by Frederick the Great. Buenaventura
Genelli first took lessons from his father and then became a
student of the Berlin academy. After serving his time in the
guards he went with a stipend to Rome, where he lived ten years,
a friend and assistant to Koch the landscape painter, a colleague
of the sculptor Ernst Hahnel (1811-1891), Reinhart, Overbeck
and Ftthrich, all of whom made a name in art. In 1830 he was
commissioned by Dr Hartel to adorn a villa at Leipzig with
frescoes, but quarrelling with this patron he withdrew to Munich,
where he earned a scanty livelihood at first, though he succeeded
at last in acquiring repute as an illustrative and figure draughts-
man. In 1859 he was appointed a professor at Weimar, where
he died on the i3th of November 1868. Genelli painted few
pictures, and it is very rare to find his canvases in public
galleries, but there are six of his compositions in oil in the Schack
collection at Munich. These and numerous water-colours, as
well as designs for engravings and lithographs, reveal an artist
of considerable power whose ideal was the antique, but who
was also fascinated by the works of Michelangelo. Though a
German by birth, his spirit was unlike that of Overbeck or
Fiihrich, whose art was reminiscent of the old masters of their
own country. He seemed to hark back to the land of his fathers
and endeavour to revive the traditions of the Italian Renaissance.
Subtle in thought and powerfully conceived, his compositions
are usually mythological, but full of matter, energetic and fiery
in execution, and marked almost invariably by daring effects of
foreshortening. Impeded by straitened means, the artist seems
frequently to have drawn from imagination rather than from
life, and much of his anatomy of muscle is in consequence
conventional and false. But none the less Genelli merits his
reputation as a bold and imaginative artist, and his name
deserves to be remembered beyond the narrow limits of the
early schools of Munich and Weimar.
GENERAL (Lat. generalis, of or relating to a genus, kind or
class), a term which, from its pointing to all or most of the
members of a class, the whole of an area, &c., as opposed to " par-
ticular " or to " local," is hence used in various shades of meaning,
for that which is prevalent, usual, widespread or miscellaneous,
indefinite, vague. It has been added to the titles of various
officials, military officers and others; thus the head of a religious
order is the " superior-general," more usually the " general,"
and we find the same combination in such offices as that of
" accountant-general," " postmaster-general," " attorney-" or
" solicitor-general, "and many others, the additional word implying
that the official in question is of superior rank, as having a wider
578
GENERATION GENESIS
authority or sphere of activity. This is the use that accounts
for the application of the term, as a substantive, to a military
officer of superior rank, a " general officer," or " general," who
commands or administers bodies of troops larger than a regiment,
or consisting of more than one arm of the service (see also
OFFICERS). It was towards the end of the i6th century that the
word began to be used in its present sense as a noun, and in the
armies of the time the " general " was commander-in-chief,
the " lieutenant-general " commander of the horse and second
in command of the army, and the " major-general " (strictly
" sergeant-major-general ") commander of the foot and chief
of the staff. Field marshals, who have now the highest rank,
were formerly subordinate to the general officers. These titles
general, lieutenant-general and major-general are still applied
in most armies to the first, second and third grades of general
officer, and in the French service until 1870 the chief of the staff
of the army bore the title of major-general. In the German
and Russian services the three grades are qualified by the addition
of the words " of cavalry," " of infantry " and " of artillery."
The French service possesses only two grades, " general of
brigade " and " general of division." The Austrian service has
two ranks of general officers peculiar to itself, " lieutenant
field marshal," equivalent to lieutenant-general, and Feldzeug-
meister (master of the ordnance), equivalent to the German
general of infantry or artillery. There is also the rank of
" general of cavalry." The Spanish army still retains the old
term " captain-general." In the German service General
Oberst (colonel-general) and General Feldzeugmeister (master-
general of ordnance) are ranks intermediate between that of
full general and that of general field marshal. It may be noted
that during the xyth century " general " was not confined to a
commanding officer of an army, and was also equivalent to
"admiral"; thus when under the Protectorate the office of
lord high admiral was put into commission, the three first com-
missioners, Blake, Edward Popham and Richard Deane, were
styled " generals at sea."
GENERATION (from Lat. generare, to beget, procreate; genus,
stock, race), the act of procreation or begetting, hence any one of
the various methods by which plants, animals or substances are
produced. As applied to the result of procreation, " generation "
is used of the offspring of the same parents, taken as one degree
in descent from a common ancestor, or, widely, of the body
of living persons born at or near the same time; thus the word is
also used of the age or period of a generation, usually taken as
about thirty years, or three generations to a century. As a term
in biology or physiology, generation is synonymous with the
Gr. fitoyivtaa and the Ger. Zeugung, and may comprehend the
whole history of the first origin and continued reproduction of
living bodies, whether plants or animals; but it is frequently
restricted to the sexual reproduction of animals. The subject
may be divided into the following branches, viz.: (i) the first
origin of life and living beings, (2) non-sexual or agamic repro-
duction, and (3) gamic or sexual reproduction. For the first two
of these topics see ABIOGENESIS, BIOGENESIS and BIOLOGY; for
the third and more extensive division, including (i) the formation
and fecundation of the ovum, and (2) the development of the em-
bryo in different animals, see REPRODUCTION and EMBRYOLOGY.
GENESIS (Gr. yevwis, becoming; the term being used in
English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being) ,
the name of the first book in the Bible, which derives its title
from the Septuagint rendering of ch. ii. 4. It is the first of the
five books (the Pentateuch), or, with the inclusion of Joshua, of
the six (the Hexateuch), which cover the history of the Hebrews
to their occupation of Canaan. The " genesis " of Hebrew
history begins with records of antediluvian times: the creation of
the world, of the first pair of human beings, and the origin of sin
(i.-iii.), the civilization and moral degeneration of mankind, the
history of man to the time of Noah (iv.-vi. 8), the flood (vi.
9-ix.), the confusion of languages and the divisions of the human
race (x.-xi.). Turning next to the descendants of Shem, the book
deals with Abraham (xii.-xxv. 18), Isaac and Jacob (xxv. 19-
xxxv.), the " fathers " of the tribes of Israel, and concludes with
the personal history of Joseph, and the descent of his father
Jacob (or Israel) and his brethren into- the land of Egypt
(xxxvii.-l.) . The book of Genesis, as a whole, is closely connected
with the subsequent oppression of the sons of Israel, the revelation
of Yahweh the God of their fathers (Ex. iii. 6, 15 seq., vi. 2-8),
the " exodus " of the Israelites to the land promised to their
fathers (Ex. xiii. 5, Deut. i. 8, xxvi. 3 sqq., xxxiv. 4) and its con-
quest (Josh. i. 6, xxiv.); cf. also the summaries Neh. ix. 7 sqq.,
Ps. cv. 6 sqq.
The words, " these are the generations of the heavens and of the
earth when they were created " (ii. 4), introduce an account of the
creation of the world, which, however, is preceded by a A , ,
relatively later and less primitive record (i. i-ii. 3). The Aattlysls -
differences between the two accounts lie partly in the style and
partly in the form and contents of the narratives, i. i-ii. 3 is marked
by stereotyped formulae (" and God [Elohim] said . . . and it
was so ... and God saw that it was good, and there was evening
and there _was morning," &c.); it is precise and detailed, whereas
ii. 4&-iii. is less systematic, fresher and more anthropomorphic.;
The former is cosmic, the latter is local. It is the latter which)
mentions the mysterious garden and the wonderful trees which
Yahweh planted, and depicts Yahweh conversing with man and
walking in the garden in the cool of the evening. The former, on
the other hand, has an enlightened conception of Elohim; the
Deity, though grand, is a lifeless figure; several antique ideas
are nevertheless preserved. The account of the creation, too, is
different; for example, in chap. i. man and woman are created
together, whereas in -ii. man is at first alone. The naiveness of the
story of the creation of woman is in line with the interest which
this more popular source takes in the origin or existence of pheno-
mena, customs and contemporary beliefs (the garden, the naming
of animals, &c.). The primitive" record is continued in the story
of Cain and Abel (iv.), where the old-time problem of Cain's wife
and the reference to other human beings (iv. 14 seq.) gave rise in pre-
critical days to the theory of pre- Adamites, as though Adam and Eve
were not the only inhabitants of the earth. But all the indications
go to show that there were at least two distinct popular narratives,
one of which ignores the flood. Cain the murderer, doomed to be a
wanderer, now becomes the builder of a city, and his descendants
introduce various arts (iv. 166-24).! (See the articles ABEL; ADAM;
CAIN; COSMOGONY; ENOCH; EVE; LAMECH.) From the " genera-
tions " of the heavens and the earth (which one would have expected
at the head of ch. i.) we pass to the " generations of Adam " (v. i).
The list of the " Sethites," with its characteristically stereotyped
framework, has an older parallel in iv. 25 seq. (with the origin of the
worship of Yahweh contrast Ex. vi. 2. seq.), and a fragment from the
same source is found in v. 29.
After the birth of Noah the son of Lamech (v. 29, contrast iv.
19 sqq.) comes the brief story of the demigods (vi. 1-4). It is no
part of the account of the fall or of the flood (note verse 4 and Num.
xiii. 33), least of all does it furnish grounds for the old view of the
division of the human race into evil Cainitesand God-fearing Sethites.
The excerpt with its description of the fall of the angels is used to
form a prelude to the wickedness of man and the avenging flood
(vi. 5). Noah, the father of Ham, Shem and Japheth, appears as
the hero in the Hebrew version of the flood (see DELUGE; NOAH).
Duplicates (vi. 5-8, 9-13) and discrepancies (vi. 19 sq. contrasted
with vii. 2;^or vii. ii, viii. 14 contrasted with viii. 8, 10, 12) point
to the use of two sources (harmonizing passages in vii. 3, 7-9). The
later narrative, which begins with " the generations of Noah
(vi. 9-22; vii. 6, II, 13-170, 18-21, 24; viii. i-2a, 36-5, 130, 14-19;
ix. 1-17), is almost complete; note the superscription and the
length of the flood (365 days; according to other notices the flood
apparently lasted only 61 or 68 days). In the earlier source Noah
collects seven pairs of clean animals, one of each kind ; he sacrifices
after leaving the ark, and Yahweh promises not to curse the ground
or to smite living things again. But in the later, he takes only one
pair, and subsequently Elohim blesses Noah and makes a covenant
never again to destroy all flesh by a flood. 2 The covenant (character-
istic of the latest narratives in Genesis) also prohibits the shedding
af blood (cf. the story of Cain and Abel in the earlier source). Man-
kind is now made to descend from the three sons of Noah. The
older story, however, continues with another step in the history of
civilization, and to Noah is ascribed the cult of the vine, the abuse
of which leads to the utterance of a curse upon Canaan and a blessing
upon Shem and Japheth (ix. 20-27). The table of nations in x.
(" the generations of the sons of Noah ") preserves several signs of
composite origin (contrast e.g. x. 7 with tip. 28 sq., Ludim p. 13 with
p. 22, and the Canaanite families p. 16 with the dispersion " after-
wards," P. 1 8, &c.); see CANAAN; GENEALOGY; NIMROD. The
listory of the primitive age concludes with the story of the tower
1 The abrupt introduction of a small poem (iv. 23 seq.) was long
ago regarded as due to the use of separate sources (so the Calvinist
Isaac de la PeyrSre, 1654).
* The divergences of detail, with corresponding stylistic variations,
were recognized long ago (e.g. by Father Simon in 1682).
GENESIS
579
of Babel (xi. 1-9), which, starting from a popular etymology of Babel
(" gate of God ). u though from Balbcl (" confusion "), tells how
Yah wen (eared lest mankind should become too powerful (cf.iii. 23-24),
and seeks to explain the origin of the numerous languages in use.
It is independent of x.. which already assumes a confusion of tongues
(. 5. >o, 31), the existence of Babel (v. ip), and gives a different
account of the rise of the various races. This incident in the journey
eastwards (xi. 2) is equally independent uf the story of the Deluge
and of Noah's family (we \\Vllhausrn, Proltfomena, p. 316). The
continuation of the chapter, " the generations of Shem " (xi. 10-37,
see the Shemite genealogy in x. 31 sqq., and contrast the ages with
vi. 3), is in the same stereotyped style as ch. v., and prepares the
way for the history of the patriarchs.
The " generations of Terah " (xi. 27) lead to the introduction of
the first great patriarch Abraham (g.r.). 1 There is a twofold account
of his migration to Bethel with his nephew Lot ; the more statistical
form in xi. 31 sq., xii. 46, 5 belongs to the latest source. The state-
ment that the Canaanite was then in the land (xii. 6, cf. xiii. 7) points
to a time long after the Israelite conquest, when readers needed
such a reminder (so Hpbbes in his Leviathan, 1651 ). A famine forces
him to descend into Egypt, where a story of Sarai (here at least 65
years of age; see xii. 4, xvii. 17} is one of three variants of a similar
peculiar incident (cf. xx. 1-17, xxvi. 6-14). The passage is an in-
sertion (xii. lo-xiii. 2; xii. 9, xiii. 3 seq. being harmonistic). The
thread is resumed in the account of the separation of the patriarch
and his nephew Lot, who divide the land between them. Abraham
occupies Canaan, but moves south to Hebron, which, according to
Josh. xiv. 15, was formerly known as Kirjath-Arba. Lot dwells in
the basin of the Jordan, and his history is continued in the story
of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (xviii.-xix. ; Hos. xi. 8,
Deut. xxix. 23 speak of Admah and Zeboim). Lot is saved and
becomes the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites, who are
thus closely related to the descendants of Abraham (note xix. 37,
" unto this day "). The great war with Amraphel and Chedorlaomer
the defeat of a world-conquering army by 318 men with the
episode of Melchizedek, noteworthy for the reference to Jerusalem
(xiv. 18, cf. Ps. Ixxvi. 2), has nothing in common with the context
(see ABRAHAM ; MELCHIZEDEK). It treats as individuals the place-
Mamre and Eshcol (xiv. 13, cf. Num. xiii. 23 seq.), and by
mentioning Dan (. 14) anticipates the events in Josh. xix. 47, Judg.
xviii. 29.' A cycle of narratives deals with the promise that the
barren Sarai (Sarah) should bear a child whose descendants would
inhabit the land of Canaan. The importance of the tradition for the
history of Israel explains both the prominence given to it (cf. already
xii 7, xiii. 14-17) and their present complicated character (due to
repeated revision). The older narratives comprise (a) the promise
that Abraham shall have a son of his own flesh (xv.) the account
is composite;* (6) the birth of Ishmael, Abraham's son by Hagar,
their exile, and Yahweh's promise (xvi., with a separate framework
in s*. la, 3, 15 sen.) before the birth of Isaac; and (r) the promise
of a son to Sarai (xviii. 1-15), now combined with the story of Lot
and the overthrow of Sodom. The latest source (xvii.) is marked
by the solemn covenant between Yahweh and Abraham, the revela-
tion of God Almighty (El-Shaddai, cf. Ex. vi. 3), and the institution
of circumcision (otherwise treated in Ex. iv. 26, Josh. v. 2 seq.).
The more elevated character of this source as contrasted with xv.
and xviii. is as striking as the difference of religious tone in the two
accounts of the creation (above). Abraham now travels thence
(xx. i, Hebron, see xviii. l), and his adventure in the land of Abi me-
lee h, king of Gcrar (xx.), u a duplicate of xii. (above). It is con-
tinued in xxi. 22-34, which has a close parallel in the life of Isaac
(xxyi., below). Isaac is born in accordance with the divine promise
(xviii. 10 at Hebron); the scene is the south of Palestine. The
story of the ilismissnl of Hagar and Ishmael, and the revelation
(xxi. 8-21) cannot be separated from xvi. 4-14, where m. 9 seq. are
intended to harmonize the passagti. Although about sixteen years
intervene (see xvi. 16; xxi. S, 8), Ishmael is a young child who has
to be carried (xxi. 15), but the Hebrew text of xxi. 14 (not, however,
the Septuagint) endeavours to remove the discrepancy. 4 " After
these thing* " come* the offering of Isaac which implicitly annuls
the sacrifice of the first-born, a not unfamiliar rite in Palestine as
the denunciations prove (cf. Ezek. xvi. 20 seq., xx. 26; Mic. vi. 7;
Is. Ivii. 5), and thus marks an advance, e.g. upon the story of
Jephthah s daughter (]uds. xi.). The story may be contrasted with
the Phoenician account of the sacrifice by Cronos (to be identified
with El) of his only son, which practically justified the horrid custom.
1 As early as 1685 Jean le Clerc observed that Ur of the Chaldees
(Ckajdimi in xi. 28 anticipates dieted in xxii. 22, and implied some
knowledge of the land of the Chaldaeans (cf . Ezek. i. 3, xi. 24).
' The Catholic priest Andrew du Mae* (I57o) already pointed to
the name* Hebron and Dan as signs of post-Mosaic date.
' Note the repetitions in v. 2 and 3; Abraham's faith, rr. 4-6,
and his request, r. 8; contrast the time of day, v. 5 and r. 12, and
the dates, . 13 and . 16. In PP. 12-15 there is a reference to the
bondage in Egypt.
These and other chronological embarrassments, now recognized
as doe to the framework of the post -exilic writer (P), have long been
observed by Spinoza, 1671.
The detailed account of the purchase of the cave of Machpelah
(contrast the brevity of xxxiii. 19) is of great importance for the
traditions of the patriarchs, and, (ike the references to the death of
Sarah and Abraham, belongs to the latest source (xxiii., xxv. 7-1 la).*
The idyllic picture of life in xxiy. presupposes that Isaac is sole heir
(P. 36) ; since this is first stated in xxv. ,s, it is probable that xxv. 5,
lib (and perhaps TO. 6, iH) are out of place. It is noteworthy that
the district is Abraham's native place (xxiv. 4, 7, 10; contrast the
Babylonian home specified in xi. 28, 31 ; xv. 7}. In xxv. I sqq.
Abraham takes as wife (but concubine, l Chron. i. 32 seq.) Keturan
(" incense ") and becomes the father of various Arab tribes, e.g.
Sheba and Dedan (grandsons of Cush in x. 7).
After " the generations of Ishmael " (xxv. 12 sqq.) the narrative
turns to " the generations of Isaac " (xxv. 19 sqq.). The story of
the events at the court of Abimelech (xxvi.) finds a parallel in the
now disjointed xx., xxi. 22-34; ""''' ''" new explanation of Beer-
shcba, the reference in xxvi. I to the parallel story in xii., the absence
of allusion to xx., and the apparent editorial references to xxi. in
PP. 15, 1 8. On the whole, the story of Isaac's wife at Gerar is briefer
and not so elevated as that of Sarah, but the parallel to xxi. 22-34
is more detailed. The birth of Esau and Jacob (xxv. 21-34) intro-
duces the story of Jacob's craft when Isaac is on the point of death
(xxvii.). Jacob flees to Laban at Haran to escape Esau's hatred
(xxvii. 41-45); but, according to the latest source (P), he is charged
by Isaac to go to Paddan-Aram, and take a wife there, and his father
transfers to him the blessing of Abraham (xxvii. ao-xxviii. 9). On
his way to Haran he stops at Bethel (formerly Luz, according to
Judg. i. 22-26), where a vision prompts him to accept the God of the
place should he return in peace to his father's home (xxviii. 10-22).
He passes to the land of the children of the east " (xxix. i), and
the scenes which follow are scarcely situated at Haran, the famous
and ancient seat of the worship of the moon-god, but in the desert.
Here he resides fifteen years or more, and by the daughters of Laban
and their handmaidens becomes the " father " of the tribes of Israel.
There are numerous traces of composition from different sources,
but a satisfactory analysis is impossible. 4 The flight of Jacob and
his household (from Paddan-Aram, xxxi. 18 P) leads over " the
River " (p. 21, i.e. the Euphrates); though the seven days' journey
of this concourse of men and cattle suggests that he came to Gilead,
not from Haran (300 m. distant), but from some nearer locality.
This is to be taken with the evidence against Haran already noticed,
with the use of the term " children of the east " (xxix. i; cf. Jer.
xlix. 28; Ezek. xxv. 4, 10), and with the details of Laban's kindred
(xxii. 20-24).' The arrival at Mahanaim (" [two ?] camps ") gives
rise to specific allusions to the meaning of the name (xxxii. i seq.,
7-12, 13-21); cf. also the plays upon Jabbok, Israel and Peniel in
xxxii. 22-32. He meets Esau (xxxii. 3-21, xxxiii. 1-16, another
reference to Peniel, " face of God," in p. 10), but they part. Jacob
now comes to Shechem " in peace " (cf. the phrase in xxviii. 21),
where he buys land and erects an altar (xxxiii. 18-20, cf. Abraham
in xii. 6 seq.). There is a remarkable story of the violation of his
daughter Dinah by Shechem, the son of Hamor the Hivite (xxxiv.).
It has been heavily revised; note the alternating prominence of
Hamor and Shechem, the condemnation of Simeon ana Levi for their
vengeance (cf. the curse in xlix. 5-7), the destruction of the city
Shechem by all the sons of Jacob, and the survival of the Hamorites
as a family centuries later (xxxiii. 19, Judg. ix. 28). The narrative
continues with Jacob's journey to Bethel, the death of Deborah
(who accompanied Rebekah to Palestine 140 years previously, see
xxiv. 59, and the latest source, in xxv. 20, xxxv. 28), the death of
Rachel (xxxv. 16-20, contrast xxxvii. 10), and ceases abruptly in the
middle of a sentence (xxxv. 22, but see xlix. 3-4). The latest source
(xxxv. 9-13, 15, 226-29^ gives another account of the origin of the
names Israel (cf. xxxii. 28) and Bethel (cf. xxviii. 19), and the
enealogy wrongly includes Benjamin among the sons born outside
alestine (PP. 24-26). In narrating Jacob's leisurely ret
return to Isaac
at Hebron, the writers quite ignore the many years which have
elapsed since he left his father at the point of death in Beersheba
(xxvii. I, 2, 7, 10, 41).
" The generations of Esau, the same is Edom," provide much
valuable material for the study of Israel's rival (xxxvi.). The
chapter gives yet another account of the separation of Jacob and
Esau (with PP. 6-8, cf. Abraham and Lot, xiii. 5 seq.), ancf describes
the latter's withdrawal to Seir (cf. already xxxii. 3; xxxiii. 14, 16).
It includes lists of diverse origin (e.g. pp. 2-5, contrast xxvi. 34,
xxviii. 9); various "dukes" (R.V. marg. "chiefs"), or rather
1 Points of resemblance in xxiii. with Babylonian usage have
often been exaggerated; comparison" shows noteworthy differences "
(T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament, p. 238) ; see Carpenter and Harford-
Battersby, Ifexaleuch, i. 64, Driver, Gen. p. 230, and Addenda.
* Note, e.g., the sudden introduction of xxix. 15, the curious
position of r. 24 (due to P), the double play upon the names Zebulun
and Joseph, xxx. 20, 23 seq., the internal intricacies in the agreement,
ih. m. 31-43; the difficulties in the reference to the latter in xxxi. 6
sqq. (especially P. 10).
7 See Ed. Meyer (and B. Luther), Die Israiliten und ihre Nachbar-
itdmme (1906), pp. 238 sqq.; also the shrewd remarks of C. T. Beke,
Originei bibiieae (1834), pp. 123 sqq.
5 8
GENESIS
" thousands " or " clans " ; and also the " sons " of Seir the Horite,
father of the Edomites (w. 40-43, cf. names in w. 10-14, -
Finally, Genesis turns from the patriarchs to the " generations of
Jacob " (xxxvii. 2), and we have stories of the " sons," the ancestors
of the tribes. (In xxxiv. the incidents which primarily concerned
Simeon and Levi alone have, however, been adjusted to the general
history of Jacob and his family.) The first place is given to Joseph
(xxxvii.), although xxxviii. crowds the early history of the family
of Judah into the twenty-two years between xxxvii. 2 and Jacob's
descent into Egypt (see xli. 46, 47; xlv. 6). s In xxxvii., xxxix. sqq.
we have an admirable specimen of writing quite distinct in stamp
from the patriarchal stories. The romance which has here been
utilized shows an acquaintance with Egypt; the narratives are
discursive, not laconic, everything is more detailed, and more under
the influence of literary art. The Reuben and Simeon which appear
in it are not the characters which we meet in xxxiv., xxxv. 22, or in
the poem xlix. 3-7; and the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh do
not scruple to claim ancestry from Joseph and the daughter of an
Egyptian priest at the seat of the worship of the sun-god (xli. 45).
The narratives are composite. Joseph incurs the ill-will of his
brethren because of Israel's partiality or because of his significant
dreams. He is at Shechem or at Dothan; and when the brothers
seek to slay him, Judah proposes that he should be sold to Ishmaelites,
or Reuben suggests that he should be cast into a pit, where Midianites
find and kidnap him (xxxvii., cf. xl. 15). The latter sell him to the
eunuch Potiphar, but he appears in the service of a married house-
holder (xxxix., the second clause of v. I harmonizes). Among other
signs of dual origin are the alternation of " Jacob " and " Israel,"
and the prominence of Judah (xliii. 3, 8; xliv. 14, 1 8) or of Reuben
(xlii. 22, 37). The money is found in a " bag " as the brothers
encamp (xlii. 27, 280; xliii.), or in a " sack " when they reach home
(xlii. 8-26, 29-35, 286, 36 sq.). When Israel and his family descend
into Egypt, the latest source gives a detailed list which agrees in
the main with the Israelite subdivisions (xlvi. 6-27, cf. Num. xxvi.
and i Chron. ii.-viii.). The families dwell in the land of Goshen,
east of the Delta, "for every shepherd is an abomination unto the
Egyptians"- (xlv. 10; xlvi. 28-34; xlvii. 1-6); or they are in
the "land of Rameses " (xlvii. n, and Septuagint in xlvi. 28);"
Joseph's policy during the famine is next described (xlvii. 13-26),
although it would have been more in place after xli. (see ib. 34).
There are several difficulties in Jacob's blessing of the sons of Joseph
(xlyiii.). 4 The blessing in xlix. is a collection of poetical passages
praising or blaming the various tribes, and must certainly
date after the Israelite settlement in Palestine; see further the
articles on the tribes. Jacob's dying instructions to Joseph (xlvii.
29-31) are continued in 1. I sqq., his charge to his sons (xlix. 28
sqq., P) in 1. 12 seq. It is significant that Jacob's body is taken to
Palestine, but the brethren return to Egypt; in spite of a possible
allusion to the famine in . 21, the late chronological scheme would
imply that it had long ceased (see xlv. 6, xlvii. 28). The book closes
with the death of Joseph about fifty years later, after the birth of
the children of Machir, who himself was a contemporary of Moses
forty years after the Exodus (Num. xxxii. 39-41). Joseph's body
is embalmed, but it is not until the concluding chapter of the book
of Joshua (xxiv. 32) that his bones find their last resting-place.
Only on the assumption that the.book of Genesis is a composite
work is it possible to explain the duplication of events, the varying
use of the divine names Yahiveh and Elohim, the
AC i7e~ linguistic and stylistic differences, the internal intri-
work. cacies of the subject matter, and the differing stand-
points as regards tradition, chronology, morals and
religion. 6 The cumulative effect of the whole evidence is too
strong to be withstood, and already in the I7th century it was
recognized that the book was of composite origin. Immense
labour has been spent in the critical analysis of the contents, but
it isonly since the work of Graf (1866) and Wellhausen (1878) that
a satisfactory literary hypothesis has been found which explained
1 It is interesting to find that the Spanish Rabbi Isaac.-(of Toledo,
A.D. 982-1057), noticing that the royal list must be later than the
time of Saul (also recognized by Martin Luther and others), proposed
to assign the chapter to the age of Jehoshaphat.
* But the chronology is hopeless, and only ten years are allowed
according to another and later scheme (xxv. 26, xxxv. 28, xlvii. 9).
1 Cf. the account of the Israelites in Egypt, where they are in
Goshen, unaffected by the plagues (Ex. viii. 22, ix. 26), or, according
to another view, are living in the midst of the Egyptians (e.g. xii. 23).
4 V. 7 breaks the context; there is repetition in ro. 106 and 136;
interchange of the names Jacob and Israel; v. 12 suggests a blessing
upon Joseph himself; and with w. 15 seq. (the blessing of the sons,
not of Joseph), contrast :w. 2Osqq. (the singular " in thee,". 20).
1 Only the more noticeable peculiarities have been mentioned in
the preceding columns.
the most obvious intricacies. The Graf-Wellhausen literary
theory has gained the assent of almost all trained and unbiased
biblical scholars, it has not been shaken by the more recent light
from external evidence, and no alternative theory has as yet been
produced. The internal features of Genesis demand some formu-
lated theory, more precise than the indefinite concessions of
the i jth century, beyond which the opponents of modern literary
criticism scarcely advance, and the Graf-Wellhausen theory, in
spite of the numerous difficulties which it leaves untouched, is
the only adequate starting-point for the study of the book.
According to this, Genesis is a post-exilic work composed of a
post-exilic priestly source (P) and non-priestly earlier sources
which differ markedly from P in language, style and religious
standpoint, but much less markedly from one and another. 6
These sources can be traced .elsewhere in the Pentateuch and
Joshua, and P itself is related to the post-exilic works Chronicles,
Ezra and Nehemiah. In its present form Genesis is an indis-
pensable portion of the biblical history, and consequently its
literary growth cannot be viewed apart from that of the
books which follow. On internal grounds it appears that the
Pentateuch and Joshua, as they now read, virtually come in
between an older history by " Deuteronomic " compilers (easily
recognizable in Judges and Kings), and the later treatment of the
monarchy in Chronicles, where the influence of the circle which
produced P and the present Mosaic legislation is quite discernible.
There have been stages where earlier extant sources have been
cut down, adjusted or revised by compilers who have incorporated
fresh material, and it is the later compilers of Genesis who have
made the book a fairly knit whole. The technical investigation
of the literary problems (especially the extent of the earlier
sources) is a work of great complexity, and, for ordinary purposes,
it is more important to obtain a preliminary appreciation of the
general features of the contents of Genesis.
That the records of the pre-historic ages in Gen. i.-xi. are at
complete variance with modern science and archaeological
research is unquestionable. 7 But although it is im-
possible to regard them any longer either as genuine
history or as subjects for an allegorical interpretation
(which would prove the accuracy of any record) they are of
distinct value as human documents. They reflect the ideas
and thoughts of the Hebrews, they illustrate their conceptions of
God and the universe, and they furnish material for a comparison
of the moral development of the Hebrews with that of other
early races. Some of the traditions are closely akin to those
current in ancient Babylonia, but a careful and impartial com-
parison at once illustrates in a striking manner the relative
moral and spiritual superiority of our writers. On these subjects
see further COSMOGONY; DELUGE.*
The records of the patriarchal age, xii.-l. are very variously
estimated, although the great majority of scholars agree that
they are not contemporary and that they cannot be used, as they
stand, for pre-Mosaic times. Apart from the ordinary arguments
of historical criticism, it is to be noticed that external evi-
dence does not support the assumption that the records preserve
6 On the course of modern criticism and on the various sources:
P, J (Judaean or Yahwist), E (Ephraimite or Elohist), see BIBLE
(Old Test. Criticism). The passages usually assigned to P in Genesis
are: i. i-ii. 40; v. 1-28, 30-32; vi. 9-22; vii. 6 (and parts of 7-9),
II, 13-160, 18-21, 24; viii. 1-20, 36-5, 130, 14-19; ix. 1-17,28-29;
x. 1-7, 20, 22-23, 31-32; xi. 10-27, 3!-3 2 ; x 'i- 46-5; . x j"- 6 . 116-120;
xvi. lo, 3, 15-16; xvii.; xix. 29; xxi. 16, 26-5; xxiii.; xxv. 7-lla,
12-17, 19-20, 266; xxvi. 34-35; xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9; xxix. 24, 286,
29; xxxi. 186; xxxiii. l8a; xxxiv. l-2a, 4, 6, 8-10, 13-18, 20-24,
sart of 25, 27-29; xxxv. 9-13, 15, 226-29; xxxvi. (in the main);
xxxvii. l-2<z; xli. 46; xlvi. 6-27; xlvii. 5-60, 7-II, 276-28; xlviii.
3-7; xlix. 10, 286-33, ' 12-13-
7 See on this, especially, S. R. Driver's Genesis in the "Westminster
Commentaries " (seventh ed., 1909).
8 The above is typical of modern biblical criticism which is
compelled to recognize the human element (and can thus have no
a priori preconceptions in approaching the Old Testament), but at
:he same time reveals ever more decisively the presence of purifying
influences, without which the records of Israel would have had no
permanent interest or vajue. They thus gain a new value which
:annot be impaired when it is realized that their significance is quite
'ndependent of their origins.
GENESIS
581
genuine pre- Mosaic history. There are no grounds for any
arbitrary distinction between the " pre-historic " pre-Abrahamic
age and the later age. External evidence, which recognizes no
universal deluge and no dispersal of mankind in the third millen-
nium B.C., throws its own light upon the opening centuries of
the second. It has revealed conditions which are not reflected
in Genesis, and important facts upon which the book is silent
unless, indeed, there is a passing allusion to the great Babylonian
monarch Khammurabi in the Amraphel of Gen. ziv. Any careful
perusal of modern attempts to recover historical facts or on
historical outline from the book will show how very inadequate
the material proves to be, and the reconstructions will be found to
depend upon an interpretation of the narratives which is often
liberal and not rarely precarious, and to imply such reshaping and
rewriting of the presumed facts that the cautious reader can place
little reliance on them. Whatever future research may bring, it
cannot remove the internal peculiarities which combine to show
that Genesis preserves, not literal history, but popular traditions
of the past. External evidence has proved the antiquity of
various elements, but not that of the form or context in which
they now appear; and the difference is an important one. We
have now a background upon which to view the book, and, on the
one hand, it has become obvious that the records preserve as is
only to be expected Oriental customs, beliefs and modes of
thought. But it has not been demonstrated that these are
exclusively pre-Mosaic. On the other hand, a better acquaint-
ance with the ancient political, sociological and religious con-
ditions has made it increasingly difficult to interpret the records
as a whole literally, or even to find a place in pre-Mosaic Palestine
for the lives of the patriarchs as they are depicted. 1 Nevertheless,
though one cannot look to Genesis for the history of the early part
of the second millennium B.C., the study of what was thought of
the past, proves in this, as in many other cases, to be more
instructive than the facts of the past, and it is distinctly more
important for the biblical student and the theologian to under-
stand the thought of the ages immediately preceding the founda-
tion of Judaism in the $th century B.C. than the actual history of
many centuries earlier.
A noteworthy feature is the frequent personification of peoples,
tribes or dans (see GENEALOGY: Biblical). Midian (i.e. the
Midianites) is a son of Abraham; Canaan is a son of
Ham (ix. 22), and Cush the son of Ham is the father
of Ramah and grandfather of the famous S. Arabian
state Sheba and the traders of Dedan (x. 6 sq., cf.
Ezek. xrvii. 20-22). Bethuel the father of Rebckah is the brother
of the tribal names Uz and Buz (xxii. 21 sqq., cf. Jer. xxv. 20, 23).
Jacob is otherwise known as Israel and becomes the father of
the tribes of Israel; Joseph is the father of Ephraim and
Manasseb, and incidents in the life of Judah lead to the birth
of Perez and Zerah, Judaean clans. This personification is
entirely natural to the Oriental, and though " primitive " is not
necessarily an ancient trait. 1 It gives rise to what may be
termed the " prophetical interpretation of history " (S. R.
Driver, Genesis, p. in), where the character, fortunes or history
of the apparent individual are practically descriptive of the
people or tribe which, according to tradition, is named after or
descended from him. The utterance of Noah over Canaan,
Shem and Japheth (ix. 25 sqq.), of Isaac over Esau and Jacob
(xxvii.), of Jacob over his sons (xlix.) or grandsons (xlviii.),
would have no meaning to Israelites unless they had some con-
nexion with and interest for contemporary life and thought.
Herein lies the force of the description of the wild and independent
Ithmafl (xvi. 12), the "father" of certain well-known tribes
(xxv. 13-15); or the contrast between the skilful hunter Esau
and the quiet and respectable Jacob (xxv. 27), and between the
1 See the remarks of W. R. Smith, Eng. Hist. Rev. (1888), pp. 128
eq. (from the sociological nde), and for general considerations,
A. A. Bevan, Crit. Ra. (1893), pp. 138 qq.; S. R. Driver, Genesis,
pp. xliii. sqq.
* Cf. AIIMM i. 1 1 ; i Chron. ii. iv. (note iv. 10), the Book of Jubilees
(ee above), and also Arabian usage (W. R. Smith, Kinship and
tfarrioft. en. i.). For modern examples, tee E. Littmann, Orient.
Shrf. Tktodor NiUfke (ed. Bezoid, 1906), pp. 942-958.
tiller Cain who becomes the typical nomad and the pastoral Abel
(iv. 1-15). The interest of the struggles between Jacob and
Esau lay, not in the history of individuals of the distant past,
but in the fact that the names actually represented Israel and
its near rival Edom. These features are in entire accordance
with Oriental usage and give expression to current belief, existing
relationships, or to a poetical foreshadowing of historical vicissi-
tudes. But in the effort to understand them as they were
originally understood it is very obvious that this method of
interpretation can be pressed too far It would be precarious
to insist that the entrances into Palestine of Abraham and Jacob
(or Israel) typified two distinct immigrations. The sepaialion
of Abraham from Lot (cf. Lotan, an Edomite name), of Isaac
from Hagar-Ishmael, or of Jacob from Esau-Edom scarcely
points to the relative antiquity of the origin of these non-
Israelite peoples who, to judge from the evidence, were closely
related. Or, if the " sons " of Jacob had Aramaean mothers,
to prove that those which are derived from the wives were upon
a higher level than the " sons " of the concubines is more difficult
than to allow that certain of the tribes must have contained
some element of Aramaean blood (cf. i Chron. vii. 14, and see
Asm R; GAD; MANASSEH). Some of the names are clearly
not those of known clans or tribes (e.g. Abraham, Isaac), and
many of the details of the narratives obviously have no natural
ethnological meaning. Stories of heroic ancestors and of tribal
eponyms intermingle; personal, tribal and national traits are
interwoven. The entrance of Jacob or Israel with his sons
suggests that of the children of Israel. The story of Simeon
and Levi at Shechem is clearly not that of two individuals,
sons of the patriarch Israel; in fact the story actually uses the
term " wrought folly in Israel " (cf. Jud. xx. 6, 10), and the
individual Shechem, the son of Hamor, cannot be separated
from the city, the scene of the incidents. Yet Jacob's life with
Laban has many purely individual traits. And, further, there
intervenes a remarkable passage with an account of his conflict
with the divine being who fears the dawn and is unwilling to
reveal his name. In a few verses the " wrestling " ('-b - ) of
Jacob (yt'&qdb) is associated with the Jabbok (yabboq); his
" striving " explains his name Israel; at Peniel he sees " the
face of God," and when touched on his vulnerable spot the
hollow of the thigh he is lamed, hence " the children of Israel
eat not the sinew of the hip which is upon the hollow of the
thigh unto this day " (xxxii. 24-32). Other examples of the fusion
of different features can be readily found. Three divine beings
appear to Abraham at the sacred tree of Hebron, and when the
birth of Isaac (from fahaq, " laugh ") is foretold, the account of
Sarah's behaviour is merely a popular and trivial story suggested
by the child's name (xviii. 12-15; s* 6 a ^ s *vii. 17, xxi. 6, 9).
An extremely fine passage then describes the patriarch's inter-
cession for Sodom and Gomorrah, and the narrative passes on
to the catastrophe which explains the Dead Sea and its desert
region and has parallels elsewhere (e.g. the Greek legend of Zeus
and Hermes in Phrygia). Lot escapes to Zoar, the name gives
rise to the pun on the " little " city (xix. 20), and his wife, on
looking back, becomes one of those pillars of salt which still
invite speculation. Finally the names of his children Moab and
Ammon are explained by an incident when he is a cave-dweller
on a mountain. ,
To primitive minds which speculated upon the " why and where-
fore " of what they saw around them, the narratives of Genesis
afforded an answer. They preserve, in fact, some of the popular
philosophy and belief of the Hebrews. They furnish what must
have been a satisfactory origin of the names Edom, Moaband Ammon,
Mahanaim and Succoth, Bethel, Beersheba, &c. They explain why
Shechem, Bethel and Beersheba were ancient sanctuaries (see further
below); why the serpent writhes along the ground (iii. 14); and
why the hip sinew might not be eaten (xxxii. 32). To these and a
hundred other questions the national and tribal stories of which
no doubt only a few have survived, and of which other forms, earlier
or later, more crude or more refined, were doubtless current furnish
an evidently adequate answer. Myth and legend, fact and fiction,
the common stock of oral tradition, have been handed down, and
thu constitute one of the most valuable sources for popular Hebrew
thought.
The book i> not to be judged from any one-sided estimate ef its
582
GENESIS
contents. By the side of much that seems trivial, and even non-
moral for the patriarchs themselves are not saints it is noteworthy
how frequently the narratives are didactic. The characteristic
sense of collective responsibility, which appears more incidentally
in xx. 7, is treated with striking intensity in a passage (xyiii. 23-33)
which uses the legend of Sodom and Gomorrah as a vehicle for the
statement of a familiar problem (cf. Ezek. xviii., Ps. Ixxiii., Job).
It will be observed that interviews with divine beings presented as
little difficulty to the primitive minds of old as to the modern
native; even the idea of intercourse of supernatural beings with
mortals (vi. 1-4) is to-day equally intelligible. The modern un-
tutored native has a not dissimilar undeveloped and childlike
attitude towards the divine, a naive theology and a simple cultus.
The most circumstantial tales are told of imaginary figures, and
the most incredible details clothe the lives of the historical heroes
of the past. So abundant is the testimony of modern travellers to
* the extent to which Eastern custom and thought elucidate the
interpretation of the Bible, that it is very important to notice
those features which illustrate Genesis. " The Oriental," writes
S. I. Curtiss (Bibl. sacra, Jan. 1901, pp. 103 sqq.), " is least of all a
scientific historian. He is the prince of story-tellers, narratives,
real and imaginative, spring from his lips, which are the truest
portraiture of composite'rather than individual Oriental life, though
narrated under forms of individual experience." There are, there-
fore, many preliminary points which combine to show that the
critical student cannot isolate the book from Oriental life and
thought; its uniqueness lies in the manner in which the material
has been shaped and the use to which it has been put.
The Book of Jubilees (not earlier than the 2nd century B.C.)
presents the history in another form. It retains some of the
canonical matter, often with considerable reshaping,
o "cUite."* om it s many details (especially those to which exception
could be taken), and adds much that is novel. The
chronological system of the latest source in Genesis becomes an
elaborate reckoning of heavenly origin. Written under the
obvious influence of later religious aims, it is especially valuable
because one can readily compare the two methods of presenting
the old traditions. 1 There is the same kind of personification,
fresh examples of the " prophetical interpretation of history,"
and by the side of the older " primitive " thought are ideas
which can only belong to this later period. In each case we have
merely a selection of current traditional lore. For example,
Gen. vi. 1-4 mentions the marriage of divine beings with the
daughters of men and the birth of Nephllim or giants (cf. Num.
xiii. 33). Later allusions to this myth (e.g. Baruch iii. 26-28,
Book of Enoch vi. sqq., 2 Peter ii. 4, &c.) are not based upon this
passage; the fragment itself is all that remains of some more
organic written myth which, as is well-known, has parallels
among other peoples. 2 Old myths underlie the account of the
creation and the garden of Eden, and traces of other versions
or forms appear elsewhere in the Old Testament. Again, the
Old Testament throws no light upon the redemption of Abraham
(Is. xxix. 22), although the Targums and other sources profess
to be well-informed. The isolated reference to Jacob's conquest
of Shechem in Gen. xlviii. 22 must have belonged to another
context, and later writings give in a later and thoroughly in-
credible form allied traditions. In Hosea xii. 4, Jacob's wrestling
is mentioned before the scene at Bethel (Gen. xxxii. 24 sqq.,
xxviii. ii sqq.). The overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah is
described in Genesis (xviii. seq.), but Hosea refers only to that
of Admah and Zeboim (xi. 8, cf. Deut. xxix. 23, Gen. x. 19)
different versions of the great catastrophe were doubtless current.
Consequently investigation must start with the particular
1 The Book of Jubilees also enables the student to test the argu-
ments based upon any study restricted to Genesis alone. Thus it
shows that the " primitive " features of Genesis afford a criterion
which is sociological rather than chronological. This is often
ignored. For example, the conveyance of the field of Machpelah
(xxiii.) is conspicuous for the absence of any reference to a written
contract in contrast to the " business " methods in Jer. xxxii.
This does not prove that Gen. xxiii. is early, because writing was
used in Palestine about 1400 B.C., and, on the other hand, the more
simple forms of agreement are still familiar after the time of Jeremiah
(e.g. Ruth, Proverbs). Similarly, no safe argument can be based
upon the institution of blood-revenge in Gen. iv., when one observes
the undeveloped conditions among the Trachonites of the time of
Herod the Great (Josephus, Ant. xvi. 9, i), or the varying usages
among modern tribes.
1 On the Jewish forms, see R. H. Charles, Book of Jubilees (1902),
pp. 33 seq.
details which happen to be preserved, and these not necessarily
in their original or in their only form. Since the antiquity of
elements of tradition is independent of the shape in which they
appear before us, a careful distinction must be drawn between
those details which do not admit of being dated or located and
those which do. There is evidence for the existence of the
names Abram, Jacob and Joseph previous to 900 B.C., but
this does not prove the antiquity of the present narratives
encircling them. Babylonian tablets of the creation date from
the 7th century B.C., but their contents are many centuries
earlier (viz. the age of Khammurabi), whereas the Phoenician
myths of the origin of things are preserved in a late form by the
late writers Damascius and Philo of Byblus. Gen. xiv., which
may preserve some knowledge of the reign of Khammurabi, is
on internal literary grounds of the post-exilic age, and it is at
least a coincidence that the Babylonian texts, often quoted in
support of the genuineness of the narrative, belong to about the
same period and use early Babylonian history for purely didactic
purposes. 3 In general, just as the Book of Jubilees, while
presenting many elements of old tradition, betrays on decisive
internal grounds an age later than Genesis itself, so, in turn,
there is sufficient conclusive evidence that Genesis in its present
form includes older features, but belongs to the age to which
(on quite independent grounds) the rest of the Pentateuch must
be ascribed.
Popular tradition often ignores events of historical importance,
or, as repeated experience shows, will represent them in such a
form that the true historical kernel could never have
been recovered without some external clue. The
absence of definite references to the events of the grounds.
Israelite monarchy does not necessarily point to the
priority of the traditions in Genesis or their later date. Neverthe-
less, some allusion to national fortunes is reflected in the exalta-
tion of Jacob (Israel) over Esau (Edom), and in the promise that
the latter should break the yoke from his neck. 4 Israelite kings
are foreshadowed (xvii. 6, xxxv. n, P), and Israel's kingdom has
the ideal limits as ascribed to Solomon (xv. 18, see i Kings iv. 21;
but cf. art. SOLOMON). Judah is promised a world- wide king
(xlix.8-io), though elsewhere the supremacy of Joseph rouses the
jealousy of his " brothers " (xxxvii. 8). Different dates and
circles of interest are thus manifest. The cursing and dispersion
of Simeon and Levi (xlix. 5-7) recall the fact that Simeon's
cities were in the territory of Judah (Josh.xix. 1,9), and that the
Levitical priests are later scattered and commended to the
benevolence of the Israelites. But the curse obviously represents
an attitude quite opposed to the blessing pronounced upon Levi
by Moses (Deut. xxxiii. 8-1 1). The Edomite genealogies (xxxvi.)
represent a more extensive people than the references in the
popular stories suggest, and the latter by no means indicate that
Edom had so important a career as we actually gather from a few
allusions to its kings (xxxvi. 3I-39). 6 The references to Philis-
tines are anachronistic for the pre-Mosaic age, and it is clear that
the tradition of a solemn covenant with a Philistine king and his
general (xxi. 22 seq., xxvi. 26 sqq.) does not belong to the age or
the circle which remembered the grievous oppressions of the
Philistines or felt contempt for these " uncircumcised " enemies
of Israel 6 . Finally, the thread of the tradition unmistak-
ably represents a national unity of the twelve sons (tribes) of
3 A. H. Sayce, Proc. of the Soc. of Bibl. Arch. (1907), pp. 13-17.
4 xxvii. 27-29, 39 seq. This is significantly altered m the later
writings (Jub. xxvi. 34 and the Targums). It is worth noticing that
in Jub. xxvi. 35 a new turn is given to Gen. xxvii. 41 by changing
Isaac's approaching death (which raises serious difficulties in the
history of Jacob) into Esau's wish that it may soon come.
'See E. Meyer (and B. Luther), Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbar-
stamme (1906), pp. 386-389, 442-446.
* See PHILISTINES. The covenant with Abimelech may be
compared with the friendship between David and Achish (i Sam.
xxvii.), who is actually called Abimelech in the heading of Ps. xxxiv.
(see I Sam. xxi. 10). If this is a mistake (and not a variant tradi-
tion) it is a very remarkable one. The treatment of the covenant
by the author of Jubilees (xxiv. 28 sqq.), on the other hand, is only ,
intelligible when one recalls the attitude of Judah to the Philistine
cities in the 2nd century B.C.; see R. H. Charles, ad loc.
GENESIS
583
Israel; but this unity was not felt at certain periods of dis-
organisation, and the idea of including Judah among the sons of
Israel could not have arisen at a time when Israel and Judah
were rival kingdoms. 1 In so far as the traditions can be read in the
light of biblical history it is evident that they belong to different
ages and represent different national, tribal, or local standpoints.
Another noteworthy feature is the interest taken in sacred
t. Certain places are distinguished by theophanies or by the
erection of an altar (lit. place of sacrificial slaughter),
and incidents are narrated with a very intelligible
_ purpose. Mispah in Gilead is the scene of a covenant
or treaty between Jacob and his Aramaean relative
commemorated by a pillar (Ma^lbah). It was otherwise known
for an annual religious ceremony, the traditional origin of which is
related in the story of Jephthah's vow and sacrifice (Judg. xi.),
and its priests are denounced by Hosea (v. i). Shechem, the
famous city of the Samaritans (" the foolish nation," Ecclus. I.
ao), where Joseph was buried (josh. xxiv. 32), had a sanctuary
and a sacred pillar and tree. It was the scene of the coronation
(a religious ceremony) of Abimelech (Judg. ix.), and Rehoboam
(i Kings xii. i). The pillar was ascribed to Joshua (Josh. zxiv.
26 seq.), and although Jacob set up at Shechem an " altar," the
verb suggests that the original object was a pillar (Gen. xxxiii.
30). The first ancestor of Israel, on the other hand, is merely
associated with a theophany at an oracular tree (xii. 6). The Ben-
jamite Bethel was especially famous in Israelite religious history.
The story tells how Jacob discovered its sanctity, it was the
gate of heaven, made a covenant with its God, established the
sacred pillar, and instituted its tithes (xxviii.). The prophetess
Deborah dwelt under a palm-tree near Bethel (Judg. iv. 5), and
her name is also that of the foster-mother of Rebekah who was
buried near Bethel beneath the " oak of weeping " (xxxv. 8).
Bex kirn (" weeping ") elsewhere receives its name when an
angel appeared to the Israelites (Judg. ii. i, Septuagint adds
Bethel). To the prophets Hosea and Amos the cultus of Bethel
was superstitious and immoral, even though it was Yahweh
himself who was worshipped there (see BETHEL). South of
Hebron lay Beersheba, an important centre and place of pilgrim-
age, with a special numen by whom oaths were taken (Amos
viii. 14, sec Sept. and the commentaries). Isaac built its altar,
and Isaac's God guarded Jacob in his journeying (xxxi. 29,
xlvi. i). This patriarch and his " brother " Ishmael are closely
associated with the district south of Judah, both are connected
with Beer-lahai-roi (xxiv. 62, Sept. xxv. n), whose fountain was
the scene of a theophany (xvi.), and their traditions are thus
localized in the district of Kadesh famous in the events of the
Exodus (d. xvi 14, xxi. 21, xxv. 18, Ex. xv. 22). (See EXODUS,
THE.) Abraham planted a sacred tree at Beersheba and invoked
" the everlasting God " (xxi. 33). But the patriarch is more
closely identified with Hebron, which had a sanctuary (cf . 2 Sam.
xv. 7 seq.), and an altar which be built " unto Yahweh " (xiii. 18).
The sacred oak of Mamre was famous in the time of Josephus
(B. J. iv. 9, 7), it was later a haunt of " angels " (Sozomen), and
Constantine was obliged to put down the heathenish cultus.
The place still has its holy tree. Beneath the oak there appeared
the three divine beings, and in the cave of Machpclah the illustrious
ancestor and his wife were buried. The story of his descent into
Egypt and the plaguing of Pharaoh is a secondary insertion
(xii. 10- xiii. 2), and where the patriarch appears at Beersheba it is
in incidents which tend to connect him with his " son " Isaac.
There is a very distinct tendency to emphasize the importance of
Hebron. Taken from primitive giants by the non-Israelite ckn
Caleb (?.*.) it has now become predominant in the patriarchal
traditions. Jacob leaves his dying father at Beersheba (xxviii.
10), but according to the latest source he returns to him at Hebron
(xxxv. 27), and here, north of Beersheba, he continues to live
(xxxvii. 14, xlvi. 1-5). The cave of Machpclah became the grave
of Isaac, Rebekah and Leah (but not Rachel) ; and though Jacob
1 In 2 Sam. xix. 43 (original text) the men of Israel claim to be
the first-born rather than Judah; cf. I Chron. v. I seq.. where the
birthright (after Reuben was degraded) it explicitly conferred upon
Jowph (Ephraim and Mananeh).
appears to be buried beyond the Jordan, it is the latest source
which places his grave at Hebron (1. i-i i and 12 seq.). So in still
later tradition, all the sons of Jacob with the exception of
Joseph find their last resting-place at Hebron, and in Jewish
prayers for the dead it is besought that their souls may be
bound up with those of the patriarchs, or that they may go to the
cave of Machpelah and thence to the Cherubim. 1 The increasing
prominence of the old Calebite locality is not the least interesting
phase in the comparative study of the patriarchal traditions.
The association of the ancestors of Israel with certain sites is a
feature which finds analogies even in modern Palestine. There
are old centres of cult which have never lost the veneration of the
people; the shrines are known as the tombs of saints or walls
(patrons) with such orthodox names qs St George, Elijah, &c.
Traditions justify the reputation for sanctity, and not nly are
similar stories told of distinct figures, but there are varying
traditions of a single figure.' The places have retained their
sacred character despite political and religious vicissitudes;
they are far older than their present names, and such is the con-
servatism of the east that it is not surprising when, for example,
a sacred tomb at Gezer stands quite close to the site of an ancient
holy place, about 3000 years old, the existence of which was
first made known in the course of excavation. Genesis preserves
a selection of traditions relating to a few of the old Palestinian
centres of cult. We cannot suppose that these first gained their
sacred character in the pre-Mosaic " patriarchal " age; there is in
any case the obvious difficulty of bridging the gap between the
descent into Egypt and the Exodus, and it is clear that when
the Israelites entered Palestine they came among a people whose
religion, tradition and thought were fully established. It is only
in accordance with analogy if stories were current in Israel of
the institution of the sacred places, and closer study shows that
we do not preserve the original version of these traditions. 4
A venerated tree in modern Palestine will owe its sanctity
to some tradition, associating it, it may be, with some
saint; the Israelites in their turn held the belief that the
sacred tree at Hebron was one beneath which their first an-
cestor sat when three divine beings revealed themselves to him.
But it is noteworthy that Yahweh alone is now prominent;
the tradition has been revised, apparently in writing, and, later,
the author of Jubilees (xvi.) ignores the triad. At Beer-lahai-roi
an El (" god ") appeared to' Hagar, whence the name of her
child Ishmael; but the writer prefers the unambiguous proper
name Yahweh, and, what is more, the divine being is now
Yahweh's angel the Almighty's subordinate (xvi.). The older
traits show themselves partly in the manifestation of various
Els, and partly in the cruder anthropomorphism of the earlier
sources. Later hands have by no means eliminated or modified
them altogether, and in xxxi. 53 one can still perceive that the
present text has endeavoured to obscure the older belief that
the God of Abraham was not the God of his " brother " Nahor
(see the commentaries). The sacred pillar erected by Jacob at
Bethel was solemnly anointed with oil, and it (and not the place)
was regarded as the abode of the Deity (xxviii. 18, 22). This
agrees with all that is known of stone-cults, but it is quite obvious
that this interesting example of popular belief is far below the
religious ideas of the writer of the chapter in its present form. 6
There were many places where it could be said that Yahweh
had recorded his name and would bless his worshippers (Ex.
xx. 24). They were abhorrent to the advanced ethical teaching
of prophets and of those imbued with the spirit of Deuteronomy
(cf. 2 Kings xviii. 4 with v. 22), and it is patent from Jeremiah,
Cf. Josephug, Antiq. ii. 8, 2; Test, of xii. Patriarchs; Acts vii.
16 (where Shechem is an error); Oesterley and Box, Religion and
Worthip of the Synagogue, pp. 340 seq. ; M. G. Dampier, in Church
and Synagogue (1909), p. 78.
See J. P. Peters, Early Heb. Story (1904), pp. 81 sqq.; S. A.
Cook, Relig. ofAnc. Palestine (1908), pp. 19 sqq.
4 In like manner the Babylonian story of the flood has been revised
and adapted to the Hebrew Noah (cf. Nippur, ad fin.).
'The writer in Jub. xxvii. 27 treats the oillar as a "sign."
Another useful example of revision is to be found in Josh, xxii.,
where what was regarded (by a reviser) as an object unworthy of
the religion of Yahweh is now merely commemorative.
5 8 4
GENESIS
Ezekiel and Is. Ivi.-lxvi. that even at a late date opinion varied
as to how Yahweh was to be served. 1 It is significant, therefore,
that the narratives in Genesis (apart from P) reflect a certain
tolerant attitude; there is much that is contrary to prophetical
thought, but even the latest compilers have not obliterated all
features that, from a strict standpoint, could appear distasteful.
Although the priestly source shows how the lore could be reshaped,
and Jubilees represents later efforts along similar lines, it is
evident that for ordinary readers the patriarchal traditions could
not be prssented in an entirely new form, and that to achieve
their aims the writers could not be at direct variance with
current thought.
It will now be understood why several scholars have sought to
recover earlier forms of the traditions, the stages through which the
material has passed, and the place of the earlier forms and stages
in the history and religion of Israel. These labours are indispensable
for scientific biblical study, and are most fruitful when they depend
upon comprehensive methods of research. When, for example,
one observes the usual forms of hero-cult and the tendency to regard
the occupant of the modern sacred shrine as the ancestor of his
clients, deeper significance is attached to the references to the pro-
tective care of Abraham and Israel (Is. Ixiii. 16), or to the motherly
sympathy of Rachel (Jer. xxxi. 15). And, again, when one perceives
the tendency to look upon the alleged ancestor or weli as an almost
divine being, there is much to be said for the view that the patriarchal
figures were endowed by popular opinion with divine attributes.
But here the same external evidence warns us that these considera-
tions throw no light upon the original significance of the patriarchs.
It is impossible to recover the earliest traditions from the present
narratives, and these alone offer sufficiently perplexing problems. 5
From a careful survey of all the accessible material it is beyond
doubt that Genesis preserves only a selection of traditions of
various ages and interests, and often not in their
interests, original form. We have relatively little tradition
from North Israel; Beersheba, Beer-lahai-roi and
Hebron are more prominent than even Bethel or Shechem,
while there are no stories of Gilgal, Shiloh or Dan. Yet in the
nature of the case there must have been a great store of local
tradition accessible to some writers and at some periods. 3
Interest is taken not in Phoenicia, Damascus or the northern
tribes, but in the east and south, in Gilead, Ammon, Moab and
Ishmael. Particular attention is paid to Edom and Jacob, and
there is good evidence for a close relationship between Edomite
and allied names and those of South Palestine (including Simeon
and Judah). Especially significant, too, is the interest in tradi-
tions which affected the South of Palestine, that district which is
of importance for the history of Israel in the wilderness and of
the Levites. 4 It is noteworthy, therefore, that while different
peoples had their own theories of their earliest history, the first-
born of the first human pair is Cain, the eponym of the Kenites,
and the ancestor of the beginnings of civilization (iv. 17, 20-22).
This " Kenite " version had its own view of the institution of
the worship of Yahweh (iv. 26); it appears to have ignored
the Deluge, and it implies the existence of a fuller corpus of
written tradition. Elsewhere, in the records of the Exodus,
there are traces of specific traditions associated with Kadesh,
Kenites, Caleb and Jerahmeel, and with a movement into
Judah, all originally independent of their present context. Like
the prominence of the traditions of Hebron and its hero Abraham,
these features cannot be merely casual. 6
1 For popular religious thought and practice (often described as
pre-prophetical, though non-prophetical would be a safer term), see
HEBREW RELIGION.
* Among recent efforts to find and explain mythical elements, see
especially Stucken, Astralmythen; H. Winckler, Geschichte Israels,
vol. ii. ; and P. Jensen, Das Gilgamesch-Epos in der Welttitteratur.
8 Again the analogy of the modern East is instructive. Especially
interesting are the traditions associating the same figure or incident
with widely separated localities.
See Exopus, THE; LEVITES. On this feature see Luther and
Meyer, op. cit. pp. 158 seq., 227 sqq., 259, 279, 305, 386, 443. Their
researches on this subject are indispensable for a critical study of
Genesis.
The notion of an Eve (hawwah, " serpent ") as the first woman
may be conjecturally associated with (a) the frequent traditions of
the serpent-origin of clans, and (b) with evidence which seems to
connect the Levites and allied families with some kind of serpent-
cult (see Meyer, op. cit. pp. 116, 426 seq., 443, and art. SERPENT-
WORSHIP). The account of mankind as it now reads (ii. seq.) is in
The fact that one is not dealing with literal history complicates
the question of the nomadic or semi-nomadic life of the Israelite
ancestors. 6 They are tent-dwellers, shepherds, sojourners (xvii. 8,
xxiii. 4, xxviii. 4, xxxvi. 7, xxxvii. l), and we breathe the air of the
open country. But the impression gained from the narratives is
of course due to the narrators. The movements of the patriarchs
serve mainly to connect them with traditions which were originally
independent. When Abraham separates from Lot he settles in
" the land of Canaan," while Lot dwells in " the cities of the plain "
(xiii. 12). Isaac at Beersheba enters into an alliance with the
Philistines (xxvi. 12 sqq.), while Jacob seems to settle at Shechem
(xxxiv.), and there or at Dothan, a few miles north, his sons pasture
their father's flock (xxxvii. 12 sqq.). 7 Indeed, according to an
isolated fragment Jacob conquered Shechem and gave it to Joseph
(xlviii. 22), and this tradition underlies (and has not given birth to)
the late and fantastic stories of his warfare (Jub. xxxiv. 1-9,
Test, of Judah iii.). Judah, also, is represented as settling among
the Canaanites (xxxviii.), and Simeon marries a Canaanite accord-
ing to late tradition, a woman of Zephath (xlvi. 10; Jub. xxxiv. 20,
xhv. 13; see Judg. j. 17). These representations have been sub-
ordinated to others, in particular to the descent into Egypt of Jacob
(Israel) and his sons, and the Exodus of the Israelites. But the
critical study of these events raises very serious historical problems.
Abraham's grandson, with his family a mere handful of people
went down into Egypt during a famine (cf. Abraham xii. 10, and
Isaac xxvi. I seq.) ; 400 years pass, all memory of which is practically
obliterated, and the Israelite nation composed of similar subdivisions
returns. Although the later genealogies from Jacob to Moses allow
only four generations (cf. Gen. xv. 16), the difficulties are not re-
moved. Joseph lived to see the children of Machir (1. 23, note Ex.
i. 8), though Machir received Gilead from the hands of Moses (Num.
xxxii. 40); Levi descended with Kehath, who became the grand-
father of Aaron and Moses, while Aaron married a descendant in
the fifth generation from Judah (Ex. vi. 23). On the other hand
the genealogies in I Chron. ii. sqq. are independent of the Exodus;
Ephraim's children raid Gath, his daughter founds certain cities,
and Manasseh has an Aramaean concubine who becomes the mother
of Machir (i Chron. vii. 14, 20-24).* Moreover the whole course of
the invasion and settlement of Israel (under Joshua) has no real
connexion with pre-Mosaic patriarchal history. If we reinterpret
the history of the family and its descent into Egypt, and belittle
its increase into a nation, and if we figure to ourselves a more gradual
occupation of Palestine, we destroy the entire continuity of history
as it was understood by those who compiled the biblical history,
and we have no evidence for any confident reconstruction. With
such thoroughness have the compilers given effect to their views
that only on closer examination is it found that even at a relatively
late period fundamentally differing traditions still existed, and that
those which belonged to circles which did not recognize the Exodus
have been subordinated and adjusted by writers to whom this was
the profoundest event in their past.'
That the journey of Jacob-Israel from his Aramaean relatives
into Palestine hints at some pre-Mosaic immigration is possible,
but has not been either proved or disproved. The
details point rather to a reflection of the entrance of
the children of Israel, elsewhere ascribed to the leader-
ship of Joshua (q.v.). Though the latter proceeded to
Gilgal, a variant tradition, now almost lost, seems to have re-
corded an immediate journey to Shechem (Deut. xxvii. i-io,
Josh. viii. 30-35) previous to Joshua's great campaigns (Josh.
x. seq., cf. Jacob's wars). His religious gathering at Shechem
several respects less primitive (contrast vi. i seq.), and the present
story of Cain and his murder of Abel really places the former in
an unfavourable light.
6 See the discussion between B. D. Eerdmans and G. A. Smith
in the Expositor (Aug.-Oct. 1908), and the former's Alttest. Studien,
ii. (1908), passim.
7 xxxiv. (note . 9) indicates a possible alliance with Shechemites,
and xxxv. 4 (taken literally) implies a residence long enough for a
religious reform to be necessary. Yet the present aim of the narra-
tives is to link together the traditions and emphasize Jacob's return
from Laban to his dying father (xxviii. 21; xxxi. 3, 13, 18; xxxii. 9;
xxxv. i, 27).
8 Cf. Benjamin's descendants in i Chron. viii. 6 seq. and see on
the naive and primitive character of these traditions, Kittel, com-
ment. ad loc.
' That there are traditions in Genesis which do not form the
prelude to Exodus is very generally recognized by those who agree
that the Israelites after entering Palestine took over some of the
indigenous lore (whether from the Canaanites or from a presumed
earlier layer of Israelites). This adoption of native tradition by
new settlers, however, cannot be confined to any single period.
See further, Luther and Meyer, op. cit. pp. 108, no, 156, 227 seq.,
254 seq., 414 seq., 433; on traditions related to the descent into
Egypt, ib. 122 sqq., 151 seq., 260; and on the story of Joseph
(en. xxxv., xxxvii. sqq.), as an independent cycle used to form a
connecting link, Luther, ib. pp. 142-154.
nucleus.
GENESIS
585
before the dismissal of the tribes finds its parallel in Jacob's
reforms before leaving for Bethel (xxiv.; cf. r. 26, Gen. xxxv. 4).
Owing, perhaps, to the locale of the writers, we hear relatively
little of tne northern tribes. Judah and Simeon are the first
to conquer their lot, and the " house of Joseph " proceeds south
to Bethel, where the story of the " weeping " at Bochim finds a
parallel in the "oak of weeping" (Gen. xxxv. 8). In Gen.
xxxviii. " at that time Judah went down from his brethren "
in xxxvii. they are at Shechem or Dothan and settled among
Canaanites, and there is a fragmentary allusion to a similar
alliance of Simeon (xlvi. 10). The trend of the two series of
traditions is too dose to be accidental, yet the present sequence
of the narratives in Joshua and Judges associates them with the
Exodus. Further, Jacob's move to Shechem, Bethel and the
south is parallel to that of Abraham, but his history actually
represents a twofold course. On the one hand, he is the Aramaean
(Deut. xxvi. 5), the favourite son of his Aramaean mother. On
the other, Rebekah is brought to Beer-lahai-roi (xxiv.), Jacob
belongs to the south and he leaves Beersheba for his lengthy
sojourn beyond the Jordan. His separation from Esau, the
revelation at Bethel, and the new name Israel are recorded twice,
and if the entrance into Palestine reflects one ethnological
tradition, the possibility that his departure from Beersheba
reflects another, finds support (a) in the genealogies which
associate the nomad " father " of the southern clans Caleb
and Jerahmeel with Gilead (i Chron. ii. 21), and (6) in the
hints of an " exodus " from the district of Kadesh north-
wards.
The history of an immigration into Palestine from beyond the
Jordan would take various shapes in local tradition. In Genesis
it is preserved from the southern point of view. The northern
standpoint appears when Rachel, mother of Josephand Benjamin,
is the favoured wife in contrast to the despised Leah, mother of
Judah and Simeon; when Joseph is supreme among his brethren;
and when Judah is included among the " sons " of Israel. It is
possible that the application of the traditional immigration to
the history of the tribes is secondary. This at all events suggests
itself when xxxiv. extends to the history of all the sons, incidents
which originally concerned Simeon and Levi alone, and which
may have represented the Shechemite version of a " Levitical "
tradition (see LEVITES). However this may be, it is necessary
to account for the nomadic colouring of the narratives (cf.
Meyer, pp. 305, 472) and the prominence of southern interests,
and it would be in accordance with biblical evidence elsewhere
if northern tradition had been taken over and adapted to the
standpoint of the southern members of Israel, with the incorpora-
tion of local tradition which could only have originated in the
south. 1 These and other indications point to a late date in
biblical history. There is a manifest difference between the
religious importance of Shechem in the traditions of Joshua
(xxiv.) and Jacob's reforms when he leaves behind him the
heathen symbols before journeying to the holy site of Bethel
(Gen. xxxv. 4). There is even some polemic against marriage
with Shechemites (xxxiv.; more emphatic in Jub. xxx.), while
in the story of the Hebronite Abraham, Bethel itself is avoided
and Shechem is of little significance. Again, the present object
of xxxviii. is to trace the origin of certain Judaean subdivisions
after the death of the wicked Er and Onan. It is purely local
and is interested in Shelah, and more especially in Perez and
Zerah, names of families or clans of the post-exilic age. 1 Else-
1 Cf. the late " Deuteronomic " form of Judges where a hero of
Kenlrzite origin (and therefore closely connected with Caleb) stands
at the head of the Israelite " judges "; also, from another aspect,
the specifically Judaean and anti- Israelite treatment of the history
of the monarchy. But in each case the feature belongs to a relatively
late stage in the literary history of the books; see JUDGES; SAMUEL,
BOOKS or ; KINGS.
* Mahalald (son of Kenan, another form of Cain, v. 12) is also a
prominent ancestor in Perez (Neh. xi. 4), and Zerah claimed the
renowned sages of Solomon's day (l Chron. ii. 6, l Kings iv. 31).
The story implies that Perez surpassed his " brother " clan Zerah
(xxxviii. 27-30), and in fact Perez is ultimately reckoned the head
of the Judaean subdivisions (i Chron. ii. 4 sqq.), and thus is the
reputed ancestor of the Davidic dynasty (Ruth iv. it, 18 sqq.).
where, in i Chron. ii. and iv., the genealogies represent a Judah
composed of clans from the south (Caleb and Jerahmeel) and
of small families or guilds, Shelah included. It is not the Judah
of the monarchy or of the post-exilic Babylonian-Israelite
community. But the mixed elements were ultimately reckoned
among the descendants of Judah, through Hezron the " father "
of Caleb and Jerahmeel, and just as the southern groups finally
became incorporated in Israel, so it is to be observed that
although Hebron and Abraham have gained the first place in the
patriarchal history, the traditions are no longer specifically
Calebite, but are part of the common Israelite heritage.
We are taken to a period in biblical history when, though the
historical sources are almost inexplicably scanty, the narratives
of the past were approaching their present shape. Some time
after the fall of Jerusalem (587 B.C.) there was a movement from
the south of Judah northwards to the vicinity of Jerusalem
(Bethlehem, Kirjath-jearim, &c.), where, as can be gathered from
i Chron. ii., were congregated Kenite and Rechabite communities
and families of scribes. Names related to those of Edomite and
kindred groups are found in the late genealogies of both Judah
and Benjamin, and recur even among families of the time of
Nehemiah.* The same obscure period witnessed the advent of
southern families, 4 the revival of the Davidic dynasty and its
mysterious disappearance, the outbreak of fierce hatred of Edom,
the return of exiles from Babylonia, the separation of Judah
from Samaria and the rise of bitter anti-Samaritan feeling. It
closes with the reorganization associated with Ezra and Nehemiah
and the compilation of the historical books in practically their
present form. It contains diverse interests and changing stand-
points by which it is possible to explain the presence of purely
southern tradition, the southern treatment of national history,
and the antipathy to northern claims. As has already been
mentioned, the specifically southern writings have everywhere
been modified or adjusted to other standpoints, or have been
almost entirely subordinated, and it is noteworthy, therefore,
that in narratives elsewhere which reflect rivalries and conflicts
among the priestly families, there is sometimes an animus
against those whose names and traditions point to a southern
origin (see LEVITES).
Thus the book of Genesis represents the result of efforts to
systematize the earliest history, and to make it a worthy prelude
to the Mosaic legislation which formed the charter of _
Judaism as it was established in or about the 5th
century B.C. It goes back to traditions of the most varied
character, whose tone was originally more in accord with earlier
religion and thought. Though these have been made more
edifying, they have not lost their charm and interest. The latest
source, it is true, is without their freshness and life, but it is a
matter for thankfulness that the simple compilers were con-
servative, and have neither presented a work entirely on the lines
of P, nor rewritten their material as was done by the author of
Jubilees and by Josephus. It is obvious that from Jubilees alone
it would have been impossible to conceive the form which the
traditions had taken a few centuries previously viz. in Genesis.
Also, from P alone it would have been equally impossible to
recover the non-priestly forms. But while there is no immeasur-
able gulf between the canonical book of Genesis and Jubilees, the
internal study of the former reveals traces of earlier traditions
most profoundly different as regards thought and contents. It
The sympathies of these traditions are as suggestive as their presence
in the canonical history, which, it must be remembered, ultimately
passed through the hands of Judaean compilers.
Neh. iii. 9, 14; see Meyer, pp. 300, 430; S. A. Cook, Critical
Notes on O.T. History, p. 58 n. 2. While the evidence points to an
early close relationship among S. Palestinian groups (Edom, Ishmael,
&c. ; cf. Meyer, p. 446), there are many allusions to subsequent
treacherous attacks which made Edom execrable. Here again
biblical criticism cannot at present determine precisely when or
precisely why the changed attitude began; see EDOM; JEWS,
} 20, 22.
4 Although the movement reflected in i Chron. ii. is scarcely
pre-exilic, yet naturally there had always been a close relation
between Judah and the south, as the Assyrian inscriptions of the
latter part of the 8th century B.C. indicate.
586
GENET GENEVA
is not otherwise when one looks below the traditional history
elsewhere (e.g. Samuel, Kings). An explanation may be found in
the vicissitudes of the age. The movement from the south,
which seems to account for a considerable cycle of the patriarchal
traditions, belongs to the age after the downfall of the Israelite
and(later)the Judaean monarchies when there were vital political
and social changes. The removal of prominent inhabitants, by
Assyria and later by Babylonia, the introduction of colonists
from distant lands, and the movements of restless tribes around
Palestine were more fatal to the continuity of trustworthy
tradition than to the persistence of popular thought. New
conditions arose as the population was reorganized, a new Israel
claimed to be the heirs of the past (cf . e.g. the Samaritans, Ezr. iv.
2, Joseph. Antiq. ix. 14, 3; xi. 8, 6), and not until after these
vicissitudes did the book of Genesis begin to assume its present
shape. 1 (See JEWS; PALESTINE: History.)
The above pages handle only the more important details for the
study of a book which, as regards contents and literary history,
cannot be separated from the series to which it forms the intro-
duction. As regards the literary-critical problems it is clear that
with the elimination of P we have the sources (minor adjustment
and revision excepted) which were accessible to the last compiler
in the post-exilic age. Most critics have inclined to date these
sources (J and E) as early as possible, whereas the admitted presence
of secondary and of relatively late passages (e.g. xviii. 22 sqq.,J;
xxii., E) shows that one must work back from the sources as known
in P's age, and that one can rely only upon those criteria which
can be approximately dated. It is usual to regard the more primitive
character of J and E as a mark of antiquity; but this ignores the
regular survival of primitive modes of thought and of popular
tradition outside more cultured circles. It is also recognized that
J and E are non-prophetical and non-Deuteronomic, but it has
not been proved that the present J and E are earlier than the prophets
or the Deuteronomic reforms of Josiah (2 Kings xxii. seq.). I and E
are linguistically almost identical (in contrast to P), and differ from
P in features which are often not of chronological but of sociological
significance (e.g. the mentality of the writers). Their language is
without some of the phenomena found in narratives which emanate
from the north (e.g. Judges v., stories of Elijah and Elisha), and
their stylistic variations may be, as Gunkel suggests, the mark of a
district or region; for this district one would look in the neighbour-
hood of Jerusalem. The conclusion that P's narratives and laws in
the Pentateuch are post-exilic was found by biblical scholars to be
a necessary correction to the original hypothesis of Graf (1866) that
P's narratives were to be retained (with J and E) at an early date.
This view was influenced by the close connexion between the
subject-matter, J, E and P representing the same trend of tradition.
But by still ascribing J and E as written sources to about the gth
or 8th century (individual opinion varies), many difficulties and
inconsistencies are involved. The present J and E reflect a re-
shaping and readjustment of earlier tradition which is found else-
where, and the suggestion that they are not far removed from
the age of the priestly writers and redactors does not conflict
with what is known of language, forms of religious thought,
or tendencies of tradition. We reach thus approximately the age
when post- Deuteronomic editors were able to utilize such records
as Judg. i., xvii. sqq., 2 Sam. ix.-xx. (see JUDGES; SAMUEL, BOOKS
OF), which are equally valuable as specimens of current thought
and of written tradition. In conclusion, the tendency of criticism
has been to recognize " schools " of J and E extending into the exile,
thus making the three sources J, E and P more nearly contempor-
aneous. The most recent conservative authority also inclines
to a similar contemporaneity (" collaboration " or " co-operation "),
but at an impossibly early date (J. Orr, Problem of the 0. T., 1905,
pp. 216, 345, 354, 375 seq., 527). By admitting possible revision
in the post-exilic age (pp. 226, 369, 375 seq.), the conservative theory
recalls the old legend that Ezra rewrote the Old Testament (2 Esd.
xiv.) and thus restored the Law which had been lost; a view which,
through the early Christian Fathers, gained currency and has en-
joyed a certain popularity to the present day. But when once
revision or rewriting is conceded, there is absolutely no guarantee
that the present Pentateuch is in any way identical with the five
books which tradition ascribed to Moses (g.ti.), and the necessity
for a comprehensive critical investigation of the present contents
makes itself felt. 2
LITERATURE. Only a few of the numerous works can be men-
tioned. Of those written from a conservative or traditional stand-
1 The south of Palestine, if less disturbed by these changes, may
well have had access to older authoritative material.
1 For Orr's other concessions bearing upon Genesis, see op. cit.,
pp. 9 seq., 87, 93, and (on J, E, P) 196, 335, 340. These, like the
concessions of other apologetic writers, far outweigh the often
hypercritical, irrelevant, and superficial objections brought against
the literary and historical criticism of Genesis.
point the most notable are: W. H. Green's Unity of Genesis (1895);
and J. Orr, Problem of the O. T. (which is nevertheless a great advance
upon earlier non-critical literature). S. R. Driver's commentary
(Westminster Series) deals thoroughly with all preliminary problems
of criticism, and is the best for the ordinary reader; that of A.
Dillmann (6th ed., Eng. trans.) is more technical, that of W. H.
Bennett (Century Bible) is more concise and popular. G. J. Spurrell,
Notes on the Text of Genesis, and C. J. Ball (in Haupt's Sacred Books
of the O. T.) appeal to Hebrew students. W. E. Addis, Documents
of the Hexateuch, Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, The Hexateuch,
and C. F. Kent, Beginnings of Hebrew History, are more important
for the literary analysis. J. Wellhausen's sketch in his Proleg. to
Hist, of Israel (Eng. trans., pp. 259-342) is admirable, as also is the
general Introduction (trans, by W. H. Carruth, 1907) to H. Gunkel's
valuable commentary. Of recent works bearing upon the subject-
matter reference may be made to J. P. Peters, Early Hebrew Story
(1904), A. R. Gordon, Early Traditions of Genesis (1907), and
T. K. Cheyne, Traditions and Beliefs of Ancient Israel (1907). Special
mention must be made of Eduard Meyer and B. Luther, to whose
Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme (1906) the present writer is
indebted for many valuable suggestions and hints. Fuller biblio-
graphical information will be found in the works already mentioned,
in the articles in the Ency. Bib. (G. F. Moore), and Hastings's Diet.
(G. A. Smith), and in the volume by J. Skinner in the elaborate and
encyclopaedic International Critical Series. (S. A. C.)
GENET, typically a south European carnivorous mammal
referable to the Viverridae or family of civets, but also taken to
include several allied species from Africa. The true genet
(Genetta vulgaris or Genetta genetta) occurs throughout the south
of Europe and in Palestine, as well as North Africa. The fur is of
a dark-grey colour, thickly spotted with black, and having a dark
streak along the back, while the tail, which is nearly as long as the
The Genet (Genetta vulgaris).
body, is ringed with black and white. The genet is rare in the
south of France, but commoner in Spain, where it frequents the
banks of streams, and feeds on small mammals and birds. It
differs from the true civets in that the anal pouch is a mere
depression, and contains only a faint trace of the highly character-
istic odour of the former. In south-western Europe and North
Africa it is sought for its soft and beautifully spotted fur. In
some parts of Europe, the genet, which is easily tamed, is kept
like a cat for destroying mice and other vermin.
GENEVA, a city of Ontario county, New York, U.S.A., at the
N. end of Seneca Lake, about 52 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop.
(1890) 7557; (1900) 10,433 (f whom 1916 were foreign-born);
(1910 census) 12,446. It is served by the New York Central
& Hudson River, and the Lehigh Valley railways, and by the
Cayuga & Seneca Canal. It is an attractively built city, and has
good mineral springs. Malt, tinware, flour and grist-mill products,
GENEVA
587
toilers, stoves and ranges, optical supplies, wall-paper, cereals,
canned goods, cutlery, tin cans and wagons are manufactured,
and there are also extensive nurseries. The total value of the
factory product in 1905 was 14,951,964, an increase of 82-3 %
since 1000. Geneva has a public library, a city hospital and
hygienic institute. It is the seat of the New York State
Agricultural Experiment Station and of Hobart College (non-
sectarian), which was first planned in 1812, was founded in 1822
(the majority of its incorporators being members of the Protestant
Epiwtpal church) as successor to Geneva Academy, received a
full charter as Geneva College in 1825, and was renamed
Hobart Free College in 1852 and Hobart College in 1860, in
honour of Bishop John Henry Hobart. The college had in 1008-
1909 107 students, 21 instructors, and a library of 50,000 volumes
and 15,000 pamphlets. A co-ordinate woman's college, the
William Smith school for women, opened in 1908, was endowed in
1906 by William Smith of Geneva, who at the same time provided
for a Hall of Science and for further instruction in science,
especially in biology and psychology. In 1 888 the Smith Observa-
tory was built at Geneva, being maintained by William Smith,
and placed in charge of Dr William Robert Brooks, professor of
astronomy in Hobart College. The municipality owns its water-
supply system. Geneva was first settled about 1787 almost on
the site of the Indian village of Kanadasega, which was destroyed
in 1779 during Gen. John Sullivan's expedition against the
Indians in western New York. It was chartered as a city in 1898.
GENEVA (Fr. Geneve, Ger. Genf, Ital. Ginnra, Late Lat.
G*bt**a, though Geneva in good Latin), a city and canton of
Switzerland, situated at the extreme south-west corner both of
the country and of the Lake of Geneva or Lake Leman. The
canton is, save Zug, the smallest in the Swiss Confederation,
while the city, long the most populous in the land, is now sur-
passed by Zurich and by Basel.
The canton has an area of 108-9 sq. m -> of which 88-5 sq. m. are
classed as " productive " (forests covering 9-9 sq. m. and vine-
yards 6-8 sq. m., the rest being cultivated land). Of
2^^. the " unproductive " 20-3 sq. m., 1 1 } are accounted for
by that portion of the Lake of Geneva which belongs to
the canton. It is entirely surrounded by French territory (the
department of Haute Savoie lying to the south, and that of the
Ain to the west and the north), save for about 3} m. on the
extreme north, where it borders on the Swiss canton of Vaud.
The Rhone flows through it from east to west, and then along its
south-west edge, the total length of the river in or within the
canton being about 13 m., as it is very sinuous. The turbid Arve is
by far its largest tributary (left), and flows from the snows of the
chain of Mont Blanc, the only other affluent of any size being
the London (right). Market gardens, orchards, and vineyards
occupy a large proportion of the soil (outside the city), the
apparent fertility of which is largely due to the unremitting
industry of the inhabitants. In 1901 there were 6586 cows,
3881 horses, 2468 swine and 2048 bee-hives in the canton.
Besides building materials, such as sandstone, slate, &c., the only
mineral to be found within the canton is bituminous shale, the
products of which can be used for petroleum and asphalt. The
broad-gauge railways in the canton have a length of 18} m., and
include bits of the main lines towards Paris and Lausanne (for
Bern or the Simplon), while there are also 72} m. of electric
tramways. The canton was admitted into the Swiss Confedera-
tion in 1815 only, and ranks as the junior of the 22 cantons.
In 1815-1816 it was created by adding to the old territory
belonging to the city (just around it, with the outlying districts of
Jussy, Genthod. Satigny and Cartigny) 16 communes (to the south
and east, including Carouge and Chine) ceded by Savoy, and 6
communes (to the north, including Versoix), cut off from the
French district of Gex.
In 1900 there were, not counting the city, 27,813 inhabitants
in the canton, or, including the city, 132,609, the city alone having
thus a population of 104,706. (In the following statistics those
for the city are enclosed within brackets.) In 1000 this popula-
tion was thus divided in point of religion: Romanists, 67,162
(40,965), Protestants, 62.400 (52,121), and Jews 1119 (1081).
In point of language 109,741 (84,959) were French-speaking,
13.343 (11,004) German-speaking, and 7345 (6574) Italian-
speaking, while there were also 89 (76) Romonsch-
speaking persons. More remarkable are the results as
to nationality: 43,550 (31,607) were Genevese citizens,
and 36,415 (30,582) Swiss citizens of other cantons.
Of the 52,644 (42,607) foreigners, there were 34,277 (26,018)
French, 10,21 1 (91 26) Italians, 4653 (4283) subjects of the German
empire, 583 (468) British subjects, 832 (777) Russians, and 285
(251) citizens of the United States of America. In the canton
there were 10,821 (5683) inhabited houses, while the number
of separate households was 35,450 (28,621). Two points as to
these statistics deserve to be noted. The number of foreign
residents is steadily rising, for in 1900 there were only 79,965
(62,189) Swiss in all as against 52,644 (42,607) foreigners. One
result of this foreign immigration, particularly from France and
Italy, has been the rapid increase of Romanists, who now form
the majority in the canton, while in the city they were still
slightly less numerous than the Protestants in 1900; later
(local) statistics give in the Canton 75,400 Romanists to 64,200
Protestants, and in the city 52,638 Romanists to 51,221 Pro-
testants. Geneva has always been a favourite residence of
foreigners, though few can ever have expected to hear that the
" protestant Rome " has now a Romanist majority as regards
its inhabitants. Galiffe (Geneve hist, et archfolog.) estimates
the population in 1356 at 5800, and in 1404 at 6490, in both
cases within the fortifications. In 1536 the old city acquired the
outlying districts mentioned above, as well as the suburb of
St Gervais on the right bank of the Rhone, so that in 1545 the
number is given as 12,500, reduced by 1572 to 1 1,000. After
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) it rose, by 1698,
to 16,934. Thenceforward the progress was fairly steady:
18,500 (1711); 24,712 (1782); 26,140 (1789). After the creation
of the canton (1815) the numbers were (those for the city are
enclosed within brackets) 48,489 (25,289), the city rising in 1837
to 33,714, and in 1843 to 36,452. The result of the Federal
censuses (begun in 1850) are as follows: in 1850, 64,146 (42,127);
in 1860, 82,876 (59,826); in 1870, 88,791 (65,606); in 1880,
99,712 (76,197), and in 1888, 105,509 (81,407).
The canton comprises 3 administrative districts: the 13
communes on the right bank and the 34 on the left bank each
form one, while the city proper, on both sides of the
river, forms one district and one commune. From
1815 to 1842 the city and the cantonal government
was the same. But at that date the city obtained its inde-
pendence, and is now ruled by a town council of 41 members,
and an executive of 5 members, the election in each case being
made direct by the citizens, and the term of office being 4 years.
The existing cantonal constitution dates, in most of its main
features, from 1847. The legislature or Grand Conseil (now com-
posed of ico members) is elected (in the proportion of i member
for every 1000 inhabitants or fraction over 500) for 3 years
by a direct popular vote, subject (since 1892) to the principles
of proportional representation, while the executive or conseil
d'ttat (7 members) is elected (no proportional representation)
by a popular vote for 3 years. By the latest enactments (one
dating from 1905) 2500 citizens can claim a vote (" facultative
referendum ") as to any legislative project, or can exercise the
" right of initiative " as to any such project or as to the revision
of the cantonal constitution. The canton sends 2 members
(elected by a popular vote) to the Federal St&nderalh, and 7 to
the Federal Nalionalrath.
The Consistory rules the Established Protestant Church, and
is now composed of 31 members, 25 being laymen and 6 (formerly
1 5) clerics, while the " venerable company of pastors " gfn-^a
(pastors actually holding cures) has greatly lost its
former importance and can now only submit proposals to the
Consistory. The Christian Catholic Church is also " established "
at Geneva (since 1873) and is governed by the conseil suptrieur,
composed of 25 lay members and 5 clerics. No other religious
denominations are " established " at Geneva. But the Romanists
(who form 13 % of the electors) are steadily growing in numbers
Oovtrm-
meat.
588
GENEVA
and in influence, while the Christian Catholics are losing ground
rapidly, the highest number of votes received by a candidate
for the conseil superieur having fallen from 2003 in 1874 to 806
in 1890 and 507 in 1006, while they are abandoning the country
churches (some were lost as early as 1892) which they had taken
from the Romanists in the course of the Kulturkampf.
The fairs of Geneva (held 4 times a year) are mentioned as
early as 1262, and attained the height of their prosperity about
Industry I 4S> but declined after Louis XL's grants of 1462-
1463 in favour of the fairs of Lyons. Among the
chief articles brought to these fairs (which were largely fre-
quented by Italian, French and Swiss merchants) were cloth,
silk, armour, groceries, wine, timber and salt, this last coming
mainly from Provence. The manufacturers of Geneva formed
in 1487 no fewer than 38 gilds, including tailors, hatters, mercers,
weavers, tanners, saddle-makers, furriers, shoe-makers, painters
on glass, &c. Goldsmiths are mentioned as early as 1290.
Printing was introduced in 1478 by Steinschaber of Schweinfurth,
and flourished much in the i6th century, though the rigorous
supervision exercised by the Consistory greatly hampered the
Estiennes (Stephanus) in their enterprises. Nowadays the best
known industry at Geneva is that of watchmaking, which was
introduced in 1587 by Charles Cusin of Autun, and two years
later regulations as to the trade were issued. In 1685 there were
in Geneva 100 master watchmakers, employing 300 work-people,
who turned out 5000 pieces a year, while in 1760 this trade
employed 4000 work-people. Of recent years its prosperity
has diminished greatly, so that the watchmaking and jewelry
trades in 1002 numbered respectively but 38 and 32 of the 394
establishments in Geneva which were subject to the factory
laws. Lately, huge establishments have been constructed for
the utilization of the power contained in the Rhone. The local
commerce of Geneva is much aided by the fact that the city is
nearly entirely surrounded by " free zones," in which no customs
duties are levied, though the districts are politically French:
this privilege was given to Gex in 1814, and to the Savoyard
districts in 1860, when they were also neutralized.
Considering the small size'of Geneva, till recently,it is surprising
how many celebrated persons have been connected with it as
natives or as residents. Here are a few of the principal,
special articles being devoted to many of them in this
work. In the 1 6th century, besides Calvin andBonivard,
we have Isaac Casaubon, the scholar; Robert and Henri Estienne,
the printers, and, from 1572 to 1574, Joseph Scaliger himself ,
though but for a short time. J. J. Rousseau is, of course, the
great Genevese of the i8th century. At that period, and in the
igth century, Geneva was a centre of light, especially in the case
of various of the physical sciences. Among the scientific
celebrities were de Saussure, the most many-sided of all; de
Candolle and Boissier, the botanists; Alphonse Favre and
Necker, the geologists; Marignac, the chemist; Deluc, the
physicist, and Plantamour, the astronomer. Charles Bonnet
was both a scientific man and a philosopher, while Amiel belonged
to the latter class only. Pradier and Chaponniere, the sculptors ;
Arlaud, Diday and Calame, the artists; Mallet, who revealed
Scandinavia to the literary world; Necker, the minister;
Sismondi, the historian of the Italian republics; General Dufour,
author of the great survey which bears the name of the Dufour
Map," have each a niche in the Temple of Fame. Of a less
severe type were Cherbuliez, the novelist; Topffer, who spread
a taste for pedestrianism among Swiss youth; Duchosal, the
poet; Marc Monnier, the litterateur; not to mention the names
of any persons still living, or of politicians of any date.
The city of Geneva is situated at the south-western extremity
of the beautiful lake of the same name, w ence the " arrowy
Rhone " flows westwards under the seven bridges by
ndrts' r which the two halves of the town communicate with
buildings, each other. To the south is the valley of the Arve
(descending from the snows of the Mont Blanc chain),
which unites with that of the Rhone a little below the town;
while behind the Arve the grey and barren rocks of the Petit
SalSve rise like a wall, which in turn is overtopped by the distant
Cehbrl-
tles.
and ethereal snows of Mont Blanc. Yet the actual site of the
town is not as picturesque as that of several other spots in
Switzerland. Though the cathedral crowns the hillock round
which clusters the old part of the town, a large portion of the
newer town is built on the alluvial flats on either bank of the
Rhone. Since the demolition of the fortifications in 1849 the
town has extended in every direction, and particularly on the
right bank of the Rhone. It possesses many edifices, public
and private, which are handsome or elegant, but it has almost
nothing to which the memory reverts as a masterpiece of archi-
tectural art. It is possible that this is, in part, due to the artistic
blight of the Calvinism which so long dominated the town. But,
while lacking the medieval appearance of Fribourg or Bern, or
Sion or Coire, the great number of modern fine buildings in
Geneva, hotels, villas, &c., gives it an air of prosperity and
comfort that attracts many visitors, though on others modern
French architecture produces a blinding glare. On the other
hand, there are broad quays along the river, while public gardens
afford grateful shade.
The cathedral (Protestant) of St Pierre is the finest of the older
buildings in the city, but is a second-rate building, though as
E. A. Freeman remarks, " it is an excellent example of a small
cathedral of its own style and plan, with unusually little later
alteration." The hillock on which it rises was no doubt the site of
earlier churches, but the present Transitional building dates only
from the i2thand i3th centuries, whileits portico was built in the
1 8th century, after the model of the Pantheon at Rome. It
contains a few sepulchral monuments, removed from the cloisters
(pulled down in 1721), and a fine modern organ, but the historical
old bell La CUmence has been replaced by a newer and larger one
which bears the same name. More interesting than the church
itself is the adjoining chapel of the Maccabees, built in the isth
century, and recently restored. Near the cathedral are the
arsenal (now housing the historical museum, in which are pre-
served many relics of the " Escalade " of 1602, including the
famous ladders) , and the maison de ville or town hall. The latter
building is first mentioned in 1448, but most of the present
building dates from far later times, though the quaint paved
spiral pathway (taking the place of a staircase in the interior) was
made in the middle of the i6th century. In the Salle du Conseil
d'lLtat some curious isth-century frescoes have lately been
discovered, while the old Salle des Festins is now known as the
Salle de 1' Alabama, in memory of the arbitration tribunal of 1872.
In the isth-century Tour Baudet, adjoining the Town Hall, are
preserved the rich archives of the city. Not far away is the
palais de justice, built in 1 709 as a hospital, but used as a court
house since 1858. On the lie in the Rhone stands the tower
(built c. 1219) of the old castle belonging to the bishop. Among
the modern buildings we may mention the following: the
University( founded in 1 559, but raised to the rank of a University
in 1873 only), the Athen6e, the Conservatoire de Musique, the
Victoria Hall (a concert hall, presented in 1904 to the city by
Mr Barton, formerly H.B.M.'s Consul), the theatre, the Salle de la
Reformation (for religious lectures and popular concerts), the
Batiment Electoral, the Russian church and the new post office.
At present the museums of various kinds at Geneva are widely
dispersed, but a huge new building in course of construction (1906)
will ultimately house most of them. The Musee Rath contains
pictures and sculptures; the Mus6e Fol, antiquities of various
dates; the Musee des Arts Decoratifs, inter alia, a fine collection of
prints; the Mus6e Industriel, industrial objects and models; the
Musee Archeologique, prehistoric and archaeological remains; the
Musee d'Histoire Naturelle, scientific collections; and the Musee
Epigraphique, a considerable number of inscriptions. Some way
out of the town is the Mus6e Ariana (extensive art collections),
left, witha fine park, in 1890 to the city by a rich citizen, Gustave
Revilliod. The public library is in the university buildings and
contains many valuable MSS. and printed books. Geneva boasts
also of a fine observatory and of a number of technical schools
(watchmaking, chemistry, medicine, commerce, fine arts, &c.),
some of which are really annexes of the university, which in June
1906 was attended by 1158 matriculated students, of whom 003
GENEVA
589
were non-Swiss, the Russians (475 in number) forming the
majority of the foreign students. Geneva is well supplied with
charitable institutions, hospitals, &c. Among other remarkable
sights of the city may be mentioned the great hydraulic establish-
ment (built 188 2-1809) of the Forces if otricesduRMne (turbines),
the singular monument set up to the memory of the late duke of
Brunswick who left his fortune to the city in 1873, and the tie
Jean-Jacques Rousseau now connected with the Pont des Bergues.
The house occupied by Rousseau is No. 40 in the Grand* Rue,
while No. 13 in the same street is on the site of Calvin's house,
though not the actual dwelling inhabited by him.
The real name of the city is Genava, that being the form under
which it appears in almost all the known documents up to the
7th century, A.O., the vari&tion Genua (which has led to
great confusion with Genoa) being also found in the 6th
century. But Geneva and Gebenna are of later date. The first
mention of the city is made by Caesar (Beii. Galli. \. 6-7) who tells
us that it was the last oppidum of the Allobroges, and the nearest
to the territory of the Hclvetii, with which it was connected by a
bridge that, for military reasons, he was forced to destroy.
Inscriptions of later date state that it was only a vicus of the
Viennese province, while mentioning the fact that a gild of
boatmen flourished there. But the many Roman remains found
on the original site(in the region of the cathedral) of the city show
that it must have been of some importance, and that it possessed
a considerable commerce. About 400 the Notitia Gailiarum calls
it a civiias (so that it then had a municipal administration of its
own), and reckons it as first among those of the Viennese. Prob-
ably this rise in dignity was connected with the establishment of a
bishop's see there, the first bishop certainly known, Isaac, being
heard cf about 400 in a letter addressed by St Eucherius to
Salvius, while, in 450, a letter of St Leo states that the see was
then a suffragan of the archbishopric of Vicnne. It is possible
that there may be some ground for the local tradition that
Christianity was introduced into this region by Dionysius and
Paracodus, who successively occupied the see of Vienne, but
another tradition that the first bishop was named St Nazarius
rests on a confusion, as that saint belongs to Genoa and not to
Geneva.
About the middle of the 5th century A.D. it came into the
possession of the Burgundians, who held it as late as 527 (thus
leaving no room for any occupation by the Ostrogoths), and in
534 passed into the hands of the Franks. The Burgundian kings
seem to have made Geneva one of their principal residences, and
the NoHtio (above named) tells us that the city was rcslaurata by
Ring Gundibald (d. 516) which is generally supposed to mean
that he first surrounded it with a wall, the city then comprising
little more than the hill on which the present cathedral stands.
That building is of course of much later date, but it seems certain
that when (c. 513-516) Sigismund, son of King Gundibald, built
a stone church on the site, it took the place of an earlier wooden
church, constructed on Roman foundations, all three layers
being dearly visible at the present day. We know that St
Avitus, archbishop of Vienne (d. 518), preached a sermon (pre-
served to us) at the dedication of a church at Geneva which had
been built on the site of one burnt by the enemy, and the bits of
half-burnt wood found in the second of the two layers mentioned
above, seem to make it probable that the reference is to Sigis-
mund's church. But Geneva was in no sense one of the great
cities of the region, though it is mentioned in the Anlonine
Itinerary and in the Pcvtinger Table (both 4th century A.D.), no
doubt owing to its important position on the bank of the Rhone,
which then rose to the foot of the hill on which the original city
stood. This is no doubt the reason why, apart from some passing
allusions (for instance, Charles the Great held a council of war
there in 773, on his first journey to Italy), we hear very little
about it.
In 1032, with the rest of the kingdom of Burgundy or Aries, it
reverted to the emperor Conrad II., who was crowned king at
Payerne in 1033, and in 1034 was recognized as such at Geneva
by a great assembly of nobles from Germany, Burgundy and
Italy, this rather unwilling surrender signifying the union of
those 3 kingdoms. It is said that Conrad granted the temporal
sovereignty of the city to the bishop, who, in 1162, was raised
to the rank of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, being elected,
from 1215, by the chapter, but, after 1418, named directly by the
pope himself.
Like many other prince-bishops, the ruler of Geneva had to
defend his rights: without against powerful neighbours, and
within against the rising power of the citizens. These struggles
constitute the entire political history of Geneva up to about
1535. when a new epoch of unrest opens with the adoption of
Protestantism. The first foe withouttvas the family of the counts
of the Genevois (the region south of the city and in the neighbour-
hood of Annecy), who were also " protectors " (advocati) of the
church of Geneva, and are first heard of in the nth and iath
centuries. Their influence was probably never stronger than
during the rule as bishop (1118-1119) of Guy, the brother of the
reigning count. But his successor, Humbert de Grammont,
resumed the grants made to the count, and in 1 1 25 by the Accord
of Seyssel, the count fully acknowledged the suzerainty of the
bishop. A fresh struggle under Bishop Ardutius (1135-1185)
ended in the confirmation by Frederick Barbarossa, as emperor,
of the position of the bishop as subject to no one but himself
(i 1 53), this declaration being strengthened by the elevation of the
bishop and his successors to the rank of princes of the empire
(1162).
In 1250 the counts of Savoy first appear in connexion with
Geneva, being mortgagees of the Genevois family, and, in 1263,
practically their heirs as " protectors " of the city. It was thus
natural that the citizens should invoke the aid of Savoy against
their bishop, Robert of the Genevois (1276-1287). But Count
Amadeus of Savoy not merely seized (i 287) the castle built by the
bishops (about 1219) on the lie, but also (1288) the office of
vicedominus [vidomnc], the official through whom the bishop
exercised his minor judicial rights. The new bishop, William of
Conflans (1287-1295) could recover neither, and in 1290 had to
formally recognize the position of Savoy (which was thus legalized)
in his own cathedral city. It was during this struggle that about
1287 (these privileges were finally sanctioned by the bishop in
1309) the citizens organized themselves into a commune or
corporation, elected 4 syndics, and showed their independent
position by causing a seal for the city to be prepared. The bishop
was thus threatened on two sides by foes of whom the influence
was rising, and against whom his struggles were of no avail. In
1365 the count obtained from the emperor the office of imperial
vicar over Geneva, but the next bishop William of Marcossay
(1366-1377 : he began the construction of a new wall round the
greatly extended city, a process not completed till 1428) secured
the withdrawal of this usurpation (1366-1367), which the count
finally renounced (1371). One of that bishop's successors,
Adhemar Fabri (1385-1388) codified and confirmed all the
franchises, rights and privileges of the citizens (1387), this grant
being the MagnaCarlaol the city of Geneva. In 1401 Amadeus
VIII. of Savoy bought the county of the Genevois, as the dynasty
of its rulers had become extinct. Geneva was now surrounded on
all sides by the dominions of the house of Savoy.
Amadeus did homage, in 1405, to the bishop for those of the
newly acquired lands which he held from the bishop. But, after
his power had been strengthened by his elevation (1417) by the
emperor to the rank of a duke, and by his succession to the
principality of Piedmont (1418, long held by a cadet branch of his
house), Amadeus tried to purchase Geneva from its bishop, John
of Pierre-Scis or Rochetaillee (1418-1422). This offer was
refused both by the bishop and by the citizens, while in 1420 the
emperor Sigismund declared that he alone was the suzerain of the
city, and forbade any one to attack it or harm it in any fashion.
Oddly enough Amadeus did in the end get hold of the city, for,
having been elected pope under the name of Felix V., he named
himself to the vacant see of Geneva (1444), and kept it, after his
resignation of the Papacy in 1449, till his death in 1451. For the
most part of this period he resided in Geneva. From 1451 to
1522 the see was almost continuously held by a cadet of the house
of Savoy, which thus treated it as a kind of appange.
59
GENEVA
Most probably Geneva would soon have become an integral
part of the realms of the house of Savoy had it not been for the
appearance of a new protector on the scene the Swiss confedera-
tion. In the early isth century the town of Fribourg made an
alliance with Geneva for commercial purposes (the cloth ware-
houses of Fribourg at Geneva being enlarged in 1432 and 1465),
as the cloth manufactured at Fribourg found a market in the
fairs of Geneva (which are mentioned as early as 1 262, and were
at the height of their prosperity about 1450) . The duke, however,
was no better inclined towards the Swiss than towards Geneva.
He struck a blow at both, when, in 1462-1463, he induced his son-
in-law, Louis XI. of France, to forbid French merchants to attend
the fairs of Geneva, altering also the days of the fairs at Lyons
(established in 1420 and increased in number in 1463) so as to make
them clash with those fixed for the fairs of Geneva. This nearly
ruined Geneva, which, too, in 1477 had to pay a large indem-
nity to the Swiss army that, after the defeat of Charles the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, advanced to take vengeance on the dominions
of his ally, Yolande, dowager duchess of Savoy and sister of Louis
XL, as well as on the bishop of Geneva, her brother-in-law. But,
after this payment, the bishop made an alliance with the Swiss.
A prolonged attempt was made (1517-1530) by the reigning duke
of Savoy, Charles III. (1504-1553), to secure Geneva for his
family, at first with the help of his bastard cousin John (1513-
1522), the last of his house to hold the see. In this struggle the
syndic, Philibert Berthelier, succeeded in concluding (1519) an
alliance with Fribourg, which, however, had to be given up
almost immediately. It split the citizens into two parties; the
Eidgenots relying on the Swiss, while the Mamdus (mamelukes)
supported the duke. Berthelier was executed in 1519, and Ame
Levrier in 1524, but Bezanson Hugues (d.i532) took their place,
and in 1526 succeeded in renewing the alliance with Fribourg and
adding to it one with Bern. This much enraged the duke, who
took active steps against the citizens, and tried (1527) to carry
off the bishop, Pierre de la Baume (1522-1544), who soon found
it best to make his submission.
The Genevese, thus abandoned by their natural protector,
looked to the Swiss for help. They sent (October 1530) a con-
siderable army to save the city. This armed intervention
compelled the duke to sign the treaty of St Julien (igth October)
by which he engaged not to trouble the Genevese any more,
agreeing that if he did so the two towns of Fribourg and Bern
should have the right to occupy his barony of Vaud. The two
towns also, by the decision given as arbitrators at Payerne (3Oth
December 1530), upheld their alliance with Geneva, condemned
the duke to pay all the expenses of the war, and confirmed the
clause as to their right to occupy Vaud; they also surrounding
the exercise of the powers of vidomne by the duke with so many
restrictions that in 1532 the duke, after much resistance, formally
agreed to recognize the alliance of Geneva with the two towns and
not to annoy the Genevese any more. Thus a legal tie between
Geneva and two of the Swiss cantons was established, while the
duke did not any longer venture to annoy the Genevese, as he clung
to his fine barony of Vaud. In the course of this struggle (and
especially after the last episcopal vidomne had left the town in
1526) the municipal authorities of the city greatly developed, a
grand conseil of 200 members being set up in imitation of those at
Bern and at Fribourg, while within the larger assembly there was
a petit conseil of 60 members for more confidential business.
Thus 1530 marks the date at which Geneva became its own
mistress within, while allied externally with the Swiss confedera-
tion. But hardly had this settlement been reached when a fresh
element of discord threatened to wholly upset matters the
adoption of Protestant principles by the city. Just before this
event, however, the fortifications were once more (1534) rebuilt
(bits still remain) and extended so as to take in several new
suburbs, including that of St Gervais on the right bank of the
Rhone which, till then, seems to have been unenclosed (1511-
152?)-
In 1532 William Farel, a Protestant preacher from Dauphin6,
who had converted Vaud, &c., to the new belief, first came to
Geneva and settled there in 1 533. But although Bern supported
the Reform, Fribourg did not, and in 1534 withdrew from its
alliance with Geneva, while directly afterwards the duke of Savoy
made a fresh attempt to seize the city. On the loth of August
1535 the Protestant faith was formally adopted by Geneva, but
an offer of help from France having been refused, as the city was
unwilling to give up any of its sovereign rights, the duke's party
continued its intrigues. Finally Bern, fearing that Geneva might
fall to France instead of to itself, sent an army to protect the city
(January 1536), but, not being able to persuade the citizens to
give up their freedom, had to content itself with the conquest of
the barony of Vaud and of the bishopric of Lausanne, thus acquir-
ing rich territories, while becoming close neighbours of Geneva
(January and March 1536). Meanwhile Farel had been advancing
the cause of religious reform, which was definitively adopted on
the 2 1 st of May 1 536. In July 1 536 a French refugee, John Calvin
(q.v.), came to Geneva for a night, but was detained by Farel who
found in him a powerful helper. The opposition party of the
Libertins succeeded in getting them both exiled in 1538, but, in
September 1541, Calvin was recalled (Farel spending the rest of
his life at Neuchatel, where he died 1565) to Geneva. Born in
1 509, he was then about 3 2 years of age. He set up this theocracy
in Geneva, and ruled the reorganized republic with a strong hand
till his death in 1564, when he was succeeded by the milder
Th6odore de Beza (1519-1605).
The great blot on Calvin's rule was his intolerance of other
thinkers, as exemplified by his burning of Gruet (1547) and of
Servetus (1553). But, on the other hand, he founded (1559) the
Academy, which, originally meant as a seminary for his preachers,
later greatly extended its scope, and in 1873 assumed the rank of
a University. The strict rule of Calvin drove out many old
Genevese families, while be caused to be received as citizens
many French, Italian and English refugees, so that Geneva
became not merely the " Protestant Rome " but also quite a
cosmopolitan little city. The Bernese often interfered with the
internal affairs of Geneva (while Calvin, a Frenchman, naturally
looked to wards France), and refused to allow the city to conclude
any alliances save with itself. That alliance was finally renewed
in 1558, while in 1560 the Romanist cantons made one with the
duke of Savoy, a zealous supporter of the old faith. In 1564,
after long negotiations, Bern restored to the duke part of its
conquests of 1536, viz. Gex, the Genevois and the Chablais,
Geneva being thus once more placed amid the dominions of the
duke; though by the same treaty (that of Lausanne, October
1564, Calvin having died the preceding May) the alliance of Bern
with Geneva was maintained. In 1579 Geneva was included in
the alliance concluded by France with Bern and Soleure, while in
1584 Zurich joined Bern in another alliance with Geneva. The
struggle widened as Geneva became a pawn in the great attempt
of the duke of Savoy to bring back his subjects to the old faith,
his efforts being seconded by Francois de Sales, the " apostle of
the Chablais. " But the king of France, for political reasons,
opposed Savoy, with whom, however, he made peace in 1601.
In December 1602 Francois de Sales was consecrated bishop of
Geneva (since 1535 the bishops had lived at Annecy), and a few
days later the duke of Savoy made a final attempt to get hold of
the city by a surprise attack in the night of n-i2th December
1602 (Old Style), known in history as the" Escalade, "as ladders
were used to scale the city walls. It was successfully repelled,
over 200 of the foe being slain, while 17 Genevese only perished.
Filled with joy at their rescue from this attack, the citizens
crowded to their cathedral, where Beza (then 83 years of age)
bid them to sing the i24th Psalm which has ever since been sung
on the anniversary of this great delivery. The peace of St Julien
(2ist of July 1603) marked the final defeat of the duke of Savoy
in the long struggle waged (since 1 290) by his house against the
city of Geneva.
In the charter of 1387 we hear only of the conseil gtntral
(composed of all male heads of families) which acted as the legis-
lature, and elected annually the executive of 4 syndics; no
doubt this form of rule existed earlier than 1387. Even before
1387 there was also the petit conseil or conseil ordinaire or conseil
(troit, a body not recognized by the law, though it became very
GENEVA
powerful; it was composed of the 4 syndics, with several other
counsellors, and acted originally as the adviser of the syndics
who were legally responsible for the rule of the city. In 1457
we first hear of the Council of the Fifty (re-established in 1502
and later known as the Sixty), and in 1526 of the Council of the
Two Hundred (established in imitation of those of Bern and
Fribourg). both being summoned in special cases of urgency.
The members of both were named by the petit conseil, of which,
in turn, the members were confirmed or not by the Two Hundred.
By the Constitution of 1 543 the conseil general had only the right
of choosing the 4 syndics out of a list of 8 presented by the
petit conseil and the Two Hundred, which therefore really elected
them, subject to a formal approbation on the part of the larger
body. This system was slightly modified in 1 568, the constitution
of that date lasting till 1 794. The conseil general fell more and
more into the background, the members of the other councils
gradually obtained the privilege of being irremovable, and the
system of co-optation resulted in the creation of a close monopoly
of political offices in the hands of a few leading families.
During the i:th and i8th centuries, while the Romanist
majority of the Swiss cantons steadily refused to accept Geneva
as even a subordinate member of the Confederation, the city
itself was distracted on several occasions by attempts of the
citizens, as a whole, to gain some share in the aristocratic govern-
ment of the town, though these attempts were only partially
successful. But the last half of the i8th century marks the most
brilliant period in the literary history of Geneva, whether as
regards natives or resident foreigners, while in the succeeding
half century the number of Genevese scientific celebrities is
remarkable. In 1 704 the effects of the French Revolution were
shown in the more liberal constitution granted by the city
government. But in 1 708 the city was annexed to France and
became the capital of the French department of Leman (to be
carefully distinguished from the Swiss canton of Lman, that is
Vaud, of the Helvetic Republic, also set up in 1798), while in
1802, by the Concordat, the ancient bishopric of Geneva was
suppressed. On the fall of Napoleon (1813) the city recovered
its independence, and finally, in 1815, was received as the junior
member of the Swiss confederation, several bits of French and
Savoyard territory (as pointed out above) being added to the
narrow bounds of the old Genevese Republic in order to give
the town some protection against its non-Swiss neighbours.
The constitution of 1814 set up a common form of government
for the city and the canton, the city not obtaining its municipal
independence till the constitution of 1842. From 1535 to 1798
public worship according to the Romanist form had been strictly
forbidden. In 1709 already the first attempts were made to re-
establish it, and in 1803 the church of St Germain was handed
over to the Romanists. The constitution of 1814, looking for-
ward to the annexation of Romanist districts to the city territory
to form the new canton, guaranteed to that body the freedom
of worship, at any rate in these newly gained districts. In 1819
the canton (the new portions of which were inhabited mainly
by Romanists) was annexed to the bishopric of Lausanne, the
bishop in 1821 being authorized to add " and of Geneva " to
his episcopal style. After the adventure of the " Escalade "
the fortifications were once more strengthened and extended,
these works being completed about 1726. But, in 1822, some of
the bastions were converted into promenades, while in 1849 the
rest of the fortifications were pulled down so as to allow the city
to expand and gradually assume its present aspect. .
When Geneva recovered its political independence in 1814 a
new constitution was drawn up, but it was very reactionary,
for there is no mention in it of the sovereignty of the people.
It set up a conseil reprtsentalif or legislature of 250 members,
which named the conseil d'etat or executive, while it was itself
elected by a limited class, for the electoral qualification was
the annual payment of direct taxes to the amount of 20 Swiss
livres or about 23 shillings. It was not till 1842 that this system,
though much criticized, was modified. In the early part of 1841
the " Third of March Association " was formed to watch over
the interests of the citizens, and in November of that year the
government was forced by a popular demonstration to summon
an assembler constituante, which in 1842 elaborated a new con-
stitution that was accepted by the citizens. Besides bestowing
on the city a government distinct from that of the canton, it
set up for the latter a grand conseil or legislature, and a conseil
d'etat or executive of 13 members, both elected for the term of 4
years. But this constitution did not seem liberal enough to
many citizens, so that in 1846 the government gave way to the
Radicals, led by James Fazy (1794-1878), who drew up a con-
stitution that was accepted by a popular vote on the 2ist of May
1847. It was much more advanced than that of 1842, and in its
main features still prevails. From that date till 1864 the Radicals
ruled the state, their head, Fazy, being an able man, though
extravagant and inclined to absolutism. Under his sway the
town was modernized and developed, but the finances were
badly administered, and Fazy became more and more a radical
dictator. " On voudrait faire de Geneve," sighed the conser-
vative, de la Rive, " la plus petite des grandes villes, et pour
moi je prfifdre qu'elle reste la plus grande des petites villes." In
1861 and in 1864 Fazy failed to secure his re-election to the
conseil d'ttat, riots followed his defeat, and the Federal troops
were forced to intervene so as to restore order.
The Democratic party (liberal-conservative) ruled from 1865
to 1870, and did much to improve the finances of the state. In
1870 the Radicals regained the supremacy under their new
chief, Antoine Carteret (1813-1889) and kept it till 1878. This
was a period of religious strife, due to the irritation caused by
the Vatican council, and the pope's attempt to revivethe bishopric
of Geneva. Gaspard Mermillod (1824-1891) was named in 1864
curt of Geneva, and made bishop of Hebron in partibus, acting
as the helper of the bishop of Lausanne. Early in 1873 the
pope named him " vicar apostolic of Geneva," but he was ex-
pelled a few weeks later from Switzerland, not returning till
1883, when he became bishop of Lausanne, being made cardinal
in 1890. The Radical government enacted severe laws as to
the Romanists in Geneva, and gave privileges to the Christian
Catholic Church, which, organized in 1874 in Switzerland, had
absorbed the community founded at Geneva by Pere Hyacinthe,
an ex-Carmelite friar. The Romanists therefore were no longer
recognized by the state, and were persecuted in divers ways,
though the tide afterwards turned in their favour. The Democrats
ruled from 1878 to 1880, and introduced the "Referendum"
(1879) into the cantonal constitution, but, their policy of the
separation of church and state having been rejected by the
people at a vote, they gave way to the Radicals. The Radicals
went out in 1889, and the Democrats held the reins of power till
1897, their leader being Gustave Ador. In 1891 they introduced
the " Initiative " into the cantonal constitution, and in 1892
the principle of proportional representation so far as regards
the grand conseil, while Th. Turrettini did much to increase the
economical prosperity of the city. In 1897 the Radicals came in
again, their leaders being first Georges Favon (1843-1002) till
his death, and then Henri Fazy, a distant relative of James
and an excellent historian. They attempted to rule by aid of
the Socialists, but their power fluctuated as the demands of
the Socialists became greater. On the 3oth of June 1907 the
Genevese, by a popular vote, decided on the separation of Church
and State.
AUTHORITIES. D. Baud-Bovy, Peintres genevois, 1702-1807 (2
vols., Geneva, 1903-1904); J. T. de Belloc, Le Cardinal Mermillod
(Fribourg, 1892); M. Besson, Recherche* sur les origines des eveches
de Genkve, Lausanne et Sion (Fribourg, 1906); J. D. Blavignac,
Armorial genevois (Geneva, 1849), and Etudes sur Geneve depuis
I'antiquM jusqu'd not jours (2 vols., Geneva, 1872-1874); Fr.
Bonivard, Chroniques de Genbee (Reprint) (2 vols., Geneva, 1867);
F. Borel, Les Foires de Geneve au XV siecle (Geneva, 1892); Ch.
Borgeaud, Histoire de I'universite de Geneve, 1550-1708 (Geneva,
1900) ; E. Choisy, La Theocratic d Geneve au temps de Calvin (Geneva,
1898), and L'Atat chretien Calviniste d Geneve au temps de Theodore
de Bete (Geneva, 1002) ; F. de ( 'rue, La Guerre feodale de Geneve
et I'etablissement de la Commune, 1205-1320 (Geneva, 1907); H.
Denkinger, Histoire populaire du canton de Genkve (Geneva, 1905);
E. Doumergue, La Geneve Calviniste (containing a minute topo-
graphical description of 16th-century Geneva, and forming vol. iii.
of the author's Jean Calvin) (Lausanne, 1905); E. Dunant, Let
592
GENEVA CONVENTION
Relations politiques de Geneve avec Berne et les Suisses, de 1536 a 1564
(Geneva, 1894); Documents de V Escalade' de Geneve (Geneva, 1903);
G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, La Campagne genevoise d'apres nature
(Geneva, 1899), and Geneve & travers les siecles (Geneva, 1900);
H. Fazy, Histoire de Geneve a Vepoque de I'Escalade, 1598-1603
(Geneva, 1902), and Les Constitutions de la Republique de Geneve (to
1847) (Geneva, 1890); J. B. G. Galiffe, Geneve historique et archeo-
logique (2 vols., Geneva, 1869-1872); J. A. Gautier, Histoire de
Geneve (to 1691) (6 vols., 1896-1903); F. Gribble and J. H. and
M. H. Lewis, Geneva (London, 1908); J. Jullien, Histoire de Geneve
(new ed., Geneva, 1889); C. Martin, La. Maison de Ville de Geneve
(Geneva, 1906) ; Memoires et documents (publ. by the local Historical
Society since 1821); F. Mugnier, Les Eveques de Geneve-Annecy,
1535-1870 (Paris, 1888); Pierre de Geneve, St (monograph on the
cathedral), 4 parts (Geneva, 1891-1899); A. de Montet, Diction-
naire biographique des Genevois, &c. (2 vols., Lausanne, 1878);
C. L. Perrin, Les Vieux Quartiers de Geneve (Geneva, 1904); A.
Pfleghart, Die schweizerische Uhrenindustrie (Leipzig, 1908); Regeste
genevois avant 1312 (Geneva, 1866); Registres du conseil de Geneve,
vols. i. and ii., 1409-1477 (Geneva, 1900-1906); A. Roget, Histoire
du peuple de Geneve depuis la Reforme iusqu'a I'Escalade (7 vols.,
from 1536^-1568; Geneva, 1870-1883); A. Rilliet, Le Retablissement
du Catholicisms a Genkve il y a deux stecles (Geneva, 1880); P.
Vaucher, Luttes de Geneve centre la Savoie, 1517-1530 (Geneva,
1889); Recueil genealogique suisse (Geneve) (2 vols., Geneva, 1902-
1907). (W. A. B. C.)
GENEVA CONVENTION, an international agreement for the
purpose of improving the condition of wounded soldiers of armies
in the field, originally adopted at an international conference
held at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1864, and afterwards replaced by
the convention of July 6, 1906, also adopted at Geneva. This
later agreement is the one now known as the Geneva Con-
vention. The conference of 1864 was the result of a movement
which sprang from the publication in 1862 of a book entitled
Un Souvenir de Solfirino by Henri Dunant, a Genevese philan-
thropist, in which he described the sufferings of the wounded
at the battle of Solferino with such vivid effect that the subject
became forthwith one of public interest. It was energetically
taken up by M. Gustave Moynier, whose agitation led to an
unofficial congress being held at Geneva in October 1863. This
was followed by an official one at Geneva, called by the Swiss
government in 1864. The convention which was there signed
(22nd August 1864) on behalf of the states represented, after-
wards received the adherence of every civilized power.
At a second conference on the same subject, held at Geneva in
1868, a supplementary convention was drawn up, consisting of
fourteen additional articles, five of which related to war on land
and nine to naval warfare. The additional articles were not,
however, ratified by the chief states, and never became operative.
The Brussels International Conference (1874) for the codification
of the law and customs of war occupied itself with the Geneva
Convention and again drew up a number of articles which were
submitted to the interested governments. But, as in the case of
the additional articles of 1868, no effect was ever given to them.
At the Peace Conference of 1899 Great Britain withdrew her
objections to the application of the convention to maritime
warfare, and agreed to the adoption of a special convention
" adapting to Maritime warfare the principles of the Geneva
Convention." A voeu was also adopted by the conference express-
ing the wish that a special conference should be held as soon as
possible for the purpose of revising the convention of 1864.
In deference to the above voeu the Swiss government in 1901
sounded the other parties to the convention of 1864 as to whether
the time had not come to call the proposed special conference, but
the replies received did not give much encouragement and the
matter was dropped for the time being. By a circular note of the
i7th of February 1903, the Swiss government invited all the states
which had signed or adhered to the Geneva Convention to send
representatives to a conference to be held at Geneva in the
following September. Some governments did not accept the
invitation in time and the conference had to be postponed. At the
beginning of 1004, there being no apparent obstacle, the Swiss
government again invited the powers to send delegates to a
conference in the following May. Meanwhile war broke out
between Russia and Japan and there was again an adjourn-
ment. At length in March 1906 an invitation was accepted
by thirty-five states, only Turkey, Salvador, Bolivia, Venezuela,
Nicaragua and Colombia abstaining and the conference was held
at Geneva in July 1906, when a full revised convention was
adopted, which now takes the place of that of I864. 1 The
adoption of the new Geneva Convention entailed a revision of
the above-mentioned Hague Convention and a new edition of the
latter is one of the documents adopted at the Peace Conference
of 1907.
The new Geneva Convention consists of thirty-three articles
divided into the following chapters, (i.) the wounded and sick;
(ii.) medical units and establishments; (iii.) personnel; (iv.)
material; (v.) convoys of evacuation; (vi.) the distinctive
emblem; (vii.) application and carrying out of the Convention;
(viii.) prevention of abuses and infractions; (ix.) general pro-
visions.
The essential parts of the new Hague Convention of 1907
(i8th of October) adapting the above conventions to maritime
warfare as follows: (N.B. The alterations are in italics. The
parts of the older convention of 1899 which have been suppressed
are in brackets).
i. Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or
assigned by states specially and solely for the purpose of assisting
the wounded, sick or shipwrecked, and the names of which shall
have been communicated to the belligerent powers at the commence-
ment or during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they
are employed, shall be respected and cannot be captured while
hostilities last.
These ships, moreover, are not on the same footing as men-of-war
as regards their stay in a neutral port.
ii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of private
individuals or officially-recognized Relief Societies, shall likewise
be respected and exempt from capture, provided the belligerent
power to whom they belong has given them an official commission
and has notified their names to the hostile power at the commence-
ment of or during hostilities, and in any case before they are employed.
These ships should be furnished with a certificate from the com-
petent authorities, declaring that they had been under their control
while fitting out and on final departure.
iii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of
private individuals or officially-recognized Societies of neutral
countries shall be respected and exempt from capture [if the neutral
power to whom they belong has given them an official commission
and notified their names to the belligerent powers at the commence-
ment of or during hostilities, and in any case before they are em-
ployed] on condition that they are placed under the orders of one of
the belligerents, with the previous consent of their own Government and
with the authorization of the belligerent, and on condition that the latter
shall have notified their names to the enemy at the commencement or
during the course of hostilities, in any event, before they are employed.
iv. The ships mentioned in Articles i., ii. and iii. shall afford relief
and assistance to the wounded, sick and shipwrecked of the bel-
ligerents independently of their nationality.
The governments engage not to use these ships for any military
purpose.
These ships must not in any way hamper the movements of the
combatants.
During and after an engagement they will act at their own risk
and peril.
The belligerents will have the right to control and visit them;
they can refuse to help them, order them off, make them take a
certain course, and put a commissioner on board; they can even
detain them, if important circumstances require it.
As far as possible the belligerents shall inscribe in the sailing
papers of the hospital-ships the orders they give them.
v. The military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being
painted white outside with a horizontal band of green about a metre
and a half in breadth.
The ships mentioned in Articles ii. and iii. shall be distinguished
by being painted white outside with a horizontal band of red about
a metre and a half in breadth.
The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also small craft which
may be used for hospital work, shall be distinguished by similar
painting.
All hospital-ships shall make themselves known by hoisting,
together with their national flag, the white flag with a red cross
provided by the Geneva Convention, and, in addition, if they belong
to a neutral State, by hoisting on the mainmast the national flag of the
belligerent under whose direction they are placed.
Hospital-ships -which, under the terms of Article iv., are detained by
1 Another International Conference held in December 1904 at the
Hague dealt with the status of hospital-ships in time of war. Great
Britain did not take part in this Conference. Her abstention,
however, was not owing to any objection of principle, but purely
to considerations of domestic legislation.
GENEVA, LAKE OF GENEVlfcVE, ST
tin enemy, must lower the motional fiat of Ike belligerent under whom
Ikfywere actt*t-
Tkt abaft-mentioned vessels and boats, desiring at night-lime to
i OH respect due to them, shall, with On consent of the belligerent
Ikty an accompanying, take Ike necessary steps that the special
painting dtnottnt them shall bt sufficiently conspicuous.
vi. [Neutral merchantmen, yachts or vessels, having, or taking on
board, tick, wounded or shipwrecked of the belligerents, cannot be
capture^ for so doing, but they are liable to capture for any violation
of neutrality they may have committed.)
Tk* distinctive signs provided by Article v. can only be used, whether
M time of ptace or tn time of war, to protect ships therein mentioned.
vii. In Ike COM of a fight on board a war-skip, the hospitals shall be
respected and shall recent as muck consideration as possible.
These hospitals and their belongings are subject to the laws of war,
but shall not be employed for any other purpose so long as they shall be
necessary for Ike sick and wounded.
Nevertheless, the commander who has them under his orders, may
make us* of them in case of important military necessity, but he shall
first ensure the safety of the sick and wounded on board.
viii. The protection due to hospital-ships and to hospitals on board
war-skips shall cease if they are used against the enemy.
The fact that Ike crew of hospital-ships, and attached to hospitals on
war-skips, are armed for Ike maintenance of order and for the defence
of tke sick or wommtmf, and At existence of a radio-telegraphic installa-
, is not considered as a justification for withdrawing the
ix. Belligerents may appeal to tke charitable teal of commanders of
neutral merchant vessels, yachts or other craft, to take on board and look
after tke sick and wounded.
Skips having responded to this appeal, as well as those who hate
spontaneously taken on board sick, wounded or shipwrecked men, shall
have Ikt advantage of a special protection and of certain immunities.
In no CMS* shall they be liable to capture on account of such transport;
but subject to any promise made to them they are liable to capture for
any violation of neutrality they may have committed.
I vii. | x. The religious, medical or hospital staff of any captured
ship is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war.
On leaving the ship they take with them the objects and surgical
instruments which are their own private property.
TBM staff shall continue to discharge its duties while necessary,
and can afterwards leave when the commander-in-chief considers it
The belligerents must guarantee to the staff that has fallen into
their hands (the enjoyment of their salaries intact] the same allow-
ances and fay as those of persons of the same rank in their own navy.
|viii.| xi. Sailors and soldiers, and other persons officially attached
to navies or armies, who are taken on board when sick or wounded,
to whatever nation they belong, shall be [protected] respected and
looked after by the captors.
xii. Every vessel of war of a belligerent party may claim the return
of the wounded, sick or shipwrecked who are on board military hospital-
skips, hospital-ships of aid societies or of private individuals, merchant
skips, yachts or other craft, whatever be tke nationality of these vessels.
aii. If tke wounded, sick or shipwrecked are received on board a
neutral skip of war, it shall be provided, as far as possible, that they
may lake no further part in war operations.
xiv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick of one of the belligerents
who fall into the hands of the other, are prisoners of war. The
captor must decide, according to circumstance*, if it is best to keep
them or send them to a port of his own country, to a neutral port,
or even to a hostile port. In the last case, prisoners thus repatriated
cannot serve as long as the war lasts.
xv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick who are landed at a neutral
port with the consent of the local authorities, must, failing a contrary
arrangement between the neutral State and the belligerents, be
guarded by the neutral State, so that they may not be again able to
take part in the military operations.
The expenses of hospital treatment and internment shall be borne by
At State to which the shipwrecked, wounded or sick belong. (T. BA.)
GENEVA. LAKE OF. the largest lake of which any portion
belongs to Switzerland, and indeed in central Europe. It is
called Locus Lemannus by the old Latin and Greek writers, in
4th century A.D. Locus Liusonius or Losanetes, in the middle ages
generally Lac de Lausanne, but from the i6th century onwards
Lac de Geneve, though from the end of the i8th century the name
Lac Leman was revived according to Prof. Forel Le Leman is the
proper form. Iu area is estimated at 223 sq.m. (Swiss Topo-
graphical Bureau) or 225! iq. m. (Forel), of. which about 140 sq.
m. (134$ sq. m. Forel) are politically Swiss (123! sq. m. belonging
to the canton of Vaud, 1 1 J sq. m. to that of Geneva, and 5 sq. m.
to that of the Valais) , the remainder (83 sq. m.) being French since
the annexation of Savoy in 1860 the entire lake is included in
the territory (Swiss or Savoyard) neutralized by the congress of
Vienna in 1815. The French part takes in nearly the whole of
593
the south shore, save its western and eastern extremities, which
belong respectively to Geneva and to the Vulais.
The lake is formed by the Rhone, which enters it at its cast end,
between Villeneuve (E.) and Si Gingolph (W.)> and quits it at its
west end, flowing through the city of Geneva. The only important
tributaries are the Drance (S.), the Venoge (N.) and the Veveysc
l V). The form of the lake is that of a crescent, of which the east
end is broad and rounded, while the west end tapers towards the
city of Geneva. The bird's eye length of the whole lake, from
Chillon to Geneva, is 39 } m. , but along its axis 45 m. The coast-line
of the north shore is 59 m. in length and that of the south shore
44} m. The maximum depth is 1015) ft., but the mean depth
only 500 ft. The surface u 1231$ ft. (Swiss Topog. Bureau) or
1 220 ft. (Forel) above sea-level. The greatest width (between
Merges and Amphion) is 8} m., but the normal width is 5 m. The
lake forms two well-marked divisions, separated by the strait of
Promenthoux, which is 216* ft. in depth, as a bar divides the Grand
Lac from the Petit Lac. The Grand Lac includes the greater portion
of the lake, the Petit Lac (to the west of the strait or bar) being the
special Genevese portion of the lake, and having an area of but
30} sq. m. The unusual blueness of the waters has long been
remarked, and the transparency increases the farther we get from
the point where the Rhone enters it, the deposits which the river
brings down from the Alps gradually sinking to the bottom of the
lake. At Geneva we recall Byron's phrase, the blue rushing of the
arrowy Rhone " (Childe Harold, canto iii. stanza 71). The limit of
visibility of a white disk is 33 ft. in winter (in February 1891 Prof.
Forel observed an extreme of 70$ ft.) and 21 J ft. in summer. Apart
from the seasonal changes in the level of the lake (which is highest
in summer, no doubt because of the melting of the Alpine snows
that feed the Rhone), there are also the remarkable temporary
disturbances of level known as the seiches, in which the whole mass
of water in the lake rhythmically swings from shore to shore.
According to Prof. Forel there are both longitudinal and trans-
verse seiches. The effect of the longitudinal seiches at Geneva is
four times as great as at Chillon, at the other end of the lake, while
the extreme duration of this phenomenon is 73 minutes for the
uninodal longitudinal seiches (35} minutes for the binodal) and 10
minutes for the transverse seiches ( minutes for the binodal).
The maximum height of a recorded setche at Geneva is rather over
6 ft. (October 1841). The currents in the water itself are irregular.
The principal winds that blow over the lake are the bise (from the
N.E.), the vaudaire or Fohn (from the S.E.), the sudois or vent de
pluie (from the S.W.) and the joran (from the N.W.). The storm
winds are the molan (from the Arve valley towards Geneva) and the
bornan (from the Drance valley towards the central portion of the
lake). The lake is not as rich in fish as the other Swiss lakes, one
reason being the obstacle opposed by the Perte du Rhdne to fish
seeking to ascend that river. Prof. Forel knows of but twenty
indigenous species (of which the Fera, or Coregonus fera, is the
principal) and six that have been introduced by man in the igth
century. A number of lake dwellings, of varying dates, have been
found on the shores of the lake. The first steamer placed on the
lake was the " Guillaume Tell," built in 1823 at Geneva by an
Englishman named Church, while in 1873 the present Compagnie
gn6rale de navigation sur le lac I. ('man was formed, and in 1875
constructed the first saloon steamer, the " Mont Blanc." But
despite this service and the railways along each shore, the red lateen
sails of minor craft still brighten the landscape. The railway along
the northern shore runs from Geneva past Nyon, Rolle, Morges,
Ouchy (the port of Lausanne), Vevey and Montreux to Villeneuve
(56} m.). That on the south shore gains the edge of the lake at
Thonon only (22} m. from Geneva), and then runs past Evian and
St Gingolph to Le Bpuveret (20 m. from Thonon). In the harbour
of Geneva two erratic boulders of granite project above the surface
of the water, and are named Pierres du Niton (supposed to be altars
to Neptune). The lower of the two, which is also the farthest from
the shore, has been taken as the basis of the triangulation of Switzer-
land: the official height is 376-86 mitres, which in 1891 was reduced
to 373'54 metres, though 376-6 metres is now said to be the real
figure. Of course the heights given on the Swiss Government map
vary with these different estimates of the point taken as basis.
For all matters relating to the lake, see Prof. F. A. Forel's
monumental work, Le Leman (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892-1904); also
(with fine illustrations) G. Fatio and F. Boissonnas, Autour du lac
Leman (Geneva, 1902). (W. A. B. C.)
GENEVIEVE, or GENOVEFA, ST (c. 422-512), patroness of
Paris, lived during the latter half of the 5th century. According
to tradition, she was born about 422 at Nanterre near Paris;
her parents were called Severus and Gerontia, but accounts
differ widely as to their social position. According to the legend,
she was only in her seventh year when she was induced by St
Germain, bishop of Auxerre, to dedicate herself to the religious
life. On the death of her parents she removed to Paris, where she
distinguished herself by her benevolence, as well as by her austere
life. She is said to have predicted the invasion of the Huns; and
594
GENEVIEVE OF BRABANT GENIUS
when Attila with his army was threatening the city, she persuaded
the inhabitants to remain on the island and encouraged them by
an assurance, justified by subsequent events, that the attack
would come to nothing (451). She is also said to have had
great influence over Childeric, father of Clovis, and in 460 to have
caused a church to be built over the tomb of St Denis. Her
death occurred about 512 and she was buried in the church of the
Holy Apostles, popularly known as the church of St Genevieve.
In 1793 the body was taken from the new church, built in her
honour by Louis XV., when it became the Pantheon, and burnt
on the Place de Greve; but the relics were enshrined in a chapel
of the neighbouring church of St Etienne du Mont, where they
still attract pilgrims; her festival is celebrated with great pomp
on the 3rd of January. The frescoes of the Pantheon by Puvis de
Chavannes are based upon the legend of the saint.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The main source is the anonymous Vita s.
Genoyefae virginis Parisiorum, published in 1687 by D. P. Char-
pentier. The genuineness of this life was attacked by B. Krusch
(Neues Archiv, 1893 and 1894) and defended by L. Duchesne,
Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Charles (1893), Bulletin critique (1897),
p. 473. Krusch continued to hold that the life was an 8th-century
forgery (Scripture* rer. Merov. iii. 204-238). See A. Potthast,
Bibliotheca medii aevi (1331, 1332), and G. Kurth, Clovis, ii. 249-254.
The legends and miracles are given in the Bollandists'ylcto Sanctorum,
January 1st; there is a short sketch by Henri Lesetre, Ste Genevieve,
in " Les Saints " series (Paris, 1900).
GENE VI EVE, GENOVEVA or GENOVEFA, OF BRABANT,
heroine of medieval legend. Her story is a typical example of the
widespread tale of the chaste wife falsely accused and repudiated,
generally on the word of a rejected suitor. Genovefa of Brabant
was said to be the wife of the palatine Siegfried of Treves, and was
falsely accused by the majordomo Golo. Sentenced to death she
was spared by the executioner, and lived for six years with her
son in a cave in the Ardennes nourished by a roe. Siegfried, who
had meanwhile found out Golo's treachery, was chasing the roe
when he discovered her hiding-place, and reinstated her in her
former honour. Her story is said to rest on the history of Marie
of Brabant, wife of Louis II., duke of Bavaria, and count-palatine
of the Rhine, who was tried by her husband and beheaded on the
i8th of January 1256, for supposed infidelity, a crime for which
Louis afterwards had to do penance. The change in name may
have been due to the cult of St Genevieve, patroness of Paris.
The tale first obtained wide popularity in L' Innocence reconnue, ou
vie de Sainte Genevieve de Brabant (pr. 1638) by the Jesuit Rene de
Cerisier (1603-1662), and was a frequent subject for dramatic
representation in Germany. With Genovefa's history may be
compared the Scandinavian ballads of Ravengaard og Memering,
which exist in many recensions. These deal with the history of
Gunild, who married Henry, duke of Brunswick and Schleswig.
When Duke Henry went to the wars he left his wife in charge of
Ravengaard, who accused her of infidelity. Gunild is cleared
by the victory of her champion Memering, the " smallest of
Christian men." The Scottish ballad of Sir Aldingar is a version
of the same story. The heroine Gunhilda is said to have been the
daughter of Canute the Great and Emma. She married in 1036
King Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., and there was
nothing in her domestic history to warrant the legend, which is
given as authentic history by William of Malmesbury (De gestis
regum Anglorum, lib.ii. 188). She was called Cunigund after her
marriage, and perhaps was confused with St Cunigund, the wife
of the emperor Henry II. In the Karlamagnus-saga the innocent
wife is Oliva, sister of Charlemagne and wife of King Hugo, and in
the French Carolingian cycle the emperor's wife Sibille (La Reine
Sibille) or Blanchefleur (M acaire) . Other forms of the legend are
to be found in the story of Doolin's mother in Doon deMayence,
the English romance of Sir Triamour, in the story of the mother of
Octavian in Octavian the Emperor, in the German folk book
Historic von der geduldigen Konigin Crescentia, based on a 12th-
century poem to be found in the Kaiserchronik; and the English
Erl of Toulouse (c. 1400). In the last-named romance it has been
suggested that the story gives the relations between Bernard I.
count of Toulouse, son of the Guillaume d'Orange of the Caro-
lingian romances, and the empress Judith, second wife of Louis
the Pious.
See F. J. Child, English and Scottish Popular Ballads, vol. ii.
(1886), art. "Sir Aldingar"; S. Grundtvig, Danske Kaempeviser
(Copenhagen, 1867); " Sir Triamore," in Bishop Percy's Folio MS.,
ed. Hales and Furnivall, vol. ii. (London, 1868); The Romance of
Octavian, ed. E. M. Goldsmid (Aungervyle Soc., Edinburgh, 1882);
The Erl of Toulous and the Emperes of Almayn, ed. G. Liidtke (Berlin,
1881); B. Seuffert, Die Legende von der Pfalzgrdfin Genovefa (Wiirz-
burg, 1877); B. Golz, Pfalzgrdfin Genovefa in der deutschen Dichtung
(Leipzig, 1897); R. Kohler, " Die deutschen Volksbucher von der
Pfalzgrafin Genovefa," in Zeitschr.fur deutsche Philologie (1874).
GEN6A, GIROLAMO (c. 1476-1551), Italian painter and
architect, was born in Urbino about 1476. At the age of ten
he was apprenticed to the woollen trade, but showed so much
inclination for drawing that he was sent to study under an
obscure painter, and at thirteen under Luca Signorelli, with
whom he remained a considerable while, frequently painting
the accessories of his pictures. He was afterwards for three
years with Pietro Perugino, in company with Raphael. He
next worked in Florence and Siena, along with Timoteo della
Vite; and in the latter city he painted various compositions
for Pandolfo Petrucci, the leading local statesman. Returning
to Urbino, he was employed by Duke Guidobaldo in the decora-
tions of his palace, and showed extraordinary aptitude for
theatrical adornments. Thence he went to Rome; and in the
church of S. Caterina da Siena, in that capital, is one of his most
distinguished works, " The Resurrection," remarkable both for
design and for colouring. He studied the Roman antiquities
with zeal, and measured a number of edifices; this practice,
combining with his previous mastery of perspective, qualified
him to shine as an architect. Francesco Maria della Rovere,
the reigning duke of Urbino, recalled Genga, and commissioned
him to execute works in connexion with his marriage-festivities.
This prince being soon afterwards expelled by Pope Leo X.,
Genga followed him to Mantua, whence he went for a time to
Pesaro. The duke of Urbino was eventually restored to his
dominions; he took Genga with him, and appointed him the
ducal architect. As he neared the close of his career, Genga
retired to a house in the vicinity of Urbino, continuing still to
produce designs in pencil; one, of the " Conversion of St Paul,"
was particularly admired. Here he died on the nth of July
1551. Genga was a sculptor and musician as well as painter and
architect. He was jovial, an excellent talker, and kindly to his
friends. His principal pupil was Francesco Menzocchi. His
own son Bartolommeo (1518-1558) became an architect of
celebrity. In Genga's paintings there is a great deal of freedom,
and a certain peculiarity of character consonant with his versatile,
lively and social temperament. One of his leading works is
in the church of S. Agostino in Cesena a triptych in oil-colours,
representing the " Annunciation," " God the Father in Glory,"
and the " Madonna and Child." Among his architectural
labours are the church of San Giovanni Battista in Pesaro;
the bishop's palace at Sinigaglia; the facade of the cathedral
of Mantua, ranking high among the productions of the i6th
century; and a new palace for the duke of Urbino, built on the
Monte Imperiale. He was also concerned in the fortifications
of Pesaro.
GENISTA, in botany, a genus of about eighty species of shrubs
belonging to the natural order Leguminosae, and natives of
Europe, western Asia and North Africa. Three are native in
Britain. G. anglica is the needle-furze or petty whin, found
on heaths and moist moors, a spinous plant with slender
spreading branches i to 2 ft. long, very small leaves and short
racemes of small yellow papilionaceous flowers. The pollen is
emitted in a shower when an insect alights on it. G. tinctoria,
dyer's green-weed, the flowers of which yield a yellow dye, has
no spines. Other species are grown on rock-work or as green-
house plants.
GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere), a term which originally
meant, in Roman mythology, a generative and protecting spirit,
who has no exact parallel in Greek religion, and at least in his
earlier aspect is of purely Italian origin as one of the deities of
family or household. Every man has his genius, who is not his
creator, but only comes into being with him and is allotted to
him at his birth. As a creative principle the genius is restricted
GENUS
595
to man, his place being taken by a Juno (cp. Juno Lucina,
the goddess of childbirth) in the case of women. The male and
female spirit may thus be distinguished respectively as the
protector of generation and of parturition (tuiela generandi,
pariendi), although the female appears less prominent. It is
the genius of the paterfamilias that keeps the marriage bed,
named after him ledus genialis and dedicated to him, under his
special protection. The genius of a man, as his higher intellectual
elf, accompanies him from the cradle to the grave. In many
ways he exercises a decisive influence on the man's character
and mode of life (Horace, Epistles, ii. 3. 187). The responsi-
bility for happiness or unhappiness, good or bad fortune, lay
with the genius; but this does not suppose the existence of two
genii for man, the one good and the other bad (aya.9o6a.inuv,
uLfooai^r) , an idea borrowed from the Greek philosophers. The
Roman genius, representing man's natural optimism, always
endeavoured to guide him to happiness; that man was intended
to enjoy life is shown by the fact that the Roman spoke of in-
dulging or cheating his genius of his due according as he enjoyed
himself or failed to do so, when he had the opportunity. A man's
birthday was naturally a suitable occasion for honouring his
genius, and on that occasion offerings of incense, wine, garlands,
and cakes were made (Tibullus ii. a; Ovid, Tristia, iii. 13. 18).
As the representative of a man's higher self and participating
in a divine nature, the genius could be sworn by, and a person
could take an oath by his own or some one else's genius. When
under Greek influence the Roman idea of the gods became more
and more anthropomorphized, a genius was assigned to them,
not however as a distinct personality. Thus we hear of the genius
of Jupiter (Jovis Genio, C.l.L. i. 603), Mars, Juno, Pluto,
Priapus. In a more extended sense the genius is also the
generator and preserver of human society, as manifested in the
family, corporate unions, the city, and the state generally. Thus,
the genius publicus Populi Romani probably distinct from the
genius Urbis Romae, to whom an old shield on the Capitol was
dedicated, with an inscription expressing doubt as to the sex
(Genio . . . sive mas she femina) stood in the forum near
the temple of Concord, in the form of a bearded man, crowned
with a diadem, and carrying a cornu copiae and sceptre. It
frequently appears on the coins of Trajan and Hadrian. Sacrifice,
not confined to bloodless offerings like those of the genius of
the bouse, was offered to him annually on the 8th of October.
There were genii of cities, colonies, and even of provinces; of
artists, business people and craftsmen; of cooks, gladiators,
standard-bearers, a legion, a century, and of the army generally
(genius sanctta castrorum peregrinorum totiusque txcrcitus). In
imperial times the genius of Augustus and of the reigning
emperor, as pan of the sacra of the imperial family, were publicly
worshipped. It was a common practice (often compulsory) to
swear by the genius of the emperor, and any one who swore
falsely was flogged. Localities also, such as theatres, baths,
stables, streets, and markets, had their own genius. The word
thus gradually lost its original meaning; the nameless local
genii became an expression for the universality of the divinum
numen and were sometimes identified with the higher gods.
The local genius was usually represented by a snake, the symbol
of the fruitfulness of the earth and of perpetual youth. Hence
snakes were usually kept in houses (Virgil, Aen. v. 95; Persius
L 113), their death in which was considered a bad omen. The
personal genius usually appeared as a handsome youth in a toga,
with head sometimes veiled and sometimes bare, carrying a
drinking cup and cornu copiae, frequently in the position of one
offering sacrifice.
See W. H. Roscber, Lexikon der MyOuUgie, and article by J. A.
Hild in Daretnberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire del anltquiUs, where
full references to ancient and modern authorities are given; L.
Preller, Rimiscke Uytiulope. 3rd ed., by H.Jordan; G.Wissowa,
Religion nnd KuUur der Rimer.
Apart from the Latin use of the term, the plural " genii "
(with a singular " genie ") is used in English, as equivalent to
the Arabic jinn, for a class of spirits, good or bad, such as are
described, for instance, in The Arabian Nights. But " genius "
itself has become the regular English word for the highest
conceivable form of original ability, something altogether
extraordinary and beyond even supreme educational prowess,
and differing, in kind apparently, from " talent," which is
usually distinguished as marked intellectual capacity short
only of the inexplicable and unique endowment to which the
term " genius " is confined. The attempt, however, to define
either quality, or to discriminate accurately between them, has
given rise to continual controversy, and there is no agreement
as to the nature of either; and the commonly quoted definitions
of genius such as Carlyle's " transcendant capacity of taking
trouble, first of all," 1 in which the last three words are usually
forgotten are either admittedly incomplete or are of the
nature of epigrams. Nor can it be said that any substantial
light has been thrown on the matter by the modern physiological
school, Lombroso and others, who regard the eccentricity of genius
as its prime factor, and study it as a form of mental derangement.
The error here is partly in ignoring the history of the word, and
partly in misrepresenting the nature of the fact. There are many
cases, no doubt, in which persons really insane, of one type or
another, or with a history of physical degeneration or epilepsy,
have shown remarkable originality, which may be described
as genius, but there are at least just as many in whom no such
physical abnormality can be observed. The word " genius "
itself however has only gradually been used in English to express
the degree of original greatness which is beyond ordinary powers
of explanation, i.e. far beyond the capacity of the normal human
being in creative work ; and it is a convenient term(like Nietzsche's
" superman ") for application to those rare individuals who in
the course of evolution reveal from time to time the heights to
which humanity may develop, in literature, art, science, or
administrative life. The English usage was originally derived,
naturally enough, from the Roman ideas contained in the term
(with the analogy of the Greek dalfuav), and in the i6th and
1 7th centuries we find it equivalent simply to "distinctive
character or spirit," a meaning still commonly given to the word.
The more modern sense is not even mentioned in Johnson's Dic-
tionary, and represents an 18th-century development, primarily
due to the influence of German writers; the meaning of " dis-
tinctive natural capacity or endowment " had gradually been
applied specially to creative minds such as those of poets and
artists, by contrast with those whose mental ability was due to
the results of education and study, and the antithesis has
extended since, through constant discussions over the attempt
to differentiate between the real nature of genius and that of
" talent," until we now speak of the exceptional person not
merely as having genius but as " a genius." This phraseology
appears to indicate some reversion to the original Roman usage,
and the identification of the great man with a generative spirit.
Modern theories on the nature of " genius " should be studied
with considerable detachment, but there is much that is interesting
and thought-provoking in such works as J. F. Nisbet's Insanity of
Genius (1891), Sir Francis Gallon's Hereditary Genius (new ed.,
1892), and C. Lombroso's Man of Genius (Eng. trans., 1891).
GENLIS, STEPHANIE-FELICITE DU CREST DE SAINT-
AUBIN, COMTESSE DE (1746-1830), French writer and educator,
was born of a noble but impoverished Burgundian family, at
Champcfiry, near Autun, on the asth of January 1 746. When six
years of age she was received as a canoness into the noble chapter
of Alix, near Lyons, with the title of Madame la Comtesse de
Lancy, taken from the town of Bourbon-Lancy. Her entire
education, however, was conducted at home. In 1758, in Paris,
her skill as a harpist and her vivacious wit speedily attracted
admiration. In her sixteenth year she was married to Charles
Brdlart de Genlis, a colonel of grenadiers, who afterwards
became marquis de Sillery, but this was not allowed to interfere
with her determination to remedy her incomplete education, and
to satisfy a taste for acquiring and imparting knowledge. Some
years later, through the influence of her aunt, Madame de
Montesson, who had been clandestinely married to the duke of
Orleans, she entered the Palais Royal as lady-in-waiting to the
duchess of Chartres (i 770). She acted with great energy and zeal
as governess to the daughters of the family, and was in 1781
1 Frederick the Great, iv. iii. 1407.
59 6
GENNA GENNADIUS
appointed by the duke of Chartres to the responsible office of
gouverneur of his sons, a bold step which led to the resignation of
all the tutors as well as to much social scandal, though there is no
reason to suppose that the intellectual interests of her pupils
suffered on that account. The better to carry out her ingenious
theories of education, she wrote several works for their use, the
best known of which are the Thedtre d'iducation (4 vols., 1770-
1780), a collection of short comedies for young people, Les
Annales de la ixrtu (2 vols., 1781) and Adele et Theodore (3 vols.,
1782). Sainte-Beuve tells how she anticipated many modern
methods of teaching. History was taught with the help of magic
lantern slides and her pupils learnt botany from a practical
botanist during their walks. In 1789 Madame de Genlis showed
herself favourable to the Revolution, but the fall of the Girondins
in 1793 compelled her to take refuge in Switzerland alongwith her
pupil Mademoiselle d'Orleans. In this year her husband, the
marquis de Sillery, from whom she had been separated since 1782,
was guillotined. An " adopted " daughter, Pamela, 1 had been
married to Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.i>.) in the preceding
December.
In 1794 Madame de Genlis fixed her residence at Berlin, but,
having been expelled by the orders of King Frederick William,
she afterwards settled in Hamburg, where she supported herself
for some years by writing and painting. After the revolution of
i8th Brumaire (1799) she was permitted to return to France,
and was received with favour by Napoleon, who gave her apart-
ments at the arsenal, and afterwards assigned her a pension of
6000 francs. During this period she wrote largely, and pro-
duced, in addition to some historical novels, her best romance,
Mademoiselle de Clermont (1802). Madame de Genlis had lost
her influence over her old pupil Louis Philippe, who visited her
but seldom, although he allowed her a small pension. Her
government pension was discontinued by Louis XVIII., and she
supported herself largely by her pen. Her later years were
occupied largely with literary quarrels, notably with that which
arose out of the publication of the Diners du Baron d'Holbach
(1822), a volume in which she set forth with a good deal of
sarcastic cleverness the intolerance, the fanaticism, and the
eccentricities of the " philosophes " of the i8th century. She
survived until the 3ist of December 1830, and saw her former
pupil, Louis Philippe, seated on the throne of France.
The numerous works of Madame de Genlis (which considerably
exceed eighty), comprising prose and poetical compositions on a
vast variety of subjects and of various degrees of merit, owed much
of their success to adventitious causes which have long ceased to
operate. They are useful, however (especially the voluminous
Memoires inedits sur le XVIII' siecle, 10 vols., 1825), as furnishing
material for history. Most of her writings were translated into
English almost as soon as they were published. A list of her writings
with useful notes is given by Qudrard in La France litteraire. Start-
ling light was thrown on her relations with the due de Chartres by
the publication (1904) of her correspondence with him in L'Idylle
d'un " gouverneur " by G. Maugras. See also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries
du lundi, vol. iii.; H. Austin Dobson, Four Frenchwomen (1890);
L. Chabaud, Les Precurseurs dufeminisme (1901); W. de Chabreul,
Gouverneur de princes, 1737-1830 (1900) ; and Lettres inedites a . . .
Casimir Baecker, 1802-1830 (1902), edited by Henry Lapauze.
GENNA, a word of obscure origin borrowed from the Assamese,
and used technically by anthropologists to describe a class of
social and religious ordinances based on sanctions which derive
their validity from a vague sense of mysterious danger which
results from disobedience to them. These prohibitions or
system of things forbidden affect the relations, permanent and
temporary, of individuals (either as members of a tribe, village,
clan or household, or as occupying an official position in the
village or clan) towards other persons or groups of persons and
towards material objects which possess intrinsic sanctity. The
term is extended to the communal rites performed by the village,
clan or household, either as magical ceremonies or as prophy-
lactics on special occasions when the social, commensal, conjugal
and alimentary relations of the group affected are subjected to
temporary modifications. These practices and beliefs are observed
among the hill tribes of Assam from the Abors and Mishmis on
the north to the Lusheis on the south, all linguistically members
1 See Gerald Campbell, Edward and Pamela Fitzgerald (1905).
of the Tibeto-Burman group, and among the Khasis, members of
the Mon-Khmer group. Genna and taboo (q.v.) are products of
an identical level of culture and similar psychological processes,
and provide the mechanism of the social and religious systems.
Permanent Gennas. The only universal genna is that which
forbids the intermarriage of members of the same clan. In some
cases in Manipur animals are genna to the tribe i.e. they must
not be killed or eaten but tribal differentiation is, in practice,
based on dialectical distinctions rather than on tribal gennas.
The village as such possesses no permanent gennas, but the clans,
as the units of marriage under the law of exogamy, have distinct
elementary gennas, especially the clan to which the priest-chief
belongs. The most important individual gennas are those which
protect the priest-chief from impurity or contact with " sacred "
substances such as the flesh of animals used in sacrifices. He may
neither eat in a strange house, nor utter words of abuse, nor take
an oath in a dispute, except in his representative capacity on
behalf of his village. The first-fruits are genna to the village
until he eats, thus establishing an opposition between him and his
co-villagers. Married and unmarried women are subject to ali-
mentary gennas; thus unmarried girls are forbidden the flesh of
any male animal or of any female animal dying gravid.
Ritual Gennas. Ritual gennas are held annually to foster the
rice crops, all other industries and activities being genna (for-
bidden) during the cultivating season, to secure good hunting, to
avert sickness, especially epidemics, to take omens, and to lay
finally to rest the ghosts of all that have died within the year.
The village gates are closed, men and women eat apart, and con-
jugal relations are suspended. Special village gennas are held
when rain is needed, when a villager dies in any manner out of the
ordinary, as women in childbirth, when an animal gives birth to
still-born offspring, and when any permanent genna has been
violated. Clan gennas are held for all ordinary cases of death.
Household gennas are held on the occasions of birth (when the
aliment and conduct of the father are specially regulated),
naming, ear-piercing, the first hair-cutting, sickness, and, in certain
areas, tattooing. Individuals are subjected to temporary gennas
as warriors both before and after a head-hunting raid, pregnant
women, married persons at the beginning of their married life,
the wives of the priest-chief, and those who from ambition or
pride of wealth seek to perpetuate their names by erecting a
stone monument, an act which confers the right to wear the
distinctive clothes of the priest-chief which otherwise are genna
to the whole village. Ritual gennas are of varying duration.
Some last for a month while others are complete in two days. As
religious or magical rites, they prevent danger or establish and
restore normal relations with powers which are potentially
harmful or require placation.
AUTHORITIES. Official records of the government of India, Nos.
23 (1855), 27 (1859), 68 (1870); Colonel T. H. Lewin, Hill Tracts
of Chittagong; Report on the Census of Assam (1891), vol. i. Report,
note by A. W. Davis, p. 237 seq. ; Major P. R. T. Gurdon, The
Khasis (1907); T. C. Hodson, Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute, vol. xxxvi. (1906). (T. C. H.)
GENNADIUS II. [as layman GEORGIOS SCHOLARIOS] (d. c.
1468), patriarch of Constantinople from 145410 1456, philosopher
and theologian, was one of the last representatives of Byzantine
learning. Extremely little is known of his life, but he appears to
have been born at Constantinople about 1400 and to have entered
the service of the emperor John VII. Paleologus as imperial
judge or counsellor. Georgios first appears conspicuously
in history as present at the great council held in 1438 at
Ferrara and Florence with the object of bringing about a union
between the Greek and Latin Churches. At the same council
was present the celebrated Platonist, Gemistus Pletho, the most
powerful opponent of the then dominant Aristotelianism, and
consequently the special object of reprobation to Georgios.
In church matters, as in philosophy, the two were opposed,
Pletho maintaining strongly the principles of the Greek Church,
and being unwilling to accept union through compromise,
while Georgios, more politic and cautious, pressed the necessity
for union and was instrumental in drawing up a form which from
its vagueness and ambiguity might be accepted by both parties.
GENOA
597
He wu at a disadvantage because, being a layman, he could not
directly take part in the discussions of the council. But on his re-
turn to Greece his views changed, and he violently and obstinately
opposed the union he had previously urged. In 1448 he became a
monk at Pantokrator and took the name Gennadius. In 1453,
after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, Mahommed II.,
finding that the patriarchal chair had been vacant for some time,
resolved to elect some one to the office, and the choice fell on
Gennadius. While holding the episcopal office Gennadius drew
up, apparently for the use of Mahommed, a lucid confession or
exposition of the Christian faith, which was translated into Turkish
by Ahmed, judge of Beroea, and first printed by A. Brassicanus
at Vienna in 1 530. After a couple of years Gennadius found the
position of patriarch under a Turkish sultan so irksome that he
retired to the monastery of John the Baptist near Scrrae in
Macedonia, where he died about 1468. About one hundred of
his alleged writings exist, the majority in manuscript and of
doubtful authenticity.
The fullest account of his writings is given in Gass, Gennadius
and Plelko (Berlin, 1844), the second part of which contains Pletho's
Contra Gmnadium. See also F. Schultze. Gesch. der Phil. d. Renais-
sance, i. (1874). A list of the known writings of Gennadius is given
m Fabncius. BMiotkrca Graeca, ed. Harles, vol. xi., and what has
been printed is to be found in Migne, Patrol. Gr. vol. clx.
GENOA (anc. Genua, Ital. Geneva, Fr. Genes), the chief port
of Liguria, Italy, and capital of the province of Genoa, i M; in.
N.W. of Leghorn by rail. Pop. (1906) 255,204 (town); 267,248
(commune). The town is situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and is
the chief port and commercial town of Italy, the seat of an
archbishop and a university, the headquarters of the IV. Italian
army corps, and a strong fortress. The city, as seen from the
sea, b " built nobly," and deserves the title it has acquired or
assumed of the Superb. Finding only a small space of level
ground along the shore, it has been obliged to climb the lower
hills of the Ligurian Alps, which afford many a coign of vantage
for the effective display of its architectural magnificence. The
original nucleus of the city is that portion which lies to the east
of the port in the neighbourhood of the old pier (Molo Vecchio).
In the loth century it began to feel a lack of room within the
limits of its fortifications; and accordingly, in the middle of
the 1 2th century, it was found necessary to extend the line of
circumvallation. Even this second circuit, however, was of
small compass, and it was not till 1320-1330 that a third line
took in the greater part of the modern site of the city proper.
This presented about 3 m. of rampart towards the land side,
and can still be easily traced from point to point through the
city, though large portions, especially towards the east, have
been dismantled. The present line of circumvallation dates
from 1626-1632, the period when the independence of Genoa
was threatened by the dukes of Savoy. From the mouth of
the Bisagno in the east, and from the lighthouse point in the west,
it stretches inland over hill and dale to the great fort of Sperone,
i.e. the Spur, on the summits of Monte Peraldo at a height of
1650 ft., the circuit being little less than 12 m., and all the
important points along the line being defended by forts or
batteries.
A portion of the enclosed area is open country, dotted only here
and there with houses and gardens. There are eight gates, the
more important being Porta Pila and Porta Romana towards the
east , and the Porta Lanterna or Lighthouse Gate to the west. The
main architectural features of Genoa are its medieval churches,
with striped facades of black and white marble, and its magnifi-
cent 16th-century palaces. The earlier churches of Genoa show
a mixture of French Romanesque and the Pisan style they are
mostly basilicas with transepts, and as a rule a small dome;
the pillars are sometimes ancient columns, and sometimes
formed of alternate layers of black and white marble. The
facades are simple, without galleries, having only pilasters
projecting from the wall, and are also alternately black and
white. This style continued in Gothic times also. The oldest
is S. Maria di Castello (nth century), the columns and capitals
of which are almost all antique. S. Cosma, S. Donato (with
remains of the loth-century building) and others belong to the
1 2th century, and S. Giovanni di Pri, S. Agostino (with a fine
campanile), S. Stefano, S. Matteo and others to the I3th. The
famous painting of the martyrdom of S. Stephen, by Giulio
Romano, carried off by Napoleon in 1811, was restored to S.
Stefano in 1815. S. Matteo, the church of the D'Oria or Doria
family, was founded in 1126 by Martino Doria. The facade
dates from 1278, and the interior of the edifice dates in i In- main
from 1543. In the crypt is the tomb of Andrea Doria by
Montorsoli, and above the main altar hangs the dagger presented
to the doge by Pope Paul III. To the left of the church is an
exquisite cloister of 1308 with double columns, in which a number
of inscriptions relating to the Doria family and also the statue
of Andrea Doria by Montorsoli are preserved. The little square
in front of the church is surrounded by Gothic palaces of the Doria
family. Of the churches the principal is the comparatively
small cathedral of S. Lorenzo. Tradition makes its first founda-
tion contemporary with St Lawrence himself; and a document
of 987 implies that it was even then the metropolitan church.
Reconstructed about the end of the nth and beginning of the
1 2th century, it was formally consecrated by Pope Gelasius II.
on the 1 8th of October 1118; and since then it has undergone
a large number of extensive though partial renovations. The
facade, with its three elaborate doorways, belongs to the i4th
century and is a copy of French models of the I3th. The two
side portals with Romanesque sculptures belong to the izth-
I4th centuries. Some pagan reliefs are built into the tower.
The interior was rebuilt in 1307, the old columns being uscd.l
The belfry, which rises above the right-hand doorway, was erected
about 1520 by the doge, Ottaviano da Campofragoso, and the
cupola was erected after the designs of the architect Galeazzo
Alessi in 1567. The fine Early Renaissance (1448) sculptural
decorations of the chapel of S. John the Baptist were due to
Domenico Gagini of Bissone on the Lake of Lugano, who later
transferred his activities to Naples and Palermo, and other
Lombard masters. An edict of Innocent VIII. forbids women
to enter the chapel except on one day in the year. In the
treasury of the cathedral is a magnificent silver monstrance
dating from 1553, and an octagonal bowl, the Sacro Catino,
brought from Caesarea in 1101, which corresponds to the de-
scriptions given of the Holy Grail, and was long regarded as an
emerald of matchless value, but was found when broken at Paris,
whither it had been carried by Napoleon I., to be only a remark-
able piece of ancient glass. The choir-stalls are a very fine
work of the isth century and later, with in tarsias. Near the
cathedral is a small 12th-century (?) cloister.
Of older date than the cathedral is the church of S. Ambrose
and S. Andrew, if its first foundation be correctly assigned to
the Milanese bishop Honoratus of the 6th century; but the
present edifice is due to the Society of Jesus, who obtained
possession of the church in 1587. The interior is richly decorated
and contains the " Circumcision " and " St Ignatius " by Rubens,
and the " Assumption " of Guido Rcni. The Annunziata del
Guastato is one of the largest churches in the city, erected in
1587. It is a cruciform structure, with a dome, and the central
nave is supported by fourteen Corinthian columns of white
marble. To the otherwise unfinished brick facade a portal borne
by marble columns was added in 1843. The interior is covered
with gilding and frescoes of the I7th century, and is somewhat
overloaded with rich decoration, while a range of white marble
columns supports the nave. Santa Maria delle Vigne probably
dates from the gth century, but the present structure was erected
in 1586. The campanile, however, is a remarkable work of the
I3th century. Adjoining the church is a ruined cloister of the
i ith century. San Siro, originally the " Church of the Apostles"
and the cathedral of Genoa, was rebuilt by the Benedictines in
the i ith century, and restored and enlarged by the Theatines
in 1576, the facade being added in 1830; in this church in 1339
Simone Boccanera was elected first doge of Genoa. Santa Maria
di Carignano, or more correctly Santa Maria Assunta e SS.
Fabiano e Sebastiano, belongs mainly to the i6th century, and
was designed by Galeazzo Alessi, in imitation of Bramante's
plan for S. Peter's at Rome, as it was then being executed by
GENOA
Michelangelo. The interior is fine, harmonious and restrained,
painted in white and grey, while the colouring of the exterior
is less pleasing. From the highest gallery of the dome 368
ft. above the sea-level, and 194 ft. above the ground a magnifi-
cent view is obtained of the city and the neighbouring coast.
Buildings of the isth century do not occupy an important
place in Genoa, but there are some small private houses and
remains of sculptural decoration of the Early Renaissance to be
seen in the older portions of the town. The palaces of the Genoese
patricians, famous for their sumptuous architecture, their general
effectiveness (though the architectural details are often faulty if
closely examined), and their artistic collections, were many of
them built in the latter part of the i6th century by Galeazzo
Alessi, a pupil of Michelangelo, whose style is of an imposing
and uniform character and displays marvellous ingenuity in
using a limited or unfavourable site to the greatest advantage.
Several of the villas in the vicinity of the city are also his work.
The Via Garibaldi is flanked by a succession of magnificent
palaces, chief among which is the Palazzo Rosso, so called from
its red colour. Formerly the palace of the Brignole-Sale family,
it was presented by the duchess of Galliera to the city in 1874,
along with its valuable contents, its library and picture gallery,
which includes fine examples of Van Dyck and Paris Bordone.
The Palazzo Municipale, built by Rocco Lurago at the end of
the 1 6th century, once the property of the dukes of Turin, has a
beautiful entrance court and a hanging terraced garden fronting
a noble staircase of marble which leads to the spacious council
chamber. In an adjoining room are preserved a bronze tablet
dating from 117 B.C. (see below), two autograph letters of
Columbus, and the violin of Paganini, also a native of Genoa.
Opposite the Palazzo Rosso is the Palazzo Bianco, a palace full
of art treasures bequeathed to the city by the duchess of Galliera
upon her death in 1889, and subsequently converted into a
museum. The Roman antiquities here preserved belong to
other places Luna, Libarna, &c. The Adorno, Giorgio Doria
(both containing small but choice picture-galleries), Parodi and
Serra and other palaces in this street are worthy of mention.
The Via Balbi again contains a number of palaces. The Durazzo
Pallavicini palace has a noble facade and staircase and a rich
picture-gallery. The street takes its name, however, from the
Palazzo Balbi-Senarega, which has Doric colonnades and a fine
orangery. The Palazzo dell' Universita has an extremely fine
court and staircase of the early i7th century. The Palazzo
Reale is also handsome but somewhat later. The Palazzo
Doria in the Piazza del Principe, presented to Andrea Doria
by the Genoese in 1522, is on the other hand earlier; it was
remodelled in 1529 by Montorsoli and decorated with fine frescoes
by Perino del Vaga. The old palace of the doges, originally
a building of the I3th century, to which the tower alone belongs,
the rest of the building having been remodelled in the i6th
century and modernized after a fire in 1777, stands in the Piazza
Umberto Primo near the cathedral, and now contains the
telegraph and other government offices. Another very fine
building is the Gothic Palazzo di S. Giorgio, near the harbour,
dating from about 1260, occupied from 1408 to 1797 by the
Banca di S. Giorgio, and now converted into a produce exchange.
The Campo Santo or Cimitero di Staglieno, about 15 m. from
the city on the banks of the Bisagno, is one of the chief features of
Genoa; its situation is of great natural beauty and it is remark-
able for its sepulchral monuments, many of which have been
executed by the foremost sculptors of modern Italy. The
university, founded in 1471, is a flourishing institution with
faculties in law, medicine, natural science, engineering and
philosophy. Attached to it are a library, an observatory, a
botanical garden, and a physical and natural history museum.
Genoa is also well supplied with technical schools and other
institutions for higher education, while ample provision is made
for primary education. The hospitals and the asylum for the
poor are among the finest institutions of their kind in Italy.
Mention must also be made of the Academy of Fine Arts, the
municipal library, the great Teatro Carlo Felice and the Verdi
Institute of Music.
The irregular relief of its site and its long confinement within
the limits of fortifications, which it had outgrown, have both
contributed to render Genoa a picturesque confusion of narrow
streets, lanes and alleys, varied with stairways climbing the
steeper slopes and bridges spanning the deeper valleys. Large
portions of the town are inaccessible to ordinary carriages, and
many of the important streets have very little room for traffic.
In modern times, however, a number of fine streets and squares
with beautiful gardens have been laid out. The Piazza. Ferrari,
a large irregular space, is the chief focus of traffic and the centre
of the Genoese tramway system; it is embellished with a fine
equestrian statue of Garibaldi, unveiled in 1893, which stands
in front of the Teatro Carlo Felice. Leading from this piazza
is the Via Venti Settembre, a broad, handsome street laid out
since 1887, leading south-east to the Ponte Pila, the central
bridge over the Bisagno. The street is itself spanned by an
elegant bridge carrying the Corso Andrea Podesta, a modern
avenue on the heights above. Adjoining the church of the
Madonna della Consolazione is the new market, a building of
no little beauty. The Via Roma, another important centre of
traffic which gives on to the Via Carlo Felice near the Piazza.
Ferrari, leads to the Piazza, Corvette, in the centre of which
stands the colossal equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II.
To the left is the Villetta Dinegro, a beautiful park belonging to
the city, decorated with cascades and a number of statues and
busts of prominent statesmen and citizens. To the right is
another park, the Acquasola, laid out in 1837 on the site of the
old ramparts. In the west of the city, in front of the principal
station, is the Piazza Acquaverde. On the north side, embowered
in palm trees, is a great statue of Columbus, at whose feet kneels
the figure of America. Opposite is the Palazzo Faraggiana,
with scenes from the life of Columbus in relief on its marble
pediment. Among other modern thoroughfares, the Via di
Circonvallazione a Monte, laid out since 1876 on the hills at the
back of the town, leads by many curves from the Piazza Manin
along the hill-tops westward, and finally descends into the Piazza
Acquaverde; its entire length is traversed by an electric tramway,
and it commands magnificent views of the town. A similar
road, the Via di Circonvallazione a Mare, was laid out in 1893-
1895 on the site of the outer ramparts, and skirts the sea-
front from the Piazza Cavour to the mouth of the Bisagno,
thence ascending the right bank to the Ponte Pila. Genoa
is remarkably well served with electric tramways, which are
found in all the wider streets, and run, often through tunnels,
into the suburbs and to the surrounding country on the east as
far as Nervi and to Pegli on the west. Three funicular railways
from different points of the city give access to the highest parts
of the hills behind the town.
Though its existence as a maritime power was originally due to
its port, it is only since 1870 that Genoa has provided the con-
veniences necessary for the modern development of its trade,
the duke of Galliera's gift of 800,000 to the city in 1875 being
devoted to this purpose. A further enlargement of the harbour was
necessitated upon the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel in 1882,
which extended the commercial range of the port through Switzerland
into Germany. The old harbour is semi-circular in shape, 232
acres in area, with numerous quays, and protected by moles from
southern and south-westerly winds. An outer harbour, 247 acres
in area, has been constructed in front of this by extending the Mojo
Nuovo by the Molo Duca di Galliera, and another basin, the Vittorio
Emanuele III., for coal vessels, with an area of 96 acres, is in course
of construction to the west of this, between it and the lofty lighthouse
which rises on the promontory at the south-west extremity of the
harbour. This basin is to be entered from both the east and the
west, and allows for a future extension in front of San Pier d'Arena
as far as the mouth of the river Polcevera. The port administration
was placed under an autonomous harbour board (consorzio) in 1903.
The largest ships can enter the harbour, which has a minimum depth
of 30 It. ; it has two dry docks, a graving dock and a floating dry
dock. Very large warehouses have been constructed. The exports
aie olive oil, hemp, flax, rice, fruit, wine, hats, cheese, steel, velvets,
gloves, flour, paper, soap and marble, while the main imports' are
coal, cotton, grain, machinery, &c. Genoa has a large emigrant
traffic with America, and a large general passenger steamer traffic
both for America and for the East.
The development of industry has kept pace with that of the
harbour. The Ansaldo shipbuilding yards construct armoured
cruisers both for the Italian navy and for foreign governments.
GENOA
599
The Odero yard*, for the construction of merchant and passenger
Hearecrs. have been similarly extended, and the Face yard is alo
important. A number of foundries and metallurgical works supply
material for repairs and shipbuilding. The su^ar-renning industry
fr been introduced )>v two important companies, and moat of the
capital employed in sugar-refining in other pans of Italy has been
subscribed at Genoa, where the administrative others of the principal
companies and individual refiners are situated. The old industries
of macaroni and cognate products maintain their superiority.
Tanneries ami cotton-spinning and weaving mills have considerably
extended throunhout tne province. Cement works have acquired
an extension previously unknown, more than thirty firms being now
engaged in that branch of industry- The manufactures of crystal-
lised fruits and of filigree silver-work may also be mentioned. The
trade of the port increased from well under 1,000,000 tons in 1876
to 6,164,873 metric tons in 1906 (the latter figure, however, includes
home trade in a proportion of about 12%). Of this large total
5.365,514 tons are imports and only 799,319 tons arc exports, and,
comparing 1906 with 1905, we have a decrease of 34,355 tons on
the exports, and an increase of 436,123 tons on the imports. The
effect upon the railway problem is of course very great, inasmuch
as, while the supply of trucks required per day in 1906 was from
looo to 1200, about 80 of these had to be sent down empty to the
harbour. Of the four main lines which centre on Genoa (l) to
Novi, which is the junction for Alessandria, where lines diverge to
Turin and France via the Mont Cenis.andtoNovaraandSwitzcrland
and France via the Simplon, and for Milan; (2) to Acqui and Pied-
mont; (3) to Savona, Ventimiglia and the French Riviera, along
the coast ; (4) to Spezia and Pisa the first line has to take no less
than 78% oi the traffic. It has indeed two alternative double
line* lor the passage over the Apennines, but one of them has a
maximum gradient of I : 18 and a tunnel over 2 m. long, and the
other has a maximum gradient of I : 62, and a tunnel over 5 m. long.
A marshalling station costing some 800,000, connected directly
with the harbour by tunnels, with 31 m. of rails, capable of taking
2000 trucks, was constructed at Campasso in 1006 north of San Pier
d'Arena (through which till then the traffic of the first three lines,
representing 95% of the total, had to pass). It is computed that
tome 40% of the total commerce of Italy passes through Genoa;
it is indeed the most important harbourinthewesternMediterranean,
with the exception of Marseilles, with which it carries on a keen
rivalry. Genoa has in the past been somewhat handicapped in
the race by the insufficiency of railway communication, which,
owing to the mountains which encircle it, is difficult to secure,
many tunnels being necessary. The general condition of the Italian
railways has also affected it, and the increased traffic has not always
found the necessary facilities in the way of a proper amount of trucks
to receive the goods discharged, leading to considerable encumbrance
of the port ana consequent diversion of a certain amount of trade
elsewhere, and besides this to serious temporary deficiencies in the
coal supply of northern Italy.
The imports of Genoa are divided into four main classes : about
50% of tne total weight is coal, grain about 12%, cotton about
6%. and miscellaneous about 34%- Of the coal imports the great
bulk is from British ports: about half comes from Cardiff and
Barry, one-tenth from other Welsh ports, one-fifth from the Tyne
port*. The amount shows an almost continued increase from
617,798 tons in 1881 to 2,737,919 in 1906. The total of shipping
entered in 1906 was 6586 vessels with a tonnage of 6,867,442, while
that cleared was 661 1 vessels with a tonnage of 6,682,104.
History. Genoa, being a natural harbour of the first rank,
must have been in use as a seaport as early as navigation began
in the Tyrrhenian Sea. We hear nothing from ancient authorities
of its having been visited or occupied by the Greeks, but the
discovery of a Greek cemetery of the 4th century B.C.' proves
it. The construction of the Via Venti Settembre gave occasion
for the discovery of a number of tombs, 85 in all, the bulk of
which dated from the end of the $th and the 4th centuries B.C.
The bodies had in all cases been cremated, and were buried in
small shaft graves, the interment itself being covered by a slab
of limestone. The vases were of the last red figure style, and
were mostly imported from Greece or Magna Graecia, while
the bronze objects came from Etruria, and the brooches (fibulae)
from Gaul. This illustrates the early importance of Genoa as
a trading port, and the penetration of Greek customs, inhumation
being the usual practice of the Ligurians. Genoa is believed to
derive its name from the fact that the shape of this portion of
the coast resembles that of a knee (genu).
We bear of the Romans touching here in 216 B.C., and of its
destruction by the Carthaginians in JOQ B.C. and immediate
restoration by the Romans, who made it and Placentia their
* See Notitu tUrfi icon (1898), 395 (A. d'Andrade), 464 (G.
Ghirardini).
headquarters against the Ligurians. It was reached from Rome
by the Via Aurelia, which ran along the north-west coast, and
its prolongation, which later acquired the name of the Via
Aemilia (Scauri) ; for the latter was only constructed in 109
B.C., and there must have been a coast-road long before, at least
as early as 148 B.C., when the Via Postumia was built from
Genua through Libarna (mod. Serravalle, where remains of an
amphitheatre and inscriptions have been found), Dertona, Iria,
Placentia, Cremona, and thence eastwards. We also have an
inscription of 1 17 B.C. (now preserved in the Palazzo Municipale
at Genoa) giving the text of the decision given by the patroni,
Q. and M. Minucius, of Genua, in accordance with a decree of
the Roman senate, in a controversy between the people of Genua
and the Langenses or Langates (also known as the Viturii), the
inhabitants of a neighbouring hill-town, which was included
in the territory of Genua. But none of the other inscriptions
found in Genoa or existing there at the present day, which are
practically all sepulchral, can be demonstrated to have belonged
to the ancient city; it rs equally easy to suppose that they were
brought from elsewhere by sea (Mommsen in Corp. Inscr. Lot.
v. p. 884). It is only from inscriptions of other places that we
know that it had municipal rights, and we do not know at what
period it obtained them. Classical authors tell us but little of
it. Strabo (iv. 6. 2, p. 202) states that it exported wood, skins
and honey, and imported olive oil and wine, though Pliny speaks
of the wine of the district as the best of Liguria(.r7../V.) xiv. 67.)
The history of Genoa during the dark ages, throughout the
Lombard and Carolingian periods, is but the repetition of the
general history of the Italian communes, which succeeded in
snatching from contending princes and barons the fir* charters
of their freedom. The patriotic spirit and naval prowess of the
Genoese, developed in their defensive wars against the Saracens,
led to the foundation of a popular constitution, and to the rapid
growth of a powerful marine. From the necessity of leaguing
together against the common Saracen foe, Genoa united with
Pisa early in the nth century in expelling the Moslems from the
island of Sardinia, but the Sardinian territory thus acquired
soon furnished occasions of jealousy to the conquering allies, and
there commenced between the two republics the long naval wars
destined to terminate so fatally for Pisa. With not less adroitness
than Venice, Genoa saw and secured all the advantages of the
great carrying trade which the crusades created between Western
Europe and the East. The seaports wrested at the same period
from the Saracens along the Spanish and Barbary coasts became
important Genoese colonies, whilst in the Levant, on the shores of
the Black Sea, and along the banks of the Euphrates were erected
Genoese fortresses of great strength. No wonder if these con-
quests generated in the minds of the Venetians and the Pisans
fresh jealousy against Genoa, and provoked fresh wars; but the
struggle between Genoa and Pisa was brought to a disastrous
conclusion for the latter state by the battle of Meloria in 1284.
The commercial and naval successes of the Genoese during the
middle ages were the more remarkable because, unlike their
rivals, the Venetians, they were the unceasing prey to intestine
discord the Genoese commons and nobles fighting against each
other, rival factions amongst the nobles themselves striving to
grasp the supreme power in the state, nobles and commons alike
invoking the arbitration and rule of some foreign captain as the
sole means of obtaining a temporary truce. From these contests
of rival nobles, in which the names of Spinola and Doria stand
forth with greatest prominence, Genoa was soon drawn into the
great vortex of the Guelph and Ghibellinc factions; but its recog-
nition of foreign authority successively German, Neapolitan and
Milanese gave way to a state of greater independence in 1339,
when the government assumed a more permanent form with the
appointment of the first doge, an office held at Genoa for life, in
the person of Simone Boccancra. Alternate victories and defeats
of the Venetians and Genoese the most terrible being the defeat
sustained by the Venetians at Chioggia in 1380 ended by
establishing the great relative inferiority of the Genoese rulers,
who fell under the power now of France, now of the Visconti of
Milan. The Banca di S. Giorgio, with its large possessions,
6oo
GENOVESI GENSONN
mainly in Corsica, formed during this period the most stable
element in the state, until in 1528 the national spirit appeared to
regain its ancient vigour when Andrea Doria succeeded in
throwing off the French domination and restoring the old form of
government. It was at this very period the close of the 1 5th and
commencement of the i6th century that the genius and daring of
a Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, gave to Spain that new
world, which might have become the possession of his native
state, had Genoa been able to supply him with the ships and sea-
men which he so earnestly entreated her to furnish. The govern-
ment as restored by Andrea Doria, with certain modifications
tending to impart to it a more conservative character, remained
unchanged until the outbreak of the French Revolution and the
creation of the Ligurian republic. During this long period of
nearly three centuries, in which the most dramatic incident is the
conspiracy of Fieschi, the Genoese found no small compensation
for their lost traffic in the East in the vast profits which they made
as the bankers of the Spanish crown and outfitters of the Spanish
armies and fleets both in the old world and the new, and Genoa,
more fortunate than many of the other cities of Italy, was
comparatively immune from foreign domination.
At the end of the i7th century the city was bombarded by the
French, and in 1746, after the defeat of Piacenza, surrendered to
the Austrians, who were, however, soon driven out. A revolt in
Corsica, which began in 1729, was suppressed with the help of the
French, who in 1768 took possession of the island for them-
selves (see CORSICA: History).
The short-lived Ligurian republic was soon swallowed up in the
French empire, not, however, until Genoa had been made to
experience, by the terrible privations of the siege when Massena
held the city against the Austrians (1800), all that was meant by a
participation in the vicissitudes of the French Revolution. In
1814 Genoa rose against the French, on the assurance given by
Lord William Bentinck that the allies would restore to the re-
public its independence. It had, however, been determined by a
secret clause of the treaty of Paris that Genoa should be incorpor-
ated with the dominions of the king of Sardinia. The discontent
created at the time by the provision of the treaty of Paris as
confirmed by the congress of Vienna had doubtless no slight share
in keeping alive in Genoa the republican spirit which, through the
influence of a young Genoese citizen, Joseph Mazzini, assumed
forms of permanent menace not only to the Sardinian monarchy
but to all the established governments of the peninsula. Even
the material benefits accruing from the union with Sardinia and
the constitutional liberty accorded to all his subjects by King
Charles Albert were unable to prevent the republican outbreak of
1848, when, after a short and sharp struggle, the city, momentarily
seized by the republican party, was recovered by General Alfonzo
La Marmora.
Among the earlier Genoese historians the most important are
Bartolommeo Fazio and Jacopo Bracelli, both of the 15th century,
and Paolo Partenopeo, Jacopo Bonfadio, Oberto Foglietta and
Agostino Giustiniano of the i6th. Paganetti wrote the ecclesiastical
history of the city; and Accinelli and Gaggero collected material
for the ecclesiastical archaeology. The memoirs of local writers and
artists were treated by Soprani and Ratti. Among more general
works are Brequigny, Histotre des revolutions de Genes jusqu' en 1748;
Serra, La Storia dell' antica Liguria e di Geneva (Turin, 1834);
Varesi, Storia della repubblica di Genova sino al 1814 (Genoa, 1835-
1839); Canale, Storia dei Genovesi (Genoa, 1844-1854), Nuova
istoria della repubblica di Genova (Florence, 1858), and Storia della
rep. di Genova doll' anno 1528 al 1550 (Genoa, 1874); Blumenthal,
Zur Verfassungs- und Verwaltungseeschichte Genua's im izten Jahr-
hundert (Kalbe an der Saale, 1872); Malleson, Studies from Genoese
History (London, 1875). The Liber jurium reipublicae Genuensis
was edited by Ricotti in the 7th, 8th and gth volumes of the Monu-
menta historiae patriae (Turin, 1854-1857). A great variety of
interesting matter will be found in the Atti della ^ocietil Ligure di
storia patria (1861 sqq.). and in the Giornale Ligustico di archeologia,
storia, e belle arti. The history of the university has been written
by Lorenzo Isnardi, and continued by Em. Celesia (2 vols., Genoa).
(T. As.)
GENOVESI, ANTONIO (1712-1769), Italian writer on philo-
sophy and political economy, was born at Castiglione, near
Salerno, on the ist of November 1712. He was educated for the
church, and, after some hesitation, took orders in 1 736 at Salerno,
where he was appointed professor of eloquence at the theological
seminary. During this period of his life he began the study of
philosophy, being especially attracted by Locke. Dissatisfied
with ecclesiastical life, Genovesi resigned his post, and qualified
as an advocate at Rome. Finding law as distasteful as theology,
he devoted himself entirely to philosophy, of which he was
appointed extraordinary professor in the university of Naples.
His first works were Elementa Metaphysicae (1743 et seq.) and
Logica (i 745) . The former is divided into four parts, Ontosophy ,
Cosmosophy, Theosophy, Psychosophy, supplemented by a
treatise on ethics and a dissertation on first causes. The Logic,
an eminently practical work, written from the point of view of
Locke, is in five parts, dealing with (i) the nature of the human
mind, its faculties and operations; (2) ideas and their kinds; (3)
the true and the false, and the various degrees of knowledge; (4)
reasoning and argumentation; (5) method and the ordering of
our thoughts. If Genovesi does not take a high rank in philo-
sophy, he deserves the credit of having introduced the new order
of ideas into Italy, at the same time preserving a just mean
between the two extremes of sensualism and idealism. Although
bitterly opposed by the partisans of scholastic routine, Genovesi
found influential patrons, amongst them Bartolomeo Intieri, a
Florentine, who in 1754 founded the first Italian or European
chair of political economy (commerce and mechanics), on con-
dition that Genovesi should be the first professor, and that it
should never be held by an ecclesiastic. The fruit of Genovesi's
professorial labours was the Lezioni di Commercio, the first
complete and systematic work in Italian on economics. On the
whole he belongs to the " Mercantile " school, though he does not
regard money as the only form of wealth. Specially noteworthy
in the Lezioni are the sections on human wants as the foundation
of economical theory, on labour as the source of wealth, on
personal services as economic factors, and on the united working
of the great industrial functions. He advocated freedom of the
corn trade, reduction of the number of religious communities, and
deprecated regulation of the interest on loans. In the spirit of
his age he denounced the relics of medieval institutions, such as
entails and tenures in mortmain. Gioja's more important treatise
owes much to Genovesi's lectures. Genovesi died on the 22nd of
September 1769.
See C. Ugoni, Della letteratura italiana nella seconda meta del .tecolo
XVIII (1820-1822); A. Fabroni, Vitae Italorum doctrina excel-
lentium (1778-1799); R. Bobba, Commemorazione di A. Genovesi
(Benevento, 1867).
GENSONNE, ARMAND (1758-1793), French politician, the
son of a military surgeon, was born at Bordeaux on the loth of
August 1758. He studied law, and at the outbreak of the
Revolution was an advocate of the parlement of Bordeaux. In
1790 he became procureur of the Commune, and in July 1791 was
elected by the newly created department of the Gironde a member
of the court of appeal. In the same year he was elected deputy for
the department to the Legislative Assembly. As reporter of the
diplomatic committee, in which he supported the policy of Brissot,
he proposed two of the most revolutionary measures passed by
the Assembly: the decree of accusation against the king's brothers
(January i, 1792), and the declaration of war against the king of
Bohemia and Hungary (April 20, 1792). He was vigorous in his
denunciations of the intrigues of the court and of the " Austrian
committee "; but the violence of the extreme democrats, culmin-
ating in the events of the loth of August, alarmed him; and
when he was returned to the National Convention, he attacked
the Commune of Paris (October 24 and 25). At the trial of Louis
XVI. he supported an appeal to the people, but voted for the
death sentence. As a member of the Committee of General
Defence, and as president of the Convention (March 7-21, 1793),
he shared in the bitter attacks of the Girondists on the Mountain;
and on the fatal day of the 2nd of June his name was among the
first of those inscribed on the prosecution list. He was tried by
the Revolutionary Tribunal on the 24th of October 1793, con-
demned to death and guillotined on the 3ist of the month,
displaying on the scaffold a stoic fortitude. Gensonn6 was
accounted one of the most brilliant of the little band of brilliant
GENTIAN GENTIANACEAE
60 1
orators from the Gironde, though his eloquence was somewhat
coW and he always read his speeches.
GENTIAN, botanically Genliana, a large genus of herbaceous
plants belonging to the natural order Gentianaceae. The genus
comprises about 300 species, most of them perennial plants
with tufted growth, growing in hilly or mountainous districts,
chiefly in the northern hemisphere, some of the blue-flowered
specks ascending to a height of 16,000 ft. in the Himalaya
Mountains. The leaves are opposite, entire and smooth, and
often strongly ribbed. The flowers have a persistent 4- to 5-
lobed calyx and a 4- to s-lobed tubular corolla; the stamens
are equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. The ovary is
one-celled, with two stigmas, either separate and rolled back
or contiguous and funnel-shaped. The fruit when ripe separates
into two valves, and contains numerous small seeds. The
majority of the genus are remarkable for the deep or brilliant
blue colour of their blossoms, comparatively few having yellow,
white, or more rarely red flowers; the last are almost exclusively
found in the Andes.
Only a few species occur in Britain. G. amardia (felwort)
and G. campestris are small annual species growing on chalky
or calcareous hills, and bear in autumn somewhat tubular pale
purple flowers; the latter is most easily distinguished by having
two of the lobes of the calyx larger than the other two, while
the former has the pans of the calyx in fives, and equal in size.
Some intermediate forms between these two species occur,
although rarely, in England; one of these, G. germanica, has
larger flowers of a bluer tint, spreading branches, and a stouter
stem. Some of these forms flower in spring. G. pneumonanthe,
the Calathian violet, is a rather rare perennial species, growing
in moist heathy places from Cumberland to Dorsetshire. Its
average height is from 6 to 9 in. It has linear leaves, and a
bright blue corolla ij in. long, marked externally with five
greenish bands, is without hairs in its throat, and is found in
perfection about the end of August. It is the handsomest of
the British species; two varieties of it are known in cultivation,
one with spotted and the other with white flowers. G. verna
and G. nhalis are small species with brilliant blue flowers and
small leaves. The former is a rare and local perennial, occurring,
however, in Teesdale and the county of Clare in Ireland in toler-
able abundance. It has a tufted habit of growth, and each stem
bears only one flower. It is sometimes cultivated as an edging
for flower borders. G. nivalis in Britain occurs only on a few
of the loftiest Scottish mountains. It differs from the last in
being an annual, and having a more isolated habit of growth, and
in the stem bearing several flowers. On the Swiss mountains
these beautiful little plants are very abundant; and the splendid
blue colour of masses of gentian in flower is a sight which, when
once seen, can never be forgotten. For ornamental purposes
several species are cultivated. The great difficulty of growing
them successfully renders them, however, less common than would
otherwise be the case; although very hardy when once estab-
lished, they are very impatient of removal, and rarely flower
well until the third year after planting. Of the ornamental
specks found in British gardens some of the prettiest are G.
acauiis, G. venw, G. pyrenaica, G. bavarica, G. septemfida and
G. gdida. Perhaps the handsomest and most easily grown is
the first named, often called GenlioneUa, which produces its
large intensely blue flowers early in the spring.
All the species of the genus are remarkable for possessing an
intense but pure bitter taste and tonic properties. About forty
specks are used in medicine in different parts of the world. The
name of felwort given to G. amardia, but occasionally applied
to the whole genus, is stated by Dr Prior to be given in allusion
to these properties fd meaning gall, and wort a plant. In the
same way the Chinese call G. asdtpiadea, and the Japanese G.
Buergeri, " dragon's gall plants," in common with several other
very bitter plants whose roots they use in medicine. G. campeslris
is sometimes used in Sweden and other northern countries as a
substitute for hops.
By far the most important of the species used in medicine is
G. luteo, a large handsome plant 3 or 4 ft. high, growing in open
grassy places on the Alps, Apennines and Pyrenees, as well as
on some of the mountainous ranges of France and Germany,
extending as far east as Bosnia and the Danubian principalities.
It has large oval strongly-ribbed leaves and dense whorls of
conspicuous yellow flowers. Its use in medicine is of very ancient
date. Pliny and Dioscoridcs mention that the plant was noticed
by Gentius, a king of the Illyrians, living 180-167 B -C-> from
whom the name Gentiana is supposed to be derived. During
the middle ages it was much employed in the cure of disease,
and as an ingredient in counter-poisons. In 1551 Hieronymus
Bock (Tragus) (1498-1554), a German priest, physician and
botanist, mentions the use of the root as a means of dilating
wounds.
The root, which is the part used in medicine, is tough and
flexible, scarcely branched, and of a brownish colour and spongy
texture. It has a pure bitter taste and faint distinctive odour.
The bitter principle, known as gentianin, is a glucoside, soluble
in water and alcohol. It can be decomposed into glucose and
gentiopicrin by the action of dilute mineral acids. It is not
precipitated by tannin or subacetate of lead. A solution of
caustic potash or soda forms with gentianin a yellow solution,
and the tincture of the root to which either of these alkalis has
been added loses its bitterness in a few days. Gentian root also
contains gentianic acid (CuHioOj), which is inert and tasteless.
It forms pale yellow silky crystals, very slightly soluble in water
or ether, but soluble in hot strong alcohol and in aqueous alkaline
solutions. This substance is also called gentianin, gentisin and
gentisic acid.
The root also contains 12 to 15% of an uncrystallizable
sugar called gentianose, of which fact advantage has long been
taken in Switzerland and Bavaria for the production of a bitter
cordial spirit called Knzianbranntviein. The use of this spirit,
especially in Switzerland, has sometimes been followed by
poisonous symptoms, which have been doubtfully attributed
to inherent narcotic properties possessed by some species of
gentian, the roots of which may have been indiscriminately
collected with it; but it is quite possible that it may be due to
the contamination of the root with that of Veratrum album, a
poisonous plant growing at the same altitude, and having leaves
extremely similar in appearance and size to those of G. lutea.
Gentian is one of the most efficient of the class of substances
which act upon the stomach so as to invigorate digestion and
thereby increase the general nutrition, without exerting any
direct influence upon any other portion of the body than the
alimentary canal. Having a pleasant taste and being non-
astringent (owing to the absence of tannic acid), it is the most
widely used of all bitter tonics. The British Pharmacopoeia
contains an aqueous extract (dose, 2-8 grains), a compound
infusion with orange and lemon peel (dose, J-i ounce), and a
compound tincture with orange peel and cardamoms (dose }-i
drachm). It is used in dyspepsia, chlorosis, anaemia and
various other diseases, in which the tone of the stomach and
alimentary canal is deficient, and is sometimes added to purgative
medicines to increase and improve their action. In veterinary
medicine it is also used as a tonic, and enters into a well-known
compound called diapente as a chief ingredient.
GENTIANACEAE (the gentian family), in botany, an order of
Dicotyledons belonging to the sub-class Sympetalac or Gamo-
petalae, and containing about 750 species in 64 genera. It has
a world-wide distribution, and representatives adapted to very
various conditions, including, for instance, alpine plants, like
the true gentians (Gcnliana), meadow plants such as the British
CUoraperfoliata(yeUow-viort.) or Erythraea Centaurium(centa.ury) ,
marsh plants such as Menyanlhes trifoliata (bog-bean), floating
water plants such as Limnanthrmum, or steppe and sea-coast
plants such as Cicendia. They are annual or perennial herbs,
rarely becoming shrubby, and generally growing erect, with a
characteristic forked manner of branching; the Asiatic genus
Crawfurdia has a climbing stem; they are often low-growing
and caespitose, as in the alpine gentians.
The leaves are in decussating pairs (that is, each pair is in a
plane at right angles to the previous or succeeding pair), except in
602
GENTILE GENTILESCHI
Menyanthes and a few allied aquatic or marsh genera, where they are
alternate or radical. Several genera, chiefly American, are sapro-
phytes, forming slender low-growing herbs, containing little or no
chlorophyll and with leaves reduced to scales; such are Voyria
and Leiphaimos, mainly tropical American. The inflorescence is
generally cymose, often dichasial, recalling that of Caryophyllaceae,
the lateral branches often becoming monochasial; it is sometimes
reduced to a few flowers or one only, as in some gentians. The
flowers are hermaphrodite, and regular with parts in 4's and 5's,
with reduction to 2 in the pistil ; in Chlora there are 6 to 8 members
in each whorl. The calyx generally forms a tube with teeth or
segments which usually overlap in the bud. The corolla shows great
variety in form; thus among the British genera it is rotate in
Chlora, funnel-shaped in Erythraea, and cylindrical, bell-shaped,
funnel-shaped or salver-shaped in Gentiana; the segments are
generally twisted to
the right in the bud;
the throat is often
fimbriate or bears
scales. The stamens,
as many as, and
alternating with, the
corolla-segments, are
inserted at very dif-
ferent heights on the
corolla-tube; the fila-
ments art slender,
the anthers are
usually attached dor-
sally, are versatile,
and dehisce by two
longitudinal slits;
after escape of the
pollen they some-
times become spir-
ally twisted as in
Erythraea. Dimor-
phic flowers are
frequent, as in the
bog-bean (Meny-
anthes). There is
considerable varia-
tion in the size, shape
and external mark-
ings of the pollen
grains, and a divi-
sion of the order
into tribes and sub-
tribes based prim-
arily on pollen
characters has been
proposed. The form
of the honey-secret-
ing developments of
the disk at the base
of the ovary also
shows considerable
variety. The superior
ovary is generally
one-chambered, with
two variously de-
veloped parietal pla-
centas, which occa-
sionally meet, form-
ing two chambers ;
the ovules are gener-
ally very numerous
and anatropous or
half - anatropous in
form. The style,
which varies much
in length, is simple, with an undivided or bilobed or bipartite
stigma. The fruit is generally a membranous or leathery capsule,
splitting septicidally into two valves; the seeds are small and
numerous, and contain a small embryo in a copious endosperm.
The brilliant colour of the flowers, often occurring in large numbers
(as in the alpine gentians), the presence of honey-glands and the
frequency of dimprphy and dichogamy, are adaptations for polli-
nation by insect visitors. In the true gentians (Gentiana) the flowers
of different species are adapted for widely differing types of insect
visitors. Thus Gentiana lutea, with a rotate yellow corolla and
freely exposed honey, is adapted to short-tongued insect visitors;
G. Pneumonanthe, with a long-tubed, bright blue corolla, is visited
by humble bees; and G. verna, with a still longer narrower tube, is
visited by Lepidoptera.
Gentiana, the largest genus, contains nearly three hundred species,
distributed over Europe (including arctic), five being British, the
mountains of Asia, south-east Australia and New Zealand, the
whole of North America and along the Andes to Cape Horn; it
does not occur in Africa. Bitter principles are general in the
Central figure and figs. 1-4 after Curtis, Flora Lotidincnsis.
Gentiana Amarella (half natural
size).
1, A small form, natural size.
2, Calyx and protruding style.
3, Corolla, laid open.
4, Capsule, bursting into two valves, and
snowing the seeds attached to their
margins.
5, Floral diagram.
vegetative parts, especially in the rhizomes and roots, and have
given a medicinal value to many species, e.g. Gentiana lutea and
others.
GENTILE, in the English Bible, the term generally applied
to those who were not of the Jewish race. It is an adaptation
of the Lat. gentilis, of or belonging to the same gens, the clan or
family; as defined in Paulus ex Festo " gentilis dicitur et ex
eodem genere ortus et is qui simili nomine; ut ait Cincius,
gentiles mihi sunt, qui meo nomine appellantur." In post-
Augustan Latin gentilis became wider in meaning, following the
usage of gens, in the sense of race, nation, and meant '.' national,"
belonging to the same race. Later still the word came to mean
" foreign," i.e. other than Roman, and was so used in the Vulgate,
with gentes, to translate the Hebrew goyyim, nations, LXX. Win},
the non-Israeli tish peoples (see further JEWS).
GENTILE DA FABRIANO (c. I37o-c. 1450), Italian painter,
was born at Fabriano about 1370. He is said to have been a
pupil of Allegretto di Nuzio, and has been supposed to have
received most of his early instruction from Fra Angelico, to
whose manner his bears in some respects a close similarity.
About 1411 he went to Venice, where by order of the doge and
senate he was engaged to adorn the great hall of the ducal
palace with frescoes from the life of Barbarossa. He executed
this work so entirely to the satisfaction of his employers that
they granted him a pension for life, and accorded him the privilege
of wearing the habit of a Venetian noble. About 1422 he went
to Florence, wherein 1423 he painted an "Adoration of the Magi"
for the church of Santa Trinita, which is preserved in the Florence
Accademia; this painting is considered his best work now extant.
To the same period belongs a " Madonna and Child," which is now
in the Berlin Museum. He had by this time attained a wide
reputation, and was engaged to paint pictures for various churches,
more particularly Siena, Perugia, Gubbio and Fabriano. About
1426 he was called to Rome by Martin V. to adorn the church
of St John Lateran with frescoes from the life of John the
Baptist. He also executed a portrait of the pope attended by
ten cardinals, and in the church of St Francesco Romano a
painting of the " Virgin and Child attended by St Benedict and
St Joseph," which was much esteemed by Michelangelo, but is
no longer in existence. Gentile da Fabriano died about 1450.
Michelangelo said of him that his works resembled his name,
meaning noble or refined. They are full of a quiet and serene
joyousness, and he has a naive and innocent delight in splendour
and in gold ornaments, with which, however, his pictures are
not overloaded.
GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DE', Italian
painters.
ORAZIO (c. 1565-1646) is generally named Orazio Lomi de'
Gentileschi; it appears that De' Gentileschi was his correct
surname, Lomi being the surname which his mother had borne
during her first marriage. He was born at Pisa, and studied under
his half-brother Aurelio Lomi, whom in course of time he sur-
passed. He afterwards went to Rome, and was associated with
the landscape-painter Agostino Tasi, executing the figures for the
landscape backgrounds of this artist in the Palazzo Rospigliosi,
and it is said in the great hall of the Quirinal Palace, although by
some authorities the figures in the last-named building are
ascribed to Lanfranco. His best works are " Saints Cecilia and
Valerian," in the Palazzo Borghese, Rome; " David after the
death of Goliath," in the Palazzo Doria, Genoa; and some works
in the royal palace, Turin, noticeable for vivid and uncommon
colouring. At an advanced age Gentileschi went to England at
the invitation of Charles I., and he was employed in the palace at
Greenwich. Vandyck included him in his portraits of a hundred
illustrious men. His works generally are strong in shadow and
positive in colour. He died in England in 1646.
ARTEMISIA (1590-1642), Orazio's daughter, studied first under
Guido, acquired much renown for portrait-painting, and con-
siderably excelled her father's fame. She was a beautiful and
elegant woman; her likeness, limned by her own hand, is to be
seen in Hampton Court. Her most celebrated composition is
" Judith and Holofernes," in the Uffizi Gallery; certainly a work
of singular energy, and giving ample proof of executive faculty,
GENTILI
603
but repulsive and unwomanly in its physical horror. She
accompanied her lather to England, but did not remain there
long; the best picture which she produced for Charles I. was
" David with the head of Goliath." Artemisia refused an offer
of marriage from Agostino Tasi, and bestowed her hand on Pier
Antonio Schiattesi, continuing, however, to use her own sur-
name. She settled in Naples, whither she returned after her
English sojourn; she lived there in no little splendour, and
there she died in 1642. She had a daughter and perhaps other
children.
GENTILI. ALBBRICO ( 1 551-1608), Italian jurist, who has great
claims to be considered the founder of the science of international
law, second son of Matteo Gentili, a physician of noble family and
scientific eminence, was born on the I4th of January 1552 at
Sanginesio, a small town of the march of Ancona which looks
down from the slopes of the Apennines upon the distant Adriatic.
After taking the degree of doctor of civil law at the university of
Perugia, and holding a judicial office at Ascoli, he returned to his
native city, and was entrusted with the task of recasting its
statutes, but, sharing the Protestant opinions of his father,
shared also, together with a brother, Scipio, afterwards a famous
professor at Altdorf, his flight to Carniola, where in 1579 Matteo
was appointed physician to the duchy. The Inquisition con-
demned the fugitives as contumacious, and they soon received
orders to quit the dominions of Austria.
Alberico set out for England, travelling by way of Tubingen and
Heidelberg, and everywhere meeting with the reception to which
his already high reputation entitled him. He arrived at Oxford
in the autumn of 1580, with a commendatory letter from the earl
of Leicester, at that time chancellor of the university, and was
shortly afterwards qualified to teach by being admitted to the
same degree which he had taken at Perugia. His lectures on
Roman law soon became famous, and the dialogues, disputations
and commentaries, which he published henceforth in rapid
succession, established his position as an accomplished civilian,
of the older and severer type, and secured his appointment in
1587 to the regius professorship of civil law. It was, however,
rather by an application of the old learning to the new questions
suggested by the modern relations of states that his labours
have produced their most lasting result. In 1 584 he was consulted
by government as to the proper course to be pursued with
Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, who had been detected in
plotting against Elizabeth. He chose the topic to which his
attention had thus been directed as a subject for a disputation
when Leicester and Sir Philip Sidney visited the schools at
Oxford in the same year; and this was six months later expanded
into a book, the DC legationibus libri Ires. In 1588 Alberico
selected the law of war as the subject of the law disputations at the
annual " Act " which took place in July; and in the autumn
published in London the De Jure Belli commentatio prima. A
second and a third Commentatio followed, and the whole matter,
with large additions and improvements, appeared at Hanau, in
1598, as the De Jure Belli libri tres. It was doubtless in conse-
quence of the reputation gained by these works that Gentili
became henceforth more and more engaged in forensic practice,
and resided chiefly in London, leaving his Oxford work to be
partly discharged by a deputy. In 1600 he was admitted to be a
member of Gray's Inn, and in 1 605 was appointed standing counsel
to the king of Spain. He died on the igth of June 1608, and was
buried, by the side of Dr Matteo Gentili, who had followed his son
to England, in the churchyard of St Helen's, Bishopsgate. By
his wife, Hester de Peigni, he left two sons, Robert and Matthew,
and a daughter, Anna, who married Sir John Colt. His notes of
the cases in which he was engaged for the Spaniards were post-
humously published in 1613 at Hanau, as Hispanicae advocationis
libri duo. This was in accordance with his last wishes; but his
direction that the remainder of his MSS. should be burnt was not
complied with, since fifteen volumes of them found their way, at
the beginning of the iqth century, from Amsterdam to the
Bodleian library.
The true history of Gentili and of his principal writings has
only been ascertained in recent yean, in consequence of a revived
appreciation of the services which he rendered to international
law. The movement to do him honour originated in 1875 in
England, as the result of the inaugural lecture of Prof. T. E.
Holland, and was warmly taken up in Italy. In spreading
through Europe it encountered two curious cross-currents of
opinion, one the ultra-Catholic, which three centuries before had
ordered his name to be erased from all public documents and
placed his works in the Index; another the narrowly-Dutch,
which is, it seems, needlessly careful of the supremacy of Grotius.
These two currents resulted respectively in a bust of Garcia Moreno
being placed in the Vatican, and in the unveiling in 1886, with
much international oratory, of a fine statue of Grotius at Delft.
The English committee, under the honorary presidency of Prince
Leopold, in 1877 erected a monument to the memory of Gentili in
St Helen's church, and saw to the publication of a new edition of
the De Jure Belli. The Italian committee, of which Prince (after-
wards King) Humbert was honorary president, was less successful.
It was only in 1008, the tercentenary of the death of Alberico,
that the statue of the great heretic was at length unveiled in his
native city by the minister of public instruction, in the presence
of numerous deputations from Italian cities and universities.
Preceding writers had dealt with various international questions,
but they dealt with-them singly, and with a servile submission to
the decisions of the church. It was left to Gentili to grasp as a
whole the relations of states one to another, to distinguish
international questions from questions with which they are
more or less intimately connected, and to attempt their solution
by principles entirely independent of the authority of Rome.
He uses the reasonings of the civil and even the canon law, but
he proclaims as his real guide the Jus Naturae, the highest
common sense of mankind, by which historical precedents are to
be criticized and, if necessary, set aside.
His faults are not few. His style is prolix, obscure, and to the
modern reader pedantic enough; but a comparison of his
greatest work with what had been written upon the same subject
by, for instance, Belli, or Soto, or even Ayala, will show that he
greatly improved upon his predecessors, not only by the fulness
with which he has worked out points of detail, but also by clearly
separating the law of war from martial law, and by placing the
subject once for all upon a non-theological basis. If, on the other
hand, the same work be compared with the DeJure Belli et Pacisoi
Grotius, it is at once evident that the later writer is indebted to
the earlier, not only for a large portion of his illustrative erudition,
but also for all that is commendable in the method and arrange-
ment of the treatise.
The following is probably a complete list of the writings of Gentili,
with the places ana dates of their first publication : De juris interpreti-
bus dialogi sex (London, 1582); Lectionum et epist. guae ad jus civile
pertinent libri tres (London, 1583-1584); De legationibus libri Ires
(London, 1585) ; Legal, comitiorum Oxon. actio (London, 1585-1586) ;
De divers, temp, appettationibus (Hanau, 1586) ; De nascendi tempore
disputalio (Witteb., 1586) ; Disputationumdecas prima (London, 1587);
Conditionum liber stngularis (London, 1587); De jure belli comm.
prima (London, 1588); secunda, ib. (1588-1589); tertia (1589); De
injustitia bellica Romanorum (Oxon, 1590); Ad tit. de Malef. et Math.
de Prof, et Med. (Hanau, 1593) : Dejure belli libri tres (Hanau, 1598) ;
De armis Romanis, ffc. (Hanau, 1599); De actoribus et de abusu
mendacii (Hanau, 1599); De ludis scenicis epist. duae (Middleburg,
1600) ; Ad I. Maccabaeorum et de linguarum mistura disp. (Frankfurt,
1600); Lectiones Virgilianae (Hanau, 1600); De. nupttis libri septem
(1601) ; In tit. si quis principi, et ad leg. Jut. maiest. (Hanau, 1604) ;
De latin, vet. Bibl. (Hanau, 1604); De libra Pyano (Oxon, 1604^;
Laudes Acad. Perus. et Oxon. (Hanau, 1605); De unione Anghae
et Scotiae (London, 1605); Disputationes tres, de libris jur. can., de
libris iur. civ., de latinitate vet. vers. (Hanau, 1605); Regales disput.
tres, de pot. regis absolute, de unione regnorum, de vi civium (London,
1605); Hispanicae advocationis libri duo (Hanau. 1613); In tit.
de verb, signif. (Hanau, 1614); De legatis in test. (Amsterdam,
1661). An edition of the Opera omnia, commenced at Naples in
1770, was cut short by the death of the publisher, Grayier, alter the
second volume. Of his numerous unpublished writings, Gentili
complained that four volumes were lost "pessimo pontinciorum
facinore," meaning probably that they were left behind in his flight
to Carniola.
AUTHORITIES. Several tracts by the Abate Benigni in Colucci,
Antitkild Picene (1790); a dissertation by W. Reiger annexed to the
Program of the Groningen Gymnasium for 1867; an inaugural
lecture delivered in 1874 by T. E. Holland, translated into Italian,
604
GENTLE GENTLEMAN
with additions by the author, by A. Saffi (1884) ; the preface to a new
edition of the De jure belli (1877) and Studies in International Law
(1898) (which see, for details as to the family and MSS. of Gentili),
by the same; works by Valdarnini and Fpglietti (1875), Speranza
and De Giorgi (1876), Fiorini (a translation of the De jure belli,
with essay, 1877), A. Saffi (1878), L. Marson (1885), M. Thamm
(1896), B. Brugi (1898) T. A. Walker (an analysis of the principal
works of Gentili) in his History of the Law of Nations, vol. i. (1899) ;
H. Nezarel, in Fillet's Fondateurs de droit international (1904) ;
E. Agabiti (1908). See also E. Comba, in the Rivista Christiana
(1876-1877); Sir T. Twiss, in the Law Review (1878); articles in
the Revue de droit international (1875-1878, 1883, 1886, 1908);
O. Scalvanti, in the Annali dell' Univ. di Perugia, N.S., vol. viii.
(1898). > (T. E. H.)
GENTLE (through the Fr. gentil, from Lat. gentilis, belonging
to the same gens, or family), properly an epithet of one born of a
" good family "; the Latin generosus, " well born" (see GENTLE-
MAN), contrasted with " noble " on the one side and " simple " on
the other. The word followed the wider application of the word
"gentleman"; implying the manners, character and breeding
proper to one to whom that name could be applied, courteous,
polite; hence, with no reference to its original meaning, free from
violence or roughness, mild, soft, kind or tender. With a
physical meaning of soft to the touch, the word is used sub-
stantively of the maggot of the bluebottle fly, used as a bait by
fishermen. At the end of the i6th century the French gentil was
again adapted into English in the form " gentile," later changed
to " genteel." The word was common in the I7th and i8th
centuries as applied to behaviour, manner of living, dress, &c.,
suitable or proper to persons living in a position in society
above the ordinary, hence polite, elegant. From the early part
of the igth century it has also been used in an ironical sense,
and applied chiefly to those who pay an excessive and absurd
importance to the outward marks of respectability as evidence of
being in a higher rank in society than that to which they properly
belong.
GENTLEMAN (from Lat. gentilis, " belonging to a race or
gens," and " man "; Fr. gentilhomme, Span, gentil hombre, Ital.
gentil huomo, in its original and strict signification, a term
denoting a man of good family, the Lat. generosus (its invariable
translation in English-Latin documents). In this sense it is the
equivalent of the Fr. gentilhomme, " nobleman," which latter
term has in Great Britain been long confined to the peerage (see
NOBILITY); and the term " gentry " (" gentrice" from O. Fr.
genterise for gentdise) has much of the significance of the Fr.
noblesse or the Ger. Adel. This was what was meant by the rebels
under John Ball in the I4th century when they repeated:
" When Adam delved and Eve span,
Who was then the gentleman ? '
Selden (Titles of Honor, 1672), discussing the title " gentleman,"
speaks of " our English use of it " as " convertible with nobilis,"
and describes in connexion with it the forms of ennobling in
various European countries. William Harrison, writing a century
earlier, says " gentlemen be those whom their race and blood, or
at the least their virtues, do make noble and known." But for
the complete gentleman the possession of a coat of arms was in
his time considered necessary; and Harrison gives the following
account of how gentlemen were made in Shakespeare's day:
"... gentlemen whose ancestors are not known to come in with
William duke of Normandy (for of the Saxon races yet remaining
we now make none accompt, much less of the British issue) do take
their beginning in England after this manner in our times. Who
soever studieth the laws of the realm, who so abideth in the uni-
versity, giving his mind to his book, or professeth physic and the
liberal sciences, or beside his service in the room of a captain in the
wars, or good counsel given at home, whereby his commonwealth
is benefited, can live without manual labour, and thereto is able
and will bear the port, charge and countenance of a gentleman,
he shall for money have a coat and arms bestowed upon him by
heralds (who in the charter of the same do of custom pretend an-
tiquity and service, and many gay things) and thereunto being
made so good cheap be called master, which is the title that men
give to esquires and gentlemen, and reputed for a gentleman ever
after. Which is so much the less to be disallowed of, for that the
prince doth lose nothing by it, the gentleman being so much subject
to taxes and public payments as is the yeoman or husbandman,
which he likewise doth bear the gladlier for the saving of his repu-
tation. Being called also to the wars (for with the government of
the commonwealth he medleth little) what soever it cost him, he
will both array and arm himself accordingly, and show the more
manly courage, and all the tokens of the person which he repre-
senteth. No man hath hurt by it but himself, who peradventure
will go in wider buskins than his legs will bear, or as our proverb
saith, now and then bear a bigger sail than his boat is able to
sustain." 1
In this way Shakespeare himself was turned, by the grant of
his coat of arms, from a " vagabond " into a gentleman.
The fundamental idea of " gentry," symbolized in this grant
of coat-armour, had come to be that of the essential superiority
of the fighting man; and, as Selden points out (p. 707), the
fiction was usually maintained in the granting of arms "to an
ennobled person though of the long Robe wherein he hath little
use of them as they mean a shield." At the last the wearing
of a sword on all occasions was the outward and visible sign of a
" gentleman "; and the custom survives in the sword worn with
" court dress." This idea that a gentleman must have a coat
of arms, and that no one is a "gentleman" without one is,
however, of comparatively late growth, the outcomeof the natural
desire of the heralds to magnify their office and collect fees for
registering coats; and the same is true of the conception of
" gentlemen " as a separate class. That a distinct order of
" gentry " existed in England very early has, indeed, been
often assumed, and is supported by weighty authorities. Thus,
the late Professor Freeman (Ency. Brit. xvii. p. 540 b, 9th ed.)
said: "Early in the nth century the order of 'gentlemen'
as a separate class seems to be forming as something new. By
the time of the conquest of England the distinction seems to
have been fully established." Stubbs (Const. Hist., ed. 1878,
iii. 544, 548) takes the same view. Sir George Sitwell, however,
has conclusively proved that this opinion is based on a wrong
conception of the conditions of medieval society, and that it is
wholly opposed to the documentary evidence. The fundamental
social cleavage in the middle ages was between the nobiles, i.e.
the tenants in chivalry, whether earls, barons, knights, esquires
or franklins, and the ignobiles, i.e. the villeins, citizens and
burgesses; 2 and between the most powerful noble and the
humblest franklin there was, until the isth century, no " separate
class of gentlemen." Even so late as 1400 the word" gentleman "
still only had the sense of generosus, and could not be used as a
personal description denoting rank or quality, or as the title of
a class. Yet after 1413 we find it increasingly so used; and the
list of landowners in 1431, printed in Feudal Aids, contains,
besides knights, esquires, yeomen and husbandmen (i.e. house-
holders), a fair number who are classed as " gentilman."
Sir George Sitwell gives a lucid explanation of this development,
the incidents of which are instructive and occasionally amusing.
The immediate cause was the statute i Henry V. cap. v. of 1413,
which laid down that in all original writs of action, personal
appeals and indictments, in which process of outlawry lies, the
" estate degree or mystery " of the defendant must be stated,
as well as his present or former domicile. Now the Biack Death
(1349) had put the traditional social organization out of gear.
Before that the younger sons of the nobiles had received their
share of the farm stock, bought or hired land, and settled down as
agriculturists in their native villages. Under the new conditions
1 Description of England, bk. ii. ch. v. p. 128. Henry Peacham,
in his Compleat Gentleman (1634), takes this matter more seriously.
" Neither must we honour or esteem," he writes, " those ennobled,
or made gentle in blood, who by mechanic and base means have
raked up a mass of wealth ... or have purchased an ill coat (of
arms) at a good rate; no more than a player upon the stage, for
wearing a lord's cast suit: since nobility hangeth not upon the
airy esteem of vulgar opinion, but is indeed of itself essential and
absolute " (Reprint, p. 3). Elsewhere (p. 161) he deplores the abuse
of heraldry, which had even in his day produced " all the world
over such a medley of coats " that, but for the commendable activity
of the earls marshals, he feared that yeomen would soon be " as
rare in England as they are in France." See also an amusing
instance from the time of Henry VIII., given in " The Gentility ot
Richard Barker," by Oswald Barron, in the Ancestor, vol. ii. (July
1902).
z Even this classification would seem to need modifying. For
certain of the great patrician families of the cities were certainly
nobiles.
GENTLEMAN
605
this became increasingly impossible, and they were forced to
seek their fortunes abroad in the French wars, or at home as
hangers-on of the great nobles. These men, under the old system,
had no definite status; but they were generosi, men of birth,
and, being now forced to describe themselves, they disdained
to be classed with franklins (now sinking in the social scale),
still more with yeomen or husbandmen; they chose, therefore,
to be described as " gentlemen." On the character of these
earliest " gentlemen " the records throw a lurid light. According
to Sir George Sitwell (p. 76), " the premier gentleman of England,
as the matter now stands, is ' Robert Erdeswyke of Stafford,
geniilman,' " who had served among the men-at-arms of Lord
Talbot at Agincourt (ib. note). He is typical of his class.
" Fortunately for the gentle reader will no doubt be anxious
to follow in his footsteps some particulars of his life may be
gleaned from the public records. He was charged at the
Staffordshire Assizes with housebreaking, wounding with
intent to kill, and procuring the murder of one Thomas Page,
who was cut to pieces while on his knees begging for his
life." If any earlier claimant to the title of " gentleman "
be discovered, Sir George Sitwell predicts that it will be within
the same year (1414) and in connexion with some similar dis-
reputable proceedings. 1
From these unpromising beginnings the separate order of
" gentlemen " was very slowly evolved. The first " gentleman "
commemorated on an existing monument was John Daundelyon
of Margate (d. c. 1445); the first gentleman to enter the House
of Commons, hitherto composed mainly of " valets," was
" William Weston, gentylman "; but even in the latter half of
the i $th century the order was not clearly established. As to the
connexion of " gentilesse " with the official grant or recognition
of coat-armour, that is a profitable fiction invented and upheld
by the heralds; for coat-armour was but the badge assumed by
gentlemen to distinguish them in battle, and many gentlemen of
long descent never had occasion to assume it, and never did.
This fiction, however, had its effect; and by the i6th century,
as has been already pointed out, the official view had become
clearly established that " gentlemen " constituted a distinct
order, and that the badge of this distinction was the heralds'
recognition of the right to bear arms. It is unfortunate that this
view, which is quite unhistorical and contradicted by the present
practice of many undoubtedly " gentle " families of long descent,
has of late years been given a wide currency in popular manuals
of heraldry.
In this narrow sense, however, the word " gentleman " has
long since become obsolete. The idea of " gentry " in the
fOtitirfrtt.l sense of noblesse is extinct in England, and is likely
to remain so, in spite of the efforts of certain enthusiasts to
revive it (see A. C. Fox-Davies, Armorial Families, Edinburgh,
1805). That it once existed has been sufficiently shown; but
the whole spirit and tendency of English constitutional and social
development tended to its early destruction. The comparative
good order of England was not favourable to the continuance
of a class, developed during the foreign and civil wars of the
1 4th and s$th centuries, for whom fighting was the sole honour-
able occupation. The younger sons of noble families became
apprentices in the cities, and there grew up a new aristocracy
of trade. Merchants are still " citizens " to William Harrison;
but he adds " they often change estate with gentlemen, as gentle-
men do with them, by a mutual conversion of the one into the
other." A frontier line between classes so indefinite could not
be maintained, especially as in England there was never a
" nobiliary prefix " to stamp a person as a gentleman by his
1 The designation " gentilman " is, indeed, found some two
centuries earlier. In the Inquisilio maneriorum Ecclesiae 5. Fault
Londin. of A.D. 1222 (\V. A. Hale, Domesday of St Paul's, Camden
Soc., 1858, p. 80) occur* the entry : Adam gentilma dim acra, p' Hi. d.
Thi> is probably the earliest record of the " grand old name of
gentleman "; but Adam, who held half an acre at a rent of three
pence lew by half than that held by " Ralph the bondsman"
(Rad* le bunde) in th same list was certainly not a " gentleman."
" Gentilman " here wa a nickname, perhaps suggested by Adam's
name, and thus in some sort anticipating the wit of the famous
couplet repeated by John Ball's rebels.
surname, as in France or Germany.* The process was hastened,
moreover, by the corruption of the Heralds' College and by the
ease with which coats of arms could be assumed without a shadow
of claim; which tended to bring the "science of armory"
into contempt. The word " gentleman " as an index of rank
had already become of doubtful value before the great political
and social changes of the ipth century gave to it a wider and
essentially higher significance. The change is well illustrated
in the definitions given in the successive editions of the En-
cyclopaedia Britannica. In the 5th edition (1815) " a gentleman
is one, who without any title, bears a coat of arms, or whose
ancestors have been freemen." In the 7th edition (1845) it
still implies a definite social status: " All above the rank of
yeomen." In the 8th edition (1856) this is still its " most ex-
tended sense "; " in a more limited sense " it is defined in the
same words as those quoted above from the 5th edition; but
the writer adds, " By courtesy this title is generally accorded
to all persons above the rank of common tradesmen when their
manners are indicative of a certain amount of refinement and
intelligence." The Reform Bill of 1832 has done its work; the
" middle classes " have come into their own; and the word
" gentleman " has come in common use to signify not a distinction
of blood, but a distinction of position, education and manners.
The test is no longer good birth, or the right to bear arms, but
the capacity to mingle on equal terms' in good society. In its
best use, moreover, " gentleman " involves a certain superior
standard of conduct, due, to quote the 8th edition once more,
to " that self-respect and intellectual refinement which manifest
themselves in unrestrained yet delicate manners." The word
" gentle," originally implying a certain social status, had very
early come to be associated with the standard of manners
expected from that status. Thus by a sort of punning process
the " gentleman " becomes a " gentle-man." Chaucer in the
Meliboeus (c. 1386) says: " Certes he sholde not be called a
gentil man, that . . . ne dooth his diligence and bisynesse, to
kepen his good name "; and in the Wife of Bath's Tale:
" Loke who that is most vertuous alway
Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay
To do the Dentil dedes that he can
And take him for the gretest gentilman,"
and in the Romance of the Rose (c. 1400) we find " he is gentil
bycause he doth as longeth to a gentilman." This use develops
through the centuries, until in 1714 we have Steele, in the
Tatier (No. 207), laying down that " the appellation of Gentle-
man is never to be affixed to a man's circumstances, but to his
Behaviour in them," a limitation over-narrow even for the present
day. In this connexion, too, may be quoted the old story, told
by some very improbably of James II., of the monarch who
replied to a lady petitioning him to make her son a gentleman, "I
could make him a nobleman, but God Almighty could not make
him a gentleman." Selden, however, in referring to similar
stories " that no Charter can make a Gentleman, which is cited as
out of the mouth of some great Princes that have said it," adds
that " they without question understood Gentleman iorGenerosus
in the antient sense, or as if it came from Ccntilis in that sense, as
Genlilis denotes one of a noble Family, or indeed for a Gentleman
by birth." For " no creation could make a man of another
blood than he is." The word " gentleman," used in the wide
sense with which birth and circumstances have nothing to do r is
necessarily incapable of strict definition. For " to behave like a
gentleman " may mean little or much, according to the person by
whom the phrase is used; " to spend money like a gentleman "
may even be no great praise; but " to conduct a business like a
gentleman " implies a standard at least as high as that involved
1 The prefix " de " attached to some English names is in no
sense " nobiliary." In Latin documents de was the equivalent of the
English " of," at de la (A " at " (so de la Pole for Atte Poole, cf.
such names as Attwood, Attwatcr). In English this " of " was in
the 1 5th century dropped; e.g. the grandson of Johannes de Stoke
(John of Stoke) in a 14th-century document becomes John Stoke.
In modern times, under the influence of romanticism, the prefix
" de " has been in some cases " revived " under a misconception, e.g.
" de Trafford," " de Hoghton." Very rarely it is correctly retained
as derived from a foreign place-name, e.g. de Grey.
6o6
GENTZ
in the phrase " noblesse oblige." In this sense of a person of
culture, character and good manners the word " gentleman " has
supplied a gap in more than one foreign language.
The evolution of this meaning of " gentleman " reflects very
accurately that of English society; and there are not wanting
signs that the process of evolution, in the one as in the other, is
not complete. The indefinableness of the word mirrors the
indefinite character of " society " in England; and the use by
" the masses " of " gentleman " as a mere synonym for " man "
has spread pari passu with the growth of democracy. It is a
protest against implied inferiority, and is cherished as the
modern French bourgeois cherishes his right of duelling with
swords, under the ancien regime a prerogative of the noblesse.
Nor is there much justification for the denunciation by purists of
the " vulgarization " and " abuse " of the " grand old name of
gentleman." Its strict meaning has now fallen completely
obsolete. Its current meaning varies with every class of society
that uses it. But it always implies some sort of excellency of
manners or morals. It may by courtesy be over-loosely applied
by one common man to another; but the common man would
understand the reproach conveyed in " You're no gentleman."
AUTHORITIES. Selden, Titles of Honor (London, 1672) ; William
Harrison, Description of England, ed. G. F. J. Furnivall for the New
Shakspere Soc. (London, 1877-1878); Sir George Sitwell, "The
English Gentleman," in r the Ancestor, No. I (Westminster, April
1902); Peacham's Comple'at Gentleman (1634), with an introduction
by G. S. Gordon (Oxford, 1906); A. Smythe-Palmer, D.D., The
Ideal of a Gentleman, or a Mirror for Gentlefolk: A Portrayal in
Literature from the Earliest Times (London, 1908), a very exhaustive
collection of extracts from authors so wide apart as Ptah-hotep
(3300 B.C.) and William Watson, arranged under headings: " The
Historical Idea of a Gentleman," "The Herald's Gentleman," " The
Poet's Gentleman," &c. (W. A. P.)
GENTZ, FRIEDRICH VON (1764-1832), German publicist and
statesman, was born at Breslau on the 2nd of May 1764. His
father was an official, his mother an Ancillon, distantly
related to the Prussian minister of that name. On his father's
transference to Berlin, as director of the mint, the boy was sent
to the Joachimsthal gymnasium there; his brilliant talents,
however, did not develop until later, when at the university of
Konigsberg he fell under the influence of Kant. But though
his intellect was sharpened and his zeal for learning quickened by
the great thinker's influence, Kant's " categorical imperative "
did not prevent him from yielding to the taste for wine, women
and high play which pursued him through life. When in 1785 he
returned to Berlin, he received the appointment of secret secretary
to the royal Generaldirectorium, his talents soon gaining him
promotion to the rank of councillor for war (Kriegsralh) . During
an illness, which kept him virtuous by confining him to his room,
he studied French and English, gaining a mastery of these
languages which, at that time exceedingly rare, opened up for
nim opportunities for a diplomatic career.
His interest in public affairs was, however, first aroused by the
outbreak of the French Revolution. Like most quick-witted
young men, he greeted this at first with enthusiasm; but its
subsequent developments cooled his ardour and he was converted
to more conservative counsels by Burke's Essay on the French
Revolution, a translation of which into German (1794) was his first
literary venture. This was followed, next year, by translations
of works on the Revolution by Mallet du Pan and Mounier, and
at' this time he also founded and edited a monthly journal, the
Neue deutsche Monatsschrift, in which for five years he wrote,
mainly on historical and political questions, maintaining the
principles of British constitutionalism against those of revolution-
ary France. The knowledge he displayed of the principles and
practice of finance was especially remarkable. In 1797, at the
instance of English statesmen, he published a translation of a
history of French finance by Francois d'lvernois (1757-1842), an
eminent Genevese exile naturalized and knighted in England,
extracts from which he had previously given in his journal.
His literary output at this time, all inspired by a moderate
Liberalism, was astounding, and included an essay on the results
of the discovery of America, and another, written in French, on
the English financial system (Essai sur Vital de I' administration
des finances de la Grande-Bretagne, London, 1800). Especially
noteworthy, however, was the Denkschrift or Missive addressed
by him to King Frederick William III. on his accession (1797), in
which, inter alia, he urged upon the king the necessity for granting
freedom to the press and to commerce. For a Prussian official
to venture to give uncalled-for advice to his sovereign was a
breach of propriety not calculated to increase his chances of
favour; but it gave Gentz a conspicuous. position in the public
eye, which his brilliant talents and literary style enabled him to
maintain. Moreover, he was from the first aware" of the probable
developments of the Revolution and of the consequences to Prussia
of the weakness and vacillations of her policy. Opposition to
France was the inspiring principle of the Historisches Journal
founded by him in 1790-1800, which once more held up English
institutions as the model, and became in Germany the mouth-
piece of British policy towards the revolutionary aggressions of
the French republic. In 1801 he ceased the publication of the
Journal, because he disliked the regularity of journalism, and
issued instead, under the title Beitriige zur Geschichte, &c., a
series of essays on contemporary politics. The first of these was
Vber den Ur sprung und Charakter des Krieges gegen diefranzosische
Revolution (1801), by many regarded as Gentz's masterpiece;
another important brochure, Von dem politischen Zustande von
Europa vor und nach der Revolution, a criticism of Hauterive's
De I'etat de la France a la fin de I' an VIII, appeared the same
year.
This activity gained him recognition abroad and gifts of money
from the British and Austrian governments; but it made his
position as an official in Berlin impossible, for the Prussian
government had no mind to abandon its attitude of cautious
neutrality. Private affairs also combined to urge Gentz to leave
the Prussian service; for, mainly through his own fault, a
separation with his wife was arranged. In May 1802, accordingly,
he took leave of his wife and left with his friend Adam Miiller for
Vienna. In Berlin he had been intimate with the Austrian
ambassador, Count Stadion, whose good offices procured him an
introduction to the emperor Francis. The immediate result was
the title of imperial councillor, with a yearly salary of 4000
gulden (December 6th, 1802); but it was not till 1809 that he
was actively employed. Before returning to Berlin to make
arrangements for transferring himself finally to Vienna, Gentz
paid a visit to London, where he made the acquaintance of Pitt
and Granville, who were so impressed with his talents that, in
addition to large money presents, he was guaranteed an annual
pension by the British government in recognition of the value of
the services of his pen against Bonaparte. From this time
forward he was engaged in a ceaseless polemic against every
fresh advance of the Napoleonic power and pretensions; with
matchless sarcasm he lashed " the nerveless policy of the courts,
which suffer indignity with resignation "; he denounced the
recognition of Napoleon's imperial title, and drew up a manifesto
of Louis XVIII. against it. The formation of the coalition and
the outbreak of war for a while raised his hopes, in spite of his
lively distrust of the competence of Austrian ministers; but the
hopes were speedily dashed by Austerlitz and its results. Gentz
used his enforced leisure to write a brilliant essay on " The
relations between England and Spain before the outbreak of war
between the two powers" (Leipzig, 1806); and shortly after-
wards appeared Fragmente aus der neuesten Geschichte des poli-
tischen Gleichgewichts in Europa (translated s.t. Fragments on
the Balance of Power in Europe, London, 1806). This latter,
the last of Gentz's works as an independent publicist, was a
masterly expose of the actual political situation, and at the same
time prophetic in its suggestions as to ho w this should be retrieved :
" Through Germany Europe has perished, through Germany it
must rise again." He realized that the dominance of France
could only be broken by the union of Austria and Prussia, acting
in concert with Great Britain. He watched with interest the
Prussian military preparations, and, at the invitation of Count
Haugwitz, he went at the outset of the campaign to the Prussian
headquarters at Erfurt, where he drafted the king's proclamation
and his letter to Napoleon. The writer was known, and it was in
GEOCENTRIC GEODESY
607
this connexion that Napoleon referred to him as " a wretched
scribe named Gentr, one of those men without honour who sell
themselves for money." In this mission Gentz had no official
mandate from the Austrian government, and whatever hopes he
may have cherished of privately influencing the situation in the
direction of an alliance between the two German powers were
speedily dashed by the campaign of Jena.
The downfall of Prussia left Austria the sole hope of Germany
and of Europe. Gentz, who from the winter of 1806 onwards
divided his time between Prague and the Bohemian watering-
places, seemed to devote himself wholly to the pleasures of
society, his fascinating personality gaining him a ready reception
in those exalted circles which were to prove of use to him later
on in Vienna. But, though he published nothing, his pen was
not idle, and he was occupied with a series of essays on the
future of Austria and the best means of liberating Germany and
redressing the balance of Europe; though he himself confessed
to his friend Adam Muller (August 4th, 1806) that, in the miser-
able circumstances of the time, his essay on " the principles of a
general pacification " must be taken as a " political poem."
In 1800, on the outbreak of war between Austria and France,
Gentz was for the first time actively employed by the Austrian
government under Stadion; he drafted the proclamation an-
nouncing the declaration of war (isth of April), and during the
continuance of hostilities his pen was ceaselessly employed.
But the peace of 1810 and the fall of Stadion once more dashed
his hopes, and, disillusioned and " hellishly blase," he once more
retired to comparative inactivity at Prague. Of Metternich,
Stadion's successor, he had at the outset no high opinion, and
it was not till 1812 that there sprang up between the two men
the dose relations that were to ripen into life-long friendship.
But when Gentz returned to Vienna as Mettemich's adviser and
henchman, he was no longer the fiery patriot who had sympathized
and corresponded with Stein in the darkest days of German
depression and in fiery periods called upon all Europe to free
itself from foreign rule. Disillusioned and cynical, though
dear-sighted as ever, he was henceforth before all things an
Austrian, more Austrian on occasion even than Metternich;
as, e.g., when, during the final stages of the campaign of 1814,
he expressed the hope that Metternich would substitute
" Austria " for " Europe " in his diplomacy and strange advice
from the old hater of Napoleon and of France secure an Austro-
French alliance by maintaining the husband of Marie Louise
on the throne of France.
For ten years, from 1812 onward, Gentz was in closest touch
with all the great affairs of European history, the assistant,
confidant, and adviser of Metternich. He accompanied the
chancellor on all his journeys; was present at all the conferences
that preceded and followed the war; no political secrets were
hidden from him; and his hand drafted all important diplomatic
documents. He was secretary to the congress of Vienna (1814-
1815) and to all the congresses and conferences that followed,
up to that of Verona (1822), and in all his vast knowledge of
men and affairs made him a power. He was under no illusion
as to their achievements; his memoir on the work of the congress
of Vienna is at once an incisive piece of criticism and a monument
of bis own disillusionment. But the Liberalism of his early
years was gone for ever, and he had become reconciled to
Mettemich's view that, in an age of decay, the sole function of
a statesman was to " prop up mouldering institutions." It was
the hand of the author of that offensive Missive to Frederick
William HI., on the liberty of the press, that drafted the Carlsbad
decrees; it was he who inspired the policy of repressing the
freedom of the universities; and he noted in his diary as " a
day more important than that of Leipzig " the session of the
Vienna conference of 1819, in which it was dedded to make the
convocation of representative assemblies in the German states
impossible, by enforcing the letter of Article XIII. of the Act
of Confederation.
A* to Gentz's private life there is not much to be said. He
remained to the last a man of the world, though tormented
with an exaggerated terror of death. His wife he bad never
seen again since their parting at Berlin, and his relations with
other women, mostly of the highest rank, were too numerous
to record. But passion tormented him to the end, and his
infatuation tor Fanny Elssler, the celebrated danseuse, forms
the subject of some remarkable letters to his friend Rahel, the
wife of Varnhagen von Ense (1830-1831). He died on the gth
of June 1832.
Gentz has been very aptly described as a mercenary of the
pen, and assuredly no other such mercenary has ever carved
out for himself a more remarkable career. To have done so
would have been impossible, in spite of his brilliant gifts, had he
been no more than the " wretched scribe " sneered at by Napoleon.
Though by birth belonging to the middle class in a country of
hide-bound aristocracy, he lived to move on equal terms in the
society of princes and statesmen; which would never have been
the case had he been notoriously "bought and sold." Yet
that he was in the habit of receiving gifts from all and sundry
who hoped for his backing is beyond dispute. He notes that at
the congress of Vienna he received 22,000 florins through Talley-
rand from Louis XVIII., while Castlereagh gave him 600,
accompanied by les plus folles promtsses ; and his diary is full
of such entries. Yet he never made any secret of these gifts;
Metternich was aware of them, and he never suspected Gentz
of writing or acting in consequence against his convictions. As
a matter of fact, no man was more free or outspoken in his
criticism of the policy of his employers than this apparently
venal writer. These gifts and pensions were rather in the nature
of subsidies than bribes; they were the recognition by various
powers of the value of an ally whose pen had proved itself so
potent a weapon in their cause.
It is, indeed, the very impartiality and objectivity of his
attitude that make the writings of Gentz such illuminating
documents for the period of history which they cover. Allowance
must of course be made for his point of view, but less so perhaps
than in the case of any other writer so intimately concerned
with the policies which he criticizes. And, apart from their
value as historical documents, Gentz's writings are literary
monuments, classical examples of nervous and luminous German
prose, or of French which is a model for diplomatic style.
A selection of Gentz's works (Ausgewahlte Schriften) was published
by Weick in 5 vols. (1836-1838); his lesser works (Mannheim,
1838-1840) in 5 vols. and Memoires et lettres inMites (Stuttgart,
184^1) were edited by G. Schlesier. Subsequently there have appeared
Brtefe an Chr. Carve (Breslau, 1857); correspondence (Bnefwechsel)
with Adam Muller (Stuttgart, 1857); Brtefe an Pilot (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1868); Aus dem Nachlass Friedrichs von Gentz (2 vols.),
edited by Count Anton Prokesch-Osten (Vienna, 1867); Aus der
alien Registratur der Staats-Kanzlei: Brtefe politischen Inhalts von
und an friedrich von Gentz, edited by C. von Klinkowstrom (Vienna,
1870) ; Depeches incites du chev. de Gentz aux Hospodars de Valachie
1813-1828 (a correspondence on current affairs commissioned by
the Austrian government), edited by Count Anton von Prokesch-
Osten the younger (3 vols., Paris, 1876), incomplete, but partly
supplemented in Oesterretchj Teilnahme an den Befreiungskriegen
(Vienna, 1887), a collection of documents of the greatest value;
Zur Geschichte der orientalischen Frage: Brtefe aus dem Nachlass
Friedrichs von Gentz (Vienna, 1877), edited by Count Prokesch-
Osten the younger. Finally Gentz's diaries, from 1800 to 1828,
an invaluable mine of authentic material, were edited by Varnhagen
von Ense and published after his death under the title Tagebucner,
&c. (Leipzig, 1861 ; new ed., 4 vols., ib. 1873). Several lives of
Gentz exist. The latest is by E. Guglia, Friedrtch von Gentz (Vienna,
1901). (W. A. P.)
GEOCENTRIC, referred to the centre of the earth (Gr. yfj) as
an origin; a term designating especially the co-ordinates of a
heavenly body referred to this origin.
GEODESY (from the Gr. yf), the earth, and Saifiv, to divide),
the science of surveying (q.v.) extended to large tracts of country,
having in view not only the production of a system of maps of
very great accuracy, but the determination of the curvature of
the surface of the earth, and eventually of the figure and
dimensions of the earth. This last, indeed, may be the sole
object in view, as was the case in the operations conducted in
Peru and in Lapland by the celebrated French astronomers
P. Bouguer, C. M. de la Condamine, P. L. M. de Maupertuis,
A. C. Clairault and others; and the measurement of the meridian
6o8
GEODESY
arc of France by P. F. A. M6chain and J. B. J. Delambre had
for its end the determination of the true length of the " metre "
which was to be the legal standard of length of France (see
EARTH, FIGURE OF THE).
The basis of every extensive survey is an accurate triangulation,
and the operations of geodesy consist in the measurement, by
theodolites, of the angles of the triangles; the measurement of
one or more sides of these triangles on the ground; the determin-
ation by astronomical observations of the azimuth of the whole
network of triangles; the determination of the actual position
of the same on the surface of the earth by observations, first for
latitude at some of the stations, and secondly for longitude; the
determination of altitude for all stations.
For the computation, the points of the actual surface of the
earth are imagined as projected along their plumb lines on the
mathematical figure, which is given by the stationary sea-level,
and the extension of the sea through the continents by a system
of imaginary canals. For many purposes the mathematical
surface is assumed to be a plane; in other cases a sphere of
radius 6371 kilometres (20,900,000 ft.). In the case of extensive
operations the surface must be considered as a compressed
ellipsoid of rotation, whose minor axis coincides with the earth's
axis, and whose compression, flattening, or ellipticity is about
1/208.
Measurement of Base Lines.
To determine by actual measurement on the ground the length of a
side of one of the triangles (" base line "), wherefrom to infer the
lengths of all the other sides in the triangulation, is not the least
difficult operation of a trigonometrical survey. When the problem
is stated thus To determine the number of times that a certain
standard or unit of length is contained between two finely marked
points on the surface of the earth at a distance of some miles asunder,
so that the error of the result may be pronounced to lie between
certain very narrow limits, then the question demands very
serious consideration. The representation of the unit of length by
means of the distance between two fine lines on the surface of a bar
of metal at a certain temperature is never itself free from uncertainty
and probable error, owing to the difficulty of knowing at any moment
the precise temperature of the bar; and the transference of this
unit, or a multiple of it, to a measuring bar will be affected not
only with errors of observation, but with errors arising from un-
certainty of temperature of both bars. If the measuring bar be not
self-compensating for temperature, its expansion must be determined
by very careful experiments. The thermometers required for this
purpose must be very carefully studied, and their errors of division
and index error determined.
In order to avoid the difficulty in exactly determining the tempera-
ture of a bar by the mercury thermometer, F. W. Bessel introduced
in 1834 near Konigsberg a compound bar which constituted a
metallic thermometer. 1 A zinc bar is laid on an iron bar two toises
long, both bars being perfectly planed and in free contact, the zinc
bar being slightly shorter and the two bars rigidly united at one end.
As the temperature varies, the difference of the lengths of the bars,
as perceived by the other end, also varies, and affords a quantitative
correction for temperature variations, which is applied to reduce the
length to standard temperature. During the measurement of the
base line the bars were not allowed to come into contact, the interval
being measured by the insertion of glass wedges. The results of the
comparisons of four measuring rods with one another and with the
standards were elaborately computed by the method of least-squares.
The probable error of the measured length of 935 toises (about
6000 ft.) has been estimated as 1/863500 or 1-2/1 (jj. denoting a
millionth). With this apparatus fourteen base lines were measured
in Prussia and some neighbouring states; in these cases a somewhat
higher degree of accuracy was obtained.
The principal triangulation of Great Britain and Ireland has seven
base lines: five have been measured by steel chains, and two,
more exactly, by the compensation bars of General T. F. Colby, an
apparatus introduced in 1827-1828 at Lough Foyle in Ireland. Ten
base lines were measured in India in 1831-1869 by the same apparatus.
This is a system of six compound-bars self -correcting for temperature.
The bars may be thus described: Two bars, one of brass and the
other of iron, are laid in parallelism side by side, firmly united at
their centres, from which they may freely expand or contract; at
the standard temperature they are of the same length. Let AB be
one bar, A'B' the other; draw lines through the corresponding
extremities AA' (to P) and BB' (to Q), and make A'P = B'Q, AA'
being equal to BB'. If the ratio A'P/AP equals the ratio of the co-
efficients of expansion of the bars A'B' and AB, then, obviously,
the distance PQ is constant (or nearly so). In the actual instrument
1 An arrangement acting similarly had been previously introduced
by Borda.
P and Q are finely engraved dots 10 ft. apart. In practice the bars,
when aligned, are not in contact, an interval of 6 in. being allowed
between each bar and its neighbour. This distance is accurately
measured by an ingenious micrometrical arrangement constructed
on exactly the same principle as the bars themselves.
The last base line measured in India had a length of 8913 ft. In
consequence of some suspicion as to the accuracy of the compensation
apparatus, the measurement was repeated four times, the operations
being conducted so as to determine the actual values of the probable
errors of the apparatus. The direction of the line (which is at Cape
Comorin) is north and south. In two of the measurements the brass
component was to the west, in the others to the east ; the differences
between the individual measurements and the mean of the four were
+0-0017, 0-0049, 0-0015, +0-0045 ft- These differences are
very small ; an elaborate investigation of all sources of error shows
that the probable error of a base line in India is on the average
2-8 M- These compensation bars were also used by Sir Thomas
Maclear in the measurement of the base line in his extension of
Lacaille's arc at the Cape. The account of this operation will be
found in a volume entitled Verification and Extension of Lacaille's
Arc of Meridian at the Cape of Good Hope, by Sir Thomas Maclear,
published in 1866. A rediscussion has been given by Sir David
Gill in his Report on the Geodetic Survey of South Africa, &c., 1896.
A very simple base apparatus was employed by W. Struve in his
triangulations in Russia from 1817 to 1855. This consisted of four
wrought-iron bars, each two toises (rather more than 13 ft.) long;
one end of each bar is terminated in a small steel cylinder presenting
a slightly convex surface for contact, the other end carries a contact
lever rigidly connected with the bar. The shorter arm of the lever
terminates below in a polished hemisphere, the upper and longer
arm traversing a vertical divided arc. In measuring, the plane end
of one bar is brought into contact with the short arm of the contact
lever (pushed forward by a weak spring) of the next bar. Each bar
has two thermometers, and a level for determining the inclination
of the bar in measuring. The manner of transferring the end of a
bar to the ground is simply this: under the end of the bar a stake
is driven very firmly into the ground, carrying on its upper surface
a disk, capable of movement in the direction of the measured line
by means of slow-motion screws. A fine mark on this disk is
brought vertically under the end of the bar by means of a theodolite
which is planted at a distance of 25 ft. from the stake in a direction
perpendicular to the base. Struve investigated for each base the
probable errors of the measurement arising from each of these seven
causes: Alignment, inclination, comparisons with standards, read-
ings of index, personal errors, uncertainties of temperature, and the
probable errors of adopted rates of expansion. He found that
0-8 11 was the mean of the probable errors of the seven bases
measured by him. The Austro-Hungarian apparatus is similar;
the distance of the rods is measured by a slider, which rests on one
of the ends of each rod. Twenty-two base lines were measured in
1840-1899.
General Carlos Ibafiez employed in 1858-1879, for the measure-
of Paris, was a thermometric combination of two bars, one of platinum
and one of brass, in length 4 metres, furnished with three levels and
four thermometers. Suppose A, B, C three micrometer microscopes
very firmly supported at intervals of 4 metres with their axes vertical,
and aligned in the plane of the base line by means of a transit
instrument, their micrometer screws being in the line of measurement.
The measuring bar is brought under say A and B, and those micro-
meters read ; the bar is then shifted and brought under B and C. By
repetition of this process, the reading of a micrometer indicating the
end of each position of the bar, the measurement is made.
Quite similar apparatus (among others) has been employed by the
French and Germans. Since, however, it only permitted a distance
of about 300 m. to be measured daily, Ibafiez introduced a simplifi-
cation; the measuring rod being made simply of steel, and provided
with inlaid mercury thermometers. This apparatus was used in
Switzerland for the measurement of three base lines. The accuracy
is shown by the estimated probable errors: ==o-2 n to =*=o-8 it.
The distance measured daily amounts at least to 800 m.
A greater daily distance can be measured with the same accuracy
by means of Bessel's apparatus; this permits the ready measure-
ment of 2000 m. daily. For this, however, it is important to notice
that a large staff and favourable ground are necessary. An im-
portant improvement was introduced by Edward Jaderm of Stock-
holm, who measures with stretched wires of about 24 metres long;
these wires are about 1-65 mm. in diameter, and when in use are
stretched by an accurate spring balance with a tension of 10 kg.*
The nature of the ground has a very trifling effect on this method.
The difficulty of temperature determinations is removed by employ-
ing wires made of invar, an alloy of steel (64 %) and nickel (36 %)
which has practically no linear expansion for small thermal changes
1 Geodetic Survey of South Africa, vol. iii.
eils pour la mesure rapi '
Ed. Guillaume (1906).
injies Nouveaux
AppareUs pour la mesure rapide des bases geod., par J. Ren6 Benott
et Ch. "
GEODESY
609
at ordinary temperature* : this alloy was discovered in 1896 by
Benoit ana Guiuaume of the International Bureau of Weights and
Measure* at Breteuil. Apparently the future of base-line measure-
menu rests with the invar wires of the Jaderin apparatus; next
comes POTTO'S apparatus with invar bare 4 to 5 metres long.
Results have been obtained in the United States, of great im-
portance in view of their accuracy, rapidity of determination and
economy. For the measurement of the arc of meridian in longitude
98* E., in 1900, nine base lines of a total length of 69-2 km. were
measured in six months. The total cost of one base was $1231.
At the beginning and at the end of the field-season a distance of
exactly loo m. was measured with R. S. Woodward's " 5-m. ice-
bar " (invented in 1891); by means of the remoasurement of this
length the standardization of the apparatus was done under the same
conditions as existed in the case of the base measurements. For
the measurements there were employed two steel tapes of too m.
long, provided with supports at distances of 25 m., two of 50 m.,
ana the duplex apparatus of Eimbeck, consisting of four 5-m. rods.
Each base was divided into sections of about 1000 m. ; one of these,
the " test kilometre," was measured with all the five apparatus,
the others only with two apparatus, mostly tapes. The probable
error was about *o-8 *, and the day's work a distance of about
2000 m. Each of the four rods of the duplex apparatus consists of
two bars of brass and steel. Mercury thermometers are inserted
in both bars; these serve for the measurement of the length of the
base lines by each of the bars, as they are brought into their con-
secutive positions, the contact being made by an elastic-sliding
contact. The length of the base lines may be calculated for each
bar only, and also by the supposition that both bars have the same
temperature. The apparatus thus affords three sets of results,
which mutually control themselves, and the contact adjustments
permit rapid work. The same device has been applied to the older
bimetallic -compensating apparatus of Bache-Wilrdemann (six
bases, 1847-1857) and of Scnott. There was also employed a single
rod bimetallic apparatus on F. Porro's principle, constructed by the
brothers Repsold for some base lines. Excellent results have been
more recently obtained with invar tapes.
The following results show the lengths of the same German base
fines as measured by different apparatus:
metres.
Base at Berlin 1864 Apparatus of Bessel 2336-3920
Brunner -3924
Base at Strehlcn
Old base at Bonn
New base at Bonn
1854
1879
1847
1892
1892
1892
Bessel 2762-5824
Brunner -5852
Bessel 2133-9095
9997
2512-9612
Brunner -9696
It is necessary that the altitude above the level of the sea of every
part of a base tine be ascertained by spirit levelling, in order that
the measured length may be reduced to what it would have been
had the measurement been made on the surface of the sea, produced
in imagination. Thus if { be the length of a measuring bar, h its
height at any given position in the measurement, r the radius of
the earth, then the length radially projected on to the level of the
sea is /(i-A/r). In the Salisbury Plain base line the reduction to
the level of the sea is -0-6294 ft.
The total number of base lines measured in Europe up to the
present time is about one hundred and ten, nineteen of which do
not exceed in length 2500 metres, or about i J miles, and three
one in France, the others in Bavaria
exceed 19,000 metres. The question
has been frequently discussed whether
or not the advantage of a long base is
sufficiently great to warrant the ex-
penditure of time that it requires, or
whether as much precision is not obtain-
able in the end by careful triangulation
from a short base. But the answer
cannot be given generally; it must
depend on the circumstances of each
particular case. With Jaderin's appa-
ratus, provided with invar wires, bases
' of 20 to 30 km. long are obtained with-
out difficulty.
In working away from a base line ab,
stations c, d, e, J are carefully selected so
as to obtain from well-shaped triangles
gradually increasing sides. Before, how-
ever, finally leaving the base line, it is
usual to verify it by triangulation thus:
during the measurement two or more
points, as p, q (fig. i), are marked in the
Fio. i.
base inpositions such that the lengths of
the different segments of the line are
then, taking suitable external stations, as H, k, the angles of
the triangles bkp, p*q, kqk, kqa are measured. From these angles
can be computed the ratios of the segments, which must agree, ifall
"'oos are correctly performed, with the ratios resulting from
XL jo
the measures. Leaving the base line, the sides increase up to 10,
30 or 50 miles occasionally, but seldom reaching 100 miles. The
triangulation points may either be natural objects presenting them-
selves in suitable positions, such as church towers; or they may be
objects specially constructed in stone or wood on mountain tops
or other prominent ground. In every case it is necessary that the
precise centre of the station be marked by some permanent mark.
In India no expense is spared in making permanent the principal
trigonometrical stations costly towers in masonry being erected.
It is essential that every trigonometrical station shall present a fine
object for observation from surrounding stations.
I[ori:ontal A ngles.
In placing the theodolite over a station to be observed from, the
first point to be attended to is that it shall rest upon a perfectly
solid foundation. The method of obtaining this desideratum must
depend entirely on the nature of the ground; the instrument must
if possible be supported on rock, or if that be impossible a solid
foundation must pe obtained by digging. When the theodolite is
required to be raised above the surface of the ground in order to
command particular points, it is necessary to build two scaffolds,
the outer one to carry the observatory, the inner one to carry the
instrument, and these two edifices must have no point of contact.
Many cases of high scaffolding have occurred on the English Ordnance
Survey, as for instance at Tnaxted church, where the tower, 80 ft.
high, is surmounted by a spire of 90 ft. The scaffold for the ob-
servatory was carried from the base to the top of the spire; that
for the instrument was raised from a point of the spire 140 ft. above
the ground, having its bearing upon timbers passing through the
spire at that height. Thus the instrument, at a height of 178 ft.
above the ground, was insulated, and not affectecl by the action of
the wind on the observatory.
At every station it is necessary to examine and correct the ad-
justments of the theodolite, which are these: the line of collimation
of the telescope must be perpendicular to its axis of rotation ; this
axis perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument; and the
latter perpendicular to the plane of the horizon. The micrometer
microscopes must also measure correct quantities on the divided
circle or circles. The method of observing is this. Let A, B, C . . .
be the stations to be observed taken in order of azimuth; the
telescope is first directed to A and the cross-hairs of the telescope
made to bisect the object presented by A, then the microscopes or
verniers of the horizontal circle (also of the vertical circle if necessary)
are read and recorded. The telescope is then turned to B, which
is observed in the same manner; then C and the other stations.
Coming round by continuous motion to A, it is again observed, and
the agreement of this second reading with the first is some test of
the stability of the instrument. In taking this round of angles
or " arc," as it is called on the Ordnance Survey it is desirable
that the interval of time between the first and second observations
of A should be as small as may be consistent with due care. Before
taking the next arc the horizontal circle is moved through 20* or
30"; thus a different set of divisions of the circle is used in each
arc, which tends to eliminate the errors of division.
It is very desirable that all arcs at a station should contain one
point in common, to which all angular measurements are thus
referred, the observations on each arc commencing and ending
with this point, which is on the Ordnance Survey called the " referring
object." It is usual for this purpose to select, from among the
points which have to be observed, that one which affords the best
object for precise observation. For mountain tops a " referring
object " is constructed of two rectangular plates of metal in the
same vertical plane, their edges parallel and placed at such a distance
apart that the light of the sky seen through appears as a vertical line
about 10" in width. The best distance for this object is from
I to 2 miles.
This method seems at first sight very advantageous; but if,
however, it be desired to attain the highest accuracy, it is better,
as shown by General Schreiber of Berlin in 1878, to measure only
single angles, dnd as many of these as possible between the directions
to be determined. Division-errors are thus more perfectly eliminated,
and errors due to tne variation in the stability, &c., of the instruments
are diminished. This method is rapidly gaining precedence.
The theodolites used in geodesy vary in pattern and in size the
horizontal circles ranging from 10 in. to 36 in. in diameter. In
Ramsden's 36-in. theodolite the telescope has a focal length _ of
36 in. and an aperture of 2-5 in., the ordinarily used magnifying
power being 54; this last, however, can of course be changed at the
requirements of the observer or of the weather. The probable
error of a single observation of a fine object with this theodolite
is about o'-2. Fig. 2 represents an altazimuth theodolite of an
improved pattern used on the Ordnance Survey. The _ horizontal
circle of 14-in. diameter is read by three micrometer microscopes)
the vertical circle has a diameter of 12 in., and is read by two micro-
scopes. In the great trigonometrical survey of India the theodolites
used in the more important parts of the work have been of 2 and
3 ft. diameter the circle read by five equidistant microscopes.
Every angle is measured twice in each position of the zero of the
horizontal circle, of which there are generally ten; the entire
6io
GEODESY
number of measures of an angle is never less than 20. -An examina-
tion of 1407 angles showed that the probable error of an observed
angle is on the average o"-28.
For the observations of very distant stations it is usual to employ
a heliotrope (from the Gr. j/Xios, sun; Tp67ro$, a turn), invented by
Gauss at Gottingen in 1821. In its simplest form this is a plane
mirror, 4, 6, or 8 in. in diameter, capable of rotation round a horizontal
and a vertical axis. This mirror is placed at the station -to be ob-
served, and in fine weather it is kept so directed that the rays of the
sun reflected by it strike the distant observing telescope. To the
observer the heliotrope presents the appearance of a star of the
first or second magnitude, and is generally a pleasant object for
observing.
Observations at night, with the aid of light-signals, have been
repeatedly made, and with good results, particularly in France
by General Francois Perrier, and more recently in the United
States by the Coast and Geodetic Survey; the signal employed
being an acetylene bicycle-lamp, with a lens 5 in. in diameter.
Particularly noteworthy are the trigonometrical connexions of
Spain and Algeria, which were carried out in 1879 by Generals
Ibanez and Perrier (over a distance of 270 km.), of Sicily and Malta
in 1900, and of the islands of Elba and Sardinia in 1902 by Dr
Guarducci (over distances up to 230 km.); in these cases artificial
FIG. 2. Altazimuth Theodolite.
light was employed: in the first case electric light and in the two
others acetylene lamps.
Astronomical Observations.
The direction of the meridian is determined either by a theodolite
or a portable transit instrument. In the former case the operation
consists in observing the angle between a terrestrial object generally
a mark specially erected and capable of illumination at night
and a close circumpolar star at its greatest eastern or western
azimuth, or, at any rate, when very near that position. If the
observation be made t minutes of time before or after the time of
greatest azimuth, the azimuth then will differ from its maximum
value by (45O/) 2 sin l" sin 2&/ sin z, in seconds of angle, omitting
smaller terms, S being the star's declination and z its zenith distance.
The collimation and level errors are very carefully determined
before and after these observations, and it is usual to arrange the
observations by the reversal of the telescope so that collimation
error shall disappear. If 6, c be the level and collimation errors,
the correction to the circle reading is b cot z c cosec z, b being
positive when the west end of the axis is high. It is clear that any
uncertainty as to the real state of the level will produce a corre-
sponding uncertainty in the resulting value of the azimuth, an
uncertainty which increases with the latitude and is very large
in high latitudes. This may be partly remedied by observing in
connexion with the star its reflection in mercury. In determining
the value of " one division " of a level tube, it is necessary to bear
in mind that in some the value varies considerably with the tempera-
ture. By experiments on the level of Ramsden's 3-foot theodolite,
it was found that though at the ordinary temperature of 66 the
value of a division was about one second, yet at 32 it was about
five seconds.
In a very excellent portable transit used on the Ordnance Survey,
the uprights carrying the felescope are constructed of mahogany,
each upright being built of several pieces glued and screwed together;
the base, which is a solid and heavy plate of iron, carries a reversing
apparatus for lifting the telescope out of its bearings, reversing it
and letting it down again. Thus is avoided the change of tempera-
ture which the telescope would incur by -being lifted by the hands
of the observer. Another form of transit is the German diagonal
form, in which the rays of light after passing through the object-
glass are turned by a total reflection prism through one of the trans-
verse arms of the telescope, at the extremity of which arm is the
eye-piece. The unused half of the ordinary telescope being cut away
is replaced by a counterpoise. In this instrument there is the
advantage that the observer without moving the position of his eye
commands the whole meridian, and that the level may remain on
the pivots whatever be the elevation of the telescope. But there is
the disadvantage that the flexure of the transverse axis causes a
variable collimation error depending on the zenith distance of the
star to which it is directed ; and moreover it has been found that in
some cases the personal error of an observer is not the same in the
two positions of the telescope.
To determine the direction of the meridian, it is well to erect two
marks at nearly equal angular distances on either side of the north
meridian line, so that the pole star crosses the vertical of each mark
a short time before and after attaining its greatest eastern and
western azimuths.
If now the instrument, perfectly levelled, is adjusted to have its
centre wire on one of the marks, then when elevated to the star,
the star will traverse the wire, and its exact position in the field at
any moment can be measured by the micrometer wire. Alternate
observations of the star and the terrestrial mark, combined with
careful level readings and reversals of the instrument, will enable
one, even with only one mark, to determine the direction of the
meridian in the course of an hour with a probable error of less than
a second. The second mark enables one to complete the station
more rapidly and gives a check upon the work. As an instance,
at Findlay Seat, in latitude 57 35', the resulting azimuths of the
two marks were 177 45' 37"-29o"-2O and 182 17' i5"-6l o'-!3,
while the angle between the two marks directly measured by a
theodolite was found to be 4 31' 37" > 43= t o*-23.
We now come to the consideration of the determination of time
with the transit instrument. Let fig. 3 represent the sphere stereo-
graphically projected! on the plane of
the horizon, ns being the meridian,
we the prime vertical, Z,P the zenith
and the pole. Let p be the point in
which the production of the axis of
the instrument meets the celestial
sphere, S the position of a star when
observed on a wire whose distance *"
from the collimation centre is c. Let
a be the azimuthal deviation, namely,
the angle wZp, b the level error so
that Zp = <)o-b. Let also the hour
angle corresponding to p be 9O-n,
and the declination of the same =m,
the star's declination being S, and the
latitude <j>. Then to find the hour
FIG. 3.
angle ZPS = r of the star when observed, in the triangles pPS, pPZ
we have, since PS = 9o+T-,
-Sin c = sin m sin 8+cos m cos 5 sin (nr),
Sin = sin b sin <pcos b cos <t> sin a,
Cos m sin n = sin b cos 4>+cos b sin </> sin a.
And these equations solve the problem, however large be the errors
of the instrument. Supposing, as usual, a, b, m, n to be small,
we have at once r=n+c sec d+m tan 8, which is the correction to
the observed time of transit. Or, eliminating m and n by means
of the second and third equations, and putting z for the zenith
distance of the star, / for the observed time of transit, the corrected
time is t+(a sin z-\-b cos z+c)/ cos S. Another very convenient form
for stars near the zenith is r = b sec <+ sec 6+m (tan S tan<).
Suppose that in commencing to observe at a station the error of the
chronometer is not known; then having secured for the instrument
a very solid foundation, removed as far as possible level and colli-
mation errors, and placed it by estimation nearly in the meridian,
let two stars differing considerably in declination be observed the
instrument not being reversed between them. From these two
stars, neither of which should be a close circumpolar star, a good
approximation to the chronometer error can be obtained; thus
GEODESY
611
let i. , be the apparent clock error* given by these stars if *i, Si
be their declination! the real error U
-i + (-*) (tan *-tan i)/(tan 4,-tan W-
Of coune this is still only approximate, but it will enable the observer
(who by the help of a table of natural tangents can compute in a
few minutes) to find the meridian by placing at the proper time,
which be now know* approximately, the centre wire of his instrument
oo the first star that pimm not near the zenith.
Th* transit instrument i* always reversed at least once in the
course of an evening's observing, the level being frequently read and
recorded. It is necessary in most instruments to add a correction
(or the difference in size of the pivots.
The transit instrument is also u*ed in the prime vertical for the
determination of latitudes. In the preceding figure let q be the point
in which the northern extremity of the axis of the instrument
produced meets the celestial sphere. Let niiq be the azimuthal
deviation-o, and 6 being the level error, Zg-9o-6; let also
Pj-r and Pg-^. Let S be the position of a star when observed
oo a wire whose distance from the collimation centre is c. positive
when to the south, and let k be the observed hour angle of tne star,
vis. ZPS'. Then the triangles qPS', qPZ give
-Sin c tin I cos ^-cos 4 sin V- cos (h+r),
Co* ^ sin 6 sin *+cos b cos *s COB c,
Sin f sin r cos 6 sin a.
_ Now when a and 6 are very small, we see from the last two equa-
tions that ^ -*-6, ariin<li, and if we calculate $' by the formula
cot 'cot I cos A, the first equation leads us to this result
>)'+(<> <in 1+6 cos f +<r)/cos >,
the correction for instrumental error being very similar to that
applied to the observed time of transit in the case of meridian
observations. When a is not very small and i is small, the formulae
required are more complicated.
The method of determining latitude by transits in the prime
vertical has the disadvantage of being a somewhat slow process,
and of requiring a very precise knowledge of the time, a disadvantage
from which the zenith telescope is free. In principle this instrument
is based on the proposi-
tion that when the me-
ridian zenith distances of
two stars at their upper
culminations one being
to the north and the other
to the south of the zenith
are equal, the latitude
is the mean of their
declinations; or, if the
zenith distance of a star
culminating to the south
of the zenith be Z, its
declination being 4, and
that of another culminat-
ing to the north with
zenith distance /' and
declination S', then clearly
the latitude is i (+') +
J(Z-Z'). Now the zenith
telescope does away with
the divided circle, and
substitutes the measure-
ment micrometrically of
the quantity Z'-Z.
In fig. 4 is shown a
zenith telescope by H.
Wanschaff of Berlin,
which is the type used
(according to the Central
Bureau at Potsdam) since
.about 1890 for the deter-
Imioation of the variations
of latitude due to different,
but aa yet imperfectly
understood, influences.
The instrument is sup-
ported on a strong tripod,
fitted with levelling
screws; to this tripod is
_ w fixed the azimuth circle
FIG. 4. Zenith Telescope constructed and a ' on vertical steel
for the International Stations at Mmi- **" " In <">.this axis
smwa. Carloforte.
. oe. Gaithersburg and
Ukiah. by Hermann Wanschaff. Berlin. ****** on lts
short transverse
.
* holl w axis wh ! ch
end a
horizon-
tal axis with a level. This
latter carries the telescope, which, supported at the centre of its
length, i* free to rotate in a vertical plane. The telescope is thus
mounted eccentrically with respect to the vertical axis around
which it revolves. Two extremely sensitive levels are attached to
the telescope, which latter carries a micrometer in its eye-piece,
with a screw of long range for measuring differences of zenith dis-
tance. Two levels are employed for controlling and increasing the
accuracy. For this instrument stars are selected in pairs, passing
north and south of the zenith, culminating within a few minutes
of time and within about twenty minutes (angular) of zenith dis-
tance of each other. When a pair of stars is to be observed, the
telescope is set to the mean of the zenith distances and in the plane
of the meridian. The first star on passing the central meridional
wire is bisected by the micrometer; then the telescope is rotated
very carefully through 180 round the vertical axis, and the second
star on passing through the field is bisected by the micrometer on
the centre wire. The micrometer has thus measured the difference
of the zenith distances, and the calculation to get the latitude is
most simple. Of course it is necessary to read the level, and the
observations are not necessarily confined to the centre wire. In
fact if n, s be the north and south readings of the level for the south
star, H', s' the same for the north star, 7 the value of one division
of the jevel, m the value of one division of the micrometer, r, r' the
refraction corrections, ft, 11! the micrometer readings of the south
and north star, the micrometer being supposed to read from the
zenith, then, supposing the observation made on the centre wire,
.
It is of course of the highest importance that the value m of the
screw be well determined. This is done most effectually by observing
the vertical movement of a close circumpolar star when at its greatest
azimuth.
In a single night with this instrument a very accurate result,
say with a probable error of about o'-2, could be obtained for
latitude from, say, twenty pair of stars; but when the latitude is
required to be obtained with the highest possible precision, two
nights at least are necessary. The weak point of the zenith telescope
lies in the circumstance that its requirements prevent the selection
of stars whose positions are well fixed ; very frequently it is necessary
to have the declinations of the stars selected for this instrument
specially observed at fixed observatories. The zenith telescope is
made in various sizes from 30 to 54 in. in focal length; a 3o-in.
telescope is sufficient for the highest purposes and is very portable.
The net observation probable-error for one pair of stars is only
*o'-i.
The zenith telescope is a particularly pleasant instrument to
work with, and an observer has been known (a sergeant of Royal
Engineers, on one occasion) to take every star in his list during
eleven hours on a stretch, namely, from 6 o'clock P.M. until 5 A.M.,
and this on a very cold November night on one of the highest points
of the Grampians. Observers accustomed to geodetic operations
attain considerable powers of endurance. Shortly after the com-
mencement of the observations on one of the hills in the Isle of Skye
a storm carried away the wooden houses of the men and left the
observatory roofless. Three observatory roofs were subsequently
demolished, and for some time the observatory was used without a
roof, being filled with snow every night and emptied every morning.
Quite different, however, was the experience of the same party when
on the top of Ben Nevis, 4406 ft. high. For about a fortnight the
state of the atmosphere was unusually calm, so much so, that a
lighted candle could often be carried between the tents of the men
and the observatory, whilst at the foot of the hill the weather was
wild and stormy.
The determination of the difference of longitude between two
stations A and B resolves itself into the determination of the local
time at each of the stations, and the comparison by signals of the
clocks at A and B. Whenever telegraphic lines are available these
comparisons are made by telegraphy. A small and delicately-made
apparatus introduced into the mechanism of an astronomical clock
or chronometer breaks or closes by the action of the clock an electric
circuit every second. In order to record the minutes as well as
seconds, one second in each minute, namely that numbered o or 60,
is omitted. The seconds aro recorded on a chronograph, which
consists of a cylinder revolving uniformly at the rate of one revolution
per minute covered with white paper, on which a pen having a slow
movement in the direction of the axis of the cylinder describes a
continuous spiral. This pen is deflected through the agency of an
electromagnet every second, and thus the seconds of the clock are
recorded on the chronograph by offsets from the spiral curve. An
observer having his hand on a contact key in the same circuit can
record in the same manner his observed times of transits of stars.
The method of determination of difference of longitude is, therefore,
virtually as follows. After the necessary observations for instru-
mental corrections, which are recorded only at the station of obser-
vation, the clock at A is put in connexion with the circuit so as to
write on both chronographs, namely, that af A and that at B.
Then the clock at B is made to write on both chronographs. It is
clear that by this double operation one can eliminate the effect of the
small interval of time consumed in the transmission of signals, for
the difference of longitude obtained from the one chronograph
will be in excess by as much as that obtained from the other will be
in defect. The determination of the personal errors of the observers
in this delicate operation is a matter of the greatest importance,
as therein lies probably the chief source of residual error.
6l2
GEODESY
These errors can nevertheless be almost entirely avoided by using
the impersonal micrometer of Dr Repsold (Hamburg, 1889). In
this device there is a movable micrometer wire which is brought by
hand into coincidence with the star and moved along with it; at
fixed points there are electrical contacts, which replace the fixed
wires. Experiments at the Geodetic Institute and Central Bureau
at Potsdam in 1891 gave the following personal equations in the case
of four observers:
Older Procedure. New Procedure.
A B . o'-io8 o*-oo4.
A-G
A-S
B-G
B-S
G-S
0-225
-o'-o86
+o'-iO9
-0--035
O'-O27
+o'-oi3
-0-023
o'-oo6
These results show that in the later method the personal equation
is small and not so variable; and consequently the repetition of
longitude determinations with exchanged observers and apparatus
entirely eliminates the constant errors, the probable error of such
determinations on ten nights being scarcely o'-oi.
Calculation of Triangulation.
The surface of Great Britain and Ireland is uniformly covered by
triangulation, of which the sides are of various lengths from 10 to
in miles. The largest triangle has one angle at Snowdon in Wales,
another on Slieve Donard in Ireland, and a third at Scaw Fell in
Cumberland; each side is over a hundred miles and the spherical
excess is 64*. The more ordinary method of triangulation is, however,
that of chains of triangles, in the direction of the meridian and
perpendicular thereto. The principal triangulations of France,
Spain, Austria and India are so arranged. Oblique chains of tri-
angles are formed in Italy, Sweden and Norway, also in Germany
ana Russia, and in the United States. Chains are composed some-
times merely of consecutive plain triangles; sometimes, and more
frequently in India, of combinations of triangles forming consecutive
polygonal figures. In this method of triangulating, the sides of the
triangles are generally from 20 to 30 miles in length seldom exceed-
ing 40.
The inevitable errors of observation, which are inseparable from
all angular as well as other measurements, introduce a great difficulty
into the calculation of the sides of a triangulation. Starting from a
given base in order to get a required distance, it may generally be
obtained in several different ways that is, by using different sets
of triangles. The results will certainly differ one from another,
and probably no two will agree. The experience of the computer
will then come to his aid, and enable him to say which is the most
trustworthy result; but no experience or ability will carry him
through a large network of triangles with anything like assurance.
The only way to obtain trustworthy results is to employ the method
of least squares. We cannot here give any illustration of this method
as applied to general triangulation, for it is most laborious, even for
the simplest cases.
Three stations, projected on the surface of the sea, give a spherical
or spheroidal triangle according to the adoption of the sphere or
the ellipsoid as the form of the surface. A spheroidal triangle differs
from a spherical triangle, not only in that the curvatures of the sides
are different one from another, but more especially in this that,
while in the spherical triangle the normals to the surface at the angular
points meet at the centre of the sphere, in the spheroidal triangle
the normals at the angles A, B, C meet the axis of revolution of the
spheroid in three different points, which we may designate o, /3, y
respectively. Now the angle A of the triangle as measured by a
theodolite is the inclination of the planes BAa and CAo, and the angle
at B is that contained by the planes AB/3and CB/S. But the planes
ABo and AB/S containing the line AB in common cut the surface in
two distinct plane curves. In order, therefore, that a spheroidal
triangle may be exactly defined, it is necessary that the nature of the
lines joining the three vertices be stated. In a mathematical point
of view the most natural definition is that the sides be geodetic or
shortest lines. C. C. G. Andrae, of Copenhagen, has also shown
that other lines give a less convenient computation.
K. F. Gauss, in his treatise, Disquisitiones generates circa superficies
curvas, entered fully into the subject of geodetic (or geodesic)
triangles, and investigated expressions for the angles of a geodetic
triangle whose sides are given, not certainly finite expressions, but
approximations inclusive of small quantities of the fourth order, the
side of the triangle or its ratio to the radius of the nearly spherical
surface being a small quantity of the first order. The terms of the
fourth order, as given by Gauss for any surface in general, are very
complicated even when the surface is a spheroid. If we retain small
quantities of the second order only, and put A, , ffl for the angles
of the geodetic triangle, while A, B, C are those of a plane triangle
having sides equal respectively to those of the geodetic triangle,
then, a being the area of the plane triangle and a, b, t the measures
of curvature at the angular points,
A=A+<r(2a+b-t-r)/ llf
= B+<r(a+2b+r)/ 11 ,
For the sphere a = b = r, and making this simplification, we obtain the
theorem previously given by A. M. Legendre. With the terms of the
fourth order, we have (after Andrae) :
'&, . *-k\
in which t = ak[i + (m?klS)}, 3m i = a?+b 1 +c l , 3* = +b+r. For the
ellipsoid of rotation the measure of curvature is equal to l/pn,
p and n being the radii of curvature of the meridian and per-
pendicular.
It is rarely that the terms of the fourth order are required. As a
rule spheroidal triangles are calculated as spherical (after Legendre),
i.e. like plane triangles with a decrease oFeach angle of about e/3;
t must, however, be calculated for each triangle separately with its
mean measure of curvature k.
The geodetic line being the shortest that can be drawn on any
surface between two given points, we may be conducted to its most
important characteristics by the following considerations: let p, q
be adjacent points on a curved surface; through j the middle point
of the chord pq imagine a plane drawn perpendicular to pq, and let
S be any point in the intersection of this plane with the surface;
then pS+Sg is evidently least when iS is a minimum, which is
when sS is a normal to the surface; hence it follows that of all
plane curves on the surface joining p, q, when those points are in-
definitely near to one another, that is the shortest which is made
by the normal plane. That is to say, the osculating plane at any
point of a geodetic line contains the normal to the surface at that
point. Imagine now three points in space, A, B, C, such that AB =
BC=c; let the direction cosines of AB be /, m, n, those of BC /',
m', n', then x, y, z being the co-ordinates of B, those of A and C will
be respectively
xcl : y cm : z en
x+cl': y+cm': z+c'.
Hence the co-ordinates of the middle point M of AC are x+J
y+tc(m'-m), z+Jc(n'-n), and the direction cosines of BM are
therefore proportional to /' /: m' m: n'n. If the angle made
by BC with AB be indefinitely small, the direction cosines of BM
are as SI :Sm : Sn. Now if AB, BC be two contiguous elements of
a geodetic, then BM must be a normal to the surface, and since SI,
Sm, Sn are in this case represented by S(dx/ds), S(dy/ds), S(dz/ds),
and if the equation of the surface be u=o, we have
a?x Idu d*y Idu d*z Idu
which, however, are equivalent to only one equation. In the case
of the spheroid this equation becomes
d*x d'y
V X"i ~~ Q
which integrated gives ydx-xdy = Cds. This again may be put in
the form r sin a = C, where a is the azimuth of the geodetic at any
point the angle between its direction and that of the meridian
and r the distance of the point from the axis of revolution.
From this it may be shown that the azimuth at A of the geodetic
joining AB is not the same as the astronomical azimuth at A of B
or that determined by the vertical plane AaB. Generally speaking,
the geodetic lies between the two plane section curves joining A and
B which are formed by the two vertical planes, supposing these points
not far apart. If, however, A and B are nearly in the same latitude,
the geodetic may cross (between A and B) that plane curve which
lies nearest the adjacent pole of the spheroid. The condition of
crossing is this. Suppose that for a moment we drop the considera-
tion of the earth's non-sphericity, and draw a perpendicular from
the pole C on AB, meeting it in S between A and B. Then A being
that point which is nearest the pole, the geodetic will cross the plane
curve, if AS be between iAB and |AB. If AS lie between this last
value and JAB, the geodetic will lie wholly to the north of both
plane curves, that is, supposing both points to be in the northern
hemisphere.
The difference of the azimuths of the vertical section AB and of
the geodetic AB, i.e. the astronomical and geodetic azimuths, is
very small for all observable distances, being approximately :
i e* s l /
Geod. azimuth = Astr. azimuth-; -j (cos 2 4> sin 2a+
12 i e' pn \
-Hsin 2$ sin o) , in which : e and a are the numerical eccentricity
4"i /
and semi-major axis respectively of the meridian ellipse, and a are
the latitude and azimuth at A, s = AB, and p and n are the radii of
curvature of the meridian and perpendicular at A. For s = ioo
kilometres, only the first term is of moment ; its value is o"-O28
cos' <t> sin 2a, and it lies well within the errors of observation. If we
imagine the geodetic AB, it will generally trisect the angles between
the vertical sections at A and B, so that the geodetic at A is near
GEODESY
613
the vertical section AB. and at B near the tection BA. 1 The
greatest distance ot the vertical sections one from another is
ft* co** + tin a/l6a', in which 4* and o are the mean latitude
and azimuth respectively of the middle point of AB. For the value
j-64 kilometres, the maximum distance is 3 mm.
An idea of the course of a longer geodetic line may be gathered
from the following example. Let the line be that joining Cadiz and
St Petersburg, whose approximate positions are
Cadiz.
Lat. 36* 33' n.
Long. 6* 18' w.
St Petersburg.
59 ; 56; K.
3 >7 *
If G be the point on the geodetic corresponding to F on that one
of the plane curves which contains the normal at Cadiz (by " corre-
sponding " we mean that F and G are on a meridian) then G is to
the north of F; at a quarter of the whole distance from Cadiz GF
i* 458 ft., at half the distance it is 637 ft., and at three-quarters it is
473 ft. The azimuth of the geodetic at Cadiz differs 20' from that
of the vertical plane, which is the astronomical azimuth.
The azimuth of a geodetic line cannot be observed, so that the
line does not enter of necessity into practical geodesy, although
many formulae connected with its use are of great simplicity and
elegance. The geodetic line has always held a more important place
in the science of geodesy among the mathematicians of France,
Germany and Russia than has been assigned to it in the operations
of the English and Indian triangulations. Although the observed
angles of a triangulation are not geodetic angles, yet in the calcula-
tion of the distance and reciprocal bearings of two points which
are far apart, and are connected by a long chain of triangles, we may
fall upon the geodetic line in this manner:
If A, Z be the points, then to start the calculation from A, we
obtain by some preliminary calculation the approximate azimuth
of Z, or the angle made by the direction of Z with the side AB or
AC of the first triangle. Let Pi be the point where this line inter-
sects BC; then, to find Pi, where the line cuts the next triangle
side CD, we make the angle BP.Pi such that BPiPi+BPiA- 180.
This fixes P>, and Pi is fixed by a repetition of the same process;
so for Pi, P. . . . Now it is clear that the points Pi, Pi, P< so com-
puted are those which would be actually fixed by an observer with
a theodolite, proceeding in the following manner. Having set the
instrument up at A, and turned the telescope in the direction of
the computed bearing, an assistant places a mark Pi on the line
BC, adjusting it till bisected by the cross-hairs of the telescope at
A. The theodolite is then placed over Pi, and the telescope turned
to A; the horizontal circle is then moved through 180". The
issiitiint then places a mark Pt on the line CD, so as to be bisected
by the telescope, which is then moved to Pi, and in the same manner
Pi is fixed. Now it is clear that the series of points Pi, Pj, Pi
approaches to the geodetic line, for the plane of any two consecutive
elements P_i P., P. P^i contains the normal at P..
If the objection be raised that not the geodetic azimuths but the
astronomical azimuths are observed, it is necessary to consider that
the observed vertical sections do not correspond to points on the
sea-level but to elevated points. Since the normals of the ellipsoid
of rotation do not in general intersect, there consequently arises an
influence of the height on the azimuth. In the case of the measure-
Bent of the azimuth from A to B, the instrument is set to a point A'
over the surface of the ellipsoid (the sea-level), and it is then adjusted
to a point B', also over the surface, say at a height h'. The vertical
plane containing A' and B' also contains A but not B: it' must
therefon be rotated through a small azimuth in order to contain B.
The correction amounts approximately totfh' cos*</> sin 20/20;
in the case of *'-iooo m.. its value is o'-io8 cos'* sin 2a.
This correction is therefore of greater importance in the case of
observed azimuths and horizontal angles than in the previously
considered case of the astronomical ana the geodetic azimuths. The
observed azimuths and horizontal angles must therefore also be
collected in the case, where it is required to dispense with geodetic
When the angle* of a triangulation have been adjusted by the
method of least squares, and the sides are calculated, the next
process i* to calculate the latitudes and longitudes of all the stations
starting from one given point. The calculated latitudes, longitudes
and azimuths, which are designated geodetic latitudes, longitudes
and azimuths, are not to be confounded with the observed latitudes,
longitude* and azimuths, for these last are subject to somewhat
large error*. Supposing the latitudes of a number of stations in the
triangulation to be observed, practically the mean of these determines
the position in latitude of the network, taken as a whole. So the
orientation or general azimuth of the whole is inferred from all the
azimuth observations. The triangulation i* then supposed to be
projected on a spheroid of given elements, representing as nearly as
one knows the real figure of the earth. Then, taking the latitude
of one point and the direction of the meridian there a* given
1 See a paper " On the Course of Geodetic Line* on the Earth's
Surface " in the Phil, tfaf '870; Hclmert, Thtorien tier hithtren
i. 321.
obtained, namely, from the astronomical observations there one
can compute the latitudes of all the other points with any degree of
precision that may be considered desirable. It is necessary to employ
for this purpose formulae which will give results true even for the
longest distances to the second place of decimals of seconds, otherwise
there will arise an accumulation of errors from imperfect calculation
which should always be avoided. For very long distances, eight
places of decimals should be employed in logarithmic calculations;
if seven places only are available very great care will be required to
keep the last place true. Now let <t>, 'be the latitudes of two stations
A and B; a, a* their mutual azimuths counted from north by east
continuously from o to '360; w their difference of longitude
measured from west to east; and j the distance AB.
First compute a latitude <*>i by means of the formula $i-$
+ (* cos a)/p, where p is the radius of curvature of the meridian at the
latitude <t>; this will require but four places of logarithms. Then,
in the first two of the following, five places are sufficient .,
i s t
,- sin 'a tan , ,
s in(a i)
''--'
Here n is the normal or radius of curvature perpendicular to the
meridian; both n and p correspond to latitude <t>i, and pt to latitude
$(*+#') . for calculations of latitude and longitude, tables of the
logarithmic values of p sin \", n sin I ", and znp sin I * are necessary.
The following table contains these logarithms for every ten minutes
of latitude from 52 to 53 computed with the elements a - 20926060
and 0:6 295 : 294 :
Lat.
^plm-p-
Log. 4 ,
^ n sin I
Log. 1,.
^* 2pn sinP
/
52 o
IO
20
30
40
50
53 o
7-9939434
9309
9185
9060
8936
8812
8688
7-9928231
8190
8148
8107
8065
8024
7982
0-37131
29
28
26
24
33
22
The logarithm in the last column is that required also for the
calculation of spherical excesses, the spherical excess of a triangle
being expressed by ab sin C/2pn sin i*.
It is frequently necessary to obtain the co-ordinates of one point
with reference to another point ; that is, let a perpendicular arc be
drawn from B to the meridian of A meeting it in P, then, a being
the azimuth of B at A, the co-ordinates of B with reference to A are
AP-Jcos (o-j), BP = isin (a-ie),
where c is the spherical excess of APB, viz. s* sin a cos a multiplied
by the quantity whose logarithm is in the fourth column of the above
table.
If it be necessary to determine the geographical latitude and
longitude as well as the azimuths to a greater degree of accuracy
than is given by the above formulae, we make use of the following
formula: given the latitude <t> of A, and the azimuth a and the
distance J of B, to determine the latitude 4>' and longitude a of B,
and the back azimuth o'. Here it is understood that o' is symmetrical
to o, so that a'+o'-36o.
Let
and
9 - jA/o, where A - (i -& sin *$)*
f , f' are always very minute quantities even for the longest distances ;
then, putting -90-^,
tan
here pt is the radius of curvature of the meridian for the mean
latitude }(*+*') These formulae are approximate only, but they
are sufficiently precise even for very long distances.
For lines of any length the formulae ofF. W. Bessel (Astr. Nock.,
1823, iv. 241) are suitable.
If the two points A and B be defined by their geographical
614
GEODESY
co-ordinates, we can accurately calculate the corresponding astrono-
mical azimuths, i.e. those of the vertical section, and then proceed,
in the case of not too great distances, to determine the length and
the azimuth of the shortest lines. For any distances recourse must
again be made to Bessel's formula. 1
Let o, a' be the mutual azimuths of two points A, B on a spheroid,
k the chord line joining them, n, n' the angles made by the chord
with the normals at A and B, <t>, <', a their latitudes and difference of
longitude, and (K 2 +J |Z )/a 2 +z !! 6 2 = l the equation of the surface;
then if the plane xz passes through A the co-ordinates of A and B
will be
x = (a/A) cos <f>, x' = (a/A') cos tf>' cos u,
y = O y' = (a/A') cos <t>' sin a>,
z = (a/A) (i-e*) sin 0, z' = (a/A') (i T ) sin <*.',
where A = (i t? sin 8 $)', A' = (i e* sin 2 <'), and e is the eccen-
tricity. Let /, g, h be the direction cosines of the normal to that
plane which contains the normal at A and the point B, and whose
inclinations to the meridian plane of A is =a; let also /, m, n and
/', m', n' be the direction cosines of the normal at A, and of the
tangent to the surface at A which lies in the plane passing through
B, then since the first line is perpendicular to each of the other two
and to the chord k, whose direction cosines are proportional to
x?-x, y'-y, z'-z, we have these three equations
/(*'-*) +gy'+h(z'- z) =o
}l +gm +hn =o
fl'+gm'+hn'=o.
Eliminate,/, g, h from these equations, and substitute
l = cos <t> V = sin cos a
and we get
= o m=sn a
=sin <t> n' =cos <t> cos a,
(x'x) sin <t>+y' cot a (z'z) cos 4>-o.
The substitution of the values of x, z, x', y', z' in this equation will
give immediately the value of cot o; and if we put f, f' for the
corresponding azimuths on a sphere, or on the supposition e = o,
the following relations exist
cota-cotf- **+S
cos <t> A
coto'-cotf'
If from B we let fall a perpendicular on the meridian plane of A,
and from A let fall a perpendicular on the meridian plane of B,
then the following equations become geometrically evident :
k sin it sin a = (a/A') cos <f>' sin a
k sin n' sin a' = (a/A) cos <t> sin w.
Now in any surface u = o we have
] /
In the present case, if we put
xx' zz'
then
cos M = (/*)AU ; cos M' = (a/k) A'U.
Let u be such an angle that
(l-e s ) i sin <=Asin u
cos<f> = A cos ,
then on expressing x, x', z, z' in terms of u and u',
U = i-cos u cos u' cos w-sin u sin ';
also, if be the third side of a spherical triangle, of which two
sides are \TT-U and \ir-u' and the included angle a>, using a sub-
sidiary angle ^ such that
sin ^ sin \v = e sin J (u' u) cos $(i/+tt),
we obtain finally the following equations :
k = 2a cos <!/ sin Jv
cos it = A sec ^ sin $
cos M' = A' sec ^ sin in
sin ju sin o = (a/A) cos ' sin co
sin M' sin a' = (a/4) cos u sin a>.
These determine rigorously the distance, and the mutual zenith
1 Helmert, Theorien der hoheren Geodasie, I. 232, 247.
distances and azimuths, of any two points on a spheroid whose
latitudes and difference of longitude are given.
By a series of reductions from the equations containing f, f* it
may be shown that
o+a' = f+r+iM*'-<rt l cos 4 ft> sin &,+. . . ,
where <fo is the mean of <t> and <t>', and the higher powers of e are
neglected. A short computation will show that the small quantity
on the right-hand side of this equation cannot amount even to
the thousandth part of a second for fc<o-ia, which is, practically
speaking, zero; consequently the sum of the azimuths a+o' on the
spheroid is equal to the sum of the spherical azimuths, whence
follows this very important theorem (known as Dalby's theorem).
If <t>, <t>' be the latitudes of two points on the surface of a spheroid, a
their difference of longitude, a, a' their reciprocal azimuths,
tan Ju=cot $("+"') {cos J(<#>'-*)/sin J(
The computation of the geodetic from the astronomical azimuths
has been given above. From k we can now compute the length s
of the vertical section, and from this the shortest length. The
difference of length of the geodetic line and either of the plane
curves is
e'i'cos 4 0o sin 2 2oo/36o a 4 .
At least this is an approximate expression. Supposing s = o-ia,
this quantity would be less than one-hundredth of a millimetre.
The line s is now to be calculated as a circular arc with a mean radius r
along AB. If 6>
o = J(i8o+a-a'), A = (l-e 2 sin
then- =
i a
-- s-cos '<txs cos 2 ao) , and approximately sin (s/2r)
i c /
k/2r. These formulae give, in the case of k = o-ia, values certain to
eight logarithmic decimal places. An excellent series of formulae
for the solution of the problem, to determine the azimuths, chord
and distance along the surface from the geographical co-ordinates,
was given in 1 882 by Ch. M. Schols (A rchives N6erla.nda.ises, vol. xvii.) .
Irregularities of the Earth's Surface.
In considering the effect of unequal distribution of matter in the
earth's crust on the form of the surface, we may simplify the matter
by disregarding the considerations of rotation and eccentricity.
In the first place, supposing the earth a sphere covered with a film of
water, let the density p be a function of the distance from the centre
so that surfaces of equal density are concentric spheres. Let now a
disturbance of the arrangement of matter take place, so that the
density is no longer to be expressed by p, a function of r only, but is
expressed by p+p', where p' is a function of three co-ordinates 6, <f>, r.
Then p' is the density of what may be designated disturbing matter;
it is positive in some places and negative in others, and the whole
quantity of matter whose density is p' is zero. The previously
spherical surface of the sea of radius a now takes a new form. Let
P be a point on the disturbed surface, P' the corresponding point
vertically below it on the undisturbed surface, PP' = N. The
knowledge of N over the whole surface gives us the form of the
disturbed or actual surface of the sea ; it is an equipotential surface,
and if V be the potential at P of the disturbing matter p', M the
mass of the earth (the attraction-constant is assumed equal to unity)
o+N
= c = M_M N+y
a a?
As far as we know, N is always a very small quantity, and we have
with sufficient approximation N = 3 V/4>rto, where 8 is the mean
density of the earth. Thus we have the disturbance in alevation
of the sea-level expressed in terms of the potential of the disturbing
matter. If at any point P the value of N remain constant when we
pass to any adjacent point, then the actual surface is there parallel
to the ideal spherical surface; as a rule, however, the normal at P is
inclined to that at P', and astronomical observations have shown
that this inclination, the deflection or deviation, amounting
ordinarily to- one or two seconds, may in some cases exceed ip ,
or, as at the foot of the jiimalayas, even 60*. By the expression
" mathematical figure of the earth " we mean the surface of the sea
produced in imagination so as to percolate the continents. We
see then that the effect of the uneven distribution of matter in the
crust of the earth is to produce small elevations and depressions on
the mathematical surface which would be otherwise spheroidal.
No geodesist can proceed far in his work without encountering the
irregularities of the mathematical surface, and it is necessary that
he should know how they affect his astronomical observations. The
whole of this subject is dealt with in his usual elegant manner by
Bessel in the Astronomische Nachrichten, Nos. 329, 330, 331, in a
paper entitled " Ueber den Einfluss der Unregelmassigkeiten der
Figur der Erde auf geodatische Arbeiten, &c." But without entering
into further details it is not difficult to see how local attraction at
any station affects the determinations of latitude, longitude and
azimuth there.
Let there be at the station an attraction to the north-east throwing
the zenith to the south-west, so that it takes in the celestial sphere a
position Z', its undisturbed position being Z. Let the rectangular
components of the displacement ZZ' be { measured southwards
GEOFFREY (MARTEL)
615
and v measured westwards. Now the great circle joining Z' with
the pole of the heavens P makes there an angle with the meridian
PZ-* cosec PZ'- sec 4, where 4 is the latitude of the station.
Abo this great circle meets the horizon in a point whose distance
from the great circle PZ is * sec 4 sin 4 - * tan 4- That is, a merklia n
mark, fixed by observations of the pole star, will be placed that
amount to the east of north. Hence the observed latitude requires
the correction ; the observed longitude a correction ij sec 4: and
any observed azimuth a correction ij tan 4. Here it is supposed
that azimuths are measured from north by east, and longitudes
eastwards. The horizontal angles are also influenced by the deflec-
tions of the plumb-line, in fact, just as if the direction of the vertical
axis of the theodolite varied by the same amount. This influence,
however, is slight, so long as the sights point almost horizontally
at the objects, which is always the case in the observation of distant
points.
The expression given for N enables one to form an approximate
estimate of the effect of a compact mountain in raising the sea-level.
Take, for instance, Ben Nevis, which contains about a couple of
cubic miles; a simple calculation shows that the elevation produced
would only amount to about 3 in, In the case of a mountain mass
like the Himalayas, stretching over some 1500 miles of country with
a breadth of 300 and an average height of 3 miles, although it is diffi-
cult or impossible to find an expression for V, yet we may ascertain
that an elevation amounting to several hundred feet may exist
near their base. The geodctical operations, however, rather negative
this idea, for it was shown by Colonel Clarke (Phil. Mag., 1878)
that the form of the sea-level alone the Indian arc departs but slightly
from that of the mean figure of the earth. If this DC so, the action
of the Himalayas must be counteracted by subterranean tenuity.
Suppose now that A, B, C, . . . are the stations of a network of
triangulatkm projected on or lying on a spheroid of semiaxis major
and eccentricity a, e, this spheroid having its axis parallel to the axis
of rotation of the earth, and its surface coinciding with the mathe-
matical surface of the earth at A. Then basing the calculations
on the observed elements at A, the calculated latitudes, longitudes
and directions of the meridian at the other points will be the true
latitudes, &c., of the points as projected on the spheroid. On
comparing these geodetic elements with the corresponding astro-
nomical determinations, there will appear a system of differences
which represent the inclinations, at the various points, of the actual
irregular surface to the surface of the spheroid of reference. These
differences will suggest two things, first, that we may improve the
agreement of the two surfaces, by not restricting the spheroid of
reference by the condition of making its surface coincide with the
mathematical surface of the earth at A; and secondly, by altering
the form and dimensions of the spheroid. With respect to the first
circumstance, we may allow the spheroid two degrees of freedom,
that is, the normals of the surfaces at A may be allowed to separate
a small quantity, compounded of a meridional difference and a
difference perpendicular to the same. Let the spheroid be so placed
that its normal at A lies to the north of the normal to the earth's
surface by the small quantity and to the east by the quantity ij.
Then in starting^he calculation of geodetic latitudes, longitudes and
azimuths from A, we must take, not the observed elements 4, a,
but for 4, 4-r-f, and for . a +11 tan 4, and zero longitude must be
replaced by sec 4. At the same time suppose the elements of the
spheroid to be altered from a, e to a+da, e+de. Confining our
attention at first to the two points A, B, let (4'). (a'). (<>) be the
numerical dements at B as obtained in the first calculation, viz.
before the shifting and alteration of the spheroid; they will now
take the form
'l+t'i+h'da+k'de.
where the coefficients /.(. &c. can be numerically calculated.
Now these dements, corresponding to the projection of B on the
spheroid of reference, must be equal severally to the astronomically
determined elements at B, corrected for the inclination of the sur-
faces there. If {', V be the components of the inclination at that
point, then we have
f-(4')-4'
where 4', ', M are the observed elements at B. Here it appears
that the observation of longitude gives no additional information,
bat is available as a check upon the azimuthal observations.
If now there be a number of astronomical stations in the tri-
anfuUtion. and we form equations such as the above for each point,
then we can from them determine those values of , q, da, de. which
take the quantity {*-Hr*+{ <l +V + ... a minimum. Thus we
obtain that spheroid which best represents the surface covered by the
triangutatioa.
In the Account of the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain and
Ireland will be found the determination, from 75 equations, of the
spheroid best representing the surface of the British Isles. Its
A Burnt are 0-20937005*295 ft., b : 0-6-280*8; and it is so
placed that at Greenwich Observatory {- 1"-864, n- -o'-54-
Taking Durham Observatory as the origin, and the tangent plane
to the surface (determined by - O'-OOA, n~ 4'- 117) as the plane
of x and y, the former measured northwards, and t measured vertically
downwards, the equation to the surface is
99524953I 1 + -99288005/ + -997630522' - 0-0067 1 003X* -
416550701-0.
Altitudes.
The precise determination of the altitude of his station is a matter
of secondary importance to the geodesist ; nevertheless it is usual
to observe the zenith distances of all trigonometrical points. Of
great importance is a knowledge of the height of the ba,se for its re-
ductiop to the sea-level. Again the height of a station does influence
a little the observation of terrestrial angles, for a vertical line at B
does not lie generally in the vertical plane of A (see above). The
height above the sea-level also influences the geographical latitude,
inasmuch as the centrifugal force is increased and the magnitude ana
direction of the attraction of the earth are altered, and the effect
upon the latitude is a very small term expressed by the formula
h(g' g) sin 24/ag, where g, g' are the values of gravity at the equator
and at the pole. This is h sin 24/5820 seconds, h being in metres,
a quantity which may be neglected, since for ordinary mountain
heights it amounts to only a few hundredths of a second. We
can assume this amount as joined with the northern component of
the plumb-line perturbations.
The uncertainties of terrestrial refraction render it impossible to
determine accurately by vertical angles the heights of distant points.
Generally speaking, refraction is greatest at about daybreak; from
that time it diminishes, being at a minimum for a couple of houra
before and after mid-day; later in the afternoon it again increases.
This at least is the general march of the phenomenon, but it is by
no means regular. The vertical angles measured at the station on
Hart Fell showed on one occasion in the month of September a
refraction of double the average amount, lasting from i P.M. to 5 P.M.
The mean value of the coefficient of refraction k determined from a
very large number of observations of terrestrial zenith distances in
Great Britain is -0792^-0047; and if we separate those rays which
for a considerable portion of their length cross the sea from those
which do not, the former give ="0813 and the latter = -0753.
These values are determined from high stations and long disvances;
when the distance is short, and the rays graze the ground, the amount
of refraction is extremely uncertain and variable. A case is noted
in the Indian survey where the zenith distance of a station 10-5 miles
off varied from a depression of 4' 52 *-6 at 4.30 P.M. to an elevation
of 2' 24'-o at 10.50 P.M.
If h, h' be the Heights above the level of the sea of two stations,
90+*, 9O-f-S' their mutual zenith distances (8 being that observed
at h), s their distance apart, the earth being regarded as a sphere of
radius a, then, with sufficient precision,
/ i2* A / 12* ,,\
A'-A = stan( j-jjj 81 , h- h' -s tan/ j-^jj 8' ) .
If from a station whose height is h the horizon of the sea be observed
to have a zenith distance 9O-f-8, then the above formula gives for h
the value
, a tan* t
Suppose the depression i to be n minutes, then h = i -o54' if
the ray be for the greater part of its length crossing the sea; if
otherwise, h 1-04011'. To take an example: the mean of eight
observations of the zenith distance of the sea horizon at the top of
Ben Nevis is 91 4' 48', or 8 = 64-8; the ray is pretty equally dis-
posed over land and water, and hence A 1-047^ = 4396 ft. The
actual height of the hill by spirit-levelling is 4406 ft., so that the error
of the height thus obtained is only 10 ft.
The determination of altitudes by means of spirit-levelling is
undoubtedly the most exact method, particularly in its present
development as precise-levelling, by which there have been deter-
mined in all civilized countries close-meshed nets of elevated points
covering the entire land. (A. R. C.; F. R. H.)
GEOFFREY, surnamed MARTEL (1006-1060), count of Anjou,
son of the count Fulk Nerra (q.v.) and of the countess Hildegarde
or Audegarde, was born on the I4th of October 1006. During his
father's lifetime he was recognized as suzerain by Fulk 1'Oison
(" the Gosling "), count of Vendome, the son of his half-sister
Adela. Fulk having revolted, he confiscated the countship,
which he did not restore till 1050. On the ist of January 1032
he married Agnes, widow of William the Great, duke of Aquitaine,
and taking arms against William the Fat, eldest son and successor
of William the Great, defeated him and took him prisoner at
Mont-Cou6r near Saint-Jouin-de-Marneson the 2Oth of September
1033. He then tried to win recognition as dukes of Aquitaine for
the sons of his wife Agnes by William the Great, who were still
minors, but Fulk Nerra promptly took up arms to defend his
suzerain William the Fat, from whom he held the Loudunois and
6i6 GEOFFREY (PLANTAGENET) GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH
Saintonge in fief against his son. In 1036 Geoffrey Martel had to
liberate William the Fat, on payment of a heavy ransom, but the
latter having died in 1038, and the second son of William the
Great, Odo, duke of Gascony, having fallen in his turn at the
siege of Mauze(ioth of March 1039) Geoffrey made peace with his
father in the autumn of 1039, and had his wife's two sons recog-
nized as dukes. About this time, also, he had interfered in the
affairs of Maine, though without much result, for having sided
against Gervais, bishop of Le Mans, who was trying to make
himself guardian of the young count of Maine, Hugh, he had been
beaten and forced to make terms with Gervais in 1038. In 1040
he succeeded his father in Anjou and was able to conquer Touraine
(1044) and assert his authority over Maine (see ANJOU). About
1050 he repudiated Agnes, his first wife, and married Grecie, the
widow of Bellay, lord of Montreuil-Bellay (before August 1052),
whom he subsequently left in order to marry Adela, daughter of a
certain Count Odo. Later he returned to Gr6cie, but again left
her to marry Adelaide the German. When, however, he died on
the i4th of November 1060, at the monastery of St Nicholas at
Angers, he left no children, and transmitted the countship to
Geoffrey the Bearded, the eldest of his nephews (see ANJOU).
See Louis Halphen, Le Comte $ Anjou au XI' siecle (Paris, 1906).
A summary biography is given by C^lestin Port, Dictionnaire
historique, geographique et bwgraphique de Maine-el-Loire (3 vols.,
Paris-Angers, 1874-1878), vol. ii. pp. 252-253, and a sketch of the
wars by Kate Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols.,
London, 1887), vol. i. chs. iii. iv. (L. H.*)
GEOFFREY, surnamed PLANTAGENET [or PLANTEGENET]
(i 113-1 151), count of Anjou, was the son of Count Fulk the Young
and of Eremburge (or Arembourg of La Fleche; he was born on
the 24th of August 1113. He is also called " le bel " or " the
handsome," and received the surname of Plantagenet from the
habit which he is said to have had of wearing in his cap a sprig of
broom (genet). In 1127 he was made a knight, and on the 2nd of
June 1129 married Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of England, and
widow of the emperor Henry V. Some months afterwards he
succeeded to his father, who gave up the countship when he
definitively went to the kingdom of Jerusalem. The years of his
government were spent in subduing the Angevin barons and in
conquering Normandy (see ANJOU). In 1151, while returning
from the siege of Montreuil-Bellay, he took cold, in consequence of
bathing in the Loir at Chateau-du-Loir, and died on the 7th of
September. He was buried in the cathedral of Le Mans. By his
wife Matilda he had three sons: Henry Plantagenet, born at Le
Mans on Sunday, the $th of March 1133; Geoffrey, born at
Argentan on the ist of June 1134; and William Long-Sword, born
on the 22nd of July 1136.
See Kate Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols.,
London, 1887), vol. i. chs. v.-viii. ; Celestin Port, Dictionnaire
hislorique, geographique el biographique de Maine-et-Loire (3 vols.,
Paris-Angers, 1874-1878), vol. ii. pp. 254-256. A history of
Geoffrey le Bel has yet to be written ; there is a biography of him
written in the I2th century by Jean, a monk of Marmoutier, Historia
Gaufredi, ducis Normannorum et comitis Andegavorum, published by
Marchegay et Salmon; " Chroniques des comtes d' Anjou " (Societe
de I'histoire de France, Paris, 1856), pp. 229-310. (L. H.*)
GEOFFREY (1158-1186), duke of Brittany, fourth son of the
English king Henry II. and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, was
born on the 23rd of September 1 1 58. In 1 167 Henry suggested a
marriage between Geoffrey and Constance (d. 1 201) , daughter and
heiress of Conan IV., duke of Brittany (d. 1 1 7 1) ; and Conan not
only assented, perhaps under compulsion, to this proposal, but
surrendered the greater part of his unruly duchy to the English
king. Having received the homage of the Breton nobles,
Geoffrey joined his brothers, Henry and Richard, who, in alliance
with Louis VII. of France, were in revolt against their father; but
he made his peace in 1 1 74, afterwards helping to restore order in
Brittany and Normandy, and aiding the new French king, Philip
Augustus, to crush some rebellious vassals. In July 1181 his
marriage with Constance was celebrated, and practically the
whole of his subsequent life was spent in warfare with his brother
Richard. In 1183 he made peace with his father, who had come
to Richard's assistance; but a fresh struggle soon broke out for
the possession of Anjou, and Geoffrey was in Paris treating for
aid with Philip Augustus, when he died on the igth of August
1 1 86. He left a daughter, Eleanor, and his wife bore a
posthumous son, the unfortunate Arthur.
GEOFFREY (c. 1152-1212), archbishop of York, was a bastard
son of Henry II., king of England. He was distinguished from
his legitimate half-brothers by his consistent attachment and
fidelity to his father. He was made bishop of Lincoln at the age
of twenty-one (1173); but though he enjoyed the temporalities
he was never consecrated and resigned the see in 1183. He then
became his father's chancellor, holding a large number of lucrative
benefices in plurality. Richard nominated him archbishop of
York in 1189, but he was not consecrated till 1191, or enthroned
till 1194. Geoffrey, though of high character, was a man of
uneven temper; his history in chiefly one of quarrels, with the
see of Canterbury, with the chancellor Willian Longchamp, with
his half-brothers Richard and John, and especially with his
canons at York. This last dispute kept him in litigation before
Richard and the pope for many years. He led the clergy in their
refusal to be taxed by John and was forced to fly the kingdom in
1207. He died in Normandy on the izth of December 1212.
See Giraldus Cambrensis, Vita Galfridi; Stubbs's prefaces to
Roger de Hoveden, vols. iii. and iv. (Rolls Series). (H. W. C. D.)
GEOFFREY DE MONTBRAY (d. 1093), bishop of Coutances
(Constantiensis) , a right-hand man of William the Conqueror, was
a type of the great feudal prelate, warrior and administrator at
need. He knew, says Orderic, more about marshalling mailed
knights than edifying psalm-singing clerks. Obtaining, as a young
man, in 1048, the see of Coutances, by his brother's influence
(see MOWBRAY), he raised from his fellow nobles and from their
Sicilian spoils funds for completing his cathedral, which was
consecrated in 1056. With bishop Odo, a warrior like himself,
he was on the battle-field of Hastings, exhorting the Normans to
victory; and at William's coronation it was he who called on
them to acclaim their duke as king. His reward in England was a
mighty fief scattered over twelve counties. He accompanied
William on his visit to Normandy (1067), but, returning, led a
royal force to the relief of Montacute in September 1069. In 1075
he again took the field, leading with Bishop Odo a vast host
against the rebel earl of Norfolk, whose stronghold at Norwich
they besieged and captured.
Meanwhile the Conqueror had invested him with important
judicial functions. In 1072 he had presided over the great
Kentish suit between the primate and Bishop Odo, and about the
same time over those between the abbot of Ely and his despoilers,
and between the bishop of Worcester and the abbot of Ely, and
there is some reason to think that he acted as a Domesday
commissioner (1086), and was placed about the same time in
charge of Northumberland. The bishop, who attended the
Conqueror's funeral, joined in the great rising against William
Rufus next year (1088), making Bristol, with which (as
Domesday shows) he was closely connected and where he had
built a strong castle, his base of operations. He burned Bath and
ravaged Somerset, but had submitted to the king before the end
of the year. He appears to have been at Dover with William in
January 1090, but, withdrawing to Normandy, died at Coutances
three years later. In his fidelity to Duke Robert he seems to
have there held out for him against his brother Henry, when the
latter obtained the Cotentin.
See E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest and William Rufus; J. H.
Round, Feudal England; and, for original authorities, the works of
Orderic Vitalis and William of Poitiers, and of Florence of Worcester;
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; William of Malmesbury's Gesta pon-
tificum, and Lanfranc's works, ed. Giles; Domesday Book.
(J. H. R.)
GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH (d. 1154), bishop of St Asaph
and writer on early British history, was born about the year 1 100.
Of his early life little is known, except that he received a liberal
education under the eye of his paternal uncle, Uchtryd, who was
at that time archdeacon, and subsequently bishop, of Llandaff.
In 1 1 29 Geoffrey appears at Oxford among the witnesses of an
Oseney charter. He subscribes himself Geoffrey Arturus;
from this we may perhaps infer that he had already begun his
experiments in the manufacture of Celtic mythology. A first
edition of his Historia Britonum was in circulation by the year
GEOFFREY OF PARIS GEOFFRIN
617
1139, although the text which we possess appears to date from
1147. This famous work, which the author has the audacity
to place on the same level with the histories of William of
If almesbury and Henry of Huntingdon, professes to be a transla-
tion from a Celtic source; "a very old book in the British
tongue " which Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, had brought
from Brittany. Walter the archdeacon is a historical personage;
whether his book has any real existence may be fairly questioned.
There is nothing in the matter or the style of the Historia to
preclude us from supposing that Geoffrey drew partly upon
confused traditions, partly on his own powers oi invention, and
to a very slight degree upon the accepted authorities for early
British history. His chronology is fantastic and incredible;
William of Newburgh justly remarks that, if we accepted the
events which Geoffrey relates, we should have to suppose that
they had happened in another world. William of Newburgh
wrote, however, in the reign of Richard I. when the reputation
of Geoffrey's work was too well established to be shaken by such
criticisms. The fearless romancer had achieved an immediate
success. He was patronized by Robert, earl of Gloucester, and
by two bishops of Lincoln; he obtained, about 1140, the arch-
deaconry of Llandaff "on account of his learning"; and in
1151 was promoted to the see of St Asaph.
Before his death the Historic Britonum had already become a
model and a quarry for poets and chroniclers. The list of
imitators begins with Geoffrey Gaimar, the author of the Estorie
da Engles (c. 1147), and Wace, whose Roman de Brut (1155) is
partly a translation and partly a free paraphrase of the Historic.
In the next century the influence of Geoffrey is unmistakably
attested by the Brut of Layamon, and the rhyming English
chronicle of Robert of Gloucester. Among later historians who
were deceived by the Historic Britonum it is only needful to
mention Higdon, Hardy ng, Fabyan (1512), Holinshed (1580)
and John Milton. Still greater was the influence of Geoffrey
upon those writers who, like Warner in Albion's England (1586),
and Drayton in Polyolbion (1613), deliberately made their
accounts of English history as poetical as possible. The stories
which Geoffrey preserved or invented were not infrequently
a source of inspiration to literary artists. The earliest English
tragedy, Gorboduc (1565), the Mirror for Magistrates (1587), and
Shakespeare's Lear, are instances in point. It was, however,
the Arthurian legend which of all his fabrications attained the
greatest vogue. In the work of expanding and elaborating this
theme the successors of Geoffrey went as far beyond him as he
had gone beyond Nennius; but he retains the credit due to the
founder of a great school. Marie de France, who wrote at the
court of Henry II., and Chretien de Troyes, her French con-
temporary, were the earliest of the avowed romancers to take
up the theme. The succeeding age saw the Arthurian story
popularized, through translations of the French romances, as
far afield as Germany and Scandinavia. It produced in England
the Roman du Saint Graal and the Roman de Merlin, both from
the pen of Robert de Borron; the Roman de Lancelot; the Roman
it Tristan, which is attributed to a fictitious Lucas de Gast. In
the reign of Edward IV. Sir Thomas Malory paraphrased and
arranged the best episodes of these romances in English prose.
His Morte Arthur, printed by Caxton in 1485, epitomizes the
rich mythology which Geoffrey's work had first called into life,
and gave the Arthurian story a lasting place in the English
imagination. The influence of the Historic Britonum may be
illustrated in another way, by enumerating the more familiar
of the legends to which it first gave popularity. Of the twelve
books into which it is divided only three (Bks. IX., X., XI.) are
concerned with Arthur. Earlier in the work, however, we have
the adventures of brutus; of his follower Corineus, the vanquisher
of the Cornish giant Goemagol (Gogmagog); of Locrinus and
his daughter Sabre (immortalized in Milton's Camus) ; of Bladud
the builder of Bath; of Lear and his daughters; of the three
pairs of brothers, Ferrex and Porrex, Brennius and Bclinus,
Elidure and Peridure. The story of Vortigem and Rowena
takes its final form in the Historia Britonum; and Merlin makes
his first appearance in the prelude to the Arthur legend. Besides
the Historia Britonum Geoffrey is also credited with a Life of
Merlin composed in Latin verse. The authorship of this work
has, however, been disputed, on the ground that the style is dis-
tinctly superior to that of the Historia. A minor composition, the
Prophecies of Merlin, was written before 1 136, and afterwards incor-
porated with the Historia, of which it forms the seventh book.
For a discussiqn of the manuscripts of Geoffrey's work, see Sir
T. D. Hardy's Descriptive Catalogue (Rolls Series), i. pp. 341 ff. The
Historia Britonum has l>een critically edited by San Marte (Halle,
1854). There is an English translation by J. A. Giles (London, 1 842).
The Vita Merlini has been edited by F. Michel and T. Wright (Paris,
1837). See also the Dublin Univ. Magazine for April 1876, for an
article by T. Gilray on the literary influence of Geoffrey ; G. Heeger's
Troianersage der Britten (1869); and La Borderie's Etudes histonques
breionnes (1883). (H. W. C. D.)
GEOFFREY OF PARIS (d. c. 1320), French chronicler, was
probably the author of the Chronique metrique de Philippe le
Bel, or Chronique rimle de Geofroi de Paris. This work, which
deals with the history of France from 1500 to 1316, contains
7918 verses, and is valuable as that of a writer who had a personal
knowledge of many of the events which he relates. Various short
historical poems have also been attributed to Geoffrey, but there
is no certain information about either his life or his writings.
The Chronique was published by J. A. Buchon in his ColUctiondes
chroniques, tome ix. (Paris, 1827), and it has also been printed in
tome xxii. of the Rtcueil des kistoriens des Gaules et de la France
(Paris, 1865). See G. Paris, Histoire de la literature franfaise au
moyen dge (Paris, 1890) ; and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de
France, tome iii. (Paris, 1903).
GEOFFREY THE BAKER (d. c. 1360), English chronicler,
is also called Walter of Swinbroke, and was probably a secular
clerk at Swinbrook in Oxfordshire. He wrote a Chronkon
Angliae temporibus Edwardi II. et Edwardi III., which deals
with the history of England from 1303 to 1356. From the begin-
ning until about 1324 this work is based upon Adam Murimuth's
Continuatio chronicarum, but after this date it is valuable and
interesting, containing information not found elsewhere, and
closing with a good account of the battle of Poitiers. The author
obtained his knowledge about the last days of Edward II. from
William Bisschop, a companion of the king's murderers, Thomas
Gurney and John Maltravcrs. Geoffrey also wrote a Chroni-
culum from the creation of the world until 1336, the value of
which is very slight. His writings have been edited with notes
by Sir E. M. Thompson as the Chronicon Galfridi le Baker de
Swynebroke (Oxford, 1889). Some doubt exists concerning
Geoffrey's share in the compilation of the Vita et mors Edwardi
II., usually attributed to Sir Thomas de la More, or Moor, and
printed by Camden in his A nglica scripta. It has been maintained
by Camden and others that More wrote an account of Edward's
reign in French, and that this was translated into Latin by
Geoffrey and used by him in compiling his Chronicon. Recent
scholarship, however, asserts that More was no writer, and that
the Vita et mors is an extract from Geoffrey's Chronicon, and
was attributed to More, who was the author's patron. In the
main this conclusion substantiates the verdict of Stubbs, who
has published the Vita et mors in his Chronicles of the reigns of
Edward I. and Edward II. (London, 1883). The manuscripts
of Geoffrey's works are in the Bodleian library at Oxford.
GEOFFRIN, MARIE THERESE RODET (1699-1777), a
Frenchwoman who played an interesting part in French literary
and artistic life, was born in Paris in 1699. She married, on the
I9th of July 1713, Pierre Francois Geoffrin, a rich manufacturer
and lieutenant-colonel of the National Guard, who died in 1750.
It was not till Mme Geoffrin was nearly fifty years of age that we
begin to hear of her as a power in Parisian society. She had
learned much from Mme de Tencin, and about 1748 began to
gather round her a literary and artistic circle. She had every
week two dinners, on Monday for artists, and on Wednesday for
her friends the Encyclopaedists and other men of letters. She
received many foreigners of distinction, Hume and Horace
Walpole among others. Walpole spent much time in her society
before he was finally attached to Mme du Deffand, and speaks of
her in his letters as a model of common sense. She was indeed
somewhat of a small tyrant in her circle. She had adopted the
pose of an old woman earlier than necessary, and her coquetry, if
6i8 GEOFFROY, E. F. GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, E.
such it can be called, took the form of being mother and mentor to
her guests, many of whom were indebted to her generosity for
substantial help. Although her aim appears to have been to
have the Encyclopedic in conversation and action around her, she
was extremely displeased with any of her friends who were so
rash as to incur open disgrace. Marmontel lost her favour after
the official censure of Belisaire, and her advanced views did not
prevent her from observing the forms of religion. A devoted
Parisian, Mme Geoffrin rarely left the city, so that her journey to
Poland in 1766 to visit the king, Stanislas Poniatowski, whom she
had known in his early days in Paris, was a great event in her life.
Her experiences induced a sensible gratitude that she had been
born " Franchise " and " particuliere." In her last illness her
daughter, Therese, marquise de la Ferte Imbault, excluded her
mother's old friends so that she might die as a good Christian, a
proceeding wittily described by the old lady: " My daughter is
like Godfrey de Bouillon, she wished to defend my tomb from
the infidels." Mme Geoffrin died in Paris on the 6th of October
1777.
See Correspondance inedite du rot Stanislas Aueuste Poniatowski et
de Madame Geoffrin, edited by the comte de Mouy (1875); P. de
Segur, Le Royaume de la rue Saint-Honore, Madame Geoffrin et sa
fille (1897); A. Tornezy, Un Bureau d' esprit au XVIII' siecle: le
salon de Madame Geoffrin (1895) ; and Janet Aldis, Madame Geoffrin,
her Salon and her Times, 1750-1777 (1905).
GEOFFROY, ETIENNE FRANCOIS (1672-1731), French
chemist, born in Paris on the i3th of February 1672, was first
an apothecary and then practised medicine. After studying at
Montpellier he accompanied Marshal Tallard on his embassy to
London in 1698 and thence travelled to Holland and Italy.
Returning to Paris he became professor of chemistry at the
Jardin du Roi and of pharmacy and medicine at the College de
France, and dean of the faculty of medicine. He died in Paris on
the 6th of January 1731. His name is best known in connexion
with his tables of affinities (tables des rapports), which he presented
to the French Academy in 1718 and 1720. These were lists,
prepared by collating observations on the actions of substances
one upon another, showing the varying degrees of affinity exhibited
by analogous bodies for different reagents, and they retained
their vogue for the rest of the century, until displaced by the
profounder conceptions introduced by C. L. Berthollet. Another
of his papers dealt with the delusions of the philosopher's stone,
but nevertheless he believed that iron could be artificially formed
in the combustion of vegetable matter. His Tractatus de materia
medica, published posthumously in 1741, was long celebrated.
His brother CLAUDE JOSEPH, known as Geoffrey the younger
(1685-1752), was also an apothecary and chemist who, having a
considerable knowledge of botany, devoted himself especially to
the study of the essential oils in plants.
GEOFFROY, JULIEN LOUIS (1743-1814), French critic, was
born at Rennes in 1743. He studied in the school of his native
town and at the College Louis le Grand in Paris. He took orders
and fulfilled for some time the humble functions of an usher,
eventually becoming professor of rhetoric at the College Mazarin.
A bad tragedy, Caton, was accepted at the Thedtre FranQais, but
was never acted. On the death of filie Fr6ron in 1776 the other
collaborators in the A nnee litteraire asked Geoffrey to succeed him,
and he conducted the journal until in 1792 it ceased to appear.
Geoffrey was a bitter critic of Voltaire and his followers, and
made for himself many enemies. An enthusiastic royalist,
he published with Frdron's brother-in-law, the abbe Thomas
Royou (1741-1792), a journal, L'Ami du roi (1790-1792),
which possibly did more harm than good to the king's cause by its
ill-advised partisanship. During the Terror Geoffrey hid in the
neighbourhood of Paris, only returning in 1799. An attempt to
revive the Annie litteraire failed, and Geoffrey undertook the
dramatic feuilleton of the Journal des debats. His scathing
criticisms had a success of notoriety, but their popularity was
ephemeral, and the publication of them (5 vols., 1810-1820) as
Cours de litttrature dramatique proved a failure. He was also the
author of a perfunctory Commenlaire on the works of Racine
prefixed to Lenormant's edition (1808). He died in Paris on the
27th of February 1814.
GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, ETIENNE (1772-1844), French
naturalist, was the son of Jean Gerard Geoffroy, procurator and
magistrate of Etampes, Seine-et-Oise, where he was born on the
15th of April 1772. Destined for the church he entered the
college of Navarre, in Paris, where he studied natural philosophy
under M. J. Brisson; and in 1788 he obtained one of the canoni-
cates of the chapter of Sainte Croix at Etampes, and also a
benefice. Science, however, offered him a more congenial career,
and he gained from his father permission to remain in Paris, and
to attend the lectures at the College de France and the Jardin des
Plantes, on the condition that he should also read law. He
accordingly took up his residence at Cardinal Lemoine's college,
and there became the pupil and soon the esteemed associate of
Brisson's friend, the abbe Hauy, the mineralogist. Having,
before the close of the year 1790, taken the degree of bachelor in
law, he became a student of medicine, and attended the lectures of
A. F. de Fourcroy at the Jardin des Plantes, and of L. J. M.
Daubenton at the College de France. His studies at Paris were at
length suddenly interrupted, for, in August 1792, Hauy and the
other professors of Lemoine's college, as also those of the college
of Navarre, were arrested by the revolutionists as priests, and
confined in the prison of St Firmin. Through the influence of
Daubenton and others Geoffrey on the i4th of August obtained
an order for the release of Haily in the name of the Academy;
still the other professors of the two colleges, save C. F. Lhomond,
who had been rescued by his pupil J. L. Tallien, remained in
confinement. Geoffroy, foreseeing their certain destruction if
they remained in the hands of the revolutionists, determined if
possible to secure their liberty by stratagem. By bribing one of
the officials at St Firmin, and disguising himself as a commissioner
of prisons, he gained admission to his friends, and entreated'them
to effept their escape by following him. All, however, dreading
lest their deliverance should render the doom of their fellow-
captives the more certain, refused the offer, and one priest only,
who was unknown to Geoffroy, left the prison. Already on the
night of the 2nd of September the massacre of the proscribed had
begun, when Geoffroy, yet intent on saving the life of his friends
and teachers, repaired to St Firmin. At 4 o'clock on the morning
of the 3rd of September, after eight hours' waiting, he by means
of a ladder assisted the escape of twelve ecclesiastics, not of the
number of his acquaintance, and then the approach of dawn and
the discharge of a gun directed at him warned him, his chief
purpose unaccomplished, to return to his lodgings. Leaving Paris
he retired to Etampes, where, in consequence of the anxieties of
which he had lately been the prey, and the horrors which he had
witnessed, he was for some time seriously ill. At the beginning
of the winter of 1792 he returned to his studies in Paris, and in
March of the following year Daubenton, through the interest of
Bernardin de Saint Pierre, procured him the office of sub-keeper
and assistant demonstrator of the cabinet of natural history,
vacant by the resignation of B. G. E. Lacepede. By a law
passed in June 1793, Geoffroy was appointed one of the twelve
professors of the newly constituted museum of natural history,
being assigned the chair of zoology. In the same year he
busied himself with the formation of a menagerie at that
institution.
In 1794 through the introduction of A. H. Tessier he entered
into correspondence with Georges Cuvier, to whom, after the
perusal of some of his manuscripts, he wrote: " Venez jouer
parmi nous le r61e de Linne, d'un autre legislateur de 1'histoire
naturelle." Shortly after the appointment of Cuvier as assistant
at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Geoffroy received him into
his house. The two friends wrote together five memoirs on
natural history, one of which, on the classification of mammals,
puts forward the idea of the subordination of characters upon
which Cuvier based his zoological system. It was in a paper
entitled " Histoire des Makis, ou singes de Madagascar, " written
in 1 795, that Geoffroy first gave expression to his views on " the
unity of organic composition," the influence of which is per-
ceptible in all his subsequent writings; nature, he observes,
presents us with only one plan of construction, the same in
principle, but varied in its accessory parts.
GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, I. GEOGRAPHY
619
In 1798 Geoff roy was chosen a member of the great scientific
expedition to Egypt, and on the capitulation of Alexandria in
August 1801, he took part in resisting the claim made by the
British general to the collections of the expedition, declaring that,
were that demand persisted in, history would have to record
that he also had burnt a library in Alexandria. Early in January
1802 Geoff roy returned to his accustomed labours in Paris. He
was elected a member of the academy of sciences of that city
in September 1807. In March of the following year the emperor,
who had already recognized his national services by the award
of the cross of the legion of honour, selected him to visit the
museums of Portugal, for the purpose of procuring collections
from them, and in the face of considerable opposition from the
British he eventually was successful in retaining them as a
permanent possession for his country. In 1809, the year after
his return to France, he was made professor of zoology at the
faculty of sciences at Paris, and from that period he devoted
himself more exclusively than before to anatomical study. In
1818 he gave to the world the first pan of his celebrated Philo-
sopkit anatomique, the second volume of which, published in
1822, and subsequent memoirs account for the formation of
monstrosities on the principle of arrest of development, and of
the attraction of similar parts. When, in 1830, Geoff roy pro-
ceeded to apply to the invertebrata his views as to the unity of
animal composition, he found a vigorous opponent in Georges
Cuvier, and the discussion between them, continued up to the
time of the death of the latter, soon attracted the attention of
the scientific throughout Europe. Geoffrey, a synthesist, con-
tended, in accordance with his theory of unity of plan in organic
composition, that all animals are formed of the same elements,
in the same number, and with the same connexions: homologous
parts, however they differ in form and size, must remain associated
in the same invariable order. With Goethe he held that there
is in nature a law of compensation or balancing of growth, so
that if one organ take on an excess of development, it is at the
expense of some other part; and he maintained that, since
nature takes no sudden leaps, even organs which are superfluous
in any given species, if they have played an important part in
other species of the same family, are retained as rudiments,
which testify to the permanence of the general plan of creation.
It was his conviction that, owing to the conditions of life, the
same forms had not been perpetuated since the origin of all
things, although it was not his belief that existing species are
becoming modified. Cuvier, who was an analytical observer of
facts, admitted only the prevalence of " laws of co-existence "
or " harmony " in animal organs, and maintained the absolute
invariability of species, which he declared had been created
with a regard to the circumstances in which they were placed,
each organ contrived with a view to the function it had to
fulfil, thus putting, in Geoffrey's considerations, the effect for
the cause.
In July 1840 Geoffroy became blind, and some months later
be had a paralytic attack. From that time his strength gradually
failed him. He resigned his chair at the museum in 1841, and
died at Paris on the igth of June 1844.
Geoffrey wrote: Catalog* des mammiferes du Museum National
f Histoire NatureUe (1813), not quite completed; Pkilosophie anato-
mitrue l. i., Des orratus Tttpiratoires (1818), and t. ii., Des monstruo-
tiUs kumaines (1822); Systtme dentaire des mammiferes el des
MMMX (lit pt., 1824); Sur U frincipe de I'unite de composition
orfomique (1828); Court de I' Histoire natureUe del mammiffres
(1829); Pnncipes de pkilosophie toologique (1830); Etudes progres-
tiis fun naturalist* (183$); Fragments biographiques (1832);
Notions synthttiques, kistoriques et pkysiologiques de phitosophie
natureUe (1838), and other works; also part of the Description de
rEtyfU par la commission des sciences (1821-1830); and, with
Frederic Cuvier ( 1 773-1 838), a younger brother of G. Cuvier, Histoire
natureUe des mammiferes (4 voU., 1820-1842); besides numerous
papers on such subjects as the anatomy of marsupials, ruminants
and electrical fishes, the vertebrate theory of the skull, the opercula
of Mbes. teratology, palaeontology and the influence of surrounding
condition* in modifying animal forms.
See Vie, travaux. et doctrine scitntifique d'Etienne Geoffroy Saint-
Hilaire. par sonfUslf. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (Paris and
Strasburg, 1847), to which is appended a list of Geoffrey's works;
and JoJy, in Biog. unnerscllt, t. xvi. (1856).
GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, ISIDORE (1805-1861), French
zoologist, son of the preceding, was born at Paris on the i6th of
December 1805. In his earlier years he showed an aptitude for
mathematics, but eventually he devoted himself to the study
of natural history and of medicine, and in 1824 he was appointed
assistant naturalist to his father. On the occasion of his taking
the degree of doctor of medicine in September 1829, he read a
thesis entitled Propositions sur la monstruositi, considtrte chet
I'hommt et Its animaux; and in 1832-1837 was published his
great teratological work, Histoire gtnerale et particuliere des
anomalies de I' organisation chez I'homme et Its animaux, 3 vols.
8vo. with 20 plates. In 1829 he delivered for his father the second
part of a course of lectures on ornithology, and during the three
following years he taught zoology at the Athenee, and teratology
at the Ecole pratique. He was elected a member of the academy
of sciences at Paris in 1833, was in 1837 appointed to act as
deputy for his father at the faculty of sciences in Paris, and in
the following year was sent to Bordeaux to organize a similar
faculty there. He became successively inspector of the academy
of Paris (1840), professor of the museum on the retirement of
his father (1841), inspector-general of the university (1844),
a member of the royal council for public instruction (1845), and
on the death of H. M. D. de Blaiiwille, professor of zoology
at the faculty of sciences (1850). In 1854 he founded the
Acclimatization Society of Paris, of which he was president.
He died at Paris on the loth of November 1861.
Besides the above-mentioned works, he wrote: Essais de zoologie
generate (1841-); Vie . . . d'Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1847);
Acclimatalion et domestication des animaux utiles (1849; 4th ed.,
1861); Lettres sur les substances alimentaires et particulierement sur
la viande de cheval (1856); and Histoire natureUe generate des regnes
organigues (3 vols., 1854-1862), which was not quite completed.
He was the author also of various papers on zoology, comparative
anatomy and palaeontology.
GEOGRAPHY (Gr. 77}, earth, and yp&ttxiv, to write), the
exact and organized knowledge of the distribution of phenomena
on the surface of the earth. The fundamental basis of geography
is the vertical relief of the earth's crust, which controls all
mobile distributions. The grander features of the relief of the
lithosphere or stony crust of the earth control the distribution
of the hydrosphere or collected waters which gather into the
hollows, filling them up to a height corresponding to the volume,
and thus producing the important practical division of the
surface into land and water. The distribution of the mass of
the atmosphere over the surface of the earth is also controlled
by the relief of the crust, its greater or lesser density at the surface
corresponding to the lesser or greater elevation of the surface.
The simplicity of the zonal distribution of solar energy on the
earth's surface, which would characterize a uniform globe, is
entirely destroyed by the dissimilar action of land and water
with regard to radiant heat, and by the influence of crust-forms
on the direction of the resulting circulation. The influence of
physical environment becomes clearer and stronger when the
distribution of plant and animal life is considered, and if it is
less distinct in the case of man, the reason is found in the modifica-
tions of environment consciously produced by human effort.
Geography is a synthetic science, dependent for the data with
which it deals on the results of specialized sciences such as
astronomy, geology, oceanography, meteorology, biology and
anthropology, as well as on topographical description. The
physical and natural sciences are concerned in geography only
so far as they deal with the forms of the earth's surface, or as
regards the distribution of phenomena. The distinctive task of
geography as a science is to investigate the control exercised by
the crust-forms directly or indirectly upon the various mobile
distributions. This gives to it unity and definiteness, and renders
superfluous the attempts that have been made from time to
time to define the limits which divide geography from geology
on the one hand and from history on the other. It is essential
to classify the subject-matter of geography in such a manner as
to give prominence not only to facts, but to their mutual relations
and their natural and inevitable order.
The fundamental conception of geography is form, including
620
GEOGRAPHY
the figure of the earth and the varieties of crustal relief. Hence
mathematical geography (see MAP), including cartography as
a practical application, comes first. It merges into physical
geography, which takes account of the forms of the lithosphere
(geomorphology), and also of the distribution of the hydrosphere
and the rearrangements resulting from the workings of solar
energy throughout the hydrosphere and atmosphere (oceano-
graphy and climatology). Next follows the distribution of plants
and animals (biogeography), and finally the distribution of
mankind and the various artificial boundaries and redistributions
(anthropogeography). The applications of anthropogeography
to human uses give rise to political and commercial geography,
in the elucidation of which all the earlier departments or stages
have to be considered, together with historical and other purely
human conditions. The evolutionary idea has revolutionized
and unified geography as it did biology, breaking down the old
hard-and-fast partitions between the various departments, and
substituting the study of the nature and influence of actual
terrestrial environments for the earlier motive, the discovery
and exploration of new lands.
HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHICAL THEORY
The earliest conceptions of the earth, like those held by the primi-
tive peoples of the present day, are difficult to discover and almost
impossible fully to grasp. Early generalizations, as far as they were
made from known facts, were usually expressed in symbolic language,
and for our present purpose it is not profitable to speculate on the
underlying truths which may sometimes be suspected in the old
mythological cosmogonies.
The first definite geographical theories to affect the western world
were those evolved, or at least first expressed, by the Greeks. 1
Early '^' ne ear '' est theoretical problem of geography was the
Greek form of the earth. The natural supposition that the earth
ideas. *? a fl at disk, circular or elliptical in outline, had in the
time of Homer acquired a special definiteness by the
introduction of the idea of the ocean river bounding the whole, an
application of imperfectly understood observations. Thales of
Plat earth Miletus is claimed as the first exponent of the idea of a
of Homer, spherical earth ; but, although this does not appear to be
warranted, his disciple Anaximander (c. 580 B.C.) put
forward the theory that the earth had the figure of a solid body
hanging freely in the centre of the hollow sphere of the starry heavens.
The Pythagorean school of philosophers adopted the theory of a
spherical earth, but from metaphysical rather than scientific reasons;
their convincing argument was that a sphere being the most perfect
solid figure was the only one worthy to circumscribe the dwelling-
place of man. The division of the sphere into parallel zones and
some of the consequences of this generalization seem to have pre-
sented themselves to Parmenides (c. 450 B.C.) ; but these ideas did
not influence the Ionian school of philosophers, who in their treat-
ment of geography preferred to deal with facts demonstrable by
Hccataeus. travel rather than with speculations. Thus Hecataeus,
claimed by H. F. Tozer* as the father of geography on
account of his Periodos, or general treatise on the earth, did not
advance beyond the primitive conception of a circular disk. He
systematized the form of the land within the ring of ocean the
okoujuti'i), or habitable world by recognizing two continents:
Europe to the north, and Asia to the south of the midland sea.
Herodotus. Herodotus, equally oblivious of the sphere, criticized and
ridiculed the circular outline of the oekumene, which he
knew to be longer from east to west than it was broad from north to
south. He also pointed out reasons for accepting a division of the
land into three continents Europe, Asia and Africa. Beyond the
limits of his personal travels Herodotus applied the characteristically
Greek theory of symmetry to complete, in the unknown, outlines
The Hem lands and rivers analogous to those which had been
ofsym- explored. Symmetry was in fact the. first geographical
me try. theory, and the effect of Herodotus's hypothesis that the
Nile must flow from west to east before turning north in
order to balance the Danube running from west to east before turning
south lingered in the maps of Africa down to the time of Mungo
Park. 1
To Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) must be given the distinction of found-
ing scientific geography. He demonstrated the sphericity of the
1 A concise sketch of the whole history of geographical method or
theory as distinguished from the history of geographical discovery
(see later section of this article) is only to be found in the introduction
to H. Wagner's Lehrbuch der Geographic, vol. i. (Leipzig, IQOO),
which is in every way the most complete treatise on the principles of
geography.
1 'History of Ancient Geography (Cambridge, 1897), P- 7-
1 See J. L. Myres, " An Attempt to reconstruct the Maps used by
Herodotus," Geographical Journal, viii. (1896), p. 605.
and the
sphere.
oetumeae
to the
sphere.
[THEORY
earth by three arguments, two of which could be tested by obser-
vation. These were: (i) that the earth must be spherical, because
of the tendency of matter to fall together towards a com- Arl
mon centre; (2) that only a sphere could always throw a
circular shadow on the moon during an eclipse; and (3)
that the shifting of the horizon and the appearance of
new constellations, or the disappearance of familiar stars, as one
travelled from north to south, could only be explained on the hypo-
thesis that the earth was a sphere. Aristotle, too, gave greater
definiteness to the idea of zones conceived by Parmenides, wno had
pictured a torrid zone uninhabitable by reason of heat, two frigid
zones uninhabitable by reason of cold, and two intermediate temper-
ate zones fit for human occupation. Aristotle defined the temperate
zone as extending from the tropic to the arctic circle, but there is
some uncertainty as to the precise meaning he gave to the term
" arctic circle." Soon after his time, however, this conception was
clearly established, and with so large a generalization the mental
horizon was widened to conceive of a geography which was a science.
Aristotle had himself shown that in the southern temperate zone
winds similar to those of the northern temperate zone should blow,
but from the opposite direction.
While the theory of the sphere was being elaborated the efforts of
practical geographers were steadily directed towards ascertaining
the outline and configuration of the oekumene, or habitable Fltt ,
world, the only portion of the terrestrial surface known ^.^.fj
to the ancients and to the medieval peoples, and still
retaining a shadow of its old monopoly of geographical
attention in its modern name of the " Old World." The
fitting of the oekumene to the sphere was the second theoretical
problem. The circular outline had given way in geographical
opinion to the elliptical with the long axis lying east and west, and
Aristotle was inclined to view it as a very long and relatively narrow
band almost encircling the globe in the temperate zone. His argu-
ment as to the narrowness of the sea between West Africa and East
Asia, from the occurrence of elephants at both extremities, is difficult
to understand, although it shows that he looked on the distribution
of animals as a problem of geography.
Pythagoras had speculated as to the existence of antipodes, but
it was not until the first approximately accurate measurements of
the globe and estimates of the length and breadth of the
oekumene were made by Eratosthenes (c. 250 B.C.) that
the fact that, as then known, it occupied less than a quarter Antipodes
of the surface of the sphere was clearly recognized. It was
natural, if not strictly logical, that the ocean river should be extended
from a narrow stream to a world-embracing sea, and here again
Greek theory, or rather fancy, gave its modern name to the greatest
feature of the globe. The old instinctive idea of symmetry must
often have suggested other oekumene balancing the known world
in the other quarters of the globe. The Stoic philosophers, especially
Crates of Mallus, arguing from the love of nature for life, placed an
oekumene in each quarter of the sphere, the three unknown world-
islands being those of the Antoeci, Perioeci and Antipodes. This
was a theory not only attractive to the philosophical mind, but
eminently adapted to promote exploration. It had its opponents,
however, for Herodotus showed that sea-basins existed cut off from
the ocean, and it is still a matter of controversy how far the pre-
Ptolemaic geographers believed in a water-connexion between the
Atlantic and Indian oceans. It is quite clear that Pomponius Mela
(c. A.p. 40), following Strabo, held that the southern temperate zone
contained a habitable land, which he designated by the name
Antichthones.
Aristotle left no work on geography, so that it is impossible to
know what facts he associated with the science of the earth's surface.
The word geography did not appear before Aristotle, Aristotle's
the first use of it being in the Hep* nbaiuav, which is one _ eo .
of the writings doubtfully ascribed to him, and H. Berger gr a p a ical
considers that the expression was introduced by Eratos- v i ews .
thenes. 4 Aristotle was certainly conversant with many
facts, such as the formation of deltas, coast-erosion, and to a certain
extent the dependence of plants and animals on their physical
surroundings. He formed a comprehensive theory of the variations
of climate with latitude and season, and was convinced of the neces-
sity of a circulation of water between the sea and rivers, though,
like Plato, he held that this took place by water rising from the sea
through crevices in the rocks, losing its dissolved salts in the process.
He speculated on the differences in the character of races of mankind
living in different climates, and correlated the political forms of
communities with their situation on a seashore, or in the neighbour-
hood of natural strongholds.
Strabo (c. 50 B.C.-A.D. 24) foljowed Eratosthenes rather than
Aristotle, but with sympathies which went out more to the human
interests than the mathematical basis of geography. He straho.
compiled a very remarkable work dealing, in large measure
from personal travel, with the countries surrounding the Mediter-
ranean. He may be said to have set the pattern which was followed
in succeeding ages by the compilers of " political geographies "
4 Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen (Leipzig.
1891), Abt. 3, p. 60.
THEORY]
GEOGRAPHY
621
dealing les* with theories than with facts, and illustrating rather than
formulating the principles of the science.
Claudius Ptolemaeus (c. A.D. 150) concentrated in his writing* the
final outcome of all Greek geographical learning, and passed it across
the gulf of the middle ages by the hands of the Arabs,
to form the starting-point of the science in modern times.
Hi* geography was based more immediately on the work of his
prrdccessor. Marinus of Tyre, and on that of Hipparchus, the
follower and critic of Eratosthenes. It was the ambition of Ptolemy
to describe and represent accurately the surface of the oekumene,
for which purpose he took immense trouble to collect all existing
determinations of the latitude of places, all estimates of longitude,
and to make every possible rectification in the estimates of distances
by land or sea. His work was mainly cartographical in its aim,
and theory was as far as possible excluded. The symmetrically
placed hypothetical islands in the great continuousocean disappeared,
and the otkitnent acquired a new form by the representation of the
Indian Ocean as a larger Mediterranean completely cut off by land
from the Atlantic. The terra incognita uniting Africa and Farther
Asia was an unfortunate hypothesis which helped to retard explora-
tion. Ptolemy used the word grograpky to signify the description
of the whole otkumene on mathematical principles, while choro-
grapky signified the fuller description of a particular region, and
topography the very detailed description of a smaller locality. He
introduced the simile that geography represented an artist's sketch
of a whole portrait, while chorography corresponded to the careful
and detailed drawing of an eye or an ear. 1
The Caliph al-Mamun (c. A.D. 815), the son and successor of
Hirun al-Rashid, cauted an Arabic version of Ptolemy's great
astronomical work (Swrafu luylarn) to be made, which is known
a* the Almagest, the word being nothing more than the Gr. ntyivrii
with the Arabic article al prefixed. The geography of Ptolemy was
also known and is constantly referred to by Arab writers. The
Arab astronomers measured a degree on the plains of Mesopotamia,
thereby deducing a fair approximation to the size of the earth.
The caliph's librarian, Abu Jafar Muhammad Ben Musa, wrote a
geographical work, now unfortunately lost, entitled Rasm elArsi (" A
Description of the World "), which is often referred to by subsequent
writers as having been composed on the model of that of Ptolemy.
The middle ages saw geographical knowledge die out in Christen-
dom, although it retained,- through the Arabic translations of
Ptolemy, a certain vitality in Islam. The verbal inter-
pretation of Scripture led Lactantius (c. A.D. 320) and
other ecclesiastics to denounce the spherical theory of the
_ earth as heretical. The wretched subterfuge of Cosmas
(c. A.D. 550) to explain the phenomena of the apparent
movements of the sun by means of an earth modelled on the plan
of the Jewish Tabernacle gave place ultimately to the wheel-maps
the T in an O which reverted to the primitive ignorance of the
times of Homer and Hecataeus.*
The journey of Marco Polo, the increasing trade to the East and
the voyage* of the Arab* in the Indian Ocean prepared the way for
the ^acceptance of Ptolemy's ideas when the sealed books of the
Greek original were translated into Latin by Angelus in 1410.
The old arguments of Aristotle and the old measurements of
Ptolemy were used by Toscanelli and Columbus in urging a westward
vova R e t India; and mainly on this account did the
crossing of the Atlantic rank higher in the history of
scientific geography than the laborious feeling out of the
coast-line of Africa. But not until the voyage of Magellan shook
the scale* from the eye* of Europe did modern geography begin to
advance. Discovery had outrun theory; the rush of new facts
made Ptolemy practically obsolete in a generation, after having been
th* fount and origin of all geography for a millennium.
The earliest evidence of the reinca
geography is
reincarnation of a sound theoretical
to be found in the text-books by Peter Apian and
Sebastian MUnster. Apian in his Cosmographtcus liber,
published in 1524, and subsequently edited and added to
by Gemma Frisius under the title of Cosmographia, based the whole
science on mathematics and measurement. He followed Ptolemy
closely, enlarging on his distinction between geography and choro-
graphy, and expressing the artistic analogy in a rough diagram.
This slender distinction was made much of by most subsequent
writers until Nathanael Carpenter in 1625 pointed out that the
difference between geography and chorography was simply one of
degree, not of kind.
Sebastian MUnster, on the other hand, in his Cosmographia
unaersalis of 1544, P 3 "^ no regard to the mathematical basis of
geography, but, following the model of Strabo, described
******** the world according to it* different political divisions,
and entered with great zest into the question of the productions
1 Bunbury's History of Ancient Geography (2 vols., London, 1879),
Mailer's Geographi Graeci minores (2 vols., Paris, 1855, 1861) and
Berger's Geickickle der wissenschaftlicken Erdkunde der Griechen
(4 vob., Leipzig, 1887-1893) are standard authorities on the Greek
geographers.
The period of the early middle ages is dealt with in Beazley'*
Doom of tfodern Geography (London; part L. 1807; part ii., 1901;
part iii., 1906); see also Winstedt, Cosmos Indicopleustes (1910).
of countries, and into the manners and costumes of the various
peoples. Thus early commenced the separation between what were
long called mathematical and political geography, the one subject
appealing mainly to mathematicians, the other to historians.
Throughout the i6th and r;i h centuries the rapidly accumulating
store of facts as to the extent, outline and mountain and river
systems of the lands of the earth were put in order by the generation
of cartographers of which Mercator was the chief; but the writings
of Apian and MUnster held the field for a hundred years without a
serious rival, unless the many annotated editions of Ptolemy might
be so considered. Meanwhile the new facts were the subject of
original study by philosophers and by practical men without reference
to classical traditions. Bacon argued keenly on geographical
matters and was a lover of maps, in which he observed and reasoned
upon such resemblances as that between the outlines of South
America and Africa.
Philip Cluver's Introductio in geographiam universam tarn veteran
quam novam was published in 1624. Geography he defined as
the description of the whole earth, so far as it is known
to us." It is distinguished from cosmography by dealing CBIV**.
with the earth alone, not with the universe, and from chorography
and topography by dealing with the whole earth, not with a country
or a place. The first book, of fourteen short chapters, is concerned
with the general properties of the globe; the remaining six books
treat in considerable detail of the countries of Europe and of the
other continents. Each country is described with particular regard
to its people as well as to its surface, and the prominence given to
the human element is of special interest.
A little-known book which appears to have escaped the attention
of most writers on the history of modern geography was published
at Oxford in 1625 by Nathanael Carpenter, fellow of
Exeter College, with the title Geographic delineated forth Carpenter,
in Two Bookes, containing the Sphericatt and Topicall parts thereof.
It is discursive in its style and verbose; but, considering the period
at which it appeared, it is remarkable for the strong common sense
displayed by the author, his comparative freedom from prejudice,
and his firm application of the methods of scientific reasoning to
the interpretation of phenomena. Basing his work on the principles
of Ptolemy, he brings together illustrations from the most recent
travellers, and does not hesitate to take as illustrative examples
the familiar city of Oxford and his native county of Devon. He
divides geography into The Spherical Part, or that for the study of
which mathematics alone is required, and The Topical Part, or the
description of the physical relations of parts of the earth's surface,
preferring this division to that favoured by the ancient geographers
into general and special. It is distinguished from other English
geographical books of the period by confining attention to the
principles of geography, and not describing the countries of the
world.
A much more important work in the history of geographical
method is the Geographia generalis of Bernhard Varenius, a German
medical doctor of Leiden, who died at the age of twenty-
eight in 1650, the year of the publication of his book. v * nalu *-
Although for a time it was lost sight of on the continent, Sir Isaac
Newton thought so highly of this book that he prepared an annotated
edition which was published in Cambridge in 1672, with the addition
of the plates which had been planned by Varenius, but not produced
by the original publishers. The reason why this great man took
so much care in correcting and publishing our author was, because
he thought him necessary to be read by his audience, the young
gentlemen of Cambridge, while he was delivering lectures on the same
subject from the Lucasian Chair." * The treatise of Varenius is a
model of logical arrangement and terse expression ; it is a work of
science and of genius; one of the few of that age which can still be
studied with profit. The English translation renders the definition
thus: " Geography is that part of mixed mathematics which explains
the state of the earth and of its parts, depending on quantity, viz.
its figure, place, magnitude and motion, with the celestial appear-
ances, &c. By some it is taken in too limited a sense, for a bare
description of the several countries; and by others too extensively,
who along with such a description would have their political con-
stitution.
_ Varenius was reluctant to include the human side of geography jn
his system, and only allowed it as a concession to custom, and in
order to attract readers by imparting interest to the sterner details
of the science. His division of geography was into two parts (i.)
cal or topographical point of view. General geography was divided
into-j-(i) the Absolute part, dealing with the form, dimensions,
position and substance of the earth, the distribution of land and
water, mountains, woods and deserts, hydrography (including all
the water* of the earth) and the atmosphere; (2) the Relative part,
including the celestial properties, i.e. latitude, climate zones, longi-
tude, &c. ; and (3) the Comparative part, which " considers the
1 From translator's preface to the English version by Mr Dugdale
(1733). entitled A Complete System of General Geography)* revised
by Dr Peter Shaw (London, 1756).
622
GEOGRAPHY
[THEORY
particulars arising from comparing one part with another " ; but
under this head the questions discussed were longitude, the situation
and distances of places, and navigation. Varenius does not treat
of special geography, but gives a scheme for it under three heads
(l) Terrestrial, including position, outline, boundaries, mountains,
mines, woods and deserts, waters, fertility and fruits, and living
creatures; (2) Celestial, including appearance of the heavens and
the climate; (3) Human, but this was added out of deference to
popular usage.
This system of geography founded a new epoch, and the book
translated into English, Dutch and French was the unchallenged
standard for more than a century. The framework was capable of
accommodating itself to new facts, and was indeed far in advance
of the knowledge of the period. The method included a recognition
of the causes and effects of phenomena as well as the mere fact of
their occurrence, and for the first time the importance of the vertical
relief of the land was fairly recognized.
The physical side of geography continued to be elaborated after
Varenius's methods, while the historical side was developed separ-
ately. Both branches, although enriched by new facts, remained
stationary so far as method is concerned until nearly the end of the
l8th century. The compilation of "geography books" by unin-
structed writers led to the pernicious habit, which is not yet wholly
overcome, of reducing the general or " physical " part to a few
pages of concentrated information, and expanding the particular
or " political " part by including unrevised travellers' stories and
uncritical descriptions of the various countries of the world. Such
books were in fact not geography, but merely compressed travel.
The next marked advance in the theory of geography may be
taken as the nearly simultaneous studies of the physical earth
_ carried out by the Swedish chemist, Torbern Bergman,
' acting under the impulse of Linnaeus, and by the German
philosopher, Immanuel Kant. Bergman's Physical Description of
the Earth was published in Swedish in 1766, and translated into
English in 1772 and into German in 1774. It is a plain, straight-
forward description of the globe, and of the various phenomena
of the surface, dealing only with definitely ascertained facts in the
natural order of their relationships, but avoiding any systematic
classification or even definitions of terms.
The problems of geography had been lightened by the destructive
criticism of the French cartographer D Anville (who had purged
, the map of the world of the last remnants of traditional
fact unverified by modern observations) and rendered
richer by the dawn of the new era of scientific travel, when Kant
brought his logical powers to bear upon them. Kant's lectures on
physical geography were delivered in the university of Konigsberg
from 1765 onwards. 1 Geography appealed to him as a valuable
educational discipline, the joint foundation with anthropology of
that " knowledge of the world " which was the result of reason
and experience. In this connexion he divided the communication
of experience from one person to another into two categories the
narrative or historical and the descriptive or geographical; both
history and geography being viewed as descriptions, the former a
description in order of time, the latter a description in order of
space.
Physical geography he viewed as a summary of nature, the basis
not only of history but also of " all the other possible geographies,"
of which he enumerates five, viz. (i) Mathematical geography, which
deals with the form, size and movements of the earth and its place
in the solar system; (2) Moral geography, or an account of the
different customs and characters of mankind according to the region
they inhabit; (3) Political geography, the divisions according to
their organized governments; (4) Mercantile geography, dealing
with the trade in the surplus products of countries; (5) Theological
geography, or the distribution of religions. Here there is a clear and
formal statement of the interaction and causal relation of all the
phenomena of distribution on the earth's surface, including the in-
fluence of physical geography upon the various activities of mankind
from the lowest to the highest. Notwithstanding the form of this
classification, Kant himself treats mathematical geography as pre-
liminary to, and therefore not dependent on, physical geography.
Physical geography itself is divided into two parts: a general,
which has to do with the earth and all that belongs to it water, air
and land; and a particular, which deals with special products of
the earth mankind, animals, plants and minerals. Particular
importance is given to the vertical relief of the land, on which the
various branches of human geography are shown to depend.
Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1850) was the first modern geo-
grapher to become a great traveller, and thus to acquire an extensive
stock of first-hand information on which an improved
system of geography might be founded. The impulse
given to the study of natural history by the example of Linnaeus;
the results brought back by Sir Joseph Banks, Dr Solander and the
two Forsters, who accompanied Cook in his voyages of discovery;
the studies of De Saussure in the Alps, and the lists of desiderata
in physical geography drawn up by that investigator, combined to
1 Printed in Schriften zur physischen Geographic, vol. vi. of
Schubert's edition of the collected works of Kant (Leipzig, 1839).
First published with notes by Rink in 1802.
prepare the way for Humboldt. The theory of geography was
advanced by Humboldt mainly by his insistence on the great
principle of the unity of nature. He brought all the " observable
things," which the eager collectors of the previous century had been
heaping together regardless of order or system, into relation with the
vertical relief and the horizontal forms of the earth's surface. Thus
he demonstrated that the forms of the land exercise a directive
and determining influence on climate, plant life, animal life and on
man himself. This was no new idea; it had been familiar for
centuries in a less definite form, deduced from a priori considerations,
and so far as regards the influence of surrounding circumstances
upon man, Kant had already given it full expression. Humboldt's
concrete illustrations and the remarkable power of his personality
enabled him to enforce these principles in a way that produced
an immediate and lasting effect. The treatises on physical geography
by Mrs Mary Somerville and Sir John Herschel (the latter written
for the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica) showed the
effect produced in Great Britain by the stimulus of Humboldt's work.
Humboldt's contemporary, Carl Ritter (1779-1859), extended and
disseminated the same views, and in his interpretation of " Com-
parative Geography " he laid stress on the importance of .
forming conclusions, not from the study of one region by
itself, but from the comparison of the phenomena of many places.
Impressed by the influence of terrestrial relief and climate on human
movements, Ritter was led deeper and deeper into the study of history
and archaeology. His monumental Vergleichende Ceographie, which
was to have made the whole world its theme, died out in a wilderness
of detail in twenty-one volumes before it had covered more of the
earth's surface than Asia and a portion of Africa. Some of his
followers showed a tendency to look on geography rather as an
auxiliary to history than as a study of intrinsic worth.
During the rapid development of physical geography many
branches of the study of nature, which had been included in the
cosmography of the early writers, the physiography of aea , h
Linnaeus and even the Erdkunde of Ritter, had been JJ
so much advanced by the labours of specialists that aa t un i
their connexion was apt to be forgotten. Thus geology, gc ; eDce .
meteorology, oceanography and anthropology developed
into distinct sciences. The absurd attempt was, and sometimes
is still, made by geographers to include all natural science in geo-
graphy; but it is more common for specialists in the various detailed
sciences to think, and sometimes to assert, that the ground of
physical geography is now fully occupied by these sciences. Political
geography has been too often looked on from both sides as a mere
summary of guide-book knowledge, useful in the schoolroom, a poor
relation of physical geography that it was rarely necessary to
recognize.
The science of geography, passed on from antiquity by Ptolemy,
re-established by Varenius and Newton, and systematized by Kant,
included within itself definite aspects of all those terrestrial pheno-
mena which are now treated exhaustively under the heads of geology,
meteorology, oceanography and anthropology; and the inclusion
of the requisite portions of the perfected results of these sciences in
geography is simply the gathering in of fruit matured from the seed
scattered by geography itself.
The study of geography was advanced by improvements in carto-
graphy (see MAP), not only in the methods of survey and projec-
tion, but in the representation of the third dimension by means
of contour lines introduced by Philippe Buache in 1737, and the
more remarkable because less obvious invention of isotherms
introduced by Humboldt in 1817.
The " argument from design " had been a favourite form of
reasoning amongst Christian theologians, and, as worked out by
Paley in his Natural Theology, it served the useful purpose ~. teleo-
pf emphasizing the fitness which exists between all the / ~y^|/ a/ ^
inhabitants of the earth and their physical environment, mmeat la
It was held that the earth had been created so as to fit geography.
the wants of man in every particular. This argument was
tacitly accepted or explicitly avowed by almost every writer on the
theory of geography, and Carj Ritter distinctly recognized and
adopted it as the unifying principle of his system. As a student of
nature, however, he did not fail to see, and as professor of geography
he always taught, that man was in very large measure conditioned
by his physical environment. The apparent opposition of the
observed fact to the assigned theory he overcame by looking upon
the forms of the land and the arrangement of land arid sea as instru-
ments of Divine Providence for guiding the destiny as well as for
supplying the requirements of man. This was the central theme of
Ritter's philosophy; his religion and his geography were one, and
the consequent fervour with which he pursued his mission goes far
to account for the immense influence he acquired in Germany.
The evolutionary theory, more than hinted at in Kant's " Physical
Geography," has, since the writings of Charles Darwin, become the
unifying principle in geography. The conception of the The t /, eory
development of the plan of the earth from the first otevolu .
cooling of the surface of the planet throughout the long tloo la
geological periods, the guiding power of environment on gfography.
the circulation of water and of air, on the distribution
of plants and animals, and finally on the movements of man, give
to geography a philosophical dignity and a scientific completeness
PROGRESS]
GEOGRAPHY
623
which it never previously possessed. The influence of environment
on the organism may not be Quite o poti-nt as it was oiuv l<> ! \. .1
to be. in the writings of Buckle, for instance, 1 and certainly man,
the ultimate term in the series, reacts upon and greatly modifies his
environment; yet the fact that environment does influence all
distributions is established beyond the possibility of doubt. In
this way also the position of geography, at the point where physical
science meets and mingles with mental science, is explained and
justified. The change which took place during the ujtli century
in the substance and style of geography may be well seen by com-
paring the eight volumes of Malte-Brun's Giograpku universellc
(Paris, 1812-1829) with the twenty-one volumes of Reclus's (>Y-
frapku uimtTuUe (Paris. 1876-1895).
In estimating the influence of recent writers on geography it is
usual to assign to Oscar Peschel (1826-1875) the credit of having
corrected the preponderance which Ritter gave to the historical
element, and of restoring physical geography to its old pre-eminence.*
A* a matter of fact, each of the leading modern exponents of theo-
retical geography such as Ferdinand von Richthofen, Hermann
Wagner, Friedrich Ratzel, William M. Davis, A. Penck, A. de
Lapparent and Elisee Reclus has his individual point of view,
one devoting more attention to the results of geological processes,
another to anthropological conditions, and the rest viewing the
subject in various mendings of the extreme lights.
The two conceptions which may now be said to animate the theory
of geography are the genetic, which depends upon processes of
origin, and the morphological, which depends on facts of form and
distribution.
PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY
Exploration and geographical discovery must have started from
more than one centre, and to deal justly with the matter one ought
to treat of these separately in the early ages before the whole civilized
world was bound together by the bonds of modern intercommuni-
cation. At the least there should be some consideration of four
separate systems of discovery the Eastern, in which Chinese and
Japanese explorers acquired knowledge of the geography of Asia,
and felt their way towards Europe and America; the Western, in
which the dominant races of the Mexican and South American
plateaus extended their knowledge of the American continent
before Columbus; the Polynesian, in which the conquering races
of the Pacific Islands found their way from group to group; and
the Mediterranean. For some of these we have no certain informa-
tion, and regarding others the tales narrated in the early records
are so hard to reconcile with present knowledge that they are better
fitted to be the battle-ground of scholars championing rival theories
than the basis of definite history. So it has come about that the
only practicable history of geographical exploration starts from the
Mediterranean centre, the first home of that civilization which has
come to be known as European, though its field of activity has long
since overspread the habitable land of both temperate zones, eastern
Asia alone in part excepted.
From all centres the leading motives of exploration were probably
the same commercial intercourse, warlike operations, whether
resulting in conquest or in flight, religious zeal expressed in pil-
grimages or missionary journeys, or, from the other side, the avoid-
ance of persecution, and, more particularly in later years, the
advancement of knowledge for its own sake. At different times one
or the other motive predominated.
Before the lith century B.C. the warrior kings of Egypt had carried
the power of their arms southward from the delta of the Nile well-
nigh to its source, and eastward to the confines of Assyria. The
hieroglyphic inscriptions of Egypt and the cuneiform inscriptions of
Assyria are rich in records of the movements and achievements of
armies, the conquest of towns and the subjugation of peoples; but
though many of the recorded sites have been identified, their dis-
covery by wandering armies was isolated from their subsequent
history and need not concern us here.
The Phoenicians are the earliest Mediterranean people in the
consecutive chain of geographical discovery which joins prehistoric
_^ _^._ time with the present. From Sidon, and later from its
" more famous rival Tyre, the merchant adventurers of
Phoenicia explored and colonized the coasts of the Medi-
terranean and fared forth into the ocean beyond. They traded also
on the Red sea, and opened up regular traffic with India as well
as with the ports of the south and west, so that it was natural for
Solomon to employ the merchant navies of Tyre in his oversea trade.
The western emporium known in the scriptures as Tarshish was
probably situated in the south of Spain, possibly at Cadiz, although
some writers contend that it was Carthage in North Africa. Still
more diversity of opinion prevails as to the southern gold-exporting
port of Ophir, which some scholars place in Arabia, others at one or
another point on the east coast of Africa. Whether associated
with the exploitation of Ophir (q.v.) or not the first great voyage of
African discovery appears to have been accomplished by the Phoe-
1 History of Ctviliialion, vol. i. (1857).
See H. f. Mackinder in British Association Report (Ipswich),
'895. P- 738. for a summary of German opinion, which has been
1 by many writers in a somewhat voluminous literature.
nicians sailing the Red sea. Herodotus (himself a notable traveller
in the jih century B.C.) relates that the Egyptian king Necho of
the XXVlth Dynasty (c. 600 B.C.) built a fleet on the Red Sea,
and confided it to Phoenician sailors with the orders to sail south-
ward and return to Egypt by the Pillars of Hercules and the Medi-
terranean sea. < According to the tradition, which Herodotus quotes
sceptically, this was accomplished; but the story is too vague to
be accepted as more than a possibility.
The great Phoenician colony of Carthage, founded before 800 B.C.,
perpetuated the commercial enterprise of the parent state, and ex-
tended the sphere of practical trade to the ocean shores of Africa
and Europe. The most celebrated voyage of antiquity undertaken
for the express purpose of discovery was that fitted out by the
senate of Carthage under the command of Hanno, with the intention
of founding; new colonies along the west coast of Africa. According
to Pliny, the only authority on this point, the period of the voyage
was that of the greatest prosperity of Carthage, which may be taken
as somewhere between 570 and 480 B.C. The extent of tnis voyage
is doubtful, but it seems probable that the farthest point reached
was on the east-running coast which bounds the Gulf of Guinea
on the north. Himilco, a contemporary of Hanno, was charged
with an expedition along the west coast of Iberia northward, and
as far as the uncertain references to this voyage can be understood,
he seems to have passed the Bay of Biscay and possibly sighted the
coast of England.
The sea power of the Greek communities on the coast of Asia
Minor and in the Archipelago began to be a formidable rival to the
Phoenician soon after the time of Hanno and Himilco,
and peculiar interest attaches to the first recorded Greek
voyage beyond the Pillars of Hercules. Pytheas, a Onela.
navigator of the Phocean colony of Massilia (Marseilles), determined
the latitude of that port with considerable precision by the somewhat
clumsy method of ascertaining the length of the longest day, and
when, about 330 B.C., he set out on exploration to the northward
in search of the lands whence came gold, tin and amber, he followed
this system of ascertaining his position from time to time. If on
each occasion he himself made the observations his voyage must
have extended over six years; but it is not impossible that he
ascertained the approximate length of the longest day in some cases
by questioning the natives. Pytheas, whose own narrative is not
preserved, coasted the Bay of Biscay, sailed up the English Channel
and followed the coast of Britain to its most northerly point. Beyond
this he spoke of a land called Thule, which, if his estimate of the
length of the longest day is correct, may have been Shetland, but
was possibly Iceland: and from some confused statements as to a
sea which could not be sailed through, it has been assumed that
Pytheas _ was the first of the Greeks to obtain direct knowledge of
the Arctic regions. During this or a second voyage Pytheas entered
the Baltic, discovered the coasts where amber is obtained and re-
turned to the Mediterranean. It does not seem that any maritime
trade followed these discoveries, and indeed it is doubtful whether
his contemporaries accepted the truth of Pytheas's narrative;
Strabo four hundred years later certainly did not, but the critical
studies of modern scholars have rehabilitated the Massilian explorer.
The Greco-Persian wars had made the remoter parts of Asia
Minor more than a name to the Greek geographers before the time
of Alexander the Great, but the campaigns of that con-
queror from 329 to 325 B.C. opened up the greater Asia * le ** a er
to the knowledge of Europe. His armies crossed the plains ** Onat -
beyond the Caspian, penetrated the wild mountain passes north-
west of India, and did not turn back until they had entered on the
Indo-Gangetic plain. This was one of the few great epochs of
geographical discovery.
The world was henceforth viewed as a very large place stretching
far on every side beyond the Midland or Mediterranean Sea, and the
land journey of Alexander resulted in a voyage of discovery in the
outer ocean from the mouth of the Indus to that of the Tigris,
thus opening direct intercourse between Grecian and Hindu civiliza-
tion. The Greeks who accompanied Alexander described with care
the towns and villages, the products and the aspect of the country.
The conqueror also intended to open up trade by sea between Europe
and India, and the narrative of his general Nearchus records this
famous voyage of discovery, the detailed accounts of the chief
pilot Onesicritus being lost. At the beginning of October 326 B.C.
Nearchus left the Indus with his fleet, and the anchorages sought for
each night arc carefully recorded. He entered the Persian Gulf,
and rejoined Alexander at Susa, when he was ordered to prepare
another expedition for the circumnavigation of Arabia. Alexander
died at Babylon in 323 B.C., and the fleet was dispersed without
making the voyage.
_ The dynasties founded by Alexander's generals, Selcucus, An-
tiochus and Ptolemy, encouraged the same spirit of enterprise which
their master had fostered, and extended geographical knowledge
in several directions. Seleucus Nicator established the Greco-
Bactrianempireandcontinuedtheintercoursewith India. Authentic
information respecting the great valley of the Ganges was supplied
by Megasthenes, an ambassador sent by Seleucus, who reached the
remote city of Patali-putra, the modern Patna.
The Ptolemies in Egypt showed equal anxiety to extend the
bounds of geographical knowledge. Ptolemy Euergetes (247-222 B.C.)
624
GEOGRAPHY
[PROGRESS
rendered the greatest service to geography by the protection and
encouragement of Eratosthenes, whose labours gave the first ap-
_. proximate knowledge of the true size of the spherical
"*.,.. earth. The second Euergetes and his successor Ptolemy
r> Lathyrus (118-115 B.C.) furnished Eudoxus with a fleet
to explore the Arabian sea. After two successful voyages, Eudoxus,
impressed with the idea that Africa was surrounded by ocean on the
south, left the Egyptian service, and proceeded to Cadiz and other
Mediterranean centres of trade seeking a patron who would finance
an expedition for the purpose of African discovery; and we learn
from Strabo that the veteran explorer made at least two voyages
southward along the coast of Africa. The Ptolemies continued to
send fleets annually from their Red Sea ports of Berenice and Myos
Hormus to Arabia, as well as to ports on the coasts of Africa and
India.
The Romans did not encourage navigation and commerce with
the same ardour as their predecessors; still the luxury of Rome,
_. which gave rise to demands for the varied products
e of all the countries of the known world, led to an active
trade both by ships and caravans. But it was the military
genius of Rome, and the ambition for universal empire, which led,
not only to the discovery, but also to the survey of nearly all Europe,
and of large tracts in Asia and Africa. Every new war produced
a new survey and itinerary of the countries which were conquered,
and added one more to the imperishable roads that led from every
quarter of the known world to Rome. In the height of their power
the Romans had surveyed and explored all the coasts of the Medi-
terranean, Italy, Greece, the Balkan Peninsula, Spain, Gaul, western
Germany and southern Britain. In Africa their empire included
Egypt, Carthage, Numidia and Mauritania. In Asia they held
Asia Minor and Syria, had sent expeditions into Arabia, and were
acquainted with the more distant countries formerly invaded by
Alexander, including Persia, Scythia, Bactria and India. Roman
intercourse with India especially led to the extension of geographical
knowledge.
Before the Roman legions were sent into a new region to extend
the limits of the empire, it was usual to send out exploring expeditions
to report as to the nature of the country. It is narrated by Pliny
and Seneca that the emperor Nero sent out two centurions on such
a mission towards the source of the Nile (probably about A.D. 60),
and that the travellers pushed southwards until they reached vast
marshes through which they could not make their way either on
foot or in boats. This seems to indicate that they had penetrated
to about 9 N. Shortly before A.D. 79 Hippalus took advantage of
the regular alternation of the monsoons to make the voyage from
the Red Sea to India across the open ocean out of sight of land.
Even though this sea-route was known, the author of the Periplus
of the Erythraean Sea, published after the time of Pliny, recites the
old itinerary around the coast of the Arabian Gulf. It was, however,
in the reigns of Severus and his immediate successors that Roman
intercourse with India was at its height, and from the writings of
Pausanias (c. 174) it appears that direct communication between
Rome and China had already taken place.
After the division of the Roman empire, Constantinople became
the last refuge of learning, arts and taste; while Alexandria con-
tinued to be the emporium whence were imported the commodities
of the East. The emperor Justinian (483-565), in whose reign the
greatness of the Eastern empire culminated, sent two Nestorian
monks to China, who returned with eggs of the silkworm concealed
in a hollow cane, and thus silk manufactures were established in
the Peloponnesus and the Greek islands. It was also in the reign
of Justinian that Cosmas Indicopleustes, an Egyptian merchant,
made several voyages, and afterwards composed his Xpiortavuci)
T<rroypaij>la (Christian Topography), containing, in addition to his
absurd cosmogony, a tolerable description of India.
The great outburst of Mahpmmedan conquest in the 7th century
was followed by the Arab civilization, having its centres at Bagdad
The Arabs an< ^ Cordova, in connexion with which geography again
' received a share of attention. The works of the ancient
Greek geographers were translated into Arabic, and starting with a
sound basis of theoretical knowledge, exploration once more made
progress. From the 9th to the I3th century intelligent Arab
travellers wrote accounts of what they had seen and heard in distant
lands. The earliest Arabian traveller whose observations have come
down to us is the merchant Sulaiman, who embarked in the Persian
Gulf and made several voyages to India and China, in the middle of
the gth century. Abu Zaid also wrote on India, and his work is the
most important that we possess before the epoch-making discoveries
of Marco Polo. Masudi, a great traveller who knew from personal
experience all the countries between Spain and China, described the
plains, mountains and seas, the dynasties and peoples, in his Meadows
of Gold, an abstract made by himself of his larger work News of the
Time. He died in 956, and was known, from the comprehensive-
ness of his survey, as the Pliny of the East. Amongst his contempo-
raries were Istakhri, who travelled through all the Mahommedan
countries and wrote his Book of Climates in 950, and Ibn Haukal,
whose Book of Roads and Kinedoms, based on the work of Istakhri,
was written in 976. Idrisi, the best known of the Arabian geo-
graphical authors, after travelling far and wide in the first half of
the 1 2th century, settled in Sicily, where he wrote a treatise descrip-
tive of an armillary sphere which he had constructed for Roger II.,
the Norman king, and in this work he incorporated all accessible
results of contemporary travel.
The Northmen of Denmark and Norway, whose piratical adven-
tures were the terror of all the coasts of Europe, and who established
themselves in Great Britain and Ireland, in France and T .
Sicily, were also geographical explorers in their rough but N L A
practical way during the darkest period of the middle ages.
All Northmen were not bent on rapine and plunder; many were
peaceful merchants. Alfred the Great, king of the Saxons in
England, not only educated his people in the learning of the past
ages; he inserted in the geographical works he translated many
narratives of the travel of his own time. Thus he placed on record
the voyages of the merchant Ulfsten in the Baltic, including par-
ticulars of the geography of Germany. And in particular he told of
the remarkable voyage of Other, a Norwegian of Helgeland, who
was the first authentic Arctic explorer, the first to tell of the rounding
of the North Cape and the sight of the midnight sun. This voyage
of the middle of the 9th century deserves to be held in happy memory,
for it unites the first Norwegian polar explorer with the first English
collector of travels. Scandinavian merchants brought the products
of India to England and Ireland. From the 8th to the nth century
a commercial route from India passed through Novgorod to the
Baltic, and Arabian coins found in Sweden, and particularly in
the island of Gotland, prove how closely the enterprise of the North-
men and of the Arabs intertwined. Five-sixths of these coins
preserved at Stockholm were from the mints of the Samanian
dynasty, which reigned in Khorasan and Transoxiana from about
A.D. 900 to 1000. ft was the trade with the East that originally gave
importance to the city of Visby in Gotland.
In the end of the 9th century Iceland was colonized from Norway;
and about 985 the intrepid viking, Eric the Red, discovered Green-
land, and induced some of his Icelandic countrymen to settle on its in-
hospitable shores. His son, Leif Ericsson, and others of his followers
were concerned in the discovery of the North American coast (see
VINLAND), which, but for the isolation of Iceland from the centres
of European awakening, would have had momentous consequences.
As things were, the importance of this discovery passed unrecognized.
The story of two Venetians, Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, who gave a
vague account of voyages in the northern seas in the end of the i$th
century, is no longer to be accepted as history.
At length the long period of barbarism which accompanied and
followed the fall of the Roman empire drew to a close in Europe.
The Crusades had a favourable influence on the intellectual
state of the Western nations. Interesting regions, dote of
known only by the scant reports of pilgrims, were made e ( ' ai *
the objects of attention and study; while religious zeal, "X es -
and the hope of gain, combined with motives of mere curiosity,
induced several persons to travel by land into remote regions of the
East, far beyond the countries to which the operations of the crusaders
extended. Among these was Benjamin of Tudela, who set out from
Spain in 1160, travelled by land to Constantinople, and having
visited India and some of the eastern .islands, returned to Europe
by way of Egypt after an absence of thirteen years.
Joannes de Piano Carpini, a Franciscan monk, was the head of
one of the missions despatched by Pope Innocent to call the chief
and people of the Tatars to a better mind. He reached
the headquarters of Batu, on the Volga, in February ?
1246; and, after some stay, went on to the camp of the * u '
great khan near Karakorum in central Asia, and returned safely
in the autumn of 1247. A few years afterwards, a Fleming named
Rubruquis was sent on a similar mission, and had the merit of being
the first traveller of this era who gave a correct account of the Caspian
Sea. He ascertained that it had no outlet. At nearly the same
time Hayton, king of Armenia, made a journey to Karakorum in
1254, by a route far to the north of that followed by Carpini and
Rubruquis. He was treated with honour and hospitality, and
returned by way of Samarkand and Tabriz, to his own territory.
The curious narrative of King Hayton was translated by Klaproth.
While the republics of Italy, and above all the state of Venice,
were engaged in distributing the rich products of India and the Far
East over the Western world, it was impossible that motives of
curiosity, as well as a desire of commercial advantage, should not be
awakened to such a degree as to impel some of the merchants to
yisit those remote lands. Among these were the brothers Polo, who
traded with the East and themselves visited Tatary. The recital
of their travels fired the youthful imagination of young Marco Polo,
son of Nicolo, and he set out for the court of Kublai Khan, with his
father and uncle, in 1265. Marco remained for seventeen years
in the service of the Great Khan, and was employed on many
important missions. Besides what he learnt from his own obser-
vation, he collected much information from others concerning
countries which he did not visit. He returned to Europe possessed
of a vast store of knowledge respecting the eastern parts of the
world, and, being afterwards made a prisoner by the Genoese, he
dictated the narrative of his travels during his captivity. The
work of Marco Polo is the most valuable narrative of travels that
appeared during the middle ages, and despite a cold reception and
many denials of the accuracy of the record, its substantial truthful-
ness has been abundantly proved.
PROGRESS]
GEOGRAPHY
625
Missionaries continued to do useful geographical work. Among
them were John of Monte Corvino, a Franciscan monk, Andrew of
Perugia. John Marignioli and Friar Jordanus, who visited the west
coa*t of India, and above all Friar Odoric of Pordenone. Odoric
set out on his travels about 1318, and hi* journey* embraced parti
of India, the Malay Archipelago, China and even Tibet, where he
was the first European to enter Lhasa, not yet a forbidden city.
Ibn Batuta. the great Arab traveller, is separated by a wide space
of time from his countrymen already mentioned, and he finds his
proper place in a chronological notice after the days of Marco Polo,
for he aid not begin his wanderings until 1315, his career thus coin-
ciding in time with the fabled journeying* of Sir John Mandcvillc.
While Arab learning flourished during the darkest ages of European
ignorance, the last of the Arab geographers lived to nee the dawn of
the great period of the European awakening. _ Ibn Batuta went by
land from Tangier to Cairo, then visited Syria, and performed the
i to Medina and Mecca. After exploring Persia, and again
lor some time at Mecca, he made a voyage down the Red
eroen, and travelled through that country to Aden. _ Thence
he visited the African coast, touching at Mombasa and Ouiloa, and
then sailed across to Ormuz and the Persian Gulf. He crossed
Arabia from Bahrein to Jidda, traversed the Red sea and the desert
to Syene. and descended the Nile to Cairo. After this he revisited
Syria and Asia Minor, and crossed the Black sea, the desert from
Astrakhan to Bokhara, and the Hindu Kush. He was in the service
of Muhammad Tughluk. ruler of Delhi, about eight years, and was
sent on an embassy to China, in the course of which the ambassadors
sailed down the west coast of India to Calicut, and then visited the
Maldive Islands and Ceylon. Ibn Batuta made the voyage through
the Malay Archipelago to China, and on his return he proceeded
from Malabar to Bagdad and Damascus, ultimately reaching Fez,
the capital of his native country, in November 1349. Aftera journey
into Spain be set out once more for Central Africa in 1352, and
reached Timbuktu and the Niger, returning to Fez in 1353. His
narrative was committed to writing from his dictation.
The European country which had come the most completely
under the influence of Arab culture now began to send forth explorers
to distant lands, though the impulse came not from the
Moors but from Italian merchant navigators in Spanish
service. The peaceful reign of Henry III. of Castile is
famous for the attempts of that pnnce to extend the
diplomatic relations of Spain to the remotest parts of the earth.
He sent embassies to all the princes of Christendom and to the
Moors. In 1403 the Spanish king sent a knight of Madrid, Ruy
Gonzalez de Clavijo. to the distant court of Timur, at Samarkand.
He returned in 1406, and wrote a valuable narrative of his travels.
Italians continued to make important journeys in the East
during the isth century. Among them was Nicolo Conti, who
passed through Persia, sailed along the coast of Malabar, visited
Sumatra, Java and the south of China, returned by the Red sea,
and got home to Venice in 1444 after an absence of twenty-five years.
He related his adventures to Poggio Bracciolini, secretary to Pope
Eugenius IV.; and the narrative contains much interesting infor-
mation. One of the most remarkable of the Italian travellers was
Ludovico di Varthema, who left his native land in 1502. He went
to Egypt and Syria, and for the sake of visiting the holy cities became
a Mahommedan. He was the first European who gave an account
of the interior of Yemen. He afterwards visited and described
many places in Persia, India and the Malay Archipelago, returning
to Europe in a Portuguese ship after an absence of five years.
In the I5th century the time was approaching when the discovery
of the Cape of Good Hope was to widen the scope of geographical
enterprise. This great event was preceded by the general
utilization in Europe of the polarity of the magnetic
needle in the construction of the mariner's compass.
Portugal took the lead along this new path, and foremost
among her pioneers stands Prince Henry the Navigator
(1394-1460), who was a patron both of exploration and
of the study of geographical theory. The great westward
projection of the coast of Africa, and the islands to the north-west
of that continent, were the principal scene of the work of the mariners
sent out at his expense; but his object was to push onward and
reach India from the Atlantic. The progress of discovery received
a check on his death, but only for a time. In 1462 Pedro de Cintra
extended Portuguese exploration along the African coast and dis-
covered Sierra Leone. Fernan Gomez followed in 1460, and opened
trade with .the Gold Coast; and in 1484 Diogo Cao discovered the
mouth of the Congo. The king of Portugal next despatched Bartolo-
rneu Diaz in 1486 to continue discoveries southwards; while, in the
following year, he sent Pedro de Covilhao and Affonso de Payva
to discover the country of Prester John. Diaz succeeded in rounding
the southern point of Africa, which he named Cabo Tormentoso the
Cape of Storms but King Joao II., foreseeing the realization of the
long-sought passage to India, gave it the stimulating and enduring
name of the Cape of Good Hope. Payva died at Cairo; but Covilhao.
having heard that a Christian ruler reigned in the mountains of
Ethiopia, penetrated into Abyssinia in 1490. He delivered the letter
which Jo4o II. had addressed to Prester John to the Negus Alexander
of Abyssinia, but he was detained by that prince and never allowed
to leave the country.
The Portuguese, following the lead of Prince Henry, continued to
look for the road to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The same
end was sought by Christopher Columbus, following the c . .
suggestion of Toscanelli, and under-estimating the dia-
meter of the globe, by sailing due west. The voyages of Columbus
(1492-1498) resulted in the discovery of the West Indies and North
America which barred the way to the Far East. In 1493 the pope,
Alexander VI., issued a bull instituting the famous " line of demar-
cation " running from N. to S. loo leagues W. of the Azores, to the
west of which the Spaniards were authorized to explore and to the
east of which the Portuguese received the monopoly of discovery.
The direct line of Portuguese exploration resulted in the discovery
of the Cape route to India by Vasco da Gama (1498), and in 1500
to the independent discovery of South America by Pedro Alvarez
Cabral. The voyages of Columbus and of Vasco da Gama were so
important that it is unnecessary to detail their results in this place.
See COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER; GAMA, VASCO DA.
The three voyages of Vasco da Gama (who died on the scene of his
labours, at Cochin, in 1524) revolutionized the commerce of the
East. Until then the Venetians held the carrying trade Vmmatl i m
of India, which was brought by the Persian Gulf and Red *
sea into Syria and Egypt, the Venetians receiving the
products of the East at Alexandria and Beirut and distributing
them over Europe. This commerce was a great source of wealth
to Venice; but after the discovery of the new passage round the
Cape, and the conquests of the Portuguese, the trade of the East
passed into other hands.
The discoveries of Columbus awakened a spirit of enterprise in
Spain which continued in full force for a century; adventurers
flocked eagerly across the Atlantic, and discovery followed _ . ,
discovery in rapid succession. Many of the companions .
of Columbus continued his work. Vicente Yafiez Pinzon A merlca
in 1500 reached the mouth of the Amazon. In the same
year Alonso de Ojeda, accompanied by Juan de la Cosa, from whose
maps we learn much of the discoveries of the i6th century navi-
gators, and by a Florentine named Amerigo Vespucci, touched the
coast of South America somewhere near Surinam, following the shore
as far as the Gulf of Maracaibo. Vespucci afterwards made three
voyages to the Brazilian coast; and in 1504 he wrote an account
of his four voyages, which was widely circulated, and became the
means of procuring for its author at the hands of the cartographer
Waldseemuller in 1507 the disproportionate distinction of giving his
name to the whole continent. In 1508 Alonso de Ojeda obtained the
government of the coast of South America from Cabo de la Vela
to the Gulf of Darien; Ojeda landed at Cartagena in 1510, and
sustained a defeat from the natives, in which his lieutenant, Juan
de la Cosa, was killed. After another reverse on the east side of the
Gulf of Darien Ojeda returned to Hispaniola and died there. The
Spaniards in the Gulf of Darien were left by Ojeda under the com-
mand of Francisco Pizarro, the future conqueror of Peru. After
suffering much from famine and disease, Pizarro resolved to leave,
and embarked the survivors in small vessels, but outside the harbour
they met a ship which proved to be that of Martin Fernandez Enciso,
Ojeda 's partner, coming with provisions and reinforcements. One
of the crew of Enciso 's ship, Vasco Nufiez de Balboa, the future dis-
coverer of the Pacific Ocean, induced his commander to form a
settlement on the other side of the Gulf of Darien. The soldiers
became discontented and deposed Enciso, who was a man of learning
and an accomplished cosmographer. His work Suma de Ceografia,
which was printed in 1519, is the first Spanish book which gives an
account of America. Vasco Nufiez, the new commander, entered
upon a career of conquest in the neighbourhood of Darien, which
ended in the discovery of the Pacific Ocean on the 25th of September
1513. Vasco Nufiez was beheaded in 1517 by Pedrarias de Avila,
who was sent out to supersede him. This was one of the greatest
calamities that could have happened to South America; for the
discoverer of the South sea was on the point of sailing with a little
fleet into his unknown ocean, and a humane and judicious man would
probably have been the conqueror of Peru, instead of the cruel and
ignorant Pizarro. In the year 1519 Panama was founded by
Pedrarias; and the conquest of Peru by Pizarro followed a few years
afterwards. Hernan Cortes overran and conquered Mexico from
1518 to 1521, and the discovery and conquest of Guatemala by
Alvarado, the invasion of Florida by De Soto, and of Nueya Granada
by Quesada, followed in rapid succession. The first detailed account
of the west coast of South America was written by a keenly observant
old soldier, Pedro de Cieza de Leon, who was travelling in South
America from 1533 to 1550, and published his story at Seville
in IS53-
The great desire of the Spanish government at that time was
to find a westward route to the Moluccas. For this purpose Juan
Diaz de Soils was despatched in October 1515, and in
January 1516 he discovered the mouth of the Rio de la
Plata. He was, however, killed by the natives, and his
ships returned. In the following year the Portuguese Ferdinando
Magalhacs, familiarly known as Magellan, laid before Charles V.,
at Valladolid, a scheme for reaching the Spice Islands by sailing
westward. He started on the 2ist of September 1519, entered the
strait which now bears his name in October 1520, worked his way
through between Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, and entered on
Pacific
Ocean.
626
GEOGRAPHY
[PROGRESS
the vast Pacific which he crossed without sighting any of its in-
numerable island groups. This was unquestionably the greatest of
the voyages which followed from the impulse of Prince Henry, and it
was rendered possible only by the magnificent courage of the com-
mander in spite of rebellion, mutiny and starvation. It was the
6th of March 1521 when he reached the Ladrone' Islands. Thence
Magellan proceeded to the Philippines, and there his career ended
in an unimportant encounter with hostile natives. Eventually a
Biscayan named Sebastian del Cano, sailing home by way of the
Cape of Good Hope, reached San Lucar in command of the " Vic-
toria " on the 6th of September 1522, with eighteen survivors;
this one ship of the squadron which sailed on the quest succeeded
in accomplishing the first circumnavigation of the globe. Del Cano
was received with great distinction by the emperor, who granted
him a globe for his crest, and the motto Primus cmumdedisti me.
Porto- While the Spaniards were circumnavigating the
sruese la wor 'd and completing their knowledge of the coasts of
Africa mod Central and South America, the Portuguese were actively
the Bast, engaged on similar work as regards Africa and the East
Indies.
With Abyssinia the mission of Coyilhao led to further intercourse.
In April 1520 Vasco da Gama, as viceroy of the Indies, took a fleet
into the Red sea, and landed an embassy consisting of Dom Rodriguez
de Lima and Father Francisco Alvarez, a priest whose detailed narra-
tive is the earliest and not the least interesting account we possess
of Abyssinia. It was not until 1526 that the embassy was dismissed ;
and not many years afterwards the negus entreated the help of the
Portuguese against Mahommedan invaders, and the viceroy sent an
expeditionary force, commanded by his brother Cristoforo da Gama,
with 450 musketeers. Da Gama was taken prisoner and killed, but
his followers enabled the Christians of Abyssinia to regain their
power, and a Jesuit mission remained in the country. The Portu-
guese also established a close connexion with the kingdom of Congo
on the west side of Africa, and obtained much information respecting
the interior of the continent. Duarte Lopez, a Portuguese settled
in the country, was sent on a mission to Rome by the king of Congo,
and Pope Sixtus V. caused him to recount to his chamberlain,
Felipe Pigafetta, all he had learned during the nine years he had been
in Africa, from 1578 to 1587. This narrative, under the title of
Description of the Kingdom of Congo, was published at Rome by
Pigafetta in 1591. A map was attached on which several great
equatorial lakes are shown, and the empire of Monomwezi or Un-
yamwezi is laid down. The most valuable work on Africa about
this time is, however, that written by the Moor Leo Africanus in
the early part of the i6th century. Leo travelled extensively in
the north and west of Africa, and was eventually taken by pirates
and sold to a master who presented him to Pope Leo X. At the
pope's desire he translated his work on Africa into Italian.
In Further India and the Malay Archipelago the Portuguese
acquired predominating influence at sea, establishing factories on
the Malabar coast, in the Persian Gulf, at Malacca, and in the Spice
Islands, and extending their commercial enterprises from the Red
sea to China. Their missionaries were received at the court of
Akbar, and Benedict Goes, a native of the Azores, was despatched
on a journey overland from Agra to China. He started in 1603,
and, after traversing the least-known parts of Central Asia, he
reached the confines of China. He appears to have ascended from
Kabul to the plateau of the Pamir, and thence onwards by Yarkand,
Khotan and Aksu. He died on the journey in March 1607; and
thus, as one of the brethren pronounced his epitaph, " seeking
Cathay he found heaven."
The activity and love of adventure, which became a passion for
two or three generations in Spain and Portugal, spread to other
English countries. It was the spirit of the age; and England,
Dutch and Holland and France were fired by it. English enterprise
Preach. was ^ rst arouse d by John and Sebastian Cabot, father
and son, who came from Venice and settled at Bristol
in the time of Henry VII. The Cabots received a patent in 1496,
empowering them to seek unknown lands; and John Cabot dis-
covered Newfoundland and part of the coast of America. Sebastian
afterwards made a voyage to Rio de la Plata in the service of Spain,
but he returned to England in 1548 and received a pension from
Edward VI. At his suggestion a voyage was undertaken for the dis-
covery of a north-east passage to Cathay, with Sir Hugh Willoughby
as captain-general of the fleet and Richard Chancellor as pilot-
major. They sailed in May 1553, but Willoughby and all his crew
perished on the Lapland coast. Chancellor, however, was more
fortunate. He reached the White Sea, performed the journey
overland to Moscow, where he was well received, and may be said
to have been the founder of the trade between Russia and England.
He returned to Archangel and brought his ship back in safety to
England. On a second voyage, in 1556, Chancellor was drowned;
and three subsequent voyages, led by Stephen Burrough, Arthur
Pet and Charles Jackman, in small craft of 50 tons and under,
carried on an examination of the straits which lead into the Kara
sea.
The French followed closely on the track of John Cabot, and
Norman and Breton fishermen frequented the banks of Newfound-
land at the beginning of the i6th century. In 1524. Francis I. sent
Giovanni da Verazzano of Florence on an expedition of discovery
to the coast of North America; and the details of his voyage were
embodied in a letter addressed by him to the king of France from
Dieppe, in July 1524. In 1534 Jacques Carrier set out to continue
the discoveries of Verazzano, and visited Newfoundland and the
Gulf of St Lawrence. In the following year he made another
voyage, discovered the island of Anticosti, and ascended the St
Lawrence to Hochelaga, now Montreal. He returned, after passing
two winters in Canada; and on another occasion he also failed to
establish a colony. Admiral de Coligny made several unsuccessful
endeavours to form a colony in Florida under Jean Ribault
of Dieppe, Ren6 de Laudonniere and others, but the settlers
were furiously assailed by the Spaniards and the attempt was
abandoned.
The reign of Elizabeth is famous for the gallant enterprises that
were undertaken by sea and land to discover and bring to light the
unknown^ parts of the earth. The great promoter of ft. e fu .
geographical discovery in the Elizabethan period was t, e than
Richard Hakluyt (1553-1616), who was active in the for- erg
mation of the two companies for colonizing Virginia in
,
were published in 1622 in the great work of the Rev. Samuel Purchas,
entitled Hakluytus Posthumus, or Purchas his Pilgrim.es.
It is from these works that our knowledge of the gallant deeds of
the English and other explorers of the Elizabethan age is mainly
derived. The great and splendidly illustrated collections of voyages
and travels of Theodorus de Bry and Hulsius served a similar useful
purpose on the continent of Europe. One important object of
English maritime adventurers of those days was to discover a route
to Cathay by the north-west, a second was to settle Virginia, and a
third was to raid the Spanish settlements in the West Indies. Nor
was the trade to Muscovy and Turkey neglected; while latterly
a resolute and successful attempt was made to establish direct
commercial relations with India.
The conception of the north-western route to Cathay now leads
the story of exploration, for the first time as far as important and
sustained efforts are concerned, towards the Arctic seas. This part
of the story is fully told under the heading of POLAR REGIONS, and
only the names of Martin Frobisher (1576), John Davis (1585),
Henry Hudson (1607) and William Baffin (1616) need be mentioned
here in order to preserve the complete conspectus of the history of
discovery. The Dutch emulated the British in the Arctic seas during
this period, directing their efforts mainly towards the discovery of
a north-east passage round the northern end of Novaya Zemlya;
and William Barents or Barendsz (1594-1597) is the most famous
name in this connexion, his boat voyage along the coast of Novaya
Zemlya after losing his ship and wintering in a high latitude, being
one of the most remarkable achievements in polar annals.
Many English voyages were also made to Guinea and the West
Indies, and twice English vessels followed in the track of Magellan,
and circumnavigated the globe. In 1577 Francis Drake, who had
previously served with Hawkins in the West Indies, undertook his
celebrated voyage round the world. Reaching the Pacific through
the Strait of Magellan, Drake proceeded northward along the west
coast of America, resolved to attempt the discovery of a northern
passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic. The coast from the
southern extremity of the Californian peninsula to Cape Mendocino
had been discovered by Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo and Francisco de
Ulloa in 1539. Drake's discoveries extended from Cape Mendocino
to 48 N., in which latitude he gave up his quest, sailed across the
Pacific and reached the Philippine Islands, returning home round
the Cape of Good Hope in 1580.
Thomas Cavendish, emulous of Drake's example, fitted out three
vessels for an expedition to the South sea in 1586. He took the
same route as Drake along the west coast of America. From Cape
San Lucas Cavendish steered across the Pacific, seeing no land until
he reached the Ladrone Islands. He returned to England in 1588.
The third English voyage into the Pacific was not so fortunate.
Sir Richard Hawkins (1593) on reaching the bay of Atacames, in I N.
in 1594, was attacked by a Spanish fleet, and,, after a desperate
naval engagement, was forced to surrender. Hawkins declared
his object Co be discovery and the survey of unknown lands, and
his voyage, though terminating in disaster, bore good fruit. The
Observations of Sir Richard Hawkins in his Voyage into the South Sea,
published in 1622, are very valuable. It was long before another
British ship entered the Pacific Ocean. Sir John Narbprough took
two ships through the Strait of Magellan in 1670 and touched on
the coast of Chile, but it was not until 1685 that Dampier sailed over
the part of the Pacific where Hawkins met his defeat.
The exploring enterprise of the Spanish nation did not wane
after the conquest of Peru and Mexico, and the acquisition of the
vast empire of the Indies. It was spurred into renewed activity
by the audacity of Sir John Hawkins in the West Indies, and by
the appearance of Drake, Cavendish and Richard Hawkins in the
Pacific.
In the interior of South America the Spanish conquerors had
explored the region of the Andes from the isthmus of Panama to
Chile. Pedro de Valdiyia in 1540 made an expedition into the
country of the Araucanian Indians of Chile, and was the first to
PROGRESS]
GEOGRAPHY
627
explore the eastern base of the Andes in what it now Argentine
Patagonia. In 1541 Francisco de Orellana diicovered the whole
course of the Amazon from its source in the Andes to the Atlantic.
A second voyage on the Amazon was made in 1 561 by the mad pirate
Lope de Aguirre; but it wan not until 1639 that a full account was
written of the great river by Father Crlstoval de Acuna, who ascended
it from its mouth and reached the city of Quito.
The voyage of Drake across the Pacific was preceded by that of
Alvaro de Mendafla, who was despatched from Peru in 1567 to
T . . discover the great Antarctic continent which was believed
to extend far northward into the South sea, the^search
for which now became one of the leading motives of
exploration. After a voyage of eighty days across the
Pacific. Mendafta discovered the Solomon Islands; and the expedi-
tion returned in safety to Callao. The appearance of Drake on
the Peruvian coast led to an expedition being fitted out at Callao,
to go in chase of him, under the command of Pedro Sarmiento. He
tiled from Callao in October 1579, and made a careful survey of
the Strait of Magellan, with the object of fortifying that entrance
to the South sea. The colony which he afterwards took out from
Spain was a complete failure, and is only remembered now from the
name of " Port Famine," which Cavendish gave to the site at which
be found the starving remnant of Sarmiento's settlers. In June
1595 MendaAa sailed from the coast of Peru in command of a second
expedition to colonize the Solomon Islands. After discovering the
Marquesas, he reached the island of Santa Cruz of evil memory,
where be and many of the settlers died. His young widow took
command of the survivors and brought them safely to Manila.
The viceroys of Peru still persevered in their attempts to plant a
colony in the hypothetical southern continent. Pedro Fernandez
de Quiros, who was pilot under Mendafta and Luis Vaez de Torres,
were sent in command of two ships to continue the work of explora-
tion. They sailed from Callao in December 1605, and discovered
several islands of the New Hebrides group. They anchored in a bay
of a Urn island which Quiros named " Australia del Espiritu Santo. '
From this place Quiros returned to America, but Torres continued
the voyage, passed through the strait between Australia and New
Guinea which bears his name, and explored and mapped the southern
and eastern coasts of New Guinea.
The Portuguese, in the early part of the I7th century (1578-
1640), were under the dominion of Spain, and their enterprise was
to some extent damped ; but their missionaries extended geographical
knowledge in Africa. Father Francisco Paez acquired great influence
in Abyssinia, and explored its highlands from 1600 to 1622. Fathers
Mendez and Lobo traversed the deserts between the coast of the
Red sea and the mountains, became acquainted with Lake Tsana,
and discovered the sources of the Blue Nile in 1624-1633.
But the attention of the Portuguese was mainly devoted to vain
attempts to maintain their monopoly of the trade of India against
_. .^ ta the powerful rivalry of the English and Dutch. The
|3 English enterprises were persevering, continuous and
successful. James Lancaster made a voyage to the Indian
Ocean from 1591 to 1594; and in 1599 the merchants and adven-
turers of London resolved to form a company, with the object of
establishing a trade with the East Indies. On the 3ist of December
1599 Queen Elizabeth granted the charter of incorporation to the
East India Company, and Sir James Lancaster, one of the directors,
was appointed general of their first fleet. He was accompanied
by John Davis, the great Arctic navigator, as pilot-major. This
voyage was eminently successful. The ships touched at Achin in
Sumatra and at Java, returning with full ladings of pepper in 1603.
The second voyage was commanded by Sir Henry Middle-ton; but
it was in the third voyage, under Keeiinge and Hawkins, that the
mainland of India was first reached in 1607. Captain Hawkins
boded at Surat and travelled overland to Agra, passing some time
at the court of the Great Mogul. In the voyage of Sir Edward
Micbdborne in 1605, John Davis lost his life in a fight with a Japanese
junk. The eighth voyage, led by Captain Saris, extended the
operations of the company to Japan; and in 1613 the Japanese
government granted privileges to the company; but the British
retired in 1623, giving up their factory. The chief result of this
early intercourse between Great Britainand Japan was the interesting
series of letters written by William Adams from 1611 to 1617. From
the tenth voyage of the East India Company, commanded by
Captain Best, who left England in 1612, dates the establishment of
permanent British factories on the coast of India. It was Captain
Best who secured a regular firman for trade from the Great Mogul.
From that time a Beet was despatched every year, and the company's
operations greatly increased geographical knowledge of India
and the Eastern Archipelago. British visits to Eastern countries,
at this time, were not confined to the voyages of the company.
Journeys were also made by land, and, among others, the enter-
taining author of the Crudities, Thomas Coryate, of Odcombe in
Somersetshire, wandered on foot from France to India, and died
(1617) in the company's factory at Surat. In 1561 Anthony Jenkin-
son arrived in Persia with a letter from Queen Elizabeth to the shah.
He travelled through Russia to Bokhara, and returned by the
Caspian and Volga. In 1579 Christopher Burroughs built a ship
at Nizhniy Novgorod and traded across the Caspian to Baku ; and
in 1598 Sir Anthony and Robert Shirley arrived in Persia, and
Robert was afterwards sent by the shah to Europe as his ambassador.
He was followed by a Spanish mission under Garcia de Silva, who
wrote an interesting account of his travels; and to Sir Dormer
Cotton's mission, in 1628, we are indebted for Sir Thomas Herbert's
charming narrative. In like manner Sir Thomas Roe's mission
to India resulted not only in a large collection of valuable reports
and letters of his own, but also in the detailed account of his chaplain
Terry. But the most learned and intelligent traveller in the East,
during the i;ih century, was the German, .Engelbrecht Kaempfer,
who accompanied an embassy to Persia, in 1684, and was afterwards
a surgeon in the service of the Dutch East India Company. He
was in the Persian Gulf, India and Java, and resided for more than
two years in Japan, of which he wrote a history.
The Dutch nation, as soon as it was emancipated from Spanish
tyranny, displayed an amount of enterprise, which, for a long time,
was fully equal to that of the British. The Arctic voyages _
of Barents were quickly followed by the establishment of ""''" '*
a Dutch East India Company; and the Dutch, ousting i^f^'lj^
the Portuguese, not only established factories on the " ' " ^.
mainland of India and in Japan, but acquired a preponder-
ating influence throughout the Malay Archipelago. In 1583 Jan
Hugen van Linschoten made a voyage to India with a Portuguese
fleet, and his full and graphic descriptions of India, Africa, China
and the Malay Archipelago must have been of no small use to his
countrymen in their distant voyages. The first of the Dutch Indian
voyages was performed by ships which sailed in April 1595, and
rounded the Cape of Good Hope. A second large Dutch fleet sailed
in 1598; and, so eager was the republic to extend her commerce
over the world that another fleet, consisting of five ships of Rotter-
dam, was sent in the same year by way of Magellan's Strait, under
Jacob M.ilm as admiral, with William Adams as pilot. Mahu died
on the passage out, and was succeeded^by Simon de Cordes, who
was killed on the coast of Chile. In September 1599 the fleet had
entered the Pacific. The_ ships were then steered direct for Japan,
and anchored off Bungo in April 1600. In the same year, 1598, a
third expedition was despatched under Oliver van Noort, a native
of Utrecht, but the voyage contributed nothing to geography. The
Dutch Company in 1614 again resolved to send a fleet to the Moluccas
by the westward route, and Joris Spilbergen was appointed to the
command as admiral, with a commission from the States-General.
He was furnished with four ships of Amsterdam, two of Rotterdam
and one from Zeeland. On the 6th of May 1615 Spilbergen entered
the Pacific Ocean, and touched at several places on the coast of Chile
and Peru, defeating the Spanish fleet in a naval engagement off
Chilca. After plundering Payta and making requisitionsat Acapulcp,
the Dutch fleet crossed the Pacific and reached the Moluccas in
March 1616.
The Dutch now resolved to discover a passage into the Pacific
to the south of Tierra del Fuego, the insular nature of which had
been ascertained by Sir Francis Drake. The vessels fitted out for
this purpose were the " Eendracht," of 360 tons, commanded by
Jacob Lemaire, and the " Hoorn," of no tons, under Willem
Schouten. They sailed from the Texel on the lAth of June 1615,
and by the 2Oth of January 1616 they were south of the entrance
of Magellan's Strait. Passing through the strait of Lemaire they
came to the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego, which was
named Cape Horn, in honour of the town of Hoorn in West Friesland,
of which Schouten was a native. They passed the cape on the 3 1st
of January, encountering the usual westerly winds. The great merit
of this discovery of a second passage into the South sea lies in the
fact that it was not accidental or unforeseen, but was due to the
sagacity of those who designed the voyage. On the 1st of March
the Dutch fleet sighted the island of Juan Fernandez ; and, having
crossed the Pacific, the explorers sailed along the north coast of
New Guinea and arrived at the Moluccas on the i/th of September
1616.
There were several early indications of the existence of the great
Australian continent, and the Dutch endeavoured to obtain further
knowledge concerning the country and its extent; but only its
northern and western coasts had been visited before the time of
Governor van Diemen. Dirk Hartog had been on the west coast
in latitude 26 30' S. in 1616. Pelsert struck on a reef called " Hout-
man's Abrolhos " on the 4th of June 1629. In 1697 tne Dutch
captain Vlamingh landed on the west coast of Australia, then called
New Holland, in 31 43' S., and named the Swan river from the black
swans he discovered there. In 1642 the governor and council of
Batavia fitted put two ships to prosecute the discovery of the south
land, then believed to be part of a vast Antarctic continent, and
entrusted the command to Captain Abel Jansen Tasman. This
voyage proved to be the most important to geography that had been
undertaken since the first circumnavigation of the globe. Tasman
sailed from Batavia in 1642, and on the 24th of November sighted
high land in 42 30' S., which was named van Diemen's Land, and
after landing there proceeded to the discovery of the western coast
of New Zealand ; at first called Staten Land, and supposed to be con-
nected with the Antarctic continent from which this voyage proved
New Holland to be separated. He then reached Tongatabu, one
of the Friendly Islands of Cook; and returned by the north coast
of New Guinea to Batavia. In 1644 Tasman made a second voyage
to effect a fuller discovery of New Guinea.
6 2 8
GEOGRAPHY
[PROGRESS
The French directed' their enterprise more in the direction of
North America than of the Indies. One of their most distinguished
Preach In explorers was Samuel Champlain, a captain in the navy,
North ' who, after a remarkable journey through Mexico and the
America. West Indies from 1599 to 1602, established his historic
connexion with Canada, to the geographical knowledge
of which he made a very large addition.
The principles and methods of surveying and position finding
had by this time become well advanced, and the most remarkable
Mission- example of the early application of these improvements
aries la ' s to be found in the survey of China by Jesuit missionaries.
the Bast. They first prepared a map of the country round Peking,
which was submitted to the emperor Kang-hi, and,
being satisfied with the accuracy of the European method of survey-
ing, he resolved to have a survey made of the whole empire on the
same principles. This great work was begun in July 1708, and the
completed maps were presented to the emperor in 1718. The
records preserved in each city were examined, topographical infor-
mation was diligently collected, and the Jesuit fathers checked their
triangulation by meridian altitudes of the sun and pole star and by a
system of remeasurements. The result was a more accurate map of
China than existed, at that time, of any country in Europe. Kang-hi
next ordered a similar map to be made of Tibet, the survey being
executed by two lamas who were carefully trained as surveyors
by the Jesuits at Peking. From these surveys were constructed
the well-known maps which were forwarded to Duhalde, and which
D'Anville utilized for his atlas.
Several European missionaries had previously found their way
from India to Tibet. Antonio Andrada, in 1624, was the first
The 18th European to enter Tibet since the visit of Friar Odoric
century. ' n I 3 2 5- The next journey was that of Fathers Grueber
and Dorville about 1660, who succeeded in passing from
China, through Tibet, into India. In 1715 Fathers Desideri and
Freyre made their way from Agra, across the Himalayas, to Lhasa,
and the Capuchin Friar Orazio della Penna resided in that city
from 1735 until 1747. But the most remarkable journey in this
direction was performed by a Dutch traveller named Samuel van de
Putte. He left Holland in 1718, went by land through Persia to
India, and eventually made his way to Lhasa, where he resided for a
long time. He went thence to China, returned to Lhasa, and was
in India in time to be an eye-witness of the sack of Delhi by Nadir
Asia. Shah in 1737. In 1743 he left India and died at Bata via
on the 27th of September 1745. The premature death
of this illustrious traveller is the more to be lamented because his
vast knowledge died with him. Two English missions sent by
Warren Hastings to Tibet, one led by George Bogle in 1774, and the
other by Captain Turner in 1783, complete Tibetan exploration in
the l8th century.
From Persia much new information was supplied by Jean Chardin,
can Tavernier, Charles Hamilton, Jean de TheVenot and Father
ude Krusinski, and by English traders on the Caspian. In 1738
ohn Elton traded between Astrakhan and the Persian port of
Enzeli on the Caspian, and undertook to build a fleet for Nadir
Shah. Another English merchant, named Jonas Hanway, arrived
at Astrabad from Russia, and travelled to the camp of Nadir at
Kazvin. One lasting and valuable result of Hanway's wanderings
was a charming book of travels. In 1700 Guillaume Delisle pub-
lished his map of the continents of the Old World ; and his successor
D'Anville produced his map of India in 1752. D'Anville's map
contained all that was then known, but ten years afterwards Major
Rennell began his surveying labours, which extended over the
period from 1763 to 1782. His survey covered an area 900 m. long
by 300 wide, from the eastern confines of Bengal to Agra, and from
the Himalayas to Calpi. Rennell was indefatigable in collecting
geographical information; his Bengal atlas appeared in 1781, his
famous map of India in 1788 and the memoir in 1792. Surveys
were also made along the Indian coasts.
Arabia received very careful attention, in the l8th century,
from the Danish scientific mission, which included Carsten Niebuhr
among its members. Niebuhr landed at Loheia, on the coast of
Yemen, in December 1762, and went by land to Sana. All the other
members of the mission died, but he proceeded from Mokha to
Bombay. He then made a journey through Persia and Syria to
Constantinople, returning to Copenhagen in 1767. His valuable
work, the Description of Arabia, was published in 1772, and was
followed in 1774-1778 by two volumes of travels in Asia. The great
traveller survived until 1815, when he died at the age of eighty-two.
James Bruce of Kinnaird, the contemporary of Niebuhr, was
equally devoted to Eastern travel; and his principal geographical
Africa work was the tracing of the Blue Nile from its source to
its junction with the White Nile. Before the death of
Bruce an African Association was formed, in 1788, for collecting
information respecting the interior of that continent, with Major
Rennell and Sir Joseph Banks as leading members. The association
first employed John Ledyard (who had previously made an extra-
ordinary journey into Siberia) to cross Africa from east to west
on the parallel of the Niger, and Wiljiam Lucas to cross the Sahara
to Fezzan. Lucas went from Tripoli to Mesurata, obtained some
information respecting Fezzan and returned in 1789. One of the
chief problems the association wished to solve was that of the exist-
ence and course of the river Niger, which was believed by some
authorities to be identical with the Congo. Mungo Park, then an
assistant surgeon of an Indiaman, volunteered his services, which
were accepted by the association, and in 1795 he succeeded in
reaching the town of Segu on the Niger, but was prevented from
continuing his journey to Timbuktu. Five years later he accepted
an offer from the government to command an expedition into the
interior of Africa, the plan being to cross from the Gambia to the
Niger and descend the latter river to the sea. After losing most of
his companions he himself and the rest perished in a rapid on the
Niger at Busa, having been attacked from the shore by order of a
chief who thought he had not received suitable presents. His work,
however, had established the fact that the Niger was not identical
with the Congo.
While the British were at work in the direction of the Niger, the
Portuguese were not unmindful of their old exploring fame. In
1798 Dr F. J. M. de Lacerda, an accomplished astronomer, was
appointed to command a scientific expedition of discovery to the
north of the Zambesi. He started in July, crossed the Muchenja
Mountains, and reached the capital of the Cazembe, where he died
of fever. Lacerda left a valuable record of his adventurous journey ;
but with Mungo Park and Lacerda the history of African exploration
in the i8th century closes.
In South America scientific exploration was active during this
period. The great geographical event of the century, as regards
that continent, was the measurement of an arc of the south
meridian. The undertaking was proposed by the French America.
Academy as part of an investigation with the object
of ascertaining the length of the degree near the equator and near the
pole respectively so as to determine the figure of the earth. A
commission left Paris in 1735, consisting of Charles Marie de la
Condamine, Pierre Bouguer, Louis Godin and Joseph de Jussieu
the naturalist. Spain appointed two accomplished naval officers,
the brothers Ulloa, as coadjutors. The operations were carried on
during eight years on a plain to the south of Quito; and, in addition
to his memoir on this memorable measurement, La Condamine
collected much valuable geographical information during a voyage
down the Amazon. The arc measured was 3 7' 3" in length;
and the work consisted of two measured bases connected by a series
of triangles, one north and the other south of the equator, on the
meridian of Quito. Contemporaneously, in 1738, Pierre Louis
Moreau de Maupertuis, Alexis Claude Clairaut, Charles Etienne
Louis Camus, Pierre Charles Lemonnier and the Swedish physicist
Celsius measured an arc of the meridian in Lapland.
The British and French governments despatched several expedi-
tions of discovery into the Pacific and round the world during the
1 8th century. They were preceded by the wonderful The
and romantic voyages of the buccaneers. The narratives Pacific
of such men as Woodes Rogers, Edward Davis, George Ocean.
Shelvocke, Clippertqn and William Dampier, can never
fail to interest, while they are not without geographical value.
The works of Dampier are especially valuable, and the narratives
of William Funnell and Lionel Wafer furnished the best accounts
then extant of the Isthmus of Darien. Dampier's literary ability
eventually secured for him a commission in the king's service;
and he was sent on a voyage of discovery, during which he explored
part of the coasts of Australia and New Guinea, and discovered the
strait which bears his name between New Guinea and New Britain,
returning in 1701. In 1721 Jacob Roggewein was despatched on a
voyage of some importance across the Pacific by the Dutch West
India Company, during which he discovered Easter Island on the
6th of April 1722.
The voyage of Lord Anson to the Pacific in 1740-1744 was of a
predatory character, and he lost more than half his men from scurvy ;
while it is not pleasant to reflect that at the very time when the
French and Spaniards were measuring an arc of the meridian at
Quito, the British under Anson were pillaging along the coast of the
Pacific and burning the town of Payta. But a romantic interest
attaches to the wreck of the " Wager," one of Anson's fleet, on a
desert island near Chiloe, for it bore fruit in the charming narrative
of Captain John Byron, which will endure for all time. In 1764
Byron himself was sent on a voyage of discovery round the world,
which led immediately after his return to the despatch of another
to complete his work, under the command of Captain Samuel Wallis.
The expedition, consisting of the " Dolphin " commanded by
Wallis, and the " Swallow " under Captain Philip Carteret, sailed in
September 1766, but the ships were separated on entering the Pacific
from the Strait of Magellan. Wallis discovered Tahiti on the igth
of June 1767, and he gave a detailed account of that island. He
returned to England in May 1768. Carteretdiscovered the Charlotte
and Gloucester Islands, and Pitcairn Island on the 2nd of July 1767 ;
revisited the Santa Cruz group, which was discovered by Mendafia
and Quiros; and discovered the strait separating New Britain from
New Ireland. He reached Spithead again in February 1 769. Wallis
and Carteret were followed very closely by the French expedition
of Bougainville, which sailed from Nantes in November 1766.
Bougainville had first to perform the unpleasant task of delivering
up the Falkland Islands, where he had encouraged the formation
of a French settlement, to the Spaniards. He then entered the
Pacific, and reached Tahiti in April 1768. Passing through the New
PROGRESS)
GEOGRAPHY
629
Hebrides group he touched at Batavia. and arrived at St Malo after
an absence of two years and four months.
The three voyages of Captain James Cook form an era in the history
of geographical discovery. In 1767 he sailed for Tahiti, with the
object of observing the transit of Venus, accompanied
by two naturalists. Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander,
a pupil of Linnaeus, as well as by two astronomers. The
transit was observed on the 3rd of June 1769. After exploring
Tahiti and the Society group. Cook spent six months surveying New
Zealand, which he discovered to be an island, and the coast of New
South Wales from latitude 38* S. to the northern extremity. The
belief in a vast Antarctic continent stretching far into the temperate
tone had never been abandoned, and was vehemently asserted by
Charles Dalrymple, a disappointed candidate nominated by the
Royal Society for the command of the Transit expedition of 1769.
In 1772 the French explorer Yves Kerguelen de Tremarec had dis-
covered the land that bears his name in the South Indian Ocean
without recognizing it to be an island, and naturally believed it
to be part of the southern continent.
Cook's second voyage was mainly intended to settle the question
of the existence of such a continent once for all, and to define the
limits of any land that might exist in navigable seas towards the
Antarctic circle. James Cook at his first attempt reached a south
latitude of 57" 15'. On a second cruise from the Society Islands,
in 1773, he, first of all men, crossed the Antarctic circle, and was
stopped by ice in 71 10' S. During the second voyage Cook visited
Easter Island, discovered several islands of the New Hebrides and
New Caledonia; and on his way home by Cape Horn, in March 1774.
he discovered the Sandwich Island group and described South
Georgia. He proved conclusively that any southern continent
that might exist lay under the polar ice. The third voyage was
intended to attempt the passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic by
the north-east. The " Resolution " and " Discovery " sailed, in
1776, and Cook again took the route by the Cape of Good Hope.
On reaching the North American coast, he proceeded northward,
fixed the position of the western extremity of America and surveyed
Bering Strait. He was stopped by the ice in 70 41' N., and named
the farthest visible point on the American shore Icy Cape. He then
visited the Asiatic shore and discovered Cape North. Returning to
Hawaii, Cook was murdered by the natives. On the 1 41 h of February
1779, his second, Captain Edward Clerke, took command, and
proceeding to Petropavlovsk in the following summer, he again
examined the edge of the ice, but only got as far as 70 33' N. The
ships returned to England in October 1780.
In 1785 the French government carefully fitted out an expedition
of discovery at Brest, which was placed under the command of
Francois La Perouse, an accomplished and experienced officer.
After touching at Conception in Chile and at Easter Island, La
Perouse proceeded to Hawaii and thence to the coast of California,
of which be has given a very interesting account. He then crossed
the Pacific to Macao, and in July 178? he proceeded to explore the
Gulf of Tartary and the shores of Sakhalin, remaining some time at
Castries Bay, so named after the French minister of marine. Thence
he went to the Kurile Islands and Kamchatka, and sailed from the
far north down the meridian to the Navigator and Friendly Islands.
He was in Botany Bay in January 1788; and sailing thence, the
explorer, hi* ship and crew were never seen again. Their fate was
long uncertain. In September 1791 Captain Antoine d'Entre-
casteaux tailed from Brest with two vessels to seek for tidings.
He visited the New Hebrides, Santa Cruz, New Caledonia and Splo-
mon IshiHi. and made careful though rough surveys of the Louisiade
Archipelago, islands north of New Britain and part of New Guinea.
D'Entrecasteaux died on board his ship on the 2Oth of July 1793,
without ascertaining the fate of La Perouse. Captain Peter Dillon
at length ascertained, in 1828, that the ships of La IV-rousc had been
wiecked on the island of Vanikoro during a hurricane.
The work of Captain Cook bore fruit in many ways. His master,
Captain William Bligh, was sent in the " Bounty" to convey bread-
fruit plants from Tahiti to the West Indies. He reached Tahiti in
October 1788, and in April 1789 a mutiny broke out, and he, with
several officers and men, was thrust into an open boat in mid-ocean.
Dunne the remarkable voyage he then made to Timor, Bli^h
passed amongst the northern islands of the New Hebrides, which
be named the Banks Group, and made several running surveys.
He reached England in March 1790. The " Pandora," under
Captain Edwards, was sent out in search of the " Bounty," and
discovered the islands of Cherry and Mitre, east of the Santa Cruz
group, but she was eventually lost on a reef in Torres Strait. In
1 796-1 797 Captain Wilson, in the missionary ship " Duff," discovered
toe Gambier and other islands, and rediscovered the islands known
to and seen by Quiro. but since called the Duff Group. Another
result of Captain Cook's work was the colonization of Australia.
On the 1 8th of January 1788 Admiral Phillip and Captain Hunter
arrived in Botany Bay in the " Supply " ana " Sirius, followed by
six transports, and established a colony at Port lackson. Surveys
were then undertaken in several directions. In 1795 and 1796
Matthew Flinders and George Bass were engaged on exploring work
in a small boat called the " Tom Thumb." In 1797 Bass, who had
been a surgeon, made an expedition southwards, continued the work
at Cook from Ram Head, and explored the strait which bears hi*
name, and in 1798 he and Flinders were surveying on the east coast
of Van Diemen s land.
Yet another outcome of Captain Cook's work was the voyage of
George Vancouver, who had served as a midshipman in Cook's
second and third voyages. The Spaniards under Quadra had begun
a survey of north-western America and occupied Nootka Sound,
which their government eventually agreed to surrender. Captain
Vancouver was sent out to receive the cession, and to survey the
coast from Cape Mendocino northwards. He commanded the old
" Discovery," and was at work during the seasons of 1792, 1793 and
1794, wintering at Hawaii. Returning home in 1795, he completed
his narrative and a valuable series of charts.
The l8th century saw the Arctic coast of North America reached
at two points, as well as the first scientific attempt to reach the
North Pole. The Hudson Bay Company had been in- irrt/to
corporated in 1670, and its servants goon extended their
operations over a wide area to the north and west of
Canada. In 1741 Captain Christopher Middlcton was ordered to
solve the question of a passage from Hudson Bay to the westward.
Leaving Fort Churchill in July 1742, he discovered the Wager river
and Repulse Bay. He was followed by Captain W. Moor in 1746,
and Captain Coats in 1751, who examined the Wager Inlet up to tin-
t-mi. In November 1769 Samuel Hearne was sent by the Hudson
Bay Company to discover the sea on the north side of America,
but was obliged to return. In February 1770 he set out again from
Fort Prince of Wales; but, after great hardships, he was again
forced to return to the fort. He started once more in December
1771, and at length reached the Coppermine river, which he surveyed
to its mouth, but his observations are unreliable. With the same
object Alexander Mackenzie, with a party of Canadians, set out from
Fort Chippewyan on the 3rd of June 1789, and descending the great
river which now bears the explorer's name reached the Arctic sea.
In February 1773 the Royal Society submitted a proposal to the
king for an expedition towards the North Pole. The expedition was
fitted out under Captains Constantine Phipps and Skcfnngton
Lutwidge, and the highest latitude reached was 80 48' N., but_no
opening was discovered in the heavy Polar pack. The most im-
portant Arctic work in the i8th century was performed by the
Russians, for they succeeded in delineating the whole of the northern
coast of Siberia. Some of this work was possibly done at a still
earlier date. The Cossack Simon Dezhneff is thought to have made a
voyage, in the summer of 1648, from the river Kolyma, through
Bering Strait (which was rediscovered by Vitus Bering in 1728) to
Anadyr. Between 1738 and 1750 Manin and Sterlegon made their
way in small sloops from the mouth of the Yenesei as far north as
75 15' N. The land from Taimyr to Cape Chelyuskin, the most
northern extremity of Siberia, was mapped in many years of patient
exploration by Chelyuskin, who reached the extreme point
(77 34' N.) in May 1742. To the east of Cape Chelyuskin the
Russians encountered greater difficulties. They built small vessels
at Yakutsk on the Lena, 900 m. from its mouth, whence the first
expedition was despatched under Lieut. Prontschichev in 1735- He
sailed from the mouth of the Lena to the mouth of the Olonek,
where he wintered, and on the 1st of September 1736 he got as far
as 77 29' N., within 5 m. of Cape Chelyuskin. Both he and his
young wife died of scurvy, and the vessel returned. A second
expedition, under Lieut. Laptyev, started from the Lena in 1739,
but encountered masses of drift ice in Chatanga bay, and with this
ended the voyages to the westward of the Lena. Several attempts
were also made to navigate the sea from the Lena to the Kolyma.
In 1736 Lieut. Laptyev sailed, but was stopped by the drift ice in
August, and in 1739, during another trial, he reached the mouth
of the Indijjirka, where he wintered. In the season of 1740 he
continued his voyage to beyond the Kolyma, wintering at Nizhni
Kolymsk. In September 1740 Vitus Bering sailed from Okhotsk
on a second Arctic voyage with George William Steller on board
as naturalist. In June 1741 he named the magnificent peak on the
coast of North America Mount St Elias and explored tne Aleutian
Islands. In November the ship was wrecked on Bering Island;
and the gallant Dane, worn out with scurvy, died there on the
8th of December 1741. In March 1770 a merchant named Liakhov
saw a large herd of reindeer coming from the north to the Siberian
coast, which induced him to start in a sledge in the direction whence
they came. Thus he reached the New Siberian or Liakhov Islands,
and for years afterwards the seekers for fossil ivory resorted to them.
The Russian Captain Vassili Chitschakov in 1765 and 1766 made two
persevering attempts to penetrate the ice north of Spitsbergen,
and reached 80 30' N., while Russian parties twice wintered at Bell
Sound.
In reviewing the progress of geographical discovery thus far, it
has been possible to keep fairly closely to a chronological order.
But in the igth century and after exploring work was so
generally and steadily maintained in all directions, and
was in so many cases narrowed down from long journeys
to detailed surveys within relatively small areas, that it
becomes desirable to cover the whole period at one view for certain
great divisions of the world. (See AFRICA; ASIA; AUSTRALIA; POLAR
REGIONS; &c.) Here, however, may be noticed the development
of geographical societies devoted to the encouragement of exploration
and research. The first of the existing geographical societies was
630
GEOGRAPHY
[PRINCIPLES
that of Paris, founded in 1825 under the title of La Societ6 de
Geographic. The Berlin Geographical Society (Gesellschaft fur
Erdkunde) is second in order of seniority, having been founded in
1827. The Royal Geographical Society, which was founded in
London in 1830, comes third on the list ; but it may be viewed as a
direct result of the earlier African Association founded in 1788.
Sir John Barrow, Sir John Cam Hobhouse (Lord Broughton), Sir
Roderick Murchison, Mr Robert Brown and Mr Bartle Frere formed
the foundation committee of the Royal Geographical Society, and
the first president was Lord Goderich. The action of the society in
supplying practical instruction to intending travellers, in astronomy,
surveying and the various branches of science useful to collectors,
has had much to do with advancement of discovery. Since the war
of 1870 many geographical societies have been established on the
continent of Europe. At the close of the igth century there were
upwards of 100 such societies in the world, with more than 50,000
members, and over 150 journals were devoted entirely to geographical
subjects. 1 The great development of photography has been a notable
aid to explorers, not only by placing at their disposal a faithful and
ready means of recording the features of a country and the types
of inhabitants, but by supplying a method of quick and accurate
topographical surveying.
THE PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY
As regards the scope of geography, the order of the various
departments and their inter-relation, there is little difference of
opinion, and the principles of geography 2 are now generally accepted
by modern geographers. The order in which the various subjects
are treated in the following sketch is the natural succession from
fundamental to dependent facts, which corresponds also to the
evolution of the diversities of the earth's crust and of its inhabitants.
The fundamental geographical conceptions are mathematical, the
relations of space and form. The figure and dimensions of the
. m earth are the first of these. They are ascertained by a
.* . " '" combination of actual measurement of the highest
* precision on the surface and angular observations of the
positions of the heavenly bodies. The science of geodesy
is part of mathematical geography, of which the arts of surveying
and cartography are applications. The motions of the earth
as a planet must be taken into account, as they render possible
the determination of position and direction by observations of the
heavenly bodies. The diurnal rotation of the earth furnishes two
fixed points or poles, the axis joining which is fixed or nearly so in its
direction in space. The rotation of the earth thus fixes the directions
of north and south and defines those of east and west. The angle
which the earth's axis makes with the plane in which the planet
revolves round the sun determines the varying seasonal distribution
of solar radiation over the surface and the mathematical zones of
climate. Another important consequence of rotation is the deviation
produced in moving bodies relatively to the surface. In the form
known as Ferrell's Law this runs: " If a body moves in any direction
on the earth's surface, there is a deflecting force which arises from
the earth's rotation which tends to deflect it to the right in the
northern hemisphere but to the left in the southern hemisphere."
The deviation is of importance in the movement of air, of ocean
currents, and to some extent of rivers.*
In popular usage the words " physical geography " have come
to mean geography viewed from a particular standpoint rather
p . . . than any special department of the subject. The popular
. meaning is better conveyed by the word physiography, a
geofrapay. term w j,i c h appears to have been introduced by Linnaeus,
and was reinvented as a substitute for the cosmography of the middle
ages by Professor Huxley. Although the term has since been limited
by some writers to one particular part of the subject, it seems best
to maintain the original and literal meaning. In the stricter sense,
physical geography is that part of geography which involves the
processes of contemporary change in the crust and the circulation
of the fluid envelopes. It thus draws upon physics for the explana-
tion of the phenomena with the space-relations of which it is specially
concerned. Physical geography naturally falls into three divisions,
dealing respectively with the surface of the lithosphere geomor-
phology.; the hydrosphere oceanography; and the atmosphere
climatology. All these rest upon the facts of mathematical geo-
graphy, and the three are so closely inter-related that they cannot
be rigidly separated in any discussion.
Geomorphology is the part of geography which deals with terres-
trial relief, including the submarine as well as the subaerial portions
of the crust. The history of the origin of the various forms belongs
1 H. Wagner's year-book, Geographische Jahrbuch, published at
Got ha, is the best systematic record of the progress of geography
in all departments; and Haack's Geographen Kalender, also published
annually at Gotha, gives complete lists of the geographical societies
and geographers of the world.
* This phrase is old, appearing in one of the earliest English works
on geography, William Cuningham's Cosmographical Glasse con-
teinyng the pleasant Principles of Cosmographie, Geographic, Hydro-
graphic or Navigation (London, 1559).
* See also S. Gtinther, Handbuch der mathematischen Geographic
(Stuttgart, 1890).
to geology, and can be completely studied only by geological
methods. But the relief of the crust is not a finished piece of sculp-
ture; the forms are for the most part transitional, owing
their characteristic outlines to the process by which they .
are produced ; therefore the geographer must, for strictly *^'
geographical purposes, take some account of the processes which are
now in action modifying the forms of the crust. Opinion still differs
as to the extent to which the geographer's work should overlap that
of the geologist.
The primary distinction of the forms of the crust is that between
elevations and depressions. Granting that the geoid or mean
surface of the ocean is a uniform spheroid, the distribution of land
and water approximately indicates a division of the surface of the
globe into two areas, one of elevation and one of depression. The
increasing number of measurements of the height of land in all
continents and islands, and the very detailed levellings in those
countries which have been thoroughly surveyed, enable the average
elevation of the land above sea-level to be fairly estimated, although
many vast gaps in accurate knowledge remain, and the estimate
is not an exact one. The only part of the sea-bed the configuration
of which is at all well known is the zone bordering the coasts where
the depth is less than about 100 fathoms or 200 metres, i.e. those
parts which sailors speak of as " in soundings." Actual or projected
routes for telegraph cables across the deep sea have also been sounded
with extreme accuracy in many cases; but beyond these lines of
sounding the vast spaces of the ocean remain unplumbed save for
the rare researches of scientific expeditions, such as those of the
" Challenger," the " Valdiyia," the " Albatross " and the " Scotia."
Thus the best approximation to the average depth of the ocean is
little more than an expert guess ; yet a fair approximation is probable
for the features of sub-oceanic relief are so much more uniform than
those of the land that a smaller number of fixed points is required
to determine them.
The chief element of uncertainty as to the largest features of the
relief of the earth's crust is due to the unexplored area in the Arctic
region and the larger regions of the Antarctic, of which
we know nothing. We know that the earth's surface if
unveiled of water would exhibit a great region of elevation "flht.
arranged with a certain rough radiate symmetry round the north
pole, and extending southwards in three unequal arms which taper
to points in the south. A depression surrounds the little-known
south polar region in a continuous ring and extends northwards in
three vast hollows lying between the arms of the elevated area. So
far only is it possible to speak with certainty, but it is permissible
to take a few steps into the twilight of dawning knowledge and
indicate the chief subdivisions which are likely to be established
in the great crust-hollow and the great crust-heap. The boundary
between these should obviously be the mean surface of the
sphere.
Sir John Murray deduced the mean height of the land of the globe
as about 2250 ft. above sea-level, and the mean depth of the oceans
as 2080 fathoms or 12,480 ft. below sea-level. 4 Calculating the area
of the land at 55,000,000 sq. m. (or 28-6% of the surface), and that
of the oceans as 137,200,000 sq. m. (or 71-4% of the surface), he
found that the volume of the land above sea-level was 23,450,000
cub. m., the volume of water below sea-level 323,800,000, and the
total volume of the water equal to about j-Jnth of the volume of the
whole globe. From these data, as revised by A. Supan, 6 H. R. Mill
calculated the position of mean sphere-level at about 10,000 ft. or
1700 fathoms below sea-level. He showed that an imaginary
spheroidal shell, concentric with the earth and cutting the slope
between the elevated and depressed areas at the contour-Tine of 1700
fathoms, would not only leave above it a volume of the crust equal
to the volume of the hollow left below it, but would also divide the
surface of the earth so that the area of the elevated region was
equal to that of the depressed region. 6
A similar observation was made almost simultaneously by
Romieux, 7 who further speculated on the equilibrium between the
weight of the elevated land mass and that of the total .
waters of the ocean, and deduced some interesting rela- JJ*" t
tions between them. Murray, as the result of his study, -. ora f a
divided theearth's surface into three zones the continental {
area containing all dry land, the transitional area including
the submarine slopes down to 1000 fathoms, and the abysmal area
consisting of the floor of the ocean beyond that depth; and Mill
proposed to take the line of mean-sphere level, instead of the em-
pirical depth of 1000 fathoms, as the boundary between the transi-
tional and abysmal areas.
An elaborate criticism of all the existing data regarding the
volume relations of the vertical relief of the globe was made in
1894 by Professor Hermann Wagner, whose recalculations of volumes
4 " On the Height of the Land and the Depth of the Ocean," Scot.
Geog. Mag. iv. (1888), p. I. Estimates had been made previously by
Humboldt, De Lapparent, H. Wagner, and subsequently by Penck
and Heiderich, and for the oceans by Karstens.
6 Petermanns Mitteilungen, xxv. (1889), p. 17.
Proc. Roy, Soc. Edin. xvii. (1890) p. 185.
7 Comptes rendus Acad. Sci. (Pans, 1890), vol.
iii. p. 994-
PRINCIPLES!
GEOGRAPHY
631
n sunace was aoove ana 57,0 oeiow inc mean
: be noted, however, that since 189$ the soundings
be north polar area, of the " Valdivia," " Belgica, '
" Scotia in the Southern Ocean, and of various
and mean height* the be*t results which have yet been obtained
led to the following conclusion*. 1
The area of the dry Und wa* taken as 28-3% of the surface of the
globe, and that of the ocean* a* 71-7%. The mean height deduced
for the land wa* 2300 ft. above sea-level, the mean nptn
of the sea 11,500 It. below, while the .position of mean-
cphere level come* out a* 7500 ft. (1250 fathoms) below
sea-level. From this it would appear that 43% of the
* " r ** B " x earth's surface was above and 57% below the mean
level. It must b
of Nansen in the
"Gauss" and "
surveying *hip* in the North and South Pacific, have proved that
the mean depth of the ocean is considerably greater than had been
supposed, and mean-sphere level must therefore lie deeper than the
calculation* of 1895 show; possibly not far from the position deduced
from tht freer estimate of 1888. The whole of the available data
were utilized by the prince of Monaco in 1905 in the preparation of a
complete bathymetrical map of the oceans on a uniform scale,
which must long remain the standard work for reference on ocean
depth*.
By the device of a hypsographic curve co-ordinating the vertical
relief and the area* of the earth's surface occupied by each zone of
elevation, according to the system introduced by Supan,* Wagner
showed his results graphically.
Thi* curve with the values reduced from metres to feet is re-
produced below.
Wagner subdivides the earth's surface, according to elevation,
into the following five region*:
Wagner's Divisions of the Earth's Crust.
Name.
Per cent of
Surface.
From
To
Depressed area .
Oceanic plateau .
Continental slope .
Continental plateau.
Culminating area
3
54
2!
6
Deepest.
16,400 feet.
- 7.400 ,.
- 660
+ 3.300 .,
16,400 feet.
- 7.400
- 660
+ 3,000
Highest.
The continental plateau might for purposes of detailed study be
divided into the continental shelf from 660 ft. to sea-level, and
Utdands from sea-level to +660 ft. (corresponding to
the mean level of the whole globe).' Uplands reaching
from 660 ft. to 2300 (the approximate mean level of
the land), and highland's, from 2300 upwards, might
also be distinguished.
A striking fact in the configuration of the crust is
that each continent, or elevated mass of the crust, is
diametrically opposite to an ocean basin or great de-
,f&ZuuL-l ...X^.t^Jt.'-^J.l^/^***.*??.*
Ltp-
worth'M
tola-
theory.
mrnt of
(Hi nil m; the only partial exception being in the case of southern
South America, which i antipodal to eastern Asia.
ProfcMor C. Lapwocth has generalized the grand features
of crustal relief in a scheme of attractive simplicity. He
^- tees throughout all the chaos of irregular crust-forms the
r* ~~ recurrence of a certain harmony, a succession of folds or
wave* which build up all the minor features. 4 One
great series of crust wave* from east to west is crossed by a
1 " Area! und mittlere Erhebung der Landflachen sowie der Erd-
kniste " in Gerland's Beitrdge tur Geophysih, ii. (1895) p. 667. See
also Nature. 54 (1896), p. 112.
1 Pelermanns i/itteilungen, jtxxv. (1889) p. 19.
' The area* of the continental shelf and lowlands are approxi-
mately equal, and it is an interesting circumstance that, taken as a
whole, the actual coast-line come* just midway on the most nearly
level belt of the earth's surface, excepting the ocean floor. The con-
figuration of the continental slope ha* been treated in detail by
Nansen in Scientific Results of Norwegian North Polar Expedition,
vol. iv. (1904), where full reference* to the literature of the subject
will be found.
4 Bntuh Association Report (Edinburgh, 1893), p. 699.
second great series of crust waves from north to south, giving rise
by their interference to six great elevated masses (the continents),
arranged in three groups, each consisting of a northern and a
southern member separated by a minor depression. These elevated
masse* are divided from one another by similar great depressions.
He says: " The surface of each of our great continental masses of
land resembles that of a long and broad arch-like form, of
which we sec the simplest type in the New World. The
surface of the North American arch is sagged down-
wards in the middle into a central depression which
lies between two long marginal plateaus, and these
plateaus arc finally crowned by the wrinkled crests which form its
two modern mountain systems. The surface of each of pur ocean
floors exactly resembles that of a continent turned upside down.
Taking the Atlantic as pur simplest type, we may say that the
surface of an ocean basin resembles that of a mighty trough or
syncline, buckled up more or less centrally in a medial ridge, which
is bounded by two long and deep marginal hollows, in the cores
of which still deeper grooves sink to the profoundcst depths. This
complementary relationship descends even to the minor features
of the two. Where the great continental sag sinks below the ocean
level, we have our gulfs and our Mediterraneans, seen in our type
continent, as the Mexican Gulf and Hudson Bay. Where the
central oceanic buckle attains the water-line we have our oceanic
islands, seen in our type ocean, aa St Helena and the Azores. Al-
though the apparent crust-waves are neither equal in size nor
symmetrical in form, this complementary relationship between
them is always discernible. The broad Pacific depression seems to
answer to the broad elevation of the Old World the narrow trough
of the Atlantic to the narrow continent of America."
The most thorough discussion of the great features of terrestrial
relief in the light oftheir origin is that by Professor E. Suess, 1 who
points out that the plan of the earth is the result of ,
two movements of the crust one, subsidence over y^." *
wide areas, giving rise to oceanic depressions and leaving
the continents protuberant; the other, folding along comparatively
narrow belts, giving rise to mountain ranges. This theory of crust
blocks dropped by subsidence is opposed to Lapworth's theory of
vast crust-folds, but geology is the science which has to decide
between them.
Geomorphology is concerned, however, in the suggestions which
have been made as to the cause of the distribution of heap and
hollow in the larger features of the crust. EJie de Beaumont, in
his speculations on the relation between the direction of mountain
ranges and their geological age and character, was feeling towards a
comprehensive theory of the forms of crustal relief; but his ideas
were too geometrical, and his theory that the earth is a spheroid
built up on a rhombic dodecahedron, the pentagonal faces of which
determined the direction of mountain ranges, could not be proved.*
The " tetrahedral theory " brought forward by Lowthian Green, 7
that the form of the earth is a spheroid based on a regular tetra-
hedron, is more serviceable, because it accounts for three very
interesting facts of the terrestrial plan (i) the antipodal
position of continents and ocean basins; (2) the tri-
angular outline of the continents; and (3) the excess of
sea in the southern hemisphere. Recent investigations
have recalled attention to the work of Lowthian Green,
but the question is still in the controversial stage.* The
study of tidal strain in the earth's crust by Sir George
Darwin has led that physicist to indicate the possibility
of the triangular form and southerly direction of the
continents being a result of the differential or tidal
attraction of the sun and moon. More recently Professor
A. E. H. Love has shown that the great features of the
relief of the lithosphere may be expressed by spherical
harmonics of the first, second and third degrees, and their
formation related to gravitational action in a sphere of
unequal density.'
In any case it is fully recognized that the plan of the earth is so
clear as to leave no doubt as to its being due to some general cause
which should be capable of detection.
If the level of the sea were to become coincident with the mean
level of the lithosphere, there would result one tri-radiate land-mass
of nearly uniform outline and one continuous sheet of water
1 Das Antlitz der Erde (4 vols., Leipzig, 1885, 1888, 1901). Trans-
lated under the editorship of E. de Margerie, with much additional
matter, as La Face de la terre, vols. i. and ii. (Paris, 1897, 1900), and
into English by Dr Hertha Sollas as The Face of the Earth, vols. i.
and ii. (Oxford, 1904, 1906).
' Elie de Beaumont, Notice sur lei syslemes de montagnes (3 vols.,
Paris, 1852).
' Vestiges of the Molten Globe (London, 1875).
See J. W. Gregory, " The Plan of the Earth and its Causes,"
Geog. Journal, xiii. (1899) P- 225; Lord Avebury, ibid. xv. (1900)
p. 46; Marcel Bertrand, "^Deformation tetraedrique de la terre et
deplacement du pole," Comptes rendus Acad. Set. (Paris, 1900),
vol. cxxx. p. 449; and A. de Lapparent, ibid. p. 614.
See A. E. H. Love, " Gravitational Stability of the Earth," Phil.
Trans, ser. A. vol. ccvii. (1907) p. 171.
632
GEOGRAPHY
[PRINCIPLES
broken by few islands. The actual position of sea-level lies so near
the summit of the crust-heap that the varied relief of the upper
portion leads to the formation of a complicated coast-
Thecon- fj ne anc j a g rea t number of detached portions of land.
tlaeats. q^g hydrosphere is, in fact, continuous, and the land is
all in insular masses: the largest is the Old World of Europe,
Asia and Africa; the next in size, America; the third, possibly,
Antarctica; the fourth, Australia; the fifth, Greenland. After
this there is a considerable gap before New Guinea, Borneo, Mada-
gascar, Sumatra and the vast multitude of smaller islands descending
in size by regular gradations to mere rocks. The contrast between
island and mainland was natural enough in the days before the
discovery of Australia, and the mainland of the Old World was
traditionally divided into three continents. These " continents,"
" parts of the earth," or " quarters of the globe," proved to be
convenient divisions; America was added as a fourth, and subse-
quently divided into two, while Australia on its discovery was classed
sometimes as a new continent, sometimes merely as an island, some-
times compromisingly as an island-continent, according to individual
opinion. The discovery of the insularity of Greenland might again
give rise to the argument as to the distinction between island and
continent. Although the name of continent was not applied to
large portions of land for any physical reasons, it so happens that
there is a certain physical similarity or homology between them
which is not shared by the smaller islands or peninsulas.
The typical continental form is triangular as regards its sea-level
outline. The relief of the surface typically includes a central plain,
. sometimes dipping below sea-level, bounded by lateral
of oa- highlands or mountain ranges, loftier on one side than
tlaeati on tne ? tner ' ^ie higher enclosing a plateau shut in by
mountains. South America and North America follow
this type most closely ; Eurasia (the land mass of Europe and Asia)
comes next, while Africa and Australia are farther removed from
the type, and the structure of Antarctica and Greenland is unknown.
If the continuous, unbroken, horizontal extent of land in a con-
tinent is termed its trunk, 1 and the portions cut up by inlets or
channels of the sea into islands and peninsulas the limbs, it is possible
to compare the continents in an instructive manner.
The following table is from the statistics of Professor H. Wagner, 2
his metric measurements being transposed into British units:
Comparison of the Continents.
Area
total
mil.
sq. m.
Mean
height,
feet.
Area
trunk,
mil.
sq. m.
Area
penin-
sulas,
mil.
sq. m.
Area
islands,
mil.
sq. m.
Area
limbs,
mil.
sq. m.
Area
limbs,
per
cent.
Old World .
New World
Eurasia
Africa .
North America
South America
Australia
Asia
Europe .
35-8
16-2
20-85
11-46
9-26
6-84
3-43
17-02
3-83
2360
2230
2620
2130
2300
1970
1310
3120
980
I5-42
11-22
6-92
6-76
2-77
12-93
2-49
4-09
0-78
O-O2
0-16
3-05
1-04
1-34
0-24
1-56
0-06
0-50
1-04
0-30
5-43
0-24
2-34
0-08
0-66
4-09
1-34
26
2-1
25
i-i
19
24
35
The usual classification of islands is into continental and oceanic.
The former class includes all those which rise from the continental
Islands shelf, or show evidence in the character of their rocks of
having at one time been continuous with a neighbouring
continent. The latter rise abruptly from the oceanic abysses.
Oceanic islands are divided according to their geological character
into volcanic islands and those of organic origin, including coral
islands. More elaborate subdivisionsaccording to structure, origin and
position have been proposed.* In some cases a piece of land is only
an island at high water, and by imperceptible gradation the form
passes into a peninsula. The typical peninsula is connected with the
mainland by a relatively narrow isthmus; the name is, however, ex-
tended to any limb projecting from the trunk of the mainland, even
when, as in the Indian peninsula, it is connected by its widest part.
Small peninsulas are known as promontories or headlands, and
the extremity as a cape. The opposite form, an inlet of the sea, is
Coasts known when wide as a gulf, bay or bight, according
to size and degree of inflection, or as a fjord or ria when
long and narrow. It is convenient to employ a specific name for a
projection of a coast-line less pronounced than a peninsula, and for
an inlet less pronounced than a bay or bight ; outcurve and incurve
may serve the turn. The varieties of coast-lines were reduced to an
exact classification by Richthofen, who grouped them according to
the height and slope of the land into cliff-coasts (Steilkusten)
narrow beach coasts with cliffs, wide beach coasts with cliffs, and
1 Rumpf, in German, the language in which this distinction was
first made.
J Lehrbuch der Geographic (Hanover and Leipzig, 1900), Bd. i. S.
245, 249.
* See, for example, F. G. Hahn's Insel-Studien (Leipzig, 1883).
low coasts, subdividing each group according as the coast-line runs
parallel to or crosses the line of strike of the mountains, or is not
related to mountain structure. A further subdivision depends on
the character of the inter-relation of land and sea along the shore
producing such types as a fjord-coast, ria-coast or lagoon-coast.
This extremely elaborate subdivision may be reduced, as Wagner
points out, to three types the continental coast where the sea comes
up to the solid rock-material of the land ; the marine coast, which is
formed entirely of soft material sorted out by the sea ; and the com-
posite coast, in which both forms are combined.
On large-scale maps it is necessary to show two coast-lines, one
for the highest, the other for the lowest tide; but in small-scale
maps a single line is usually wider than is required to .,
represent the whole breadth of the inter-tidal zone.
The measurement of a coast-line is difficult, because
the length will necessarily be greater when measured on a large-
scale map where minute irregularities can be taken into account.
It is usual to distinguish between the general coast-line measured
from point to point of the headlands disregarding the smaller bays,
and the detailed coast-line which takes account of every inflection
shown by the map employed, and follows up river entrances to the
point where tidal action ceases. The ratio between these two
coast-lines represents the " coastal development " of any region.
While the forms of the sea-bed are not yet sufficiently well known
to admit of exact classification, they are recognized to be as a rule
distinct from the forms of the land, and the importance .
of using a distinctive terminology is felt. Efforts have *
been made to arrive at a definite international agreement
on this subject, and certain terms suggested by a committee were
adopted by the Eighth International Geographical Congress at New
York in 1904.* The forms of the ocean floor include the " shelf,"
or shallow sea margin, the " depression," a general term applied to
all submarine hollows, and the elevation." A depression when of
great extent is termed a " basin," when it is of a more or less round
form with approximatelyequal diameters, a " trough " when it is
wide and elongated with gently sloping borders, and a " trench "
when narrow and elongated with steeply sloping borders, one of
which rises higher than the other. The extension of a trough or
basin penetrating the land or an elevation is termed an " embay-
ment " when wide, and a " gully " when long and narrow; and the
deepest part of a depression is termed a " deep."
A depression of small extent when steep-sided is
termed a " caldron," and a long narrow depression
crossing a part of the continental border is termed
a " furrow." An elevation of great extent which
rises at a very gentle angle from a surrounding
depression is termed a " rise," one which is rela-
tively narrow and steep-sided a " ridge," and one
which is approximately equal in length and breadth
but steep-sided a " plateau," whether it springs
direct from a depression or from a rise. An eleva-
tion of small extent is distinguished as a " dome "
when it is more than 100 fathoms from the surface,
a " bank " when it is nearer the surface than
ico fathoms but deeper than 6 fathoms, and a
" shoal " when it comes within 6 fathoms of the
surface and so becomes a serious danger to ship-
ping. The highest point of an elevation is termed
a " height," if it does not form an island or one
of the minor forms.
The forms of the dry land are of infinite variety, and have been
studied in great detail. 6 From the descriptive or topographical
point of view, geometrical form alone should be con-
sidered; but the origin and geological structure of
land forms must in many cases be taken into account
when dealing with the function they exercise in the control of
mobile distributions. The geographers who have hitherto given
most attention to the forms of the land have been trained as geo-
logists, and consequently there is a general tendency to make origin
or structure the basis of classification rather than form alone.
The fundamental form-elements may be reduced to the six
proposed by Professor Penck as the basis of his double system of
classification by form and origin. 6 These may be looked _. .
upon as being all derived by various modifications or
arrangements of the single form-unit, the slope or inclined
plane surface. No one form occurs alone, but always
grouped together with others in various ways to make up districts,
regions and lands of distinctive characters. The form-elements are:
Land
forms.
' See Geographical Journal, xxii. (1903) pp. 191-194.
' The most important works on the classification of land forms are
F. von Richthofen, Ftihrer fur Forschungsreisende (Berlin, 1886);
G. de la Noe and E. de Margerie, Les Formes du terrain (Paris, 1888) ;
and above all A. Penck, Marphologie der Erdoberfldche (2 vols.,
Stuttgart, 1894). Compare also A. de Lapparent, Legpns de gfo-
graphie physique (2nd ed., Paris, 1898), and W. M. Davis, Physical
Geography (Boston, 1899).
* " Geomorphologie als genetische Wissenschaft," in Report of
Sixth International Geog. Congress (London, 1895), p. 735 (English
Abstract, p. 748).
PRINCIPLES)
GEOGRAPHY
633
i. The platn DT gently inclined uniform surface.
3. The scarp or steeply inclined slope; this is necessarily of
mall extent except in the direction of its length.
Phe M#ry. composed of two lateral parallel slope* inclined
toward* a narrow strip of plain at a lower level which itself slopes
downwards in the direction of its length. Many varieties of this
fundamental form may be distinguished.
4. The mount, composed of a surface falling away on every side
from a particular place. This place may either be a point, as
in a volcanic cone, or a line, as in a mountain range or ridge of
hills.
5. The hollow or form produced by a land surface sloping inwards
from all sides to a particular lowest place, the converse of a mount.
6. The caver* or space entirely surrounded by a land surface.
These form* never occur scattered haphazard over a region,
but always in an orderly subordination depending on their mode
of origin. The dominant forms result from crustal
movements, the subsidiary from secondary reactions
during the action of the primitive forms on mobile distri-
butions. The geological structure and the mineral com-
position of the rock* are often the chief causes determining the
character of the land forms of a region. Thus the scenery of a lime-
done country depends on the solubility and permeability of the
rock*, leading to the typical Karst -format ions of caverns, swallow-
hole* and underground stream courses, with the contingent pheno-
mena of dry valley* and natural bridges. A sandy beach or desert
owe* it* character to the mobility of its constituent sand-grains,
which are readily drifted and piled up in the form of dunes. A
region where volcanic activity has led to the embedding of dykes or
bosses of hard rock amongst softer strata produces a plain broken by
abrupt and isolated eminences. 1
It would be impracticable to go fully into the varieties of each
specific form; but, partly as an example of modern geographical
classification, partly because of the exceptional import-
ance of mountains amongst the features of the land, one
exception may be made. The classification of mountains
' into types has usually had regard rather to geological
structure than to external form, so that some geologists would even
apply the name of a mountain range to a region not distinguished
by relief from the rest of the country if it bear geological evidence
of having once been a true range. A mountain may be described
(it cannot be defined) as an elevated region of irregular surface
rising comparatively abruptly from lower ground. The actual
elevation of a summit above sea-level does not necessarily affect its
mountainous character; a gentle eminence, for instance, rising a
few hundred feet above a tableland, even if at an elevation of say
15.000 ft., could only be called a hill.* But it may be said that
any abrupt slope of 2000 ft. or more in vertical height may justly
be called a mountain, while abrupt slopes of lesser height may
be called hills. Existing classifications, however, do not take
account of any difference in kind between mountain and hills,
although it is common in the German language to speak of Hugel-
land. \iittelgcbtrgc and Hochgebirge with a definite significance.
The simple classification employed by Professor James Geikie *
into mountains of accumulation, mountains of elevation and moun-
tain* of circumdcnudation, is not considered sufficiently thorough
by German geographer*, who, following Richthoi'en, generally
adopt a classification dependent on six primary divisions, each of
which i* subdivided. The terms employed, especially for the sub-
division*, cannot be easily translated into other languages, and the
English equivalents in the following table are only put forward
tentatively:
RICHTHOFEN'S CLASSIFICATION OF MOUNTAINS 4
I. Tehtoniiche Gebirge Tectonic mountains.
(a) Bruchgebtrge oder SchoUengebirge Block mountains.
I. Einseitige SchoUengebirge Oder Schollenrandgebirge
Scarp or tilted block mountains,
(i.) TafeUchoUe Table blocks.
(ii.) A brononsichoUe Abraded blocks.
(iii.) TransgressionsschoUe Blocks of unconform-
abk strata.
3. Flexurgebirge Flexure mountain*,
t. Horslgebirge Symmetrical block mountain*.
(b) Faltungsgebirge Fold mountain*.
I. /{omoomorphe Faltungsgebirge Homomorphic fold
mountain*.
3. Heleromorphe Faltungsgebirge Heteromorphic fold
mountain*.
1 On this subject see I. Geikie, Earth Sculpture (London, 1898);
I. E. Marr, The Scientific Study of Scenery (London, 1900) ; Sir A.
Geikie, The Scenery and Geology of Scotland (London, 2nd ed., 1887) ;
Lord Avebury (Sir J. Lubbock), The Scenery of Switzerland (London,
1896) and The Scenery of England (London, 1902).
Some geographers distinguish a mountain from a hill by origin ;
thus Professor Seeley say* " a mountain implies elevation and a hill
implies denudation, but the external forms of both are often iden-
tical." Report VI. Int. Gear. Congress (London, 1895), p. 751.
" Mountains," in Scot. Geog. Stag. ii. (1896) p. 145.
4 Fnkrerfur Forschungsreisende, pp. 652-685.
II. Rumpfgebirge oder Abrasionsgebirge Trunk or abraded
mountains.
III. A usbruchsgebirge-^- Eruptive mountains.
IV. Aufsihutlungsgebirge Mountains of accumulation.
V. Flachboden Plateaux.
(a) Abrasionsplattrn Abraded plateaux.
(6) Marines Flachland Plain of marine erosion.
(c) Schichtungstafelland Horizontally stratified tableland.
(</) Ubergusstaftiland Lava plain.
(e) Slromfiachland River plain.
(f) Flachboden der atmospharischen AufschHUung Plains of
acolian formation.
VI. Erosionsgebirge Mountains of erosion.
_ From the morphological point of view it is more important to
distinguish the associations of forms, such as the mountain mass
or group of mountains radiating from a centre, with the
valleys furrowing their flanks spreading towards every '
direction ; the mountain chain or line of heights, forming a '
long narrow ridge or series of ridges separated by parallel valleys;
the dissected plateau or highland, divided into mountains of circum-
denudation by a system of deeply-cut valleys; and the isolated
peak, usually a volcanic cone or a hard rock mass left projecting after
the softer strata which embedded it have been worn away (Monad-
nock of Professor Davis).
The geographical distribution of mountains is intimately associated
with the great structural lines of the continents of which they form
the culminating region. Lofty lines of fold mountains _.
form the " backbones " of North America in the Rocky "'
Mountains and the west coast systems, of South America t .
in the Cordillera of the Andes, of Europe in the Pyrenees, '
Alps, Carpathians and Caucasus, and of Asia in the mountains of
Asia Minor, converging on the Pamirs and diverging thence in the
Himalaya and the vast mountain systems of central and eastern
Asia. The remarkable line of volcanoes around the whole coast
of the Pacific and along the margin of the Caribbean and Mediter-
ranean seas is one of the most conspicuous features of the globe.
If land forms may be compared to organs, the part they serve in
the economy of the earth may, without straining the term, be
characterized as functions. The first and simplest _ .
function of the land surface is that of guiding loose ,, *J n *
material to a lower level. The downward pull of gravity ?
suffices to bring about the fall of such material, but the
path it will follow and the distance it will travel before coming to
rest depend upon the land form. The loose material may, and in
an arid region does, consist only of portions of the higher
parts of the surface detached by the expansion and
contraction produced by heating and cooling due to
radiation. Such broken material rolling down a uniform scarp
would tend to reduce its steepness by the loss of material in the
upper part and by the accumulation of a mound or scree against
the lower part of the slope. _ But where the side is not a uniform
scarp, but made up of a series of ridges and valleys, the tendency
will be to distribute the detritus in an irregular manner, directing
it away from one place and collecting it in great masses in another,
so that in time the land form assumes a new appearance. Snow
accumulating on the higher portions of the land, when compacted
into ice and caused to flow downwards by gravity, gives rise, on
account of its more coherent character, to continuous -,. .
glaciers, which mould themselves to the slopes down
which they are guided, different ice-streams converging to send
forward a greater volume. Gradually coming to occupy definite
beds, which are deepened and polished by the friction, they impress
a characteristic appearance on the land, which guides them as they
traverse it, and, although the ice melts at lower levels, vast quantities
of (lav and broken stones are brought down and deposited in terminal
moraines where the glacier ends.
Rain is by far the most important of the inorganic mobije dis-
tributions upon which land forms exercise their function of guidance
and control. The precipitation of rain from the aqueous
vapour of the atmosphere is caused in part by vertical Kaia.
movements of the atmosphere involving heat changes and apparently
independent of the surface upon which precipitation occurs; but in
greater part it is dictated by the form and altitude of the land surface
and the direction of the prevailing winds, which itself is largely
influenced by the land. It is on the windward faces of the highest
ground, or just beyond the summit of less dominant heights upon the
leeward side, that most rain falls, and all that does not evaporate
or percolate into the ground is conducted back to the sea by a route
which depends only on the form of the land. More mobile and more
searching than ice or rock rubbish, the trickling drops are guided by
the deepest lines of the hillside in their incipient flow, and as these
lines converge, the stream, gaining strength, proceeds in _.
its torrential course to carve its channel deeper and en-
trench itself in permanent occupation. Thus the stream-
bed, from which at first the water might be blown away into a new
channel by a gale of wind, ultimately grows to be the strongest line
of the landscape. As the main valley deepens, the tributary stream-
beds are deepened also, and gradually cut their way headwards,
enlarging the area whence they draw their supplies. Thus new
land forms are created valleys of curious complexity, for example
Land
wtste.
634
GEOGRAPHY
[PRINCIPLES
by the " capture " and diversion of the water of one river by another,
leading to a change of watershed. 1 The minor tributaries become
more numerous and more constant, until the system of torrents
has impressed its own individuality on the mountain side. As
the river leaves the mountain, ever growing by the accession of
tributaries, it ceases, save in flood time, to be a formidable instru-
ment of destruction; the gentler slope of the land surface gives to
it only power sufficient to transport small stones, gravel, sand and
ultimately mud. Its valley banks are cut back by the erosion of
minor tributaries, or by rain-wash if the climate be moist, or left
steep and sharp while the river deepens its bed if the climate be
arid. The outline of the curve of a valley's sides ultimately depends
on the angle of repose of the detritus which covers them, if there
has been no subsequent change, such as the passage of a glacier
along the valley, which tends to destroy the regularity of the cross-
section. The slope of the river bed diminishes until the plain compels
the river to move slowly, swinging in meanders proportioned to its
size, and gradually, controlled by the flattening land, ceasing to
transport material, but raising its banks and silting up its bed by
the dropped sediment, until, split up and shoaled, its distributaries
struggle across its delta to the sea. This is the typical river of which
there are infinite varieties, yet every variety would, if time were
given, and the land remained unchanged in level relatively to the sea,
Adjust- ultimately approach to the type. Movements of the land
meat of either of subsidence or elevation, changes in the land by
rivers to tne ? ct ' on f erosion in cutting back an escarpment or
land. cutting through a col, changes in climate by affecting the
rainfall and the volume of water, all tend to throw the
river valley out of harmony with the actual condition of
its stream. There is nothing more striking in geography than the
perfection of the adjustment of a great river system to its valleys
when the land has remained stable for a very lengthened period.
Before full adjustment has been attained the river bed may be
broken in places by waterfalls or interrupted by lakes; after adjust-
ment the bed assumes a permanent outline, the slope diminishing
more and more gradually, without a break in its symmetrical descent.
Excellent examples of the indecisive drainage of a new land surface,
on which the river system has not had time to impress itself, are to be
seen in northern Canada and in Finland, where rivers are separated
by scarcely perceptible divides, and the numerous lakes frequently
belong to more than one river system.
The action of rivers on the land is so important that it has been
made the basis of a system of physical geography by Professor
W. M. Davis, who classifies land surfaces in terms of
hl'l t ' le tn r ee f act 9 rs structure, process and time. 4 Of
**cte. C these time, during which the process is acting on the
structure, is the most important. A land may thus be
characterized by its position in the " geographical cycle, or cycle
of erosion, as young, mature or old, the last term being reached
when the base-level of erosion is attained, and the land, however
varied its relief may have been in youth or maturity, is reduced to
a nearly uniform surface or peneplain. By a re-elevation of a
peneplain the rivers of an old land surface may be restored to
youthful activity, and resume their shaping action, deepening the
old valleys and initiating new ones, starting afresh the whole course
of the geographical cycle. It is, however, not the action of the
running water on the land, but the function exercised by the land
on the running water, that is considered here to be the special
province of geography. At every stage of the geographical cycle
the land forms, as they exist at that stage, are concerned in guiding
the condensation and flow of water in certain definite ways. Thus,
for example, in a mountain range at right angles to a prevailing
sea-wind, it is the land forms which determine that one side of the
range shall be richly watered and deeply dissected by a complete
system of valleys, while the other side is dry, indefinite in its valley
systems, and sends none of its scanty drainage to the sea. The
action of rain, ice and rivers conspires with the movement of land
waste to strip the layer of soil from steep slopes as rapidly as it
forms, and to cause it to accumulate on the flat valley bottoms, on
the graceful flattened cones of alluvial fans at the outlet of the gorges
of tributaries, or in the smoothly-spread surface of alluvial plains.
The whole question of the regime of rivers and lakes is sometimes
treated under the name hydrography, a name used by some writers
in the sense of marine surveying, and by others as synonymous with
oceanography. For the study of rivers alone the name potamology 3
has been suggested by Penck, and the subject being of much practical
importance has received a good deal of attention. 4
The study of lakes has also been specialized under the name of
1 See, for a summary of river-action, A. Phillipson, Studien tiber
Wasserscheiden (Leipzig, 1886); also I.C. Russell, River Development
(London, 1898) (published as The Rivers of North America, New York,
1808).
W. M. Davis, "The Geographical Cycle," Geog. Journ. xiv.
(1890) p. 484.
* A. Penck, " Potamology as a Branch of Physical Geography,"
Geog. Journ. x. (1897) p. 619.
4 See, for instance, E. Wisotzki, Hauptfluss und Nebenfluss
(Stettin, 1889). For practical studies see official reports on the
Mississippi, Rhine, Seine,. Elbe and other great rivers.
limnology (see LAKE). 6 The existence of lakes in hollows of the land
depends upon the balance between precipitation and evaporation.
A stream flowing into a hollow will tend to fill it up, and
the water will begin to escape as soon as its level rises high Lakes an<l
enough to reach the lowest part of the rim. In the case '" te a
of a large hollow in a very dry climate the rate of aralna * e -
evaporation may be sufficient to prevent the water from ever rising
to the lip, so that there is no outflow to the sea, and a basin of internal
drainage is the result. This is the case, for instance, in the Caspian
sea, the Aral and Balkhash kkes, the Tarim basin, the Sahara, inner
Australia, the great basin of the United States and the Titicaca
basin. These basins of internal drainage are calculated to amount
to 22 % of the land surface. The percentages of the land surface
draining to the different oceans are approximately Atlantic, 34-3 % ;
Arctic sea, 16-5%; Pacific, 14-4%; Indian Ocean, 12-8 %."
The parts of a river system have not been so clearly defined as is
desirable, hence the exaggerated importance popularly attached to
" the source " of a river. A well-developed river system
has in fact many equally important and widely-separated
sources, the most distant from the mouth, the highest, ogy
or even that of largest initial volume not being neces- '
sarily of greater geographical interest than the rest. s y steal *-
The whole of the land which directs drainage towards one river is
known as its basin, catchment area or drainage area sometimes,
by an incorrect expression, as its valley or even its watershed.
The boundary line between one drainage area and others is rightly
termed the watershed, but on account of the ambiguity which has
been tolerated it is better to call it water-parting or, as in America,
divide. The only other important term which requires to be noted
here is talweg, a word introduced from the German into French
and English, and meaning the deepest line along the valley, which
is necessarily occupied by a stream unless the valley is dry.
The functions of land forms extend beyond the control of the
circulation of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the water which
is continually being interchanged between them; they are exercised
with increased effect in the higher departments of biogeography and
anthropogeography.
The sum of the organic life on the globe is termed by some geo-
graphers the biosphere, and it has been estimated that the whole
mass of living substance in existence at one time would
cover the surface of the earth to a depth of one-fifth of
an inch. 7 The distribution of living organisms is a 8 Ta P"y-
complex problem, a function of many factors, several of which
are yet but little known. They include the biological nature of
the organism and its physical environment, the latter involving
conditions in which geographical elements, direct or indirect, pre-
ponderate. The direct geographical elements are the arrangement
of land and sea (continents and islands standing in sharp contrast)
and the vertical relief of the globe, which interposes barriers of a
less absolute kind between portions of the same land area or oceanic
depression. The indirect geographical elements, which, as a rule,
act with and intensify the direct, are mainly climatic; the pre-
vailing winds, rainfall, mean and extreme temperatures of every
locality depending on the arrangement of land and sea and of land
forms. Climate thus guided affects the weathering of rocks, and
so determines the kind and arrangement of soil. Different species
of organisms come to perfection in different climates; and it may
be stated as a general rule that a species, whether of plant or animal,
once established at one point, would spread over the whole zone
of the climate congenial to it unless some barrier were interposed
to its progress. In the case of land and fresh-water organisms
the sea is the chief barrier; in the case of marine organisms, the
land. Differences in land forms dp not exert great influence on the
distribution of living creatures directly, but indirectly such land
forms as mountain ranges and internal drainage basins are very
potent through their action on soil and climate. A snow-capped
mountain ridge or an arid desert forms a barrier between different
forms of life which is often more effective than an equal breadth of
sea. In this way the surface of the land is divided into numerous
natural regions, the flora and fauna of each of which include some
distinctive species not shared by the others. The distribution of
life is discussed in the various articles in this Encyclopaedia dealing
with biological, botanical and zoological subjects. 8
5 F. A. Forel, Handbuch der Seenkunde: allgemcine Limnologie
(Stuttgart, 1901); F. A. Forel, " La Limnologie, branche de la g6o-
graphie," Report VI. Int. Geog. Congress (London, 1895), p. 593;
also Le Leman (2 yols., Lausanne, 1892, 1894) ; H. Lullies, " Studien
uber Seen," Jubildumsschrift der Albertus-Universitat (Konigsberg,
1894); and G. R. Credner, " Die Reliktenseen," Petermanns Mittei-
lungen, Erganzungshefte 86 and 89 (Gotha. 1887, 1888).
e J. Murray, " Drainage Areas of the Continents," Scot. Geog. Mag.
ii. (1886) p. 548.
7 Wagner, iehrbuch der Geographic (1900), i. 586.
8 For details, see A. R. Wallace, Geographical Distribution of
Animals and Island Life; A. Heilprin, Geographical and Geological
Distribution of Animals (1887); O. Drude, Handbuch der Pflanzen-
geographie; A. Engler, Entwickelungsgeschichte der Pflanzenwelt;
also Beddard, Zoogeography (Cambridge, 1895) ; and Sclater, The
Geography of Mammals (London, 1899).
PRINCIPLES]
GEOGRAPHY
635
The classification of the land surface into areas inhabited by
distinctive groups of plants has been attempted by many phyto-
--. geographers, but without resulting in any scheme of
general acceptance. The simplest classification is perhaps
that of Drude according to climatic zones, subdivided
according to continents. This takes account of (i) the Arclie-
Atpint zone, including all the vegetation of the region bordering
on perpetual snow; (a) the Boreal zone, including the temperate
lands of North America, Europe and Asia, all of which are sub-
stantially alike in botanical character; (3) the Tropical zone, divided
sharply into (a) the tropical zone of the New World, and (b) the
tropical zone of the Old World, the forms of which differ in a sig-
nificant degree; (4) the Austral zone, comprising all continental
land south of the equator, and sharply divided into three regions
the floras of which are strikingly distinct (a) South American,
(fc) South African and (c) Australian; (5) the Oceanic, comprising
all oceanic islands, the flora of which consists exclusively of forms
whose seeds could be drifted undestroycd by ocean currents or
carried by birds. To these might be added the antarctic, which is
still very imperfectly known. Many subdivisions and transitional
tones have been suggested by different authors.
From the point of view of the economy of the globe this classi-
fication by sptctM is perhaps less important than that by mode
of life and physiological character in accordance with
"*** environment. The following are the chief areas of
vegctational activity usually recognized: (i) The ice-
deserts of the arctic and antarctic and the highest mountain regions,
where there is no vegetation except the lowest forms, like that
which causes " red snow." (2) The tundra or region of intensely
cold winters, forbidding tree-growth, where mosses and lichens
cover most of the ground when unfrozen, and shrubs occur of
species which in other conditions are trees, here stunted to the
height of a few inches. A similar zone surrounds the permanent
snow on lofty mountains in all latitudes. The tundra passes by
imperceptible gradations into the moor, bog and heath of warmer
climates. (3) The temperate forests of evergreen or deciduous trees,
according to circumstances, which occupy those parts of both
temperate zones where rainfall and sunlight are both abundant.
(4) The grassy steppes or prairies where the rainfall is diminished
and temperatures are extreme, and grass is the prevailing form of
vegetation. These pass imperceptibly into (5) the and desert,
where rainfall is at a minimum, and the only plants are those modified
to subsist with the smallest supply of water. (6) The tropical forest,
which represents the maximum of plant luxuriance, stimulated by
the heaviest rainfall, greatest heat and strongest light. These
divisions merge one into the other, and admit of almost indefinite
subdivision, while they are subject to great modifications by human
interference in clearing and cultivating. Plants exhibit the control-
ling power of environment to a high degree, and thus vegetation is
usually in close adjustment to the bolder geographical features of
The divisions of the earth into taunal regions by Dr P. L. Sclater
have been found to hold good for a large number of groups of animals
as different in their mode of life as birds and mammals,
and they may thus be accepted as based on nature.
They are six in number: (i) Palaearctic, including
Europe, Asia north of the Himalaya, and Africa north of the Sahara;
(2) Ethiopian, consisting of Africa south of the Atlas range, and
Madagascar; (3) Oriental, including India, Indo-China and the
Malay Archipelago north of Wallace's line, which runs between
Bali and Lombok; (4) Australian, including Australia, New Zealand,
New Guinea and Polynesia; (5) Nearctic or North America, north
of Mexico; and (6) Neotropical or South America. Each of these
divisions is the home of a special fauna, many species of which
are confined to it alone; in the Australian region, indeed, practically
the whole fauna is peculiar and distinctive, suggesting a prolonged
period of complete biological isolation. In some cases, such as the
Ethiopian and Neotropical and the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions,
the faunas, although distinct, are related, several forms on opposite
aides of the Atlantic being analogous, e.g. the lion and puma, ostrich
and rhea. Where two of the fauna) realms meet there is usually,
though not always, a mixing of faunas. These facts have led some
naturalists to include the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions in one,
termed Holarctic, and to suggest transitional regions, such as the
Sonoran, between North and South America, and the Mediterranean,
between Europe and Africa, or to create sub-regions, such as Mada-
gascar and New Zealand. Oceanic islands have, as a rule, distinctive
faunas and floras which resemble, but are not identical with, those of
other islands in similar positions.
The study of the evolution of faunas and the comparison of the
faunas of distant regions have furnished a trustworthy
instrument of prc-historic geographical research, which
enables earlier geographical relations of land and sea to
be traced put, and the approximate period, or at least the
chronological order of the larger changes, to be estimated.
In this way, for example, it has been suggested that a
land, " Lemuria," once connected Madagascar with the
Malay Archipelago, and that a northern extension of
the antarctic land once united the three southern continents.
The distribution of fossils frequently makes it possible to map cut
approximately the general features of land and sea in lone-past
geological periods, and so to enable the history of crustal reliefto be
traced. 1
While the tendency is for the living forms to come into harmony
with their environment and to approach the state of equilibrium
by successive adjustments if the environment should
happen to change, it U to be observed that the action
of organisms themselves often tends to change their or ** a
environment. Corals and other quick-growing cal- "
carcous marine organisms are the most powerful in this
respect by creating new land in the ocean. Vegetation of all sorts
acts in a similar way, either in forming soil and assisting in break-
ing up rocks, in filling up shallow lakes, and even, like the man-
grove, in reclaiming wide stretches of land from the sea. Plant life,
utilizing: solar light to combine the inorganic elements of water,
soil and air into living substance, is the basis of all animal life.
This is not by the supply of food alone, but also by the withdrawal
of carbonic acid from the atmosphere, by which vegetation maintains
the composition of the air in a state fit for the support of animal
life. Man in the primitive stages of culture is scarcely to be dis-
tinguished from other animals as regards his subjection to environ-
ment, but in the higher grades of culture the conditions of control
and reaction become much more complicated, and the department
of anthropogeography is devoted to their consideration.
The first requisites of all human beings arc food and protection,
in their search for which men are brought into intimate relations
with the forms and productions of the earth's surface.
The degree of dependence of any people upon environ- *'
inrin varies inversely as the degree of culture or civiliza- S e X r *P a y-
tion, which for this purpose may perhaps be defined as the power
of an individual to exercise control over the individual and over
the environment for the benefit of the community. The develop-
ment of culture is to a certain extent a question of race, and although
forming one species, the varieties of man differ in almost imperceptible
gradations with a complexity defying classification (see ANTHRO-
POLOGY). Professor Keane groups man round four leading types,
which may be named the black, yellow, red and white, or the Ethippic,
Mongolic, American and Caucasic. Each may be subdivided,
though not with great exactness, into smaller groups, either according
to physical characteristics, of which the form of the head is most
important, or according to language.
The black type is found only in tropical or sub-tropical countries,
and is usually in a primitive condition of culture, unless educated
by contact with people of the white type. They follow Tyaesol
the most primitive forms of religion (mainly fetishism), ^^
live on products of the woods or of the chase, with the
minimum of work, and have only a loose political organization.
The red type is peculiar to America, inhabiting every climate from
polar to equatorial, and containing representatives of many stages
of culture which had apparently developed without the aid or
interference of people of any other race until the close of the isth
century. The yellow type is capable of a higher culture, cherishes
higher religious beliefs, and inhabits as a rule the temperate zone,
although extending to the tropics on one side and to the arctic
regions on the other. The white type, originating in the north
temperate zone, has spread over the whole world. They have
attained the highest culture, profess the purest forms of mono-
theistic religion, and have brought all the people of the black type
and many of those of the yellow under their domination.
The contrast between the yellow and white types has been softened
by the remarkable development of the Japanese following the
assimilation of western methods.
The actual number of human inhabitants in the world has been
calculated as follows :
Asia .
Europe .
Africa .
America
Australia and
Polynesia
Total
By Continent:. 2
, 875,000,000
392,000,000
170,000,000
143,000,000
7,000,000
1,587,000,000
By Race.'
White (Caucasic) 770,000,000
Yellow (Mong) . 540,000,000
Black (Ethiopic) . 175,000,000
Red (American) . 22,000,000
Total
1,507,000,000
In round numbers the population of the world is about
1,600,000,000, and, according to an estimate by Ravenstein, 4 the
maximum population which it will be possible for the earth to
maintain is 6000 millions, a number which, if the average rate of
increase in 1891 continued, would be reached within 200 years.
While highly civilized communities are able to evade many of
the restrictions of environment, to overcome the barriers to inter-
communication interposed by land or sea, to counteract the adverse
1 See particularly A. de Lapparent, Traite de geohgie (4th ed.,
Paris, 1900).
1 Estimate for 1900. H. Wagner, Lehrbuch der Geographu, i.
p. 658.
Estimate for year not stated. A. H. Keane in International
Geography, p. 108.
4 In Proc. R.G.S. xiii. (1891) p. 27.
6 3 6
GEOGRAPHY
influence of climate, and by the development of trade even to
inhabit countries which cannot yield a food-supply, the mass of
mankind is still completely under the control of those conditions
which in the past determined the distribution and the mode of life
of the whole human race.
In tropical forests primitive tribes depend on the collection of
wild fruits, and in a minor degree on the chase of wild animals, for
their food. Clothing is unnecessary; hence there is
latiui ice j; tt i e occas i on f cr exercising the mental faculties beyond
"to * p 6 " 56 ot perception to avoid enemies, or the in-
ventive arts beyond what is required for the simplest
weapons and the most primitive fortifications. When
the pursuit of game becomes the chief occupation of a people there
is of necessity a higher development of courage, skill, powers of
observation and invention; and these qualities are still further
enhanced in predatory tribes who take by force the food, clothing
and other property prepared or collected by a feebler people. The
fruit-eating savage cannot stray beyond his woods which bound
his life as the water bounds that of a fish; the hunter is free to
live on the margin of forests or in open country, while the robber
or warrior from some natural stronghold of the mountains sweeps
over the adjacent plains and carries his raids into distant lands.
Wide grassy steppes lead to the organization of the people as nomads
whose wealth consists in flocks and herds, and their dwellings
are tents. The nomad not only domesticates and turns to his
own use the gentler and more powerful animals, such as sheep,
cattle, horses, camels, but even turns some predatory creatures,
like the dog, into a means of defending their natural prey. They
hunt the beasts of prey destructive to their flocks, and form armed
bands for protection against marauders or for purposes of aggression
on weaker sedentary neighbours. On the fertile low grounds along
the margins of rivers or in clearings of forests, agricultural com-
munities naturally take their rise, dwelling in villages and cultivating
the wild grains, which by careful nurture and selection have been
turned into rich cereals. The agriculturist as a rule is rooted to
the soil. The land he tills he holds, and acquires a closer connexion
with a particular patch of ground than either the hunter or the herds-
man. In the temperate zone, where the seasons are sharply con-
trasted, but follow each other with regularity, foresight and self-denial
were fostered, because if men did not exercise these qualities seed-time
or harvest might pass into lost opportunities and the tribes would
suffer. The more extreme climates of arid regions on the margins of
the tropics, by the unpredictable succession of droughts and floods,
confound the prevision of uninstructed people, and make prudence
and industry qualities too uncertain in their results to be worth
cultivating. Thus the civilization of agricultural peoples of the
temperate zone grew rapidly, yet in each community a special type
arose adapted to the soil, the crop and the climate. On the sea-
shore fishing naturally became a means of livelihood, and dwellers
by the sea, in virtue of the dangers to which they are exposed from
storm and unseaworthy craft, are stimulated to a higher degree of
foresight, quicker observation, prompter decision and more energetic
action in emergencies than those who live inland. The building
and handling of vessels also, and the utilization of such uncon-
trollable powers of nature as wind and tide, helped forward mechanical
invention. To every type of coast there may be related a special
type of occupation and even of character; the deep and gloomy
fjord, backed by almost impassable mountains, bred bold mariners
whose only outlet for enterprise was seawards towards other lands
the viks created the vikings. On the gently sloping margin of the
estuary of a great river a view of tranquil inland life was equally
presented to the shore-dweller, and the ocean did not present the
only prospect of a career. Finally the mountain valley, with its
patches of cultivable soil on the alluvial fans of tributary torrents,
its narrow pastures on the uplands only left clear of snow in summer,
its intensified extremes of climates and its isolation, almost equal to
that of an island, has in all countries produced a special type of
brave and hardy people, whose utmost effort may bring them com-
fort, but not wealth, by honest toil, who know little of the outer
world, and to whom the natural outlet for ambition is marauding
on the fertile plains. The highlander and viking, products of the
valleys raised high amid the mountains or half-drowned in the sea,
are everywhere of kindred spirit.
It is in some such manner as these that the natural conditions
of regions, which must be conformed to by prudence and utilized
by labour to yield shelter and food, have led to the growth of peoples
differing in their ways of life, thought and speech. The initial
differences so produced are confirmed and perpetuated by the
same barriers which divide the faunal or floral regions, the sea,
mountains, deserts and the like, and much of the course of past
history and present politics becomes clear when the combined
results of differing race and differing environment are taken into
account. 1
The specialization which accompanies the division of labour has
important geographical consequences, for it necessitates communi-
1 On the influence of land on people see Shaler, Nature and
Man in America (New York and London, 1892); and Ellen C.
Semple's American History and its Geographic Conditions (Boston,
1903)-
[PRINCIPLES
cation between communities and the interchange of their pro-
ducts. Trade makes it possible to work mineral resources
in localities where food can only be grown with great
difficulty and expense, or which are even totally barren'
and waterless, entirely dependent on supplies from distant sources.
The population which can be permanently supported by a given
area of land differs greatly according to the nature of the resources
and the requirements of the people. Pastoral communities are
always scattered very thinly over large areas; agricultural popula-
tions may be almost equally sparse where advanced methods of
agriculture and labour-saving machinery are employed ; but where
a frugal people are situated on a fertile and inexhaustible soil, such
as the deltas and river plains of Egypt, India and China, an enormous
population may be supported on a small area. In most cases,
however, a very dense population can only be maintained in regions
where mineral resources have fixed the site of great manufacturing
industries. The maximum density of population which a given
region can support is very difficult to determine; it depends partly
on the race and standard of culture of the people, partly on the
nature and origin of the resources on which they depend, partly
on the artificial burdens imposed and very largely on the climate.
Density of population is measured by the average number of people
residing on a unit of area ; but in order to compare one part of the
world with another the average should, strictly speaking, be taken
for regions of equal size or ofequal population; and the portions
of the country which are permanently uninhabitable ought to be
excluded from the calculation. 2 Considering the average density
of population within the political limits of countries, the following
list is of some value; the figures for a few smaller divisions 01
large countries are added (in brackets) for comparison:
Average Population on I sq. m. (For IQOO ar 1901.)
Country.
Density
of pop.
Country.
Density
of pop.
(Saxony) . . .
743 3
Ceylon ....
141*
Belgium ....
589 '
Greece
97
Java
568*
European Turkey
on
(England and Wales)
,_"-'
558
Spain
yu
O7
(Bengal) ....
495*
European Russia .
7/
55 4
Holland ....
436
Sweden ....
3
United Kingdom
344
United States . .
25
Japan ....
317
Mexico ....
18
Italy
293
Norway ....
18
China proper
270*
Persia
15
German Empire
270
New Zealand .
7
Austria ....
226
Argentina
5
Switzerland .
207
Brazil
4-5
France ....
1 88
Eastern States of
Indian Empire .
167*
Australia
3
Denmark
i6o 4
Dominion of Canada
1*8
Hungary ....
154 4
Siberia ....
i
Portugal ....
146
West Australia
O-2
The movement of people from one place to another without the
immediate intention of returning is known as migration, and accord-
ing to its origin it may be classed as centrifugal (directed
from a particular area) and centripetal (directed towards J "'X ra "o a -
a particular area). Centrifugal migration is usually a matter of
compulsion; it may be necessitated by natural causes, such as a
change of climate leading to the withering of pastures or destruction
of agricultural land, to inundation, earthquake, pestilence or to an
excess of population over means of support; or to artificial causes,
such as the wholesale deportation of a conquered people; or to
political or religious persecution. In any case the people are driven
out by some adverse change; and when the urgency is great they
may require to drive out in turn weaker people who occupy a desirable
territory, thus propagating the wave of migration, the direction of
which is guided by the forms of the land into inevitable channels.
Many of the great historic movements of peoples were doubtless due
to the graduajchange of geographical or climatic conditions; and the
slow desiccation of Central Asia has been plausibly suggested as the
real cause of the peopling of modern Europe and of the medieval
wars of the Old World, the theatres of which were critical points on
the great natural lines of communication between east and west.
In the case of centripetal migrations people flock to some particula
place where exceptionally favourable conditions have been found to
exist. The rushes to gold-fields and diamond-fields are typical in-
stances; the growth of towns on coal-fields and near other sources
of power, and the rapid settlement of such rich agricultural districts
as the wheat-lands of the American prairies and great plains are
other examples.
There is, however, a tendency for people to remain rooted to the
J See maps of density of population in Bartholomew's great large-
scale atlases, Atlas of Scotland and Atlas of England.
1 Almost exclusively industrial.
4 Almost exclusively agricultural.
PRINCIPLES)
GEOGRAPHY
637
land of their birth, when not compelled or induced by powerful
external causes to seek a new home.
Thus arises the spirit of patriotism, a product of purely geo-
graphical conditions, thereby differing from the sentiment of loyalty,
. which is of racial origin. Where race and soil conspire to
JJL_ evoke both loyalty and patriotism in a people, the moral
*f*^' qualities of great and permanent nation are secured.
It is noticeable that the patriotic spirit is strongest in those places
where people are brought most intimately into relation with the land :
dwellers in the mountain or by the sea, and, above all, the people of
rafted coasts and mountainous archipelagoes, have always been
renowned for love of country, while the inhabitants of fertile plains
and trading communities are frequently less strongly attached to
their own land.
Amongst nomads the tribe is the unit of government, the political
bond is personal, and there is no definite territorial association
of the people, who may be loyal but cannot be patriotic. The idea
of a country arises only when a nation, either homogeneous or
composed of several races, establishes itself in a region the boundaries
of which may be defined and defended against aggression from
without. Political geography takes account of the partition of the
earth amongst organized communities, dealing with the relation of
race* to regions, and of nations to countries, and considering the
conditions of territorial equilibrium and instability.
The definition of boundaries and their delimitation is one of the
important pans of political geography. Natural boundaries
are always the most definite and the strongest, lending
themselves most readily to defence against aggression.
The sea is the most effective of all, and an island state is
recognized as the most stable. Next in importance comes a moun-
tain range, but here there is often difficulty as to the definition of
the actual crest-line, and mountain ranges being broad regions, it
may happen that a small independent state, like Switzerland or
Andorra, occupies the mountain valleys between two or more great
countries. Rivers do not form effective international boundaries,
although between dependent self-governing communities they are
convenient lines of demarcation. A desert, or a belt of country
left purposely without inhabitants, like the mark, marches or
debatable lands of the middle ages, was once a common means
of separating nations which nourished hereditary grievances. The
" buffer-state " of modern diplomacy is of the same ineffectual
type. A less definite though very practical boundary is that formed
by the meeting-line of two languages, or the districts inhabited
by two races. The line of fortresses protecting Austria from Italy
lies in some places we'll back from the political boundary, but
just inside the linguistic frontier, so as to separate the German
and Italian races occupying Austrian territory. Arbitrary lines,
either traced from point to point and marked by posts on the ground,
or defined as portions of meridians and parallels, are now the most
common type of boundaries fixed by treaty. In Europe and Asia
frontiers are usually strongly fortified and strictly watched in times
of peace a* well as during war. In South America strictly defined
boundaries are still the exception, and the claims of neighbouring
nations have very frequently given rise to war, though now more
commonly to arbitration. 1
The modes of government amongst civilized peoples have little
on political geography: some republics are as arbitrary
ana exacting in their frontier regulations as some absolute
monarchies. It is, however, to be noticed that absolute
monarchies are confined to the east of Europe and to
Asia, Japan being the only established constitutional
monarchy east of the Carpathians. Limited monarchies are (with
the exception of Japan) peculiar to Europe, and in these the degree
of democratic control may- be said to diminish as one passes east-
wards from the United Kingdom. Republics, although represented
in Europe, are the peculiar form ot government of America and
are unknown in Asia.
The form* of government of colonies present a series of transi-
1 type* from the autocratic administration of a governor
by the home government to complete democratic sclf-
ent. The latter occurs only in the temperate possessions
of the British empire, in which there is no great preponderance
of a coloured native population. New colonial forms have been
developed during the partition of Africa amongst European powers,
the sphere of influence being especially worthy of notice. This
is a vaguer form of control than a protectorate, and frequently
amounts merely to an agreement amongst civilized powers to respect
the right of one of their number to exercise government within
a certain area, if it should decide to do so at any future time.
The central governments of all civilized countries concerned with
external relations are closely similar in their modes of action, but
the internal administration may be very varied. In this respect a
country is either centralized, like the United Kingdom or France,
1 For the history of territorial changes in Europe, see Freeman,
Historical Geography of Europe, edited by Bury (Oxford), 1903;
and for the official definition of existing boundaries, see Hertslet,
Tke tfap of Europe by Treaty (4 vols., London, 1873, 1891); The
t/at of Africa by Treaty (3 vols., London, 1896). Also Lord Curzon's
Oxford address on Frontier! (1907).
or federated of distinct self-governing units like Germany (where
the units include kingdoms, at least three minor types of monarchies,
municipalities and a crown land under a nominated governor), or the
United States, where the units are democratic republics. The ulti-
mate cause of the predominant form of federal government may be
the geographical diversity of the country, as in the cantons occupying
the once isolated mountain valleys of Switzerland, the racial diversity
of the people, as in Austria-Hungary, or merely political expediency,
as in republics of the American type.
The minor subdivisions into provinces, counties and parishes, or
analogous areas, may also be related in many cases to natural
features or racial differences perpetuated by historical causes. The
territorial divisions and subdivisions often survive the conditions
which l.-.l to their origin; hence the study of political geography is
allied to history as closely as the study of physical geography is allied
to geology, and for the same reason.
The aggregation of population in towns was at one time mainly
brought .ilniiii by the necessity for defence, a fact indicated by the
defensive sites of many old towns. In later times, _
towns have been more often founded in proximity to '"*"
valuable mineral resources, and at critical points or nodes on lines
of communication. These are places where the mode of travelling
or of t i.m-poi i is changed, such as seaports, river ports and railway
termini, or natural resting-places, such as a ford, the foot of a
steep ascent on a road, the entrance of a valley leading up from a
plain into the mountains, or a crossing-place of roads or railways.*
The existence of a good natural harbour is often sufficient to
give origin to a town and to fix one end of a line of land com-
munication.
In countries of uniform surface or faint relief, roads and railways
may be constructed in any direction without regard to the con-
figuration. In places where the low ground is marshy,
roads and railways often follow the ridge-lines of hills, *'" *
or, as in Finland, the old glacial eskers, which run parallel
to the shore. Wherever the relief of the land is pro-
nounced, roads and railways are obliged to occupy the lowest ground
winding along the valleys of rivers and through passes in the moun-
tains. In exceptional cases obstructions which it would be impossible
or too costly to turn are overcome by a bridge or tunnel, the magni-
tude of such works increasing with the growth of engineering skill
and financial enterprise. Similarly the obstructions offered to
water communication by interruption through land or shallows are
overcome by cutting canals or dredging out channels. The economy
and success of most lines of communication depend on following
as far as possible existing natural lines and utilizing existing natural'
sources of power.*
Commercial geography may be defined as the description of the
earth's surface with special reference to the discovery, production,
transport and exchange of commodities. The transport c
concerns land routes and sea routes, the latter being to"" 71
the more important. While steam has been said to * ^* c
make a ship independent of wind and tide, it is still y '
true that a long voyage even by steam must be planned so as to
encounter the least resistance possible from prevailing winds and
permanent currents, and this involves the application of oceano-
graphical and meteorological knowledge. The older navigation by
utilizing the power of the wind demands a very intimate knowledge
of these conditions, and it is probable that a revival of sailing
ships may in the present century vastly increase the importance of
the study of maritime meteorology.
The discovery and production of commodities require a know-
ledge of the distribution of geological formations for mineral pro-
ducts, of the natural distribution, life-conditions and cultivation
or breeding of plants and animals and of the labour market. Atten-
tion must also be paid to the artificial restrictions of political geo-
graphy, to the legislative restrictions bearing on labour and trade
as imposed in different countries, and, above all, to the incessant
fluctuations of the economic conditions of supply and demand'and
the combinations of capitalists or workers which affect the market. 4
The term " applied geography " has been employed to designate
commercial geography, the fact being that every aspect of scientific
geography may be applied to practical purposes, including the
purposes of trade. But apart from the applied science, there is an
aspect of pure geography which concerns the theory of the relation
of economics to the surface of the earth.
It will be seen that as each successive aspect of geographical
science is considered in its natural sequence the conditions become
* For numerous special instances of the determining causes of
town sites, see G. G. Chisholm, " On the Distribution of Towns
and Villages in England," Geographical Journal (1897), ix. 76,
x. 511.
1 The whole subject of anthropogeography is treated in a masterly
way by F. Ratzel in his Anthropogeographie (Stuttgart, vol. i. 2nd
ed., 1899, vol. ii. 1891), and in his Politisc-he Geographic (Leipzig,
1897). The special question of the reaction of man on his environ-
ment is handled by G. P. Marsh ih Man and Nature, or Physical
Geography as modified by Human Action (London, 1864).
4 For commercial geography see G. G. Chisholm, Manual of Com-
mercial Geography (1890).
6 3 8
GEOID GEOLOGY
more numerous, complex, variable and practically important.
From the underlying abstract mathematical considerations all
Con _ through the superimposed physical, biological, anthropo-
dusioa logical, political and commercial development of the
subject runs the determining control exercised by crust-
forms acting directly or indirectly on mobile distributions; and this
is the essential principle of geography. (H. R. M.)
GEOID (from Gr. yij, the earth), an imaginary surface em-
ployed by geodesists which has the property that every element
of it is perpendicular to the plumb-line where that line cuts it.
Compared with the " spheroid of reference " the surface of the
geoid is in general depressed over the oceans and raised over
the great land masses. (See EARTH, FIGURE OF THE.)
GEOK-TEPE, a former fortress of the Turkomans, in Russian
Transcaspia, in the oasis of Akhal-tekke, on the Transcaspian
railway, 28 m. N.W. of Askabad. It consisted of a walled
enclosure ijm. in circuit, the wall being 18 ft. high and 20 to
30 ft. thick. In December 1880 the place was attacked by
6000 Russians under General Skobelev, and after a siege of
twenty-three days was carried by storm, although the defenders
numbered 25,000. A monument and a small museum com-
memorate the event.
GEOLOGY (from Gr. 777, the earth, and Xifyos, science), the
science which investigates the physical history of the earth.
Its object is to trace the structural progress of our planet from
the earliest beginnings of its separate existence, through its
various stages of growth, down to the present condition of
things. It seeks to determine the manner in which the evolution
of the earth's great surface features has been effected. It un-
ravels the complicated processes by which each continent has
been built up. It follows, even into detail, the varied sculpture
of mountain and valley, era? and ravine. Nor does it confine
itself merely to changes in the inorganic world. Geology shows
that the present races of plants and animals are the descendants
of other and very different races which once peopled the earth.
It teaches that there has been a progressive development of the
inhabitants, as well as one of the globe on which they have
dwelt; that each successive period in the earth's history, since
the introduction of living things, has been marked by character-
istic types of the animal and vegetable kingdoms; and that,
however imperfectly the remains of these organisms have been
preserved or may be deciphered, materials exist for a history
of life upon the planet. The geographical distribution of existing
faunas and floras is often made clear and intelligible by geological
evidence; and in the same way light is thrown upon some of
the remoter phases in the history of man himself. A subject
so comprehensive as this must require a wide and varied basis
of evidence. It is one of the characteristics of geology to gather
evidence from sources which at first sight seem far removed
from its scope, and to seek aid from almost every other leading
branch of science. Thus, in dealing with the earliest conditions
of the planet, the geologist must fully avail himself of the
labours of the astronomer. Whatever is ascertainable by
telescope, spectroscope or chemical analysis, regarding the con-
stitution of other heavenly bodies, has a geological bearing.
The experiments of the physicist, undertaken to determine
conditions of matter and of energy, may sometimes be taken
as the starting-points of geological investigation. The work
of the chemical laboratory forms the foundation of a vast and
increasing mass of geological inquiry. To the botanist, the
zoologist, even to the unscientific, if observant, traveller by land
or sea, the geologist turns for information and assistance.
But while thus culling freely from the dominions of other
sciences, geology claims as its peculiar territory the rocky
framework of the globe. In the materials composing that
framework, their composition and arrangement, the processes
of their formation, the changes which they have undergone,
and the terrestrial revolutions to which they bear witness, lie
the main data of geological history. It is the task of the geologist
to group these elements in such a way that they may be made
to yield up their evidence as to the march of events in the
evolution of the planet. He finds that they have in large
measure arranged themselves in chronological sequence, the
oldest lying at the bottom and the newest at the top. Relics
of an ancient sea-floor are overlain by traces of a vanished
land-surface; these are in turn covered by the deposits of a
former lake, above which once more appear proofs of the return
of the sea. Among these rocky records lie the lavas and ashes
of long-extinct volcanoes. The ripple left upon the shore, the
cracks formed by the sun's heat upon the muddy bottom of a
dried-up pool, the very imprint of the drops of a passing rain-
shower, have all been accurately preserved, and yield their
evidence as to geographical conditions often widely different
from those which exist where such markings are now found.
But it is mainly by the remains of plants and animals imbedded
in the rocks that the geologist is guided in unravelling the
chronological succession of geological changes. He has found
that a certain order of appearance characterizes these organic
remains, that each great group of rocks is marked by its own
special types of life, and that these types can be recognized,
and the rocks in which they occur can be correlated even in
distant countries, and where no other means of comparison
would be possible. At one moment he has to deal with the bones
of some large mammal scattered through a deposit of superficial
gravel, at another time with the minute foraminifers and ostracods
of an upraised sea-bottom. Corals and crinoids crowded and
crushed into a massive limestone where they lived and died,
ferns and terrestrial plants matted together into a bed of coal
where they originally grew, the scattered shells of a submarine
sand-bank, the snails and lizards which lived and died within
a hollow-tree, the insects which have been imprisoned within
the exuding resin of old forests, the footprints of birds and
quadrupeds, the trails of worms left upon former shores these,
and innumerable other pieces of evidence, enable the geologist
to realize in some measure what the faunas and floras of successive
periods have been, and what geographical changes the site of
every land has undergone.
It is evident that to deal successfully with these varied
materials, a considerable acquaintance with different branches
of science is needful. Especially necessary is a tolerably wide
knowledge of the processes now at work in changing the surface
of the earth, and of at least those forms of plant and animal
life whose remains are apt to be preserved in geological deposits,
or which in their structure and habitat enable us to realize what
their forerunners were. It has often been insisted that the
present is the key to the past ; and in a wide sense this assertion
is eminently true. Only in proportion as we understand the
present, where everything is open on all sides to the fullest investi-
gation, can we expect to decipher the past, where so much is
obscure, imperfectly preserved or not preserved at all. A
study of the existing economy of nature ought thus to be the
foundation of the geologist's training.
While, however, the present condition of things is thus em-
ployed, we must obviously be on our guard against the danger
of unconsciously assuming that the phase of nature's operations
which we now witness has been the same in all past time, that
geological changes have always or generally taken place in former
ages in the manner and on the scale which we behold to-day,
and that at the present time all the great geological processes,
which have produced changes in the past eras of the earth's
history, are still existent and active. As a working hypothesis
we may suppose that the nature of geological processes has
remained constant from the beginning; but we cannot postulate
that the action of these processes has never varied in energy.
The few centuries wherein man has been observing nature
obviously form much too brief an interval by which to measure
the intensity of geological action in all past time. For aught
we can tell the present is an era of quietude and slow change,
compared with some of the eras which have preceded it. Nor
perhaps can we be quite sure that, when we have explored
every geological process now in progress, we have exhausted
all the causes of change which, even in comparatively recent
times, have been at work.
In dealing with the geological recqrd, as the accessible solid
part of the globe is called, we cannot too vividly realize that at
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT)
GEOLOGY
639
the best it forms but an imperfect chronicle. Geological history
cannot be compiled from a full and continuous series of docu-
ments. From the very nature of its origin the record is necessarily
fragmentary, and it has been further mutilated and obscured
by the revolutions of successive ages. And even where the
chronicle of events is continuous, it is of very unequal value in
different places. In one case, for example, it may present us
with an unbroken succession of deposits many thousands of
feet in thickness, from which, however, only a few meagre facts
as to geological history can be gleaned. In another instance
it brings before us, within the compass of a few yards, the
evidence of a most varied and complicated series of changes
in physical geography, as well as an abundant and interesting
suite of organic remains. These and other characteristics of
the geological record become more apparent and intelligible as
we proceed in the study of the science.
Classification. For systematic treatment the subject may be
conveniently arranged in the following parts:
i. The Historical Development of Geological Science. Here
brief outline will be given of the gradual growth of geological
conceptions from the days of the Greeks and Romans down to
modern times, tracing the separate progress of the more important
branches of inquiry and noting some of the stages which in each
case have led up to the present condition of the science.
a. The Comical Aspects of Geology. This section embraces
the evidence supplied by astronomy and physics regarding the
form and motions of the earth, the composition of the planets
and sun, and the probable history of the solar system. The
subjects dealt with under this head are chiefly treated in separate
articles.
3. Geognosy. An inquiry into the materials of the earth's
substance. This division, which deals with the parts of the
earth, its envelopes of air and water, its solid crust and the
probable condition of its interior, especially treats of the more
important minerals of the crust, and the chief rocks of which
that crust is built up. Geognosy thus lays a foundation of know-
ledge regarding the nature of the materials constituting the mass
of the globe, and prepares the way for an investigation of the
processes by which these materials are produced and altered.
4. Dynamical Geology studies the nature and working of the
various geological processes whereby the rocks of the earth's
crust are formed and metamorphosed, and by which changes
are effected upon the distribution of sea and land, and upon
the forms of terrestrial surfaces. Such an inquiry necessitates
a careful examination of the existing geological economy of
nature, and forms a fitting introduction to an inquiry into the
geological changes of former periods.
5. GeolectonU. or Structural Geology has for its object the
architecture of the earth's crust. It embraces an inquiry into the
mipn" in which the various materials composing this crust
have been arranged. It shows that some have been formed
in beds or strata of sediment on the floor of the sea, that others
have been built up by the slow aggregation of organic forms,
that others have been poured out in a molten condition or in
showers of loose dust from subterranean sources. It further
reveals that, though originally laid down in almost horizontal
beds, the rocks have subsequently been crumpled, contorted
and dislocated, that they have been incessantly worn down,
and have often been depressed and buried beneath later
accumulations.
6. Palaeontolofical Geology. This branch of the subject,
starting from the evidence supplied by the organic forms which
are found preserved in the crust of the earth, includes such
questions as the relations between extinct and living types,
the laws which appear to have governed the distribution of life
in time and in space, the relative importance of different genera
of fnimaU in geological inquiry, the nature and use of the
evidence from organic remains regarding former conditions
of physical geography. Some of these problems belong also to
zoology and botany, and are more fully discussed in the articles
PALAEONTOLOGY and PALAEOBOTANY.
7. Slratigrapkical Geology. This section might be called
geological history. It works out the chronological succession
of the great formations of the earth's crust, and endeavours to
trace the sequence of events of which they contain the record.
More particularly, it determines the order of succession of the
various plants and animals which in post time have peopled
the earth, and thus ascertains what has been the grand march
of life upon this planet.
8. ' Physiographical Geology, proceeding from the basis of
fact laid down by stratigraphical geology regarding former
geographical changes, embraces an inquiry into the origin and
history of the features of the earth's surface continental ridges
and ocean basins, plains, valleys and mountains. It explains
the causes on which local differences of scenery depend, and
shows under what very different circumstances, and at what
widely separated intervals, the hills and mountains, even of a
single country, have been produced.
Most of the detail embraced in these several sections is
relegated to separate articles, to which references are here
inserted. The following pages thus deal mainly with the general
principles and historical development of the science:
PART I. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Geological Ideal among the Greeks and Romans. Many ecological
phenomena present themselves in so striking a form that they could
hardly fail to impress the imagination of the earliest and rudest
races of mankind. Such incidents as earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions, destructive storms on land and sea, disastrous floods and
landslips suddenly strewing valleys with ruin, must have awakened
the terror of those who witnessed them. Prominent features of
landscape, such as mountain-chains with their snows, clouds and
thunderstorms, dark river-chasms that seem purposely cleft open in
order to give passage to the torrents that rush through them, crags
with their impressive array of pinnacles and recesses must have
appealed of old, as they still do, to the awe and wonder of those
who for the first time behold them. Again, banks of sea-shells in
far inland districts would, in course of time, arrest the attention of
the more intelligent and reflective observers, and raise in their minds
some kind of surmise as to how such shells could ever have come
there. These and other conspicuous geological problems found
their earliest solution in legends and myths, wherein the more
striking terrestrial features and the elemental forces of nature were
represented to be the manifestation of the power of unseen super-
natural beings.
The basin of the Mediterranean Sea was especially well adapted,
from its physical conditions, to be the birth-place of such fables.
It is a region frequently shaken by earthquakes, and contains two
distinct centres of volcanic activity, one in the Aegean Sea and one
in Italy. It is bounded on the north by a long succession of lofty
snow-capped mountain-ranges, whence copious rivers, often swollen
by heavy rains or melted snows, carry the drainage into the sea.
On the south it boasts the Nile, once so full of mystery; likewise
wide tracts of arid desert with their dreaded dust storms. The
Mediterranean itself, though an inland sea, is subject to gales,
which, on exposed coasts, raise breakers quite large enough to give a
vivid impression of the power of ocean waves. The countries that
surround this great sheet of water display in many places widely-
spread deposits full of sea shells, like those that still live in the
neighbouring bays and gulfs. Such a region was not only well fitted
to supply subjects for mythology, but also to furnish, on every side,
materials which, in their interest and suggestiveness, would appeal
to the reason of observant men.
It was natural, therefore, that the early philosophers of Greece
should have noted some of these geological features, and should have
sought for other explanations of them than those to be found in the
popular myths. The opinions entertained in antiquity on these
subjects may be conveniently grouped under two heads: (i) Geo-
logical processes now in operation, and (2) geological changes in
the past.
I. Contemporary Processes. The geological processes of the present
time are partly at work underground and partly on the surface of the
earth. The former, from their frequently disastrous
character, received much attention from Greek and & '
Roman authors. Aristotle, in his Meteorics, cites the *
speculations of several of his predecessors which he rejects
in favour of his own opinion to the effect that earthquakes are due
to the generation of wind within the earth, under the influence of the
warmth of the sun and the internal heat. Wind, being the lightest
and most rapidly moving body, is the cause of motion in other
bodies, and fire, united with wind, becomes flame, which is endowed
with great rapidity of motion. Aristotle looked upon earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions as closely connected with each other, the
discharge of hot materials to the surface being the result of a severe
earthquake, when finally the wind rushes out with violence, and
sometimes buries the surrounding country under sparks and cinders,
640
GEOLOGY
[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
as had happened at Lipari. These crude conceptions of the nature
of volcanic action, and the cause of earthquakes, continued to prevail
for many centuries. They are repeated by Lucretius, who, however,
following Anaximenes, includes as one of the causes of earthquakes
the fall of mountainous masses of rock undermined by time, and the
consequent propagation of gigantic tremors far and wide through
the earth. Strabo, having travelled through the volcanic districts
of Italy, was able to recognize that Vesuvius had once been an
active volcano, although no eruption had taken place from it within
human memory. He continued to 'hold the belief that volcanic
energy arose from the movement of subterranean wind. He believed
that the district around the Strait of Messina, which had formerly
suffered from destructive earthquakes, was seldom visited by them
after the volcanic vents of that region had been opened, so as to
provide an escape for the subterranean fire, wind, water and burning
masses. He cites in his Geography a number of examples of wide-
spread as well as local sinkings of land, and alludes also to the uprise
of the sea-bottom. He likewise regards some islands as having been
thrown up by volcanic agency, and others as torn from the mainland
by such convulsions as earthquakes.
The most detailed account of earthquake phenomena which has
come down to us from antiquity is that of Seneca in his Quaestiones
Naturales. _ This philosopher had been much interested in the
accounts given him by survivors and witnesses of the earthquake
which convulsed the djstrict of Naples in February A.D. 63. He
distinguished several distinct movements of the ground: 1st, the
up and down motion (succussio); 2nd, the oscillatory motion (in-
clinatio); and probably a third, that of trembling or vibration.
While admitting that some earthquakes may arise from the collapse
of the walls of subterranean cavities, he adhered to the old idea,
held by the most numerous and important previous writers, that
these commotions are caused mainly by the movements of wind
imprisoned within the earth. As to the origin of volcanic outbursts
he supposed that the subterranean wind in struggling for an outlet,
and whirling through the chasms and passages, meets with great
store of sulphur and other combustible substances, which by mere
friction are set on fire. The elder Pliny reiterates the commonly
accepted opinion as to the efficacy of wind underground. In
discussing the phenomena of earthquakes he remarks that towns
with many culverts and houses with cellars suffer less than others,
and that at Naples those houses are most shaken which stand on
hard ground. It thus appears that with regard to subterranean
geological operations, no advance was made during the time of the
reeks and Romans as to the theoretical explanation of these pheno-
mena; but a considerable body of facts was collected, especially
as to the effects of earthquakes and the occurrence of volcanic
eruptions.
The superficial processes of geology, being much less striking than
those of subterranean energy, naturally attracted less attention in
Action at ? nt .'quity. The operations of rivers, however, which so
rivers intimately affect a human population, were watched with
more or less care. Herodotus, struck by the amount of
alluvial silt brought down annually by the Nile and spread over the
flat inundated land, inferred that " Egypt is the gift of the river."
Aristotle, in discussing some of the features of rivers, displays con-
siderable acquaintance with the various drainage-systems on the
north side of the Mediterranean basin. He refers to the mountains
as condensers of the atmospheric moisture, and shows that the largest
rivers rise among the loftiest high grounds. He shows how sensibly
the alluvial deposits carried down to the sea increase the breadth
of the land, and cites some parts of the shores of the Black Sea,
where, in sixty years, the rivers had brought down such a quantity
of material that the vessels then in use required to be of much
smaller draught than previously, the water shallowing so much that
the marshy ground would, in course of time, become dry land.
Strabo_ supplies further interesting information as to the work of
rivers in making their alluvial plains and in pushing their deltas
seaward. He remarks that these deltas are prevented from ad-
vancing farther outward by the ebb and flow of the tides. _
2. Past Processes. The abundant well-preserved marine shells
exposed among the upraised Tertiary and post-Tertiary deposits in
the countries bordering the Mediterranean are not in-
frequently alluded to in Greek and Latin literature.
Xenophanes of Colophon (614 B.C.) noticed the occurrence
of shells and other marine productions inland among the
mountains, and inferred from them that the land had risen out of
the sea. A similar conclusion was drawn by Xanthus the Lydian
(464 B.C.) from shells like scallops and cockles, which were found far
from the sea in Armenia and Lower Phrygia. Herodotus, Eratos-
thenes, Strato and Strabo noted the vast quantities of fossil shells in
different parts of Egypt, together with beds of salt, as evidence that
the sea had once spread over the country. But by far the most
philosophical opinions on the past mutations of the earth's surface
are those expressed by Aristotle in the treatise already cited. Re-
viewing the evidence of these changes, he recognized that the sea
now covers tracts that were once dry land, and that land will one
day reappear where there is now sea. These alternations are to be
regarded as following each other in a certain order and periodicity.
But they are apt to escape our notice because they require successive
periods of time, which, compared with our brief existence, are of
Occur-
rences of
fossils.
enormous duration, and because they are brought about so im-
perceptibly that we fail to detect them in progress. In a celebrated
passage in his Metamorphoses, Ovid puts into the mouth of the
philosopher Pythagoras an account of what was probably regarded
as the Pythagorean view of the subject in the Augustan age. It
affirms the interchange of land and sea, the erosion of valleys by
descending rivers, the washing down of mountains into the sea, the
disappearance of the rivers and the submergence of land by earth-
quake movements, the separation of some islands from, and the union
of others with, the mainland, the uprise of hills by volcanic action,
the rise and extinction of burning mountains. There was a time
before Etna began to glow, and the time is coming when the mountain
will cease to burn.
From this brief sketch it will be seen that while the ancients had
accumulated a good deal of information regarding the occurrence of
geological changes, their interpretations of the phenomena were to
a considerable extent mere fanciful speculation. They had acquired
only a most imperfect conception of the nature and operation of the
geological processes; and though many writers realized that the
surface of the earth has not always been, and will not always remain,
as it is now, they had no glimpse of the vast succession of changes
of that surface which have been revealed by geology. They built
hypotheses on the slenderest basis of fact, and did not realize the
necessity of testing or verifying them.
Progress of Geological Conceptions in the Middle Ages. During the
centuries that succeeded the fall of the Western empire little progress
was made in natural science. The schoolmen in the monasteries
and other seminaries were content to take their science from the
literature of Greece and Rome. The Arabs, however, not only
collected and translated that literature, but in some departments
made original observations themselves. To one of the most illustrious
of their number. _Avicenna, the translator of Aristotle, a treatise has
been ascribed, in which singularly modern ideas are expressed
regarding mountains, some of which are there stated to have been
produced by an uplifting of the ground, while others have been left
prominent, owing to the wearing away of the softer rocks around
them. In either case, it is confessed that the process would demand
long tracts of time for its completion.
After the revival of learning the ancient problem presented by
fossil shells imbedded in the rocks of the interior of many countries
received renewed attention. But the conditions for its solution
were no longer what they had been in the days of the philosophers
of antiquity. Men were not now free to adopt and teach any doc-
trine they pleased on the subject. The Christian church had mean-
while arisen to power all over Europe, and adjudged as heretics all
who ventured to impugn any of her dogmas. She taught that the
land and the sea had been separated on the third day of creation,
before the appearance of any animal life, which was not created until
the fifth day. To assert that the dry land is made up in great part
of rocks that were formed in the sea, and are crowded with the
remains of animals, was plainly to impugn the veracity of the Bible.
Again, it had come to be the orthodox belief that only somewhere
about 6000 years had elapsed since the time of Adam and Eve.
If any thoughtful observer, impressed with the overwhelming force
of the evidence that the fossiliferous formations of the earth's crust
must have taken long periods of time for their accumulation, ven-
tured to give public expression to his conviction, he ran considerable
risk of being proceeded against as a heretic. It was needful, there-
fore, to find some explanation of the facts of nature, which would not
run counter to the ecclesiastical system of the day. Various such
interpretations were proposed, doubtless in an honest endeavour at
reconciliation. Three of these deserve special notice: (i) Many
able observers and diligent collectors of fossils persuaded themselves
that these objects never belonged to organisms of any kind, but
should be regarded as mere " freaks of nature," having no more
connexion with any once living creature than the frost patterns
on a window. They were styled " formed " or " figured stones,
" lapides sui generis," and were asserted to be due to some inorganic
imitative process within the earth or to the influence of the stars.
(2) Observers who could not resist the evidence of their senses that
the fossil shells once belonged to living animals, and who, at the
same time, felt the necessity of accounting for the presence of marine
organisms in the rocks of which the dry land is largely built up,
sought a way out of the difficulty by invoking the Deluge of Noah.
Here was a catastrophe which, they said, extended over the whole
globe, and by which the entire dry land was submerged even up to
the tops of the high hills. True, it only lasted one hundred and fifty
days, but so little were the facts then appreciated that no difficulty
seems to have been generally felt in crowding the accumulation of
the thousands of feet of fossiliferous formations into that brief space
of time. (3) Some more intelligent men in Italy, recognizing that
these interpretations could not DC upheld, fell back upon the idea
that the rocks in which fossil shells are imbedded might have been
heaped up by repeated and vigorous eruptions from volcanic centres.
Certain modern eruptions in the Aegean Sea and in the Bay of Naples
had drawn attention to the rapidity with which hills of considerable
size could be piled around an active crater. It was argued that if
Monte Nuovo near Naples could have been accumulated to a height
of nearly 500 ft. in two days, there seemed to be no reason against
believing that, during the time of the Flood, and in the course of the
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT)
GEOLOGY
641
centuries that have elapsed since that event, the whole of the fossili-
(rrous rocks might have been deposited. Unfortunately for this
hypothesis it ignored the fact that these rocks do not consist of
volcanic materials.
So lone as the fundamental question remained in dispute as to
the true character and history of the stratified portion of the earth's
crust containing organic remains, geology as a science could not
begin its existence. The tliluvialists (those who relied on the hy-
pothesis of the Flood) held the field during the Kith, i ;th and a great
part of the iSth century. They were looked on as the champions of
orthodoxy; and, on that account, they doubtless wielded much
more influence than would have been gained by them from the
force of their arguments. Yet during those ages there were not
wanting occasional observers who did good service in combating the
prevalent misconceptions, and in preparing the way for the ultimate
triumph of truth. It was more especially in Italy, where many of
the more striking phenomena of geology are conspicuously displayed,
that the early pioneers of the science arose, and that for several
generations the most marked progress was made towards placing
the investigations of the past nistory of the earth upon a basis of
careful observation and scientific deduction. One of the first of
these leaders was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), who,
besides his achievements in painting, sculpture, archi-
tecture and engineering, contributed some notable obser-
vations regarding the great problem of the origin of fossil
shells. He ridiculed the notion that these objects could
have been formed by the influence of the stars, and main-
tained that they had once belonged to living organisms, and there-
fore that what is now land was formerly covered by the sea.
Girolamo Fracastorio (1483-1553) claimed that the shells could
never have been left by the Flood, which was a mere temporary
inundation, but that they proved the mountains, in which they
occur, to have been successively uplifted out of the sea. On the
other hand, even an accomplished anatomist like Gabricllo Falloppio
(15*3-15*2) found it easier to believe that the bones of elephants,
teeth of sharks, shells and other fossils were mere earthy inorganic
concretions, than that the waters of Noah's Flood could everliave
reached as far as Italy.
By much the most important member of this early band of Italian
writers was undoubtedly Nicolas Steno (1631-1687), who, though
born in Copenhagen, ultimately settled in Florence.
Having made a European reputation as an anatomist,
his attention was drawn to geological problems by finding
that the rocks of the north of Italy contained what appeared to be
sharks' teeth closely resembling those of a dog-fish, of which he had
published the anatomy. Cautiously at first, for fear of offending
orthodox opinions, but afterwards more boldly, he proclaimed his
conviction that those objects had once been part of living animals,
and that they threw light on some of the past history of the earth.
He published in 1660 a small tract, De solido intra solidum naturalitrr
contento, in which he developed the ideas he had formed of this
history from an attentive study of the rocks. He showed that the
stratified formations of the hills and valleys consist of such materials
as would be laid down in the form of sediment in turbid water;
that where they contain marine productions this water is proved
to have been the sea; that diversities in their composition point to
commingling of currents, carrying different kinds of sediment of
which the heaviest would first sink to the bottom. He made original
and important, observations on stratification, and laid down some
of the fundamental axioms in stratigraphy. He reasoned that as
the original position of strata was approximately horizontal, when
they are found to be steeply inclined or vertical, or bent into arches,
they have been disrupted by subterranean exhalations, or by the
falling in of the roofs of underground cavernous spaces. It is to
this alteration of the original position of the strata that the in-
equalities of the earth's surface, such as mountains, are to be ascribed,
though some have been formed by the outburst of fire, ashes and
stones from inside the earth. Another effect of the dislocation has
been to provide fissures, which serve as outlets for springs. Steno's
anatomical training peculiarly fitted him for dealing authoritatively
with the question of the nature and origin of the fossils contained
in the rocks. He had no hesitation in affirming that, even if no shells
had ever been found living in the sea, the internal structure of these
fossils would demonstrate that they once formed parts of living
animals. And not only shells, but teeth, bones and skeletons of
many kinds of fishes had been quarried out of the rocks, while some
of the strata had skulls, horns and teeth of land-animals. Illustrating
bis general principles by a sketch of what he supposed to have been
the past history of Tuscany, be added a series of diagrams which
show how clearly he had conceived the essential elements of strati-
graphy. He thought he could perceive the records of six successive
phases in the evolution of the framework of that country, and was
inclined to believe that a similar chronological sequence would be
found all over the world. He anticipated the objections that would
be brought against his views on account of the insuperable difficulty
in granting the length of time that would be required for all the
geographical vicissitudes which his interpretation required. I It-
thought that many of the fossils must be as old as the time of the
general deluge, but he was careful not to indulge in any speculation
as to the antiquity of the earth.
XI. 21
To the Italian school, as especially typified in Steno, must be
assigned the honour of having thus begun to lay firmly and truly
the first foundation stones of the modern science of .
geology. The same school included Antonio Vallisneri *""
(1661-1730), who surpassed his predecessors in his wider
and more exact knowledge of the fossilifei-ous rocks that form the
backbone of the Italian peninsula, which he contended were formed
during a wide and prolonged submergence of the region, altogether
different from the brief deluge of Noah. There was likewise Lazzaro
Moro (1687-1740), who did good service against the diluvialists,
but the fundamental feature of his system of nature lay in the
preponderant part which, unaware of the great difference between
volcanic materials and ordinary sediment, he assigned to volcanic
action in the production of the sedimentary rocks of the earth's
crust. He supposed that in the beginning the globe was completely
surrounded with water, beneath which the solid earth lay as a smooth
ball. On the third day of creation, however, vast fires were kindled
inside the globe, whereby the smooth surface of stone was broken
up, and portions of it, appearing above the water, formed the earliest
land. From that time onward, volcanic eruptions succeeded each
other, not only on the emerged land, but on the sea-floor, over which
the ejected material spread in an ever augmenting thickness of
sedimentary strata. In this way Moro carried the history of the
stratified rocks beyond the time of the Flood back to the Creation,
which was supposed to have been some 1600 years earlier; and In-
brought it down to the present day, when fresh sedimentary deposits
are continually accumulating. He thus incurred no censure from
the ecclesiastical guardians of the faith, and he succeeded in attract-
ing increased public attention to the problems of geology. The
influence of his teaching, however, was subsequently in great part
due to the Carmelite friar Generclli, who published an eloquent
exposition of Moro's views.
The Cosmogonists and Theories of the Earth. While in Italy
substantial progress was made in collecting information regarding
the fossiliferous formations of that country, and in forming con-
clusions concerning them based upon more or less accurate observa-
tions, the tendency to mere fanciful speculation, which could not be
wholly repressed in any country, reached a remarkable extravagance
in England. In proportion as materials were yet lacking from
which to construct a history of the evolution of our planet in accord-
ance with the teaching of the church, imagination supplied the place
of ascertained fact, and there appeared during the last twenty years
of the i8th century a group of English cosmogonists, who, by the
sensational character oftheir speculations, aroused general attention
both in Britain and on the continent. It may be doubted, however,
whether the effect of their writings was not to hinder the advance
of true science by diverting men from the observation of nature into
barren controversy over unrealities. It is not needful here to do
more than mention the names of Thomas Burnet, whose Sacred
Theory of the Earth appeared in 1681, and William Whiston, whose
New Theory of the Earth was published in 1696. Hardly less fanciful
than these writers, though his practical acquaintance with rocks
and fossils was infinitely greater, was John Woodward, whose
Essay towards a Natural History of the Earth dates from 1695. More
important as a contribution to science was the catalogue of the large
collection of fossils, which he had made from the rocks of England
and which he bequeathed to the university of Cambridge. This
catalogue appeared in 1728-1729 with the title of An attempt towards
a Natural History of the Fossils of England.
A striking contrast to these cosmogonists is furnished by another
group, which arose in France and Germany, and gave to the world
the first rational ideas concerning the probable primeval r>crt
evolution of our globe. The earliest of these pioneers was
the illustrious philosopher Ren6 Descartes (1596-1650). He pro-
pounded a scheme of cosmical development in which he represented
the earth, like the other planets, to have been originally a mass of
glowing material like the sun, and to have gradually cooled on the
outside, while still retaining an incandescent, self-luminous nucleus.
Yet with this noble conception, which modern science has accepted,
Descartes could not shake himself free from the time-honoured
error in regard to the origin of volcanic action. He thought that
certain exhalations within the earth condense into oil, which, when
in violent motion, enters into the subterranean cavities, where it
passes into a kind of smoke. This smoke is from time to time ignited
by a spark of fire and, pressing violently against its containing
walls, gives rise to earthquakes. If the flame breaks through to the
surface at the top of a mountain, it may escape with enormous
energy, hurling forth much earth mingled with sulphur or bitumen,
and thus producing a volcano. The mountain might burn for a
long time until at last its store of fuel in the shape of sulphur or
bitumen would be exhausted. Not only did the philosopher refrain
from availing himself of the high internal temperature of the globe
as the source of volcanic energy, he even did not make use of it as
the cause of the ignition of his supposed internal fuel, but speculated
on the kindling of the subterranean fires by the spirits or gases
setting fire to the exhalations, or by the fall of masses of rock and
the sparks produced by their friction or percussion.
The ideas of Descartes regarding planetary evolution were enlarged
and made more definite by Wilhelm Gottfried Leibnitz (1646-1716),
whose teaching has largely influenced all subsequent speculation
642
GEOLOGY
[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
on the subject. In his great tract, the Protogaea (published in 1749,
thirty-three years after his death), he traced the probable passage
Leibaltz. * our earth from an original condition of incandescent
vapour into that of a smooth molten globe, which, by
continuous cooling, acquired an external solid crust and rugose
surface. He thought that the more ancient rocks, such as granite
and gneiss, might be portions of the earliest outer crust ; and that as
the external solidification advanced, immense subterranean cavities
were left which were filled with air and water. By the collapse of
the roofs of these caverns, valleys might be originated at the surface,
while the solid intervening walls would remain in place and form
mountains. By the disruption of the crust, enormous bodies of
water were launched over the surface of the earth, which swept vast
3uantities of sediment together, and thus gave rise to sedimentary
eposits. After many vicissitudes of this kind, the terrestrial forces
calmed down, and a more stable condition of things was established.
An important feature in the cosmogony of Leibnitz is the
prominent place which he assigned to organic remains in the stratified
rocks of the crust. Ridiculing the foolish attempts to account for
the presence of these objects by calling them " sports of nature,"
he showed that they are to be regarded as historical monuments;
and he adduced a number of instances wherein successive platforms
of strata, containing organic remains, bear witness to a series of
advances and retreats of the sea. He recognized that some of the
fossils appeared to have nothing like them in the living world of
to-day, but some analogous forms might yet be found, he thought,
in still unexplored parts of the earth; and even if no living repre-
sentatives should ever be discovered, many types of animals might
have undergone transformation during the great changes which had
affected the surface of the earth. In spite of his clear realization
of the vast store of potential energy residing within the highly heated
interior of the earth, Leibnitz continued to regard volcanic action
as due to the combustion of inflammable substances enclosed within
the terrestrial crust, such as stone-coal, naphtha and sulphur.
Appealing to a much wider public than Descartes or Leibnitz, and
basing his speculations on a wider acquaintance with the organic
Button. an< ^ i nor ganic realms of nature, G. L. L. de Buffon (1707-
1788) was undoubtedly one of the most influential forces
that in Europe guided the growth of geological ideas during the
1 8th century. He published in 1749 a Theory of the Earth, in which
he adopted views similar to those of Descartes and Leibnitz as to
planetary evolution; but though he realized the importance of
fossils as records of former conditions of the earth's surface, he
accounted for them by supposing that they had been deposited from
a universal ocean, a large part of which had subsequently been
engulfed into caverns in the interior of the globe. Thirty years
later, after having laboured with skill and enthusiasm in all branches
of natural history, he published another work, his famous Epoques
de la nature (1778), which is specially remarkable as the first attempt
to deal with the history of the earth in a chronological manner, and
to compute, on a basis of experiment, the antiquity of the several
stages of this history. His experiments were made with globes of
cast iron, and could not have yielded results of any value for his
purpose; but in so far as his calculations were not mere random
guesses but had some kind of foundation on experiment, they
deserve respectful recognition. He divided the history of our earth
into six periods of unequal duration, the whole comprising a period
of some 70,000 or 75,000 years. He supposed that the stage of
incandescence, before the globe had consolidated to the centre,
lasted 2936 years, and that about 35,000 years elapsed before the
surface had cooled sufficiently to be touched, and therefore to be
capable of supporting living things. Terrestrial animal life, however,
was not introduced until 55,000 or 60,000 years after the beginning
of the world or about 15,000 years before our time. Looking into
the future, he foresaw that, by continued refrigeration, our globe
will eventually become colder than ice, and this fair face of nature,
with its manifold varieties of plant and animal life, will perish after
having existed for 132,000 years.
Burton's conception of the operation of the geological agents did
not become broader or more accurate in the interval between the
appearance of his two treatises. He still continued to believe in
the lowering of the ocean by subsidence into vast subterranean
cavities, with a consequent emergence of land. He still looked on
volcanoes as due to the burning of " pyritous and combustible
stones," though he now called in the co-operation of electricity.
He calculated that the first volcanoes could not arise until some
50,000 years after the beginning of the world, by which time a
sufficient extent of dense vegetation had been buried in the earth
to supply them with fuel. He appears to have had but an imperfect
acquaintance with the literature of his own time. At least there
can be little doubt that had he availed himself of the labours of his
own countryman, Jean Etienne Guettard (1715-1786), of Giovanni
Arduino (1714-1795) in Italy, and of Johann Gottlob Lehmann
(d. 1767) and George Christian Fuchsel (1722-1773) in Germany, he
would have been able to give to his " epochs " a more definite succes-
sion of events and a greater correspondence with the facts of nature.
Among the writers of the 1 8th century, who formed philosophical
conceptions of the system of processes by which the life of our earth
as a habitable globe is carried on, a foremost place must be assigned
to James Hutton (1726-1797). Educated for the medical profession,
James
Hutton.
he studied at Edinburgh and at Paris, and took his doctor's degree
at Leiden. But having inherited a small landed property in
Berwickshire, he took to agriculture, and after putting
his land into excellent order, let his farm and betook
himself to Edinburgh, there to gratify the scientific
tastes which he had developed early in life. He had been more
especially led to study minerals and rocks, and to meditate on the
problems which they suggest as to the constitution and history of
the earth. His journeys in Britain and on the continent of Europe
had furnished him with -material for reflection; and he had gradu-
ally evolved a system or theory in which all the scattered facts
could be arranged so as to show their mutual dependence and their
place in the orderly mechanism of the world. He used to discuss
his views with one or two of his friends, but refrained from publishing
them to the world until, on the foundation of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, he communicated an outline of his doctrine to that
learned body in 1785. Some years later he expanded this first essay
into a larger work in two volumes, which were published ia 1795
with the title of Theory of the Earth, with Proofs and Illustrations.
Hutton's teaching has exercised a profound influence on modern
geology. This influence, however, has arisen less from his own
writings than from the account of his doctrines given by j i, tt
his friend John Playfair in the classic work entitled piaytalr
Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory, published in 1802.
Hutton wrote in so prolix and obscure a style as rather to repel than
attract readers. Playfair, on the other hand, expressed himself in
such clear and graceful language as to command general attention,
and to gain wide acceptance for his master's views. Unlike the
older cosmogonists, Hutton refrained from trying to explain the
origin of things, and from speculations as to what might possibly
have been the early history of our globe. He determined from the
outset to interpret the past by what can be seen to be the present
order of nature; and he refused to admit the operation of causes
which cannot be shown to be part of the actual terrestrial system.
Like other observers who had preceded him, he recognized in the
various rocks composing the dry land evidence of former geographical
conditions very different from those which now prevail. He saw
that the vast majority of rocks consist of hardened sediments and
must have been deposited in the sea. He could distinguish among
them an older or Primary series, and a younger or Secondary series;
and did not dispute the existence of a Tertiary series claimed by
Peter Simon Pallas (1741-1811). He believed that these various
aqueous accumulations had been consolidated by subterranean heat,
that the oldest and lowest rocks had suffered mest from this action,
that into these more deep-seated masses subsequent veins and
larger bodies of molten matter were injected from below, and thus
that what was originally loose detritus eventually became changed
in such crystalline schists as are now found in mountain-chains.
In the course of these terrestrial revolutions sedimentary strata,
originally more or less nearly horizontal, have been pushed upward,
dislocated, crumpled, placed on end, and even elevated to form
ranges of lofty mountains. Hutton looked upon these disturbances
as due to the expansive power of subterranean heat ; but he did not
attempt to sketch the mechanism of the process, and he expressly
declined to offer any conjecture as to how the land so elevated
remains in that position. He thought that the interior of our
planet may " be a fluid mass, melted, but unchanged by the action
of heat " ; and, far from connecting volcanoes with the combustion of
inflammable substances, as had been theprevalent belief for so many
centuries, he looked upon them as a beneficent provision of " spiracles
to the subterranean furnace, in order to prevent the unnecessary
elevation of land and fatal effects of earthquakes."
A distinguishing feature of the Huttonian philosophy is to be
seen in the breadth of its conceptions regarding the geological
operations continually in progress on the surface of the globe.
Hutton saw that the land is undergoing a ceaseless process of degrada-
tion, through the influence of the air, frost, rain, rivers and the sea,
and that in course of time, if no countervailing agency should inter-
vene, the whole of the dry land will be washed away into the sea.
But he also perceived that this universal erosion is not everywhere
carried on at the same rate; that it is specially active along the
channels of torrents and rivers, and that, owing to this difference,
these channels are gradually deepened and widened, until the
complicated valley-system of a country is carved out. He recognized
that the detritus worn away from the land must be spread out over
the floor of the sea, so as to form there strata similar to those that
compose most of the dry land. As he could detect in the structure
of land convincing evidence that former sea floors had been elevated
to form the continents and islands of to-day, he could look forward
to future ages, when the same subterranean agency which had raised
up the present land would again be employed to uplift the bed of
the existing ocean, thus to renew the surface of our earth as a
habitable globe, and to start a fresh cycle of erosion and deposition.
Though Hutton was not unaware that organic remains abound in
many of the stratified rocks, he left them out of consideration in
the elaboration of his theory. It was otherwise with Lamarck.
one of his French contemporaries, the illustrious J. B.
Lamarck (1744-1829), who, after having attained great eminence as
a botanist, turned to zoology when he was nearly fifty years of age,
and before long rose to even greater distinction in that department
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT]
GEOLOGY
643
His >hare in the classification and description of the
id in founding invertebrate palaeontology, his theory
of organic evolution and his philosophical treatment of many
biological questions have been tardily recognized, but his contribu-
tion* to geology have been less generally acknowledged. When he
accepted the professorship of zoology ; of insects, of worms and of
microscopic animals " at the Museum of Natural History, Paris,
in 1 793, he at once entered with characteristic ardour and capacity
into the new tu-1,1 of research then opened to him. In dealing with
the mollusca he considered not merely the living but also the extinct
forms, especially the abundant, varied and- well-preserved genera
and species furnished by the Tertiary deposits of the Paris oasin,
of which he published descriptions and plates that proved of r--nni.il
service in the stratigraphical work of Cuvier and Alexandra
Brungniart (1770-1847). His labours among these relics of ancient
seas and lakes led him to ponder over the past history of the globe,
and as he was seldom dilatory in making known the opinions he had
formed, he communicated some of his conclusions to the National
Institute in 1709. These, including a further elaboration of his
views, he published in 1803 in a small volume entitled Hydrogtelotie.
This treatise, though it did not reach a second edition and has
never been reprinted, deserves an honourable place in geological
literature. Its object, the author states, was to present some im-
portant and novel considerations, which he thought should form
the basis of a true theory of the earth. He entirely agreed with the
doctrine of the subaerial degradation of the land and the erosion of
valleys by running water. Not even Playfair could have stated this
doctrine more emphatically, and it is worthy of notice that Playfair's
Illustration! of Ike HuUtmian Theory appeared in the same year
with Lamarck s book. The French naturalist, however, carried his
conclusions so far as to take no account of any great movements of
the terrestrial crust, which might have produced or modified the
main physical features of the surface of the globe. He thought that
all mountains, except such as were thrown up by volcanic agency or
local accidents, have been cut out of plains, the original surfaces of
which are indicated by the crests and summits of these elevations.
Lamarck, in reflecting upon the wide diffusion of fossil shells and
the great height above the sea at which they are found, conceived
the extraordinary idea that the ocean basin has been scoured out
by the sea, and that, by an impulse communicated to the waters
through the influence chiefly of the moon, the sea is slowly eating
away the eastern margins of the continents, and throwing up detritus
on their western coasts, and is thus gradually shifting its basin
round the globe. He would not admit the operation of cataclysms;
but insisted as strongly as Mutton on the continuity of natural
pcoccsKs, and on the necessity of explaining former changes of the
earth's surface by causes which can still be seen to be in operation.
As might be anticipated from his previous studies, he brought living
things and their remains into the forefront of his theory of the earth.
He looked upon fossils as one of the chief means of comprehending
the revolutions which the surface of the earth has undergone;
and in his little volume he again and again dwells on the vast
antiquity to which these revolutions bear witness. He acutely
argues, from the condition of fossil shells, that they must have lived
and died where their remains are now found.
In the last part of his treatise Lamarck advances some peculiar
opinions in physics and chemistry, which he had broached eighteen
years before, out which had met with no acceptance among the
scientific men of his time. He believed that the tendency of all
compound substances is to decay, and thereby to be resolved into
their component constituents. Yet he saw that the visible crust
of the earth consists almost wholly of compound bodies. He there-
fore set himself to solve the problem thus presented. Perceiving
that the biological action of living organisms is constantly forming
combinations of matter, which would never have otherwise come
into existence, he proceeded to draw the extraordinary conclusion
that the action of plant and animal life (the Poiaxrir de la vie) upon
the inorganic world is so universal and so potent, that the rocks and
minerals which form the outer part of the earth's crust arc all,
without exception, the result of the operations of once living bodies.
Though this sweeping deduction must be allowed to detract from
the value of Lamarck s work, there can be no doubt that he realized,
more fully than any one had done before him, the efficacy of plants
and animals as agents of geological change.
The last notable contributor to the cosmological literature of
geology was another illustrious Frenchman, the comparative ana-
f- J.T tomist Cuvier (1760-1832). He was contemporary with
Lamarck, but of a very different type of mind. The
brilliance of his speculations, and the charm with which he expounded
them, early gained for him a prominent place in the society of Paris.
He too was drawn by his zoological studies to investigate fossil
organic remains, and to consider the former conditions of the earth's
surface, of which they are memorials. It was among the vertebrate
organisms of the Paris basin that he found his chief material, and
front then that he prepared the memoirs which led to him being
retarded as the founder of vertebrate palaeontology. But beyond
their biological interest, they awakened in him a keen desire to
ascertain the character and sequence of the geographical revolutions
to which they bear witness. He approached the subject from an
opposite and less philosophical point of view than that of Lamarck,
coming to it with certain preconceived notions, which affected all
his subsequent writings. While Lamarck was by instinct an evolu-
tionist, who sought to trace in the history of the past the operation
of the same natural processes as are still at work, Cuvier, on the
other hand, was a catastrophic, who invoked a succession of vast
cataclysms to account for the interruptions in the continuity of the
geological record.
In a preliminary Discourse prefixed to his Recherches sur let
osstmrns fossilrs (1821) Cuvier gave an outline of what he conceived
to have been the past history of our globe, so far as he had been able
to comprehend it from his investigations of the Tertiary formations
of France. He believed that in that history evidence can be
recognized of the occurrence of many sudden and disastrous revolu-
tions, which, to judge from their effects on the animal life of the
time, must have exceeded in violence anything we can conceive at
the present day, and must have been brought about by other agencies
than those which are now in operation. Yet, in spite of these
catastrophes, he saw that there has been an upward progress in the
animal forms inhabiting the globe, until the scries ended in the
advent of man. He could not, however, find any evidence that one
species has been developed from another, for in that case there should
have been traces of intermediate forms among the stratified forma-
tions, where he affirmed that they had never been found. A
prominent position in the Discourse is given to a strenuous argument
to disprove the alleged antiquity of some nations, and to show that
the last great catastrophe occurred not more than some 5000 or
6000 years ago. Cuvier thus linked himself with those who in
previous generations had contended for the efficacy of the Deluge.
But his researches among fossil animals had given him a far wider
outlook into the geological past, and had opened up to him a suc-
cession of deeply interesting problems in the history of life upon the
earth, which, though he had not himself material for their solution,
he could foresee would be cleared up in the future.
Gradual Shaping of Geology into a Distinct Branch of Science. It
will be seen from the foregoing historical sketch that it was only
after the lapse of long centuries, and from the labours of many
successive generations of observers and writers, that what we now
know as the science of geology came to be recognized as a distinct
department of natural knowledge, founded upon careful and ex-
tended study of the structure of the earth, and upon observation of
the natural processes, which are now at work in changing the earth's
surface. The term " geology," 1 descriptive of this branch of the
investigation of nature, was not proposed until the last quarter of
the i8th century by Jean Andr6 De Luc (1727-1817) and Horace
Benedict De Saussure (1740^-1749). But the science was then in a
markedly half-formed condition, theoretical speculation still in large
part supplying the place of deductions from a detailed examination
of actual fact. In 1807 a few enterprising spirits founded the
Geological Society of London for the special purpose of counter-
acting the prevalent tendency and confining their intention " to
investigate the mineral structure of the earth." The cosmogonists
and framers of Theories of the Earth were succeeded by other schools
of thought. .The Catastrophists saw in the composition of the crust
of the earth distinct evidence that the forces of nature were once
much more stupendous in their operation than they now are, and
that they had from time to time devastated the earth's surface;
extirpating the races of plants and animals, and preparing the ground
for new creations of organized life. Then came the Uniformitarians,
who, pushing the doctrines of Hutton to an extreme which he did
not propose, saw no evidence that the activity of the various geo-
logical causes has ever seriously differed from what it is at present.
They were inclined to disbelieve that the stratified formations of
the earth's crust furnish conclusive evidence of a gradual pro-
gression, from simple types of life in the oldest strata to the most
highly developed forms in the youngest; and saw no reason why
remains of the higher vertebrates should not be met with among
the Palaeozoic formations. Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875) was the
great leader of this school. His admirably clear and philosophical
presentations of geological facts which, with unwearied industry,
ne collected from the writings of observers in all parts of the world,
impressed his views upon the whole English-speaking world, and
gave to geological science a coherence and interest which largely
accelerated its progress. In his later years, however, he frankly
accepted the views of Darwin in regard to the progressive character
of the geological record.
The youngest of the schools of ecological thought is that of the
Evolutionists. Pointing to the whole body of evidence from in-
organic and organic nature, they maintain that the history of our
planet has been one of continual and unbroken development from
the earliest cosmical beginnings down to the present time, and that
the crust of the earth contains an abundant, though incomplete,
record of the successive stages through which the plant and animal
1 In De Luc's Lettres physiques el morales sur lei montagnes (1778),
the word " cosmology is used for our science, the author stating
that " geology " is more appropriate, but it " was rtot a word in use.
In a completed edition, published in 1779, the same statement is
made, but "geology" occurs in the text; in the same year De
Saussure used the word without any explanation, as if it were
well known.
644
GEOLOGY
[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
kingdoms have reached their existing organization. The publication
of Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859, in which evolution was made
the key to the history of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, pro-
duced an extraordinary revolution in geological opinion. The older
schools of thought rapidly died out, and evolution became the
recognized creed of geologists all over the world.
Development of Opinion regarding Igneous Rocks. So long as the
idea prevailed that volcanoes are caused by the combustion of
inflammable substances underground, there could be no rational
conception of volcanic action and its products. Even so late as
the middle of the i8th century, as above remarked, such a good
observer as Lazzaro Moro drew so little distinction between volcanic
and other rocks that he could believe the fossiliferous formations
to have been mainly formed of materials ejected from eruptive vents.
After his time the notion continued to prevail that all the rocks which
form the dry land were laid down under water. Even streams of
lava, which were seen to flow from an active crater, were regarded
only as portions of sedimentary or other rocks, which had been
melted by the fervent heat of the burning inflammable materials
that had been kindled underground. In spite of the speculations
of Descartes and Leibnitz, it was not yet generally comprehended
that there exists beneath the terrestrial crust a molten magma,
which, from time to time, has been injected into that crust, and has
pierced through it, so as to escape at the surface with all the energy
of an active volcano. What we now recognize to be memorials of
these former injections and propulsions were all confounded with the
rocks of unquestionably aqueous origin. The last great teacher by
whom these antiquated doctrines were formulated into a system
, and promulgated to the world was Abraham Gottlob
Werner (1749-1815), the most illustrious German mineral-
ogist and geognost of the second half of the l8th century. While
still under twenty-six years of age, he was appointed teacher of
mining and mineralogy at the Mining Academy of Freiberg in Saxony
a post which he continued to fill up to the end of his life. Possessed
of great enthusiasm for his subject, clear, methodical and eloquent
in his exposition of it, he soon drew around him men from all parts
of the world, who repaired to study under the great oracle of what
he called geognosy (Gr. yrj, the earth, yv><ris, knowledge) or earth-
knowledge. Reviving doctrines that had been current long before
his time, he taught that the globe was once completely surrounded
with an ocean, from which the rocks of the earth's crust were
deposited as chemical precipitates, in a certain definite order over
the whole planet. Among these " universal formations " of aqueous
origin were included many rocks, which have long been recognized
to have been once molten, and to have risen from below into the
upper parts of the terrestrial crust. Werner, following the old
tradition, looked upon volcanoes as modern features in the history
of the planet, which could not have come into existence until a
sufficient amount of vegetation had been buried to furnish fuel for
their maintenance. Hence he attached but little importance to
them, and did not include in his system of rocks any division of
volcanic or igneous materials. From the predominant part assigned
by him to the sea in the accumulation of the materials. of the visible
part of the earth, Werner and his school were knownas " Neptunists."
But many years before the Saxon professor began to teach, clear
evidence had been produced from central France that basalt, one
of the rocks claimed by him as a chemical precipitate and
a universal formation, is a lava which has been poured
out in a molten state at various widely separated periods
of time and at many different places. So far back as 1752 J. E.
Guettard (1715-1786) had shown that the basaltic rocks of Auvergne
are true lavas, which have flowed out in streams from groups of
once active cones. Eleven years later the observation was confirmed
and greatly extended, by Nicholas Desmarest (1725-1815), who,
during a long course of years, worked out and mapped the com-
plicated volcanic records of that interesting region, and demonstrated
to all who were willing impartially to examine the evidence the true
volcanic nature of basalt. These views found acceptance from some
observers, but they were vehemently opposed by the followers of
Werner, who, by the force of his genius, made his theoretical con-
ceptions predominate all over Europe. The controversy as to the
origin of basalt was waged with great vigour during the later decades
of the 1 8th century. Desmarest took no part in it. He had accu-
mulated such conclusive proof of the correctness of his deductions,
and had so fully expounded the clearness of the evidence in their
favour furnished by the region of Auvergne, that, when any one
came to consult him on the subject, he contented himself with giving
the advice to " go and see." While the debate was in progress
on the continent, the subject was approached from a new and
independent point of view by Hutton in Scotland. This illustrious
philosopher, as already stated, realized the importance of the internal
neat of the globe in consolidating the sedimentary rocks, and believed
that molten material from the earth's interior has been protruded
from below into the overlying crust. Some of the material thus
injected could be recognized, he thought, in granite and in the
various dark massive rocks which, known in Scotland under the
name of " whinstone," were afterwards called " Trap," and are now
grouped under various names, such as basalt, dolerite and diorite.
So important a share did Hutton thus assign to the internal heat in
the geological evolution of the planet, that he and those who adopted
the same opinions were styled " Plutonists," or, especially where
they concerned themselves with the volcanic origin of basalt, " Vul-
canists." The geological world was thus divided into two hostile
camps, that of the Neptunists or Wernerians, and that of the
Plutonists, Vulcanists or Huttonians.
After many years of futile controversy the first serious weakening
of the position of the dominant Neptunist school arose from the
defection of some of the most prominent of Werner's pupils. In
particular Jean Francois D'Aubuisson de Voisins (1769-1819), who
had written a treatise on the aqueous origin of the basalts of Saxony,
went afterwards to Auvergne, where he was speedily a convert to
the views expounded by Desmarest as to the volcanic nature of
basalt. Having thus to relinquish one of the fundamental articles
of the Freiberg faith, he was subsequently led to modify hisadherence
to others until, as he himself confessed, his views came almost wholly
to agree with those of Hutton. Not less complete, and even more
important, was the conversion of the great Leopold von Buch (1774-
1853). He, too, was trained by Werner himself, and proved to be
the most illustrious pupil of the Saxon professor. Full of admiration
for the Neptunism in which he had been reared, he, in his earliest
separate work, maintained the aqueous origin of basalt, and con-
trasted the wide field opened up to the spirit of observation by his
master's teaching with the narrower outlook offered by " the volcanic
theory." But a little further acquaintance with the facts of nature
led Von Buch also to abandon his earlier prepossessions. It was a
personal visit to the volcanic region of Auvergne that first opened
his eyes, and led him to recant what he had believed and written
about basalt. But the abandonment of so essential a portion of the
Wernerian creed prepared the way for further relmquishments.
When a few years later he went to Norway and found to his astonish-
ment that granite, which he had been taught to regard as the oldest
chemical precipitate from the universal ocean, could there be seen
to have broken through and metamorphosed fossiliferous limestones,
and to have sent veins into them, his faith in Werner's order of the
succession of the rocks in the earth's crust received a further moment-
ous shock. While one after another of the Freiberg doctrines
crumbled away before him, he was now able to interrogate nature
on a wider field than the narrow limits of Saxony, and he was thus
gradually led to embrace the tenets of the opposite school. His
commanding position, as the most accomplished geologist on the
continent, gave great importance to his recantation of the Neptunist
creed. His defection indeed was the severest blow that this creed
had yet sustained. It may be said to have rung the knell of
Wernerianism, which thereafter rapidly declined in influence, while
Plutonism came steadily to the front, where it has ever since remained.
Although Desmarest had traced in Auvergne a long succession
of volcanic eruptions, of which the oldest went back to a remote
period of time, and although he had shown that this succession,
coupled with the records of contemporaneous denudation, might
be used in defining epochs of geological history, it was not until
many years after his day that volcanic action came to be recognized
as a normal part of the mechanism of our globe, which had been in
operation from the remotest past, and which had left numerous
records among the rocks of the terrestrial crust. During the progress
of the controversy between the two great opposing factions in the
later portion of the i8th and the first three decades of the igth
century, those who espoused the Vulcanist cause were intent on
proving that certain rocks, which are intercalated among the
stratified formations and which were claimed by the Neptunists as
obviously formed by water, are nevertheless of truly igneous origin.
These observers fixed their eyes on the evidence that the material of
such rocks, instead of having been deposited from aqueous solution,
had once been actually molten, and had in that condition been thrust
between the strata, had enveloped portions of them, and had in-
durated or otherwise altered them. They spoke of these masses
as " unerupted lavas "; and undoubtedly in innumerable instances
they were right. But their zeal to establish an intrusive origin led
them to overlook the proofs that some intercalated sheets of igneous
material had not been injected into the strata, but had been poured
out at the surface as truly volcanic discharges, and therefore belonged
to the ancient periods represented by the strata between which they
are interposed. It may readily be supposed that any proofs of the
contemporaneous intercalation of such sheets would be eagerly
seized upon by the Neptunists in favour of their aqueous theory.
The influence of the ancient belief that " burning mountains "
could only rise from the combustion of subterranean inflammable
materials extended even into the ranks of the Vulcanists, so far at
least as to lead to a general acquiescence in the assumption that
volcanoes appeared to belong to a late phase in the history of the
planet. It was not until after considerable progress had been made
in determining the palaeontological distinctions and order of suc-
cession of the stratified formations of the earth's crust that it became
possible to trace among these formations a succession of volcanic
episodes which were contemporaneous with them. In no part of
the world has an ampler record of such episodes been preserved than
in the British Isles. It was natural, therefore, that the subject
should there receive most attention. As far back as 1820 Ami Boud
(1794-1881) showed that the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland includes
a great series of volcanic rocks, and that other rocks of volcanic
origin are associated with the Carboniferous formations. H. T.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT]
GEOLOGY
645
de h Bccbe (1796-1855) afterwards traced proofs of contemporaneous
eruptions among the Devonian rocks of the south-west of England.
Adam Sedgwick (1783-1873) showed, first in the Lake District.
and afterwards in North Wales, the presence of abundant volcanic
sheets among the oldest divisions of the Palaeozoic scries; while
Roderick Impey Murchison (1793-1871) made similar discoveries
among the Lower Silurian rocks. From the time of these pioneers
the volcanic history of the country has been worked out by many
observers until it is now known with a fulness as yet unattained
in any other region.
Growth of Opinion retarding Earthquakes. We have seen how
crude were the conceptions of the ancients regarding the causes of
volcanic action, and that they connected volcanoes and earthquakes
as results of the commotion of wind imprisoned within subterranean
caverns and passages. One of the earliest treatises, in which the
phenomena of terrestrial movements were discussed in the spirit
of modern science, was the posthumous collection of papers by
Robert Hooke (1635-1703), entitled Lectures and Discourses of
EartkquaJtes and Subterranean Eruptions, where the probable agency
of earthquakes in upheaving and depressing land is fully considered,
but without any definite pronouncement as to the author's concep-
tion of its origin. Hooke still associated earthquakes with volcanic
action, and connected both with what he called " the general con-
gregation of sulphurous subterraneous vapours." He conceived
that some kind of " fermentation " takes place within the earth,
and that the materials which catch fire and give rise to eruptions
or earthquakes arc analogous to those that constitute gunpowder.
The first essay wherein earthquakes are treated from the modern
point of view as the results of a shock that sends waves through the
crust of the earth was written by the Rev. John Michel), ami com-
municated to the Royal Society in the year 1760. Still under the
old misconception that volcanoes are due to the combustion of
inflammable materials, which he thought might be set on fire by the
spontaneous combustion of pyritous strata, he supposed that, by the
sudden access of large bodies of water to these subterranean fires,
vapour is produced in such quantity and with such force as to give
rise to the shock. From the centre of origin of this shock waves,
he thought, are propagated through the earth, which are largest
at the start and gradually diminish as they travel outwards. By
drawing lines at different places in the direction of the track of these
waves, tie believed that the place of common intersection of these
lines would be nearly the centre of the disturbance. In this way he
showed that the great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 had its focus under
the Atlantic, somewhere between the latitudes of Lisbon and Oporto,
and be estimated that the depth at which it originated could not
be much less than I m., and probably did not exceed 3 m. Michel),
however, misconceived the character of the waves which he described ,
seeing that he believed them to be due to the actual propagation of
the vapour itself underneath the surface of the earth. A century
had almost passed after the date of his essay before modern scientific
methods of observation and the use of recording instruments began
to be applied to the study of earthquake phenomena. In 1846 Robert
Mallet (1810-1881) published an important paper "On the Dynamics
of Earthquakes " in the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy.
From that time onward he continued to devote his energies to the
investigation, studying the effects of the Calabrian earthquake of
1857, experimenting on the transmission of waves of shock through
various materials, caused by exploding charges of gunpowder, and
coBfcting all the information to be obtained on the subject. His
writing*, and especially his work in two volumes on The First
Principles of Observational Seismology, must be regarded as having
laid the foundations of this branch of modern geology (see EARTH-
QUAKE; SEISMOMETER).
History of the Evolution of Stratigraphical Geology. Men had long
been familiar with the evidence that the present dry land once lay
under the sea, before they began to realize that the rocks, of which
the land consists, contain a record of many alternations of land and
sea, and relics of a long succession of plants and animals from early
and simple types up to the manifold and complex forms of to-day.
.In countries where coal-mining had been prosecuted for generations,
it had been recognized that the rocks consist of strata superposed
on each other in a definite order, which was found to extend over
the whole of a district. As far back as 1710 John Strachcy drew
attention to this fact in a communication published in the Philoso-
phical Transactions. John Michel! (1760), in the paper on earth-
quakes already cited, showed that he had acquired a clear under-
standing of the order of succession among stratified formations, and
perceived that to disturbances of the terrestrial crust must be ascribed
the fact that the lower or older and more inclined strata form the
mountains, while the younger and more horizontal strata are spread
over the plains. - .
In Italy G. Arduino (1713-1795) classified the rocks in the north
of the peninsula as Primitive, Secondary, Tertiary and Volcanic.
A similar threefold order was announced for the Harz and Erzgebirge
by I. G. Lehmann in 1756. He recognized in that region an ancient
series of rocks in inclined or vertical strata, which rise to the tops
of the hills and descend to an unknown depth into the interior.
These masses, be thought, were contemporaneous with the making
of the world. Next came the Flotzgebirge, consisting of younger
disposed in flat or gently inclined sheets which overlie
the first and more disturbed scries, and are full of petrified remains
of plants and animals. Lastly he included the mountains which
have from time to time been formed by local accidents. Still more
advanced were the conceptions of G. C. FOchsel, who in the year
1763 published in Latin A History of the Earth and the Sea, based on
a History of the Mountains of Thunngia; and in 1773, in German,
a Sketch of the most Ancient History of the Earth ana Man. In these
works he described the. stratigraphical relations and general char-
acters of the various geological formations in his little principality ;
and taking them as indicative of a general order of succession, he
traced what he believed to have been a scries of revolutions through
which the earth has passed. In interpreting this geological history,
he laid great stress on the evidence of the fossils contained in the
rocks. He recognized that the various formations differ from each
other in their enclosed organic remains, and that from these dif-
ferences the existence of former sea-bottoms and land surfaces can
be determined.
The labours of these pioneers paved the way for the advent
of Werner. Though the system evolved by this teacher claimed to
discard theory and to be established on a basis of observed facts,
it rested on a succession of hypotheses, for which no better foundation
could be shown than the belief of their author in their validity.
Starting from the extremely limited stratigraphical range displayed
in the geological structure of Saxony, he took it as a type for the rest
of the globe, persuading himself and impressing upon his followers
that the rocks of that small kingdom were to be taken as examples
of his " universal formations." The oldest portion of the series,
classed by him as " Primitive," consisted of rocks which he main-
tained had been deposited from chemical solution. Yet they
included granite, gneiss, basalt, porphyry and serpentine, which,
even in his own day, were by many observers correctly regarded
as of igneous origin. A later group of rocks, to which he gave the
name of " Transition," comprised, in his belief, partly chemical,
partly mechanical sediments, and contained the earliest fossil
organic remains. A third group, for which he reserved Lehmann's
name " FlStz," was made up chiefly of mechanical detritus, while
youngest of all came the " Alluvial " series of loams, clays, sands,
gravels and peat. It was by the gradual subsidence of the ocean
that, as he believed, the general mass of the dry land emerged, the
first-formed rocks being left standing up, sometimes on end, to form
the mountains, while those of later date, less steeply inclined,
occupied successively lower levels down to the flat alluvial accumula-
tions of the plains. Neither Werner, nor any of his followers,
ventured to account for what became of the water as the sea-level
subsided, though, in despite of their antipathy to anything like
speculation, they could not help suggesting, as an answer to the
cogent arguments of their opponents, that " one of the celestial
bodies which sometimes approach near to the earth may have been
able to withdraw a portion of our atmosphere and of our ocean."
Nor was any attempt made to explain the extraordinary nature of
the supposed chemical precipitates of the universal ocean. The
progress of inquiry even in Werner's lifetime disproved some of
the fundamental portions of his system. Many of the chemical
precipitates were shown to be masses that had been erupted in a
molten state from below. His order of succession was found not
to hold good; and though he tried to readjust his sequence and to
introduce into it modifications to suit new facts, its inherent arti-
ficiality led to its speedy decline after his death. It must be con-
ceded, however, that the stress which he laid upon the fact that the
rocks of the earth's crust were deposited in a definite order had an
important influence in directing attention to this subject, and in
preparing the way for a more natural system, based not on mere
mineralogical characters, but having regard to the organic remains,
which were now being gathered in ever-increasing numbers and
variety from stratified formations of many different ages and from
all parts of the globe.
It was in France and in England that the foundations of strati-
graphy, based upon a knowledge of organic remains, were first
successfully laid. Alibi- J. L. Giraud-Soulavic (1752-1813), in his
Histoire naturelle de la France meridionale, which appeared in seven
volumes, subdivided the limestones of Vivarais into five ages, each
marked by a distinct assemblage of shells. In the lowest strata,
representing the first age, none of the fossils were believed by him
to have any living representatives, and he called these rocks " Prim-
ordial." In the next group a mingling of living with extinct forms
was observable. The third age was marked by the presence of
shells of still existing species. The strata of the fourth series were
characterized by carbonaceous shales or slates, containing remains
of primordial vegetation, and perhaps equivalents of the first three
calcareous series. The fifth age was marked by recent deposits
containing remains of terrestrial vegetation and of land animals.
It is remarkable that these sagacious conclusions should have been
formed and published at a time when the geologists of the Continent
were engaged in the controversy about the origin of basalt, or in
disputes about the character and stratigraphical position of the
supposed universal formations, and when the interest and importance
of fossil organic remains still remained unrecognized by the vast
majority of the combatants.
The rocks of the Paris basin display so clearly an orderly
arrangement, and arc so distinguished for the variety and perfect
646
GEOLOGY
[HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
preservation of their enclosed organic remains, that they could not
fail to attract the early notice of observers. I. E. Guettard, G. F.
Rouelle (1703-1770), N. Desmarest, A. L. Lavoisier (1743-1794)
and others made observations in this interesting district. But it
was reserved for Cuvier (1769-1832) and A. Brongniart (1770-1847)
to work out the detailed succession of the Tertiary formations, and
to show how each of these is characterized by its own peculiar
assemblage of organic remains. The later progress of investigation
has slightly corrected and greatly amplified the tabular arrangement
established by these authors in 1808, but the broad outlines of the
Tertiary stratigraphy of the Paris basin remain still as Cuvier and
Brongniart left them. The most important subsequent change
in the classification of the Tertiary formations was made by Sir
Charles Lyell, who, conceiving in 1828 the idea of a classification
of these rocks by reference to their relative proportions of living
and extinct species of shells, established, in collaboration with
G. P. Deshayes, the now universally accepted divisions Eocene,
Miocene and Pliocene.
Long before Cuvier and Brongniart published an account of their
researches, another observer had been at work among the Secondary
formations of the west of England, and had independently dis-
covered that the component members of these formations were each
distinguished by a peculiar group of organic remains ; and that this
distinction could be used to discriminate them over all the region
through which he had traced them. The remarkable man who
arrived at this far-reaching generalization was William Smith (1769-
1839), a land surveyor who, in the prosecution of his professional
business, found opportunities of traversing a great part of England,
and of putting his deductions to the test. As the result of these
journeys he accumulated materials enough to enable him to produce
a geological map of the country, on which the distribution and
succession of the rocks were for the first time delineated. Smith's
labours laid the foundation of stratigraphical geology in England
and he was styled even in his lifetime the " Father of English
geology." From his day onward the significance of fossil organic
remains gained rapidly increasing recognition. Thus in England
the outlines traced by him among the Secondary and Tertiary
formations were admirably filled in by Thomas Webster (1773-1844) ;
while the Cretaceous series was worked out in still greater detail
in the classic memoirs of William Henry Fitton (1780-1861).
There was one stratigraphical domain, however, into which William
Smith did not enter. He traced his sequence of rocks down into the
Coal Measures, but contented himself with only a vague reference
to what lay underneath that formation. Though some of these
underlying rocks had in various countries yielded abundant fossils,
they had generally suffered so much from terrestrial disturbances,
and their order of succession was consequently often so much
obscured throughout western Europe, that they remained but little
known for many years after the stratigraphy of the Secondary and
Tertiary series had been established. At last in 1831 Murchison
began to attack this terra incognita on the borders of South Wales,
working into it from the Old Red Sandstone, the stratigraphical
position of which was well known. In a few years he succeeded in
demonstrating the existence of a succession of formations, each
distinguished by its own peculiar assemblage of organic remains
which were distinct from those in any of the overlying strata. To
these formations he gave the name of Silurian (q.v.). From the
key which his researches supplied, it was possible to recognize in
other countries the same order of formations and the same sequence
of fossils, so that, in the course of a few years, representatives of the
'Silurian system were found far and wide over the globe. While
Murchison was thus engaged, Sedgwick devoted himself to the more
difficult task of unravelling the complicated structure of North
Wales. He eventually made out the order of the several formations
there, with their vast intercalations of volcanic material. He named
them the Cambrian system (q.v.), and found them to contain fossils,
which, however, lay for some time unexamined by him. He at
first believed, as Murchison also did, that his rocks were all older
than any part of the Silurian series. It was eventually discovered
that a portion of them was equivalent to the lower part of that
series. The oldest of Sedgwick's groups, containing distinctive
fossils, retain the name Cambrian, and are of high interest, as they
enclose the remains of the earliest faunas which are yet well known.
Sedgwick and Murchison rendered yet another signal service to
stratigraphical geology by establishing, in 1839, on a basis of
palaeontological evidence supplied by W. Lonsdale, the independence
of the Devonian system (q.v.).
For many years the rocks below the oldest fossiliferous deposits
received comparatively little attention. They were vaguely described
as the " crystalline schists " and were often referred to as parts of
the primeval crust in which no chronology was to be looked for.
W. E. Logan (1798-1875) led the way, in Canada, ky establishing
there several vast series of rocks, partly of crystalline schists and
gneisses (Laurentian) and partly of slates and conglomerates
(Huronian). Later observers, both in Canada and the United
States, have greatly increased our knowledge of these rocks, and
have shown their structure to be much more complex than was at
first supposed (see ARCHEAN SYSTEM).
During the latter half of the igth century the most important
development of stratigraphical geology was the detailed working
out and application of the principle of zonal classification to the
fossiliferous formations that is, the determination of the sequence
and distribution of organic remains in these formations, and the
arrangement of the strata into zones, each of which is distinguished
by a peculiar assemblage of fossil species (see under Part VI.). The
zones are usually named after one especially characteristic species.
This system of classification was begun in Germany with reference
to the members of the Jurassic system (q.v.) by A. Oppel (1856-1858)
and F. A. von Quenstedt (1858), and it has since been extended
through the other Mesozoic formations. It has even been found to
be applicable to the Palaeozoic rocks, which are now subdivided
into palaeontological zones. In the Silurian system, for example, the
graptolites have been shown by C. Lapworth to furnish a useful
basis for zonal subdivisions. The lowest fossiliferous horizon in the
Cambrian rocks of Europe and North America is known as the
Olenellus zone, from the prominence in it of that genus of trilobite.
Another conspicuous feature in the progress of stratigraphy
during the second half of the 19th century was displayed by the rise
and rapid development of what is known as Glacial geology. The
various deposits of " drift " spread over northern Europe, and the
boulders scattered across the surface of the plains had long attracted
notice, and had even found a place in popular legend and supersti-
tion. When men began to examine them with a view to ascertain
their origin, they were naturally regarded as evidences of the
Noachian deluge. The first observer who drew attention to the
smoothed and striated surfaces of rock that underlie the Drifts was
Hutton's friend, Sir James Hall, who studied them in the lowlands
of Scotland and referred them to the action of great debacles of
water, which, in the course of some ancient terrestrial convulsion,
had been launched across the face of the country. Playfair, however,
pointed out that the most potent geological agents for the trans-
portation of large blocks of stone are the glaciers. But no one was
then bold enough to connect the travelled boulders with glaciers
on the plains of Germany and of Britain. Yet the transporting
agency of ice was invoked in explanation of their diffusion. It
came to be the prevalent belief among the geologists of the first
half of the lo,th century, that the fall of temperature, indicated by
the gradual increase in the number of northern species of shells
in the English Crag deposits, reached its climax during the time
of the Drift, and that much of the north and centre of Europe was
then submerged beneath a sea, across which floating icebergs and
floes transported the materials of the Drift and dropped the scattered
boulders. As the phenomena are well developed around the Alps,
it was necessary to suppose that the submergence involved the
lowlands of the Continent up to the foot of that mountain chain
a geographical change so stupendous as to demand much more
evidence than was adduced in its support. At last Louis Agassiz
(1807-1873), who had varied his palaeontological studies at Neuchatel
by excursions into the Alps, was so much struck by the proofs of
the former far greater extension of the Swiss glaciers, that he pursued
the investigation and satisfied himself that the ice had formerly
extended from the Alpine valleys right across the great plain of
Switzerland, and had transported huge boulders from the central
mountains to the flanks of the Jura. In the year 1840 he visited
Britain and soon found evidence of similar conditions there. He
showed that it was not by submergence in a sea cumbered with
floating ice, but by the former presence of vast glaciers or sheets of
ice that the Drift and erratic blocks had been distributed. The idea
thus propounded by him did not at once command complete approval,
though traces of ancient glaciers in Scotland and Wales were soon
detected by native geologists, particularly by W. Buckland, Lyell,
J. D. Forbes and Charles Maclaren. Robert Chambers (1802-1871)
did good service in gathering additional evidence from Scotland and
Norway in favour of Agassiz s views, which steadily gained adherents
until, after some quarter of a century, they were adopted by the
great majority of geologists in Britain, and subsequently in other
countries. Since that time the literature of geology has been swollen
by a vast number of contributions in which the history of the Glacial
period, and its records both in the Old and New World, have been
fully discussed.
Rise and Progress of Palaeontological Geology. As this branch of
the science deals with the evidence furnished by fossil organic
remains as to former geographical conditions, it early attracted
observers who, in the superficial beds of marine shells found at some
distance from the coast, saw proofs of the former submergence of
the land under the sea. But the occurrence of fossils embedded in
the heart of the solid rocks of the mountains offered much greater
difficulties of explanation, and further progress was consequently
slow. Especially baneful was the belief that these objects were
mere sports of nature, and had no connexion with any once living
organisms. So long as the true organic origin of the fossil plants and
animals contained in the rocks was in dispute, it was hardly possible
that much advance could be made in their systematic study, or in
the geological deductions to be drawn from them. One good result
of the controversy, however, was to be seen in the large collections
of these " formed stones" that were gathered together in the cabinets
and museums of the I7th and i8th centuries. The accumulation
and comparison of these objects naturally led to the production of
treatises in which they were described and not unfrequently illus-
trated by good engravings. Switzerland was more particularly
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT]
GEOLOGY
647
noted (or the number and merit of its works of this kind, such as that
of K. N. Lang (Historta lofndum J\t*ratorum Helvtliar, 1708) and
those of Johaun Jacob Scheuchxer (1672-1733). In England, also,
illustrated treatises were published both by men who looked on
fossils as mere freaks of nature, and by those who regarded them as
proofs of Noah's flood. Of the former type were the works of Martin
Lister (1638-1712) and Robert Plot (Natural History of Oxfordshire,
1677). The Celtic scholar Edward Llwyd (1660-1709) wrote a Latin
treatise containing good plates of a thousand fossils in the Ashmolean
Museum, Oxford, and J. Woodward, in 1728-1729, published his
Natural History oftke Fossils of En eland, already mentioned, whrrrin
he described his own extensive collection, which he bequeathed to
the University of Cambridge, where it is still carefully preserved.
The roost voluminous and important of all these works, however,
appeared at a later date at Nuremberg. It was begun by G. W.
Knorr (1705-1761), who himself engraved for it a scries of plates,
which for beauty and accuracy have seldom been surpassed. After
his death the work was continued by J. K. 1. \\.ilrli (1725- 1778), and
ultimately consisted of four massive folio volumes and nearly 3
plates under the title of Lapidts dilurii univrrsalis ttstrs. Although
the authors supposed their fossils to be relics of Noah's flood, their
work must be acknowledged to mark a distinct onward stage in the
palaeootologkal department of geology.
It was in France that palaeontological geology began to be culti-
vated in a scientific spirit. The potter Bernard Palissy, as far back
as 1580, had dwelt on the importance of fossil shells as monuments
of revolutions of the earth's surface; but the observer who first
undertook the detailed study of the subject was Jean Eticnne
Guettard, who began in 1751 to publish his descriptions of fossils
in the form of memoirs presented to the Academy of Sciences of
Paris. To him they were not only of deep interest as monuments
of former types of existence, but they had an especial value as
records of the changes which the country had undergone from sea
to land and from land to sea. More especially noteworthy was a
monograph by him which appeared in 1765 bearing the title " On
the accidents that have befallen Fossil Shells compared with those
which are found to happen to shells now living in the Sea." In this
treatise he showed that the fossils have been encrusted with barnacles
and serpulac, have been bored into by other organisms, and have
often been rounded or broken before final entombment; and he
inferred that these fossils must have lived and died on the sea-floor
under similar conditions to those which obtain on the sea-floor
to-day. His argument was the most triumphant that had ever
been brought against the doctrine of lusus naturae, and that of the
efficacy of Noah's flood doctrines which still held their ground in
Guettard's day. When Soulavie, Cuvier and Brongniart in France,
and William Smith in England, showed that the rock formations
of the earth's crust could be arranged in chronological order, and
could be recognized far and wide by means of their enclosed organic
remain*, the vast significance of these remains in geological research
was speedily realized, and palaeontological geology at once entered
on a new and enlarged phase of development. But apart from
their value as chronological monuments, and as witnesses of former
conditions of geography, fossils presented in themselves a wide
field of investigation as types of life that had formerly existed, but
had now passed away. It was in France that this subject first took
definite shape as an important branch of science. The mollusca of
the Tertiary deposits of the Paris basin became, in the hands of
Lamarck, the basis on which invertebrate palaeontology was founded .
The same series of strata furnished to Cuvier the remains of extinct
land animals, of which, by critical study of their fragmentary bones
aad skeletons, he worked out restorations that may be looked on
a* the starting-point of vertebrate palaeontology. These brilliant
researches, rousing widespread interest in such studies, showed how
great a flood of light could be thrown on the past history of the earth
and its inhabitants. But the full significance of these extinct types
of life could not be understood so long as the doctrine of the immuta-
bility of species, so strenuously upheld by Cuvier, maintained its
sway among naturalists. Lamarck, as far back as the year 1800,
had begun to propound his theory of evolution and the transforma-
tion of species; but his views, strongly opposed by Cuvier and the
great body of naturalists of the day, fell into neglect. Not until
after the publication in 1859 of the Origin of Species by Charles
Darwin were the barriers of old prejudice in this matter finally
broken down. The possibility of tracing the ancestry of living forms
back into the remotest ages was then perceived ; the time-honoured
fiction that the stratified formations record a series of catastrophes
and re-creations was finally dissipated; and the earth's crust was
seen to contain a noble, though imperfect, record of the grand
evolution of organic types of which our planet has been the theatre.
Dnrlopmenl of Petrographical Geoiofy. Theophrastus, the favour-
ite pupil of Aristotle, wrote a treatise On Stones, which has come
down to our own day, and may be regarded as the earliest work on
petrography. At a subsequent period Pliny, in his Natural History,
collected all that was known in his day regarding the occurrence
and uses of minerals and rocks. But neither of these works is
of great scientific importance, though containing much interesting
information. Minerals from their beauty and value attracted
notice before much attention was paid to rocks, and their study
gave rise to the science of mineralogy long before geology came
into existence. When rocks began to be more particularly scrutin-
ized, it was chiefly from the side of their usefulness for building
and other economic purposes. The occurrence of marine shells in
many of them had early attracted attention to them. But their
varieties of composition and origin did not become the subject of
serious study until after Linnaeus and J. G. Wallcrius in the l8th
century had made a beginning. The first important contribution
to this department of the science was that of Werner, who in 1786
published a classification and description of rocks in which he
arranged them in two divisions, simple and compound, and further
distinguished them by various external characters and by their
relative age. The publication of this scheme may be said to mark
the beginning of scientific petrography. Werner's system, however,
had the serious defect that the chronological order in which he
grouped the rocks, and the hypothesis by which he accounted for
them as chemical precipitates from the original ocean, were both
alike contrary to nature. It was hardly possible indeed that much
progress could be made in this branch of geology until chemistry
and mineralogy had made greater advances; and especially until
it was possible to ascertain the intimate chemical and mincralogical
composition, and the minute structure of rocks. The study, however,
continued to be pursuedjn Germany, where the influence of Werner's
enthusiasm still led men to enter the petrographical rather than the
palaeontological domain. The resources of modern chemistry were
pressed into the service, and analyses were made and multiplied to
such a degree that it seemed as if the ultimate chemical constitution
of every type of rock had now been thoroughly revealed. The
condition of the science in the middle of the mi h century was well
shown by J. L. A. Roth, who in 1861 collected about 1000 trust-
worthy analyses which up to that time had been made. But though
the chemical elements of the rocks had been fairly well determined,
the manner in which they were combined in the compound rocks
could for the most part be only more or less plausibly conjectured.
As far back as 1831 an account was published of a process devised by
William Nicol of Edinburgh, whereby sections of fossil wood could be
cut, mounted on glass, and reduced to such a degree of transparency
as to be easily examined under a microscope. Henry Sorby, of
Sheffield, having seen Nicol's preparations, perceived how admirably
adapted the process was for the study of the minute structure and
composition of rocks. In 1858 he published in the Quarterly Journal
of the Geological Society a paper " On the Microscopical Structure of
Crystals." This essay led to a complete revolution of petrographical
methods and gave a vast impetus to the study of rocks. Petrology
entered upon a new and wider field of investigation. Not only were
the mincralogical constituents of the rocks detected, but minute
structures were revealed which shed new light on the origin and
history of these mineral masses, and opened up new paths in
theoretical geology. In the hands of H. Vogelsang, F. Zirkcl,
H. Roscnbusch, and a host of other workers in alfcivilized countries,
the literature of this department of the science has grown to a
remarkable extent. Armed with the powerful aid of modern optical
instruments, geologists are now able with far more prospect of success
to resume the experiments begun a century before by de Saussure
and Hall. G. A. Daubree, C. Friedel, E. Sarasin, F. Fouqu6 and
A. Michel Levy in France, C. Doelter y Cisterich and E. Hussak of
Gratz, J. Morozewicz of Warsaw and others, have greatly advanced
our knowledge by their synthetical analyses, and there is every
reason to hope that further advances will be made in this field of
research.
Rise of Physiographical Geology. Until stratigraphical geology
had advanced so far as to show of what a vast succession of rocks the
crust of the earth is built up, by what a long and complicated series
of revolutions these rocks have come to assume their present positions,
and how enormous has been the lapse of time which all these changes
represent, it was not possible to make a scientific study of the surface
features of our globe. From ancient times it had been known that
many parts of the land had once been under the sea ; but down even
to the beginning of the I9th century the vaguest conceptions con-
tinued to prevail as to the operations concerned in the submergence
and elevation of land, and as to the processes whereby the present
outlines of terrestrial topography were determined. We have seen,
for instance, that according to the teaching of Werner the oldest
rocks were first precipitated from solution in the universal ocean to
form the mountains, that the vertical position of their strata was
original, that as the waters subsided successive formations were
deposited and laid bare, and that finally the superfluous portion of the
ocean was whisked away into space by some unexplained co-operation
of another planetary body. Desmarcst, in his investigation of the
volcanic history of Auvcrgne, was the first observer to perceive by
what a long process of sculpture the present configuration of the land
has been brought about. He showed conclusively that the valleys have
been carved out by the streams that flow in them, and that while
they have sunk deeper and deeper into the framework of the land,
the spaces of ground between them have been left as intervening
ridges and hills. De Saussure learnt a similar lesson from his studirs
of the Alps, and Hutton and Playfair made it a cardinal feature in
their theory of the earth. Nevertheless the idea encountered so
much opposition that it made but little way until after the middle
of the igth century. Geologists preferred to believe in convul-
sions of nature, whereby valleys were opened and mountains were
648
GEOLOGY
[COSMICAL ASPECTS
upheaved. That the main features of the land, such as the great
mountain-chains, had been produced by gigantic plication of the
terrestrial crust was now generally admitted, and also that minor
fractures and folds had probably initiated many of the valleys.
But those who realized most vividly the momentous results achieved
by ages of subaerial denudation perceived that, as Hutton showed,
even without the aid of underground agency, the mere flow of water
in streams across a mass of land must in course of time carve out
just such a system of valleys as may anywhere be seen. It was
J. B. Jukes who, in 1862, first revived the Huttonian doctrine,
and showed how completely it explained the drainage-lines in the
south of Ireland. Other writers followed in quick succession until,
in a few years, the doctrine came to be widely recognized as one of
the established principles of modern geology. Much help was derived
from the admirable illustrations of land-sculpture and river-erosion
supplied from the Western Territories and States' of the American
Union.
Another branch of physiographical geology which could only come
into existence after most of the other departments of the science
had made large progress, deals with the evolution of the framework
of each country and of the several continents and oceans of the globe.
It is now possible, with more or less confidence, to trace backward
the history of every terrestrial area, to see how sea and land have
there succeeded each other, how rivers and lakes have come and
gone, how the crust of the earth has been ridged up at widely
separated intervals, each movement determining some line of
mountains or plains, how the boundaries of the oceans have shifted
again and again in the past, and thus how, after so prolonged a series
of revolutions, the present topography of each country, and of the
globe as a whole, has been produced. In the prosecution of this
subject maps have been constructed to show what is conjectured
to have been the distribution of sea and land during the various
geological periods in different parts of the world, and thus to indicate
the successive stages through which the architecture of the land has
been gradually evolved. The most noteworthy contribution to this
department of the science is the Antlitz der Erde of Professor Suess
of Vienna. This important and suggestive work has been translated
into French and English.
PART II. COSMICAL ASPECTS
Before geology had attained to the position of an inductive
science, it was customary to begin investigations into the
history of the earth by propounding or adopting some more
or less fanciful hypothesis in explanation of the origin of our
planet, or even of the universe. Such preliminary notions were
looked upon as essential to a right understanding of the manner
in which the materials of the globe had been put together. One
of the distinguishing features of Hutton's Theory of the Earth
consisted in his protest that it is no part of the province of
geology to discuss the origin of things. He taught that in the
materials from which geological evidence is to be compiled
there can be found " no traces of a beginning, no prospect of an
end." In England, mainly to the influence of the school which
he founded, and to the subsequent rise of the Geological Society
of London, which resolved to collect facts instead of fighting
over hypotheses, is due the disappearance of the crude and
unscientific cosmologies by which the writings of the earlier
geologists were distinguished.
But there can now be little doubt that in the reaction against
those visionary and often grotesque speculations, geologists
were carried too far in an opposite direction. In allowing
themselves to believe that geology had nothing to do with
questions of cosmogony, they gradually grew up in the conviction
that such questions could never be other than mere speculation,
interesting or amusing as a theme for the employment of the
fancy, but hardly coming within the domain of sober and
inductive science. Nor would they soon have been awakened
out of this belief by anything in their own science. It is still
true that in the data with which they are accustomed to deal,
as comprising the sum of geological evidence, there can be
found no trace of a beginning, though the evidence furnished
by the terrestrial crust shows a general evolution of organic
forms from some starting-point which cannot be seen. The
oldest rocks which have been discovered on any part of the
globe have probably been derived from other rocks older than
themselves. Geology by itself has not yet revealed, and is little
likely ever to reveal, a trace of the first solid crust of our globe.
If, then, geological history is to be compiled from direct evidence
furnished by the rocks of the earth, it cannot begin at the
beginning of things, but must be content to date its first chapter
from the earliest period of which any record has been preserved
among the rocks.
Nevertheless, though geology in its usual restricted sense has
been, and must ever be, unable to reveal the earliest history of
our planet, it no longer ignores, as mere speculation, what is
attempted in this subject by its sister sciences. Astronomy,
physics and chemistry have in late years all contributed to cast
light on the earlier stages of the earth's existence, previous to
the beginning of what is commonly regarded as geological history.
But whatever extends our knowledge of the former conditions
of our globe may be legitimately claimed as part of the domain of
geology. If this branch of inquiry, therefore, is to continue
worthy of its name as the science of the earth, it must take
cognizance of these recent contributions from other sciences.
It must no longer be content to begin its annals with the records
of the oldest rocks, but must endeavour to grope its way through
the ages which preceded the formation of any rocks. Thanks
to the results achieved with the telescope, the spectroscope and
the chemical laboratory, the story of these earliest ages of our
earth is every year becoming more definite and intelligible.
Up to the present time no definite light has been thrown by
physics on the origin and earliest condition of our globe. The
famous nebular theory (<?..) of Kant and Laplace sketched the
supposed evolution of the solar system from a gaseous nebula,
slowly rotating round a more condensed central portion of its
mass, which eventually became the sun. As a consequence of
increased rapidity of rotation resulting from cooling and con-
traction, the nebula acquired a more and more lenticular form,
until at last it threw off from its equatorial protuberance a ring
of matter. Subsequently the same process was repeated, and
other similar rings successively separated from the parent mass.
Each ring went through a corresponding series of changes until
it ultimately became a planet, with or without one or more
attendant satellites. The intimate relationship of our earth
to the sun and the other planets was, in this way, shown. But
there are some serious physical difficulties in the way of the
acceptance of the nebular hypothesis. Another explanation
is given by the meteoritic hypothesis, according to which, out
of the swarms of meteorites with which the regions of space are
crowded, the sun and planets have been formed by gradual
accretion.
According to these theoretical views we should expect to find
a general uniformity of composition in the constituent matter
of the solar system. For many years the only available evidence
on this point was derived from the meteorites (q.v.) which so
constantly fall from outer space upon the surface of the earth.
These bodies were found to consist of elements all of which had
been recognized as entering into the constitution of the earth.
But the discoveries of spectroscopic research have made known
a far more widely serviceable method of investigation, which
can be applied even to the luminous stars and nebulae that lie
far beyond the bounds of the solar system. By this method
information has been obtained regarding the constitution of the
sun, and many of our terrestrial metals, such as iron, nickel and
magnesium, have been ascertained to exist in the form of in-
candescent vapour in the solar atmosphere. The present
condition of the sun probably represents one of the phases
through which stars and planets pass in their progress towards
becoming cool and dark bodies in space. If our globe was at
first, like its parent sun, an incandescent mass of probably
gaseous matter, occupying much more space than it now fills,
we can conceive that it has ever since been cooling and contract-
ing until it has reached its present form and dimensions, and that
it still retains a high internal temperature. Its oblately spheroidal
form is such as would be assumed by a rotating mass of matter
in the transition from a vaporous and self-luminous or liquid
condition to one of cool and dark solidity. But it has been
claimed that even a solid spherical globe might develop, under
the influence of protracted rotation, such a shape as the earth
at present possesses.
The observed increase of temperature downwards in our
COSMICAL ASPECTS]
GEOLOGY
649
planet has hitherto been generally accepted as a relic and proof
of an original high temperature and mobility of substance.
Recently, however, the validity of this proof has been challenged
on the ground that the ascertained amount of radium in the
rocks of the outer crust is more than sufficient to account for
the observed downward increase of temperature. Too little,
however, is known of the history and properties of what is
called radium to afford a satisfactory ground on which to
discard what has been, and still remains, the prevalent belief
on this subject.
An important epoch in the geological history of the earth
was marked by the separation of the moon from its mass (see
TIDE). Whether the severance arose from the rupture of a
surrounding ring or the gradual condensation of matter in such
a ring, or from the ejection of a single mass of matter from the
rapidly rotating planet, it has been shown that our satellite
was only a few thousand miles from the earth's surface, since
when it has retreated to its present distance of 240,000 m. Hence
the influence of the moon's attraction, and all the geological
effects to which it gives rise, attained their maximum far back
in the development of the globe, and have been slowly diminish-
ing throughout geological history.
The sun by virtue of its vast size has not yet passed out of
the condition of glowing gas, and still continues to radiate heat
beyond the farthest planet of the solar system. The earth,
however, being so small a body in comparison, would cool down
much more quickly. Underneath its hot atmosphere a crust
would conceivably begin to form over its molten surface, though
the interior might still possess a high temperature and, owing
to the feeble conducting power of rocks, would remain intensely
hot for a protracted series of ages.
Full information regarding the form and size of the earth,
and its relations to the other planetary members of the solar
system, will be 'found in the articles PLANET and SOLAR SYSTEM.
For the purposes of geological inquiry the reader will bear in
mind that the equatorial diameter of our globe is estimated to
be about 7925 m -> a d the polar diameter about 7809 m. ; the
difference between these two sums representing the amount of
flattening at the poles (about 26jm.). The planet has been
compared in shape to an orange, but it resembles an orange
which has been somewhat squeezed, for its equatorial circum-
ference is not a regular circle but an ellipse, of which the major
axis lies in long. 8 15* W. on a meridian which cuts the north-
west corner of America, passing through Portugal and Ireland,
and the north-east comer of Asia in the opposite hemisphere.
The rotation of the earth on its axis exerts an important
influence on the movements of the atmosphere, and thereby
affects the geological operations connected with these movements.
The influence of rotation is most marked in the great aerial
circulation between the poles and the equator. Currents of
air, which set out in a meridional direction from high latitudes
towards the equator, come from regions where the velocity due
to rotation is small to where it is greater, and they consequently
fall behind. Thus, in the northern hemisphere a north wind,
as it moves away from its northern source of origin, is gradually
deflected more and more towards the west and becomes a north-
east current; while in the opposite hemisphere a wind making
from high southern latitudes towards the equator becomes,
from the same cause, a south-east current. Where, on the
other hand, the air moves from the equatorial to the polar regions
its higher velocity of rotation carries it eastward, so that on the
south side of the equator it becomes a north-west current and
on the north side a south-west current. It is to this cause that
the easting and westing of the great atmospheric currents are
to be attributed, as is familiarly exemplified in the trade winds.
The atmospheric circulation thus deflected influences the
circulation of the ocean. The winds which persistently blow
from the north-east on the north side of the equator, and from
the south-east on the south side, drive the superficial waters
onwards, and give rise to converging oceanic currents which
unite to form the great westerly equatorial current.
A more direct effect of terrestrial rotation has been claimed
in the case of rivers which flow in a meridional direction. It has
been asserted that those, which in the northern hemisphere
flow from north to south, like the Volga, by continually passing
into regions where the velocity of rotation is increasingly greater,
are thrown more against their western than their eastern banks,
while those whose general course is in an opposite direction, like
the Irtisch and Yenesei, press more upon their eastern sides.
There cannot be any doubt that the tendency of the streams
must be in the directions indicated. But when the comparatively
slow current and constantly meandering course of most rivers
are taken into consideration, it may be doubted whether the
influence of rotation is of much practical account so far as
river-erosion is concerned.
One of the cosmical relations of our planet which has been
more especially prominent in geological speculations relates to
the position of the earth's axis of rotation. Abundant evidence
has now been obtained to prove that at a comparatively late
geological period a rich flora, resembling that of warm climates
at the present day, existed in high latitudes even within less than
9 of the north pole, where, with an extremely low temperature
and darkness lasting for half of the year, no such vegetation could
possibly now exist. It has accordingly been maintained by
many geologists that the axis of rotation must have shifted,
and that when the remarkable Arctic assemblage of fossil plants
lived the region of their growth must have lain in latitudes much
nearer to the equator of the time.
The possibility of any. serious displacement of the rotational
axis since a very early period in the earth's history has been
strenuously denied by astronomers, and their arguments have
been generally, but somewhat reluctantly, accepted by geologists,
who find themselves confronted with a problem which has
hitherto seemed insoluble. That the axis is not rigidly stable,
however, has been postulated by some physicists, and has now
been demonstrated by actual observation and measurement.
It is admitted that by the movement of large bodies of water
the air over the surface of the globe, and more particularly by
the accumulation of vast masses of snow and ice in different
regions, the position of the axis might be to some extent shifted;
more serious effects might follow from widespread upheavals
or depressions of the surface of the lithosphere. On the assump-
tion of the extreme rigidity of the earth's interior, however, the
general result of mathematical calculation is to negative the
supposition that in any of these ways within the period repre-
sented by what is known as the " geological record," that is,
since the time of the oldest known sedimentary formations, the
rotational axis has ever been so seriously displaced as to account
for such stupendous geological events as the spread of a luxuriant
vegetation far up into polar latitudes. If, however, the inside
of the globe possesses a great plasticity than has been allowed,
the shifting of the axis might not be impossible, even to such an
extent as would satisfy the geological requirements. This
question is one on which the last word has not been said, and
regarding which judgment must remain in suspense.
In recent years fresh information bearing on the minor devaga-
tions of the pole has been obtained from a series of several
thousand careful observations made in Europe and North
America. It has thus been ascertained that the pole wanders
with a curiously irregular but somewhat spiral movement,
within an amplitude of between 40 and 50 ft., and completes
its erratic circuit in about 428 days. It was not supposed that
its movement had any geological interest, but Dr John Milne
has recently pointed out that the times of sharpest curvature
in the path of the pole coincide with the occurrence of large
earthquakes, and has suggested that, although it can hardly be
assumed that this coincidence shows any direct connexion
between earthquake frequency and changes in the position of
the earth's axis, both effects may not improbably arise from
the same redistribution of surface material by ocean currents
and meteorological causes.
If for any reason the earth's centre of gravity were sensibly
displaced, momentous geological changes would necessarily
ensue. That the centre of gravity does not coincide with the
650
GEOLOGY
[COSMICAL ASPECTS
centre of figure of the globe, but lies to the south of it, has long
been known. This greater aggregation of dense material in the
southern hemisphere probably dates from the early ages of the
earth's consolidation, and it is difficult to believe that any
readjustment of the distribution of this material in the earth's
interior is now possible. But certain rearrangements of the
hydrosphere on the surface of the globe may, from time to time,
cause a shifting of the centre of gravity, which will affect the
level of the ocean. The accumulation of enormous masses of
ice around the pole will give rise to such a displacement, and
will thus increase the body of oceanic water in the glaciated
hemisphere. Various calculations have been made of the effect
of the transference of the ice-cap from one pole to the other, a
revolution which may possibly have occurred more than once
in the past history of the globe. James Croll estimated that if
the mass of ice in the southern hemisphere be assumed to be
looo ft. thick down to lat. 60, its removal to the opposite
hemisphere would raise the level of the sea 80 ft. at the north pole,
while the Rev. Osmond Fisher made the rise as much as 409 ft.
The melting of the ice would still further raise the sea-level by
the addition of so large a volume of water to the ocean. To
what extent superficial changes of this kind have operated in
geological history remains an unsolved problem, but their
probable occurrence in the past has to be recognized as one of
the factors that must be considered in tracing the revolutions of
the earth's surface.
The Age of the Earth. Intimately connected with the relations
of our globe to the sun and the other members of the solar system
is the question of the planet's antiquity a subject of great
geological importance, regarding which much discussion has
taken place since the middle of the ipth century. Though an
account of this discussion necessarily involves allusion to depart-
ments of geology which are more appropriately referred to in
later parts of this article, it may perhaps be most conveniently
included here.
Geologists were for many years in the habit of believing that
no limit could be assigned to the antiquity of the planet, and that
they were at liberty to make unlimited drafts on the ages of the
past. In 1862 and subsequent years, however, Lord Kelvin
(then Sir William Thomson) pointed out that these demands were
opposed to known physical facts, and that the amount of time
required for geological history was not only limited, but must
have been comprised within a comparatively narrow compass.
His argument rested on three kinds of evidence: (i) the internal
heat and rate of cooling of the earth; (2) the tidal retardation
of the earth's rotation; and (s)the origin and age of the sun's
heat.
1. Applying Fourier's theory of thermal conductivity, Lord
Kelvin contended that in the'known rate of increase of tempera-
ture downward and beneath the surface, and the rate of loss
of heat from the earth, we have a limit to the antiquity of the
planet. He showed, from the data available at the time, that
the superficial consolidation of the globe could not have occurred
less than 20 million years ago, or the underground heat would
have been greater than it is; nor more than 400 million years
ago, otherwise the underground temperature would have shown
no sensible increase downwards. He admitted that very wide
limits were necessary. In subsequently discussing the subject,
he inclined rather towards the lower than the higher antiquity,
but concluded that the limit, from a consideration of all the
evidence, must be placed within some such period of past time
as 100 millions of years.
2. The argument from tidal retardation proceeds on the
admitted fact that, owing to the friction of the tide-wave, the
rotation of the earth is retarded, and is, therefore, much slower
now than it must have been at one time. Lord Kelvin affirmed
that had the globe become solid some 10,000 million years ago,
or indeed any high antiquity beyond 100 million years, the
centrifugal force due to the more rapid rotation must have given
the planet a very much greater polar flattening than it actually
possesses. He admitted, however, that, though 100 million
years ago that force must have been about 3 % greater than now,
yet " nothing we know regarding the figure of the earth, and
the disposition of land and water, would justify us in saying
that a body consolidated when there was more' centrifugal
force by 3% than now, might not now be in all respects like
the earth, so far as we know it at present."
3. The third argument, based upon the age of the sun's heat,
is confessedly less to be relied on than the two previous ones.
It proceeds upon calculations as to the amount of heat which
would be available by the falling together of masses from space,
which gave rise by their impact to our sun. The vagueness of
the data on which this argument rests may be inferred from
the fact that in one passage P. G. Tait placed the limit of time
during which the sun has been illuminating the earth as, "on
the very highest computation, not more than about 15 or 20
millions of years "; while, in another sentence of the same
volume, he admitted that, " by calculations in which there is
no possibility of large error, this hypothesis [of the origin of the
sun's heat by the falling together of masses of matter] is
thoroughly competent to explain 100 millions of years' solar
radiation at the present rate, perhaps more." In more recently
reviewing his argument, Lord Kelvin expressed himself in
favour of more strictly limiting geological time than he had at
first been disposed to do. He insists that the time " was more
than 20 and less than 40 millions of years and probably much
nearer 20 than 40." Geologists appear to have reluctantly
brought themselves to believe that perhaps, after all, 100 millions
of years might suffice for the evolution of geological history.
But when the time was cut down to 15 or 20 millions they
protested that such a restricted period was insufficient for that
evolution, and though they did not offer any effective criticism
of the arguments of the physicists they felt convinced that there
must be some flaw in the premises on which these arguments
were based.
By degrees, however, there have arisen among the physicists
themselves grave doubts as to the validity of the physical
evidence on which the limitation of the earth's age has been
founded, and at the same time greater appreciation has been
shown of the signification and stength of the geological proofs
of the high antiquity of our planet. In an address from the
chair of the Mathematical Section of the British Association in
1886, Professor (afterwards Sir) George Darwin reviewed the
controversy, and pronounced the following deliberate judgment
in regard to it: " In considering these three arguments I have
adduced some reasons against the validity of the first [tidal
friction], and have endeavoured to show that there are elements
of uncertainty surrounding the second [secular cooling of the
earth] ; nevertheless, they undoubtedly constitute a contribution
of the first importance to physical geology. Whilst, then, we
may protest against the precision with which Professor Tait
seeks to deduce results from them, we are fully justified in
following Sir William Thomson, who says that ' the existing
state of things on the earth, life on the earth all geological
history showing continuity of life must be limited within some
such period of past time as 100 million years'." Lord Kelvin
has never dealtwith the geological and palaeontological objections
against the limitation of geological time to a few millions of years.
But Professor Darwin, in the address just cited, uttered the
memorable warning: " At present our knowledge of a definite
limit to-.geological time has so little precision that we should do
wrong summarily to reject theories which appear to demand
longer periods of time than those which now appear allowable."
In his presidential address to the British Association at Cape
Town in 1005 he returned to the subject, remarking that the
argument derived from the increase of underground temperature
" seems to be entirely destroyed " by the discovery of the
properties of radium. He thinks that " it does not seem ex-
travagant to suppose that 500 to 1000 million years may have
elapsed since the birth of the moon." He has " always believed
that the geologists were more nearly correct than the physicists,
notwithstanding the fact that appearances were so strongly
against them," and he concludes thus: " It appears, then, that
the physical argument is not susceptible of a greater degree of
COSMICAL ASPECTS]
GEOLOGY
651
certainty than that of the geologists, and the scale of geological
time remains in great measure unknown " (see also TIDE, chap,
viii.).
In an address to the mathematical section of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in i8g, the vice-
president of the section, R. S. Woodward, thus expressed himself
with regard to the physical arguments brought forward by Lord
Kelvin and Professor Tail in limitation of geological time:
" Having been at some pains to look into this matter, I feel
bound to state that, although the hypothesis appears to be the
best which can be formulated at present, the odds are against
its correctness. Its weak links are the unverified assumptions of
an initial uniform temperature and a constant diffusivity. Very
likely these are approximations, but of what order we cannot
decide. Furthermore, if we accept the hypothesis, the odds
appear to be against the present attainment of trustworthy
numerical results, since the data for calculation, obtained
mostly from observations on continental areas, are far too
meagre to give satisfactory average values for the entire mass
of the earth."
Still more emphatic is the protest made from the physical
side by Professor John Perry. He has attacked each of the
three lines of argument of Lord Kelvin, and has impugned the
validity of the conclusions drawn from them. The argument
from tidal retardation he dismisses as fallacious, following in
this contention the previous criticism of the Rev. Maxwell Close
and Sir George Darwin. In dealing with the argument based on
the secular cooling of the earth, he holds it to be perfectly
allowable to assume a much higher conductivity for the interior
of the globe, and that such a reasonable assumption would enable
us greatly to increase our estimate of the earth's antiquity.
As for the third argument, from the age of the sun's heat, he
points out that the sun may have been repeatedly fed by a
supply of meteorites from outside, while the earth may have been
protected from radiation, and been able to retain much of its
beat by being enveloped in a dense atmosphere. Remarking
that " almost anything is possible as to the present internal
state of the earth," he concludes thus: " To sum up, we can
find no published record of any lower maximum age of life on
the earth, as calculated by physicists, than 400 millions of years.
From the three physical arguments Lord Kelvin's higher limits
are toco, 400 and 500 million years. I have shown that we have
reasons for believing that the age, from all these, may be very
considerably underestimated. It is to be observed that if we
exclude everything but the arguments from mere physics, the
probable age of life on the earth is much less than any of the above
estimates; but if the palaeontologists have good reasons for
demanding much greater times, I see nothing from the physicists'
point of view which denies them four times the greatest of these
estimates."
A fresh line of argument against Lord Kelvin's limitation of
the antiquity of our globe has recently been started by the
remarkable discoveries in radio-activity. From the ascertained
properties of radium it appears to be possible that our estimates
of solar heat, as derived from the theory of gravitation, may
have to be augmented ten or twenty times; that stores of
radium and similar bodies within the earth may have in-
definitely deferred the establishment of the present temperature
gradient from the surface inward; that consequently the earth
may have remained for long ages at a temperature not greatly
different from that which it now possesses, and hence that the
times during which our globe has supported animal and vegetable
life may be very much longer than that allowed in the estimates
previously made by physicists from other data (see RADIO-
ACTIVITY).
The arguments from the geological side against the physical
contention that would limit the age of our globe to some 10
or 20 millions of years are mainly based on the observed rates of
geological and biological changes at the present time upon land
and sea, and on the nature, physical history and organic contents
of the stratified crust of the earth. Unfortunately, actual
numerical data are not obtainable in many departments of
geological activity, and even where they can be procured they
do not yet rest on a sufficiently wide collection of accurate and
co-ordinated observations. But in some branches of dynamical
geology, material exists for, at least, a preliminary computation
of the rate of change. This is more especially the case in respect
of the wide domain of denudation. The observational records
of the action of the sea, of springs, rivers and glaciers are becom-
ing gradually fuller and more trustworthy. A method of making
use of these records for estimating the rate of denudation of
the land has been devised. Taking the Mississippi as a general
type of river action, it has been shown that the amount of
material conveyed by this stream into the sea in one year is
equivalent to the lowering of the general surface of the drainage
basin of the river by titn of a foot. This would amount to one
foot in 6000 years and 1000 ft. in 6 million years. So that at
the present rate of waste in the Mississippi basin a whole con-
tinent might be worn away in a few millions of years.
It is evident that as deposition and denudation are simul-
taneous processes, the ascertainment of the rate at which solid
material is removed from the surface of the land supplies some
necessary information for estimating the rate at which new
sedimentary formations are being accumulated on the floor of
the sea, and for a computation of the length of time that would
be required at the present rate of change for the deposition of all
the stratified rocks that enter into the composition of the crust
of our globe. If the thickness of these rocks be assumed to be
100,000 ft., and if we could suppose them to have been laid down
over as wide an area as that of the drainage basins from the
waste of which they were derived, then at the present rate of
denudation their accumulation would require some 600 millions
of years. But, as Dr A. R. Wallace has justly pointed out, the
tract of sea-floor over which the material derived from the waste
of the terrestrial surface is laid down is at present much less than
that from which this material is worn away. We have no means,
however, of determining what may have been the ratio between
the two areas in past time. Certainly ancient marine sedimentary
rocks cover at the present day a much more extensive area than
that in which they are now being elaborated. If we take the
ratio postulated by Dr Wallace i to 19 the 100,000 ft. of
sedimentary strata would require 31 millions of years for their
accumulation. It is quite possible, however, that this ratio may be
much too high. There are reasons for believing that the propor-
tion of coast-line to land area has been diminishing during geo-
logical time; in other words, that in early times the land was
more insular and is now more continental. So that the 31
millions of years may be much less than the period that would be
required, even on the supposition of continuous uninterrupted
denudation and sedimentation, during the whole of the time
represented by the stratified formations.
But no one who has made himself familiar with the actual
composition of these formations and the detailed structure of the
terrestrial crust can fail to recognize how vague, imperfect and
misleading are the data on which such computations are founded.
It requires no prolonged acquaintance with the earth's crust to
impress upon the mind that one all-important element is omitted,
and indeed can hardly be allowed for from want of sufficiently
precise data, but the neglect of which must needs seriously
impair the value of all numerical calculations made without it.
The assumption that the stratified formations can be treated as
if they consisted of a continuous unbroken sequence of sediments,
indicating a vast and uninterrupted process of waste and deposi-
tion, is one that is belied on every hand by the actual structure
of these formations. It can only give us a minimum of the time
required; for, instead of an unbroken series, the sedimentary
formations are full of " unconformabilities " gaps in the
sequence of the chronological records as if whole chapters
and groups of chapters had been torn out of a historical work.
It can often be shown that these breaks of continuity must have
been of vast duration, and actually exceeded in chronological
importance thick groups of strata lying below and above them
(see Part VI.). Moreover, even among the uninterrupted strata,
where no such unconformabilities exist, but where the sediments
652
GEOLOGY
[COSMICAL ASPECTS
follow each other in apparently uninterrupted sequence, and
might be thought to have been deposited continuously at the
same general rate, and without the intervention of any pause, it
can be demonstrated that sometimes an inch or two of sediment
much, on certain horizons, represent the deposit of an enormously
longer period than a hundred or a thousand times the same
amount of sediment on other horizons. A prolonged study of
these questions leads to a profound conviction that in many
parts of the geological record the time represented by sedi-
mentary deposits may be vastly less than the time which is not
so represented.
It has often been objected that the present rate of geological
change ought not to be taken as a measure of the rate in past
time, because the total sum of terrestrial energy has been steadily
diminishing, and geological processes must consequently have
been more vigorous in former ages than they are now. Geo-
logists do not pretend to assert that there has been no variation
or diminution in the activities of the various processes which
they have to study. What they do insist on is that the
present rate of change is the only one which we can watch and
measure, and which will thus supply a statistical basis for any
computations on the subject. But it has been dogmatically
affirmed that because terrestrial energy has been diminishing
therefore all kinds of geological work must have been more
vigorously and more rapidly carried on in former times than
now; that there were far more abundant and more stupendous
volcanoes, more frequent and more destructive earthquakes,
more gigantic upheavals and subsidences, more powerful oceanic
waves and tides, more violent atmospheric disturbances with
heavier rainfall and more active denudation.
It is easy to make these assertions, and they look plausible;
but, after all, they rest on nothing stronger than assumption.
They can be tested by an appeal to the crust of the earth, in
which the geological history of our planet has been so fully re-
corded. Had such portentous manifestations of geological
activity ever been the normal condition of things since the
beginning of that history, there ought to be a record of them in
the rocks. But no evidence for them has been found there,
though it has been diligently sought for in all quarters of the
globe. We may confidently assert that while geological changes
may quite possibly have taken place on a gigantic scale in the
earliest ages of the earth's existence, of which no geological record
remains, there is no proof that they have ever done so since the
time when the very oldest of the stratified formations were
deposited. There is no need to maintain that they have always
been conducted precisely on the same scale as now, or to deny
that they may have gradually become less vigorous as the general
sum of terrestrial energy has diminished. But we may unhesitat-
ingly affirm that no actual evidence of any such progressive
diminution of activity has been adduced from the geological
record in the crust of the earth: that, on the contrary, no appear-
ances have been detected there which necessarily demand the
assumption of those more powerful operations postulated by
physicists, or which are not satisfactorily explicable by reference
to the existing scale of nature's processes.
That this conclusion is warranted even with regard to the innate
energy of the globe itself will be seen if we institute a comparison
between the. more ancient and the more recent manifestations of
that energy. Take, for example, the proofs of gigantic plication,
fracture and displacement within the terrestrial crust. These,
as they have affected the most ancient rocks of Europe, have
been worked out in great detail in the north-west of Scotland.
But they are not essentially different from or on a greater scale
than those which have been proved to have affected the Alps,
and to have involved strata of so recent a date as the older
Tertiary formations. On the contrary, it may be doubted
whether any denuded core of an ancient mountain-chain reveals
traces of such stupendous disturbances of the crust as those
which have given rise to the younger mountain-chains of the
globe. It may, indeed, quite well have been the rule that instead
of diminishing in intensity of effect, the consequences of terres-
trial contraction have increased in magnitude, the augmenting
thickness of the crust offering greater resistance to the stresses,
and giving rise to vaster plications, faults, thrust-planes and
metamorphism, as this growing resistance had to be overcome.
The assertion that volcanic action must have been more
violent and more persistent in ancient times than it is now has
assuredly no geological evidence in its support. It is quite true
that there are vastly more remains of former volcanoes scattered
over the surface of the globe than there are active craters now,
and that traces of copious eruptions of volcanic material can be
followed back into some of the oldest parts of the geological
record. But we have no proof that ever at any one time in
geological history there have been more or larger or more vigorous
volcanoes than those of recent periods. It may be said that the
absence of such proof ought not to invalidate the assertion until
a far wider area of the earth's surface has been geologically
studied. But most assuredly, as far as geological investigation
has yet gone, there is an overwhelming body of evidence to show
that from the earliest epochs in geological history, as registered
in the stratified rocks, volcanic action has manifested itself very
much as it does now, but on a less rather than on a greater scale.
Nowhere can this subject be more exhaustively studied than in
the British Isles, where a remarkably complete series of volcanic
eruptions has been chronicled ranging from the earliest Palaeozoic
down to older Tertiary time. The result of a prolonged study
of British volcanic geology has demonstrated that, even to
minute points of detail, there has been a singular uniformity in
the phenomena from beginning to end. The oldest lavas and
ashes differ in no essential respect from the youngest. Nor have
they been erupted more copiously or more frequently. Many
successive volcanic periods have followed each other after pro-
longed intervals of repose, each displaying the same general
sequence of phenomena and similar evidence of gradual diminu-
tion and extinction. The youngest, instead of being the feeblest,
were the most extensive outbursts in the whole of this prolonged
series.
If now we turn for evidence of the alleged greater activity
of all the epigene or superficial forces, and especially for proofs
of more rapid denudation and deposition on the earth's surface,
we search for it in vain among the stratified formations of the
terrestrial crust. Had the oldest of these rocks been accumulated
in a time of great atmospheric perturbation, of torrential rains,
colossal tides and violent storms, we might surely expect to find
among the sediments some proof of such disturbed meteorological
and geographical conditions. We should look, on the one hand,
for tumultuous accumulations of coarse unworn detritus, rapidly
swept by rains, floods and waves from land to sea, and on the
other hand, for an absence of any evidence of the tranquil and
continuous deposit of such fine laminated silt as could only
settle in quiet water. But an appeal to the geological record
is made in vain for any such proofs. The oldest sediments, like
the youngest, reveal the operation only of such agents and such
rates of activity as are still to be witnessed in the accumulation
of the same kind of deposits. If, for instance, we search the
most ancient thick sedimentary formation in Britain the
Torridon Sandstone of north-west Scotland, which is older than
the oldest fossiliferous deposits we meet with nothing which
might not be found in any Palaeozoic, Mesozoic or Cainozoic
group of similar sediments. We see an accumulation, at least
8000 or 10,000 ft. thick, of consolidated sand, gravel and mud,
such as may be gathering now on the floor of any large mountain-
girdled lake. The conglomerates of this ancient series are not
pell-mell heaps of angular detritus, violently swept away from
the land and huddled promiscuously on the sea-floor. They are,
in general, built up of pebbles that have been worn smooth,
rounded and polished by prolonged attrition in running water,
and they follow each other on successive platforms with inter-
vening layers of finer sediment. The sandstones are composed
of well water-worn sand, some of which has been laid down so
tranquilly that its component grains have been separated out in
layers according to their specific gravity, in such manner that
they now present dark laminae in which particles of magnetic
iron, zircon and other heavy minerals have been sifted out
GEOCNOSY1
GEOLOGY
653
together, just as iron-sand may be seen gathered into thin sheets
on sandy beaches at the present day. Again, the same series
of primeval sediments includes intercalations of fine silt, which
has been deposited as regularly and intermittently there as it
has been among the most recent formations. These bands of
shale have been diligently searched for fossils, as yet without
success; but they may eventually disclose organic remains older
than any hitherto found in Europe.
We now come to the consideration of the palaeontological
evidence as to the value of geological time. Here the conclusions
derived from a study of the structure of the sedimentary forma-
tions are vastly strengthened and extended. In the first place,
the organization of the most ancient plants and animals furnishes
DO indication that they had to contend with any greater violence
of storm, flood, wave or ocean-current than is familiar to their
modern descendants. The oldest trees, shrubs, ferns and
dub- mosses display no special structures that suggest a difference
in the general conditions of their environment. The most
ancient crinoids, sponges, crustaceans, arachnids and molluscs
were as delicately constructed as those of to-day, and their
remains are often found in such perfect preservation as to show
that neither during their lifetime nor after their death were they
subject to any greater violence of the elements than their living
representatives now experience. Of much more cogency,
however, is the evidence supplied by the grand upward succession
of organic forms, from the most ancient stratified rocks up to
the present day. No biologist now doubts for a moment that
this marvellous succession is the result of a gradual process of
evolution from lower to higher types of organization. There
may be differences of opin ion as to the causes which have governed
this process and the order of the steps through which it has
advanced, but no one who is conversant with the facts will now
venture to deny that it has taken place, and that, on any possible
explanation of its progress, it must have demanded an enormous
lapse of time. In the Cambrian or oldest fossilifcrous formations
there is already a large and varied fauna, in which the leading
groups of invertebrate life are represented. On no tenable
hypothesis can these be regarded as the first organisms that
came into being on our planet. They must have had a long
ancestry, and as Darwin first maintained, the time required for
their evolution may have been " as long as, or probably far
longer than, the whole interval from the Silurian [Cambrian]
age to the present day." The records of these earliest eras of
organic development have unfortunately not survived the
geological revolutions of the past; at least, they have not yet
been recovered. But it cannot be doubted that they once
existed and registered their testimony to the prodigious lapse of
time prior to the deposition of the most ancient fossilifcrous
formations which have escaped destruction.
The impressive character of the evidence furnished by the
sequence of organic forms throughout the great series of fossili-
ferous strata can hardly be fully realized without a detailed and
careful study of the subject. Professor E. B. Poulton, in an
address to the zoological section of the British Association at
the Liverpool Meeting in 1896, showed how overwhelming are
the demands which this evidence makes for long periods of time,
and how impossible it is of comprehension unless these demands
be conceded. The history of life upon the earth, though it will
probably always be surrounded with great and even insuperable
difficulties, becomes broadly comprehensible in its general
progress when sufficient time is granted for the evolution
which it records; but it remains unintelligible on any other
conditions.
Taken then as a whole, the body of evidence, geological and
palaeontological, in favour of the high antiquity of our globe
is so great, so manifold, and based on such an ever-increasing
breadth of observation and reflection, that it may be confidently
appealed to in answer to the physical arguments which would
seek to limit that antiquity to ten or twenty millions of years.
In the present state of science it is out of our power to state
positively what must be the lowest limit of the age of the earth.
But we cannot assume it to be much less, and it may possibly
have been much more, than the 100 millions of years which Lord
Kelvin was at one time willing to concede. 1
PART III. GEOGNOSY. THE INVESTIGATION or THE NATURE
AND COMPOSITION OF THE MATERIALS OF WHICH THE
EARTH CONSISTS
This division of the science is devoted to a description cf the
parts of the earth of the atmosphere and ocean that surround
the planet, and more especially of the solid materials that underlie
these envelopes and extend downwards to an unknown distance
into the interior. These various constituents of the globe are
here considered as forms of matter capable of being analysed,
and arranged according to their composition and the place they
take in the general composition of the globe.
Viewed in the simplest way the earth may be regarded as
made up of three distinct parts, each of which ever since an
early period of planetary history has been the theatre of im-
portant geological operations, (i) An envelope of air, termed
the atmosphere, which surrounds the whole globe; (2) A lower
and less extensive envelope of water, known as the hydrosphere
(Gr. B&iip, water) which, constituting the oceans and seas,
covers nearly three-fourths of the underlying solid surface of the
planet; (3) A globe, called the lithosphere (Gr. Mdos, stone),
the external part of which, consisting of solid stone, forms the
crust, while underneath, and forming the vast mass of the
interior, lies the nucleus, regarding the true constitution of
which we are still ignorant.
i. The Atmosphere. The general characters of the atmosphere
are described in separate articles (see especially ATMOSPHERE;
METEOROLOGY). Only its relations to geology have here to be
considered. As this gaseous envelope encircles the whole
globe it is the most universally present and active of all the
agents of geological change. Its efficacy in this respect arises
partly from its composition, and the chemical reactions which
it effects upon the surface of the land, partly from its great
variations in temperature and moisture, and partly from its
movements.
Many speculations have been made regarding the chemical
composition of the atmosphere during former geological periods.
There can indeed be little doubt that it must originally have differed
greatly from its present condition. If the whole mass of the planet
originally existed in a gaseous state, there would be practically no
atmosphere. The present outer envelope of air may be considered
to be the surviving relic of this condition, after all the other con-
stituents have been incorporated into the hydrosphere and litho-
sphere. The oxygen, which now forms fully a half of the outer
crust of the earth, was doubtless originally, whether free or in
combination, part of the atmosphere. So, too, the vast beds of coal
found all over the world, in geological formations of many different
ages, represent so much carbonic acid once present in the air. The
chlorides and other salts in the sea may likewise partly represent
materials carried down out of the atmosphere in the primitive
condensation of the aqueous vapour, though they have been con-
tinually increased ever since by contributions from the drainage of
the land. It has often been suggested that, during the Carboniferous
period, the atmosphere must have been warmer and more charged
with aqueous vapour and carbon dioxide than at the present day,
to admit of so luxuriant a flora as that from which the coal-scams
were formed. There seems, however, to be at present no method
of arriving at any certainty on this subject. Lastly, the amount of
carbonic acid absorbed in the weathering of rocks at the surface, and
the consequent production of carbonates, represents an enormous
abstraction of this gas.
As at present constituted, the atmosphere is regarded as a
1 The subject of the age of the earth has also been discussed by
Professor J. Joly and Professor W. J. Sollas. The former geologist,
approaching the question from a novel point of view, has estimated
the total quantity of sodium in the water of the ocean and the
quantity of that element received annually by the ocean from the
denudation of the land. Dividing the one sum by the other, he
arrives at the result that the probable age of the earth is between
90 and 100 millions of years (Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc. ser. ii. vol. vii.,
1899, p. 23: Geol. Mag., 1900, p. 220). Professor Sollas believes
that this limit exceeds what is required for the evolution of geological
history, that the lower limit assigned by Lord Kelvin falls short of
what the facts demand, and that geological time will probably be
found to have been comprised within some indeterminate period
between these limits. (Address to Section C, Brit. Assoc. Report,
1900; Age of the Earth, London, 1905.)
654
GEOLOGY
[GEOGNOSY
mechanical mixture of nearly four volumes of nitrogen and one of
oxygen, together with an average of 3-5 parts of carbon dioxide in
every 10,000 parts of air, and minute quantities of various other
gases and solid particles. Of the vapours contained in it by far the
most important is that of water which, although always present,
varies greatly in amount according to variations in temperature.
By condensation the water vapour appears in visible form as dew,
mist, cloud, rain, hail, snow and ice, and in these forms includes and
carries down some of the other vapours, gases and solid particles
present in the air. The circulation of water from the atmosphere to
the land, from the land to the sea, and again from the sea to the
land, forms the great geological process whereby the habitable
condition of the planet is maintained and the surface of the land
is sculptured (Part IV.).
2. The Hydrosphere. The water envelope covers nearly
three-fourths of the surface of the earth, and forms the various
oceans and seas which, though for convenience of reference
distinguished by separate names, are all linked together in one
great body. The physical characters of this vast envelope are
discussed in separate articles (see OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY).
Viewed from the geological standpoint, the features of the
sea that specially deserve attention are first the composition of
its waters, and secondly its movements.
Sea-water is distinguished from that of ordinary lakes and rivers
by its greater specific gravity and its saline taste. Its average
density is about 1-026, but it varies even within the same ocean,
being least where large quantities of fresh water are added from
rain or melting snow and ice, and greatest where evaporation is most
active. That sea-water is heavier than fresh arises from the greater
proportion of salts which it contains in solution. These salts con-
stitute about three and a half parts in every hundred of water.
They consist mainly of chlorides of sodium and magnesium, the
sulphates of magnesium, calcium and potassium, with minuter
quantities of magnesium bromide and calcium carbonate. Still
smaller proportions of other substances have been detected, gold for
example having been found in the proportion of I part in 15,180,000.
That many of the salts have existed in the sea from the time of
its first condensation out of the primeval atmosphere appears to
be probable. It is manifest, however, that, whatever may have
been the original composition of the oceans, they have for a vast
section of geological time been constantly receiving mineral matter
in solution from the land. Every spring, brook and river removes
various salts from the rocks over which it moves, and these sub-
stances, thus dissolved, eventually find their way into the sea.
Consequently sea-water ought to contain more or less traceable
proportions of every substance which the terrestrial waters can
remove from the land, in short, of probably every element present
in the outer shelj of the globe, for there seems to be no constituent
of this earth which may not, under certain circumstances, be held
in solution in water. Moreover, unless there be some counteracting
process to remove these mineral ingredients, the ocean water ought
to be growing, insensibly perhaps, but still assuredly, salter, for the
supply of saline matter from the land is incessant.
To the geologist the presence of mineral solutions in sea-water is
a fact of much importance, for it explains the origin of a considerable
part of the stratified rocks of the earth's crust. By evaporation
the water has given rise to deposits of rock-salt, gypsum and other
materials. The lime contained in solution, whether as sulphate or
carbonate, has been extracted by many tribes of marine animals,
which have thus built up out of their remains vast masses of solid
limestone, of which many mountain-chains largely consist.
Another important geological feature of the sea is to be seen
in the fact that its basins form the great receptacles for the detritus
worn away from the land. Besides the limestones, the visible parts
of the terrestrial crust are, in large measure, composed of sedimentary
rocks which were originally laid down on the sea-bottom. More-
over, by its various movements, the sea occupies a prominent place
among the epigene or superficial agents which produce geological
changes on the surface of the globe.
3. The Lithosphere. Beneath the gaseous and liquid envelopes
lies the solid part of the planet, which is conveniently regarded
as consisting of two parts, (a) the crust, and (6) the interior
or nucleus.
It was for a long time a prevalent belief that the interior of the
globe is a molten mass round which an outer shell has gradually
The crust. f rme d through cooling. Hence the term " crust "
was applied to this external solid envelope, which
was variously computed to be 10, 20, or more miles in thickness.
The portion of this crust accessible to human observation was
seen to afford abundant evidence of vast plications and corruga-
tions of its substance, which were regarded as only explicable
on the supposition of a thin solid collapsible shell floating on a
denser liquid interior. When, however, physical arguments
were adduced to show the great rigidity of the earth as a whole,
the idea of a thin crust enclosing a molten nucleus was reluctantly
abandoned by geologists, who found the problem of the earth's
interior to be incapable of solution by any evidence which their
science could produce. They continued, however, to use the
term " crust " as a convenient word to denote the cool outer
layer of the earth's mass, the structure and history of which
form the main subjects of geological investigation. More
recently, however, various lines of research have concurred in
suggesting that, whatever may be the condition of the interior,
its substance must differ greatly from that of the outer shell,
and that there may be more reason than appeared for the
retention of the name of crust. Observations on earthquake
motion by Dr John Milne and others, show that the rate and
character of the waves transmitted through the interior of the
earth differ in a marked degree from those propagated along the
crust. This difference indicates that rocky material, such as
we know at the surface, may extend inwards for some 30 m.,
below which the earth's interior rapidly becomes fairly homo-
geneous and possesses a high rigidity. From measurements
of the force of gravity in India by Colonel S. G. Burrard, it has
been inferred that the variations in density of the outer parts of
the earth do not descend farther than 30 or 40 m., which might
be assumed to be the limit of the thickness of the crust. Recent
researches in regard to the radio-active substances present
in rocks suggest that the crust is not more than 50 m. thick,
and that the interior differs from it in possessing little or no
radio-active material.
Though we cannot hope ever to have direct acquaintance with
more than the mere outside skin of our planet, we may be led
to infer the irregular distribution of materials within
the crust from the present distribution of land and interior.
water, and the observed differences in the amount of
deflection of the plumb-line near the sea and near mountain-
chains. The fact that the southern hemisphere is almost wholly
covered with water appears explicable only on the assumption
of an excess of density in the mass of that portion of the planet.
The existence of such a vast sheet of water as that of the Pacific
Ocean is to be accounted for, as Archdeacon J. H. Pratt pointed
out, by the presence of " some excess of matter in the solid
parts of the earth between the Pacific Ocean and the earth's
centre, which retains the water in its place, otherwise the ocean
would flow away to the other parts of the earth." A deflection
of the plumb-line towards the sea, which has in a number of
cases been observed, indicates that " the density of the crust
beneath the mountains must be less than that below the plains,
and still less than that below the ocean-bed." Apart therefore
from the depression of the earth's surface in which the oceans
lie, we must regard the internal density, whether of crust or
nucleus, to be somewhat irregularly arranged, there being an
excess of heavy materials in the water hemisphere, and beneath
the ocean-beds, as compared with the continental masses.
In our ignorance regarding the chemical constitution of the
nucleus of our planet, an argument has sometimes been based
upon the known fact that the specific gravity of the globe
as a whole is about double that of the crust. This has been
held by some writers to prove that the interior must consist of
much heavier material and is therefore probably metallic. But
the effect of pressure ought to make the density of the nucleus
much higher, even if the interior consisted of matter no heavier
than the crust. That the total density of the planet does not
greatly exceed its observed amount seems only explicable on
the supposition that some antagonistic force counteracts the
effects of pressure. The only force we can suppose capable of so
acting is heat. But comparatively little is yet known regarding
the compression of gases, liquids and solids under such vast
pressures as must exist within the nucleus.
That the interior of the earth possesses a high temperature
is inferred from the evidence of various sources, (i) Volcanoes,
which are openings that constantly, or intermittently, give -out
hot vapours and molten lava from reservoirs beneath the crust.
Besides active volcanoes, it is known that former eruptive vents
GEOLOGY
655
have been abundantly and widely distributed over the globe
from the earliest geological periods down to our own day.
(t) Hot springs are found in many parts of the globe, with
temperatures varying up to the boiling point of water. (3)
From mines, tunnels and deep borings into the earth it has
been ascertained that in all quarters of the globe below the
superficial zone of invariable temperature, there is a progressive
increase of beat towards the interior. The rate of this increase
varies, being influenced, among other causes, by the varying
conductivity of the rocks. But the average appears to be
about i Fahr. for every 50 or 60 ft. of descent, as far down as
observations have extended. Though the increase may not
advance in the same proportion at great depths, the inference
has been confidently drawn that the temperature of the nucleus
must be exceedingly high.
The probable condition of the earth's interior has been a fruit-
ful source of speculation ever since geology came into existence;
but no general agreement has been arrived at on the subject.
Three chief hypotheses have been propounded: (i) that the
nucleus is a molten mass enclosed within a solid shell; (2) that,
save in local vesicular spaces which may be filled with molten
or gaseous material, the globe is solid and rigid to the centre;
(3) that the great body of the nucleus consists of incandescent
vapours and gases, especially vaporous iron, which under the
gigantic pressure within the earth are so compressed as to confer
practical rigidity on the globe as a whole, and that outside this
main part of the nucleus the gases pass into a shell of molten
magma, which, in turn, shades off outwards into the compara-
tively thin, cool solidified crust. Recent seismological observa-
tions have led to the inference that the outer crust, some 30 to
45 m. thick, must rapidly merge into a fairly homogeneous
nucleus which, whatever be its constitution, transmits undulatory
movements through its substance with uniform velocity and is
believed to possess a high rigidity.
The origin of the earth's high internal temperature has been
variously accounted for. Most usually it has been assumed to
be the residue of the original " tracts of fluent heat " out of
which the planet shaped itself into a globe. According to another
supposition the effects of the gradual gravitational compression
of the earth's mass have been the main source of the high
temperature. Recent researches in radio-activity, to which
reference has already been made, have indicated another possible
source of the internal heat in the presence of radium in the
rocks of the crust. This substance has been detected in all
igneous rocks, especially among the granites, in quantity
sufficient, according to the Hon. R. J. Strutt, to account for the
observed temperature-gradient in the crust, and to indicate
that this crust cannot be more than 45 m. thick, otherwise the
outflow of heat would be greater than the amount actually
ascertained. Inside this external crust containing radio-active
substances, it is supposed, as already stated, that the nucleus
consists of some totally different matter containing little or no
radium.
Constitution of the Earth's Crust. As the crust of the earth contains
the " geological record," or stony chronicle from which geology
interprets the history of our globe, it forms the main subject of study
to the geologist. The materials of which this crust consists ate
known as minerals and rocks. From many chemical analyses,
which have been made of these materials, the general chemical
constitution ot, at least, the accessible portion of the crust has been
satisfactorily ascertained. This information becomes of much
importance in speculations regarding the early history of the globe.
Of the elements known to the chemist the great majority form but a
small proportion of the composition of the crust, which is mainly
built up of about twenty of them. Of these by far the most important
are the non-metallic elements oxygen and silicon. The former
forms about 47% and the latter rather more than 28% of the
original crust, so that these two elements make up about three-
fourth* of the whole. Next after them come the metals aluminium
8-16%). iron (4-64). calcium (3-50), magnesium (2-62), sodium
2-63), and potassium (2-35). The other twelve elements included
n the twenty vary in amount from a proportion of 0-41 % in the
case of titanium, to not more than o-oi % of chlorine, fluorine,
chromium, nickel and lithium. The other fifty or more elements
exist in such minute proportions in the crust that, probably, not
one of them amounts to as much as o-oi %, though they include
the useful metals, except iron. Taking the crust, and the external
envelopes of the ocean and the air, we thus perceive that these
outer parts of our planet consist of more than three-fourths of non-
metals and less than one-fourth of metals.
The combinations of the elements which are of most importance
in the constitution of the terrestrial crust consist of oxides. From
the mean of a large number of analyses of the rocks of the lower or
primitive portion of the crust, it has been ascertained that silica
(SiO,) forms almost 60% and alumina (Al,(),) upwards of 15% of
the whole. The other combinations in order of importance are
lime (CaO) 4-90%, magnesia (MgO) 4-36, soda (Na f O) 3-55, ferrous
oxide (FcO) 3-52, potash (KO) 2-80, ferric oxide (Fe t Oi) 2-63, water
(HiO) 1-52, titanium oxide (TiOj) 0-60, phosphoric acid (PiOi)
0-22 ; the other combinations of elements thus form less than I %
of the crust.
These different combinations of the elements enter into further
combinations with each other so as to produce the wide assortment
of simple minerals (see MINERALOGY). Thus, silica and alumina are
combined to form the aluminous silicates, which enter so largely
into the composition of the crust of the earth. The silicates of
magnesia, potash and soda constitute other important families of
minerals. A mass of material composed of one, but more usually
of more than one mineral, is known as a rock. Under this term
geologists are accustomed to class not only solid stone, such as
granite and limestone, but also less coherent materials such as clay,
peat and even loose sand. The accessible portion of the earth's
crust consists of various kinds of rocks, which differ from each other
in structure, composition and origin, and are therefore susceptible
of diverse classifications according to the point of view from which
they are considered. The details of this subject will be found in
the article PETROLOGY.
Classification of Rocks. Various systems of classification of rocks
have been proposed, but none of them is wholly satisfactory. The
most useful arrangement for most purposes of the geologist is one
based on the broad differences between them in regard to their mode
of origin. From this point of view they may be ranged in three
divisions :
I. _In the first place, a large number of rocks may be described
as original or underived, for it is not possible to trace them back to
any earlier source. They belong to the primitive constitution of the
planet, and, as they have all come up from below through the crust,
they serve to show the nature of the material which lies immediately
below the outer parts of that crust. They include the numerous
varieties of lava, which have been poured out in a molten state from
volcanic vents, also a great series of other rocks which, though they
may never have been erupted to the surface, have been forced
upward in a melted condition into the other rocks of the crust and
have solidified there. From their mode of origin this great class of
rocks has been called " igneous " or " eruptive?' As they generally
show no definite internal structure save such as may result from
joints, they have been termed " massive " or " unstratified," to
distinguish them from those of the second division which are
strongly marked out by the presence of a stratified structure. The
igneous rocks present a considerable range of composition. For
the most part they consist mainly of aluminous silicates, some of
them being highly acid compounds with 75% or more of silica*
But they also include highly basic varieties wherein the proportion
of silica ( sinks to 40 %, and where magnesia greatly predominates
over alumina. The textures of igneous rocks likewise comprise a
wide series of varieties. On the one hand, some are completely
vitreous, like obsidian, which is a natural glass. From this extreme
every gradation may be traced through gradual increase of the
products of devitrification, until the mass may become completely
crystalline. Again, some crystalline igneous rocks are so fine in
grain as not to show their component crystals save under the micro-
scope, while in others the texture is so coarse as to present the
component minerals in separate crystals an inch or more in length.
These differences indicate that, at first, the materials of the rock
may have been as completely molten as artificial glass, and that
the crystalline condition has been subsequently developed by cooling,
and the separation of the chemical constituents into definite crystal'
line minerals. Many of the characters of igneous rocks have been
reproduced experimentally by fusing together their minerals, or the
constituents of their minerals, in the proper proportion. But it has
not yet been found possible to imitate the structure of such rocks
as granite. Doubtless these rocks consolidated with extreme
slowness at great depths below the surface, under vast pressures
and probably in the presence of water or water-vapour conditions
which cannot be adequately imitated in a laboratory.
Though the igneous roclcsoccupy extensive areas in some countries,
they nevertheless cover a much smaller part of the whole surface of
the land than is taken up by the second division or stratified rocks.
But they increase in quantity downwards and probably extend
continuously round the globe below the other rocks. This important
scries brings before us the relations of the molten magma within the
earth to the overlying crust and to the outer surface. On the one
hand, it includes the oldest and most deep-seated extravasations
of that magma, which have been brought to light by ruptures and
upheavals of the crust and prolonged denudation. On the other,
it presents to our study the varied outpourings of molten and
fragmentary materials in the discharges of modern and ancient
656
GEOLOGY
[DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY
volcanoes. Between these two extremes of position and age, we
find that the crust has been, as it were, riddled with injections of
the magma from below. These features will be further noticed in
Part V. of this article.
2. The " sedimentary " or " stratified rocks " form by much the
larger part of the dry land of the globe, and they are prolonged to
an unknown distance from the shores under the bed of the sea.
They include those masses of mineral matter which, unlike the
igneous rocks, can be traced back to a definite origin on the surface
of the earth. Three distinct types may be recognized among them :
(a) By far the largest proportion of them consists of different kinds
of sediment derived from the disintegration of pre-existing rocks.
In this " fragmental " group are placed all the varieties of shingle,
gravel, sand, clay and mud, whether these materials remain in a
loose incoherent condition, or have been compacted into solid stone.
(6) Another group consists of materials that have been deposited by
chemical precipitation from solution in water. The white sinter
laid down by calcareous springs is a familiar example on a small
scale. Beds of rock-salt, gypsum and dolomite have, in some
regions, been accumulated to a thickness of many thousand feet,
by successive precipitations of the salt contained in the water of
inland seas, (c) An abundant and highly important series of sedi-
mentary formations has been formed from the remains of plants and
animals. Such accumulations may arise either from the transport
and deposit of these remains, as in the case of sheets of drift-wood,
and banks of drifted sea-shells, or from the growth and decay of
the organisms on the spot, as happens in peat bogs and in coral-
reefs.
As the sedimentary rocks have for the most part been laid down
under water, and more especially on the sea-floor, they are often
spoken of as " aqueous," in contradistinction to the igneous rocks.
Some of them, however, are accumulated by the drifting action of
wind upon loose materials, and are known as " aeolian " formations.
Familiar instances of such wind-formed deposits are the sand-dunes
along many parts of the sea coast. Much more extensive in area are
the sands of the great deserts in the arid regions of the globe.
It is from the sedimentary rocks that the main portion of geological
history is derived. They have been deposited one over another
in successive strata from a remote period in the development of
the globe down to the present time. From this arrangement they
have been termed " stratified," in contrast to the unstratified or
igneous series. They have preserved memorials of the geographical
revolutions which the surface of the earth has undergone; and
above all, in the abundant fossils which they have enclosed, they
furnish a momentous record of the various tribes of plants and
animals which have successively flourished on land and sea. Their
investigation is thus the most important task which devolves upon
the geologist.
3. In the third place comes a series of rocks which are not now
in their original condition, but have undergone such alteration as
to have acquired new characters that more or less conceal their
first structures. Some of them can be readily recognized as altered
igneous masses; others are as manifestly of sedimentary origin;
while of many it is difficult to decide what may have been their
pristine character. To this series the term " metamorphic " has
been applied. Its members are specially distinguished by a prevailing
fissile, or schistose, structure which they did not at first possess, and
which differs from anything found in unaltered igneousor sedimentary
rocks. This fissility is combined with a more or less pronounced
crystalline structure. These changes are believed to be the result
of movements within the crust of the earth, whereby the most solid
rocks were crushed and sheared, while, at the same time, under the
influence of a high temperature and the presence of water, they
underwent internal chemical reactions, which led to a rearrangement
and recomposition of their mineral constituents and the production
of a crystalline structure (see METAMORPHISM).
Among the less altered metamorphic rocks of sedimentary origin,
the successive laminae of deposit of the original sediment can be
easily observed; but they are also traversed by a new set of divi-
sional planes, along which they split across the original bedding.
Together with this superinduced cleavage there have been developed
in them minute hairs, scales and rudimentary crystals. Further
stages of alteration are marked by the increase of micaceous scales,
garnets and other minerals, especially along the planes of cleavage,
until the whole rock becomes crystalline, and displays its chief
component minerals in successive discontinuous folia which merge
into each other, and are often crumpled and puckered. Massive
igneous rocks can be observed to have undergone intense crushing
and cleavage, and to have ultimately assumed a crystalline foliated
character. Rocks which present this aspect are known as schists
(?..). They range from the finest silky slates, or phyllites, up to the
coarsest gneisses, which in hand-specimens can hardly be distin-
guished from granites. There is indeed every reason to believe
that such gneisses were probably originally true granites, and that
their foliation and recrystallization have been the result of meta-
morphism.
The schists are more especially to be found in the heart of
mountain-chains, and in regions where the lowest and oldest parts
of the earth's crust have, in the course of geological revolutions,
been exposed to the light of day. They have been claimed by some
writers to be part of the original or primitive surface of our globe
that first consolidated on the molten nucleus. But the progress of
investigation all over the world has shown that this supposition
cannot be sustained. The oldest known rocks present none of the
characters of molten material that has cooled and hardened in the
air, like the various forms of recent lava. On the contrary, they
possess many of the features characteristic of bodies of eruptive
material that have been injected into the crust at some depth under-
ground, and are now visible at the surface, owing to the removal
by denudation of the rocks under which they consolidated. In their
less foliated portions they can be recognized as true eruptive rocks.
In many places gneisses that possess a thoroughly typical foliation
have been found to pierceancient sedimentary formations as intrusive
bosses and veins.
PART IV. DYNAMICAL GEOLOGY
This section of the science includes the investigation of those
processes of change which are at present in progress upon the
earth, whereby modifications are made on the structure and
composition of the crust, on the relations between the interior
and the surface, as shown by volcanoes, earthquakes and other
terrestrial disturbances, on the distribution of oceans and
continents, on the outlines of the land, on the form and depth
of the sea-bottom, on climate, and on the races of plants and
animals by which the earth is tenanted. It brings before us,
in short, the whole range of activities which it is the province of
geology to study, and leads us to precise notions regarding their
relations to each other and the results which they achieve. A
knowledge of this branch of the subject is thus the essential
groundwork of a true and fruitful acquaintance with the principles
of geology, seeing that it necessitates a study of the present order
of nature, and thus provides a key for the interpretation of the
past.
The whole range of operations included within the scope of
inquiry in this branch of the science may be regarded as a vast
cycle of change, into which we may break at any point; and
round which we may travel, only to find ourselves brought
back to our starting-point. It is a matter of comparatively
small moment at what part of the cycle we begin our inquiries.
We shall always find that the changes we see in action have
resulted from some that preceded, and give place to others
which follow them.
At an early time in the earth's history, anterior to any of the
periods of which a record remains in the visible rocks, the chief
sources of geological action probably lay within the earth itself.
If, as is generally supposed, the planet still retained a great
store of its initial heat, it was doubtless the theatre of great
chemical changes, giving rise, perhaps, to manifestations of
volcanic energy somewhat like those which have so marvellously
roughened the surface of the moon. As the outer layers of the
globe cooled, and the disturbances due to internal heat and
chemical action became less marked, the conditions would
arise in which the materials for geological history were accumu-
lated. The influence of the sun, which must always have
operated, would then stand out more clearly, giving rise to that
wide circle of superficial changes wherein variations of tempera-
ture and the circulation of air and water over the surface of the
earth come into play.
In the pursuit of his inquiries into the past history and into
the present regime of the earth, the geologist must needs keep
his mind ever open to the reception of evidence for kinds
and especially for degrees of action which he had not before
imagined. Human experience has been too short to allow him
to assume that all the causes and modes of geological change
have been definitively ascertained. On the earth itself there may
remain for future discovery evidence of former operations by
heat, magnetism, chemical change or otherwise, which may
explain many of the phenomena with which geology has to deal.
Of the influences, so many and profound, which the sun exerts
upon our planet, we can as yet only perceive a little. Nor can
we tell what other cosmical influences may have lent their aid in
the evolution of geological changes.
Much useful information regarding many geological processes
has been obtained from experimental research in laboratories
and elsewhere, and much more may be confidently looked for
HYPOCENE ACTION]
GEOLOGY
657
from future extensions of this method of inquiry. The early
experiments of Sir James Hall, already noticed, formed the
starting-point for numerous subsequent researches, which have
elucidated many points in the origin and history of rocks. It
is true that we cannot hope to imitate those operations of nature
which demand enormous pressures and excessively high tempera-
tures combined with a long lapse of time. But experience
has shown that in regard to a large number of processes, it is
possible to imitate nature's working with sufficient accuracy
to enable us to understand them, and so to modify and control
the results as to obtain a satisfactory solution of some geological
problems.
In the present state of our knowledge, all the geological
energy upon and within the earth must ultimately be traced
back to the primeval energy of the parent nebula or sun. There
is, however, a certain propriety and convenience in distinguishing
between that part of it which is due to the survival of some of
the original energy of the planet and that part which arises
from the present supply of energy received day by day from the
sun. In the former case we have to deal with the interior of
the earth, and its reaction upon the surface; in the latter, we
deal with the surface of the earth and to some extent with its
reaction on the interior. This distinction allows of a broad
treatment of the subject under two divisions:
I. Hypogene or Plutonic Action: The changes within the
earth caused by internal heat, mechanical movement and
chemical rearrangements.
II. Epigene or Surface Action: The changes produced on the
superficial parts of the earth, chiefly by the circulation of air
and water set in motion by the sun's heat.
DIVISION I HYPOCENE OR PLUTONIC ACTION
In the discussion of this branch of the subject we must carry
in our minds the conception of a globe still possessing a high
internal temperature, radiating heat into space and consequently
contracting in bulk. Portions of molten rocks from inside are
from time to time poured out at the surface. Sudden shocks
are generated by which destructive earthquakes are propagated
through the diameter of the globe as well as to and along
its surface. Wide geographical areas are pushed up or sink
down. In the midst of these movements remarkable changes
are produced upon the rocks of the crust; they are plicated,
fractured, crushed, rendered crystalline and even fused.
(A) Volcanoes and Volcanic Action.
Th'a subject is discussed in the article VOLCANO, and only a
general view of it* main features will be given here. Under the term
volcanic action (vulcanism. vulcanicity) are embraced all the
phenomena connected with the expulsion of heated materials from
the interior of the earth to the surface. A volcano may be defined
as a conical hill or mountain, built up wholly or mainly of materials
which have been ejected from below, and which have accumulated
around the central vent of eruption. As a rule its truncated summit
presents a cup-shaped cavity, termed the crater, at the bottom of
which is the opening of the main funnel or pipe whereby com-
munication is maintained with the heated interior. From time to
time, however, in large volcanoes rent* are formed on the sides of
the cone, whence steam and other hot vapours and also streams of
molten lava are poured forth. On such rents smaller or parasitic
cone* are often formed, which imitate the operations of the parent
cone and, after repeated eruptions, may rise to hills hundreds of
feet in height. In course of centuries the result of the constant
outpouring of volcanic material* may be to bnild up a large mountain
like Etna, which tower* above the sea to a height of 10,840 feet, and
has some 200 minor cone* along its flank*.
But all volcanic eruption* do not proceed from central orifices.
In Iceland it ha* been observed that, from fissure* opened in the
ground and extending for long distances, molten material has issued
in such abundance a* to be spread over the surrounding country
for many miles, while along the line* of fissure small cones or hillocks
of fragmentary material have accumulated round- more active parts
of the rent. There is reason to believe that in the geological past
thi* future-type of eruption ha* repeatedly been developed, a* well
a* the more common form of central cones like Vesuvius or Etna.
In the operations of existing volcanoes only the superficial mani-
festation* of volcanic action are observable. But when the rocks of
the earth'* crust are studied, they are found to enclose the relics
of former volcanic eruption*. The root* of ancient volcanoes have
thu* been laid bare by geological revolution*; and some of the
subterranean phases of volcanic action are thereby revealed which
arc wholly concealed in an active volcano. Hence to obtain as
complete a conception as possible of the nature and history of
volcanic action, regard must be had, not merely to modern volcanoes,
but to the records of ancient eruptions which have been preserved
within the crust.
The substances discharged from volcanic vents consist of (l)
Gases and vapours: which, dissolved in the molten magma of the
interior, take the chief share in volcanic activity. They include
in greatest abundance water-gas, which condenses into the clouds
of steam so conspicuous in volcanic eruptions. Hydrochloric acid
and sulphuretted hydrogen arc likewise plentiful, together with
many other substances which, sublimed by the high internal tem-
perature, take a solid form on cooling at the surface, (a) Molten
rock or lava: which ranges from the extremely acid type of the
obsidians and rhyolites with 70 % or more of silica, to the more basic
and heavy varieties such as basalts and leucitc-lavas with much iron,
and sometimes no more than 45% of silica. The specific gravity
of lavas varies between 2-37 and 3-22, and the texture ranges from
nearly pure glass, like obsidian, to a coarse granitoid compound,
as in some rhyolites. (3) Fragmentary materials, which are sometimes
discharged in enormous quantity and dispersed over a wide extent
of country, the finer particles being transported by upper air-currents
for hundreds of miles. These materials arise either from the explosion
of lava by the sudden expansion of the dissolved vapours and gases,
as the molten rock rises to the surface, or from the breaking up and
expulsion of portions of the walls of the vent, or of the lava, which
happens to have solidified within these walls. They vary from the
finest impalpable dust and ashes, through increasing stages of
coarseness up to huge " bombs " torn from the upper surface of the
molten rock in the vent, and large blocks of already solidified lava,
or of non-volcanic rock detached from the sides of the pipe up which
the eruptions take place.
Nothing is yet known as to the determining cause of any particular
volcanic eruption. Some vents, like that of Stromboli, in the
Mediterranean, are continually active, and have been so ever since
man has observed them. Others again have been only intermittently
in eruption, with intervals of centuries between their periods of
activity. We are equally in the dark as to what has determined
the sites on which volcanic action has manifested itself. There is
reason, indeed, to believe that extensive fractures of the terrestrial
crust have often provided passages up which the vapours, imprisoned
in the internal magma, have been able to make their way, accom-
panied by other products. Where chains of volcanoes rise along
definite lines, like those of Sumatra, Java, and many other tracts
both in the Old and the New World, there appears to be little doubt
that their linear distribution should be attributed to this cause.
But where a volcano has appeared by itself, in a region previously
exempt from volcanic action, the existence of a contributing fissure
cannot be so confidently presumed. The study of certain ancient
volcanoes, the roots of which have been exposed by long denudation,
has shown an absence of any visible trace of their having availed
themselves of fractures in the crust. The inference has been drawn
that volcanic energy is capable of itself drilling an orifice through the
crust, probably at some weaker part, and ejecting its products at
the surface. The source of this energy is to be sought in the enormous
expansive force of the vapours and gases dissolved in the magma.
They are kept in solution by the enormous pressure within the earth ;
but as the lava approaches the surface and this pressure is relieved
these dissolved vapours and gases rush out with explosive violence,
blowing the upper part of the lava column into dust, and allowing
portions of the liquid mass below to rise and escape, either from the
crater or from some fissure which the vigour of explosion has opened
on the side of the cone. So gigantic is the energy of these pent-up
vapours, that, after a long period of volcanic quiescence, they
sometimes burst forth with such violence as to blow off the whole of
the upper part or even one side of a large cone. The history of
Vesuvius, and the great eruptions of Krakatoa in 1883 and of
Bandaizan in 1888 furnish memorable examples of great volcanic
convulsions. It has been observed that such stupendous discharges
of aeriform and fragmentary matter may be attended with the
emission of little or no lava. On the other hand, some of the largest
outflows of lava have been accompanied by comparatively little
fragmentary material. Thus, the great lava-floods of Iceland in
1783 spread for 40 m. away from their parent fissure, which was
marked only by a line of little cones of slag.
The temperature of lava as it issues from underground has been
measured more or less satisfactorily, and affords an indication of
that existing within the earth. At Vesuvius it has been ascertained
to be more than 2000 Fahr. At first the molten rock glows with a
white light, which rapidly reddens, and disappears under the rugged
brown and black crust that forms on the surface. Underneath this
badly conducting crust, the lava cools so slowly that columns of
steam have been noticed rising from its surface more than 80 years
after its eruption.
Considerable alteration in the topography of volcanic regions
may be produced by successive eruptions. The fragmentary
materials are sometimes discharged in such abundance as to cover
the ground for many miles around with a deposit of loose ashes,
cinders and slag. Such a deposit accumulating to a depth of many
658
GEOLOGY
[HYPOGENE ACTION
feet may completely bury valleys and water-courses, and thus
greatly affect the drainage. The coarsest materials accumulate
nearest to the vent that emits them. The finer dust is not infre-
quently hurled forth with such an impetus as to be carried for
thousands of feet into the tracks of upper air-currents, whereby it
may be borne for hundreds of miles away from the vent so as ulti-
mately to fall to the ground in countries far removed from any active
volcano. Outflows of lava, from their greater solidityand durability,
produce still more serious and lasting changes in the external features
of the ground over which they flow. As they naturally seek the
lowest levels, they find their way into the channels of streams.
If they keep along the channels, they seal them up under a mass of
compact stone which the running water, if not wholly diverted
elsewhere, will take many long centuries to cut through. If, on the
other hand, the lava crosses a stream, it forms a massive dam,
above which the water is ponded back so as to form a lake.
As the result of prolonged activity a volcanic cone is gradually
built up by successive outflows of lava and showers of dust and
stones. These materials are arranged in beds, or sheets, inclined
outwards from the central vent. On surrounding level ground the
alternating beds are flat. In course of time, deep gullies are cut on
the outer slopes of the cone by rain, and by the heavy showers that
arise from the condensation of the copious discharges of steam
during eruptions. Along the sides of these ravines instructive
sections may be studied of the volcanic strata. The larger rivers of
some volcanic regions have likewise eroded vast gorges in the more
horizontal lavas and ashes of the flatter country, and have thus laid
bare stupendous cliffs, along which the successive volcanic sheets
can be seen piled above each other for many hundred feet. On a
small scale, some of these features are well displayed among the
rivers that drain the volcanic tracts of central France; on a great
scale, they are presented in the course of the Snake river, and other
streams that traverse the great volcanic country of western North
America. Similar volcanic scenery has been produced in western
Europe by the action of denudation in dissecting the flat Tertiary
lavas of Scotland, the Faeroe Isles and Iceland.
Of special interest to the geologist are those volcanoes which have
taken their rise on the sea-bottom; for the volcanic intercalations
among the stratified formations of the earth's crust are almost
entirely of submarine origin. Many active volcanoes situated on
islands have begun their eruptions below sea-level. Both Vesuvius
and Etna sprang up on the floor of the Mediterranean sea, and have
gradually built up their cones into conspicuous parts of the dry land.
Examples of a similar history are to be found among the volcanic
islands of the Pacific Ocean. In some of these cases a movement
of elevation has carried the submarine lavas, tuffs and agglomerates
above sea-level, and has furnished opportunities of comparing these
materials with those of recent subaerial origin, and also with the
ancient records of submarine eruptions which have been preserved
among the stratified formations. From the evidence thus supplied,
it can be shown that the materials ejected from modern submarine
volcanic vents closely resemble those accumulated by subaerial
volcanoes; that the dust, ashes and stones become intermingled or
interstratified with coral-mud, or other non-volcanic deposit of the
sea-bottom, that vesicular lavas may be intercalated among them
as on land, and that between the successive sheets of volcanic
origin, layers of limestone may be laid down which are composed
chiefly, or wholly, of the remains of calcareous marine organisms.
Though active volcanoes are widely distributed over the globe,
and are especially abundant around the vast basin of the Pacific
Ocean, they afford an incomplete picture of the extent to which
volcanic action has displayed itself on the surface of our planet.
When the rocks of the land are attentively studied they disclose
proofs of that action in many districts where there is now no outward
sign of it. Not only so, but they reveal that volcanoes have been in
eruption in some of these districts during many different periods of
the past, back to the beginnings of geological history. The British
Islands furnish a remarkable example of such a series of ancient
eruptions. From the Cambrian period all through Palaeozoic times
there rose at intervals in that country a succession of volcanic centres
from some of which thousands of feet of lavas and tuffs were dis-
charged. Again in older Tertiary times the same region witnessed
a stupendous outpouring of basalt, the surviving relics of which
are more than 3000 ft. thick, and cover many hundreds of square
miles. Similar evidence is supplied in other countries both in the
Old and the New world. Hence it is proved that, in the geological
past, volcanic action has been vigorous at long intervals on the same
sites during a vast series of ages, though no active vents are to be
seen there now. The volcanoes now active form but a small pro-
portion of the total number which has appeared on the surface of
the earth.
With regard to the cause of volcanic action much has been
speculated, but little can be confidently affirmed. That water in
the form of occluded gas plays the chief part in forcing the lava
column up a volcanic chimney, and in the violent explosions that
accompany the rise of the molten material, is generally admitted.
But opinions differ as to the source of this water. According to
some investigators, it should be regarded as in large measure of
meteoric origin, derived from the descent of rain into the earth, and
its absorption by the molten magma in the interior. Others, con-
tending that the supply so furnished, even if it could reach and be
dissolved in the magma, would yet be insufficient to furnish the
prodigious quantity of aqueous vapour discharged during an eruption,
maintain that the water belongs to the magma itself. They point
to the admitted fact that many substances, particularly metals in
a state of fusion, can absorb large quantities of vapours and gases
without chemical combination, and on cooling discharge them with
eruptive phenomena somewhat like those of volcanoes. This
question must be regarded as one of the still unsolved problems of
geology.
(B) Movements of the Earth's Crust.
Among the hypogene forces in geological dynamics an important
place must be assigned to movements of the terrestrial crust. Though
the expression " the solid earth " has become proverbial, it appears
singularly inappropriate in the light of the results obtained in recent
years by the use of delicate instruments of observation. With the
facilities supplied by these instruments (see SEISMOMETER), it has
been ascertained that the ground beneath our feet is subject to
continual slight tremors, and feeLle pulsations of longer duration,
some of which may be due to daily or seasonal variations of tem-
perature, atmospheric pressure or other meteorological causes.
The establishment of self-recording seismometers all over the world
has led to the detection of many otherwise imperceptible shocks,
over and above the appreciable earth-waves propagated from earth-
quake centres of disturbance. Moreover, it has been ascertained
that some parts of the surface of the land are slowly rising, while
others are falling with reference to the sea-level. From time to
time the surface suffers calamitous devastation from earthquakes,
when portions of the crust under great strain suddenly give way.
Lastly, at intervals, probably separated from each other by vast
periods of time, the terrestrial crust undergoes intense plication
and fracture, and is consequently ridged up into mountain-chains.
No event of this kind has been witnessed since man began to record
his experiences. But from the structure of mountains, as laid ooen
by prolonged denudation, it is possible to form a vivid conception
of the nature and effects of these most stupendous of all geological
revolutions.
In considering this department of geological inquiry it will be
convenient to treat it under the following heads: (l) Slow depres-
sion and upheaval; (2) Earthquakes; (3) Mountain-making; (4)
Metamorphism of rocks.
i. Slow Depression and Upheaval. On the west side of Japan
the land is believed to be sinking below the sea, for fields are replaced
by beaches of sand or shingle, while the depth of the sea offshore
has perceptibly increased. A subsidence of the south of Sweden has
taken place in comparatively recent times, for streets and foundations
of houses at successive levels are found below high-water mark.
The west coast of Greenland over an extent of more than 600 m.
is sinking, and old settlements are now submerged. Proofs of
submergence of land are furnished by " submerged forests," and
beds of terrestrial peat now lying at various depths below the level
of the sea, of which many examples have been collected along the
shores of the British Isles, Holland and France. Interesting evidence
that the west of Europe now stands at a lower level than it did at a
late geological period is supplied in the charts of the North Sea and
Atlantic, which show that the valleys of the land are prolonged
under the sea. These valleys have been eroded out of the rocks by
the streams which flow in them, and the depth of their submerged
portions below the sea level affords an indication of the extent of the
subsidence.
The uprise of land has been detected in various parts of the world.
One of the most celebrated instances is that of the shores of the Gulf
of Bothnia, where, at Stockholm, the elevation, between the years
1774 and 1875, appears to have been 48 centimetres (i8J in.) in
a century. But on the west side of Sweden, fronting the Skager Rak,
the coast, between the years 1820 and 1870, rose 30 centimetres,
which is at the rate of 60 centimetres, or nearly 2 ft. in a century.
In the region of the Great Lakes in the interior of Canada and the
United States it has been ascertained that the land is undergoing a
slow tilt towards the south-west, of which the mean rate appears to
be rather less than 6 in. in a century. If this rate of change should
continue the waters of Lake Michigan, owing to the progress of the
tilt, will, in some 500 or 600 years, submerge the city of Chicago,
and eventually the drainage of the lakes will be diverted into the
basin of the Mississippi. Proof of recent emergence of landissupplied
by what are called " raised beaches " or " strand-lines," that is,
lines of former shores marked by sheets of littoral deposits, or
platforms cut by shore-waves in rock and flanked by old sea-cliffs
and lines of sea-worn caves. Admirable examples of these features
are to be seen along the west coast of Europe from the south of
England to the north of Norway. These lines of old shores become
fainter in proportion to their antiquity. In Britain they occur at
various heights, the platforms at 25, 50 and 100 ft. being well
marked.
The cause of these slow upward and downward movements of the
crust of the earth is still imperfectly understood. Upheaval might
conceivably be produced by an ascent of the internal magma, and the
consequent expansion of the overlying crust by heat ; while depres-
sion might follow any subsidence of the magma, or its displacement
EPICENE ACTION]
GEOLOGY
659
to another district. If. M it generally believed, the globe is still
contracting, the shrinkage o( the surface may cause both these
movements. Subsidence will be in excess, but between subsiding
tracts lateral thrust may suffice to push upward intervening more
solid and stable ground ; but no solution of the problem yet proposed
is wholly satisfactory.
i. Earlkqtulus. As this subject is discussed in a separate article
it will be sufficient here to take note of its more important geological
bearings. It was for many centuries taken for granted that earth-
quakes and volcanoes are due to a common cause. We have seen
that in classical antiquity they were looked on as the results of the
movements of wind imprisoned within the earth. Long after this
notion was discarded, and a more scientific appreciation of volcanic
action was reached, it was still thought that earthquakes should be
regarded as manifestations of the same source of energy as that
which displays itself in volcanic eruptions. It is true that earth-
quake* are frequent in districts of active volcanoes, and they may
undoubtedly be often due there to the explosions of the magma,
or to the rupture of rock* caused by its ascent towards the surface.
But such shocks are comparatively local in their range and feeble
in their effects. There is now a general agreement that between the
great world-shaking earthquakes and volcanic phenomena, no
immediate and intimate relationship can be traced, though they may
be connected in ways which are not yet perceived. Some of the
more recent great earthquakes on land have proved that the waves
of shock are produced by the sudden rupture or collapse of rocks
under great strain, cither along lines of previous fracture or of new
rents in the terrestrial crust ; and that such ruptures may occur at
* remote distance from any volcano. Thus the recent disastrous
San Francisco earthquake has been recognized to have resulted from
a slipping of ground along the line of an old fault, which has been
traced for a \ong distance in California generally parallel to the
coast. The position of this fault at the surface has long been clearly
followed by its characteristic topography. After the earthquake
these superficial features were found to have been removed by the
same cause that had originated them. For some 300 m. on the track
of this old fault-line a renewed slipping was seen to have taken place
long one or both sides, and the ground at the surface was ruptured
as well as displaced horizontally. Obviously, the jar occasioned by
the sudden and simultaneous subsidence of a portion of the earth s
crust several hundred miles long, must be far more serious than
could be produced by an earthquake radiating from a single local
volcanic focus.
From their disastrous effects on buildings and human lives, an
exaggerated importance has been imputed to earthquakes as agents
of geological change. Experience snows that even after a severe
shock which may have destroyed numerous towns and villages,
together with thousands of their inhabitants, the face of the country
has suffered scarcely any perceptible change, and that, in the course
of year or two, when the ruined houses and prostrate trees have
been cleared away, little or no obvious trace of the catastrophe may
remain. Among the more enduring records of a great earthquake
may be enumerated (a) landslips, which lay bare hillsides, and some-
times pond back the drainage of valleys so as to give rise to lakes;
(6) alterations of the topography, as in Assuring of the ground, or in
the production of inequalities whereby the drainage is affected;
new valleys and new lakes may thus be formed, while previously
existing lakes may be emptied; (c) permanent changes of level,
either in an upward or downward direction.
3. Mountain-mating. This subject may be referred to here for
the striking evidence which it supplies of the importance of move-
ments of the earth's crust among geological processes. The structure
of a great mountain-chain such as the Alps proves that the crust
of the earth has been intensely plicated, crumpled and fractured.
Vast pile* of sedimentary strata nave been folded to such an extent
as to occupy now only half of their original horizontal extent. This
compression in the case of the Alps has been computed to amount
to as much as 120,000 metres or 74 English miles, so that two points
on the opposite side* of that chain have been brought by so much
nearer to each other than they were originally before the movements.
Beside* such intense plication, extensive rupturing of the crust has
taken place in the same range of mountains. Not only have the
most ancient rocks been squeezed up into the central axis of the
chain, but huge slices of them have been torn away from the main
body, and thrust forward for many miles, so .as now actually to
form the summits of mountains, which are almost entirely composed
of much younger formations. If these colossal disturbances occurred
rapidly, they would give rise to cataclysms of inconceivable
magnitude over the surface of the globe. No record has been dis-
covered of tuch accompanying devastation. But whether sudden
and violent, or prolonged and gradual, such stupendous upturning*
of the crust did undoubtedly take place, as is clearly revealed in
innumerable natural sections, which have been laid open by the
denudation of the crests and sides of the mountains.
4. tlttamorphitm of Rocks (see METAMORPHISM). During the
movements to which the crust of the earth has been subject, not
only have the rocks been folded and fractured, but they have like-
wise, in many regions, acquired new internal structures, and have
thus undergone a process of " regional metamorphism." This
rearrangement of their substance has been governed by conditions
which arc probably not yet all recognized, but among them we should
doubtless include a high temperature, intense pressure, mechanical
movement resulting in crushing, shearing and foliation, and the
presence of water in their pores. It is among; igneous rocks that the
progressive stages of metamorphism can be most easily traced.
Their definite original structure and mineral composition afford a
starting-point from which the investigation may be begun and
pursued. Where an igneous rock has been invaded by metamorphic
changes, it may be observed to have been first broken down into
separate lenticlcs, the cores of which may still retain, with little or
no alteration, the original characteristic minerals and crystalline
structure of the rock. Between these Icnticles, the intervening
portions have been crushed down into a powder or paste, which
seems to have been squeezed round and past them, and shows a
laminated arrangement that resembles the flow-structure in lavas.
As the degree of metamorphism increases, the lenticlcs diminish in
size, and the intervening crushed and foliated matrix increases in
amount, until at last it may form the entire mass of the rock. While
the original minerals are thus broken down, new varieties make
their appearance. Of these, among the earliest to present themselves
are usually the micas, that impart their characteristic silvery sheen
to the surfaces of the folia alone which they spread. Younger
felspars, as well as mica, are developed, and there arise also silli-
in. mil. , garnet, andalusite and many others. The texture becomes
more coarsely crystalline, and the segregation of the constituent
minerals more definite along the lines of foliation. From the finest
silky phyllites a graduation may be traced through successively
coarser mica-schists, until we reach the almost granitic texture of
the coarsest gneisses.
Regional metamorphism has arisen in the heart of mountain-
chains, and in any other district where the deformation of the crust
has been sufficiently intense. There is another type of alteration
termed "_contact-metamorphism," which is developed around
masses of igneous rock, especially where these have been intruded in
large bosses among stratified formations. It is particularly displayed
around masses of granite, where sandstones are found altered into
c|ii.iri/iic, shales and grits into schistose compounds, and where some-
times fossils are still recognizable among the metamorphic minerals.
DIVISION II. EPICENE OR SUPERFICIAL ACTION
It is on the surface of the globe, and by the operation of agents
working there, that at present the chief amount of visible geo-
logical change is effected. In considering this branch of inquiry,
we are not involved in a preliminary difficulty regarding the very
nature of the agencies as is the case in the investigation of
plutonic action. On the contrary, the surface agents are carrying
on their work under our very eyes. We can watch it in all its
stages, measure its progress, and mark in many ways how
accurately it represents similar changes which, for long ages
previously, must have been effected by the same means. But
in the systematic treatment of this subject we encounter a
difficulty of another kind. We discover that while the operations
to be discussed are numerous and readily observable, they are so
interwoven into one great network that any separation of them
under different subdivisions is sure to be more or less artificial
and to convey an erroneous impression. While, therefore, under
the unavoidable necessity of making use of such a classification
of subjects, we must always bear in mind that it is employed
merely for convenience, and that in nature superficial geological
action must be continually viewed as a whole, since the work of
each agent has constant reference to that of the others, and is
not properly intelligible unless that connexion be kept in view.
The movements of the air; the evaporation from land and
sea; the fall of rain, hail and snow; the flow of rivers and
glaciers; the tides, currents and waves of the ocean; the growth
and decay of organized existence, alike on land and in the depths
of the sea; in short, the whole circle of movement, which is
continually in progress upon the surface of our planet, are the
subjects now to be examined. It is desirable to adopt some
general term to embrace the whole of this range of inquiry. For
this end the word epigene (Gr. M, upon) has been suggested as
a convenient term, and antithetical to hypogene (Gr. wr6, under),
or subterranean action.
A simple arrangement of this part of Geological Dynamics is
in three sections:
A. Air. The influence of the atmosphere in destroying and
forming rocks.
B. Water. The geological functions of the circulation of
water through the air and between sea and land, and the
action of the sea.
66o
GEOLOGY
[EPICENE ACTION
C. Life. The part taken by plants and animals in preserving,
destroying or reproducing geological formations.
The words destructive, reproductive and conservative,
employed in describing the operations of the epigene agents, do
not necessarily imply that anything useful to man is destroyed,
reproduced or preserved. On the contrary, the destructive
action of the atmosphere may turn barren rock into rich soil,
while its reproductive effects sometimes turn rich land into
barren desert. Again, the conservative influence of vegetation
has sometimes for centuries retained as barren morass what
might otherwise have become rich meadow or luxuriant wood-
land. The terms, therefore, are used in a strictly geological
sense, to denote the removal and re-deposition of material, and
its agency in preserving what lies beneath it.
(A) The Air.
As a geological agent, the air brings about changes partly by its
component gases and partly by its movements. Its destructive
action is both chemical and mechanical. The chemical changes are
probably mainly, if not entirely, due to the moisture of the air,
and particularly to the gases, vapours and organic matter which
the moisture contains. Dry air seems to have little or no appreciable
influence in promoting these reactions. As the changes in question
are similar to those much more abundantly brought about by rain
they are described in the following section under the division on rain.
Among the more recognizable mechanical changes effected in
the atmosphere, one of considerable importance is to be seen in the
result of great and rapid changes of temperature. Heat expands
rocks, while cold contracts them. In countries with a great annual
range of temperature, considerable difficulty is sometimes experienced
in selecting building materials liable to be little affected by the
alternate expansion and contraction, which prevents the joints of
masonry from remaining close and tight. In dry tropical climates,
where the days are intensely hot and the nights extremely cold, the
rapid nocturnal contraction produces a strain so great as to rival
frost in its influence upon the surface of exposed rocks, disintegrating
them into sand, or causing them to crack or peel off in skins or
irregular pieces. Dr Livingstone found in Africa (12 S. lat., 34 E.
long.) that surfaces of rock which during the day were heated up to
137 Fahr., cooled so rapidly by radiation at night that, unable to
sustain the strain of contraction, they split and threw_off sharp
angular fragments from a few ounces to 100 or 200 ft in weight.
In temperate regions this action, though much less pronounced,
still makes itself felt. In these climates, however, and still more in
high latitudes, somewhat similar results are brought about by frost.
By its motion in wind the air drives loose sand over rocks, and in
course of time abrades and smoothes them. " Desert polish " is
the name given to the characteristic lustrous surface thus imparted.
Holes are said to be drilled in window glass at Cape Cod by the same
agency. Cavities are now and then hollowed out of rocks by the
gyration in them of little fragments of stone or grains of sand kept
in motion by the wind. Hurricanes form important geological
agents upon land in uprooting trees, and thus sometimes impeding
the drainage of a country and giving rise to the formation of peat
mosses.
The reproductive action of the air arises partly from the effect
of the chemical and mechanical disintegration involved in the
process of " weathering," and partly from the transporting power
of wind and of aerial currents. The layer of soil, which covers so
much of the surface of the land, is the result of the decay of the
underlying rocks, mingled with mineral matter blown over the grounc
by wind, or washed thither by rain, and with the mouldering remains
of plants and animals. The extent to which fine dust may be
transported over the surface of the land can hardly be realized in
countries clothed with a covering of vegetation, though even there,
in dry weather during spring, clouds of dust may often be seen
blown away by wind from bare ploughed fields. Intercepted by the
leaves of plants and washed down to their roots by rain, this dust
goes to increase the soil below. In arid climates, where dust clouds
are dense and frequent, enormous quantities of fine mineral particles
are thus borne along and accumulated. The remarkable deposif
of " Loess," which is sometimes more than 1500 ft. thick and cover.
extensive areas in China and other countries, is regarded as due to
the drifting of dust by wind. Again the dunes of sand so abundan
along the inner side of sandy sea-beaches in many different part
of the world are attributable to the same action.
(B) Water.
In treating of the epigene action of water in geological processe
it will be convenient to deal first with its operations in traversing
the land, and then with those which it performs in the sea. Th
circulation of water from land to sea and again from sea to lane
constitutes the fundamental cause of most of the daily changes b;
which the surface of the land is affected.
I. Rain. Rain effects two kinds of changes upon the surface o
the land. It acts chemically upon soils and stones, and sinking unde
round continues a great series of similar reactions there. It acts
nechanically, by washing away loose materials, and thus powerfully
ffecting the contours of the land. Its chemical action depends
nainly upon the nature and proportion of the substances which, in^
escending to the earth, it abstracts from the atmosphere. Rain
Iways absorbs a little air, which, in addition to its nitrogen and
>xygen, contains carbonic acid, and in minute proportions, sodium
hloride, sulphuric acid and other ingredients, especially inorganic
ust, organic particles and living germs. Probably the most generally
fikient of these constituents are oxygen, carbonic acid and organic
matter. Armed with these reagents, rain effects a chemical decom-
josition of the rocks on which it falls, and through which it sinks
mderground. The principal changes thus produced are as follows:
a) Oxidation. Owing'to the prominence of oxygen in rain-water,
and its readiness to unite with any substance which can contain
more of it, a thin oxidized pellicle is formed on the surface of many
ocks on which rain falls, and this oxidized layer if not at once
washed off, sinks deeper until a crust is formed over the stone. A
amiliar illustration of this action is afforded by the rust, or oxide,
which forms on iron when exposed to moisture, though this iron
may be kept long bright if allowed to remain screened from moist
air and rain, (b) Deoxidation. Organic matter having an affinity
or more oxygen decomposes peroxides by depriving them of some
>art of their share of that element and reducing them to protoxides.
These changes are especially noticeable among the iron oxides so
ibundantly diffused among rocks. Hence rain-water, in sinking
hrough soil and obtaining such organic matter, becomes thereby
a reducing agent, (c) Solution. This may take place either by the
simple action of the water, as in the solution of rock-salt, or by the
nfluence of the carbonic acid present in the rain, (d) Formation of
Carbonates. A familiar example of the action of carbonic acid
n rain is to be seen in the corrosion of exposed marble slabs. The
carbonic acid dissolves some of the lime, which, as a bicarbonate,
s held in solution in the carbonated water, but is deposited _agam
when the water loses its carbonic acid or evaporates. It is not
merely carbonates, however, which are liable to this kind of destruc-
tion. Even silicates of lime, potash and soda, combinations existing
abundantly as constituents of rocks, are attacked; their silica is
iberated, and their alkalis or alkaline earths, becoming carbonates,
are removed in solution, (e) Hydration. Some minerals, containing
ittle or no water, and therefore called anhydrous, when exposed to
the action of the atmosphere, absorb water, or become hydrous,
and are then usually more prone to further change. Hence the rocks
of which they form part become disintegrated.
Besides the reactions here enumerated, a considerable amount of
decay may be observed as the result of the presence of sulphuric
and nitric acid in the air, especially in that of large towns and
manufacturing districts, where much coal is consumed. Metallic
surfaces, as well as various kinds of stone, are there corroded, while
the mortar of walls may often be observed to be slowly swelling out
and dropping off, owing to the conversion of the lime into sulphate.
Great injury is likewise done from a similar cause to marble monu-
ments in exposed graveyards.
The general result of the disintegrating action of the air and of
rain, including also that of plants and animals, to be noticed in the
sequel, is denoted by the term " weathering." The amount of decay
depends partly on conditions of climate, especially the range of
temperature, the abundance of moisture, height above the sea and
exposure to prevalent winds. Many rocks liable to be saturated
with rain and rapidly dried under a warm sun are apt to disintegrate
at the surface with comparative rapidity. The nature and progress
of the weathering are mainly governed by the composition and
texture of the rocks exposed to it. Rocks composed of particles
liable to little chemical change from the influence of moisture are
best fitted to resist weathering, provided they possess sufficient
cohesion to withstand the mechanical processes of disintegration.
Siliceous sandstones are excellent examples of this permanence.
Consisting wholly or mainly of the durable mineral quartz, they are
sometimes able so to withstand decay that buildings made of them
still retain, after the lapse of centuries, the chisel-marks of the
builders. Some rocks, which yield with comparative rapidity to
the chemical attacks of moisture, may show little or no mark of
disintegration on their surface. This is particularly the case with
certain calcareous rocks. Limestone when pure is wholly soluble
in acidulated water. Rain falling on such a rock removes some of it
in solution, and will continue to do so until the whole is dissolved
away. But where a limestone is full of impurities, a weathered crust
of more or less insoluble particles remains after the solution of the
calcareous part of the stone. Hence the relative purity of limestones
may be roughly determined by examining their weathered surfaces,
where, if they contain much sand, the grains will be seen projecting
from the calcareous matrix, and where, should the rock be very
ferruginous, the yellow hydrous peroxide, or ochre, will be found as
a powdery crust. In limestones containing abundant encnnites,
shells, or other organic remains, the weathered surface commonly
presents the fossils standing out in relief. The crystalline arrange-
ment of the lime in the organic structures enables them to resist
disintegration better than the general mechanically aggregated
matrix of the rock. An experienced fossil collector will always
search well such weathered surfaces, for he often finds there, delicately
EPICENE AC 1
GEOLOGY
661
picked out by the weather, minute and frail fossils which are wholly
invisible on a freshly broken surface of the stone. Many rocks
weather with a thick crust, or even decay inwards for many feet or
yard*. Basalt, for example, often shows a yellowish-brown fer-
ruginous layer on its surface, formed by the conversion of its felspar
into kaolin, and the removal of its calcium silicate a* carbonate,
by the hydration of its olivine and augite and their conversion into
serpentine, or some other hydrous magnesian silicate, and by the
conversion of its magnetite into limonite. Granite sometimes shows
in a most remarkable way the distance to which weathering can
reach. It may occasionally be dug into for a depth of 20 or 30 ft.,
the quartz crystals and veins retaining their original positions, while
the felspar is completely kaolinized. It is to the endlessly varied
effects of weathering that the abundant fantastic shapes assumed
by crags and other rocky masses are due. Most varieties of rock
have their own characteristic modes of weathering, whereby they
may be recognized even from a distance. To some of these features
reference will be made in Part VI II.
The mechanical action of rain, which is intimately bound up with
its chemical action, consists in washing off the fine superficial
particles of rocks which have been corroded and loosened by the
process of weathering, and in thus laying open fresh portions to the
same influences of decay. The detritus so removed is partly carried
down into the soil which is therebyenriched, partly held in suspension
in the little runnels into which the rain-drops gather as they begin
to flow over the land, partly pushed downwards along the surface
of sloping ground. A good deal of it finds its way into the nearest
brooks and rivers, which are consequently made muddy by heavy
rain.
It is natural that a casual consideration of the subject should lead
to an impression that, though the general result of the fall of rain
upon a land-surface must lead to some amount of disintegration and
lowering of that surface, the process must be so slow and slight as
hardly to be considered of much importance among geological
operations. But further attention will show such an impression to
be singularly erroneous. It loses sight of the fact that a change
which may be hardly appreciable within a human lifetime, or even
within the comparatively brief span of geological time embraced in
the compass of human history, may nevertheless become gigantic
in its results in the course of immensely protracted periods. An
instructive lesson in the erosive action of rain may be found in the
pitted and channelled surface of ground lying under the drip of the
eaves of a cottage. The fragments of stone and pebbles of gravel
that form part of the soil can there be seen sticking out of the ground,
because being hard they resist the impetus of the falling drops,
protecting for a time the earth beneath them, while that which
surrounded and covered them is washed away. From this familiar
illustration the observer may advance through every stage in the
disappearance of material which once covered the surface, until he
comes to examples where once continuous and thick sheets of solid
rock have been reduced to a few fragments or have been entirely
removed. Since the whole land surface over which rain falls is
exposed to this waste, the superficial covering of decayed rock or
sou, as Mutton insisted, is constantly, though imperceptibly, travel-
ling outward and downward to the sea. In this process of transport
rain is an important carrying agent, while at the same time it serves
to connect the work of the other disintegrating forces, and to make
it conducive to the general degradation of the land. Though this
decay is general and constant, it is obviously not uniform. In some
places where, from the nature of the rock, from the flatness of the
ground, or from other causes, rain works under great difficulties,
the rate of waste may be extremely slow. In other places it may
be rapid enough to be appreciable from year to year. A survey of
this department of geological activity shows how unequal wasting
by rain, combined with the operations of brooks and: rivers, has
produced the details of the present relief of the land, those tracts
where the destruction has been greatest forming hollows and valleys,
others, where it has been less, rising into ridges and hills (Part VIII.).
Rain-action is not merely destructive, but is accompanied with
reproductive effects, chief of which is the formation of soil. In
favourable situations it has gathered together accumulations of loam
and earth from neighbouring higher ground, such as the " brick-
earth," " head." and " rain-wash " of the south of England earthy
deposits, sometimes full of angular stones, derived from the subaerial
waste of the rocks of the neighbourhood.
2. Underground Water. Of the rain which falls upon the land
one portion flows off into brooks and rivers by which the water is
conducted back to the ocean ; the larger part, however, sinks into
the ground and disappears. It is this latter part which has now
to be considered. Over and above the proportion of the rainfall
which is absorbed by living vegetation and by the soil, there is a
continual filtering down of the water from the surface into the rocks
that lie below, where it partly lodges in pore* and interstices, and
partly finds its way into subterranean joints and fissures, in which
it performs an underground circulation, and ultimately issues once
more at the surface in the form of springs (q.t.). In the course of
this circulation the water performs an important geological task.
Not only carrying down with it the substances which the rain has
abstracted from the air, but obtaining more acids and organic
from the soil, it is enabled to effect chemical changes in the
rocks undcrneathj and especially to dissolve limestone and other
calcareous formations. So considerable is the extent of this solution
in some places that the springs which come to the surface, and begin
there to cva|x>rate and lose some of their carbonic acid, contain more
dissolved lime than they can hold. They consequently deposit it
in the form of calcareous tuff or sinter (q.v.). Other subterranean
waters issue with a large proportion of iron-salts in solution which
form deposits of ochre. The various mineral springs so largely
made use of for the mitigation or cure of diseases owe their pro-
perties to the various salts which they have dissolved mil of rocks
underground. As the result of prolonged subterranean solution in
limestone districts, passages and caves (q.v.), sometimes of great
width and length, arc formed. When these lie near the surface their
roofs sometimes fall in and engulf brooks and rivers, which then
flow for some way underground until the tunnels conduct them back
again to daylight on some lower ground.
Besides its chemical activity water exerts among subterranean
rocks a mechanical influence which leads to important changes in
the topography of the surface. In removing the mineral matter,
cither in solution or as fine sediment, it sometimes loosens the support
of overlying masses of rock which may ultimately give way on sloping
ground, and rush down the declivities in the form of landslips.
These destructive effects are specially frequent on the sides of valleys
in mountainous countries ana on lines of sea-cliff.
3. Brooks and Rivers. As geological agents the runnjng waters
on the face of the land play an important part in cpigcne
changes. Like rain and springs they have both a chemical and a
mechanical^ action. The latter receives most attention, as it un-
doubtedly is the more important; but the former ought not to be
omitted in any_ survey of the general waste of the earth's surface.
The water of rivers must possess the powers of a chemical solvent
like rain and springs, though its actual work in this respect can be
less easily measurea, seeing that river water is directly derived from
rain and springs, and necessarily contains in solution mineral sub-
stances supplied to it by them and not by its own operation. Never-
theless, it is sometimes easy to prove that streams dissolve chemically
the rocks of their channels. Thus, in limestone districts the base
of the cliffs of river ravines may be found eaten away into tunnels,
arches, and overhanging projections, presenting in their smooth
surfaces a great contrast to the angular jointed faces of the same
rock, where now exposed to the influence only of the weather on the
higher parts of the cliff.
The mechanical action of rivers consists (a) in transporting mud,
sand, gravel and blocks of stone from higher to lower levels; (b)
in using these loose materials to widen and deepen their channels
by erosion; (c) in depositing their load of detritus wherever possible
and thus to make new geological formations.
(a) Transporting Power. River-water is distinguished from that
of springs by being less transparent, because it contains more or less
mineral matter in suspension, derived mainly from what is washed
down by rain, or carried in by brooks, but partly also from the
abrasion of the water-channels by the erosive action of the rivers
themselves. The progress of this burden of detritus may be instruc-
tively followed from the mountain-tributaries of a river down to
the mouth of the main stream. In the high grounds the water-
courses may be observed to be choked with large fragments of rock
disengaged from the cliffs and crags on either side. Traced downwards
the blocks are seen to become gradually smaller and more rounded.
They are ground against each other, and upon the rocky sides and
bottom of the channel, getting more and more reduced as they
descend, and at the same time abrading the rocks over or against
which they are driven. Hence a great deal of debris is produced,
and is swept along by the onward and downward movement of the
water. The finer portions, such as mud and fine sand, are carried
in suspension, and impart the characteristic turbidity to river-
water; the coarser sand and gravel are driven along the river-
bottom. The proportion of suspended mineral matter has been
ascertained with more or less precision for a number of rivers. As
an illustrative example of a river draining a vast area with different
climates, forms of surface and geological structure the Mississippi
may be cited. The average proportion of sediment in its water was
ascertained by Humphreys and Abbot to be ^fa by weight or
iA by volume. _ These engineers found that, in addition to this
suspended material, coarse detritus is constantly being pushed
forward along the bed of the river into the Gulf of Mexico, to an
amount which they estimated at about 750,000,000 cubic ft. of
sand, earth and gravel; they concluded that the Mississippi carries
into the gulf every year an amount of mechanically transported
sediment sufficient to make a prism one square mile in area and
268 ft. in height.
(6) Excavating Power. It is by means of the sand, gravel and
stones which they drive against the sides and bottoms of their
channels that streams have hollowed out the beds in which they
flow. Not only is the coarse detritus reduced in size by the friction
of the stones against each other, but, at the same time, these materials
abrade the rocks against which they are driven by the current.
Where, owing to the shape of the bottom of the channel, the stones
are caught in eddies, and are kept whirling round there, they become
more and more worn down themselves, and at the same time scour
out basin-shaped cavities, or " pot-holes," in the solid rock below.
662
GEOLOGY
[EPICENE ACTION
The uneven bed of a swiftly flowing stream may in this way be
honeycombed with such eroded basins which coalesce and thus
appreciably lower the surface of the bed. The steeper the channel,
other conditions being equal, the more rapid will be the erosion.
Geological structure also affects the character and rate of the excava-
tion. Where the rocks are so arranged as to favour the formation
and persistence of a waterfall, a long chasm may be hollowed out
like that of the Niagara below the falls, where a hard thick bed of
nearly flat limestone lies on softer and more easily eroded shales.
The latter are scooped out from underneath the limestone, which
from time to time breaks off in large masses and the waterfall
gradually retreats up stream, while the ravine is proportionately
lengthened. To the excavating power of rivers the origin of the
valley systems of the dry land must be mainly assigned (see Part VI 1 1 .).
(c) Reproductive Power. So long as a stream flows over a steep
declivity its velocity suffices to keep the sediment in suspension,
but when from any cause, such as a diminution of slope, the velocity
is checked, the transporting power is lessened and the sediment
begins to fall to the bottom and to remain there. Hence various
river-formed or " alluvial " deposits are laid down. These some-
times cover considerable spaces at the foot of mountains. The
floors of valleys are strewn with detritus, and their level may thereby
be sensibly raised. In floods the ground inundated on either side
of a stream intercepts some part of the detritus, which is then spread
over the flood-plain and gradually heightens it. At the same time
the stream continues to erode the channel, and ultimately is unable
to reach the old flood-plain. It consequently forms a new plain at
a lower level, and thus, by degrees, it comes to be flanked on either
side by a series of successive terraces or platforms, each of which
marks one of its former levels. Where a river enters a large body of
water its current is checked. Some of its sediment is consequently
dropped, and by slow accumulation forms a delta (q.v.). On land,
every lake in mountain districts furnishes instances of this kind of
alluvium. But the most important deltas are those formed in the
sea at the mouths of the larger rivers of the globe. Off many coast-
lines the detritus washed from the land gathers into bars, which
enclose long strips of water more or less completely separated from
the sea outside and known as lagoons. A chain of such lagoon-
barriers stretches for hundreds of miles round the Gulf of Mexico
and the eastern shores of the United States.
4. Lakes. These sheets of water, considered as a whole, do not
belong to the normal system of drainage on the land whereby valleys
are excavated. On the contrary they are exceptional to it; for
the constant tendency of running water is to fill them up, or to drain
them by wearing down the barriers that contain them at their
outflow. Some ofthem are referable to movements of the terrestrial
crust whereby depressions arise on the surface of the land, as has
been noted after earthquakes. Others have arisen from solution
such as that of rock-salt or of limestone, the removal of which by
underground water causes a subsidence of the ground above. A
third type of lake-basin occurs in regions that are now or have once
been subject to the erosive action of glaciers (see under next sub-
division, Terrestrial Ice). Many small lakes or tarns have been
caused by the deposit of debris across a valley as by landslips or
moraines. Considered from a geological point of view, lakes perform
an important function in regulating the drainage of the ground below
their outfall and diminishing the destructive effects of floods, in
filtering the water received from their affluent streams, and in
providing undisturbed areas of deposit in which thick and extensive
lacustrine formations may be accumulated. In the inland basins
of some dry climates the lakes are salt, owing to excess of evaporation,
and their bottoms become the sites of chemical deposits, particularly
of chlorides of sodium and magnesium, and calcium sulphate and
carbonate.
5. Terrestrial Ice. Each of the forms assumed by frozen water
has its own characteristic action in geological processes. Frost has
a powerful influence in breaking up damp soils and surfaces of stone
in the pores or cracks of which moisture has lodged. The water in
freezing expands, and in so doing pushes asunder the component
particles of soil or stone, or widens the space between the walls of
joints or crevices. When the ice melts the loosened grains remain
apart ready to be washed away by rain or blown off by wind, while
by the widening of joints large blocks of rock are detached from
the faces of cliffs. Where rivers or lakes are frozen over the ice
exerts a marked pressure on their banks; and when it breaks up
large sheets of it are driven ashore, pushing up quantities of gravel
and stones above the level of the water. The piling up of the dis-
rupted ice against obstructions in rivers ponds back the water, and
often leads to destructive floods when the ice barriers break. Where
the ice has formed round boulders in shallow water, or at the bottom
(" anchor-ice "), it may lift these up when the frost gives way,
and may transport them for some distance. Ice formed in the
atmosphere, and descending to the ground in the form of hail, often
causes great destruction to vegetation and not infrequently to
animal life. Where the frozen moisture reaches the earth as snow,
it serves to protect rock, soil and vegetation from the effects of
frost; but on sloping ground it is apt to give rise to destructive
avalanches or landslips, while indirectly, by its rapid melting, it
may cause serious floods in rivers.
' But the most striking geological work performed by terrestrial
ice is that achieved by glaciers (q.v.) and ice-sheets. These vast
masses of moving ice, when they descend from mountains where the
steeper rocks are clear of snow, receive on their surface the debris
detached by frost from the declivities above, and bear these materials
to lower levels or to the sea. Enormous quantities of rock-rubbish
are thus transported in the Alps and other high mountain ranges.
When the ice retreats the boulders carried by it are dropped where
it melts, and left there as memorials of the former extension of the
glaciers. Evidence of this nature proves the much wider extent of
the Alpine ice at a comparatively recent geological date. It can
also be shown that detritus from Scandinavia has been ice-borne to
the south-east of England and far into the heart of Europe.
The ice, by means of grains of sand and pieces of stone which it
drags along, scores, scratches and polishes the surfaces of rock
underneath it, and, in this way, produces the abundant fine sediment
that gives the characteristic milky appearance to the rivers that
issue from the lower ends of glaciers. By such long-continued
attrition the rocks are worn down, portions of them of softer nature,
or where the ice acts with especial vigour, are hollowed out into
cavities which, on the disappearance of the ice, may be filled with
water and become tarns or lakes. Rocks over which land-ice has
passed are marked by a peculiar smooth, flowing outline, which
forms a contrast to the more rugged surface produced by ordinary
weathering. They are covered with groovings, which range from
the finest striae left by sharp grains of sand to deep ruts ground out
by blocks of stone. The trend of these markings shows the direction
in which the ice flowed. By their evidence the position and move-
ment of former glaciers in countries from which the ice has entirely
vanished may be clearly determined (see GLACIAL PERIOD).
6. The Sea. The physical features of the sea are discussed in
separate articles (see OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY). The sea must
be regarded as the great regulator of temperature and climate over
the globe, and as thus exerting a profound influence on the distribu-
tion of plant and animal life. Its distinctly geological work is partly
erosive and partly reproductive. As an eroding agent it must to
some extent effect chemical decompositions in the rocks and sedi-
ments over which it spreads; but these changes have not yet been
satisfactorily studied. Undoubtedly, its chief destructive power
is of a mechanical kind, and arises from the action of its waves in
beating upon shore-cliffs. By the alternate compression and
expansion of the air in crevices of the rocks on which heavy breakers
fall, and by the hydraulic pressure which these masses of sea-water
exert on the walls of the fissures into which they rush, large masses
of rock are loosened and detached, and caves and tunnels are drilled
along the base of sea-cliffs. Probably still more efficacious are the
blows of the loose shingle, which, caught up and hurled forward by
the waves, falls with great force upon the shore rocks, battering
them as with a kind of artillery until they are worn away. The
smooth surfaces of the rocks within reach of the waves contrasted
with their angular forms above that limit bear witness to the amount
of waste, while the rounded forms of the boulders and shingle show
that they too are being continually reduced in size. Thus the sea,
by its action on the coasts, produces much sediment, which is swept
away by its waves and currents and strewn over its floor. Besides
this material, it is constantly receiving the fine silt and sand carried
down by rivers. As the floor of the ocean is thus the final receptacle
for the waste of the land, it becomes the chief era on the surface of
the globe for the accumulation of new stratified formations. And
such has been one of its great functions since the beginning of
geological time, as is proved by the rocks that form the visible part
of the earth's crust, and consist in great part of marine deposits.
Chemical precipitates take place more especially in enclosed parts
of the sea, where concentration of the water by evaporation can take
place, and where layers of sodium chloride, calcium sulphate and
carbonate, and other salts are laid down. But the chief marine
accumulations are of detrital origin. Near the land and for a variable
distance extending sometimes to 200 or 300 m. from shore the
deposits consist chiefly of sediments derived from the waste of the
land, the finer silts being transported farthest from their source.
At greater depths and distances the ocean floor receives a slow deposit
of exceedingly fine clay, which is believed to be derived from the
decomposition of pumice and volcanic dust from insular or sub-
marine volcanoes. Wide tracts of the bottom are covered with
various forms of ooze derived from the accumulation of the remains
of minute organisms.
(C) Life.
Among the agents by which geological changes are carried on
upon the surface of the globe living organisms must be enumerated.
Both plants and animajs co-operate with the inorganic agents in
promoting the degradation of the land. In some cases, on the other
hand, they protect rocks from decay, while, by the accumulation of
their remains, they give rise to extensive formations both upon the
land and in the sea. Their operations may hence be described as
alike destructive, conservative and reproductive. Under this head-
ing also the influence of Man as a geological agent deserves notice.
(a) Plants. Vegetation promotes the disintegration of rocks and
soil in the following ways: (i) By keeping the surfaces of stone
moist, and thus promoting both mechanical and chemical dissolution,
as is especially shown by liverworts, mosses and other moisture-
loving plants. (2) By producing through their decay carbonic and
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY)
GEOLOGY
663
other acid*, which, together with decaying organic matter taken up
by r*T*'"fl moisture, become potent in effecting the chemical decom-
position of rock* and in promoting the disintegration of soils. (3)
By inserting their roots or branches between joints of rock, which
are thereby loosened, so that targe slices may be eventually wedged
off. (4) By attracting rain, as thick woods, forests and peat-mosses
do, and thus accelerating the general waste of a country by running
atrr. (5) By pftimoting the decay of diseased and dead plants and
animals, as when fungi overspread a damp rotting tree or the carcase
of dead animal.
That plants also exert a conservative influence on the surface of
the land is shown in various ways, (l) The formation of a stratum
of turf protects the soil and cocks underneath from being rapidly
disintegrated and washed away by atmospheric action. (2) Many
plants, even without forming a layer of turf, serve by their roots or
branches to protect the loose sand or soil on which they grow from
being removed by wind. The common sand-carcx and other arenace-
ous plants bind the loose sand-dunes of our coasts, and give them a
permanence, which would at once be destroyed were the sand laid
bare again to storms. The growth of shrubs and brushwood along
the course of a stream not only keeps the alluvial banks from being
so easily undermined and removed as would otherwise be the case,
but strvts to arrest the sediment in floods, filtering the water and
thereby adding to the height of the flood plain. (3) Some marine
plants, like the calcareous nullipores, afford protection to shore
rocks by covering them with a hard incrustation. The tangles and
smaller Fuci which grow abundantly on the littoral zone break the
force of the wave* or diminish the effects of ground swell. (4)
Forest* and brushwood protect the soil, especially on slopes, from
being washed away by rain or ploughed up by avalanches.
Plant* contribute by the aggregation of their remains to the
formation of stratified deposits. Some marine algae which secrete
carbonate of lime not only encrust rocks but give rise to sheets of
submarine limestone. An analogous part is played in fresh-water
lakes by various lime-secreting plants, such as Chara. Long-con-
tinued growth of vegetation has, in some regions, produced thick
accumulations of a dark loam, as in the black cotton soil (regur) of
India, and the black earth (Ickernozom) of Russia. Peat-mosses
are formed in temperate and arctic climates by the growth of marsh-
loving plants, sometimes to a thickness of 40 or 50 ft. In tropical
region* the mangrove swamps on low moist shores form a dense
jungle, sometimes 20 m. broad, which protects these shores from the
tea until, by the arrest of sediment and the constant contribution of
decayed vegetation, the spongy ground is at last turned into firm
soil. Some plant* (diatoms) can abstract silica and build it into
their framework, so that their remains form a siliceous deposit or
ooxe which covers spaces of the deep sea-floor estimated at more
than ten millions of square miles in extent.
(6) Animals. These exert a destructive influence in the following
ways: (i) By seriously affecting the composition and arrangement
of the vegetable soil. Worms bring up the lower portions of the
oil to the surface, and while thus promoting its fertility increase
its liability to be washed away by rain. Burrowing animals, by
throwing up the soil and subsoil, expose these to be dried and blown
away by the wind. At the same time their subterranean passages
serve to drain off the superficial water and to injure the stability
of the surface of the ground above them. In Britain the mole and
rabbit are familiar examples. (2) By interfering with or even divert-
ing the flow of streams. Thus beaver-dams check the current of
water-courses, intercept floating materials, and sometimes turn
streams into new channels. The embankments of the Mississippi
are sometime* weakened to such an extent by the burrowings of the
cray-fish a* to give way and allow the river to inundate the sur-
rounding country. Similar results have happened in Europe from
subterranean operations of rats. (3) Some moll use a bore into stone
or wood and by the number of contiguous perforations greatly
weaken the material. (4) Many animals exercise a ruinously
destructive influence upon vegetation. Of the numerous plagues
of this kind the locust, phylloxera and Colorado beetle may be cited.
The most important geological function performed by animals is
the formation of new deposits out of their remains. It is chiefly by
the lower grade* of the animal kingdom that this work is accom-
plished, especially by molluscs, corals and foraminifera. Shell-banks
are formed abundantly in such comparatively shallow and enclosed
basin* as that of the North Sea. and on a much more extensive scale
on the floor of the West Indian seas. By the coral polyps thick
muses of limestone* have been built up in the warmer seas of the
globe (see CORAL REEFS). The floor of theAtlanticandotheroceans
covered with a fine calcareous ooze derived mainly from the
remain* of foraminifera, while in other regions the bottom shows a
siliceous ooze formed almost entirely of radiolaria. Vertebrate
animals give rise to phosphatic deposit* formed sometimes of their
excrement, as in guano and coprolites, sometimes of an accumulation
of their bones.
(c) Ifan. No survey of the geological workings of plant and
animal life upon the surface of the globe can be complete which doe*
oot take account of the influence of man an influence of enormous
and increasing consequence in physical geography, for man ha*
introduced, a* it were, an element of antagonism to nature. Hi*
interfere nee shows itself in hi* relation* to climate, where he has
affected the meteorological conditions of different countries: (i)
By removing forests, and laying bare to the sun and winds .m-.r
which were previously kept cool and damp under trees, or which,
lying on the lee side, were protected from tempests. It is supposed
that the wholesale destruction of the woodlands formerly existing
in countries bordering the Mediterranean has been in part the cause
of the present desiccation of these districts. (2) By drainage, whereby
the discharged rainfall is rapidly removed, and the evajxjration is
lessened, with a consequent diminution of rainfall and some increase
in the general temperature of a country. (3) By the other processes
of agriculture, such as the transformation of moor and bog into
cultivated land, and the clothing of bare hillsides with green crops
or plantations of coniferous and nard wood trees.
Still more obvious arc the results of human interference with the
flow of water: (l) By increasing or diminishing the rainfall man
directly affects the volume of rivers. (2) By his drainage operations
he makes the rain to run off more rapidly than before, and thereby
increases the magnitude of floods and of the destruction caused by
them. (3) By wells, bores, mines, or other subterranean works he
interferes with the underground waters, and consequently with the
discharge of springs. (.( ) By embanking rivers he confines them to
narrow channels, sometimes increasing their scour, and enabling
them to carry their sediment further seaward, sometimes causing
them to deposit it over the plains and raise their level. (5) By his
engineering operations for water-supply he abstracts water from its
natural basins and depletes the streams.
In many ways man alters the aspect of a country : ( i ) By changing
forest into bare mountain, or clothing bare mountains with forest.
8) By promoting the growth or causing the removal of peat-mosses.
) By heedlessly uncovering sand-dunes, and thereby setting in
motion a process of destruction which may convert hundreds of
acres of fertile land into waste sand, or by prudently planting the
dunes with sand-loving vegetation and thus arresting their landward
progress. (4) By so guiding the course of rivers as to make them
aid him in reclaiming wasteland, and bringing it under cultivation.
(5) By piers and bulwarks, whereby the ravages of the sea are
stayed, or by the thoughtless removal from the beach of stones
which the waves had themselves thrown up, and which would have
served for a time to protect the land. (6) By forming new deposits
either designedly or incidentally. The roads, bridges, canals,
railways, tunnels, villages and towns with which man has covered
the surface of the land will in many cases form a permanent record
of his presence. Under his hand the whole surface of civilized
countries is very slowly covered with a stratum, either formed
wholly by him or due in great measure to his operations and con-
taining many relics of his presence. The soil of ancient towns has
been increased to a depth of many feet by their successive destruc-
tions and renovations.
Perhaps the most subtle of human influences are to be seen in the
distribution of plant and animal life upon the globe. Some of man's
doings in this domain are indeed plain enough, such as the extirpation
of wild animals, the diminution or destruction of some forms of
vegetation, the introduction of plants and animals useful to himself,
and especially the enormous predominance given by him to the
cereals and to the spread of sheep and cattle. But no such extensive
disturbance of the normal conditions of the distribution of life can
take place without carrying with it many secondary effects, and
setting in motion a wide cycle of change and of reaction in the
animal and vegetable kindgoms. For example, the incessant
warfare waged by man against birds and beasts of prey in districts
given up to the chase leads sometimes to unforeseen results. The
weak game is allowed to live, which would otherwise be killed off
and give more room for the healthy remainder. Other animals
which feed perhaps on the same materials as the game are by the
same cause permitted to live unchecked, and thereby to act as a
further hindrance to the spread of the protected species. But the
indirect results of man's interference with the regime of plants and
animals still require much prolonged observation.
PART V. GEOTECTONIC OR STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
From a study of the nature and composition of minerals and
rocks, and an investigation of the different agencies by which
they are formed and modified, the geologist proceeds to inquire
how these materials have been put together so as to build up the
visible part of the earth's crust. He soon ascertains that they
have not been thrown together wholly at random, but that they
show a recognizable order of arrangement. Some of them,
especially those of most recent growth, remain in their original
condition and position, but, in proportion to their antiquity,
they generally present increasing alteration, until it may no
longer be possible to tell what was their pristine state. As by
far the largest accessible portion of the terrestrial crust consists of
stratified rocks, and as these furnish clear evidence of most of the
modifications to which they have been subjected in the long
course of geological history, it is convenient to take them into
66 4
GEOLOGY
[STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
consideration first. They possess a number of structures which
belong to the original conditions in which they were accumulated.
They present in addition other structures which have been super-
induced upon them, and which they share with the unstratified
or igneous rocks.
i. ORIGINAL STRUCTURES
(a) Stratified Rocks. This extensive and important series is
above all distinguished by possessing a prevailing stratified
arrangement. Their materials have been laid down in laminae,
layers and strata, or beds, pointing generally to the intermittent
deposition of the sediments of which they consist. As this
stratification was, as a rule, originally nearly or quite horizontal,
it serves as a base from which to measure any subsequent dis-
turbance which the rocks have undergone. The occurrence of
false-bedding, i.e. bands of inclined layers between the normal
planes of stratification, does not form any real exception; but
indicates the action of shifting currents whereby the sediment
was transported and thrown down. Other important records of
the original conditions of deposit are supplied by ripple-marks,
sun-cracks, rain-prints and concretions.
From the nature of the material further light is cast on the geo-
graphical conditions in which the strata were accumulated. Thus,
conglomerates indicate the proximity of old shore-lines, sandstones
mark deposits in comparatively shallow water, clays and shales
point to the tranquil accumulation of fine silt at a greater depth
and further from land, while fossiliferous limestones bear witness to
clearer water in which organisms flourished at some distance from
deposits of sand and mud. Again, the alternation of different kinds
of sediment suggests a variability in the conditions of deposition,
such as a shifting of the sediment-bearing currents and of the areas
of muddy and clear water. A thick group of conformabte strata,
that _is, a series of deposits which show no discordance in their
stratification, may usually be regarded as having been laid down on
a sea-floor that was gently sinking. Here and there evidence is
obtainable of the limits or of the progress of the subsidence by what
is called " overlap." Of the absolute length of time represented by
any strata or groups of strata no satisfactory estimates can yet be
formed. Certain general conclusions may indeed be drawn, and
comparisons may be made between different series of rocks. Sand-
stones full of false-bedding were probably accumulated more rapidly
than finely-laminated shales or clays. It is not uncommon in certain
Carboniferous formations to find coniferous and other trunks em-
bedded in sandstone. Some of these trees seem to have been carried
along and to have sunk, their .heavier or root end touching the
bottom and their upper end slanting upward in the direction of the
current, exactly as in the case of the snags of the Mississippi. In
other cases the trees have been submerged while still in their positions
of growth. The continuous deposit of sand at last rose above the
level of the trunks and buried them. It is clear then that the rate
of deposit must have been sometimes sufficiently rapid to allow
sand to accumulate to a depth of 30 ft. or more before the decay
of the wood. Modern instances are known where, under certain
circumstances, submerged trees may last for some centuries, but
even the most durable must decay in what, after.all, is a brief space
of geological time. Since continuous layers of the same kind of
deposit suggest a persistence of geological conditions, while numerous
alternations of different kinds of sedimentary matter point to
vicissitudes or alternations of conditions, it may be supposed that
the time represented by a given thickness of similar strata was less
than that shown by the same thickness of dissimilar strata, because
the changes needed to bring new varieties of sediment into the area
of deposit would usually require the lapse of some time for their
completion. But this conclusion may often be erroneous. It will
be best supported when, from the very nature of the rocks, wide
variations in the character of the water-bottom can be established.
Thus a group of shales followed by a fossiliferous limestone would
almost always mark the lapse of a much longer period than an equal
depth of sandy strata. A thick mass of limestone, made up of
organic remains which lived and died upon the spot, and whose
remains are crowded together generation above generation, must
have demanded many years or centuries for its formation.
But in all speculations of this kind we must bear in mind that the
length of time represented by a given depth of strata is not to be
estimated merely from their thickness or lithological character.
The interval between the deposit of two successive laminae of shale
may have been as long as, or even longer than, that required for
the formation of one of the laminae. In like manner the interval
needed for the transition from one stratum or kind of strata to
another may often have been more than equal to the time required
for the formation of the strata on either side. But the relative
chronological importance of the bars or lines in the geological
record can seldom be satisfactorily discussed merely on lithological
grounds. This must mainly be decided on the evidence of organic
remains, as shown in Part VI., where the grouping of the stratified
rocks into formations and systems is described.
(6) Igneous Rocks. As part of the earth's crust these rocks
present characters by which they are strongly differentiated
from the stratified series. While the broad petrographical
distinctions of their several varieties remain persistent, they
present sufficient local variations of type to poirlt to the existence
of what have been called petrographic provinces, in each of
which the eruptive masses are connected by a general family
relationship, differing more or less from that of a neighbouring
province. In each region presenting a long chronological series
of eruptive rocks a petrographical sequence can be traced, which
is observed to be not absolutely the same everywhere, though its
general features may be persistent. The earliest manifestations
of eruptive material in any district appear to have been most
frequently of an intermediate type between acid and basic,
passing thence into a thoroughly acid series and concluding
with an effusion of basic material.
Considered as part of the architecture of the crust of the earth,
igneous rocks are conveniently divisible into two great series:
(i) those bodies of material which have been injected into the
crust and have solidified there, and (2) those which have reached
the surface and have been ejected there, either in a molten state
as lava or in a fragmental form as dust, ashes and scoriae. The
first of these divisions represents the plutonic, intrusive or
subsequent phase of eruptivity; the second marks the volcanic,
interstratified or contemporaneous phase.
i. The plutonic or intrusive rocks, which have been forced into
the crust and have consolidated there, present a wide range of texture
from the most coarse-grained granites to the most perfect natural
glass. Seeing that they have usually cooled with extreme slowness
underground, they are as a general rule more largely crystalline
than the volcanic series. The form assumed by each individual
body of intrusive material has depended upon the shape of the space
into which it has been injected, and where it has cooled and become
solid. This shape has been determined by the local structure of
the earth's crust on the one hand and by the energy of the eruptive
force on the other. It offers a convenient basis for the classification
of the intrusive rocks, which, as part of the framework of the crust,
may thus be grouped according to the shape of the cavity which
received them, as bosses, sills, dikes and necks.
Bosses, or stocks, are the largest and most shapeless extravasations
of erupted material. They include the great bodies of granite which,
in most countries of the world, have risen for many miles through
the stratified formations and have altered the rocks around them
by contact-metamorphism. Sills, or intrusive sheets, are bed-like
masses which have been thrust between the planes of sedimentary
or even of igneous rocks. The term laccolite has been applied to
sills which are connected with bosses. Intrusive sheets are dis-
tinguishable from true contemporaneously intercalated lavas by not
keeping always to the same platform, but breaking across and
altering the contiguous strata, and by the closeness of their texture
where they come in contact with the contiguous rocks, which, being
cold, chilled the molten material and caused it to consolidate on its
outer margins more rapidly than in its interior. Dikes or veins
are vertical walls or ramifying branches of intrusive material which
has consolidated in fissures or irregular clefts of the crust. Necks
are volcanic chimneys which have been filled up with erupted
material, and have now been exposed at the surface after prolonged
denudation has removed not only the superficial volcanic masses
originally associated with them, but also more or less of the upper
part of the vents. Plutonic rocks do not present evidence of their
precise geological age. All that can be certainly affirmed from
them is that they must be younger than the rocks into which they
have been intruded. From their internal structure, however, and
From the evidence of the rocks associated with them, some more or
less definite conjectures may be made as to the limits of time within
which they were probably injected.
2. The interstratified or volcanic series is of special importance
n geology, inasmuch as it contains the records of volcanic action
during the past history of the globe. It was pointed out in Part I.
that while towards the end of the i8th and in the beginning of the
igth century much attention was paid by Hutton and his followers
;o the proofs of intrusion afforded by what they called the " un-
erupted lavas " within the earth's crust, these observers lost sight
of the possibility that some of these rocks might have been erupted
at the surface, and might thus be chronicles of volcanic action in
: ormer geological periods. It is not always possible to satisfactorily
discriminate between the two types of contemporaneously inter-
calated and subsequently injected material. But rocks of the
'ormer type have not broken into or involved the overlying strata,
and they are usually marked by the characteristic structures of
superficial lavas and by their association with volcanic tuffs. By
PALAEONTOLOG ICALJ
GEOLOGY
665
i of the evidence which they supply, it has been ascertained
that volcanic action ha* been manifested in the globe since the
earliest feolofical period*. In the British Isles, for example, the
volcanic record I* remarkably full for the long series of ages from
Cambrian to Permian time, and again for the older Tertiary period.
a. SUBSEQUENTLY INDUCED STRUCTURES
After their accumulation, whether as stratified or eruptive
masses, all kinds of rocks have been subject to various changes,
and have acquired in consequence a variety of superinduced
structures. It has been pointed out in the part of this article
dealing with dynamical geology that one of the most important
forms of energy in the evolution of geological processes is to be
found in the movements that take place within the crust of the
earth. Some of these movements are so slight as to be only
recognizable by means of delicate instruments; but from this
inferior limit they range up to gigantic convulsions by which
mountain-chains are upheaved. The crust must be regarded as
in a perpetual state of strain, and its component materials arc
therefore subject to all the effects which flow from that condition.
It is the one great object of the geotectonic division of geology to
study the structures which have been developed in consequence
of earth-movements, and to discover from this investigation the
nature of the processes whereby the rocks of the crust have been
brought into the condition and the positions in which we now
find them. The details of this subject will be found in separate
articles descriptive of each of the technical terms applied to the
several kinds of superinduced structures. All that need be
offered here is a general outline connecting the several portions
of the subject together.
One of the most universal of these later structures is to be seen
in the divisional planes, usually vertical or highly inclined, by which
rocks are split into quadrangular or irregularly shaped blocks.
To these planes the name of joints has been given. They are of
prime importance from an industrial point of view, seeing that the
an of quarrying consists mainly in detecting and making proper
use of them. Their abundance in all kinds of rocks, from those of
recent date up to those of the highest antiquity, affords a remarkable
testimony to the strains which the terrestrial crust has suffered.
They have arisen sometimes from tension, such as that caused by
contraction from the drying and consolidation of an aqueous sedi-
ment or from the cooling of a molten mass; sometimes from torsion
during movements of the crust.
Although the stratified rocks were originally deposited in a more
or lew nearly horizontal position on the floor of the sea, where now
visible on the dry land they are seldom found to have retained their
flatness. On the contrary, they are seen to have been generally
tilted up at various angles, sometimes even placed on end (crop,
dip, strike). When a sufficiently large area of ground is examined,
the inclination into which the strata have been thrown may be
observed not to continue far in the same direction, but to turn over
to the opposite or another quarter. It can then be seen that in
reality the rock* have been thrown into undulations. From the
lowest and flattest arches where the departure from horizontally
may be only trifling, every step may be followed up to intense
curvature, where the strata have been compressed and plicated as
if they had been piles of soft carpets (anticline, syncline, monocline,
geo-anticline. geo-syncline, isoclinal, plication, curvature, qua-qua-
venal). It has further happened abundantly all over the surface of
the globe that relief from internal strain in the crust has been obtained
by fracture, and the consequent subsidence or elevation of one or
both tide* of the fissure. the differential movement between the
two sides may be scarcely perceptible in the feeblest dislocation,
but in the extreme cases it may amount to many thousand feet
(fault, fissure, dislocation, hade, slickensides). The great faults in a
country are among its most important structural features, and as
they not infrequently continue to be lines of weakness in the crust
along which sudden slipping may from time to time take place, they
become the lines of origin of earthquakes. The San Francisco
earthquake of 1906, already cited, affords a memorable illustration
of this connexion.
It i* in a great mountain-chain that the extraordinary complica-
tion of plicated and faulted structures in the crust of the earth can
be most impressively beheld. The combination of overturned folds
with rupture has been already referred to as a characteristic feature
in the Alp* (Part IV.). The gigantic folds have in many places been
pushed over each other so a* to lie almost flat, while the upper limb
has not infrequently been driven for many miles beyond the lower
by a rupture along the axis. In this way successive slices of a thick
series of formations have been carried northwards on the northern
lope of the Alp*, and have been piled so abnormally above each
other that some of their oldest members recur several times on
different thrust-planes, the whole being underlain by Tertiary
strata (see ALPS). Further proof of the colossal compression to
which the rocks have been subjected is afforded by their intense
crumpling and corrugation, and by the abundantly faulted and
crushed condition to which they have been reduced. Similar
evidence as to stresses in the terrestrial crust and the important
changes which they produce among the rocks may also be obtained
on a smaller scale in many non-mountainous countries.
Another marked result of the compression of the terrestrial crust
has been induced in some rocks by the production of the fissile
structure which is typically shown in roofing-slate (cleavage).
Closely connected with this internal rearrangement has been the
development of microscopic microlites or crystals (rulilr, mica, &c.)
in argillaceous slates which were undoubtedly originally fine marine
mud and silt. From this incipient form of mctamorphism successive
stages may be traced through the various kinds of argillite and
phyllite into mica-schist, and thence into more crystalline gncissoid
varieties (foliation, slate, mica-schist, gneiss). The Alps afford
excellent illustrations of these transformations.
The fissures produced in the crust are sometimes clean, sharply
defined divisional planes, like cracks across a pane of glass. Much
more usually, however, the rocks on either side have been broken up
by the friction of movement, and the fault is marked by a variable
breadth of this broken material. Sometimes the walls have separated
and molten rock has risen from below and solidified between them
as a dike. Occasionally the fissures have opened to the surface,
and have been filled in from above with detritus, as in the sandstone-
dikes of Colorado and California. In mineral districts the fissures
have been filled with various spars and ores, forming what are known
as mineral veins.
Where one series of rocks is covered by another without any
break or discordance in the stratification they are said to be con-
formable. But where the older series has been tilted up or visibly
denuded before being overlain by the younger, the latter is termed
unconformable. This relation is one of the greatest value in
structural geology, for it marks a gap in the geological record, which
may represent a vast lapse of time not there recorded by strata.
PART VI. PALAEONTOLOGICAL GEOLOGY
This division of the science deals with fossils, or the traces
of plants and animals preserved in the rocks of the earth's crust,
and endeavours to gather from them information as to the history
of the globe and its inhabitants. The term " fossil " (Lat.
fossilis, from jodere, to dig up), meaning literally anything
" dug up," was formerly applied indiscriminately to any mineral
substance taken out of the earth's crust, whether organized or
not. Since the time of Lamarck, however, the meaning of the
word has been restricted, so as to include only the remains or
traces of plants and animals preserved in any natural formation
whether hard rock or superficial deposit. It includes not merely
the petrified structures of organisms, but whatever was directly
connected with or produced by these organisms. Thus the
resin which was exuded from trees of long-perished forests
is as much a fossil as any portion of the stem, leaves, flowers
or fruit, and in some respects is even more valuable to the
geologist than more determinable remains of its parent trees,
because it has often preserved in admirable perfection the insects
which flitted about in the woodlands. The burrows and trails
of a worm preserved in sandstone and shale claim recognition as
fossils, and indeed are commonly the only indications to be met
with of the existence of annelid life among old .geological forma-
tions. The droppings of fishes and reptiles, called coprolites,
are excellent fossils, and tell their tale as to the presence and
food of vertebrate life in ancient waters. The little agglutinated
cases of the caddis-worm remain as fossils in formations from
which, perchance, most other traces of life may have passed
away. Nay, the very handiwork of man, when preserved in
any natural manner, is entitled to rank among fossils; as
where his flint-implements have been dropped into the pre-
historic gravels of river- valleys or where his canoes have been
buried in the silt of lake-bottoms.
A study of the land-surfaces and sea-floors of the present time
shows that there are so many 'chances against the conservation
of the remains of either terrestrial or marine animals and plants
that if, as is probable, the same conditions existed in former geological
periods, we should regard the occurrence of organic remains among
the stratified formations of the earth's crust as generally the result
of various fortunate accidents.
Let us consider, in the first place, the chances for the preservation
of remains of the present fauna and flora of a country. The surface
of the land may be densely clothed with forest and abundantly
peopled with animal life. But the trees die and moulder into soil.
666
GEOLOGY
[PALAEONTOLOGICAL
The animals, too, disappear, generation after generation, and leave
few or no perceptible traces of their existence. If we were not aware
from authentic records that central and northern Europe were
covered with vast forests at the beginning of our era, how could we
know this fact? What has become of the herds of wild oxen, the
bears, wolves and other denizens of primeval Europe? How could
we prove from the examination of the surface soil of any country
that those creatures had once abounded there? The conditions for
the preservation of any relics of the plant and animal life of a ter-
restrial surface must obviously be always exceptional. They are
supplied only where the organic remains can be protected from the
air and superficial decay. Hence they may be observed in (i) the
deposits on the floors of lakes; (2) in peat-mosses; (3) in deltas at
river-mouths; and (4) under the stalagmite of caverns in limestone
districts. But in these and other favourable places a mere infinitesi-
mal fraction of the fauna or flora of a land-surface is likely to be
entombed or preserved.
In the second place, although in the sea the conditions for the
preservation of organic remains are in many respects more favourable
than on land, they are apt to be frustrated by many adverse circum-
stances. While the level of the land remains stationary, there can
be but little effective entombment of marine organisms in littoral
deposits; for only a limited accumulation of sediment will be formed
until subsidence of the sea-floor takes place. In the trifling beds of
sand or gravel thrown up on a stationary shore, only the harder and
more durable forms of life, such as gastropods and lamellibranchs,
which can withstand the triturating effects of the beach waves, are
likely to remain uneffaced.
Below tide-marks, along the margin of the land where sediment
is gradually deposited, the conditions are more favourable for the
preservation of marine organisms. In the sheets of sand and mud
there laid down the harder parts of many forms of life may be
entombed and protected from decay. But only a small proportion
of the total marine fauna may be expected to appear in such deposits.
At the best, merely littoral and shallow-water forms will occur, and,
even under the most favourable conditions, they will represent but
a fraction of the whole assemblage of life in these juxta-terrestrial
parts of the ocean. As we recede from the land the rate of deposition
of sediment on the sea-floor must become feebler, until, in the remote
central abysses, it reaches a hardly appreciable minimum. Except,
therefore, where some kind of ooze or other deposit is accumulating
in these more pelagic regions, the conditions must be on the whole
unfavourable for the preservation of any adequate representation
of the deep-sea fauna. Hard durable objects, such as teeth and
bones, may slowly accumulate, and be protected by a coating of
peroxide of manganese, or of some of the silicates now forming here
and there over the deep-sea bottom; or the rate of growth of the
abysmal deposit may be so tardy that most of the remains of at
least the larger animals will disappear, owing to decay, before they
can be covered up and preserved. Any such deep-sea formation,
if raised into land, would supply but a meagre picture of the whole
life of the sea.
It would thus appear that the portion of the sea-floor best suited
for receiving and preserving the most varied assemblage of marine
organic remains is the area in front of the land, to which rivers and
currents bring continual supplies of sediment. The most favourable
conditions for the accumulation of a thick mass of marine fossiliferous
strata will arise when the area of deposit is undergoing a gradual
subsidence. If the rate of depression and that of deposit were equal,
or nearly so, the movement might proceed for a vast period without
producing any great apparent change in marine geography, and even
without seriously affecting the distribution of life over the sea-floor
within the area of subsidence. Hundreds or thousands of feet of
sedimentary strata might in this way be heaped up round the con-
tinents, containing a fragmentary series of organic remains belonging
to those forms of comparatively shallow-water life which had hard
parts capable of preservation. There can be little doubt that such
has, in fact, been the history of the main mass of stratified formations
in the earth's crust. By far the largest proportion of these piles
of marine strata has unquestionably been laid down in water of no
great depth within the area of deposit of terrestrial sediment.
The enormous thickness to which they attain seems only explicable
by prolonged and repeated movements of subsidence, interrupted,
however, as we know, by other movements of a contrary kind.
Since the conditions for the preservation of organic remains exist
more favourably under the sea than on land, marine organisms must
be far more abundantly conserved than those of the land. This is
true to-day, and has, as far as known, been true in all past geological
time. Hence for the purposes of the geologist the fossil remains of
marine forms of life far surpass all others in value. Among them
there will necessarily be a gradation of importance, regulated chiefly
by their relative abundance. Now, of all the marine tribes which
live within the juxta-terrestrial belt of sedimentation, unquestionably
the Mollusca stand in the place of pre-eminence as regards their
aptitude for becoming fossils. They almost all possessa hard, durable
shell, capable of resisting considerable abrasion and readily passing
into a mineralized condition. They are extremely abundant both as
to individuals and genera. They occur on the shore within tide
mark, and range thence down into the abysses. Moreover, they
appear to have possessed these qualifications from early geological
times. In the marine Mollusca, therefore, we have a common ground
of comparison between the stratified formations of different periods.
They have been styled the alphabet of palaeontological inquiry.
There are two main purposes to which fossils may be put in
geological research: (i) to throw light upon former conditions
of physical geography, such as the presence of land, rivers,
lakes and seas, in places where they do not now exist, changes
of climate, and the former distribution of plants and animals;
and (2) to furnish a guide in geological chronology whereby
rocks may be classified according to relative date, and the facts
of geological history may be arranged and interpreted as a
connected record of the earth's progress.
1. As examples of the first of these two directions of inquiry
reference may be made to (a) former land-surfaces revealed by the
occurrence of layers of soil with tree-stumps and roots still in the
Cosition of growth (see PURBECKIAN) ; (b) ancient lakes proved by
eds of marl or limestone full of lacustrine shells; (c) old sea-bottoms
marked by the occurrence of marine organisms; (d) variations IB
the quality of the water, such as freshness or saltness, indicated by
changes in the size and shape of the fossils ; (e) proximity to former
land, suggested by the occurrence of abundant drift-wood in the
strata ; (/) former conditions of climate, different from the present,
as evidenced by such organisms as tropical types of plants and
animals intercalated among the strata of temperate or northern
countries.
2. In applying fossils to the determination of geological chronology
it is first necessary to ascertain the order of superposition of the
rocks. Obviously, in a continuous series of undisturbed sedimentary
deposits the lowest must necessarily be the oldest, and the plants or
animals which they contain must have lived and died before any of
the organisms that occur in the overlying strata. This order of
superposition having been settled in a series of formations, it is
found that the fossils at the bottom are not quite the same as those
at the top of the series. Tracing the beds upward, we discover that
species after species of the lowest platforms disappears, until perhaps
not one of them is found. With the cessation of these older species
others make their entrance. These, in turn, are found to die out,
and to be replaced by newer forms. After patient examination of
the rocks, it has been ascertained that every well-marked " forma-
tion," or group of strata, is characterized by its own species or
genera, or by a general assemblage, or fades, of organic forms.
Such a generalization can only, of course, be determined by actual
practical experience over an area of some size. When the typical
fossils of a formation are known, they serve to identify that formation
in its progress across a country. Thus, in tracts where the true
order of superposition cannot be determined, owing to the want of
sections or to the disturbed condition of the rocks, fossils serve as a
means of identification and furnish a guide to the succession of the
rocks. They even demonstrate that in some mountainous ground
the beds have been turned completely upside down, where it
can be shown that the fossils in what are now the uppermost
strata ought properly to lie underneath those in the beds below
them.
It is by their characteristic fossils that the stratified rocks of the
earth's crust can be most satisfactorily subdivided into convenient
groups of strata and classed in chronological order. Each " forma-
tion is distinguished by its own peculiar assemblage of organic
remains, by means of which it can be followed and recognized, even
amid the crumplings and dislocations of a disturbed region. The
same general succession of organic types can be observed over a
large part of the world, though, of course, with important modifica-
tions in different countries. This similarity of succession has been
termed homotaxis, a term which expresses the fact that the order
in which the leading types of organized existence have appeared
upon the earth has been similar even in widely separated regions.
It is evident that, in this way, a reliable method of comparison
is furnished, whereby the stratified formations of different parts of
the earth's crust can be brought into relation with each other.
Had the geologist continued to remain, as in the days of Werner,
hampered by the limitations imposed by a reliance on mere lithp-
logical characters, he would have made little or no progress in
deciphering the record of the successive phases of the history of
the globe chronicled in the crust. Just as, at the present time,
sheets of gravel in one place are contemporaneous with sheets of
mud at another, so in the past all kinds of sedimentation have been
in progress simultaneously, and those of one period may not be
distinguishable in themselves from those of another. Little or no
reliance can be placed upon lithological resemblances or differences
in comparing the sedimentary formations of different countries.
In making use of fossil evidence for the purpose of subdividing
the stratified rocks of the earth's crust, it is found to be applicable
to the smaller details of 'stratigraphy as well as to the definition of
large groups of strata. Thus a particular stratum may be marked
by the occurrence in it of various fossils, one or more of which may
be distinctive, either from occurring in no other bed above and
below or from special abundance in that stratum. One or more of
these species is therefore used as a guide to the occurrence of the bed
PALAEONTOLOG ICAL)
GEOLOGY
667
in question, which it called by the name of the most abundant
specie*. In this way what is called a " geological horizon," or
" " is marked on, and its exact position in the series of formations
i the most distinctive feature in the progress of palaeonto-
logical geology during the last half century has been the recognition
and wide application of this method of zonal stratigraphy, which,
in itself, was only a further development of William Smith s famous
idea, " Strata identified by Organized Fossils." It was first carried
out in detail by various palaeontologists in reference to the Jurassic
formations, notably by I-'. A. von Quenstedt and C. A. Oppel in
Germany and A. D. d'Orbigny in France. The publication of
Oppel's classic work Die Juraformalion Enflandt. Fronkrnchs und
it* nUvrsUitken DntiscUands (1856-1858) marked an epoch in the
development of stratigraphical geology. Combining what had been
done by various observers with his own laborious researches in
France, England, VYurttcmbcrg and Bavaria, he drew up a classifica-
tion of the Jurassic system, grouping its several formations into zones,
each characterized by some distinctly predominant fossil after which
it was named (see LIAS). The same method of classification was
afterwards extended to the Cretaceous series by A. D. d'Orbigny,
E. Hebrrt and others, until the whole Mcsozoic rocks from the
Trias to the top of the Chalk has now been partitioned into zones,
each named alter some characteristic species or genus of fossils.
More recently the principle has been extended to the Palaeozoic
formations, though as yet less fully than to the younger parts of the
geological record. It has been successfully applied by Professor C.
Lapworth to the investigation of the Silurian series (see SILURIAN;
ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM). He found that the species of graptolites
have each a comparatively narrow vertical range, and they may
consequently be used for stratigraphical purposes. Applying the
method, in the first instance, to the highly plicated Silurian rocks of
the south of Scotland, he found that by means of graptolites he was
able to work out the structure of the ground. Each great group of
strata was seen to possess its own graptolitic zones, and by tneir
means could be identified not only in the original complex Scottish
area, but in England and Wales and in Ireland. It was eventually
ascertained that the succession of zones in Great Britain could be
recognized on the Continent, in North America and even in Australia.
The brachiopods and trilobites have likewise been made use of for
zonal purposes among the oldest sedimentary formations. The
most ancient of the Palaeozoic systems has as its fitting base the
OttmeUus zone.
Within undefined and no doubt variable geographical limits
palaeontological zones have been found to be remarkably persistent.
They follow each other in the same general order, but not always
with equal dcfiniteness. The type fossil may appear in some districts
on a higher or a lower platform than it does in others. Only to a
limited degree is there any coincidence between lit hological variations
in the strata and the sequence of the zones. In the Jurassic forma-
tion*, indeed, where frequent alternations of different sedimentary
materials are to be met with, it is in some cases possible to trace a
definite upward or downward limit for a zone by some abrupt
change in the sedimentation, such as from limestone to shale. But
wch a precise demarcation is impossible where no distinct bands of
different sediments are to be seen. The zones can then only be
vaguely determined by finding their characteristic fossils, and noting
where these begin to appear in the strata and where they cease.
It would seem, therefore, that the sequence of palaeontological
zones, or life-horizons, has not depended merely upon changes in
the nature of the conditions under which the organisms lived. We
should naturally expect that these changes would have had a marked
influence; that, for instance, a difference should be perceptible
between the character of the fossils in a limestone and that of those
in a shale or a sandstone. The environment, when a limestone was
in course of deposition, would generally be one of clear water,
favourable for a more vigorous and more varied fauna than where
a shale series was accumulating, when the water would be dis-
coloured, and only such animals would continue to live in it, or on
the bottom, as could maintain themselves in the midst of mud.
But no such lithological reason, betokening geographical changes
that would affect living creatures, can be adduced as a universally
applicable explanation of the occurrence and limitation of palaeon-
tological zone*. One of these zone* may be only a few inches, or
feet or yards in vertical extent, and no obvious lithological or other
cause can be seen why its specially characteristic fossils should
not be found just as frequently in the similar strata above and
below. There is often little or no evidence of any serious change
in the conditions of sedimentation, still less of any widespread
physical disturbance, such as the catastrophes by which the
older geologist* explained the extinction of successive types of
life.
It ha* been suggested that, where the life-zones are well defined,
sedimentation has been extremely slow, and that though these zones
follow each other with no break in the sedimentation, they were
really separated by prolonged intervals of time during which organic
evolution could come effectively into play. But it is not easy to
i how, for example in the Lower Lias, there could have been
ni'ssiuo of prodigious intervals, when practically no sediment
i laid down, and yet that the strata should show no sign of con-
temporaneous disturbance or denudation, but succeed each other
as if they had been accumulated by one continuous process of
deposit. It must be admitted that the problem of life-zones in
stratigraphical geology has not yet been solved.
As Darwin first cogently showed, the history of life has been very
imperfectly registered in the stratified parts of the earth's crust.
Apart from the fact that, even under the most favourable conditions,
only a small proportion of the total flora and fauna of any period
would be preserved in the fossii state, enormous gaps occur where
no record nas survived at all. It is as if whole chapters and books
were missing from a historical work. Some of these lacunae are
sufficiently obvious. Thus, in some cases, powerful dislocations have
thrown considerable portions of the rocks out of sight. Sometimes
extensive metamorphism has so affected them that their original
characters, including their organic contents, have been destroyed.
Oftenest of all, denudation has come into play, and vast masses of
fossiliferous rock have been entirely worn away, as is demonstrated
by the abundant unconformabilities in the structure of the earth's
crust.
While the mere fact that one series of rocks lies unconformablv
on another proves the lapse of a considerable interval between their
respective dates, the relative length of this interval may sometimes
be proved by means of fossil evidence, and by this alone. Let us
suppose, for example, that a certain group of formations has been
disturbed, upraisejd, denuded and covered unconformably by a
second group. In lithological characters the two may closely resemble
each other, and there may be nothing to show that the gap repre-
sented by their unconformability is of an important character. In
many cases, indeed, it would be quite impossible to pronounce any
well-grounded judgment as lo the amount ol interval, even measured
by the vague relative standards of geological chronology. But if
each group contains a well-preserved suite of organic remains, it
may not only be possible, but easy, to say exactly now much of the
geological record has been left out between the two sets of formations.
By comparing the fossils with those obtained from regions where the
geological record is more complete, it may be ascertained, perhaps,
that the lower rocks belong toa certain platform or stagein geological
history which for our present purpose we may call D, ana that the
upper rocks can in like manner be paralleled with stage H. It would
be then apparent that at this locality the chronicles of three great
geological periods E, F, and G were wanting, which are elsewhere
found to be intercalated between D and H. The lapse of time repre-
sented by this unconformability would thus be equivalent to that
required for the accumulation of the three missing formations in
those regions where sedimentation was more continuous.
Fossil evidence may be made to prove the existence of gaps which
are not otherwise apparent. As has been already remarked, changes
in organic forms must, on the whole, have been extremely slow in
the geological past. The whole species of a sea-floor could not pass
entirely away, and be replaced oy other forms, without the lapse
of long periods of time. If then among the conformable stratified
formations of former ages we encounter sudden and abrupt changes
in the fades of the fossils, we may be certain that these must mark
omissions in the record, which we may hope to fill in from a more
perfect series elsewhere. The complete biological contrasts between
the fossil contents of unconformable strata are sufficiently explicable.
It is not so easy to give a satisfactory account of those which occur
where the beds are strictly conformable, and where no evidence can
be observed of any considerable change of physical conditions at the
time of deposit. A group of strata having the same general litho-
logical characters throughout may be marked by a great discrepance
between the fossils above and below a certain line. A few species
may pass from the one into the other, or perhaps every species may
be different. _In cases of this kind, when proved to be not merely
local but persistent over wide areas, we must admit, notwithstanding
the appjarently undisturbed and continuous character of the original
deposition of the strata, that the abrupt transition from the one fades
of fossils to the other represents a long interval of time which has not
been recorded by the deposit of strata. A. C. Ramsay, who called
attention to these gaps, termed them " breaks in the succession of
organic remains." He showed that they occur abundantly among
the Palaeozoic and Secondary rocks of England. It is obvious, of
course, that such breaks, even though traceable over wide regions,
were not general over the whole globe. There have never been any
universal interruptions in the continuity of the chain of being,
so far as geological evidence can show. But the physical changes
which caused the breaks may have been general over a zoological
district or minor region. They no doubt olten caused the complete
extinction of genera and species which had a small geographical
range.
From all these facts it is clear that the geological record, as it now
exists, is at the best but an imperfect chronicle of geological history.
In no country is it complete. The lacunae of one region must be
supplied from another. Yet in proportion to the geographical
distance between the localities where the gaps occur and those
whence the missing intervals are supplied, the element of uncertainty
in our reading of the record is increased. The most /.desirable
method of research is to exhaust the evidence for each area or
province, and to compare the general order of its succession as a
whole with that which can be established for other provinces.
668
GEOLOGY
[STRATIGRAPHICAL
PART VII. STRATIGRAPHICAI. GEOLOGY
This branch of the science arranges the rocks of the earth's
crust in the order of their appearance, and interprets the sequence
of events of which they form the records. Its province is to
cull from the other departments of geology the facts which may
be needed to show what has been the progress of our planet,
and of each continent and country, from the earliest times of
which the rocks have preserved any memorial. Thus from
mineralogy and petrography it contains information regarding
the origin and subsequent mutations of minerals and rocks.
From dynamical geology it learns by what agencies the materials
of the earth's crust have been formed, altered, broken, upheaved
and melted. From geotectonic geology it understands the
various processes whereby these materials were put together
so as to build up the complicated crust of the earth. From
palaeontological geology it receives in well-determined fossil
remains a clue by which to discriminate the different stratified
formations, and to trace the grand onward march of organized
existence upon this planet. Stratigraphical geology thus
gathers up the sum of all that is made known by the other
departments of the science, and makes it subservient to the
interpretation of the geological history of the earth.
The leading principles of stratigraphy may be summed up
as follows:
1. In every Stratigraphical research the fundamental requisite
is to establish the order of superposition of the strata. Until
this is accomplished it is impossible to arrange the dates, and
make out the sequence of geological history.
2. The stratified portion of the earth's crust, or what has been
called the " geological record," can be subdivided into natural
groups, or series of strata, characterized by distinctive organic
remains and recognizable by these remains, in spite of great
changes in lithological character from place to place. A bed,
or a number of beds, linked together by containing one or more
distinctive species or genera of fossils is termed a zone or horizon,
and usually bears the name of one of its more characteristic
fossils, as the Planorbis-zone of the Lower Lias, which is so
called from the prevalence in it of the ammonite Psiloceras
planorbis. Two or more such zones related to each other by the
possession of a number of the same characteristic species or
genera have been designated beds or an assise. Two or more
sets of beds or assises similarly related form a group or stage; a
number of groups or stages make a series, formation or section,
and a succession of formations may be united into a system.
3. Some living species of plants and animals can be traced
downwards through the more recent geological formations;
but the number which can be so followed grows smaller as the
examination is pursued into more ancient deposits. With their
disappearance other species or genera present themselves which
are no longer living. These in turn may be traced backward into
earlier formations, till they too cease and their places are taken by
yet older forms. It is thus shown that the stratified rocks contain
the records of a gradual progression of organic forms. A species
which has once died out does not seem ever to have reappeared.
4. When the order of succession of organic remains among the
stratified rocks has been determined, they become an invaluable
guide in the investigation of the relative age of rocks and the
structure of the land. Each zone and formation, being character-
ized by its own species or genera, may be recognized by their
means, and the true succession of strata may thus be confidently
established even in a country wherein the rocks have been
shattered by dislocation, folded, inverted or metamorphosed.
5. Though local differences exist in regard to the precise zone
in which a given species of organism may make its first appearance,
the general order of succession of the organic forms found in the
rocks is never inverted. The record is nowhere complete in any
region, but the portions represented, even though extremely
imperfect, always follow each other in their proper chronological
order, unless where disturbance of the crust has intervened to
destroy the original sequence.
6. The relative chronological value of the divisions of the
geological record is not to be measured by mere depth of strata.
While it may be reasonably assumed that, in general, a great
thickness of stratified rock must mark the passage of a long
period of time, it cannot safely be affirmed that a much less
thickness elsewhere must represent a correspondingly diminished
period. The need for this caution may sometimes be made
evident by an unconformability between two sets of rocks, as
has already been explained. The total depth of both groups
together may be, say 1000 ft. Elsewhere we may find a single
unbroken formation reaching a depth of 10,000 ft.; but it would
be unwarrantable to assume that the latter represents ten times
the length of time indicated by the former two. So far from
this being the case, it might not be difficult to show that the
minor thickness of rock really denotes by far the longer geological
interval. If, for instance, it could be proved that the upper
part of both the sections lies on one and the same geological
platform, but that the lower unconformable series in the one
locality belongs to a far lower and older system of rocks than the
base of the thick conformable series in the other, then it would
be clear that the gap marked by the unconformability really
indicates a longer period than the massive succession of deposits.
7. Fossil evidence furnishes the chief means of comparing the
relative value of formations and groups of rock. A " break in
the succession of organic remains," as already explained, marks
an interval of time often unrepresented by strata at the place
where the break is found. The relative importance of these
breaks, and therefore, probably, the comparative intervals
of time which they mark, may be estimated by the difference
of the fades or general character of the fossils on each side.
If, for example, in one case we find every species to be dissimilar
above and below a certain horizon, while in another locality only
half of the species on each side are peculiar, we naturally infer,
if the total number of species seems large enough to warrant
the inference, that the interval marked by the former break
was much longer than that marked by the second. But we may
go further and compare by means of fossil evidence the relation
between breaks in the succession of organic remains and the
depth of strata between them.
Three formations of fossiliferous strata, A, C, and H, may occur
conformably above each other. By a comparison of the fossil
contents of all parts of A, it may be ascertained that, while some
species are peculiar to its lower, others to its higher portions, yet the
majority extend throughout the formation. Ifnow it is found that
of the total number of species in the upper portion of A only one- third
passes up into C, it may be inferred with some plausibility that the
time represented by the break between A and C was really longer
than that required for the accumulation of the whole of the formation
A. It might even be possible to discover elsewhere a thick inter-
mediate formation B filling up the gap between A and C. In like
manner were it to be discovered that, while the whole of the formation
C is characterized by a common suite of fossils, not one of the species
and only one half of the genera pass up into H, the inference could
hardly be resisted that the gap between the two formations marks
the passage of a far longer interval than was needed for the deposition
of the whole of C. And thus we reach the remarkable conclusion
that, thick though the stratified formations of a country may be,
in some cases they may not represent so long a total period of time
as do the gaps in their succession, in other words, that non-deposi-
tion was more frequent and prolonged than deposition, or that the
intervals of time which have been recorded by strata have not been
so long as those which have not been so recorded.
In all speculations of this nature, however, it is necessary
to reason from as wide a basis of observation as possible, seeing
that so much of the evidence is negative. Especially needful
is it to bear in mind that the cessation of one or more species
at a certain line among the rocks of a particular district may
mean nothing more than that, onward from the time marked
by that line, these species, owing to some change in the conditions
of life, were compelled to migrate or became locally extinct or,
from some alteration in the conditions of fossilization, were no
longer imbedded and preserved as fossils. They may have
continued to flourish abundantly in neighbouring districts for
a long period afterward. Many examples of this obvious
truth might be cited. Thus in a great succession of mingled
marine, brackish-water and terrestrial strata, like that of the
Carboniferous Limestone series of Scotland, corals, crinoids
PHYSIOGRAPH1CAL]
GEOLOGY
669
and brachiopods abound in the limestones and accompanying
shales, but disappear as the sandstones, ironstones, clays, coals
and bituminous shales 'supervene. An observer meeting for the
first time with an instance of this disappearance, and remember-
ing what he had read about breaks in succession, might be
tempted to speculate about the extinction of these organisms,
and their replacement by other and later forms of life, such as
the ferns, lycopods, estuarine or fresh-water shells, ganoid
fishes and other fossils so abundant in the overlying strata.
But further research would show him that high above the plant-
bearing sandstones and coals other limestones and shales might
be observed, once more charged with the same marine fossils
as before, and still farther overlying groups of sandstones, coals
and carbonaceous beds followed by yet higher marine limestones.
He would thus learn that the same organisms, after being
locally exterminated, returned again and again to the same
area. After such a lesson he would probably pause before too
confidently asserting that the highest bed in which we can
detect certain fossils marks their final appearance in the history
of life. Some breaks in the succession may thus be extremely
local, one set of organisms having been driven to a different part
of the same region, while another set occupied their place until
the first was enabled to return.
8. The geological record is at the best but an imperfect
chronicle of the geological history of the earth. It abounds
in gaps, some of which have been caused by the destruction of
strata owing to metamorphism, denudation or otherwise, others
by original non-deposition, as above explained. Nevertheless
from this record alone can the progress of the earth be traced.
It contains the registers of the appearance and disappearance
of tribes of plants and animals which have from time to time
flourished on the earth. Only a small proportion of the total
number of species which have lived in past time have been thus
chronicled, yet by collecting the broken fragments of the record
an outline at least of the history of life upon the earth can be
deciphered.
It cannot be too frequently stated, nor too prominently kept
in view, that, although gaps occur in the succession of organic
remains as recorded in the rocks, they do not warrant the conclu-
sion that any such blank intervals ever interrupted the progress
of plant and animal life upon the globe. There is every reason
to believe that the march of life has been unbroken, onward and
upward. Geological history, therefore, if its records in the
stratified formations were perfect, ought to show a blending
and gradation of epoch with epoch. But the progress has been
constantly interrupted, now by upheaval, now by volcanic
outbursts, now by depression. These interruptions serve as
natural divisions in the chronicle, and enable the geologist to
arrange his history into periods. As the order of succession
among stratified rocks was first made out in Europe, and as many
of the gaps in that succession were found to be widespread over
the European area, the divisions which experience established
for that portion of the globe came to be regarded as typical,
and the names adopted for them were applied to the rocks of
other and far distant regions. This application has brought out
the fact that some of the most marked breaks in the European
series do not exist elsewhere, and, on the other hand, that some
portions of that series are much more complete than the corre-
sponding sections in other regions. Hence, while the general
similarity of succession may remain, different subdivisions and
nomenclature are required as we pass from continent to continent.
The nomenclature adopted for the subdivisions of the geological
record bears witness to the rapid growth of geology. It is a
patch-work in which no system nor language has been adhered
to, but where the influences by which the progress of the science
has been moulded may be distinctly traced. Some of the earliest
Dames are lithological, and remind us of the fact that mineralogy
and petrography preceded geology in the order of birth Chalk,
Oolite, Greensand. Millstone Grit. Others are topographical,
and often recall the labours of the early geologists of England
London Gay, Oxford Clay, Purbeck, Portland, Kimmcridge beds.
Others are taken from local English provincial names, and
remind us of the debt we owe to William Smith, by whom so
many of them were first used Lias, Gault, Crag, Cornbrash.
Others of later date recognize an order of superposition as
already established among formations Old Red Sandstone,
New Red Sandstone. By common consent it is admitted that
names taken from the region where a formation or group of rocks
is typically developed arc best adapted for general use.
Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, Permian, Jurassic are of this
class, and have been adopted all over the globe.
But whatever be the name chosen to designate a particular
group of strata, it soon comes to be used as a chronological or
homotaxial term, apart altogether from the stratigraphical
character of the strata to which it is applied. Thus we speak
of the Chalk or Cretaceous system, and embrace under that
term formations which may contain no chalk; and we may
describe as Silurian a series of strata utterly unlike in lithological
characters to the formations in the typical Silurian country.
In using these terms we unconsciously allow the idea of relative
date to arise prominently before us. Hence such a word as
" chalk " or " cretaceous " does not suggest so much to us the
group of strata so called as the interval of geological history
which these strata represent. We speak of the Cretaceous,
Jurassic, and Cambrian periods, and of the Cretaceous fauna,
the Jurassic flora, the Cambrian trilobites, as if these adjectives
denoted simply epochs of geological time.
The stratified formations of the earth's crust, or geological
record, are classified into five main divisions, which in their
order of antiquity are as follows: (i) Archean or Pre-Cambrian,
called also sometimes Azoic (lifeless) or Eozoic (dawn of life);
(2) Palaeozoic (ancient life) or Primary; (3) Mesozoic (middle
life) or Secondary; (4) Cainozoic (recent life) or Tertiary;
(3) Quaternary or Post-Tertiary. These divisions are further
ranged into systems, formations, groups or stages, assises and
zones. Accounts of the various subdivisions named are given
in separate articles under their own headings. In order, however,
that the sequence of the formations and their parallelism in
Europe and North America may be presented together a strati-
graphical table is given on next page.
PART VIII. PHYSIOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY
This department of geological inquiry investigates the origin
and history of the present topographical features of the land.
As these features must obviously be related to those of earlier
time which are recorded in the rocks of the earth's crust, they
cannot be satisfactorily studied until at least the main outlines
of the history of these rocks have been traced. Hence physio-
graphical research comes appropriately after the other branches
of the science have been considered.
From the stratigraphy of the terrestrial crust we learn that
by far the largest part of the area of dry land is built up of marine
formations; and therefore that the present land is not an
aboriginal portion of the earth's surface, but has been overspread
by the sea in which its rocks were mainly accumulated. We
further discover that this submergence of the land did not
happen once only, but again and again in past ages and in all
parts of the world. Yet although the terrestrial areas varied
much from age to age in their extent and in their distribution,
being at one time more continental, at another more insular,
there is reason to believe that these successive diminutions and
expansions have on the whole been effected within, or not far
outside, the limits of the existing continents. There is no
evidence that any portion of the present land ever lay under the
deeper parts of the ocean. The abysmal deposits of the ocean-
floor have no true representatives among the sedimentary
formations anywhere visible on the land. Nor, on the other
hand, can it be shown that any part of the existing ocean
abysses ever rose above sea-level into dry land . Hence geologists
have drawn the inference that the ocean basins have probably
been always where they now are; and that although the con-
tinental areas have often been narrowed by submergence and by
denudation, there has probably seldom or never been a complete
670
GEOLOGY
[PHYSIOGRAPHICAL
The Geological Record or Order of Succession of the Stratified
Formations of the Earth's Crust.
Europe.
North America.
1
Historic, up to the present time.
Prehistoric, comprising deposits of the
Similar to the European de-
velopment, but with scantier
^Jf r
Iron, Bronze, and later Stone Ages.
traces of the presence of man.
1
|||
Neolithic alluvium, peat, lake-dwell-
ings, loess, &c.
|
v **^
Palaeolithic river-gravek, cave-de-
aS
posits, &c.
i
Older Loess and valley-gravels; cave-
As in Europe, it is hardly pos-
ft
"5
deposits.
sible to assign a definite
o
"C
Strand-lines or raised beaches; youngest
chronological place to each
>.
moraines.
of the various deposits of tnis
^
O
Upper Boulder-clays; eskers; marine
period, terrestrial and marine.
rj
fc>
sands and clays.
They generally resemble the
3
8
Interglacial deposits.
European series. The charac-
1
f
Lower boulder-clay or Till, with striated
teristic marine, fluviatile and
a
_g
rock-surfaces below.
lacustrine terraces, which
.2
overlie the older drifts, have
E
been classed as the Champ-
Iain Group.
Newer: English Forest-Bed Group;
On the Atlantic border repre-
d
Red and Norwich Crag; Amstelian
and Scaldesian groups of Belgium
sented by the marine Floridian
series; in the interior by a
and Holland; Sicilian and Astian of
subaerial and lacustrine series;
5
France and Italy.
and on the Pacific border by
*
Older: English Coralline Crag; Dies-
the thick marine series of San
tian of Belgium; Plaisancian of south-
Francisco.
ern France and Italy.
Wanting in Britain; well developed in
France, S. E. Europe and Italy; divis-
Represented in the Eastern
States by a marine series
d
ible info the following groups in
(Yorktown or Chesapeake,
descending order: (i) Pontian; (2)
Chlpola and Chattahoochee
.0
Sarmatian; (3) Tortonian; (4^ Hel-
groups), and in the interior
JgJ
vetian; (5) Langhian (Burdigahan).
by the lacustrine Loup Fork
(Nebraska), Deep River, and
John Day groups.
In Britain the " fluvio-marine series" of
On the Atlantic border no
.2
the Isle of Wight; also the volcanic
equivalents have been satis-
B
plateaux of Antrim and Inner Hebrides
and those of the Faeroe Isles and Ice-
factorily recognised, but on
the Pacific side there are
g
i
land. In continental Europe the
marine deposits in N. W.
1
1
f ol lowing subdivisions have been
established in descending order: (i)
Oregon, which may represent
this division. In the interior
'S
Aquitanian, (2) Stampian (Rupelian),
(3) Tongrain (Sannoisian).
the equivalent is believed to
be the fresh-water White River
a
series, including ( i) Proto-
ceras beds, (2) Oreodon beds,
and (3) Tttanolhenum beds.
Barton sands and clays; Ludian series
Woodstock and Aquia Creek
of France.
groups of Potomac River;
Bracklesham Beds; Lutetian (Calcaire
Vicksburg, Jackson, Clai-
grossier and GUI lasses) of Paris basin.
borne, Buhrslone, and Lig-
1
London clay, Woolwich and Reading
Beds; Thanet sands; Ypresian or
Londinian of N. France and Belgium;
nitic groups of Mississippi.
!n the interior a thick series of
fresh-water formations, com-
O
Sparnacian and Thanetian groups.
prising, in descending order.
w
the Uinta, Bridger, Wind
River, Wasatch, Torrejon,
and Puerco groups.
On the Pacific side the marine
Tejon series of Oregon and
California.
Daman wanting in Britain; uppermost
On the Atlantic border both
limestone of Denmark.
marine strata and others con-
Senonian Upper Chalk with Flints of
taining a terrestrial flora re-
England; Aturian and Emscherian
present the Cretaceous series
h
stages on the European continent.
of formations.
a
Turonian Middle Chalk with few
[n the interior there is also a
p
flints, and comprising the Angoumian
and Ligerian stages.
commingling of marine with
lacustrine deposits. At the
Cenomaman Lower Chalk and Chalk
top lies the Laramie or Lig-
Marl.
nitic series with an abundant
Albian Upper Greensand and Gault.
Aptian Lower Greensand; Marls and
terrestrial flora, passing down
into the lacustrine and
limestones of Provence, &c.
brackish-water Montana
Urgonian (Barremian) Atherfield clay;
series. Of older date, the
massive Hippurite limestones of
Colorado series contains an
southern France.
abundant marine fauna, yet
Neocomian Weald day and Hastings
includes also some coal-seams.
sand ; Hauteri vian and Valanginian
The Niobrara marls and lime-
sub-stages of Switzerland and France.
stones are likewise of marine
origin, but the lower members
6
of the series (Benton and
9i
Dakota) show another great
S
representation of fresh-water
.-
sedimentation with lignites
p
and coals.
o
[n California a vast succession
of marine deposits (Shasta-
^'
Chico) represents the Cre-
taceous system; and in western
British N. America coal-seams
also occur.
Purbeckian Purbeck beds; MOnder
Representatives of the Middle
Mergel ; largely present in West-
and lower Jurassic forma-
phalia.
tions have been found in
Portlandian Portland group of Eng-
California and Oregon, and
I
land, represented in S. France by the
thick Tithonian limestones.
farther north among the Arctic
islands.
Kimmeridgian Kimmeridge Clay of
Strata containing Lower Juras-
>*
England; Virgulian and Ptcrocerian
sic marine fossils appear in
groups of N. France; represented by
thick limestones in the Mediterranean
Wyoming and Dakota; and
above them come the Atlanto-
basin.
saurus and Baptanodon beds,
Europe.
North America.
Corallian Coral Rag, Coralline Oolite;
f which have yielded so large a
Sequanian stages of the Continent,
variety of deinosaurs and other
comprising the sub-
stages of Astartian
vertebrates, and especially the
1
and Rauracian.
Oxfordian Oxford Clay; Argovian and
remains of a number of genera
of small mammals
.
'-5
Neuvizyan stages.
1
S
Callovian Kellaways
Rock, Divesian
a
f
sub-stage of N. Fran
ce.
!
1
Bathonian series of English strata from
Cornbrash down to Fuller's Earth.
r
S
Bajocian Inferior Oolite of England.
b
^
Llassic divisible intc
(i) Upper Lias
or Toarcian (2) Middle Lias, Marl-
stone or Charmouthian. (.0 Lower
S
Lias of Sinemurian
ind Hettangian.
"L
In Germany and western Europe this
In New York, Connecticut, New
division represents
the deposits of
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia
5
inland seas or lagoons, and is divisible
a series of red sandstone
o
into the following st
ages in descending
(Newark series) contains land-
1
1
order: (i) Rhaetic
Muschelkalk, (4) '.
(2) Keuper, (3)
iunter. In the
plants and labyrinthodonts
like the lagoon type of central
Jl
eastern Alps and the Mediterranean
and western Europe. On the
H
basin the contemporaneous sediment-
ary formations are those of open clear
sea, in which a thickness of many
thousand feet of strata was accumu-
lated.
Pacific slope, however, marine
equivalents occur, represent-
ing the pelagic type 01 south-
eastern Europe.
Thuringian Zech
itein, Magnesian
To this division of the geologi-
Limestone; named
from its develop-
cal record the Upper Barren
ment in Thuringia;
well represented
Measures of the coal-fields of
also in Saxony, Bavaria and Bohemia.
Pennsylvania, Prince Edward
I
Saxonian Rothliegendes Group; Red
Island, Nova Scotia and
'c
Sandstones. &c.
New Brunswick have been
fe
Autunian where the strata present the
assigned.
lagoon facies, well displayed at Autun
Farther south in Kansas, Texas,
in France; where t
ic marine type is
and Nebraska the representa-
predominant, as in
Russia, the croup
tives of the division have an
has been termed Artinskian.
abundant marine fauna.
Stephanian or Uralian represented in
Russia by marine formations, and in
Upper productive Coal-
measures.
3
central and western
Europe by numer-
Lower Barren measures.
1
ous small basins containing a peculiar
flora and in some places a great variety
Lower productive Coal-
measures.
1
|
of insects.
Westphalianor
Moscovian Coal-
Pottsvillc conglomerate.
Mauch Chunk shales; lime-
measures, Millstone (
irit.
stones of Chester, St Louis, &c.
O
Culm or Dinantian Carboniferous Lime-
Pocono series ; Kinderhook
stone and Calciferous Sandstone series.
imestone.
Devonian type.
Old Red Sand-
stone type.
j..
1
{Catskill red sandstone; Old
Red Sandstone type: the
?
f
Yellow and red
strata below show the
c
a
i
M83ST
sandstone with
Ho loptychtus,
Bolhriolepis&c.
Devonian type.
Chemung Group.
Genesee
'3
Caithness Flag-
N
i
S
>*{&
stones with
Oste6lepus,Dip-
terus, Homo-
( Hamilton Group.
\ Marcel lus "
CM
a
sieus, &c.
Red and purple
sandstones and
{Corniferous Lame- f Upper
&
T 5 Coblentzian.
Lower i Gedinnian.
conglomerates
with Cephal-
stone. J Hefder-
Onondaga Lime- j berg
stone. L Group.
aspis, &c.
Oriskany Sandstone.
Lower Helderberg Group.
( Ludlow Group
Upper < Wenlock '
Water- Lime.
- Niagara Shale and Limestone.
s
( Uandovery "
Clinton Group.
Medina '
'C
3
* Cincinnati Group.
9
Lower \ Caradoc or Bala Group.
Ulica
- Trenton
(Ordovician) 1 \reniff
n
Chazy
.Calciferous "
a
Upper or Olentts series Tremadoc slates
and Lingula Flags.
Upper or Potsdam series with
Olenus and Dicelocephalus
Cambria
Middle or Paradoxides series Mene-
vian Group.
Lower or Olentllus series Llanberis
and Harlech Group, and Olenellus-
zone.
fauna.
Middle or Acadian series with
Paradoxides fauna.
Lower or Georgian series with
Olenellus tauna.
In Scotland, underlie;
th the Cambrian
In Canada and the Lake
Olenellus group, li
es unconformaMy
Superior region of the United
^ambnan. Eozoic.
a mass of red sandstone and con-
glomerate (Torridonian) 8000 or 10,000
ft. thick, which rests with a strong
unconformability on a series of coarse
gneisses and schists (Lewisian). A
thick series of states and phyllites lies
below the oldest Pa aeozoic rocks in
central Europe, with coarse gneisses
below.
States a vast succession of
rocks of Pre-Cambrian age
has been grouped into the
following subdivisions in de-
scending order: (i) Keweena-
wan, lying unconformably on
(2) Animikie, separated by a
strong unconformability from
(3) Upper Huronian, (4) Lower
Huronian with an unconfonn-
* <
'
able base, (5) Goutchiching,
(6) Laurentian. In the eastern
CM
part of Canada, Newfound-
c
land, &c., and also in Mon-
1
tana, sedimentary formations
of great thickness below the
41
lowest Cambrian zone have
been found to contain some
obscure organisms.
PinSIOCRAPHICAL]
GEOLOGY
671
disappearance of land. The fact that the sedimentary forma-
tions of each successive geological period consist to so large an
extent of mechanically formed terrigenous detritus, affords
good evidence of the coexistence of tracts of land as well as of
extensive denudation.
From these general considerations we proceed to* inquire how
the existing topographical features of the land arose. Obviously
the co-operation of the two great geological agencies of hypogene
and epigene energy, which have been at work from the beginning
of our globe's decipherable history, must have been the cause
to which these features are to be assigned; and the task of the
geologist is to ascertain, if possible, the part that has been taken
by each. There is a natural tendency to see in a stupendous
piece of scenery, such as a deep ravine, a range of hills, a line of
precipice or a chain of mountains, evidence only of subterranean
convulsion; and before the subject was taken up as a matter
of strict scientific induction, an appeal to former cataclysms
was considered a sufficient solution of the problems presented
by such features of landscape. The rise of the modern
Huttonian school, however, led to a more careful examination
of these problems. The important share taken by erosion in the
determination of the present features of landscape was then
recognized, while a fuller appreciation of the relative parts
played by the hypogene and epigene causes has gradually been
reached.
I. The study of the progress of denudation at the present
time has led to the conclusion that even if the rate of waste
were not more rapid than it is to-day, it would yet suffice in a
comparatively brief geological period to reduce the dry land to
below the sea-level. But not only would the area of the land be
diminished by denudation, it could hardly fail to be more or
less involved* in those widespread movements of subsidence,
during which the thick sedimentary formations of the crust
appear to have been accumulated. It is thus manifest that there
must have been from time to time during the history of our
globe upward movements of the crust, whereby the balance
between land and sea was redressed. Proofs of such movements
have been abundantly preserved among the stratified formations.
We there learn that the uplifts have usually followed each other
at long intervals between which subsidence prevailed, and thus
that there has been a prolonged oscillation of the crust over the
great continental areas of the earth's surface.
An rumination of that surface leads to the recognition of two
great types of upheaval. In the one, the sea-floor, with all its
thick accumulations of sediment, has been carried upwards,
sometimes for several thousand feet, so equably that the strata
retain their original flatness with hardly any sensible disturbance
(or hundreds of square miles. In the other type the solid crust
has been plicated, corrugated and dislocated, especially along
particular lines, and has attained its most stupendous disruption
in lofty chains of mountains. Between these two phases of uplift
many intermediate stages have been developed, according to
the direction and intensity of the subterranean force and the
varying nature and disposition of the rocks of the crust.
(a) Where the uplift has extended over wide spaces, without
appreciable deformation of the crust, the flat strata have given
rise to low plains, or if the amount of uprise has been great
enough, to high plains, plateaux or tablelands. The plains of
Runa, for example, lie for the most part on such tracts of
equably uplifted strata. The great plains of the western interior
of the United States form a great plateau or tableland, 5000 or
6000 ft. above the sea, and many thousands of square miles in
extent, on which the Rocky Mountains have been ridged up.
(6) It is in a great mountain-chain that the complicated
structures developed during disturbances of the earth's crust
can best be studied (see Parts IV. and V. of this article), and
where the influence of these structures on the topography of the
surface is most effectively displayed. Such a chain may be the
result of one colossal disturbance; but those of high geological
antiquity usually furnish proofs of successive uplifts with more
or less intervening denudation. Formed along lines of continental
displacement in the crust, they have again and again given
relief from the strain of compression by fresh crumpling, fracture
and uprise. The chief guide in tracing these successive stages
of growth is supplied by unconformability. If, for example, a
mountain-range consists of upraised Silurian rocks, upon the
upturned and denuded edges of which the Carboniferous Lime-
stone lies transgressively, it is clear that its original upheaval
must have taken place in the period of geological time represented
by the interval between the Silurian and the Carboniferous
Limestone formations. If, as the range is followed along its
course, the Carboniferous Limestone is found to be also highly
inclined and covered unconformably by the Upper Coal-measures,
a second uplift of that portion of the ground can be proved to
have taken place between the time of the Limestone and that of
the Upper Coal-measures. By this simple and obvious kind of
evidence the relative ages of different mountain-chains may
be compared. In most great chains, however, the rocks have
been so intensely crumpled, and even inverted, that much
labour may be required before their true relations can be deter-
mined.
The Alps furnish an instructive example of the long series of
revolutions through which a great mountain-system may have
passed before reaching its present development. The first
beginnings of the chain may have been upraised before the
oldest Palaeozoic formations were laid down. There are at
least traces of land and shore-lines in the Carboniferous period.
Subsequent submergences and uplifts appear to have occurred
during the Mesozoic periods. There is evidence that thereafter
the whole region sank deep under the sea, in which the older
Tertiary sediments were accumulated, and which seems to
have spread right across the heart of the Old World. But after
the deposition of the Eocene formations came the gigantic
disruptions whereby all the rocks of the Alpine region were
folded over each other, crushed, corrugated, fractured and
displaced, some of their older portions, including the fundamental
gneisses and schists, being squeezed up, torn off, and pushed
horizontally for many miles over the younger rocks. But this
upheaval, though the most momentous, was not the last which
the chain has undergone, for at a later epoch in Tertiary time
renewed disturbance gave rise to a further series of ruptures
and plications. The chain thus successively upheaved has
been continuously exposed to denudation and has consequently
lost much of its original height. That it has been left in a state
of instability is indicated by the frequent earthquakes of the
Alpine region, which doubtless arise from the sudden snapping
of rocks under intense strain.
A distinct type of mountain due to direct hypogene action is
to be seen in a volcano. It has been already pointed out (Part IV.
sect, i) that at the vents which maintain a communication
between the molten magma of the earth's interior and the
surface, eruptions take place whereby quantities of lava and
fragmentary materials are heaped round each orifice of
discharge. A typical volcanic mountain takes the form of a
perfect cone, but as it grows in size and its main vent is choked,
while the sides of the cone are unable to withstand the force of
the explosions or the pressure of the ascending column of lava,
eruptions take place laterally, and numerous parasitic cones
arise on the flanks of the parent mountain. Where lava flows
out from long fissures, it may pile up vast sheets of rock, and
bury the surrounding country under several thousand feet of
solid stone, covering many hundreds of square miles. In this
way volcanic tablelands have been formed which, attacked by
the denuding forces, are gradually trenched by valleys and
ravines, until the original level surface of the lava-field may be
almost or wholly lost. As striking examples of this physio-
graphical type reference may be made to the plateau of Abyssinia,
the Ghats of India, the plateaux of Antrim, the Inner Hebrides
and Iceland, and the great lava-plains of the western territories
of the United States.
2. But while the subterranean movements have upraised
portions of the surface of the lithosphere above the level of the
ocean, and have thus been instrumental in producing the existing
tracts of land, the detailed topographical features of a landscape
672
GEOLOGY
[PHYSIOGRAPHICAL
are not solely, nor in general even chiefly, attributable to these
movements. From the time that any portion of the sea-floor
appears above sea-level, it undergoes erosion by the various
epigene agents. Each climate and geological region has its own
development of these agents, which include air, aridity, rapid and
frequent alternations of wetness and dryness or of heat and
cold, rain, springs, frosts, rivers, glaciers, the sea, plant and
animal life. In a dry climate subject to great extremes of
temperature the character and rate of decay will differ from
those of a moist or an arctic climate. But it must be remembered
that, however much they may vary in activity and in the results
which they effect, the epigene forces work without intermission,
while the hypogene forces bring about the upheaval of land only
after long intervals. Hence, trifling as the results during a
human life may appear, if we realize the multiplying influence
of time we are led to perceive that the apparently feeble super-
ficial agents can, in the course of ages, achieve stupendous
transformations in the aspect of the land. If this efficacy may
be deduced from what can be seen to be in progress now, it
may not less convincingly be shown, from the nature of the
sedimentary rocks of the earth's crust, to have been in progress
from the early beginnings of geological history. Side by side
with the various upheavals and subsidences, there has been a
continuous removal of materials from the land, and an equally
persistent deposit of these materials under water, with the
consequent growth of new rocks. Denudation has been aptly
compared to a process of sculpturing wherein, while each of the
implements employed by nature, like a special kind of graving
tool, produces its own characteristic impress on the land, they
all combine harmoniously towards 'the achievement of their
one common task. Hence the present contours of the land
depend partly on the original configuration of the ground, and
the influence it may have had in guiding the operations of the
erosive agents, partly on the vigour with which these agents
perform their work, and partly on the varying structure and
powers of resistance possessed by the rocks on which the erosion
is carried on.
Where a new tract of land has been raised out of the sea
by such an energetic movement as broke up the crust and
produced the complicated structure and tumultuous external
forms of a great mountain chain, the influence of the hypogene
forces on the topography attains its highest development.
But even the youngest existing chain has suffered so greatly
from denudation that the aspect which it presented at the time
of its uplift can only be dimly perceived. No more striking
illustration of this feature can be found than that supplied by
the Alps, nor one where the geotectonic structures have been
so fully studied in detail. On the outer flanks of these mountains
the longitudinal ridges and valleys of the Jura correspond with
lines of anticline and syncline. Yet though the dominant
topographical elements of the region have obviously been
produced by the plication of the stratified formations, each
ridge has suffered so large an amount of erosion that the younger
rocks have been removed from its crest where the older members
of the series are now exposed to view, while on every slope
proofs may be seen of extensive denudation. If from these
long wave-like undulations of the ground, where the relations
between the disposition of the rocks below and the forms of
the surface are so clearly traceable, the observer proceeds
inwards to the main chain, he finds that the plications and
displacements of the various formations assume an increasingly
complicated character; and that although proofs of great
denudation continue to abound, it becomes increasingly difficult
to form any satisfactory conjecture as to the shape of the ground
when the upheaval ended or any reliable estimate of the amount
of material which has since then been removed. Along the
central heights the mountains lift themselves towards the sky
like the storm-swept crests of vast earth-billows. The whole
aspect of the ground suggests intense commotion, and the
impression thus given is often much intensified by the twisted
and crumpled strata, visible from a long distance, on the crags
and crests. On this broken-up surface the various agents of
denudation have been ceaselessly engaged since it emerged
from the sea. They have excavated valleys, sometimes along
depressions provided for them by the subterranean disturbances,
sometimes down the slopes of the disrupted blocks of ground.
So powerful has been this erosion that valleys cut out along
lines of anticline, which were natural ridges, have sometimes
become more important than those in lines of syncline, which
were structurally depressions. The same subaerial forces have
eroded lake-basins, dug out corries or cirques, notched the
ridges, splintered the crests and furrowed the slopes, leav-
ing no part of the original surface of the uplifted chain
unmodified.
It has often been noted with surprise that features of
underground structure which, it might have been confidently
anticipated, should have exercised a marked influence on the
topography of the surface have not been able to resist the
levelling action of the denuding agents, and do not now affect
the surface at all. This result is conspicuously seen in coal-fields
where the strata are abundantly traversed by faults. These
dislocations, having sometimes a displacement of several hundred
feet, might have been expected to break up the surface into
a network of cliffs and plains; yet in general they do not modify
the level character of the ground above. One of the most
remarkable faults in Europe is the great thrust which bounds
the southern edge of the Belgian coal-field and brings the
Devonian rocks above the Coal-measures. It can be traced
across Belgium into the Boulonnais, and may not improbably
run beneath the Secondary and Tertiary rocks of the south of
England. It is crossed by the valleys of the Meuse and other
northerly-flowing streams. Yet so indistinctly is it marked
in the Meuse valley that no one would suspect its existence from
any peculiarity in the general form of the ground; and even an
experienced geologist, until he had learned the structure of the
district, would scarcely detect any fault at all.
Where faults have influenced the superficial topography,
it is usually by giving rise to a hollow along which the subaerial
agents and especially running water can act effectively. Such
a hollow may be eventually widened and deepened into a valley.
On bare crags and crests, lines of fault are apt to be marked by
notches or clefts, and they thus help to produce the pinnacles
and serrated outlines of these exposed uplands.
It was cogently enforced by Hutton and Playfair, and inde-
pendently by Lamarck, that no co-operation of underground
agency is needed to produce such topography as may be seen
in a great part of the world, but that if a tract of sea-floor were
upraised into a wide plain, the fall of rain and the circulation
of water over its surface would in the end carve out such a system
of hills and valleys as may be seen on the dry land now. No
such plain would be a dead-level. It would have inequalities
on its surface which would serve as channels to guide the drainage
from the first showers of rain. And these channels would be
slowly widened and deepened until they would become ravines
and valleys, while the ground between them would be left project-
ing as ridges and hills. Nor would the erosion of such a system
of water-courses require a long series of geological periods for
its accomplishment. From measurements and estimates of the
amount of erosion now taking place in the basin of the Mississippi
river it has been computed that valleys 800 ft. deep might be
carved out in less than a million years. In the vast tablelands
of Colorado and other western regions of the United States an
impressive picture is presented of the results of mere subaerial
erosion on undisturbed and nearly level strata. Systems of
stream-courses and valleys, river gorges unexampled elsewhere
in the world for depth and length, vast winding lines of escarp-
ment, like ranges of sea-cliffs, terraced slopes rising from plateau
to plateau, huge buttresses and solitary stacks standing like
islands out of the plains, great mountain-masses towering into
picturesque peaks and pinnacles cleft by innumerable gullies,
yet everywhere marked by the parallel bars of the horizontal
strata out of which they have been carved these are the orderly
symmetrical characteristics of a country where the scenery is
due entirely to the action of subaerial agents on the one hand and
niVSUK.K ATHICAL]
GEOLOGY
673
the varying resistance of perfectly regular stratified rocks on the
other.
The details of the sculpture of the land have mainly depended
on the nature of the materials on which nature's erosive tools
have been employed. The joints by which all rocks are traversed
have been especially serviceable as dominant lines down which
the rain has filtered, up which the springs have risen and into
which the frost wedges have been driven. On the high bare
scarps of a lofty mountain the inner structure of the mass is laid
open, and there the system of joints even more than faults is
seen to have determined the lines of crest, the vertical walls of
cliff and precipice, the forms of buttress and recess, the position.
of cleft and chasm, the outline of spire and pinnacle. On the
lower slopes, even under the tapestry of verdure which nature
delights to hang where she can over her naked rocks, we may
detect the same pervading influence of the joints upon the forms
assumed by ravines and crags. Each kind of stone, too, gives
rise to its own characteristic form of scenery. Massive crystalline
locks, such as granite, break up along their joints and often
decay into sand or earth along their exposed surfaces, giving
rise to rugged crags with long talus slopes at their base. The
stratified rocks besides splitting at their joints are especially
distinguished by parallel ledges, cornices and recesses, produced
by the irregular decay of their component strata, so that they
often assume curiously architectural types of scenery. But
besides this family feature they display many minor varieties of
aspect according to their lithologic.il composition. A range of
sandstone hills, for example, presents a marked contrast to one
of limestone, and a line of chalk downs to the escarpments
formed by alternating bands of harder and softer clays and
shales.
It may suffice here merely to allude to a few of the more
important parts of the topography of the land in their relation
to physiographical geology. A true mountain-chain, viewed
from the geological side, is a mass of high ground which owes its
prominence to a ridging-up of the earth's crust, and the intense
plication and rupture of the rocks of which it is composed. But
ranges of hills almost mountainous in their bulk may be formed
by the gradual erosion of valleys out of a mass of original high
ground, such as a high plateau or tableland. Eminences which
have been isolated by denudation from the main mass of the
formations of which they originally formed part are known as
" outliers " or " hills of circumdenudation."
Tablelands, as already pointed out, may be produced either
by the upheaval of tracts of horizontal strata from the sea-floor
into land; or by the uprise of plains of denudation, where rocks
of various composition, structure and age have been levelled
down to near or below the level of the sea by the co-operation
of the various erosive agents. Most of the great tablelands
of the globe are platforms of little-disturbed strata which have
been upraised bodily to a considerable elevation. No sooner,
however, are they placed in that position than they are attacked
by running water, and begin to be hollowed out into systems of
valleys. As the valleys sink, the platforms between them grow
into narrower and more definite ridges, until eventually the
level tableland is convened into a complicated network of hills
and valleys, wherein, nevertheless, the key to the whole arrange-
ment is furnished by a knowledge of the disposition and effects
of the flow of water. The examples of this process brought to
light in Colorado, Wyoming, Nevada and the other western
regions by Newberry, King, Hayden, Powell and other explorers,
are among the most striking monuments of geological operations
in the world.
Examples of ancient and much decayed tablelands formed by
the denudation of much disturbed rocks are furnished by the
Highlands of Scotland and of Norway. Each of these tracts of
high ground consists of some of the oldest and most dislocated
formations of Europe, which at a remote period were worn down
into a plain, and in that condition may have lain long submerged
under the sea and may possibly have been overspread there
with younger formations. Having at a much later time been
raised several thousand feet above sea-level the ancient platforms
XI. 21
of Britain and Scandinavia have been since exposed to denuda-
tion, whereby each of them has been so deeply channeled into
glens and fjords that it presents to-day a surface of rugged
hills, either isolated or connected along the flanks, while only
fragments of the general surface of the tableland can here and
there be recognized amidst the general destruction.
Valleys have in general been hollowed out by the greater
erosive action of running water along the channels of drainage.
Their direction has been probably determined in the great
majority of cases by irregularities of the surface along which
the drainage flowed on the first emergence of the land. Some-
times these irregularities have been produced by folds of the
terrestrial crust, sometimes by faults, sometimes by the irregu-
larities on the surface of an uplifted platform of deposition or of
denudation. Two dominant trends may be observed among
them. Some are longitudinal and run along the line of flexures
in the upraised tract of land, others are transverse where the
drainage has flowed down the slopes of the ridges into the longi-
tudinal valleys or into the sea. The forms of valleys have been
governed partly by the structure and composition of the rocks,
and partly by the relative potency of the different denuding
agents. Where the influence of rain and frost has been slight,
and the streams, supplied from distant sources, have had
sufficient declivity, deep, narrow, precipitous ravines or gorges
have been excavated. The canyons of the arid region of the
Colorado are a magnificent example of this result. Where, on
the other hand, ordinary atmospheric action has been more
rapid, the sides of the river channels have been attacked, and
open sloping glens and valleys have been hollowed out. A
gorge or defile is usually due to the action of a waterfall, which,
beginning with some abrupt declivity or precipice in the course
of the river when it first commenced to flow, or caused by some
hard rock crossing the channel, has eaten its way backward.
Lakes have been already referred to, and their modes of origin
have been mentioned. As they are continually being filled up
with the detritus washed into them from the surrounding
regions they cannot be of any great geological antiquity, unless
where by some unknown process their basins are from time to
time widened and deepened.
In the general subaerial denudation of a country, innumerable
minor features are worked out as the structure of the rocks
controls the operations of the eroding agents. Thus, among
comparatively undisturbed strata, a hard bed resting upon
others of a softer kind is apt to form along its outcrop a line of
cliff or escarpment. Though a long range of such cliffs resembles
a coast that has been worn by the sea, it may be entirely due to
mere atmospheric waste. Again, the more resisting portions of
a rock may be seen projecting as crags or knolls. An igneous
mass will stand out as a bold hill from amidst the more decom-
posable strata through which it has risen. These features
often so marked on the lower grounds, attain their most con-
spicuous development among the higher and barer parts of the
mountains, where subaerial disintegration is most rapid. The
torrents tear out deep gullies from the sides of the declivities.
Corries or cirques are scooped out on the one hand and naked
precipices are left on the other. The harder bands of rock
project as massive ribs down the slopes, shoot up into prominent
aiguilles, or help to give to the summits the notched saw-like
outlines they so often present.
The materials worn from the surface of the higher are spread
out over the lower grounds. The streams as they descend begin
to drop their freight of sediment when, by the lessening of their
declivity, their carrying power is diminished. The great plains
of the earth's surface are due to this deposit of gravel, sand and
loam. They are thus monuments at once of the destructive and
reproductive processes which have been in progress unceasingly
since the first land rose above the sea and the first shower of rain
fell. Every pebble and particle of their soil, once part of the
distant mountains, has travelled slowly and fitfully to lower
levels. Again and again have these materials been shifted,
ever moving downward and sea-ward. For centuries, perhaps,
they have taken their share in the fertility of the plains and
674
GEOMETRICAL CONTINUITY
have ministered to the nurture of flower and tree, of the bird of
the air, the beast of the field and of man himself. But their
destiny is still the great ocean. In that bourne alone can they
find undisturbed repose, and there, slowly accumulating in
massive beds, they will remain until, in the course of ages,
renewed upheaval shall raise them into future land, there once
more to pass through the same cycle of change. (A. GE.)
LITERATURE. Historical: The standard work is Karl A. von
Zittel's Geschichte der Geologie und Paldonlologie (1899), of which
there is an abbreviated, but still valuable, English translation;
D'Archiac, Histoire des progres de la geologic, deals especially with
the period 1834-1850; Keferstein, Geschichte und Literatur der
Geognosie, gives a summary up to 1840; while Sir A. Geikie's
Founders of Geology (1897; 2nd ed., 1906) deals more particularly
with the period 1750^-1820. General treatises: Sir Charles Lyell's
Principles of Geology is a classic. Of modern English works, Sir A.
Geikie's Text Book of Geology (4th ed., 1903) occupies the first place;
the work of T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury, Geology; Earth
History (3 vols., 1905-1906), is especially valuable for American
geology. A. de Lapparent's Traite de geologie (5th ed., 1906), is the
standard French work. H. Credner's Elemente der Geologie has gone
through several editions in Germany. Dynamical and physio-
graphical geology are elaborately treated by E. Suess, Das Anllitz
der Erde, translated into English, with the title The Face of the Earth.
The practical study of the science is treated of by F. von Richthofen,
Fiihrer fur Forschungsreisende (1886); G. A. Cole, Aids in Practical
Geology (sth ed., 1906); A. Geikie, Outlines of Field Geology (sth ed.,
1900). The practical applications of Geology are discussed by
J. V. Elsden, Applied Geology (1898-1899). The relations of Geology
to scenery are dealt with by Sir A. Geikie, Scenery of Scotland (3rded.,
I9 O1 ); J- E. Marr, The Scientific Study of Scenery (1900); Lord
Avebury, The Scenery of Switzerland (1896); The Scenery of England
(1902); and J. Geikie, Earth. Sculpture (1898). A detailed biblio-
graphy is given in Sir A. Geikie's Text Book of Geology. See also
the separate articles on geological subjects for special references to
authorities.
GEOMETRICAL CONTINUITY. In a report of the Institute
prefixed to Jean Victor Poncelet's Traite des proprietes pro-
jectives des figures (Paris, 1822), it is said that he employed " ce
qu'il appelle le principe de continuite." The law or principle
thus named by him had, he tells us, been tacitly assumed as
axiomatic by " les plus savans geometres." It had in fact been
enunciated as " lex continuationis," and " la loi de la continuite,"
by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (Oxf. N.E.D.), and previously
under another name by Johann Kepler in cap. iv. 4 of his Ad
Vitellionem paralipomena quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur
(Francofurti, 1604). Of sections of the cone, he says, there are
five species from the " recta linea " or line-pair to the circle.
From the line-pair we pass through an infinity of hyperbolas to
the parabola, and thence through an infinity of ellipses to the
circle. Related to the sections are certain remarkable points
which have no name. Kepler calls them foci. The circle has
one focus at the centre, an ellipse or hyperbola two foci equi-
distant from the centre. The parabola has one focus within it,
and another, the " caecus focus," which may be imagined to be
at infinity on the axis within or without the curve. The line from it
to any point of the section is parallel to the axis. To carry out
the analogy we must speak paradoxically, and say that the line-
pair likewise has foci, which in this case coalesce as in the circle
and fall upon the lines themselves; for our geometrical terms
should be subject to analogy. Kepler dearly loves analogies, his
most trusty teachers, acquainted with all the secrets of nature,
" omnium naturae arcanorum conscios." And they are to be
especially regarded in geometry as, by the use of " however
absurd expressions," classing extreme limiting forms with an
infinity of intermediate cases, and placing the whole essence of a
thing clearly before the eyes.
Here, then, we find formulated by Kepler the doctrine of the
concurrence of parallels at a single point at infinity and the
principle of continuity (under the name analogy) in relation to the
infinitely great. Such conceptions so strikingly propounded in
a famous work could not escape the notice of contemporary
mathematicians. Henry Briggs, in a letter to Kepler from
Merton College, Oxford, dated " 10 Cal. Martiis 1625," suggests
improvements in the Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, and gives
the following construction: Draw a line CBADC, and let an
ellipse, a parabola, and a hyperbola have B and A for focus and
vertex. Let CC be the other foci of the ellipse and the hyperbola.
Make AD equal to AB, and with centres CC and radius in each
case equal to CD describe circles. Then any point of the ellipse
is equidistant from the focus B and one circle, and any point of
the hyperbola from the focus B and the other circle. Any point
P of the parabola, in which the second focus is missing or in-
finitely distant, is equidistant from the focus B and the line
through D which we call the directrix, this taking the place of
either circle when its centre C is at infinity, and every line CP
being then parallel to the axis. Thus Briggs, and we know not
how many " savans geometres " who have left no record, had
already taken up the new doctrine in geometry in its author's
lifetime. Six years after Kepler's death in 1630 Girard Desargues,
" the Monge of his age," brought out the first of his remarkable
works founded on the same principles, a short tract entitled
Methode universelle de mettre en perspective les objets donnes
reellement ou en devis (Paris, 1636); but " Le privilege etoit de
1630 " (Poudra, (Euvres de Des., i. 55). Kepler as a modern
geometer is best known by his New Stereometry of Wine Casks
(Lincii, 1615), in which he replaces the circuitous Archimedean
method of exhaustion by a direct " royal road " of infinitesimals,
treating a vanishing arc as a straight line and regarding a curve
as made up of a succession of short chords. Some 2000 years
previously one Antipho, probably the well-known opponent of
Socrates, has regarded a circle in like manner as the limiting
form of a many-sided inscribed rectilinear figure. Antipho's
notion was rejected by the men of his day as unsound, and when
reproduced by Kepler it was again stoutly opposed as incapable
of any sort of geometrical demonstration not altogether with-
out reason, for it rested on an assumed law of continuity rather
than on palpable proof.
To complete the theory of continuity, the one thing needful
was the idea of imaginary points implied in the algebraical
geometry of Rene Descartes, in which equations between vari-
ables representing co-ordinates were found often to have imaginary
roots. Newton, in his two sections on " Inventio orbium "
(Principia i. 4, 5), shows in his brief way that he is familiar with
the principles of modern geometry. In two propositions he uses
an auxiliary line which is supposed to cut the conic in X and Y,
but, as he remarks at the end of the second (prop. 24), it may not
cut it at all. For the sake of brevity he passes on at once with the
observation that the required constructions are evident from the
case in which the line cuts the trajectory. In the scholium
appended to prop. 27, after saying that an asymptote is a tangent
at infinity, he gives an unexplained general construction for the
axes of a conic, which seems to imply that it has asymptotes.
In all such cases, having equations to his loci in the background,
he may have thought of elements of the figure as passing into the
imaginary state in such manner as not to vitiate conclusions
arrived at on the hypothesis of their reality.
Roger Joseph Boscovich, a careful student of Newton's works,
has a full and thorough discussion of geometrical continuity in
the third and last volume of his Elementa universae matheseos
(ed. prim. Venet, 1757), which contains Sectionum conicarum
elementa nova quadam methodo concinnata et dissertationcm de
transformations locorum geometricorum, ubi de continuitatis
lege, et de quibusdam infiniti mysteriis. His first principle is
that all varieties of a defined locus have the same properties, so
that what is demonstrable of one should be demonstrable in like
manner of all, although some artifice may be required to bring
out the underlying analogy between them. The opposite
extremities of an infinite straight line, he says, are to be regarded
as joined, as if the line were a circle having its centre at the
infinity on either side of it. This leads up to the idea of a veluli
plus quam infinite extensio, a line-circle containing, as we say,
the line infinity. Change from the real to the imaginary state is
contingent upon the passage of some element of a figure through
zero or infinity and never takes place per saltum. Lines being
some positive and some negative, there must be negative rect-
angles and negative squares, such as those of the exterior
diameters of a hyperbola. Boscovich's first principle was that
of Kepler, by whose quantumvis absurdis locutionibus the boldest
HISTORY]
GEOMETRY
675
applications of it are covered, as when we say with Foncelet
that all concentric circles in a plane touch one another in two
imaginary fixed points at infinity. In G. K. Ch. von Staudt's
G*M*TM der Late and Beitrage tur G. der L. (Nurnberg, 184?,
1856-1860) the geometry of position, including the extension of
the field of pure geometry to the infinite and the imaginary, is
presented as an independent science, " welche des Messens nicht
bedarf." (See GEOMETRY: Projecting.)
Ocular illusions due to distance, such as Roger Bacon notices
in the Opus majits (i. 126, ii. 108, 497; Oxford, 1897), lead up to
or illustrate the mathematical uses of the infinite and its re-
ciprocal the infinitesimal. Specious objections can, of course, be
made to the anomalies of the law of continuity, but they are
inherent in the higher geometry, which has taught us so much
of the " secrets of nature." Kepler's excursus on the " analogy "
between the conic sections hereinbefore referred to is given at
length in an article on " The Geometry of Kepler and Newton "
in voL xviii. of the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society (1000). It had been generally overlooked, until attention
was called to it by the present writer in a note read in 1880 (Proc.
C.PS. iv. u-7). *nd shortly afterwards in Tk Ancient and
Modem Geometry of Conies, viik Historical Notes and Prolego-
MOM (Cambridge 1881). (C. T.*)
GEOMETRY, the general term for the branch of mathematics
which has for its province the study of the properties of
space. From experience, or possibly intuitively, we characterize
existent space by certain fundamental qualities, termed axioms,
which are insusceptible of proof; and these axioms, in conjunc-
tion with the mathematical entities of the point, straight line,
curve, surface and solid, appropriately defined, are the premisses
from which the geometer draws conclusions. The geometrical
axioms are merely conventions; on the one hand, the system
may be based upon inductions from experience, in which case
the deduced geometry may be regarded as a branch of physical
science; or, on the other hand, the system may be formed by
purely logical methods, in which case the geometry is a phase
of pure mathematics. Obviously the geometry with which we
are most familiar is that of existent space the three-dimensional
pace of experience; this geometry may be termed Euclidean,
after its most famous expositor. But other geometries exist,
for it is possible to frame systems of axioms which definitely
characterize some other kind of space, and from these axioms
to deduce a series of non-contradictory propositions; such
geometries are called non-Euclidean.
It is convenient to discuss the subject-matter of geometry
under the following headings:
I. Euclidean Geometry: a discussion of the axioms of existent
space and of the geometrical entities, followed by a synoptical
account of Euclid's Elements.
II. Projectne Geometry: primarily Euclidean, but differing
from I. in employing the notion of geometrical continuity (q.v.)
points and lines at infinity.
III. Descriptive Geometry: the methods for representing upon
planes figures placed in space of three dimensions.
IV. Analytical Geometry: the representation of geometrical
figures and their relations by algebraic equations.
V. Line Geometry: an analytical treatment of the line regarded
as the space element.
VI. If on- Euclidean Geometry: a discussion of geometries
other than that of the space of experience.
VII. Axioms of Geometry: a critical analysis of the foundations
of geometry.
Special subjects are treated under their own headings: e.g.
PROJECTION, PERSPECTIVE; CURVE, SURFACE; CIRCLE, CONIC
SECTION ; TRIANGLE, POLYGON, POLYHEDRON; there are also
article* on special curves and figures, e.g. ELLIPSE, PARABOLA,
HYPERBOLA -.TETRAHEDRON.CUBE, OCTAHEDRON, DODECAHEDRON,
ICOSAHEDRON;CARDIOID, CATENARY, CISSOID.CONCHOID, CYCLOID,
EPICYCLOID, LIMAC.OX, OVAL, QUADRATRIX, SPIRAL, &c.
History. The origin of geometry (Gr. 71}, earth, fttrpov, a
measure) is, according to Herodotus, to be found in the etymology
of the word. Its birthplace was Egypt, and it arose from the
need of surveying the hinds inundated by the Nile floods. In
its infancy it therefore consisted of a few rules, very rough and
approximate, for computing the areas of triangles and quadri-
laterals; and, with the Egyptians, it proceeded no further, the
geometrical entities the point, line, surface and solid being
only discussed in so far as they were involved in practical affairs.
The point was realized as a mark or position, a straight line as a
stretched string or the tracing of a pole, a surface as an area;
but these units were not abstracted; and for the Egyptians
geometry was only an art an auxiliary to surveying. 1 The
first step towards its elevation to the rank of a science was made
by Thales (q.v.) of Miletus,* who transplanted the elementary
Egyptian mensuration to Greece. Thales clearly abstracted
the notions of points and lines, founding the geometry of the
latter unit, and discovering per saltum many propositions con-
cerning areas, the circle, &c. The empirical rules of the Egyptians
were corrected and developed by the Ionic School which he
founded, especially by Anaximander and Anaxagoras, and in
the 6th century B.C. passed into the care of the Pythagoreans.
From this time geometry exercised a powerful influence on
Greek thought. Pythagoras (?..), seeking the key of the
universe in arithmetic and geometry, investigated logically the
principles underlying the known propositions; and this resulted
in the formulation of definitions, axioms and postulates which,
in addition to founding a science of geometry, permitted a
crystallization, fractional, it is true, of the amorphous collection
of material at hand. Pythagorean geometry was essentially a
geometry of areas and solids; its goal was the regular solids
the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron and icosa-
hedron which symbolized the five elements of Greek cosmology.
The geometry of the circle, previously studied in Egypt and
much more seriously by Thales, was somewhat neglected, although
this curve was regarded as the most perfect of all plane figures
and the sphere the most perfect of all solids. The circle, however,
was taken up by the Sophists, who made most of their discoveries
in attempts to solve the classical problems of squaring the circle,
doubling the cube and trisecting an angle. These problems,
besides stimulating pure geometry, i.e. the geometry of con-
structions made by the ruler and compasses, exercised consider-
able influence in other directions. The first problem led to the
discovery of the method of exhaustion for determining areas.
Antiphon inscribed a square in a circle, and on each side an
isosceles triangle having its vertex on the circle; on the sides
of the octagon so obtained, isosceles triangles were again con-
structed, the process leading to inscribed polygons of 8, 16 and
32 sides; and the areas of these polygons, which are easily
determined, are successive approximations to the area of the
circle. Bryson of Heraclea took an important step when he
circumscribed, in addition to inscribing, polygons to a circle,
but he committed an error in treating the circle as the mean of
the two polygons. The method of Antiphon, in assuming that
by continued division a polygon can be constructed coincident
with the circle, demanded that magnitudes are not infinitely
divisible. Much controversy ranged about this point; Aristotle
supported the doctrine of infinite divisibility; Zeno attempted
to show its absurdity. The mechanical tracing of loci, a principle
initiated by Archytos of Tarentum to solve the last two problems,
was a frequent subject for study, and several mechanical curves
were thus discovered at subsequent dates (cissoid, conchoid,
quadratrix). Mention may be made of Hippocrates, who,
besides developing the known methods, made a study of similar
figures, and, as a consequence, of proportion. This step is
important as bringing into line discontinuous number and
continuous magnitude.
A fresh stimulus was given by the succeeding Platonists, who,
accepting in part the Pythagorean cosmology, made the study
of geometry preliminary to that of philosophy. The many
discoveries made by this school were facilitated in no small
measure by the clarification of the axioms and definitions, the
logical sequence of propositions which was adopted, and, more
especially, by the formulation of the analytic method, i.e. of
assuming the truth of a proposition and then reasoning to a
1 For Egyptian geometry see EGYPT, \ Science and Mathematics.
676
GEOMETRY
[HISTORY
known truth. The main strength of the Platonist geometers
lies in stereometry or the geometry of solids. The Pythagoreans
had dealt with the sphere and regular solids, but the pyramid,
prism, cone and cylinder were but lit tie known until the Platonists
took them in hand. Eudoxus established their mensuration,
proving the pyramid and cone to have one-third the content
of a prism and cylinder on the same base and of the same height,
and was probably the discoverer of a proof that the volumes of
spheres are as the cubes of their radii. The discussion of sections
of the cone and cyh'nder led to the discovery of the three curves
named the parabola, ellipse and hyperbola (see CONIC SECTION) ;
it is difficult to over-estimate the importance of this discovery;
its investigation marks the crowning achievement of Greek
geometry, and led in later years to the fundamental theorems
and methods of modern geometry.
The presentation of the subject-matter of geometry as a con-
nected and logical series of propositions, prefaced by "Opoi or
foundations, had been attempted by many; but it is to Euclid
that we owe a complete exposition. Little indeed in the Elements
is probably original except the arrangement; but in this Euclid
surpassed such predecessors as Hippocrates, Leon, pupil of
Neocleides, and Theudius of Magnesia, devising an apt logical
model, although when scrutinized in the light of modern mathe-
matical conceptions the proofs are riddled with fallacies. Accord-
ing to the commentator Proclus, the Elements were written with
a twofold object, first, to introduce the novice to geometry, and
secondly, to lead him to the regular solids; conic sections found
no place therein. What Euclid did for the line and circle,
Apollo nius did for the conic sections, but there we have a discoverer
as well as editor. These two works, which contain the greatest
contributions to ancient geometry, are treated in detail in
Section I. Euclidean Geometry and the articles EUCLID; CONIC
SECTION; APOLLONIUS. Between Euclid and Apollonius there
flourished the illustrious Archimedes, whose geometrical dis-
coveries are mainly concerned with the mensuration of the
circle and conic sections, and of the sphere, cone and cylinder,
and whose greatest contribution to geometrical method is the
equations by intersecting conies, a step already taken by the
Greeks in isolated cases, but only elevated into a method by Omar
al Hayyami, who flourished in the nth century. During the
middle ages little was added to Greek and Arabic geometry.
Leonardo of Pisa wrote a Practica geometriae (1220), wherein
Euclidean methods are employed; but it was not until the I4th
century that geometry, generally Euclid's Elements, became
an essential item in university curricula. There was, however,
no sign of original development, other branches of mathematics,
mainly algebra and trigonometry, exercising a greater fascination
until the i6th century, when the subject again came into favour.
The extraordinary mathematical talent which came into being
in the i6th and I7th centuries reacted on geometry and gave rise
to all those characters which distinguish modern from ancient
geometry. The first innovation of moment was the formulation
of the principle of geometrical continuity by Kepler. The notion
of infinity which it involved permitted generalizations and
systematizations hitherto unthought of (see GEOMETRICAL
CONTINUITY) ; and the method of indefinite division applied t
rectification, and quadrature and cubature problems avoided
the cumbrous method of exhaustion and provided more accurate
results. Further progress was made by Bonaventura Cavalieri,
who, in his Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum (1620), de-
vised a method intermediate between that of exhaustion and
the infinitesimal calculus of Leibnitz and Newton. The logical
basis of his system was corrected by Roberval and Pascal; and
their discoveries, taken in conjunction with those of Leibnitz,
Newton, and many others in the fluxional calculus, culminated
in the branch of our subject known as differential geometry
(see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS, CURVE; SURFACE).
A second important advance followed the recognition that
conies could be regarded as projections of a circle, a conception
which led at the hands of Desargues and Pascal to modern
projectile geometry and perspective. A third, and perhaps the
most important, advance attended the application of algebra to-
geometry by Descartes, who thereby founded analytical geometry.
The new fields thus opened up were diligently explored, but the
calculus exercised the greatest attraction and relatively little
elevation of the method of exhaustion to the dignity of an instru-
ment of research. Apollonius was followed by Nicomedes, the I progress was made in geometry until the beginning of the
inventor of the conchoid; Diocles, the inventor of the cissoid; I century, when a new era opened.
Zenodorus, the founder of the study of isoperimetrical figures ;fj& GaspardMonge was the first important contributor, stimulating
Hipparchus, the founder of trigonometry; and Heron the elder, I analytical and differential geometry and founding descriptive
who wrote after the manner of the Egyptians, and primarily geometry in a series of papers and especially in his lectures at the
directed attention to problems of practical surveying. Ecole polytechnique. Projective geometry, founded by Desar-
Of the many isolated discoveries made by the later Alexandrian
mathematicians, those of Menelaus are of importance. He
showed how to treat spherical triangles, estabh'shing their
properties and determining their congruence; his theorem on
the products of the segments in which the sides of a triangle
are cut by a line was the foundation on which Carnot erected
his theory of transversals. These propositions, and also those
of Hipparchus, were utilized and developed by Ptolemy (q.v.),
the expositor of trigonometry and discoverer of many isolated
propositions. Mention may be made of the commentator Pappus,
whose Mathematical Collections is valuable for its wealth of
historical matter; of Theon, an editor of Euclid's Elements and
commentator of Ptolemy's Almagest; of Proclus, a commentator
of Euclid; and of Eutocius, a commentator of Apollonius and
Archimedes.
The Romans, essentially practical and having no inclination
to study science qua science, only had a geometry which sufficed
for surveying; and even here there were abundant inaccuracies,
the empirical rules employed being akin to those of the Egyptians
and Heron. The Hindus, likewise, gave more attention to
computation, and their geometry was either of Greek origin or
in the form presented in trigonometry, more particularly con-
nected with arithmetic. It had no logical foundations; each
proposition stood alone; and the results were empirical. The
Arabs more closely followed the Greeks, a plan adopted as a
sequel to the translation of the works of Euclid, Apollonius,
Archimedes and many others into Arabic. Their chief con-
tribution to geometry is exhibited in their solution of algebraic
gues, Pascal, Monge and L. N. M. Carnot, was crystallized by
J. V. Poncelet, the creator of the modern methods. In his
Traite des proprietes des figures (1822) the line and circular points
at infinity, imaginaries, polar reciprocation, homology, cross-
ratio and projection are systematically employed. In Germany,
A. F. Mobius, J. Pliicker and J. Steiner were making far-reaching
contributions. Mobius, in his Barycentrische Calcul (1827),
introduced homogeneous co-ordinates, and also the powerful
notion of geometrical transformation, including the special
cases of collineation and duality; Pliicker, in his Analytisch-
geometrische Entwickelungen (1828-1831), and his System der
analylischen Geometric (1835), introduced the abridged notation,
line and plane co-ordinates, and the conception of generalized
space elements; while Steiner, besides enriching geometry in
numerous directions, was the first to systematically generate
figures by projective pencils. We may also notice M. Chasles,
whose AperQU historique (1837) is a classic. Synthetic geometry,
characterized by its fruitfulness and beauty, attracted most
attention, and it so happened that its originally weak logical
foundations became replaced by a more substantial set of axioms.
These were found in the anharmonic ratio, a device leading to
the liberation of synthetic geometry from metrical relations,
and in involution, which yielded rigorous definitions of imagin-
aries. These innovations were made by K. J. C. von Staudt.
Analytical geometry was stimulated by the algebra of invariants,
a subject much developed by A. Cayley, G. Salmon, S. H. Aron-
hold, L. O. Hesse, and more particularly by R. F. A. Clebsch.
The introduction of the line as a space element, initiated by
EUCLIDEAN]
GEOMETRY
677
H. Grassnann (1844) and Cayley (1859), yielded at the hands of
Plucker a new geometry, termed line geometry, a subject
developed more notably by F. Klein, Clebsch, C. T. Rcyc and
F. O. R. Sturm (see Section V., Line Geometry).
Pfjm-fttcJide<in geometries, having primarily their origin in the
dfafimfon of Euclidean parallels, and treated by Wallis, Saccberi
and Lambert, have been especially developed during the loth
century. Four lines of investigation may be distinguished:
the naive-synthetic, associated with Lobatschewski, Bolyai,
Gauss; the metric differential, studied by Riemann, Helmholtz,
Beltrami; the projective, developed by Cayley, Klein, Clifford;
and the critical-synthetic, promoted chiefly by the Italian
mathematicians Peano, Veronese, Burali-Fortc, Levi Civitta,
and the Germans Pasch and Hilbert. (C. .*)
I. EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
This branch of the science of geometry is so named since its
methods and arrangement are those laid down in Euclid's
Elements.
f i. Axioms. The object of geometry is to investigate the
properties of space. The first step must consist in establishing
those fundamental properties from which all others follow by
processes of deductive reasoning. They are laid down in the
Axioms, and these ought to form such a system that nothing
need be added to them in order fully to characterize space, and
that nothing may be omitted without making the system in-
complete. They must, in fact, completely " define " space.
i *. Depnitions. The axioms of Euclidean Geometry are
obtained from inspection of existent space and of solids in
existent space, hence from experience. The same source
gives us the notions of the geometrical entities to which the
axioms relate, viz. solids, surfaces, lines or curves, and points.
A solid is directly given by experience; we have only to abstract
all material from it in order to gain the notion of a geometrical
olid. This has shape, size, position, and may be moved. Its
boundary or boundaries are called surfaces. They separate one
part of space from another, and are said to have no thickness.
Their boundaries are curves or lines, and these have length
only. Their boundaries, again, are points, which have no
magnitude but only position. We thus come in three steps
from solids to points which have no magnitude; in each step
we lose one extension. Hence we say a solid has three dimensions,
a surface two, a line one, and a point none. Space itself, of which
a solid forms only a part, is also said to be of three dimensions.
The vune thing is intended to be expressed by saying that a
olid has length, breadth and thickness, a surface length and
breadth, a line length only, and a point no extension whatsoever.
Euclid gives the essence of these statements as definitions:
Def. I, I. A point it that which has no parts, or which has no mag-
nitude.
Def. , I. A line is length without breadth.
Def. 5, I. A superficies is that which has only length and breadth.
Def. I, XI. A solid is that which has length, breadth and thickness.
It is to be noted that the synthetic method is adopted by
Euclid; the analytical derivation of the successive ideas of
"urface," "line," and "point" from the experimental realiza-
tion of a " solid " does not find a place in his system, although
possessing more advantages.
If we allow motion in geometry, we may generate these
entities by moving a point, a line, or a surface, thus:
The path of a moving point is a line.
The path of a moving line is, in general, a surface.
The path of a moving surface is, in general, a solid.
And we may then assume that the lines, surfaces and solids,
as denned before, can all be generated in this manner. From
this generation of the entities it follows again that the boundaries
the first and last position of the moving element of a line are
points, and so on; and thus we come back to the considerations
with which we started.
Euclid points this out in his definitions, Def. 3, 1., Def. 6, 1.,
and Def. 2, XI. He does not, however, show the connexion
which these definitions have with those mentioned before.
When points and lines have been defined, a statement like
Def. 3, 1., " The extremities of a line are points," is a proposition
which cither has to be proved, and then it is a theorem, or which
has to be taken for granted, in which case it is an axiom. And
so with Def. 6, 1., and Def. 3, XI.
3. Euclid's definitions mentioned above are attempts to
describe, in a few words, notions which we have obtained by
inspection of and abstraction from solids. A few more notions
have to be added to these, principally those of the simplest
line the straight line, and of the simplest surface the flat
surface or plane. These notions we possess, but to define them
accurately is difficult. Euclid's Definition 4, I., " A straight
line is that which lies evenly between its extreme points," must
be meaningless to any one who has not the notion of straightness
in his mind. Neither does it state a property of the straight
line which can be used in any further investigation. Such a
property is given in Axiom 10, 1. It is really this axiom, together
with Postulates i and 3, which characterizes the straight line.
Whilst for the straight line the verbal definition and axiom
are kept apart, Euclid mixes them up in the case of the plane.
Here the Definition 7, 1., includes an axiom. It defines a plane
as a surface which has the property that every straight line
which joins any two points in it lies altogether in the surface.
But if we take a straight line and a point in such a surface, and
draw all straight lines which join the latter to all points in the
first line, the surface will be fully determined. This construction
is therefore sufficient as a definition. That every other straight
line which joins any two points in this surface lies altogether
in it is a further property, and to assume it gives another axiom.
Thus a number of Euclid's axioms are hidden among his first
definitions. A still greater confusion exists in the present
editions of Euclid between the postulates and axioms so called,
but this is due to later editors and not to Euclid himself. The
latter had the last three axioms put together with the postulates
(aiT-fjuara), so that these were meant to include all assumptions
relating to space. The remaining assumptions, which relate to
magnitudes in general, viz. the first eight " axioms " in modern
editions, were called " common notions " (icoival Ivvoitu).
Ofthelatterafewmaybesaidtobc definitions. Thus the eighth
might be taken as a definition of " equal," and the seventh
of " halves." If we wish to collect the axioms used in Euclid's
Elements, we have therefore to take the three postulates, the
last three axioms as generally given, a few axioms hidden in the
definitions, and an axiom used by Euclid in the proof of Prop.
4, I, and on a few other occasions, viz. that figures may be
moved in space without change of shape or size.
4. Postulates. The assumptions actually made by Euclid
may be stated as follows:
(1) Straight lines exist which have the property that any one of
them may be produced both ways without limit, that through any
two points in space such a line may be drawn, and that any two of
them coincide throughout their indefinite extensions as soon as two
points in the one coincide with two points in the other. (This
gives the contents of Def. 4, part of Def. 35, the first two Postulates,
and Axiom 10.)
(2) Plane surfaces or planes exist having the property laid down
in Def. 7, that every straight line joining any two points in such a
surface lies altogether in it.
(3) Right angles, as defined in Def. 10, are possible, and all right
angles are equal; that is to say, wherever in space we take a plane,
and wherever in that plane we construct a nght angle, all angles
thus constructed will be equal, so that any one of them may be made
to coincide with any other. (Axiom It.]
(4) The I2th Axiom of Euclid. This we shall not state now, but
only introduce it when we cannot proceed any further without it.
(5) Figures maybe freely moved in space without change of shape
or size. This is assumed by Euclid, but not stated as an axiom.
(6) In any plane a circle may be described, having any point in
that plane as centre, and its distance from any other point in that
plane as radius. (Postulate 3.)
The definitions which have not been mentioned are all
" nominal definitions," that is to say, they fix a name for a
thing described. Many of them overdetermine a figure.
5. Euclid's Elements (see EUCLID) are contained in thirteen
books. Of these the first four and the sixth are devoted to
" plane geometry," as the investigation of figures in a plane is
generally called. The $th book contains the theory of proportion
6y8
GEOMETRY
[EUCLIDEAN
which is used in Book VI. The 7th, 8th and gth books are purely
arithmetical, whilst the loth contains a most ingenious treatment
of geometrical irrational quantities. These four books will be
excluded from our survey. The remaining three books relate to
figures in space, or, as it is generally called, to " solid geometry."
The 7th, 8th, Qth, loth, I3th and part of the nth and i2th
books are now generally omitted from the school editions of the
Elements. In the first four and in the 6th book it is to be under-
stood that all figures are drawn in a plane.
BOOK I. OF EUCLID'S " ELEMENTS."
6. According to the third postulate it is possible to draw in
any plane a circle which has its centre at any given point, and its
radius equal to the distance of this point from any other point
given in the plane. This makes it possible (Prop. l) to construct
on a given line AB an equilateral triangle, by drawing first a circle
with A as centre and AB as radius, and then a circle with B as
centre and BA as radius. The point where these circles intersect
that they intersect Euclid quietly assumes is the vertex of the
required triangle. Euclid does not suppose, however, that a circle
may be drawn which has its radius equal to the distance between
any two points unless one of the points be the centre. This implies
also that we are not supposed to be able to make any straight line
equal to any other straight line, or to carry a distance about in space.
Euclid therefore next solves the problem: It is required along a
given straight line from a point in it to set off a distance equal to
the length of another straight line given anywhere in the plane.
This is done in two steps. It is shown in Prop. 2 how a straight line
may be drawn from a given point equal in length to another given
straight line not drawn from that point. And then the problem
itself is solved in Prop. 3, i>y drawing first through the given point
some straight line of the required length, and then about the same
point as centre a circle having this length as radius. This circle
will cut off from the given straight line a length equal to the required
one. Nowadays, instead of going through this long process, we
take a pair of compasses and set off the given length by its aid.
This assumes that we may move a length about without changing it.
But Euclid has not assumed it, and this proceeding would be fully
justified by his desire not to take for granted more than was necessary,
if he were not obliged at his very next step actually to make this
assumption, though without stating it.
7. We now come (in Prop. 4) to the first theorem. It is the
fundamental theorem of Euclid's whole system, there being only a
very few propositions (like Props. 13, 14, 15, I.), except those in the
5th book and the first half of the nth, which do not depend upon
it. It is stated very accurately, though somewhat clumsily, as
follows :
// two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the
other, each to each, and have also the angles contained by those sides
equal to one another, they shall also have their bases or third sides
equal; and the two triangles shall be equal; and their other angles
shall be equal, each to each, namely, those to which the equal sides are
opposite.
That is to say, the triangles are " identically " equal, and one
may be considered as a copy of the other. The proof is very simple.
The first triangle is taken up and placed on the second, so that the
parts of the triangles which are known to be equal fall upon each
other. It is then easily seen that also the remaining parts of one
coincide with those of the other, and that they are therefore equal.
This process of applying one figure to another Euclid scarcely uses
again, though many proofs would be simplified by doing so. The
process introduces motion into geometry, and includes, as already
stated, the axiom that figures may be moved without change of
shape or size.
If the last proposition be applied to an isosceles triangle, which
has two sides equal, we obtain the theorem (Prop. 5), if two sides
of a triangle are equal, then the angles opposite these sides are equal.
Euclid's proof is somewhat complicated, and a stumbling-block
to many schoolboys. The proof becomes much simpler if we consider
the isosceles triangle ABC (AB = AC) twice over, once as a triangle
BAC, and once as a triangle CAB ; and now remember that AB, AC
in the first are equal respectively to AC, AB in the second, and the
angles included by these sides are equal. Hence the triangles are
equal, and the angles in the one are equal to those in the other, viz.
those which are opposite equal sides, i.e. angle ABC in the first
equals angle ACB in the second, as they are opposite the equal
sides AC and AB in the two triangles.
There follows the converse theorem (Prop. 6). // two angles in
a triangle are equal, then the sides opposite them are equal, i.e. the
triangle is isosceles. The proof given consists in what is called a
reductio ad absurdum, a kind of proof often used by Euclid, and
principally in proving the converse of a previous theorem. It
assumes that the theorem to be proved is wrong, and then shows
that this assumption leads to an absurdity, i.e. to a conclusion
which is in contradiction to a proposition proved before that
therefore the assumption made cannot be true, and hence that
the theorem is true. It is often stated that Euclid invented this
kind of proof, but the method is most likely much older.
8. It is next proved that two triangles which have the three sides
of the one equal respectively to those of the other are identically equal,
hence that the angles of the one are equal respectively to those of the
other, those being equal which are opposite equal sides. This is Prop. 8,
Prop. 7 containing only a first step towards its proof.
These theorems allow now of the solution of a number of prob-
lems, viz.:
To bisect a given angle (Prop. 9).
To bisect a given finite straight line (Prop. 10).
To draw a straight line perpendicularly to a given straight line
through a given point in it (Prop, n), and also through a given point
not in it (Prop. 12).
The solutions all depend upon properties of isosceles triangles.
9. The next three theorems relate to angles only, and might have
been proved before Prop. 4, or even at the very beginning. The
first (Prop. 13) says, The angles which one straight line makes with
another straight line on one side of it either^ are two right angles or
are together equal to two right angles. This theorem would have
been unnecessary if Euclid had admitted the notion of an angle
such that its two limits are in the same straight line, and had besides
defined the sum of two angles.
Its converse (Prop. 14) is of great use, inasmuch as it enables us
in many cases to prove that two straight lines drawn from the same
point are one the continuation of the othei . So also is
Prop. 1 5. If two straight lines cut one another, the vertical or opposite
angles shall be equal.
10. Euclid returns now to properties of triangles. Of great
importance for the next steps (though afterwards superseded by a
more complete theorem) is
Prop. 16. // one side of a triangle be produced, the exterior angle
shall be greater than either of the interior opposite angles.
Prop. 17. Any two angles of a triangle are together less -than two
right angles, is an immediate consequence of it. By the aid of these
two, the following fundamental properties of triangles are easily
proved :
Prop. 1 8. The greater side of every triangle has the greater angle
opposite to it;
Its converse, Prop. 19. The greater angle of every triangle is sub-
tended by the greater side, or has the greater side opposite to it ;
Prop. 20. Any two sides of a triangle are together greater than the
third side;
And also Prop. 21. If from the ends of the side of a triangle there
be drawn two straight lines to a point within the triangle, these shall
be less than the other two sides of the triangle, but shall contain a greater
angle.
II. Having solved two problems (Props. 22, 23), he returns to two
triangles which have two sides of the one equal respectively to two
sides of the other. It is known (Prop. 4) that if the included angles
are equal then the third sides are equal; and conversely (Prop. 8),
if the third sides are equal, then the angles included by the first
sides are equal. From this it follows that if the included angles are
not equal, the third sides are not equal ; and conversely, that if the
third sides are not equal, the included angles are not equal. Euclid
now completes this knowledge by proving, that " if the included
angles are not equal, then the third side in that triangle is the greater
which contains the greater angle "; and conversely, that " if the third
sides are unequal, that triangle contains the greater angle which contains
the greater side." These are Prop. 24 and Prop. 25.
12. The next theorem (Prop. 26) says that if two triangles have
one side and two angles of the one equal respectively to one side and
two angles of the other, viz. in both triangles either the angles adjacent
to the equal side, or one angle adjacent and one angle opposite it, then
the two triangles are identically equal.
This theorem belongs to a group with Prop. 4 and Prop. 8. Its
first case might have been given immediately after Prop. 4, but the
second case requires Prop. 16 for its proof.
13. We come now to the investigation of parallel straight lines,
i.e. of straight lines which lie in the same plane, and cannot be made
to meet however far they be produced either way. The investigation
which starts from Prop. 1 6, will become clearer if a few names be
explained which are not all used by Euclid. If two straight lines
be cut by a third, the latter is now generally called a " transversal "
of the figure. It forms at the two points where it cuts the given lines
four angles with each. Those of the angles which lie between the
given lines are caljed interior angles, and of these, again, any two
which lie on opposite sides of the transversal but one at each of the
two points are called " alternate angles."
We may now state Prop. 16 thus: // two straight lines which
meet are cut by a transversal, their alternate angles are unequal. For
the lines will form a triangle, and one of the alternate angles will
be an exterior angle to the triangle, the other interior and opposite
to it.
From this follows at once the theorem contained in Prop. 27-
// two straight lines which are cut by a transversal make alternate
angles equal, the lines cannot meet, however far they be produced,
hence they are parallel. This proves the existence of parallel
lines.
Prop. 28 states the same fact in different forms. // a straight
line, falling on two other straight lines, make the exterior angle equal
to the interior and opposite angle on the same side of the line, or make
EUCLIDEAN]
GEOMETRY
679
tlu interior angles on tkt somi side together equal to two rilkl angles,
Ike two strait*! lines shall t* parallel to one another.
Hence we know that. " if two straight line* which are cut by a
transversal meet, their alternate angles are not equal "; and hence
that. " if alternate angle* are equal, then the line* are parallel."
The question now arises. Are the proposition^ universe to these
true or not ? That is to say, " If alternate angles are unequal, do
the line* meet ?" And "it the lines are parallel, are alternate
jaile* necessarily equal ?"
The answer to either of these two questions implies the answer
to the other. But it has been found impossible to prove that the
negation or the affirmation of either is true.
The difficulty which thus ante* is overcome by Euclid assuming
that the first question has to be answered in the affirmative. This
gives his last axiom (12), which we quote in his own words.
Axiom I a. // a straight lint meet two straight lines, so as to make
On heo interior angles on the same side of it taken toftlkrr less than
taw right angles, these straight lines, being continually produced, shall
at length mttt on that side on which are the angles which are less than
taw nght angles.
The answer to the second of the above questions follows from this,
and gives the theorem Prop, at)' lf straight line foil on two parallel
straight lines, it makes the alternate angles equal to one another, and
On exterior angle equal to the interior and opposite angle on the same
tide, and also the two interior angles on the same side together equal
to tew right angles.
| 14. With this a new part of elementary geometry begins. The
earlier propositions are independent of this axiom, and would be
true even if a wrong assumption had been made in it. They all
relate to figures in a plane. But a plane is only one among an infinite
number of conceivable surfaces. We may draw figures on any one
of them and study their properties. We may, for instance, take a
sphere instead of the plane, and obtain " spherical " in the place of
plane " geometry. If on one of these surfaces lines ana figures
could be drawn, answering to all the definitions of our plane figures,
and if the axioms with the exception of the last all hold, then all
propositions up to the 28th will be true for these figures. This is
the case in spherical geometry if we substitute " shortest line" or
" great circle " for " straight line," " small circle " for " circle," and
if. btwt*i we limit all figures to a part of the sphere which is less
than a hemisphere, so that two points on it cannot be opposite ends
of a diameter, and therefore determine always one and only one great
circle.
For spherical triangles, therefore, all the important propositions
4, 8, 26; 5 and 6; and 18, 19 and 20 will hold good.
This remark will be sufficient to show the impossibility of proving
Euclid'* last axiom, which would mean proving that this axiom is
a consequence of the others, and hence that the theory of parallels
would hold on a spherical surface, where the other axioms do hold,
whilst parallel* do not even exist.
It follow* that the axiom in question states an inherent difference
between the plane and other surfaces, and that the plane is only
fully characterized when this axiom is added to the other assump-
tions.
| 15. The introduction of the new axiom and of parallel lines leads
to a new da** of propositions.
After proving (Prop. 30) that " two lines which are each parallel
to a third are parallel to each other," we obtain the new properties
of triangle* contained in Prop. 32. Of these the second part is the
most important, viz. the theorem. The three interior angles of every
triangle are together equal to two right angles.
A* easy deductions not given by Euclid but added by Simson
follow the propositions about the angles in polygons; they are given
in English edition* as corollaries to Prop. 32.
These theorems do not hold for spherical figures. The sum of the
interior angles of a spherical triangle is always greater than two
right angles, and increases with the area.
f 16. The theory of parallels as such may be said to be finished
with Props, vj and 34, which state properties of the parallelogram,
Lt. of a quadrilateral formed by two pairs of parallels. They are
Prop. 33. The straight lines which join the extremities of two equal
and parallel straight lines towards the same parts are themselves equal
end parallel; and
Prop. 34. The opposite sides and angles of a parallelogram are
equal to one another, and the diameter (diagonal) Insects the parallelo-
gram, thai is, divides it into two equal parts.
I 17- The rest of the first book relates to areas of figures.
The theory is made to depend upon the theorems
Prop. 35. Parallelograms on the same base and between the same
parallels are equal to one another and
Prop. 36. Parallelograms on equal bases and between the same
parallels are equal to one another.
As each parallelogram is bisected by a diagonal, the last theorems
hold also if the word parallelogram be replaced by " triangle," as is
done in Prop*. 37 ana 38.
It is to be remarked that Euclid proves these propositions only
in the case when the parallelograms or triangle* have their bases in
the same straight line.
The theorem* convene to the last form the contents of the next
three propositions, viz.: Props. 40 and 41. Equal triangles, on
the same or on equal bases, in the same straight line, and on the same,
side of it, are between the same parallels.
That the two cases here stated arc given by Euclid in two separate
propositions proved separately is characteristic of his method.
18. To compare areas of other figures, Euclid shows first, in
Prop. 42, how to draw a parallelogram which is equal in area to a
given triangle, and has one of its angles equal to a given angle. If the
given angle is right, then the problem is solved to draw a rectangle "
equal in area to a given triangle.
Next this parallelogram is transformed into another parallelogram,
which has one of its sides equal to a given straight line, whilst its angles
remain unaltered. This may be done by aid of the theorem in
Prop. 43. The complements of the parallelograms which are about
the diameter of any parallelogram are equal to one another.
Thus the problem (Prop. 44) is solved to construct a parallelogram
on a given line, which is equal in area to a given triangle, and which
has one angle equal to a given angle (generally a right angle).
As every polygon can be divided into a number of triangles, we
can now construct a parallelogram having a given angle, say a
right angle, and being equal in area to a given polygon. For each
of the triangles into which the polygon has been divided, a parallelo-.
gram may be constructed, having one side equal to a given straight
line and one angle equal to a given angle. If these parallelograms
be placed side by side, they may be added together to form a single
parallelogram, having still one side of the given length. This is.
done in Prop. 45.
Herewith a means is found to compare areas of different polygons.
We need only construct two rectangles equal in area to the given
polygons, and having each one side of given length. By comparing
the unequal sides we are enabled to judge whether the areas are
equal, or which is the greater. Euclid does not state thisconsequence,
but the problem is taken up again at the end of the second book,
where it is shown how to construct a square equal in area to a given,
polygon.
Prop. 46 is : To describe a square oil a given straight line.
{19. The first book concludes with one of the most important
theorems in the whole of geometry, and one which has been cele-
brated since the earliest times. It is stated, but on doubtful authority,
that Pythagoras discovered it, and it has been called by his name.
If we call tnat side in a right-angled triangle which is opposite the
right angle the hypotenuse, we may state it as follows:
Theorem of Pythagoras (Prop. 47). In every right-angled triangle
the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the
other sides.
And conversely
Prop. 48. // the square described on one of the sides of -a triangle be
equal to the squares described on the other sides, then the angle contained
by these two sides is a right angle.
On this theorem (Prop. 47) almost all geometrical measurement
depends, which cannot be directly obtained.
BOOK II.
f 20. The propositions in the second book are very different in
character from those in the first ; they all relate to areas of rectangles
and squares. Their true significance is best seen by stating them in
an algebraic form. This is often done by expressing the lengths of
lines by aid of numbers, which tell how many times a chosen unit
is contained in the lines. If there is a unit to be found which is con-
tained an exact number of times in each side of a rectangle, it is
easily seen, and generally shown in the teaching of arithmetic, that
the rectangle contains a number of unit squares equal to the product
of the numbers which measure the sides, a unit square being the
square on the unit line. If, however, no such unit can be found,
this process requires that connexion between lines and numbers
which is only established by aid of ratios of lines, and which is there-
fore at this stage altogether inadmissible. But there exists another
way of connecting these propositions with algebra, based on modern
notions which seem destined greatly to change and to simplify
mathematics. We shall introduce here as much of it as is required
for our present purpose.
At the beginning of the second book we find a definition according
to which " a rectangle is said to be ' contained ' by the two sides
which contain one ofits right angles "; in the text this phraseology
is extended by speaking of rectangles contained by any two straight
lines, meaning the rectangle which has two adjacent sides equal to
the two straight lines.
We shall denote a finite straight line by a single small letter,
a, b, c, . . . x, and the area of the rectangle contained by two lines
a and 6 by ab, and this we shall call the product of the two lines a
and b. It will be understood that this definition has nothing to do
with the definition of a product of numbers.
We define as follows:
The sum of two straight lines a and b means a straight line c which
may be divided in two parts equal respectively to a and b. This sum
is denoted by a+b.
The difference of two lines a and b (in symbols, a-b) means a line
c whkh when added to 6 gives a ; that is,
a-b c if 6+e-a.
The product of two lines a and b (in symbols, ab) means the area
68o
GEOMETRY
[EUCLIDEAN
I:
9-
10.
of the rectangle contained by the lines a and b. For aa, which
means the square on the line a, we write o 2 .
21. The first ten of the fourteen propositions of the second book
may then be written in the form of formulae as follows:
Prop. i. a(b+c+d + . . .) =o6+oc+oo'+ . . .
2. ab+ac = a? if 6+t=o.
3. 0(0+6) =o 2 +o6.
4. (o+6) 2 =o 2 +2o6+6.
5. (0+6) (o-6)+6 2 = o 2 .
6. (a +6) (a-6)+6 2 = a 2 .
a 2 +(o-6) 2 = 2a(o-6)+6 J .
4(a+6)a+6 2
(a+6) 2 +(a-6) 2
(o+6) 2 +(o-6) 2 =
It will be seen that 5 and 6, and also 9 and 10, are identical. In
Euclid's statement they do not look the same, the figures being
arranged differently.
If the letters a, b, c, . . . denoted numbers, it follows from algebra
that each of these formulae is true. But this does not prove them in
our case, where the letters denote lines, and their products areas
without any reference to numbers. To prove them we have to
discover the laws which rule the operations introduced, viz. addition
and multiplication of segments. This we shall do now ; and we shall
find that these laws are the same with those which hold in algebraical
addition and multiplication.
22. In a sum of numbers we may change the order in which
the numbers are added, and we may also add the numbers together
in groups and then add these groups. But this also holds for the
sum of segments and for the sum of rectangles, as a little considera-
tion shows. That the sum of rectangles has always a meaning
follows from the Props. 43-45 in the first book. These laws about
addition are reducible to the two
0+6 = 6+0 . . . (i),
C'
o + (6+c)=o+6+c
(2);
or, when expressed for rectangles,
ab+ed = ed+ab . . . (3),
ab + (cd+ef)=ab+cd+ef . . (4).
The brackets mean that the terms in the bracket have been added
together before they are added to another term. The more general
cases for more terms may be deduced from the above.
For the product of two numbers we have the law that it remains
unaltered if the factors be interchanged. This also holds for our
geometrical product. For if 06 denotes the area of the rectangle
which has a as base and 6 as altitude, then 60 will denote the area
of the rectangle which has 6 as base and a as altitude. But in a
rectangle we may take either of the two lines which contain it as
base, and then the other will be the altitude. This gives
06 = 60 . . . (5).
In order further to multiply a sum by a number, we have in algebra
the rule: Multiply each term of the sum, and add the products
thus obtained. That this holds for our geometrical products is
shown by Euclid in his first proposition of the second book, where
he proves that the area of a rectangle whose base is the sum of a
number of segments is equal to the sum of rectangles which have
these segments separately as bases. In symbols this gives, in the
simplest case,
a(b+c)=ab+ac ) (f ^
and (b+c)a = ba+ca\
To these laws, which have been investigated by Sir William Hamilton
and by Hermann Grassmann, the former has given special names.
He calls the laws expressed in
(1 ) and (3) the commutative law for addition ;
(5) multiplication;
(2) and (4) the associative laws for addition ;
(6) the distributive law.
23. Having proved that these six laws hold, we can at once
prove every one of the above propositions in their algebraical form.
The first is proved geometrically, it being one of the fundamental
laws. The next two propositions are only special cases of the first.
Of the others we shall prove one, viz. the fourth :
(o+6)* = (o+6) (a+6) = (o+6)o + (a+6)6 by (6).
But (0+6)0 = 00+60 by (6),
= 00+06 by (5);
and (0+6)6 = 06+66 by (6).
Therefore (o+6) 2 = oa+o6+(o6+66) )
= 00+ (06+06) +66 [ by (4).
=au+2o6+66 )
This gives the theorem in question.
In the same manner every one of the first ten propositions is
proved.
It will be seen that the operations performed arc exactly the same
as if the letters denoted numbers.
Props. 5 and 6 may also be written thus
(0+6) (a-b)=a t -tf.
Prop. 7, which is an easy consequence of Prop. 4, may be trans-
formed. If we denote by c the line 0+6, so that
c = o+6, a c-b,
we get
= 2C 2 -2&C+6 2 .
Subtracting c 2 from both sides, and writing a for c, we get
(o-6) 2 = o s -2o6+6 2 .
In Euclid's Elements this form of the theorem does not appear,
all propositions being so stated that the notion of subtraction does
not enter into them.
24. The remaining two theorems (Props. 12 and 13) connect
the square on one side of a triangle with the sum of the squares on
the other sides, in case that the angle between the latter is acute or
obtuse. They are important theorems in trigonometry, where it is
possible to include them in a single theorem.
25. There are in the second book two problems, Props. 1 1 and 14.
If written in the above symbolic language, the former requires to
find a line x such that a(a-x)=x 2 . Prop. II contains, therefore,
the solution of a quadratic equation, which we may write x'+ax = <z 2 .
The solution is required later on in the construction of a regular
decagon.
More important is the problem in the last proposition (Prop. 14).
It requires the construction of a square equal in area to a given
rectangle, hence a solution of the equation
* 2 = o&.
In Book I., 42-45, it has been shown howa rectangle may be con-
structed equal in area to a given figure bounded by straight lines.
By aid of the new proposition we may therefore now determine a
line such that the square on that line is equal in area to any given
rectilinear figure, or we can square any such figure.
As of two squares that is the greater which has the greater side,
it follows that now the comparison of two areas has been reduced
to the comparison of two lines.
_The problem of reducing other areas to squares is frequently met
with among Greek mathematicians. We need only mention the
problem of squaring the circle (see CIRCLE).
_ In the present day the comparison of areas is performed in a
simpler way by reducing all areas to rectangles having a common
base. Their altitudes give then a measure of their areas.
The construction of a rectangle having the base , and being equal
in area to a given rectangle, depends upon Prop. 43, 1. This therefore
gives a solution of the equation
a&=*,
where x denotes the unknown altitude.
BOOK III.
26. The third book of the Elements relates exclusively to pro-
perties of the circle. A circle and its circumference have been defined
in Book I., Def. 15. We restate it here in slightly different words :
Definition. The circumference of a circle is a plane curve such
that all points in it have the same distance from a fixed point in
the plane. This point is called the " centre " of the circle.
Of the new definitions, of which eleven are given at the beginning
of the third book, a few only require special mention. The first,
which says that circles with equal radii are equal, is in part a theorem,
but easily proved by applying the one circle to the other. Or it
may be considered proved by aid of Prop. 24, equal circles not being
used till after this theorem.
In the second definition is explained what is meant by a line
which " touches " a circle. Such a line is now generally called a
tangent to the circle. The introduction of this name allows us to
state many of Euclid's propositions in a much shorter form.
For the same reason we shall call a straight line joining two points
on the circumference of a circle a " chord.
Definitions 4 and 5 may be replaced with a slight generalization
by the following:
Definition. By the distance of a point from a line is meant the
length of the perpendicular drawn from the point to the line.
27. From the definition of a circle it follows that every circle
has a centre. Prop. I requires to find it when the circle is given,
i.e. when its circumference is drawn.
To solve this problem a chord is drawn (that is, any two points in
the circumference are joined), and through the point where this is
bisected a perpendicular to it is erected. Euclid then proves, first,
that no point off this perpendicular can be the centre, hence that the
centre must lie in this line; and, secondly, that of the points on the
perpendicular one only can be the centre, viz. the one which bisects
the parts of the perpendicular bounded by the circle. In the second
part Euclid silently assumes that the perpendicular there used does
cut the circumference in two, and only in two points. The proof
therefore is incomplete. The proof of the first part, however, is
exact. By drawing two non-parallel chords, and the perpendiculars
which bisect them, the centre will be found as the point where these
perpendiculars intersect.
28. In Prop. 2 it is proved that a chord of a circle lies altogether
within the circle.
EUCLIDEAN]
GEOMETRY
681
What we have called the first part of Euclid'* solution of Prop. I
may be stated a a theorem :
Entry straight lint lehitk bisects a chord, and is at right angles to it,
ftSMS through Ike centre of the circlt.
The converse to this gives Prop. 3. which may be stated thus:
// straight Inn through Ike centre of a circle bisect a chord, then
it u perpendicular to the chord, and if it be perpendicular to the chord
it bisects it.
An easy consequence of this is the following theorem, which is
essentially the same as Prop. 4:
Two chords of a circle, of which neither passes through the centre,
cannot Insect each other.
These last three theorems are fundamental for the theory of the
circle. It is to be remarked that Euclid never proves that a straight
line cannot have more than two points in common with a circum-
I 29. The next two propositions (5 and 6) might be replaced by
single and a simpler theorem, viz:
Two circles which hate a common centre, and whose circumferences
hare one point in common, coincide.
Or, more in agreement with Euclid's form :
Two different circles, whose circumferences have a point in common,
cannot hare the same centre.
That Euclid treats of two cases is characteristic of Greek mathe-
matics.
The next two propositions (7 and 8) again belong together. They
may be combined thus:
If from a point in a plane of a circle, which is not the centre, straight
lines be drawn to the different points of the circumference, then of all
these lines one is the shortest, and one the longest, and these lie both in
that straight line which joins the given point to the centre. Of all the
remaining lines each is equal to one and only one other, and these
tfual lines lie on opposite sides of the shortest or longest, and make.
tfual angles with them.
Euclio distinguishes the two cases where the given point lies within
or without the circle, omitting the case where it lies in the circum-
ference.
From the last proposition it follows that if from a point more
than two equal straight lines can be drawn to the circumference,
this point must be the centre. This is Prop. 9.
As a consequence of this we get
// the circumferences of the two circles have three points in common
they coincide.
For in this case the two circles have a common centre, because
from the centre of the one three equal lines can be drawn to points
on the circumference of the other. But two circles which have a
common centre, and whose circumferences have a point in common,
coincide. (Compare above statement of Props. 5 and 6.)
This theorem may also be stated thus:
Through three points only one circumference may be drawn; or,
TVs* points determine a circle.
Euclid does not give the theorem in this form. He proves, how-
ever, that the two circles cannot cut another in more than two points
(Prop. 10), and that two circles cannot touch one another in more points
than one (Proo. 13).
f 30. Propositions n and 12 assert that if two circles touch, then
the point of contact lies on the line joining their centres. This gives
two propositions, because the circles may touch either internally
or externally.
| 31. Propositions 14 and 15 relate to the length of chords. The
first says that equal chords are equidistant from the centre, and that
chords which are equidistant from the centre are equal;
Whilst Prop. 15 compares unequal chords, viz. Of all chords the
diameter is the greatest, and of other chords that is the greater which
is nearer to the centre; and conversely, the greater chord is nearer to
the centre.
| 32. In Prop. 16 the tangent to a circle is for the first time in-
troduced. The proposition is meant to show that the straight line
at the end point of the diameter and at right angles to it is a tangent.
The proposition itself does not state this. It runs thus:
Prop. 1 6. The straight line drawn at right angles to the diameter
of a circle, from the extremity of it, falls without the circle; and no
straight line can be drawn from the extremity, between that straight
line and the circumference, so as not to cut the circle.
Corollary. The straight line at right angles to a diameter drawn
through the end point of it touches the circle.
The statement of the proposition and its whole treatment show
the difficulties whkh the tangents presented to Euclid.
Prop. 17 solves the problem through a given point, either in the
circumference or without it, to draw a tangent to a given circle.
Closely connected with Prop. 16 are Props. 18 and 19, which
state (Prop. 18), that the line joining the centre of a circle to the point
of contact of a tangent is perpendicular to the tangent; and con-
versely (Prop. 19), that the straight line through the point of contact
of, and perpendicular to, a tangent to a circle passes through the centre
of the circle.
\ 33. The rest of the book relates to angles connected with a
circle, viz. angle* which have the vertex either at the centre or
on the circumference, and which are called respectively angles
at the centre and angles at the circumference. Between these
two kinds of angles exists the important relation expressed as
follows:
Prop. 20. The angle at the centre of a circle is double of the angle
at the circumference on the same base, that is, on the same arc.
This is of great importance for its consequences, of which the
two following are the principal:
Prop. 21. the angles in the same segment of a circle are equal to
one another ;
Prop. 22. The opposite angles of any quadrilateral figure inscribed
in a circle are together equal to two right angles.
Further consequences are:
Prop. 23. On the same straight line, and on the same side of it, there
cannot be two similar segments of circles, not coinciding with one
another;
Prop. 24. Similar segments of circles on equal straight lines are
equal to one another.
The problem Prop. 35. A segment of a circle being given to describe
the circle of which it is a segment, may be solved much more easily
by aid of the construction described in relation to Prop. I, III.,
in S 27.
34. There follow four theorems connecting the angles at the
centre, the arcs into which they divide the circumference, and the
chords subtending these arcs. They are expressed for angles, arcs
and chords in equal circles, but they hold also for angles, arcs and
chords in the same circle.
The theorems are:
Prop. 26. In equal circles equal angles stand on equal arcs, whether
they be at the centres or circumferences ;
Prop. 27. (converse to Prop. 26). In equal circles the angles which
stand on equal arcs are equal to one another, whether they be at the
centres or the circumferences;
Prop. 28. In equal circles equal straight lines (equal chords) cut
off equal arcs, the greater equal to the greater, and the less equal to
the i
In equal circles equal arcs are
less;
Prop. 29 (converse to Prop. 28).
subtended by equal straight lines.
i 35- Other important consequences of Props. 20-22 are :
Prop. 31. In a circle the angle in a semicircle is a right angle;
but the angle in a segment greater than a semicircle is less than a right
angle; ana the angle in a segment less than a semicircle is greater than
a right angle;
Prop. 32. // a straight line touch a circle, and" from the point of
contact a straight line be drawn cutting the circle, the angles which
this line makes with the line touching the circle shall be equal to the
angles which are in the alternate: segments of the circle.
1 56. Propositions 50, 33, 34, contain problems which are solved
by aid of the propositions preceding them :
Prop. 30. To bisect a given arc, that is, to divide it into two equal
parts;
Prop. 33< On a given straight line to describe a segment of a circle
containing an angle equal to a given rectilineal angle ;
Prop. 34. From a given circle to cut off a segment containing an
angle equal to a given rectilineal angle.
| 37. If we draw chords through a point A within a circle, they
will each be divided by A into two segments. Between these seg-
ments the law holds that the rectangle contained by them has the
same area on whatever chord through A the segments are taken.
The value of this rectangle changes, of course, with the position
of A.
A similar theorem holds if the point A be taken without the circle.
On every straight line through A, which cuts the circle in two points
B and C, we nave two segments AB and AC, and the rectangles
contained by them are again equal to one another, and equal to the
square on a tangent drawn from A to the circle.
The first of these theorems eives Prop. 35, and the second Prop.
36, with its corollary, whilst Prop. 37, the last of Book III., gives
the converse to Prop. 36. The first two theorems may be combined
in one:
If through a point A in the plane of a circle a straight (fne be drawn
cutting the circle in B and C, then the rectangle A B.A C has a constant
value so long as the point A be fixed; and if from A a tangent AD can
be drawn to the circle, touching at D, then the above rectangle equals the
square on AD.
Prop. 37 may be stated thus :
If from a point A without a circle a line be drawn cutting the circle
in B and C, and another line to a point D on the circle, ami A H.AC
AD 1 , then the line AD touches the circle at D.
It is not difficult to prove also the converse to the general pro-
position as above stated:. This proposition and its converse may be
expressed as follows:
If four points A BCD be taken on the circumference of a circle, and
if the lines AB, CD, produced if necessary, meet at E, then
EA.EB-EC.ED;
and conversely, if this relation holds then the four points lie on a circle,
that is, the circle drawn through three of them passes through the
fourth.
That a circle may always be drawn through three points, provided
that they do not lie in a straight line, is proved only later on in
Book IV.
682
GEOMETRY
[EUCLIDEAN
BOOK IV.
38. The fourth book contains only problems, all relating to
the construction of triangles and polygons inscribed in and circum-
scribed about circles, and of circles inscribed in or circumscribed
about triangles and polygons. They are nearly all given for their
own sake, and not for future use in the construction of figures, 'as
are most of those in the former books. In seven definitions at the
beginning of the book it is explained what is understood by figures
inscribed in or described about other figures, with special reference
to the case where one figure is a circle. Instead, however, of saying
that one figure is described about another, it is now generally said
that the one figure is circumscribed about the other. We may then
state the definitions 3 or ^ thus :
Definition. A polygon is said to be inscribed in a circle, and the
circle is said to be circumscribed about the polygon, if the vertices
of the polygon lie in the circumference of the circle.
And definitions 5 and 6 thus:
Definition. A polygon is said to be circumscribed about a circle,
and a circle is said to be inscribed in a polygon, if the sides of the
polygon are tangents to the circle.
30,. The first problem is merely constructive. It requires to
draw in a given circle a chord equal to a given straight line, which
is not greater than the diameter of the circle. The problem is not
a determinate one, inasmuch as the chord may be drawn from any
point in the circumference. This may be said of almost all problems
in this book, especially of the next two. They are :
Prop. 2. In a given circle to inscribe a triangle equiangular to a
given triangle ;
Prop. 3. About a given circle to circumscribe a triangle equiangular
to a given triangle.
40. Of somewhat greater interest are the next problems, where
the triangles are given and the circles to be found.
Prop. 4. To inscribe a circle in a given triangle.
The result is that the problem has always a solution, viz. the
centre of the circle is the point where the bisectors of two of the
interior angles of the triangle meet. The solution shows, though
Euclid does not state this, that the problem has but one solution;
and also,
The three bisectors of the interior angles of any triangle meet in a
point, and this is the centre of the circle inscribed in the triangle.
The solutions of most of the other problems contain also theorems.
Of these we shall state those which are of special interest; Euclid
does not state any one of them.
41. Prop. 5. To circumscribe a circle about a given triangle.
The one solution which always exists contains the following :
The three straight lines which bisect the sides of a triangle at right
angles meet in a point, and this point is the centre of the circle circum-
scribed about the triangle.
Euclid adds in a corollary the following property :
The centre of the circle circumscribed about a triangle lies within,
on a side of, or without the triangle, according as the triangle is
acute-angled, right-angled or obtuse-angled.
42. Whilst it is always possible to draw a circle which is inscribed
in or circumscribed about a given triangle, this is not the case with
quadrilaterals or polygons of more sides. Of those for which this
is possible the regular polygons, i.e. polygons which have all their
sides and angles equal, are the most interesting. In each of them a
circle may be inscribed, and another may be circumscribed about it.
Euclid does not use the word regular, but he describes the polygons
in question as equiangular and equilateral. We shall use the name
regular polygon. The regular triangle is equilateral, the regular
quadrilateral is the square.
Euclid considers the regular polygons of 4, 5, 6 and 15 sides.
For each of the first three he solves the problems (l) to inscribe
such a polygon in a given circje; (2) to circumscribe it about a
given circle; (3) to inscribe a circle in, and (4) to circumscribe a
circle about, such a polygon.
For the Kgular triangle the problems are not repeated, because
more general problems have been solved.
Props. 6, 7, 8 and 9 solve these problems for the square.
The general problem of inscribing in a given circle a regular
polygon of n sides depends upon the problem of dividing the cir-
cumference of a circle into n equal parts, or what comes to the same
thing, of drawing from the centre of the circle n radii such that the
angles between consecutive radii are equal, that is, to divide the
space about the centre into n equal angles. Thus, if it is required
to inscribe a square in a circle, we have to draw four lines from the
centre, making the four angles equal. This is done by drawing
two diameters at right angles to one another. The ends of these
diameters are the vertices of the required square. If, on the other
hand, tangents be drawn at these ends, we obtain a square circum-
scribed about the circle.
43. To construct a regular pentagon, we find it convenient first
to construct a regular decagon. This requires to divide the space
about the centre into ten equal angles. Each will be jVth of a right
angle, or fcth of two right angles. If we suppose the decagon con-
structed, and if we join the centre to the end of one side, we get an
isosceles triangle, where the angle at the centre equals Jth of two
right angles; hence each of the angles at the base will be jjths of
two right angles, as all three angles together equal two right angles.
Thus we have to construct an isosceles triangle, having the angle at
the vertex equal to half an angle at the base. This is solved in
Prop. 10, by aid of the problem in Prop, n of the second book. If
we make the sides of this triangle equal to the radius of the given
circle, then the base will be the side of the regular decagon inscribed
in the circle. This side being known the decagon can be constructed,
and if the vertices are joined alternately, leaving out half their
number, we obtain the regular pentagon. (Prop. II.)
Euclid does not proceed thus. He wants the pentagon before
the decagon. This, however, does not change the real nature of
his solution, nor does his solution become simpler by not mentioning
the decagon.
Once the regular pentagon is inscribed, it is easy to circumscribe
another by drawing tangents at the vertices of the inscribed pentagon.
This is shown in Prop. 12.
Props. 43 and 14 teach how a circle may be inscribed in or cir-
cumscribed about any given regular pentagon.
44. The regular hexagon is more easily constructed, as shown
in Prop. 15. The result is that the side of the regular hexagon
inscribed in a circle is equal to the radius of the circle.
For this polygon the other three problems mentioned are not
solved.
45. The book closes with Prop. 16. To inscribe a regular
quindecagon in a given circle. If we inscribe a regular pentagon
and a regular hexagon in the circle, having one vertex in common,
then the arc from the common vertex to the next vertex of the
pentagon is ^th of the circumference, and to the next vertex of the
hexagon is Jth of the circumference. The difference between these
arcs is, therefore, i J = 5*5 th of the circumference. The latter may,
therefore, be divided into thirty, and hence also in fifteen equal parts,
and the regular quindecagon be described.
46. We conclude with a few theorems about regular polygons
which are not given by Euclid.
The straight lines perpendicular to and bisecting the sides of any
regular polygon meet in a point. The straight lines bisecting the angles
in the regular polygon meet in the same point. This point is the centre
of the circles circumscribed about and inscribed in the. regular polygon.
We can bisect,any given arc (Prop. 30, III.). Hence we can divide
a circumference into 2n equal parts as soon as it has been divided
into re equal parts, or as soon as a regular polygon of n sides has been
constructed. Hence
// a regular polygon of n sides has been constructed, then a regular
polygon of 2n sides, of 4n, of 8n sides, &c., may also be constructed.
Euclid shows how to construct regular polygons of 3, 4, 5 and 15
sides. It follows that we can construct regular polygons of
3, 6, 12, 24. . .sides
4, 8, 16, 32
5, 10, 20, 40...
I5i 3O, 6O, I2O. . .
The construction of any new regular polygon not included in one
of these series will give rise to a new series. Till the beginning of the
I9th century nothing was added to the knowledge of regular polygons
as given by Euclid. Then Gauss, in his celebrated Arithmetic,
proved that every regular polygon of 2"+ 1 sides may be constructed
if this number 2"+ 1 be prime, and that no others except those
with 2 m (2 n +i) sides can be constructed by elementary methods.
This shows that regular polygons of 7, 9, 13 sides cannot thus be
constructed, but that a regular polygon of 17 sides is possible; for
17 =2 4 +l. The next polygon is one of 257 sides. The construction
becomes already rather complicated for 17 sides.
BOOK V.
47. The fifth book of the Elements is not exclusively geometrical.
It contains the theory of ratios and proportion of quantities in
general. The treatment, as here given, is admirable, and in every
respect superior to the algebraical method by which Euclid's theory
is now generally replaced. We shall treat the subject in order to
show why the usual algebraical treatment of proportion is not really
sound. We begin by quoting those definitions at the beginning of
Book V. which are most important. These definitions have given
rise to much discussion.
The only definitions which are essential for the fifth book are
Defs. I, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Of the remainder 3, 8 and 9 are more
than useless, and probably not Euclid's, but additions of later editors,
of whom Theon of Alexandria was the most prominent. Defs. 10
and ii belong rather to the sixth book, whilst all the others are
merely nominal. The really important ones are 4, 5, 6 and 7.
48. To define a magnitude is not attempted by Euclid. The
first two definitions state what is meant by a "part," that is, a
submultiple or measure, and by a " multiple " of a given magni-
tude. The meaning of Def. 4 is that two given quantities can have
a ratio to one another only in case that they are comparable as to
their magnitude, that is, if they are of the same kind.
Def. 3, which is probably due to Theon, professes to define a ratio,
but is as meaningless as it is uncalled for, for all that is wanted is
given in Defs. and 7.
In Def. 5 it is explained what is meant by saying that two mag-
nitudes have the same ratio to one another as two other magnitudes,
GEOMETRY
l.tVLIDEAN]
ml in Def. 7 what we have to understand by a greater or a less ratio.
The 6th definition is only nominal, explaining the meaning of the
word proportional.
Euclid represents magnitudes by lines, and often denotes them
either l>y single letters or. like lines, by two letters. We shall use
onlv single letters for the purpose. If a and ft denote two magnitudes
of the same kind, their ratio will be denoted by a : ft; if c and d are
two other magnitudes of the same kind, but possibly of a different
kind from a and ft. then if c and d have the same ratio to one another
M a and 6, this will be expressed by writing
a : b : : e : d.
Further, if M is a (whole) number, ma shall denote the multiple
of a which is obtained by talcing it m times.
i 40. The whole theory of ratios is based on Def. 5.
Def 5. Tk* first of four magnitudes is said to have the same ratto
to UK sttond that Ike Mrd has to tin fourth when, any equimultiples
mkalatr of On first and the third brine taken, and any equimultiples
ailfrnr of Ike second and the fourth, if the multiple of the first be less
than that of the second, the multiple of the third is also less than that of
the fourth; and if the multiple of the first is equal to that of the second,
the multiple of the third is also equal to that of the fourth ; and if the
multiple of the first is greater than that of the second, the multiple of
the third is also greater than that of the fourth.
It will be well to show at once in an example how this definition
can be used, bv proving the first part of the first proposition in the
sixth book. Triangles of the same altitude are to one another as
their bases, or if a and ft are the bases, and a and ft the areas, of two
triangles which have the same altitude, then a : ft : : a : ft.
To prove this, we have, according to Definition 5, to show
if ma > nb, then ma>nft.
if ma - nb, then ma = nft,
if ma <nb, then ma <nft.
That this is true is in our case easily seen. We may suppose that
the triangles have a common vertex, and their bases in the same
line. We set off the base a along the line containing the bases
m times; we then join the different parts of division to the vertex,
and get HI triangles all equal to a. The triangle on ma as base equals,
therefore. m- If we proceed in the same manner with the base ft,
setting it off n times, we find that the area of the triangle on the
hue nb equals nft, the vertex of all triangles being the same. But
if two triangles have the same altitude, then their areas are equal
if the bases are equal; hence ma = nft if mo-nft, and if their bases
are unequal, then that has the greater area which is on the greater
base; in other words, ma. is greater than, equal to, or less than
nff, according as ma is greater than, equal to, or less than nb, which
was to be proved.
| y>. It will be seen that even in this example it does not become
evident what a ratio really is. It is still an open question whether
ratios are magnitudes which we can compare. We do not know
whether the ratio of two lines is a magnitude of the same kind as the
ratio of two areas. Though we might say that Def. 5 defines equal
ratios, still we do not know whether they are equal in the sense of
the axiom, that two things which are equal to a third are equal to
one another. That this is the case requires a proof, and until this
proof is given we shall use the : : instead of the sign , which, how-
ever, we shall afterwards introduce.
As soon as it has been established that all ratios are like magni-
tudes, it becomes easy to show that, in some cases at least, they
are numbers. This step was never made by Greek mathematicians.
They distinguished always most carefully between continuous
magnitudes and the discrete series of numbers. In modern times
it has become the custom to ignore this difference.
If, in determining the ratio of two lines, a common measure can
be found, which is contained m times in the first, and n times in
the second, then the ratio of the two lines equals the ratio of the
two numbers m : n. This is shown by Euclid in Prop. 5, X. But the
ratio of two numbers is, as a rule, a fraction, and the Greeks did
not, as we do, consider fractions as numbers. Far less had they
any notion of introducing irrational numbers, which are neither
whole nor fractional, as we are obliged to do if we wish to say that
all ratios are numbers. The incommensurable numbers which are
thus introduced as ratios of incommensurable quantities are nowa-
days as familiar to us as fractions; but a proof is generally omitted
that we may apply to them the rules which have been established
for rational numbers only. Euclid's treatment of ratios avoids this
difficulty. His definitions hold for commensurable as well as for
incommensurable Quantities. Even the notion of incommensurable
quantities is avoided in Book V. But he proves that the more
elementary rules of algebra hold for ratios. We shall state al
Us propositions in that algebraical form to which we are now accus-
tomed. This may, of course, be done without changing the character
of Euclid's method.
| 51. Using the notation explained above we express the first
propositions as follows:
Prop. I. If a "ma', ft -mi', (me',
then a +b+c -m (a' + ft' +tf).
Prop. 3. If a-mb. and r-md,
e"nb, anAf-nd,
68 3
hen a+e is the same multiple of batc+f is of d, viz. :
o+-(m+)ft,and c+f-(m+n)d.
Prop. 3. If o-mft, c-md, then is na the same multiple of b
hat n, is of d, viz. na-nmb, nc-nmd.
Prop. 4. If a : b : : c : d,
hen
Prop. 5. If
hen
ma : nb : : me : nd.
a mft, and c md,
Prop. 6. If a mft, c~ md,
.hen are o-6and c-nd either equal to, or equimultiples of, b'
md d, viz. a - nb - (m - n)b and c - nd - (m - n)d, where m-n may
>e unity.
All these propositions relate to equimultiples. Now follow pro-
x>sitions about ratios which are compared as to their magnitude.
52. Prop. 7. If o -ft, then o : c : :b : candc : a : :c:b.
The proof is simply this. As a - ft we know that ma - mb ; there-
ore if ma > nc, then mb > nc,
( ma nc, then mft nc,
f ma<nc, then mb<nc,
therefore the first proportion holds by Definition 5.
Prop. 8. If Oft, then a : c>b : c,
and c : a<c : b.
The proof depends on Definition 7.
Prop. 9 (converse to Prop. 7). If
a : c : :b:c,
or if c : a : : c : 6, then a 6.
Prop. 10 (converse to Prop. 8). If
a : c>b : c, then o>ft
and if c : a<c : ft, then a<b.
Prop. ii. If a : b : :c : d,
and a : b : : c : f,
then c : d : : e :f.
In words, if two ratios are equal to a third, they are equal to one
another. After these propositions have been proved, we have a
right to consider a ratio as a magnitude, for only now can we con-
sider a ratio as something for which the axiom about magnitudes
holds: things which are equal to a third are equal to one another.
We shall indicate this by writing in future the sign = instead
of : : . The remaining propositions, which explain themselves, may
then be stated as follows:
a : b = c : d e :/,
a+c+e : b+d+f=a : b.
a : b=c : d and c : d>e :/,
a : b>e : f.
Prop. 14. If a : b = c : d, and a>c, then b>d.
Prop. 15. Magnitudes have the same ratio to one another that
their equimultiples have
ma : mb = a : ft.
Prop. 16. If a, b, c, d are magnitudes of the same kind, and if
a : 6 c : d,
then a : c 6 : d.
Prop. 17. If o+ft : b-c+d : d,
then a : b"C : d.
Prop. 18 (converse to 17). If
a : b=c : d
then o+ft : b c+d : d.
Prop. 19. If a, ft, c, dare quantities of the same kind, and if
a : b=*c : d,
then a c : b-d^a : b.
54. Prop. 20. // there be three magnitudes, and another three,
which have the same ratio, taken two and two, then if the first be greater
than the third, the fourth shall be greater than the sixth; and if equal,
equal; and if less, less.
If we understand by
a : b : c : d : e : . . . <=a' : b' : <? : d' : e' : . . .
that the ratio of any two consecutive magnitudes on the first side
equals that of the corresponding magnitudes on the second side,
we may write this theorem in symbols, thus:
If a, b, c be quantities of one, and d, e, f magnitudes of the same
or any other kind, such that
a : b : c d : e :/,
and if a>c, then d>f,
but if ac, then <f /,
and if a<c, then d<f.
Prop. 21. If a : be :/and ft : c d : e,
53. Prop. 12. If
then
Prop. 13. If
then
or if
ill
68 4
GEOMETRY
[EUCLIDEAN
and if a>c, then
but if a = c, then d =f,
and if a<c, thend</.
By aid of these two propositions the following two are proved.
55. Prop. 22. If there be any number of magnitudes, and as
many others, which have the same ratio, taken two and two in order,
the first shall have to the last of the first magnitudes the same ratio
which the first of the others has to the last.
We may state it more generally, thus:
If o : b : c : d : e: . . . =a' : V : c' : d' : e' : . . .,
then not only have two consecutive, but any two magnitudes on
the first side, the same ratio as the corresponding magnitudes on
the other. For instance
a :c=a' : c' ; b : e = 6' : ', &c.
Prop. 23 we state only in symbols, viz. :
If
then
o : 6 : c : d : e :...=-
a : c=c : a ,
b :e = e' :b',
and so on.
Prop. 24 comes to this : If o : b =c : d and e :b=f:d, then
o+e : b = c-\-f : d.
Some of the proportions which are considered in the above pro-
positions have special names. These we have omitted, as being of
no use, since algebra has enabled us to bring the different operations
contained in the propositions under a common point of view.
56. The last proposition in the fifth book is of a different
character.
Prop. 25. If four magnitudes of the same kind be proportional,
the greatest and least of them together shall be greater than the other
two together. In symbols
If a, b, c, d be magnitudes of the same kind, and if a : b=c : d,
and if o is the greatest, hence d the least, then a+d> b+c.
57- We return once again to the question, What is a ratio ?
We have seen that we may treat ratios as magnitudes, and that all
ratios are magnitudes of the same kind, for we may compare any
two as to their magnitude. It will presently be shown that ratios
of lines may be considered as quotients of lines, so that a ratio appears
as answer to the question, How often is one line contained in another ?
But the answer to this question is given by a number, at least in
some cases, and in all cases if we admit incommensurable numbers.
Considered from this point of view, we may say the fifth book of the
Elements shows that some of the simpler algebraical operations
hold for incommensurable numbers. In the ordinary algebraical
treatment of numbers this proof is altogether omitted, or given by
a process of limits which does not seem to be natural to the subject.
BOOK VI.
58. The sixth book contains the theory of similar figures.
After a few definitions explaining terms, the first proposition gives
the first application of the theory of proportion.
Prop. i. Triangles and parallelograms of the same altitude are to
one another as their bases.
The proof has already been considered in 49.
From this follows easily the important theorem
Prop. 2. // a straight line be drawn parallel to one of the sides
of a triangle it shall cut the other sides, or those sides produced, pro-
portionally; and if the sides or the sides produced be cut proportionally,
the straight line which joins the points of section shall be parallel to
the remaining side of the triangle.
59. The next proposition, together with one added by Simson
as Prop. A, may be expressed more conveniently if we introduce a
modern phraseology, viz. if in a line AB we assume a point C between
A and B, we shall say that C divides AB internally in the ratio
AC : CB ; but if C be taken in the line AB produced, we shall say
that AB is divided externally in the ratio AC : CB.
The two propositions then come to this :
Prop. 3. The bisector of an angle in a triangle divides the opposite
side internally in a ratio equal to the ratio of the two sides including
that angle; and conversely, if a line through the vertex of a triangle
divide the base internally in the ratio of the two other sides, then that
line bisects the angle at the vertex.
Simson's Prop. A. The line which bisects an exterior angle of a
triangle divides the opposite side externally in the ratio of the other
sides; and conversely, if a line through the vertex of a triangle divide
the base externally in the ratio of the sides, then it bisects an exterior
angle at the vertex of the triangle.
If we combine both we have
The two lines which bisect the interior and exterior angles at one
vertex of a triangle divide the opposite side internally and externally
in the same ratio, viz. in the ratio ojthe other two sides.
60. The next four propositions contain the theory of similar
triangles, of which four cases are considered. They may be stated
together.
Two triangles are similar,
I. (Prop. 4). // the triangles are equiangular:
To divide a straight line in a given ratio.
To find a third proportional to two given straight lines.
To find a fourth proportional to three given straight
2. (Prop. 5). // the sides of the one are proportional to those of
the other;
3. (Prop. 6). // two sides in one are proportional to two sides in
the other, and if the angles contained by these sides are equal;
4. (Prop. 7). // two sides in one are proportional to two sides in
the other, if the angles opposite homologous sides are equal, and if
the angles opposite the other homologous sides are both acute, both right
or both obtuse; homologous sides being in each case those which are
opposite equal angles.
An important application of these theorems is at once made to
a right-angled triangle, viz. :
Prop. 8. In a right-angled triangle, if a perpendicular be drawn
from the right angle to the base, the triangles on each side of it are
similar to the whole triangle, and to one another.
Corollary. From this it is manifest that the perpendicular
drawn from the right angle of a right-angled triangle to the base
is a mean proportional between the segments of the base, and also
that each of the sides is a mean proportional between the base and
the segment of the base adjacent to that side.
61. There follow four propositions containing problems, in
language slightly different from Euclid's, viz. :
Prop. 9. To divide a straight line into a given number of equal
parts.
Prop. 10.
Prop. n.
Prop. 12.
lines.
Prop. 13. To find a mean proportional between two given straight
lines.
The last three may be written as equations with one unknown
quantity viz. if we call the given straight lines a, b, c, and the
required line x, we have to find a line x so that
Prop. ii. 0:6 = 6: x;
Prop. 12. a : b = c : x;
Prop. 13. a : x=x : 6.
We shall see presently how these may be written without the
signs of ratios.
| 62. Euclid considers next proportions connected with parallelo-
grams and triangles which are equal in area.
Prop. 14. Equal parallelograms which have one angle of the one
equal to one angle of the other have their sides about the equal angles
reciprocally proportional; and parallelograms which have one angle
of the one equal to one angle of the other, and their sides about the equal
angles reciprocally proportional, are equal to one another.
Prop. 15. Equal triangles which have one angle of the one equal
to one angle of the other, have their sides about the equal angles recipro-
cally proportional; and triangles which have one angle of the one equal
to one angle of the other, and their sides about the equal angles recipro-
cally proportional, are equal to one another.
The latter proposition is really the same as the former, for if, as
in the accompanying diagram,
in the figure belonging to the
former the two equal parallelo-
grams AB and BC be bisected
by the lines DF and EG, and
if EF be drawn, we get the
figure belonging to the latter.
It is worth noticing that
the lines FE and DG are
parallel. We may state there-
fore the theorem
// two triangles are equal in
area, and have one angle in the one vertically opposite to one angle
in the other, then the two straight lines which join the remaining two
vertices of the one to those of the other triangle are parallel.
63. A most important theorem is
Prop. 1 6. If four straight lines be proportionals, the rectangle
contained by the extremes is equal to the rectangle contained by the
means; and if the rectangle contained by the extremes be equal to the
rectangle contained by the means, the four straight lines are proportionals.
In symbols, if a, 6, c, d are the four lines, and
if a : b = c : d,
then ad = bc;
and conversely, if ad = bc,
then a. : b=c : d,
where ad and be denote (as in 20), the areas of the rectangles
contained by o and d and by 6 and c respectively.
This allows us to transform every proportion between four lines
into an equation between two products.
It shows further that the operation of forming a product of two
lines, and the operation of forming their ratio are each the inverse
of the other.
If we now define a quotient | of two lines as the number which
multiplied into b gives a, so that
EUCLIDEAN]
we that from the equality of two quotient*
a t
1-2
follow*, if we multiply both tide* by M.
ad-cb.
But from this it follow*, according to the last theorem, that
a:b-c:d.
Hence we conclude that the quotient j and the ratio a : b are
different forms of the same magnitude, only with this important
difference that the quotient j would have a meanjng only if o and
"b have a common measure, until we introduce incommensurable
number*, while the ratio a-: b ha* always a meaning, and thus gives
rise to the introduction of incommensurable numbers.
Thus it is really the theory of ratios in the fifth book which enables
us to extend the geometrical calculus given before in connexion
with Book II. It will also be seen that if we write the ratios in
BookV.asqupttents, or rather as fractions, then most of the theorems
state properties of quotients or of fractions.
i 64. Prop. 17. // three straight lines are proportional the rectangle
<M*MMrf by Ike extremes is equal to the square on the mean ; and
conversely, is only a special ca*e of 16. After the problem, Prop.
18, On a gat* straight line to describe a rectilineal figure similar
and similarly situated to a given rectilineal figure, there follows another
fundamental theorem:
Prop. 19. Similar triangles are to one another in the duplicate
ratio of their homologous sides. In other words, the areas of similar
triangles are to one another as the squares on homologous sides.
This is generalized in :
Prop. 20. Similar polygons may be divided into the same number
of similar triangles, having the same ratio to one another that the
polygons hate; and the polygons are to one another in the duplicate
ratio of their homologous sides.
| 65. Prop. 21. Rectilineal figures which are similar to the same
nctUineal figure are also similar to each other, is an immediate con-
sequence of the definition of similar figures. As similar figures
may be said to be equal in " shape " but not in " size," we may state
it also thus :
" Figure* which are equal in shape to a third are equal.in shape
to each other."
Prop. 22. // four straight lines be proportionals, the similar
rectilineal figures similarly described on them shall also be propor-
Htnals; and if the similar rectilineal figures similarly described on four
straight lines be proportionals, those straight lines shall be proportionals.
Thi* is essentially the same as the following:
GEOMETRY
685
//
tkt*
:b -c :d,
:-<* :d>.
{ 66. Now follows a proposition which has been much discussed
with regard to Euclid's exact meaning in saying that a ratio is
compounded of two other ratios, viz. :
Prop. 23. Parallelograms which are equiangular to one another,
hate to one another the ratio which is compounded of the ratios of their
sides.
The proof of the proposition makes its meaning clear. In symbol
the ratio a : c is compounded of the two ratios a : b and ft : c, and il
0:6-0': ft', \>:c-b:c', then a : c i* compounded of a': ft' and
ft* : c'.
If we consider the ratio* as numbers, we may say that the one
ratio is toe product of those of whkh it is compounded, or in symbols
a a b a' ft' , a a' ft 6'.
The theorem in Prop. 23 is the foundation of all mensuration o
area*. From it we see at once that two rectangles have the ratio
of their area* compounded of the ratio* of their sides.
If A i* the area of a rectangle contained by a and ft, and B that
of a rectangle contained by c and d, so that A -oft, B=cd, then
A : B-o4 : cd. and this is, the theorem says, compounded of the
ratio* : c and b : a. In form* of quotients,
a.i_oft
This shows bow to multiply quotients in our geometrical calculus
Further, Two triangles hate the ratios of their areas compounded
of the ratios of their bases and their altitude. For a triangle is cqua
in area to half a parallelogram which has the same base and the
tame altitude.
| 67. To bring these theorems to the form in which they are usual!)
given, we assume a straight line u a* our unit of length (general!'
an inch, a foot, a mile, Ac.), and determine the number a whirl
exprmts how often u is contained in a line a, so that denotes th
ratio a : u whether commensurable or not, and that a-au. W
call this number the numerical value of o. If in the same manner
ft be the numerical value of a line ft we have
a : ft o : ft;
n words : The ratio of two lines (and of two like quantities in general)
equal to that of their numerical values.
This is easily proved by observing that o ou, b ftu, therefore
: fc-att: /Su.and this may without difficulty be shown to equal a:ft.
If now o, ft be base and altitude of one, a', ft' those of another
parallelogram, a, ft and ', ft" their numerical values respectively,
nd A, A' their areas, then
A a b a ,ft aft.
n words: The areas of two parallelograms are to each other as the
their bases and altitudes.
unit square, i.e. a
and we have
n wors: e areas o wo araeograms are o ea
troducts of the numerical values of their bases and altit
If especially the second parallelogram is the unit
square on the unit of length, then a'-fl'- 1, A'-tt 1 ,
7-o0 or -
This gives the theorem : The number of unit squares contained in
a parallelogram equals the product of the numerical values of base
and altitude, and similarly the number of unit squares contained in
a triangle equals half the product of the numerical values of base
and altitude.
This is often stated by saying that the area of a parallelogram is
equal to the product of the base and the altitude, meaning by this
product the product of the numerical values, and not the product as
defined above in 20.
68. Propositions 24 and 26 relate to parallelograms about
diagonals, such as are considered in Book I., 43. They are
Prop. 24. Parallelograms about the diameter of any parallelogram
are similar to the whole parallelogram and to one another; and its
converse (Prop. 26), // two similar parallelograms have a common
angle, and be similarly situated, they are about the same diameter.
Between these is inserted a problem.
Prop. 25. To describe a rectilineal figure which shall be similar to
one given rectilinear figure, and equal to another given rectilineal
Igure.
i 69. Prop. 27 contains a theorem relating to the theory of
maxima and minima. We may state it thus:
Prop. 27. // a parallelogram be divided into two by a straight line
cutting the base, and if on half the base another parallelogram be con-
structed similar to one of those parts, then this third parallelogram is
yeatet than the other part.
Of far greater interest than this general theorem is a special case
of it, where the parallelograms are changed into rectangles, and
where one of the parts into which the parallelogram is divided is
made a square; for then the theorem changes into one which is
easily recognized to be identical with the following :
Oj all tectangles which have the same perimeter the square has the
greatest area.
This may also be stated thus:
Of all rectangles which have the same area the square has the least
perimeter.
70. The next three propositions contain problems which may
be said to be solutions of quadratic equations. The first two are,
like the last, involved in somewhat obscure language. We tran-
scribe them as follows:
Problem. To describe on a given base a parallelogram, and to
divide it either internally (Prop. 28) or externally (Prop. 29) from
a point on the base into two parallelograms, of which the one has
a given size (is equal in area to a given figure), whilst the other
has a given shape (is similar to a given parallelogram).
If we express this again in symbols, calling the given base a, the
one part *, and the altitude y, we have to determine * and y in the
first case from the equations
y 9
* being the given size of the first, and p and q the base and altitude
of the parallelogram which determine the shape of the second of the
required parallelograms.
If we substitute the value of y, we get
(ax) ^**t
9 '
or,
ax-x'-b',
where a and 6 are known quantities, taking ft*"~"
The second case (Prop. 29) gives 'rise, in the same manner, to the
quadratic
OJf-Hf-ft 1 .
The next problen
Prop. 30. To cut a given straight line in extreme and mean ratio,
leads to the equation
+*-<.
686
GEOMETRY
[EUCLIDEAN
This is, therefore, only a special case of the last, and is, besides,
an old acquaintance, being essentially the same problem as that
proposed in II. II.
Prop. 30 may therefore be solved in two ways, either by aid of
Prop. 29 or by aid of II. II. Euclid gives both solutions.
71. Prop. 31 (Theorem). In any right-angled triangle, any
rectilineal figure described on the side subtending the right angle is
equal to the similar and similarly-described figures on the sides con-
taining the right angle, is a pretty generalization of the theorem of
Pythagoras (I. 47).
Leaving out the next proposition, which is of little interest, we
come to the last in this book.
Prop. 33. In equal circles angles, whether at the centres or the
circumferences, have the same ratio which the arcs on which they stand
have to one another; so also have the sectors.
Of this, the part relating to angles at the centre is of special
importance; it enables us to measure angles by arcs.
With this closes that part of the Elements which is devoted to
the study of figures in a plane.
BOOK XI.
72. In this book figures are considered which are not confined
to a plane, viz. first relations between lines and planes in space,
and afterwards properties of solids.
Of new definitions we mention those which relate to the perpen-
dicularity and the inclination of lines and planes.
Def. 3. A straight line is perpendicular, or at right angles, to a
plane when it makes right angles with every straight line meeting it
in that plane.
The definition of perpendicular planes (Def. 4) offers no difficulty.
Euclid defines the inclination of lines to planes and of planes to
planes (Defs. 5 and 6) by aid of plane angles, included by straight
lines, with which we have been made familiar in the first books.
The other important definitions are those of parallel planes,
which never meet (Def. 8), and of solid angles formed by three or
more planes meeting in a point (Def. 9).
To these we add the definition of a line parallel to a plane as a
line which does not meet the plane.
73. Before we investigate the contents of Book XL, it will be
well to recapitulate shortly what we know of planes and lines from
the definitions and axioms of the first book. There a plane has
been defined as a surface which has the property that every straight
line which joins two points in it lies altogether in it. This is equi-
valent to saying that a straight line which has two points in a plane
has all points in the plane. Hence, a straight .line which does not
lie in the plane cannot have more than one point in common with
the plane. This is virtually the same as Euclid's Prop. I, viz. :
Prop. i. One part of a straight line cannot be in a plane and another
part without it.
It also follows, as was pointed out in 3, in discussing the defini-
tions of Book I., that a plane is determined already by one straight
line and a point without it, viz. if all lines be drawn through the
point, and cutting the line, they will form a plane.
This may be stated thus:
A plane is determined
1st, By a straight line and a point which does not lie on it;
2nd, By three points which do not lie in a straight line; for if two
of these points be joined by a straight line we have case I ;
3rd, By two intersecting straight lines; for the point of intersection
and two other points, one in each line, give case 2 ;
4th, By two parallel lines (Def. 35, I.).
The third case of this theorem is Euclid's
Prop. 2. Two straight lines which cut one another are in one plane,
and three straight lines which meet one another are in one plane.
And the fourth is Euclid's
Prop. 7. // two straight lines be parallel, the straight line drawn
jrom any point in one to any point in the other is in the same plane
with the parallels. From the definition of a plane further follows
Prop. 3. // two planes cut one another, their common section is a
straight line.
74. Whilst these propositions are virtually contained in the
definition of a plane, the next gives us a new and fundamental
property of space, showing at the same time that it is possible to
have a straight line perpendicular to a plane, according to Def. 3.
It states
Prop. 4. // a straight line is perpendicular to two straight lines
in a plane which it meets, then it is perpendicular to all lines in the plane
which it meets, and hence it is perpendicular to the plane.
Def. 3 may be stated thus: If a straight line is perpendicular
to a plane, then it is perpendicular to every line in the plane which
it meets. The converse to this would be
All straight lines which meet a given straight line in the same point,
and are perpendicular to it, lie in a plane which is perpendicular to
that line.
This Euclid states thus: 'v.-j .'
Prop. 5. // three straight lines meet all at one point, and a straight
line stands at right angles to each of them at that point, the three straight
lines shall be in one and the same plane.
75. There follow theorems relating to the theory of parallel
lines in space, viz. :
Prop. 6. Any two lines which are perpendicular to the same plane
are parallel to each other ; and conversely
Prop. 8. // of two parallel straight lines one is perpendicular to a
plane, the other is so also.
Prop. 7. // two straight lines are parallel, the straight line whuh
joins any point in one to any point in the other is in the same plane as
the parallels. (See above, 73.)
Prop. 9. Two straight lines which are each of them parallel to the
same straight line, and not in the same plane with it, are parallel to
one another; where the words, " and not in the same plane with
it," may be omitted, for they exclude the case of three parallels
in a plane, which has been proved before; and
Prop. 10. // two angles in different planes have the two limits of
the one parallel to those of the other, then the angles are equal. That
their planes are parallel is shown later on in Prop. 15.
This theorem is not necessarily true, for the angles in question
may be supplementary ; but then the one angle will be equal to
that which is adjacent and supplementary to the other, and this
latter angle will also have its limits parallel to those of the first.
From this theorem it follows that if we take any two straight
lines in space which do not meet, and if we draw through any point
P in space two lines parallel to them, then the angle included by
these lines will always be the same, whatever the position of the
point P may be. This angle has in modern times been called the
angle between the given lines :
By the angles between two not intersecting lines we understand the
angles which two intersecting lines include that are parallel respectively
to the two given lines.'
76. It is now possible to solve the following two problems:
To draw a straight line perpendicular to a given plane from a given
point which lies
1. Not in the plane (Prop. ll).
2. In the plane (Prop. 12).
The second case is easily reduced to the first viz. if by aid of
the first we have drawn any perpendicular to the plane from some
point without it, we need only draw through the given point in the
plane a line parallel to it, in order to have the required perpendicular
given. The solution of the first part is of interest in itself. It de-
pends upon a construction which may be expressed as a theorem.
If from a point A without a plane a perpendicular AB be drawn to the
plane, and if from the foot B of this perpendicular another perpendicular
BC be drawn to any straight line in the plane, then the straight line
joining A to the foot C of this second perpendicular will also be perpen-
dicular to the line in the plane.
The theory of perpendiculars to a plane is concluded by the
theorem
Prop. 13. Through any point in space, whether in or without a
plane, only one straight line can be drawn perpendicular to the plane.
77. The next four propositions treat ot parallel planes. It is
shown that planes which have a common perpendicular are parallel
(Prop. 14); that two planes are parallel if two intersecting straight
lines in the one are parallel respectively to two straight lines in the
other plane (Prop. 15) ; that parallel planes are cut by any plane in
parallel straight lines (Prop. 16); and lastly, that any two straight
lines are cut proportionally by a series of parallel planes (Prop. 17).
This theory is made more complete by adding the following
theorems, which are easy deductions from the last: Two parallel
planes have common perpendiculars (converse to 14) ; and Two
planes which are parallel to a third plane are parallel to each other.
It will be noted that Prop. 15 at once allows of the solution of
the problem : " Through a given point to draw a plane parallel to
a given plane." And it is also easily proved that this problem
allows always of one, and only of one, solution.
78. We come now to planes which are perpendicular to one
another. Two theorems relate to them.
Prop. 1 8. If a straight line be at right angles to a plane, every
plane which passes through it shall be at right angles to that plane.
Prop. 19. // two planes which cut one another be each of them
perpendicular to a third plane, their common section shall be per-
pendicular to the same plane.
79. If three planes pass through a common point, and if they
bound each other, a solid angle of three faces, or a trihedral angle,
is formed, and similarly by more planes a solid angle of more faces,
or a polyhedral angle. These have many properties which are quite
analogous to those of triangles and polygons in a plane. Euclid
states some, viz. :
Prop. 20. // a solid angle be contained by three plane angles, any
two of them are together greater than the third.
But the next
Prop. 21. Every solid angle is contained by plane angles, which
are together less than four right angles has no analogous theorem
in the plane.
We may mention, however, that the theorems about triangles
contained in the propositions of Book I., which do not depend
upon the theory of parallels (that is all up to Prop. 27), have their
corresponding theorems about trihedral angles. The latter are
formed, if for " side of a triangle " we write " plane angle " or
"face" of trihedral angle, and for "angle of triangle "_ we sub-
stitute " angle between two faces " where the planes containing the
solid angle are called \tsfaces. We get, for instance, from I. 4, the
EUCLIDEAN]
GEOMETRY
687
theorem. // ftro trihedral angles hare Ike anttes of two facts in Ike ont
tfual to tin angles of two faces in the otker, and hate likewise the angles
nriudtd by th*u facts equal, then Ike an ties in Ike remaining faces art
tonal, and tin angles kOwotn tht other faces art equal rath to each, pit.
lion which oft opposite equal faces. The solid angles themselves are
not necessarily equal, for they may be only symmetrical like the
right hand and the left.
The connexion indicated between triangles and trihedral angles
will also be recognized in
Prop. 33. If tftry two of three plant angles be greater than the
tkird. and if the straight lines which contain them be all equal, a triangle
may be made of On straight lines that join the extremities of those equal
straight lints.
And Prop. 23 solves the problem. To construct a trihedral angle
hating the angles of its facet equal to three given plane angles, any two
of them being greater than the third. It is, of course, analogous to the
problem of constructing a triangle having its sides of given length.
Two other theorems of this kind are added by Simson in his
edition of Euclid's Elements.
| 80. These are the principal properties of lines and planes in
pace, but before we go on to their applications it will be well to
define the word distance. In geometry distance means always
" shortest distance " ; viz. the distance of a point from a straight
line, or from a plane, is the length of the perpendicular from the
point to the line or plane. The distance between two non-intersect-
ing lines is the length of their common perpendicular, there being
but one. The distance between two parallel lines or between two
parallel planes is the length of the common perpendicular between
the lines or the planes.
| 81. Parallelepipeds. The rest of the book is devoted to the
study of the parallelepiped. In Prop. 24 the possibility of such
a solid is proved, viz. :
Prop. 34. If a solid be contained by six planes two and two of
which are parallel, the opposite planes are similar and equal parallelo-
grams.
Euclid calls this solid henceforth a parallelepiped, though he
never defines the word. Either face of it may be taken as base,
and its distance from the opposite face as altitude.
Prop. 25. // a solid parallelepiped be cut by a plane parallel to
two of its opposite planes, it divides the whole into two solids, the base
of one of which shall be to the base of the other as the one solid is to the
other.
This theorem corresponds to the theorem (VI. l) that parallelo-
grams between the same parallels are to one another as their bases.
A similar analogy is to be observed among a number of the remaining
propositions.
I 82. After solving a few problems we come to
Prop. 28. // a solid parallelepiped be cut by a plane passing
through the diagonals of two of the opposite planes, it shall be cut in
two tqual parts .
In the proof of this, as of several other propositions, Euclid
Deflects the difference between solids which are symmetrical like
the right hand and the left.
Prop. 31. Solid parallelepipeds, which are upon equal bases, and
of the same altitude, are equal to one another.
Props. 29 and 30 contain special cases of this theorem leading up
to the proof of the general theorem.
As consequences of this fundamental theorem we get
Prop. 32. Solid parallelepipeds, which have the same altitude, are
to one another as their bases ; and
Prop. 33. Similar solid parallelepipeds are to one another in the
triplicate ratio of their homologous sides.
If we consider, as in | 67, the ratios of lines as numbers, we may
also say
The ratio of the volumes of similar parallelepipeds is equal to the
ratio of the third powers of homologous sides.
Parallelepipeds whkh are not similar but equal are compared by
aid of the theorem
Prop. 34. The bases and altitudes of equal solid parallelepipeds
and reciprocally proportional; and if the bases and altitudes be re-
ciprocally proportional, the solid parallelepipeds are equal.
83. Of the following propositions the 37th and 4oth are of
special interest.
Prop. 37. If four straight lines be Proportionals, the similar solid
parallelepipeds, similarly described from them, shall also be pro-
portionals; and if the similar parallelepipeds similarly described
from four straight lines be proportionals, the straight lines shall be
proportionals.
In symbols it to.
If a:b-c :d, then
Prop. 40 teaches how to compare the volumes of triangular
" with those of parallelepipeds, by proving that a triangular
prism is equal in volume to a parallelepiped, which has its altitude
tad its base equal to the altitude ana the base of the triangular
prt :!
I 84. From these propositions follow all results relating to the
mensuration of volumes. We shall state these as we did in the case
of areas. The starting-point is the " rectangular " parallelepiped,
which has every edge perpendicular to the planes it meets, and
which takes the place of the rectangle in the plane. If this has all
'ts edges equal we obtain the " cube."
If we take a certain line u as unit length, then the square on u is
the unit of area, and the cube on u the unit of volume, that is to
say, if we wish to measure a volume we have to determine how
many unit cubes it contains.
A rectangular parallelepiped has, as a rule, the three edges un-
equal, which meet at a point. Every other edge is equal to one
of them. If a, b, c be the three edges meeting at a point, then we
may take the rectangle contained by two of them, say by b and c,
as base and the third as altitude. Let _V be its volume, V' that of
another rectangular parallelepiped which has the edges a', b, c,
hence the same base as the first. It follows then easily, from Prop.
25 or 32, that V:V'-o:o'; or in words,
Rectangular parallelepipeds on equal bases are proportional to their
altitudes.
If we have two rectangular parallelepipeds, of which the first has
the volume V and the cages a, b, c, and the second, the volume V
and the edges a', b', c', we may compare them by aid of two new
ones which have respectively the edges a', b, c and a', b', c, and the
volumes Vi and V s . We then have
V:V,-a:o';V l :V,-&:6',V,:V'-c:'.
Compounding these, we have'
V:V'-(a:a e ) (6:6') (c: c'),
V o 6 c
Vy'P'7'
Hence, as a special case, making V equal to the unit cube U on
we get
V a b c
V~u.'u'-u" fi -'*>
where a, 0, y are the numerical values of a, b, c; that is, The number
of unit cubes in a rectangular parallelepiped is equal to the product
of the numerical values of its three edges. This is generally ex-
pressed by saying the volume of a rectangular parallelepiped is
measured by the product of its sides, or by the product of its base
into its altitude, which in this case is the same.
Prop. 31 allows us to extend this to any parallelepipeds, and Props.
28 or 40, to triangular prisms.
The volume of any parallelepiped, or of any triangular prism, is
measured by the product of base and altitude.
The consideration that any polygonal prism may be divided into
a number of triangular prisms, which have the same altitude and
the sum of their bases equal to the base of the polygonal prism,
shows further that the same holds for any prism whatever.
BOOK XII.
85. In the last part of Book XI. we have learnt how to compare
the volumes of parallelepipeds and of prisms. In order to determine
the volume of any solid bounded by plane faces we must determine
the volume of pyramids, for every such solid may be decomposed
into a number of pyramids.
As every pyramid may again be decomposed into triangular
pyramids, it becomes only necessary to determine their volume.
This is done by the
Theorem. Every triangular pyramid is equal in volume to one
third of a triangular prism having the same base and the same
altitude as the pyramid.
This is an immediate consequence of Euclid's
Prop. 7. Every prism having a triangular base may be divided
into three pyramids that have triangular bases, and are equal to one
another.
The proof of this theorem is difficult, because the three triangular
pyramids into which the prism is divided are by no means equal in
shape, and cannot be made to coincide. It has first to be proved
that two triangular pyramids have equal volumes, if they have
equal bases and equal altitudes. This Euclid does in the following
manner. He first shows (Prop. 3) that a triangular pyramid may
be divided into four parts, of which two are equal triangular pyramids
similar to the whole pyramid, whilst the other two are equal tri-
angular prisms, and further, that these two prisms together are
greater than the two pyramids, hence more than half the given
pyramid. He next shows (Prop. 4) that if two triangular pyramids
MB given, having equal bases and equal altitudes, and it each be
divided as above, then the two triangular prisms in the one are
equal to those in the other, and each of the remaining pyramids in
the one has its base and altitude equal to the base and altitude of
the remaining pyramids in the other. Hence to these pyramids the
same process is again applicable. We are thus enabled to cut out
of the two given pyramids equal parts, each greater than half the
original pyramid. Of the remainder we can again cut out equal
parts greater >han half these remainders, and so on as far as we like.
This process may be continued till the last remainder is smaller
than any assignable quantity, however small. It follows, so we
should conclude at present, that the two volumes must be equal, for
they cannot differ by any assignable quantity.
To Greek mathematicians this conclusion offers far greater
688
GEOMETRY
[PROJECTIVE
difficulties. They prove elaborately, by a reductio ad absurdum,
that the volumes cannot be unequal. This proof must be read in
the Elements. We must, however, state that we have in the above
not proved Euclid's Prop. 5, but only a special case of it. Euclid
does not suppose that the bases of the two pyramids to be compared
are equal, and hence he proves that the volumes are as the bases.
The reasoning of the proof becomes clearer in the special case, from
which the general one may be easily deduced.
86. Prop. 6 extends the result to pyramids with polygonal
bases. From these results follow again the rules at present given
for the mensuration of solids, viz. a pyramid is the third part of a
triangular prism haying the same base and the same altitude. But
a triangular prism is equal in volume to a parallelepiped which
has the same base and altitude. Hence if B is the base and h the
altitude, we have
Volume of prism = BA,
Volume of pyramid = JBA,
statements which have to be taken in the sense that B means the
number of square units in the base, h the number of units of length
in the altitude, or that B and h denote the numerical values of base
and altitude.
87. A method similar to that used in proving Prop. 5 leads to
the following results relating to solids bounded by simple curved
surfaces :
Prop. to. Every cone is the third part of a cylinder which has the
same base, and is of an equal altitude with it.
Prop. 1 1 . Cones or cylinders of the same altitude are to one another
as their bases.
Prop. 12. Similar cones or cylinders have to one another the triplicate
ratio of that which the diameters of their bases have.
Prop. 13. If a cylinder be cut by a plane parallel to its opposite
planes or bases, it divides the cylinder into two cylinders, one of which
is to the other as the axis of the first to the axis of the other; which
may also be stated thus:
Cylinders on the same base are proportional to their altitudes.
Prop. 14. Cones or cylinders upon equal bases are to one another
as their altitudes.
Prop. 15. The bases and altitudes of equal cones or cylinders are
reciprocally proportional, and if the bases and altitudes be reciprocally
proportional, the cones or cylinders are equal to one another.
These theorems again lead to formulae in mensuration, if we
compare a cylinder with a prism having its base and altitude equal to
the base and altitude of the cylinder. This may be done by the
method of exhaustion. We get, then, the result that their bases are
equal, and have, if B denotes the numerical value of the base, and
h that of the altitude,
Volume of cylinder = BA,
Volume of cone =|BA.
| 88. The remaining propositions relate to circles and spheres.
Of the sphere only one property is proved, viz. :
Prop. 1 8. Spheres have to one another the triplicate ratio of that
which their diameters have. The mensuration of the sphere, like
that of the circle, the cylinder and the cone, had not been settled
in the time of Euclid. It was done by Archimedes.
BOOK XIII.
89. The 1 3th and last book of Euclid's Elements is devoted to
the regular solids (see POLYHEDRON). It is shown that there are
five of them, viz. :
1. The regular tetrahedron, with 4 triangular faces and 4 vertices;
2. The cube, with 8 vertices and 6 square faces;
3. The octahedron, with 6 vertices and 8 triangular faces ;
4. The dodecahedron, with 12 pentagonal faces, 3 at each of the
20 vertices;
5. The icosahedron, with 20 triangular faces, 5 at each of the
12 vertices.
It is shown how to inscribe these solids in a given sphere, and
how to determine the lengths of their edges.
90. The I3th book, and therefore the Elements, conclude with
the scholium, " that no other regular solid exists besides the five
ones enumerated."
The proof is very simple. Each face is a regular polygon, hence
the angles of the faces at any vertex must be angles in equal regular
polygons, must be together less than four right angles (XI. 21), and
must be three or more in number. Each angle in a regular triangle
equals two-thirds of one right angle. Hence it is possible to form
a solid angle with three, four or five regular triangles or faces.
These give the solid angles of the tetrahedron, the octahedron and
the icosahedron. The angle in a square (the regular quadrilateral)
equals one right angle. Hence three will form a solid angle, that
of the cube, and four will not. The angle in the regular pentagon
equals of a right angle. Hence three of them equal * (i.e. less
than 4) right angles, and form the solid angle of the dodecahedron.
Three regular polygons of six or more sides cannot form a solid
angle. Therefore no other regular solids are possible. (O. H.)
II. PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
It is difficult, at the outset, to characterize projective geometry
as compared with Euclidean. But a few examples will at least
indicate the practical differences between the two.
In Euclid's Elements almost all propositions refer to the magni-
tude of lines, angles, areas or volumes, and therefore to measure-
ment. The statement that an angle is right, or that two straight
lines are parallel, refers to measurement. On the other hand,
the fact that a straight line does or does not cut a circle is inde-
pendent of measurement, it being dependent only upon the
mutual " position " of the line and the circle. This difference
becomes clearer if we project any figure from one plane to another
(see PROJECTION). By this the length of lines, the magnitude
of angles and areas, is altered, so that the projection, or shadow,
of a square on a plane will not be a square; it will, however,
be some quadrilateral. Again, the projection of a circle will not
be a circle, but some other curve more or less resembling a circle.
But one property may be stated at once no straight line can cut
the projection of a circle in more than two points, because no
straight line can cut a circle in more than two points. There
are, then, some properties of figures which do not alter by
projection, whilst others do. To the latter belong nearly all
properties relating to measurement, at least in the form in which
they are generally given. The others are said to be projective
properties, and their investigation forms the subject of projective
geometry.
Different as are the kinds of properties investigated in the old
and the new sciences, the methods followed differ in a still
greater degree. In Euclid each proposition stands by itself;
its connexion with others is never indicated; the leading ideas
contained in its proof are not stated; general principles do not
exist. In the modern methods, on the other hand, the greatest
importance is attached to the leading thoughts which pervade
the whole; and general principles, which bring whole groups of
theorems under one aspect, are given rather than separate pro-
positions. The whole tendency is towards generalization.
A straight line is considered as given in its entirety, extending
both ways to infinity, while Euclid never admits anything but
finite quantities. The treatment of the infinite is in fact another
fundamental difference between the two methods: Euclid avoids
it; in modern geometry it is systematically introduced.
Of the different modern methods of geometry, we shall treat
principally of the methods of projection and correspondence which
have proved to be the most powerful. These have become inde-
pendent of Euclidean Geometry, especially through the Geometric
der Lage of V. Staudt and the Ausdehnungslehre of Grassmann.
For the sake of brevity we shall presuppose a knowledge of
Euclid's Elements, although we shall use only a few of his pro-
positions.
i. Geometrical Elements. We consider space as filled with points,
lines and planes, and these we call the elements out of which our
figures are to be formed, calling any combination of these elements a
" figure."
By a line we mean a straight line in its entirety, extending both
ways to infinity; and by a plane, a plane surface, extending in all
directions to infinity.
We accept the three-dimensional space of experience the space
assumed by Euclid which has for its properties (among others) :
Through any two points in space one and only one line may be
drawn ;
Through any three points which are not in a line, one and only one
plane may be placed ;
The intersection of two planes is a line;
A line which has two points in common with a plane lies in the
plane, hence the intersection of a line and a plane is a single point ; and
Three planes which do not meet in a line have one single point in
common.
These results may be stated differently in the following form :
I. A plane is determined A point is determined
1. By three points which do I. By three planes which do
not lie in a line; not pass through a line;
2. By two intersecting lines ; 2. By two intersecting lines;
3. By a line and a point 3. By a plane and a line
which does not lie in it. which does not lie in it.
II. A line is determined
I. By two points; 2. By two planes.
PROJECTIVE)
GEOMETRY
689
It will be observed that not only are planes determined by points,
but also points by plane*; that therefore the planes may be con-
sidered as elements, like point*: and also that in any one of the
above statrnu-nts we may interchange the words point and plane,
and we obtain again a correct statement, provided that these
statements themselves are true. As they stand, we ought, in
even! cases, to add " if they are not parallel." or some such words,
parallel line* and plane* being evidently left altogether out of
consideration. To correct this we have to reconsider the theory of
parallels.
f j. Parallels. Point at Infinity. Let us take in a plane a line
(fig. 1). a point S not in Uu line, and a line q drawn through S.
Then this line q will nuvt
\ s the line p in a point A. If
we turn the line q about S
towards q', its point of
intersection with f> will
move along p towards B,
passing, on continued turn-
ing, to a greater and greater
distance, until it is moved
out of our reach. If we
turn q still farther, its con-
tinuation will meet p, but
now at the other eide of
A. The point of inter-
section has disappeared to
the right and reappeared
FIG. i.
to the left. There is one intermediate position where q is parallel
to p that is where it does not cut f>. In every other position it
cut* p in some finite point. If, on the other hand, we move the point
A to an infinite distance in p. then the line q which passes through
A will be a line which does not cut p at any finite point. Thus we
are led to say: Entry line through S which joins it to anv point
at aa infinite distance in p is parallel to p. But by Euclid's 1 2th
axiom there is but one line parallel to p through S. The difficulty in
which we are thus involved is due to the fact that we try to reason
about infinity as if we, with our finite capabilities, could comprehend
the infinite. To overcome this difficulty, we may say that all points
at infinity in a line appear to us as one, and may be replaced by a
single " ideal " point.
We may therefore now give the following definitions and axiom :
Definition. Lines which meet at infinity are called parallel.
Axiom. All points at an infinite distance in a line may be con-
sidered a* one single point.
Definition. This ideal point is called the point at infinity in the
line.
The axiom is equivalent to Euclid's Axiom 12, for it follows from
either that through any point only one line may be drawn parallel
to a given line.
Thi point at infinity in a line is reached whether we move a
point in the one or in the opposite direction of a line to infinity.
A line thus appears closed by this point, and we speak as if we
could move a point along the line from one position A to another
B in two ways, either through the point at infinity or through finite
point* only.
It must never be forgotten that this point at infinity is ideal;
in fact, the whole notion of " infinity is only a mathematical
conception, and owes its introduction (as a method of research) to
the working generalizations which it permits.
| 3. Line and Plane at Infinity. Having arrived at the notion of
replacing all points at infinity in a line by one ideal point, there is no
difficulty in replacing all points at infinity in a plane by one ideal
line.
To make this clear, let us suppose that a line p, which cuts two
fixed lines a and b in the points A and B, moves parallel to itself
to a greater and greater distance. It will at last cut both a and
A at tueir points at infinity, so that a line which joins the two points
at infinity in two intersecting lines lies altogether at infinity. Every
other line in the plane will meet it therefore at infinity, and thus it
contains all points at infinity in the plane.
All points at infinity in a plane lie in a line, which is called the line
at infinity in Ike plane.
It follows that parallel planes must be considered as planes
having a common line at infinity, for any other plane cuts them in
parallel lines which have a point at infinity in common.
If we next take two intersecting planes, then the point at infinity
in their line of intersection lies in both planes, so that their lines
at infinity meet. Hence every line at infinity meets every other
line at infinity, and they are therefore all in one plane.
All points at infinity in space may be considered as lying in one
Heal plane, which is called the plane at infinity.
I 4. Parallelism. We have now the following definitions:
Parallel lines are lines which meet at infinity ;
Parallel planes are planes which meet at infinity;
A line is parallel to a plane if it meets it at infinity.
Theorems like this Lines (or planes) which are parallel to a third
are parallel to each other follow at once.
This view of parallel* lead* therefore to no contradiction of
Euclid's Elements.
As immediate consequences we get the propositions:
Every line meets a plane in one point, or it lies in it ;
Every plane meets every other plane in a line ;
Any two lines in the same plane meet.
5 5- Aggregates of Geometrical Elements. We have called points,,
lines and planes the elements of geometrical figures. We also say
that an element of one kind contains one of the other if it lies in it
or passes through it.
All the elements of one kind which are contained in one or two
elements of a different kind form aggregates which have to be
enumerated. They are the following:
I. Of one dimension.
1 . The rote, or range, of points formed by all points in a line,
which is called its base.
2. The flat pencil formed by all the lines through a point in
a plane. Its base is the point in the plane.
3. The axial pencil formed by all planes through a line
which is called its base or axis.
II. Of two dimensions.
1. The field of points and lines that is, a plane with all its
points and all its lines.
2. Tne pencil of lines and planes that is, a point in space
with all lines and all planes through it.
III. Of three dimensions.
The space of points that is, all points in space.
The space of planes that is, all planes in space.
IV. Of four dimensions.
The space of lines, or all lines in space.
6. Meaning of " Dimensions." The word dimension in the above
needs explanation. If in a plane we take a row p and a pencij with
centre Q, then through every point in p one line in the pencil will
pass, and every ray in Q will cut p in one point, so that we are
entitled to say a row contains as many points as a flat pencil lines,
and, we may add, as an axial pencil planes, because an axial pencil
is cut by a plane in a flat pencil.
The number of elements in the row, in the flat pencil, and in the
axial pencil is, of course, infinite and indefinite too, but the same in
all. This number may be denoted by oo. Then a plane contains,
oo* points and as many lines. To see this, take a flat pencil in a
plane. It contains oo lines, and each line contains oo points, whilst
each point in the plane lies on one of these lines. Similarly, in a
plane each line cuts a fixed line in a point. But this line is cut at
each point by oo lines and contains oo points ; hence there are oo*
lines in a plane.
A pencil in space contains as many lines as a plane contains
points and as many planes as a plane contains lines, for any plane
cuts the pencil in a field of points and lines. Hence a pencil con-
tains oo 1 lines and oo* planes. The field and the pencil are of two
dimensions.
To count the number of points in space we observe that each
point lies on some line in a pencil. But the pencil contains oo*
lines, and each line oo points; hence space contains points.
Each plane cuts any fixed plane in a line. But a plane contains
oo* lines, and through each pass oo planes; therefore space contains
oo planes.
Hence space contains as many planes as points, but it contains
an infinite number of times more lines than points or planes. To
count them, notice that every line cuts a fixed plane in one point.
But oo lines pass through each point, and there are oo* points in the
plane. Hence there are oo lines in space. The space of points
and planes is of three dimensions, but the space of lines is of four
dimensions.
A field of points or lines contains an infinite number of rows and
flat pencils; a pencil contains an infinite number of flat pencils
and of axial pencils; space contains a triple infinite number of
pencils and of fields, oo rows and axial pencils and oo flat pencils
or, in other words, each point is a centre of oo* flat pencils.
7. The above enumeration allows a classification of figures.
Figures in a row consist of groups of points only, and figures in
the flat or axial pencil consist of groups of lines or planes. In the
plane we may draw polygons; and in the pencil or in the point,
solid angles, and so on.
We may also distinguish the different measurements We have
In the row, length of segment ;
In the flat pencil, angles ;
In the axial pencil, dihedral angles between two planes;
In the plane, areas;
In the pencil, solid angles;
In the space of points or planes, volumes.
SEGMENTS OF A LINE
$ 8. Any two points A and B in space determine on the line through
them a finite part, which may be considered as being described by
a point moving from A to B. This we shall denote by AB, and
distinguish it from BA, which is supposed as being described by a
point moving from B to A, and hence in a direction or in a " sense
opposite to AB. Such a finite line, which has a definite sense, we
shall call a " segment," so that AB and BA denote different segments,
which are said to be equal in length but of opposite sense. The one
sense is often called positive and the other negative.
6go
GEOMETRY
[PROJECTIVE
B
FIG. 2.
In introducing the word " sense " for direction in a line, we have
the word direction reserved for direction of the line itself, so that
different lines have different directions, unless they be parallel,
whilst in each line we have a positive and negative sense.
We may also say, with Clifford, that AB denotes the " step " of
going from A to B.
9. If we have three points A, B, C in a line (fig. 2), the step AB
will bring us from A to B, and the step
A B c BC from B to C. Hence both steps are
-i 1 > equivalent to the one step AC. This is
expressed by saying that AC is the
" sum " of AB and BC ; in symbols
_C A B AB+BC=AC,
where account is to be taken of the
sense.
This equation is true whatever be the
position of the three points on the line.
As a special case we have
AB+BA=o, (i)
and similarly
AB+BC+CA=o, (2)
which again is true for any three points in a line.
We further write
AB=-BA,
where - denotes negative sense.
We can then, just as in algebra, change subtraction of segments
into addition by changing the sense, so that AB-CB is the same
as AB-K-CB) or AB+BC. A figure will at once show the truth
of this. The sense is, in fact, in every respect equivalent to the
" sign " of a number in algebra.
10. Of the many formulae which exist between points in a line
we shall have to use only one more, which connects the segments
between any four points A, B, C, D in a line. We have
BC = BD+DC, CA=CD+DA, AB=AD+DB;
or multiplying these by AD, BD, CD respectively, we get
BC . AD=BD . AD+DC . AD=BD . AD-CD . AD
CA . BD=CD . BD+DA . BD=CD . BD-AD . BD
AB . CD=AD . CD+DB . CD=AD . CD-BD . CD.
It will be seen that the sum of the right-hand sides vanishes, hence
that
BC . AD+CA . BD+AB . CD =o (3)
for any four points on a line.
11. If C is any point in the line AB, then we say that C divides
the segment AB in the ratio AC/CB, account being taken of the
sense of the two segments AC and CB. If C lies between A and B
the ratio is positive, as AC and CB have the same sense. But if
C lies without the segment AB, i.e. if C divides AB externally, then
the ratio is negative.
Q A M B P
FIG. 3.
To see how the value of
this ratio changes with
C, we will move C along
the whole line (fig. 3),
whilst A and B remain fixed. If C lies at the point A, then AC = o,
hence the ratio AC :CB vanishes. As C moves towards B, AC
increases and CB decreases, so that our ratio increases. At the
middle point M of AB it assumes the value +i, and then increases
till it reaches an infinitely large value, when C arrives at B. On
passing beyond B the ratio becomes negative. If C is at P we have
AC=AP = AB+BP, hence
AC_AB BP_ AB_
CB~PB + PB~ EP I-
In the last expression the ratio AB :BP is positive, has its greatest
value oo when C coincides with B, and vanishes when BC becomes
infinite. Hence, as C moves from B to the right to the point at
infinity, the ratio AC:C8 varies from xto i.
If, on the other hand, C is to the left of A, say at Q, we have
Af AR
AC=AQ = AB+BQ=AB-B, hence =gg-i.
Here AB<QB, hence the ratio AB:QB is positive and always
less than one, so that the whole is negative and <i. If C is at
the point at infinity it is i, and then increases as C moves to the
right, till for C at A we get the ratio = o. Hence
" As C moves along the line from an infinite distance to the left to
an infinite distance at the right, the ratio always increases; it starts
with the value i, reaches o at A, +i at M, ooat B, now changes
sign i to oo , and increases till at an infinite distance it reaches
again the value I. // assumes therefore all possible values from
oo to +00, and each value only once, so that not only does every
position of C determine a definite value of the ratio AC :CB, but also,
conversely, to every positive or negative value of this ratio belongs one
single point in the Itne AB.
[Relations between segments of lines are interesting as showing an
application of algebra to geometry. The genesis of such relations
from algebraic identities is very simple. For example, if a, 6, c, x
be any four quantities, then
a , b
(c-a)(c-b)(x-c) (x-a)(x-b)(x-cy
this may be proved, cumbrously, by multiplying up, or, simply, by
decomposing the right-hand member of the identity into partial
fractions. Now take a line ABCDX, and let AB = a, AC = 6, AD = c,
AX=*. Then obviously (0-6) =AB-AC=-BC, paying regard
to signs; (a-c)=AB-AD = DB, and so on. Substituting these
values in the identity we obtain the following relation connecting
the segments formed by five points on a line :
AB AC AD AX
BC . BD . BX+CD . CB . CX + DB . DC . DX~BX . CX . DX'
Conversely, if a metrical relation be given, its validity may be
tested by reducing to an algebraic equation, which is an identity
if the relation be true. For example, if ABCDX be five collinear-
points, prove
AD. AX BD.BX CD . CX_
AR AC" RC" R~A CA CB
Clearing of fractions by multiplying throughout by AB . BC . CA,
we have to prove
-AD.AX.BC-BD.BX.CA-CD.CX.AB=AB.BC.CA.
Take A as origin and let AB = a, AC = b, AD = c, AX = x. Substituting
for the segments in terms of a, b, c, x, we obtain on simplification
a?b-aV* =-o6 2 +o 2 6, an obvious identity.
An alternative method of testing a relation is illustrated in the
following example: If A, B, C, D, E, F be six collinear points,
then
AE.AF , BE.BF CE.CF , DE.DF
~=o.
AB.AC.AD^BC. BD.BA~ r CD.CA.CB" r DA . DB . DC"
Clearing of fractions by multiplying throughout by AB . BC . CD . DA,
and reducing to a common origin O (calling OA = a, OB = 6, &c.),
an equation containing the second and lower oowers of OA (=o),
&c., is obtained. Calling OA=x, it is found that x = b, x = c, x = d
are solutions. Hence the quadratic has three roots; consequently
it is an identity.
The relations connecting five points which we have instanced above
may be readily deduced from the six-point relation ;_ the first by
taking D at infinity, and the second by taking F at infinity, and then
making the obvious permutations of the points.]
PROJECTION AND CROSS- RATIOS
12. If we join a point A to a point S, then the point where the
line SA cuts a fixed plane IT is called the projection of A on the
plane IT from S as centre of projection. If we have two planes ir
and JT' and a point S, we may project every point A in IT to the
other plane. If A' is the projection of A, then A is also the pro-
jection of A', so that the relations are reciprocal. To every figure
in IT we get as its projection a corresponding figure in *-'.
We shall determine such properties of figures as remain true for
the projection, and which are called projective properties. For this
purpose it will be sufficient to consider at first only constructions in
one plane.
Let us suppose we have given in a plane two lines p and p' and S
centre S (fig, 4) ; we may then project the points in p from S to p'.
FIG. 4.
FIG. 5.
Let A', B' ... be the projections of A, B . . ., the point at infinity in
p which we shall denote by I will be projected into a finite point
PROJECTIVE]
GEOMETRY
691
I' in />', vix, into the point where the parallel to p through S cuts
f. Similarly one point J in p will be projected into the point
at infinity in p'. This point I is of course the point where the
parallel to p' through S cuts p. We thus see that every point in p
It projected into a single point in p'.
fin. 5 shows that a segment AB will be projected into a segment
A'B which is not equal to it, at least not as a rule; and
also that the ratio AC:CB is not equal to the ratio
A'C':C'B' formed by the projections. These ratios
will become equal only if p and p' are parallel, for
in this case the triangle SAB is similar to the triangle
SA'B'. Between three points in a line and their pro-
jections there exists therefore in general no relation.
But between four points a relation does exist.
I 14. Let A. B. C. D be four points in />, A', B',
C*. D their projections in p". then the ratio of the two
ratios AC:CB and AD:DB into which C and D
divide the segment AB is equal to the corresponding
expression between A', B', C'. D'. In symbols we have
AC AD A'C' A'D'
reducing to a common origin. There are therefore four equations
between three unknowns; hence if one cross-ratio be given, the
remaining twenty-three are determinate. Moreover, two of the
quantities X, u, are positive, and the remaining one negative.
The following scheme shows the twenty-four cross-ratios expressed
in terms of X, it, .]
(AB.CDM
(AC, DM) )
(BA.DC
(CD.AB
X
I-M
I/(l-r)
BD.CA)-!
CA. BD) f
i/d-x)
I/M
(-)/-
(DC, BA
)
DB.AC
AH, DC
AD, BC
KVC1)
f\
BC.AD
CD. BA
I/X
/( i ~M)
I 1>
CH, DA
(
(X l)/X
M/0* i )
*
DC, AH
(DA, CB
i
AC.BD
i
(AD, CH),
(HD.AC
(CA.DB
!
f
I-X
M
/(- 1)
BC, DA 1
(CB.AD)f
X/(X-I)
(M-I)/M
i/-
(DB.CA
(DA, BC)J
This is easily proved by aid of similar triangles.
Through the points A and B on p draw parallels to p', which cut
the projecting rays in
C,.
D,,
Us and At,
indicated
C,,
in
FIG. 6.
fig. 6. The two triangles
ACC, and BCC, will be
similar, as will also be
the triangles ADDi and
BDD,.
The proof is left to
the reader.
This result is of funda-
mental importance.
The e x p r e s s i o n
AC/CB: AD/DB has been
called by Chasles the
" anharmonic ratio of the
four points A, B, C; D."
Professor Clifford pro-
ratio." We shall adopt the
posed the shorter name of
latter. We have then the
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM. The cross-ratio of four points in a
line is equal to the cross-ratio of their projections on any other line
which lies in the same plane with it.
| 14. Before we draw conclusions from this result, we must in-
vestigate the meaning of a crow-ratio somewhat more fully.
If four point* A, B. C, D are given, and we wish to form their
crow-ratio, we have first to divide them into two groups of two,
the points in each group being taken in a definite order. Thus,
let A, B be the first, C, D the second pair, A and C being the first
points in each pair. The cross-ratio is then the ratio AC : CB
divided by AD : DB. This will be denoted by (AB, CD), so that
(AB, CD)
AC AD
'
This U easily remembered. In order to write it out, make first
the two lines for the fractions, and put above and below these
A A
the letters A and B in their places, thus, -g: g; and then fill
up, crosswise, the first by C and the other by D.
{ 15. If we take the points in a different order, the value of the
crow-ratio will change. We can do this in twenty-four different
way* by forming all permutations of the letters. But of these
twenty-four crow-ratios groups of four are equal, so that there are
really only six different ones, and these six are reciprocals in pairs.
We have the following rule*:
I. If in a crow-ratio the two groups be interchanged, its value
> unaltered, i*.
(AB, CD) - (CD, AB) - (BA, DC) - (DC, BA).
II. If in a crow-ratio the two points belonging to one of the two
groups be interchanged, the crow-ratio changes into its reciprocal, i.e.
(AB, CD) - i/(AB, DQ - i/(BA, CD) - i/(CD, BA) - i/(DC, AB).
From I. and II. we see that eight crow-ratios are associated with
(AB, CD).
III. If in a crow-ratio the two middle letters be interchanged,
the crow-ratio changes into its complement I a, i.e. (AB, CD) -
I -(AC.BD).
II 16. If X-(AB. CD). M-(AC, DB), r-(AD, BC), then X, u, r
ana their reciprocals i/X, I lit, l/r are the value* of the total number
of twenty-four crow-ratio*. Moreover, X, p, r are connected by the
relations
tin* proposition may be proved by substituting for X, M, and
i 17. If one of the points of which a cross-ratio is formed is the
point at infinity in the line, the cross-ratio changes into a simple
ratio. It is convenient to let the point at infinity occupy the jast
place in the symbolic expression for the cross-ratio. Thus if I is a
point at infinity, we have (AB, CI) - -AC/CB, because AI : IB - i.
Every common ratio of three points in a line may thus be ex-
pressed as a cross-ratio, by adding the point at infinity to the group
of points.
HARMONIC RANGES
$ 18. If the points have special positions, the cross-ratios may
have such a value that, of the six different ones, two and two become
equal. If the first two shall be equal, we get X---I/X, or X 2 = i,
X- *i.
If we take X=+i, we have (AB, CD)-i, or AC/CB -AD/DB;
that is, the points C and D coincide, provided that A and B are
different.
If we take X=-i, so that (AB, CD) = -i, we have AC/CB -
AD/DB. Hence C and D divide AB internally and externally in the
same ratio.
The four points are in this case said to be harmonic points, and
C and D are said to be harmonic conjugates with regard to A and B.
But we have also (CD, AB) = i, so that A and B are harmonic
conjugates with regard to C and D.
The principal property of harmonic points is that their cross-ratio
remains unaltered if we interchange the two points belonging to one
pair, viz.
(AB, CD) - (AB, DC) - (BA, CD).
For four harmonic points the six cross-ratios become equal two
and two:
X = 1
X-I
- = 2.
\ -I* 1 '
*E I" fl x 'T=x~*'Tr
Hence if we get four points whose cross-ratio is 2 or J, then they
are harmonic, but not arranged so that conjugates are paired. If
this is the case the cross-ratio = i .
19. If we equate any two of the above six values of the cross-
ratios, we get either X = i, o, oo, or X i, 2, J, or else X becomes
a root of the equation X* X+l o, that is, an imaginary cube root of
I. In this case the six values become three and three equal, so
that only two different values remain. This case, though important
in the theory of cubic curves, is for our purposes of no interest,
whilst harmonic points are all-important.
20. From the definition of harmonic points, and by aid of II,
the following properties are easily deduced.
If C and D are harmonic conjugates with regard to A and B,
then one of them lies in, the other without AB; it is impossible
to move from A to B without passing cither through C or through
D; the one blocks the finite way, the other the way through in-
finity. This is expressed by saying A and B are "separated " by
C and D.
For every position of C there will be one and only one point
D which is its harmonic conjugate with regard to any point pair
A, B.
If A and B are different points, and if C coincides with A or B,
D does. But if A and B coincide, one of the points C or D, lying
between them, coincides with them, and the other may be anywhere
in the line. It follows that, " if of jour harmonic conjugates two
coincide, then a third coincides with them, and the fourth may be any
point in the line."
If C is the middle point between A and B, then D is the point at
infinity; for AC:CB +i, hence AD:DB must be equal to I.
The harmonic conjugate of the point at infinity in a line with regard
to two points A, Bis the middle point of AB.
This important property gives a first example how metric pro-
perties are connected with projective ones.
(f 21. Harmonic properties of the complete quadrilateral and quad-
rangle.
692
GEOMETRY
[PROTECTIVE
A figure formed by four lines in a plane is called a complete quadri-
lateral, or, shorter, a four-side. The four sides meet in six points,
named the " vertices," which may be joined by three lines (other
than the sides), named the " diagonals " or " harmonic lines." The
diagonals enclose the " harmonic triangle of the quadrilateral." In
fig. 7, A'B'C', B'AC, C'AB, CBA are the sides, A,A', B,B', C,C'
FIG. 7.
the vertices, AA', BB', CC' the harmonic lines, and ojSy the harmonic
triangle of the quadrilateral. A figure formed by four coplanar
points is named a complete quadrangle, or, shorter, a four-point.
The four points may be joined by six lines, named the " sides,"
which intersect in three other points, termed the " diagonal or
harmonic points." The harmonic points are the vertices of the
" harmonic triangle of the complete quadrangle." In fig. 8, AA',
BB' are the points, AA', BB', A'B', B'A, AB, BA' are the sides,
L, M, N are the diagonal points, and LMN is the harmonic triangle
of the quadrangle.
The harmonic property of the complete quadrilateral is: Any
diagonal or harmonic line is harmonically divided by the other
two; and of a complete quadrangle: The angle at any harmonic
point is divided harmonically by the joins to the other harmonic
points. To prove the first theorem, we have to prove (AA', f)y),
(BB', 70), (CC', /3o) are harmonic. Consider the cross-ratio (CC', a/3).
Then projecting from A on BB' we have A(CC', a/3) = A(B'B, ay).
Projecting from A' on BB', A'(CC', a/3) = A'(BB', ay). Hence
(B'B, 07) = (BB', ay), i.e. the cross-ratio (BB', ay) equals that of its
reciprocal; hence the range is harmonic.
The second theorem states that the pencils L(BA,NM),M (B'A.LN) ,
N(BA, LM) are harmonic. Deferring the subject of harmonic pencils
to the next section, it will suffice to state here that any transversal
intersects an harmonic pencil in an harmonic range. Consider the
pencil L(BA, NM), then it is sufficient to prove (BA', NM') is har-
monic. This follows from the previous theorem by considering A'B
as a diagonal of the quadrilateral ALB'M.]
This property of the complete quadrilateral allows the solution
of the problem :
To construct the harmonic conjugate D to a point C with regard to two
given points A and B.
Through A draw any two lines, and through C one cutting the
former two in G and H. Join these points to B, cutting the former
two lines in E and F. The point D where EF cuts AB will be the
harmonic conjugate required.
This remarkable construction requires nothing but the drawing
of lines, and is therefore independent of measurement. In a similar
manner the harmonic conjugate of the line VA for two lines VC,
VD is constructed with the aid of the property of the complete
quadrangle.
22. Harmonic Pencils. The theory of cross-ratios may be ex-
tended from points in a row to lines in a flat pencil and to planes in
an axial pencil. We have seen ( 13) that if the lines which join four
points A, B, C, D to any point S be cut by any other line in A', B', C',
D', then (AB, CD) = (A r B', C'D'). In other words, four lines in a
flat pencil are cut by every other line in four points whose cross-ratio
is constant.
Definition. By the cross-ratio of four rays in a flat pencil is
meant the cross-ratio of the four points in which the rays are cut
by any line. If a, b,c,dbe the lines, then this cross-ratio is denoted
by (ab, cd).
Definition. By the cross-ratio of four planes in an axial pencil
is understood the cross-ratio of the four points in which any line
cuts the planes, or, what is the same thing, the cross-ratio of the
four rays in which any plane cuts the four planes.
In order that this definition may have a meaning, it has to be
proved that all lines cut the pencil in points which have the same
cross-ratio. This is seen at once for two intersecting lines, as their
plane cuts the axial pencil in a flat pencil, which is itself cut by
the two lines. The cross-ratio of the four points on one line is
therefore equal to that on the other, and equal to that of the four
rays in the flat pencil.
If two non-intersecting lines p and q cut the four planes in A, B,
C, D and A', B', C', D , draw a line r to meet both p and q, and
let this line cut the planes in A', B", C', D'. Then (AB, CD) =
(A'B', C'D'), for each is equal to (A'B', C'D').
{ 23. We may now also extend the notion of harmonic elements,
viz.
Definition. Four rays in a flat pencil and four planes in an axial
pencil are said to be harmonic if their cross-ratio equals -I, that is,
if they are cut by a line in four harmonic points.
If we understand by a " median line " of a triangle a line which
joins a vertex to the middle point of the opposite side, and by a
"median line" of a parallelogram a line joining middle points of
opposite sides, we get as special cases of the last theorem :
The diagonals and median lines of a parallelogram form an harmonic
pencil; and
At a vertex of any triangle, the two sides, the median line, and the
line parallel to the base form an harmonic pencil.
Taking the parallelogram a rectangle, or the triangle isosceles,
we get :
Any two lines and the bisections of their angles form an harmonic
pencil. Or :
In an harmonic pencil, if two conjugate rays are perpendicular,
then the other two are equally inclined to them; and, conversely, if
one ray bisects the angle between conjugate rays, it is perpendicular to
its conjugate.
This connects perpendicularity and 'bisection of angles with
protective properties.
24. We add a few theorems and problems which are easily proved
or solved by aid of harmonics.
An harmonic pencil is cut by a line parallel to one of its rays in
three equidistant points.
Through a given point to draw a line such that the segment
determined on it by a given angle is bisected at that point.
Having given two parallel lines, to bisect on either any given
segment without using a pair of compasses.
Having given in a line a segment and its middle point, to draw
through any given point in the plane a line parallel to the given line.
To draw a line which joins a given point to the intersection of two
given lines which meet off the drawing paper (by aid of 21).
CORRESPONDENCE. HOMOGRAPHIC AND PERSPECTIVE RANGES
25. Two rows, p and p', which are one the projection of the
other (as in fig. 5), stand in a definite relation to each other, char-
acterized by the following properties.
1. To each point in either corresponds one point in the other; that
is, those points are said to correspond which are projections of one
another.
2. The cross-ratio of any four points in one equals that of the corre-
sponding points in the other.
3. The lines joining corresponding points all pass through the same
point.
If we suppose corresponding points marked, and the rows brought
into any other position, then the lines joining corresponding points
will no longer meet in a common point, and hence the third of the
above properties will not hold any longer; but we have still a
correspondence between the points in the two rows possessing the first
two properties. Such a correspondence has been called a one-one
correspondence, whilst the two rows between which such correspond-
ence has been established are said to be projective or homographic.
Two rows which are each the projection of the other are therefore
projective. We shall presently see, also, that any two projective
rows may always be placed in such a position that one appears as
the projection of the other. If they are in such a position the rows
are said to be in perspective position, or simply to be in perspective.
26. The notion of a one-one correspondence between rows may
be extended to flat and axial pencils, viz. a flat pencil will be said
to be projective to a flat pencil if to each ray in the first correspond*
one ray in the second, and if the cross-ratio of four rays in one equals
that of the corresponding rays in the second.
Similarly an axial pencil may be projective to an axial pencil.
But a flat pencil may also be projective to an axial pencil, or either
pencil may be projective to a row. The definition is the same in each
case: there is a one-one correspondence between the elements, and
four elements have the same cross-ratio as the corresponding ones.
27. There is also in each case a special position which is called
perspective, viz.
1. Two projective rows are perspective if they lie in the same
plane, and if the one row is a projection of the other.
2. Two projective flat pencils are perspective (i) if they lie in
the same plane, and have a row as a common section; (2) if they
lie in the same pencil (in space), and are both sections of the same
axial pencil; (3) if they are in space and have a row as common
section, or are both sections of the same axial pencil, one of the
conditions involving the other.
3. Two projective axial pencils, if their axes meet, and if they
have a flat pencil as a common section.
4. A row and a projective flat pencil, if the rpw is a section of the
pencil, each point lying in its corresponding line.
5. A row and a projective axial pencil, if the row is a section of the
pencil, each point lying in its corresponding line.
6. A flat and a projective axial pencil, if the former is a section
of the other, each ray lying in its corresponding plane.
That in each case the correspondence established by the position
indicated is such as has been called projective follows at once from
the definition. It is not so evident that the perspective position may
always be obtained. We shall show in 30 this for the first three
PROJECTIVE]
GEOMETRY
693
wo. Firet. however, we (hall give few theorems which relate to
the general corre*pondeoce. not to the perspective position.
f 36. Two rums or pencils, flat or axial, which are project** to a
third art project** to tack other; this follows at once from the
definition*.
| ao. If two rows, or AM pencils, tilher flat or axial, or a row and a
pencil, at pmjtctJM. we may assume to any three dements in tke one
tin ikr'et corresponding elements in tin other, and then the correspondence
it uniquely determined.
For if in two projective rows we assume that the points A, B, C
in the first correspond to the given points A', B', C' in the second,
then to any fourth point O in the first will correspond a point D
in the second, to that
(AB.CD)-(A'B'.C'D').
But there is only one point, D', which makes the cross-ratio
(A'B'. C'D') equal to the riven number (AB, CD).
The same reasoning holds in the other case*.
| 30. If two rows are perspective, then the lines joining corre-
sponding points all meet in a point, the centre of projection; and
the point in which the two bases of the rows intersect as a point
in the first row coincides with its corresponding point in the
second.
This follows from the definition. The converse also holds,
vix.
// two project** rows mate suck a position that one point in the one
coincides with its corresponding point in the other, then they are per-
speclae, that is. the lines joining corresponding points all pass through
m common point, and form a flat pencil.
For let A, B, C, D ... be points in the one, and A', B', C',
D' . . . the corresponding points in the other row, and let A be made
to coincide with its corresponding point A'. Let S be the point where
the lines BB' and CC' meet, and let us join S to the point D in the
first row. This line will cut the second row in a point D', so that
A, B, C, D are projected from S into the points A, B', C', D'. The
cross-ratio (AB, CD) is therefore equal to (AB', C'D'), and by hypo-
thesis it is equal to (A'B', C'D'). Hence (A'B', C'D') - (A'B', C f &),
that is, D* is the same point as D'.
{31. If two projected flat pencils in the same plane are in per-
spective, then the intersections of corresponding lines form a row,
and the line joining the two centres as a line in the first pencil
corresponds to the same line as a line in the second. And con-
versely,
// two projective pencils in the same plane, but with different centres,
AM* one line in the one coincident with its corresponding line-in the
other, then the two pencils are perspective, that is, the intersection of
corresponding lines lie in a line.
The proof is the same as in $ 30.
I 33. If two projective flat pencils in the same point (pencil in
space), but not in the same plane, are perspective, then the planes
joining corresponding rays all pass through a line (they form an
axial pencil), and the line common to the two pencils (in which
their planes intersect) corresponds to itself. And conversely:
If two flat pencils which have a common centre, but do not lie
in a common plane, are placed so that one ray in the one coincides
with its corresponding ray in the other, then they are perspective,
that is, the planes joining corresponding lines all pass through a
line.
I jM- " two P r J ec J' ve axial pencils are perspective, then the inter-
section of corresponding planes lie in a plane, and the plane common
to the two pencils (in which the two axes lie) corresponds to itself.
And conversely :
If two projective axial pencils are placed in such a position that a
plane in the one coincides with its corresponding plane, then the two
pencils are perspective, that is, corresponding planes meet in lines
which Be in a plane.
The proof again is the same as in { 30.
{ 34. These theorems relating to perspective position become
illusory if the projective rows of pencils have a common base. We
then have:
In two projective rows on the same line and also in two pro-
jective and concentric flat pencils in the same plane, or in two
projective axial pencils with a common axis every element in the
one coincides with its corresponding element in the other as soon
a* three elements in the one coincide with their corresponding
elements in the other.
Proof (in case of two rows). Between four elements A, B, C, D
and their corresponding elements A', B', C', D' exists the relation
(ABCD) - (A'B'C'D'). If now A', B', C' coincide respectively with
A, B, C. we get (AB, CD) - (AB, CD'), hence D and D' coincide.
The last theorem may also be stated thus:
In two projective row* or pencils, which have a common base
but are not identical, not more than two elements in the one can
coincide with their corresponding elements in the other.
Thus two projective rows on the same line cannot have more
than two pairs of coincident points unless every point coincides
with its corresponding point.
It is easy to construct two projective rows on the same line,
which have two pairs of corresponding points coincident. Let the
points A, B, C as points belonging to the one row correspond to A,
B, and C' as points in the second. Then A and B coincide with their
corresponding points, but C does not. It is, however, not necessary
that two such rows
have twice a point
coincident with its cor-
responding point; it is
possible that this hap-
pens only once or not
at all. Of this we shall
see examples later.
i 35- If two projective
rows or pencils are in
perspective position, we
know at_ once which
element in one corre-
sponds to any given
element in the other.
If p and q (fig. 9) are
two projective rows, so
that K corresponds to
itself, and if we know
that to A and B in p
FIG. 9.
correspond A' and B' in q, then the point S, where AA' meets BB',
is the centre of projection, and hence, in order to find the point C
corresponding to C, we have only to join C to S; the point C',
where this line cuts q, is the point required.
If two flat pencils, Si and S. in a plane are perspective (fig. 10),
we need only to know two pairs, a, a' and 6, V, of corresponding
rays in order to find the
axis s of projection. This
being known, a ray c' in
Sj, corresponding to a given
ray c in Si, is found by
joining S to the point
where c cuts the axis s.
A similar construction
holds in the other cases
of perspective figures.
On this depends the
solution of the following
general problem.
36. Three pairs of cor-
responding elements in two
projective rows or pencils
being given, to determine
for any element in one
the corresponding element FIG. 10.
in the other.
We solve this in the two cases of two projective rows and of two
projective flat pencils in a plane.
Problem I. Let A, B. C be Problem II. Let o, ft, c be
three points in a row i. A', B', C' three rays in a pencil S,_ a', 6', c 1
the corresponding points in a the corresponding rays in a pro-
projective row s', both being in a jective pencil S',_ both being in
plane; it is required to find for the same plane; it is required to
any point D in s the correspond- find for any ray d in S the corre-
ine point D' in s'.
spending ray a' in S'.
The solution is made to depend on the construction of an auxiliary
row or pencil which is perspective to both the given ones. This is
found as follows:
Solution of Problem I. On the line joining two corresponding
points, say AA' (fig. n), take any two points, S and S', as centres
of auxiliary pencils.
Join the intersection Bi
of SB and S'B' to the
intersection Ci of SC
and S'C' by the line s\.
Then a row on s t will
be perspective to s with
S as centre of projec-
tion, and to s' with S'
as centre. To find now
the point D' on s' cor-
responding to a point
D on s we have only to
determine the point Di, o * . .
where the line SD cuts pX~" ~~~*~~* - 4-
*i, and to draw S'Di;
the point where this line
cuts s' will be the re-
quired point D'.
Proof. The rows s
and s' are both perspec-
tive to the row si, hence
they are projective to \Ai
one another. To A, B.
C, D on s correspond FIG. II.
AI, BI, Ci, DI on 5i, and
to these correspond A', B', C', D' on s'; so that D and D' are
corresponding points as required.
694
GEOMETRY
FIG. 12.
Solution of Problem II. Through the intersection A of two
corresponding rays a and a' (fig. 12), take two lines, s and s', as
bases of auxiliary rows. Let Si
be the point where the line b it
which joins B and B', cuts the
line ci, which joins C and C'.
Then a pencil Si will be per-
spective to S with s as axis of
rejection. To find the ray d' in
' corresponding to a given ray d
in S, cut d by s at D; project
this point from Si to D' on s'
and join D' to S'. This will be
the required ray.
Proof. That the pencil Si is
perspective to S and also to S'
follows from construction. To
the lines tti, bi, Ci, A\ in Si corre-
spond the lines a, b, c, d in S and
the lines a', b', c', d' in S', so that d
and d' are corresponding rays.
In the first solution the two
centres, S, S', are any two points
on a line joining any two corre-
sponding points, so that the solu-
tion of the problem allows of a great many different constructions.
But whatever construction be used, the point D', corresponding to D,
must be always the same, according to the theorem in 29. This
gives rise to a number of theorems, into which, however, we shall
not enter. The same remarks hold for the second problem.
37. Homological Triangles. As a further application of the
theorems about perspective rows and pencils we shall prove the
following important theorem.
Theorem. If ABC and A'B'C' (fig. 13) be two triangles, such that
the lines AA', BB', CC' meet in a point S, then the intersections of
BC and B'C', of CA and C'A', and of AB and A'B' will lie in a line.
Such triangles are said to be homological, or in perspective. The
triangles are " co-axial " in virtue of the property that the meets of
corresponding sides are collinear and copolar, since the lines joining
corresponding vertices are concurrent.
Proof. Let a, b, c denote the lines AA', BB', CC', which meet at
S. Then these may be taken as bases of projective rows, so that
A, A', S on a correspond to B, B', S on 6, and to C, C', S on c. As
the point S is common to all, any two of these rows will be perspective.
. If Si be the centre of projection of rows 6 and c,
Sj c and a,
S . ,, ,, ,, a and b,
and if the line SiSj cuts a in At, and b in Bi, and c in Ci, then Ai, Bi
will be corresponding points
in a and b, both corresponding
to Ci in c. But a and b are
perspective, therefore the line
AiBi, that is SiSz, joining
corresponding points must
pass through the centre of
projection Ss of a and b. In
other words, Si, Sj, S 3 lie in a
line. This is Desargues' cele-
brated theorem if we state it
thus:
Theorem of Desargues. If
each of two triangles has one
vertex on each of three con-
current lines, then the inter-
sections of corresponding sides
lie in a line, those sides
being called corresponding which are opposite to vertices on the
same line.
The converse theorem holds also, viz.
Theorem. If the sides of one triangle meet those of another in
three points which lie in a line, then the vertices lie on three lines
which meet in a point.
The proof is almost the same as before.
38. Metrical Relations between Projective Rows. Every row
contains one point which is distinguished from all others, viz.
the point at infinity. In two projective rows, to the point I at
infinity in one corresponds a point I' in the other, and to the point
J' at infinity in the second corresponds a point J in the first. The
points I' and J are in general finite. If now A and B are any two
points in the one, A', B' the corresponding points in the other row,
then
(AB,JI) = (A'B',JT),
AJ/JB :AI/IB=A'J'/J'B' : AT/I'B'.
But, by { 17,
AI/IB=A'J'/J'B'=-i;
therefore the last equation changes into
AJ.AT-BJ.BT,
that is to say
FIG. 13.
[PROJECTIVE
Theorem. The product of the distances of any two corresponding
points in two projective rows from the points which correspond to
the points at infinity in the other is constant, viz. AJ.AT' = fe.
Steiner has called this number k the Power of the correspondence.
[The relation AJ . AT = & shows that if J, I' be given then the
point A' corresponding to a specified point A is readily found ; hence
A, A' generate homographic ranges of which I and J' correspond to
the points at infinity on the ranges. If we take any two origins O,
O', on the ranges and reduce the expression AJ . A'I' = fe to its alge-
braic equivalent, we derive an equation of the form axx'+f)x+yx'
+8 = 0. Conversely, if a relation of this nature holds, then points
corresponding to solutions in x, x' form homographic ranges.]
39. Similar Rows. If the points at infinity in two projective
rows correspond so that I' and J are at infinity, this result loses its
meaning. But if A, B, C be any three points in one, A', B', C' the
corresponding ones on the other row, we have
(AB, CI) = (A'B', CT),
which reduces to
AC/CB = A'C'/C'B' or AC/A'C' = BC/B'C',
that is, corresponding segments are proportional. Conversely, if
corresponding segments are proportional, then to the point at
infinity in one corresponds the point at infinity in the other. If we call
such rows similar, we may state the result thus
Theorem. Two projective rows are similar if to the point at
infinity in one corresponds the point at infinity in the other, and
conversely, if two rows are similar then they are projective, and the
points at infinity are corresponding points.
From this the well-known propositions follow :
Two lines are cut proportionally (in similar rows) by a series of
parallels. The rows are perspective, with centre of projection at
infinity.
If two similar rows are placed parallel, then the lines joining
homologous points pass through a common point.
40. If two flat pencils be projective, then there exists in either,
one single pair of lines at right angles to one another, such that the
corresponding lines in the other pencil are again at right angles.
To prove this, we place the pencils in perspective position (fig. 14)
by making one ray coin-
cident with its correspond-
ing ray. Corresponding rays
meet then on a line p. And
now we draw the circle which
has its centre O on p, and
which passes through the
centres S and S' of the two
pencils. This circle cuts p in
two points H and K. The
two pairs of rays, h, k, and
h', k , joining these points to
S and S' will be pairs of
corresponding rays at right
angles. The construction
gives in general but one
circle, but if the line p is
the perpendicular bisector
of SS', there exists an in-
finite number, and to every
right angle in the one pencil
other.
FIG. 14.
corresponds a right angle in the
PRINCIPLE OF DUALITY
41. It has been stated in I that not only points, but also planes
and lines, are taken as elements out of which figures are built up.
We shall now see that the construction of one figure which possesses
certain properties gives rise in many cases to the construction of
another figure, by replacing, according to definite rules, elements
of one kind by those of another. The new figure thus obtained will
then possess properties which may be stated as soon as those of the
original figure are known.
We obtain thus a principle, known as the principle of duality
or ol reciprocity, which enables us to construct to any figure not
containing any measurement in its construction a reciprocal figure,
as it is called, and to deduce from any theorem a reciprocal theorem,
for which no further proof is needed.
It is convenient to print reciprocal propositions on opposite sides
of a page broken into two columns, and this plan will occasionally
be adopted.
We begin by repeating in this form a few of our former state-
ments :
Two points determine a line.
Three points which are not in a
line determine a plane.
A line and a point without it
determine a plane.
Two lines in a plane determine
a point.
Two planes determine a line.
Three planes which do not pass
through a line determine a point.
A line and a plane not through
it determine a point.
Two lines through a point
determine a plane.
These propositions show that it will be possible, when any figure
is given, to construct a second figure by taking planes instead of
points, and points instead of planes, but lines where we had lines.
PROJECTIVE]
GEOMETRY
695
Foe instance, if in the first figure we take a plane nd three points
in it. we have to take in the second figure * point and three planes
through it. The three points in the first, together with the three
lines joining them two and two, form u triangle; the three planes
in the second ami their three lines of intersection form a trihedral
angle. A triangle and a trihedral angle arc therefore reciprocal
Similarly, to any figure in a plane consisting of points and lines
will correspond a figure consisting of planes and lines passing through
a point S, and hence belonging to the pencil which lips S as centre.
The figure reciprocal to four points in space which do not lie
in a plane will consist of four planes which do not meet in a point.
In this case each figure forms a tetrahedron.
I 43. As other examples we haw the following:
To a row is reciprocal an axial pencil,
a flat pencil a il.it pencil,
a field of points and lines a pencil of planes and lines,
the space of points the space of planes.
For the row consists of a line and all the points in it, reciprocal to
it therefore will be a line with all planes through it, that is, an axial
pencil ; and so for the other cases.
This correspondence of reciprocity breaks down, however, if we
take figures which contain measurement in their construction. For
instance, there is no figure reciprocal to two planes at right angles,
because there is no segment in a row which has a magnitude as
definite as a right angle.
We add a few examples of reciprocal propositions which are easily
proved.
Tktorem.U A, B, C, D are Theorem. 1( o, 0, y, are
any four point* in pace, and if four planes in space, and if the
the lines AB and CD meet, then lines aj) and yt meet, then all
all four points lie in a plane, four planes lie in a point (pencil),
hence also AC and BD, as well hence also ay and 0S, as well as
as AD and BC, meet. oi and fty, meet.
Theorem. // of any number of lines every one meets every other,
wUla all do not
lit in a point, then all lie in a lie in a plane, then all lie in a
plant. point (pencil).
f 43. Reciprocal figures as explained lie both in space of three
dimensions. If the one is confined to a plane (is formed of elements
which lie in a plane), then the reciprocal figure is confined to a pencil
(is formed of elements which pass through a point).
But there in also a more special principle of duality, according to
which figures are reciprocal which tie both in a plane or both in a
pencil. In the plane we take points and lines as reciprocal elements,
for they have this fundamental property in common, that two
elements of one kind determine one of the other. In the pencil,
on the other hand, lines and planes have to be taken as reciprocal,
and here it holds again that two lines or planes determine one plane
or line.
Thus, to one plane figure we can construct one reciprocal figure
in the plane, and to each one reciprocal figure in a pencil. We
mention a few of these. At first we explain a few names:
A figure consisting of ft points A figure consisting of n lines
in a plane will be called an in a plane will be called an n-side.
-point.
A figure consisting of n planes A figure consisting of n lines
in a pencil will be called an in a pencil will be called an
- flat. n-edge.
It will be understood that an n-side is different from a polygon
of sides. The latter has sides of finite length and n vertices, the
former has sides all of infinite extension, and every point where
two of the sides meet will be a vertex. A similar difference exists
between a solid angle and an n-edge or an n-flat. We notice par-
ticularly
A four-point has six sides, of A four-side has six vertices, of
which two and two are opposite, which two and two are opposite.
and three diagonal points, which and three diagonals, which join
are intersections of opposite opposite vertices.
A four-flat has six edges, of A four-edge has six faces, of
which two and two are opposite, which two and two are opposite,
and three diagonal planes, which and three diagonal edges, which
pass through opposite edges. are intersections of opposite faces.
A four-side is usually called a complete quadrilateral, and a four-
point a complete quadrangle. The above notation, however, seems
better adapted for the statement of reciprocal propositions.
If a point moves in a plane it If a line moves in a plane it
describes a plane curve. envelopes a plane curve (fig. 15).
If a plane moves in a pencil it If a line moves in a pencil it
envelopes a cone. describes a cone.
A curve thus appears as generated either by points, and then we
call it a " locus,' or by lines, and then we call it an " envelope."
In the same manner a cone, which means here a surface, appear;
either as the locus of lines passing through a fixed point, the " vertex "
of the cone, or as the envelope of planes passing through the same
point.
To a surface as locus of points corresponds, in the same manner,
a surface as envelope of planes; and to
a curve in space as locus of points cor-
responds a developable surface as en-
velope of planes.
It will be seen from the above that
may, by aid of the principle of
duality, construct for every figure a
reciprocal figure, and that to any
property of the one a reciprocal pro-
perty of the other will exist, as long
' ' :n
FIG. 15.
as we consider only properties which
depend upon nothing but the positions and intersections of the
different elements and not upon measurement.
For such propositions it will therefore be unnecessary to prove
more than one of two reciprocal theorems.
GENERATION OF CURVES AND CONES OF SECOND ORDER
OR SECOND CLASS
S 45. Conies. If we have two protective pencils in a plane,
corresponding rays will meet, and their point of intersection will
constitute some locus which we have to investigate. Reciprocally,
if two projective rows in a plane are given, then the lines which join
corresponding points will envelope some curve. We prove first:
Theorem. If two projective Theorem. If two projective
flat pencils lie in a plane, but rows lie in a plane, but are
are neither in perspective nor neither in perspective nor on a
concentric, then the locus of common base, then the envelope
intersections of corresponding of lines joining corresponding
rays is a curve of the second points is a curve of the second
order, that is, no line contains class, that is, through no point
more than two points of the pass more than two of the
locus. enveloping lines.
Proof. We draw any line t. Proof. We take any point 1
This cuts each of the pencils in a and join it to all points in each
row, so that we have on t two row. This gives two concentric
rows, and these are projective pencils, which are projective
because the pencils are pro- because the rows are projective.
jective. If corresponding rays If a line joining corresponding
of the two pencils meet on the points in the two rows passes
line /, their intersection will be a through T, it will be a line in the
point in the one row which one pencil which coincides with
coincides with its corresponding its corresponding line in the
point in the other. But two other. But two projective con-
projective rows on the same base centric flat pencils in the same
cannot have more than two plane cannot have more than two
points of one coincident with lines of one coincident with their
their corresponding points in the corresponding line in the other
other (34). (34)-
It will be seen that the proofs are reciprocal, so that the one may
be copied from the other by simply interchanging the words point
and line, locus and envelope, row and pencil, and so on. We shall
therefore in future prove seldom more than one of two reciprocal
theorems, and often state one theorem only, the reader being recom-
mended to go through the reciprocal proof by himself, and to supply
the reciprocal theorems when not given.
46. We state the theorems in the pencil reciprocal to the last,
without proving them:
Theorem. If two protective Theorem. If two projective
flat pencils are concentric, but axial pencils lie in the same
are neither perspective nor co- pencil (their axes meet in a
planar, then the envelope of the point), but are neither perspec-
planes joining corresponding rays tive nor co-axial, then the locus
is a cone of the second class; of lines joining corresponding
that is, no line through the planes is a cone of the second
common centre contains more order; that is, no plane in the
than two of the enveloping planes, pencil contains more than two
of these lines.
47. Of theorems about cones of second order and cones of second
class we shall state only very few. We point out, however, the
following connexion between the curves and cones under con-
sideration :
The lines which join any point Every plane section of a cone
in space to the points on a curve of the second order is a curve of
of the second order form a cone the second order,
of the second order.
The planes which join any Every plane section of a cone
point in space to the lines en- of the second class is a curve of
veloping a curve of the second the second class,
class envelope themselves a cone
of the second class.
By its aid, or by the principle of duality, it will be easy to obtain
theorems about them from the theorems about the curves.
We prove the first. A curve of the second order is generated by
two projective pencils. These pencils, when joined_ to the point in
space, give rise to two projective axial pencils, which generate the
cone in question as the locus of the lines where corresponding planes
meet.
6 9 6
GEOMETRY
[PROJECTIVE
eorem. The curve of second Theorem. The envelope of
order which is generated by two second class which is generated
by two projective rows contains
the bases of these rows as en-
veloping lines or tangents.
Theorem. To the point of
intersection of the bases of two
projective rows as a point in one
row corresponds in the other the
point of contact of its base.
projective flat pencils passes
through the centres of the two
pencils. _ o
Proof. If S and S' are the two Proof. If s and i'are the two
pencils, then to the ray SS' or p' rows, then to the point ss' or P'
in the pencil S' corresponds in as a point in s' corresponds in $
the pencil S a ray p, which is a point P, which is not coincident
different from p', for the pencils with P', for the rows are not
are not perspective. But p and perspective. But P and P' are
p' meet at S, so that S is a point joined by s, so that J is one of the
on the curve, and similarly S'. enveloping lines, and similarly s'.
It follows that every line in one of the two pencils cuts the curve
in two points, viz. once at the centre S of the pencil, and once
where it cuts its corresponding ray in the other pencil. These two
points, however, coincide, if the line is cut by its corresponding
line at S itself. The line p in S, which corresponds to the line
SS' in S', is therefore the only line through S which has but one
point in common with the curve, or which cuts the curve in two
coincident points. Such a line is called a tangent to the curve,
touching the latter at the point S, which is called the " point of
contact. '
In the same manner we get in the reciprocal investigation the
result that through every point in one of the rows, say in s, two
tangents may be drawn to the curve, the one being s, the other the
line joining the point to its corresponding point in s'. There is,
however, one point P in 5 for which these two lines coincide. Such
a point in one of the tangents is called the " point of contact " of the
tangent. We thus get
Theorem. To the line joining
the centres of the projective
pencils as a line in one pencil
corresponds in the other the
tangent at its centre.
49. Two projective pencils are determined if three pairs of
corresponding lines are given. Hence if a\, bi, Ci are three lines in a
pencil Si, and 02, 62, Cz the corresponding lines in a projective pencil
Ss, the correspondence and therefore the curve of the second order
generated by the points of intersection of corresponding rays is
determined. Of this curve we know the two centres Si and 82,
and the three points a\a^, bibi, c\ct, hence five points in all. This
and the reciprocal considerations enable us to solve the following
two problems:
Problem. To construct a curve Problem. To construct a curve
of the second order, of which five of the second class, of which five
points Si, 82, A, B, C are given. tangents i, HI, a, b, c are given.
In order to solve the left-hand problem, we take two of the given
points, say Si and 82, as centres of pencils. These we make pro-
jective by taking the rays a\, hi, c\, which join Si to A, B, C respec-
tively, as corresponding to the rays a*, 6j, c 2 , which join Sj to A, B, C
respectively, so that three rays meet their corresponding rays at
the given points A, B, C. This determines the correspondence of
the pencils which will generate a curve of the second order passing
through A, B, C and through the centres Si and 82, hence through
the five given points. To find more points on the curve we have to
construct for any ray in Si the corresponding ray in 82. This has
been done in 36. But we repeat the construction in order to deduce
further properties from it. We also solve the right-hand problem.
Here we select two, viz. i, wj of the five given lines, ui, 1*2, a, b, c,
as bases of two rows, and the points AI, BI, Ci where a, b, c cut u\
as corresponding to the points A 2 , B 2 , C where a, b, c cut 2 .
We get then the following solutions of the two problems:
Solution. Through the point Solution. In the line a take
A draw any two lines, i and u t any two points Si and 82 as
(fig. 16), the first Ui to cut the centres of pencils (fig. 17), the
pencil Si in a row ABiCi, the first Si (AiBiCi) to project the
other j to cut the pencil S in a row lt the other 82 (A 2 B 2 C 2 ) to
row AB a C 2 . These two rows will project the row u^. These two
be perspective, as the point A pencils will be perspective, the
corresponds to itself, and the line SiAi being the same as the
centre of projection will be the corresponding line SzAz, and the
point S, where the lines 8182 axis of projection will be the line
and CiCj meet. To find now for u, which joins the intersection B
any ray di in Si its corresponding of SjBi and 8262 to the intersec-
ray d 2 in 82, we determine the tion C of Sid and 8202. To find
point Di where di cuts u\, project now for any point DI in i the
this point from S to DI on MJ and corresponding point D 2 in j, we
join 82 to Di. This will be the draw SiDi and project the point
required ray <fc which cuts <L\ at D where this line cuts u from Sj
some point D on the curve. to . This will give the required
point D 2 , and the line d joining Di
to D 2 will be a new tangent to the
curve.
50. These constructions prove, when rightly interpreted, very
important properties of the curves in question.
If in fig. 1 6 we draw in the pencil Si the ray ki which passes
FIG. 16.
through the auxiliary centre S, it will be found that the corre-
sponding ray fe cuts it on 2. Hence
Theorem. In the above con-
struction the bases of the auxil-
iary rows i and ui cut the curve
where they cut the rays SzS and
SiS respectively.
Theorem. In the above con-
struction (fig. 17) the tangents to
the curve from the centres of the
auxiliary pencils Si and 82 are the
lines which pass through s and
i respectively.
As A is any given point on the curve, and ui any line through
it, we have solved the problems:
Problem. To find the second Problem. To find the second
point in which any line through a tangent which can be drawn
known point on the curve cuts from any point in a given tangent
the curve. to the curve.
If we determine in Si (fig. 16) the ray corresponding to the ray
8281 in 82, we get the tangent at Si. Similarly, we can determine
the point of contact of the tangents u\ or 2 in fig. 17.
51. If five points are given, of which not three are in a line,
then we can, as has just been shown, always draw a curve of the
FIG. 17.
second order through them ; we select two of the points as centres of
projective pencils, and then one such curve is determined. It will
be presently shown that we get always the same curve if two other
points are taken as centres of pencils, that therefore five points
determine one curve of the second order, and reciprocally, that five
tangents determine one curve of the second class. Six points taken
at random will therefore not lie on a curve of the second order. In
order that this may be the case a certain condition has to be satisfied,
and this condition is easily ob-
tained from the construction in
49, fig. 16. If we consider the
conic determined by the five
points A, Si, 82, K, L, then the
point D will be on the curve if,
and only if, the points on DI, S,
D 2 be in a line.
This may be stated differently
if we take AKSiDSsL (figs. 16
and 1 8) as a hexagon inscribed
in the conic, then AK and D&2
will be opposite sides, so will be
KSi and SjL, as well as SiD and
LA. The first two meet in Dj,
the others in S and Di respectively. We may therefore state the
required condition, together with the reciprocal one, as follows:
,
PROJECTIVE]
GEOMETRY
697
PtttaTt Tktfrtm. Ha beacon
be inscribed in curve of the
second order, then the interact
tiooi at opposite sides are three
points in a line.
BHaufkon's Theorem. If a
hexagon be circumscribed about
a curve of the second dan, then
the line* joining opposite vertices
are three lines meeting in a point.
These celebrated theorems, which are known by the names of
tbeir discoverers, are perhaps the most fruitful in the whole theory
of conies. Before we go over to their applications we have to show
that we obtain the same curve if we take, instead of Si, Si, any two
other points on the curve as centres of projective pencils.
{52. We know that the curve depends only upon the correspond-
ence between the pencils Si and Si. and not upon the special con-
struction used for finding new points on the curve. The point A
(fig. 16 or 18), through which the two auxiliary rows u\. ut were
drawn, may therefore be changed to any other point on the curve.
Let us now suppose the curve drawn, and keep the points Si, Si,
K. L and D, and hence also the point S Axed, whilst we move A
along the curve. Then the line AL will describe a pencil about
L as centre, and the point Di a row on S|D perspective to the
pencil L. At the same time AK describes a pencil about K and I >_>
a row perspective to it on SIX But by Pascal's theorem Di and
Di will always lie in a line with S, so that the rows described by Di
and Di are perspective. It follows that the pencils K and L will
themselves be projective, corresponding rays meeting on the curve.
This prove* that we get the same curve whatever pair of the five
given points we take as centres of projective pencils. Hence
Only one curve of the second Only one curve of the second
order can be drawn which passe* das* can be drawn which touches
through five given points. five given lines.
We have seen that if on a curve of the second order two points
coincide at A, the line joining them becomes the tangent at A.
If, therefore, a point on the curve and its tangent are given, this
will be equivalent to having given two points on the curve. Simi-
larly, if on the curve of second class a tangent and its point of
contact are given, this will be equivalent to two given tangents.
We may therefore extend the last theorem :
. Only one curve of the second Only one curve of the second
order can be drawn, of which class can be drawn, of which four
four points and the tangent at one
of them, or three points and the
tangents at two of them, are
given.
1 53- At the same time it has been proved :
tangents and the point of contact
at one of them, or three tangents
and the points of contact at two
of them, are given.
If all points on a curve of the
second order be joined to any
two of them, then the two pencils
thus formed are projective, those
rays being corresponding which
meet on the curve. Hence
The cross-ratio of four rays
joining a point S on a curve of
second order to four fixed points
A. B, C, D in the curve is in-
dependent of the position of S,
and is called the cross-ratio of the
four points A, B, C, D.
If this cross-ratio equals I
the four points are said to be
four harmonic points.
All tangents to a curve of second
dass are cut by any two of
them in projective rows, those
being corresponding points which
lie on the same tangent. Hence
The cross-ratio of the four
points in which any tangent u is
cut by four fixed tangents a, b, c, d
is independent of the position of
, and is called the cross-ratio of
the four tangents a, b, c, d.
If this cross-ratio equals I
the four tangents are said to be
four harmonic tangents.
We have seen that a curve of second order, as generated by
projective pencils, has at the centre of each pencil one tangent;
and further, that any point on the curve may be taken as centre of
such pencil. Hence
A curve of second order has at A curve of second class has on
every point one tangent. every tangent a point of contact.
54- We return to Pascal's and Brianchon's theorems and their
applications, and shall, as before, state the results both for curves
of the second order and curves of the second class, but prove them
only for the former.
Pascal's theorem may be used when five points are given to find
more points on the curve, viz. it enables us to find the point where
any line through one of the given points cuts the curve again. It
is convenient, in making use of Pascal's theorem, to number the
points, to indicate the order in which they are to be taken in forming
a hexagon, which, by the way, may be done in 60 different ways.
It will be seen that I 2 (leaving out 3) 4 5 are opposite sides,
so are 3 3 and (leaving out 4) 5 6, and also 3 4 and (leaving
out 5) 6 l.
If the points 12345 are given, and we want a 6th point on a
line drawn through I, we know all the sides of the hexagon with
the exception of 5 6, and this is found by Pascal's theorem,
If this line should happen to pass through I, then 6 and I coincide,
or the line 6 l is the tangent at I. And always if two consecutive
vertices of the hexagon approach nearer and nearer, then the side
joining them will ultimately become a tangent.
We may therefore consider a pentagon inscribed in a curve of
second order and the tangent at one of its vertices as a hexagon,
and thus get the theorem :
Every pentagon inscribed in a
curve of second order has the
property that the intersections of
two pairs of non-consecutive
sides He in a line with the point
where the fifth side cuts the tan-
gent at the opposite vertex.
This enables us also to solve the
Given five points on a curve of
second order to construct the
tangent at any one of them.
Every pentagon circumscribed
about a curve of the second class
has the property that the line*
which join two pairs of non-
consecutive vertices meet on that
line which joins the fifth vertex
to the point of contact of the
opposite side.
following problems.
Given five tangents to a curve
of second class to construct the
point of contact of any one of
them.
FIG. 19.
If two pairs of adjacent vertices coincide, the hexagon becomes a
quadrilateral, with tangents at two vertices. These we take to be
opposite, and get the following theorems:
If a quadrilateral be inscribed
in a curve of second order, the
intersections of opposite sides,
and also the intersections of the
tangents at opposite vertices, lie
in a line (fig. 19).
If a quadrilateral be circum-
scribed about a curve of second
class, the lines joining opposite
vertices, and also the lines joining
points of contact of opposite
sides, meet in a point.
FIG. 20.
If we consider the hexagon made up of a triangle and the tangents
at its vertices, we get
If a triangle is inscribed in a
curve of the second order, the
points in which the sides are cut
by the tangents at the opposite
vertices meet in a point.
If a triangle be circumscribed
about a curve of second class,
the lines which join the vertices
to the points of contact of the
opposite sides meet in a point
(fig. 20).
{ 55. Of these theorems, those about the quadrilateral give rise to
a number of others. Four points A, B, C, D may in three different
ways be formed into a quadrilateral, for we may take them in the
order ABCD, or ACBD, or ACDB, so that either of the points
B, C, D may be taken as the vertex opposite to A. Accordingly we
may apply the theorem in three different ways.
Let A, B, C, D be four points on a curve of second order (fig. 21),
and let us take them as forming a quadrilateral by taking the points
in the order ABCD, so that A, C and also B, D are pairs of opposite
vertices. Then P, Q will be the points where opposite sides meet,
6 9 8
GEOMETRY
[PROJECTIVE
and E, F the intersections of tangents at opposite vertices. The
four points P, Q, E, F lie therefore in a line. The quadrilateral
ACBD gives us in the same way the four points Q, R, G, H in a line,
and the quadrilateral ABDC a line containing the four points R, P,
I, K. These three lines form a triangle PQR.
The relation between the points and lines in this figure may be
expressed more clearly if we consider ABCD as a four- point inscribed
in a conic, and the tangents at these points as a four-side circumscribed
about it, viz. it will be seen that P, Q, R are the diagonal points
of the four-point ABCD, whilst the sides of the triangle PQR are
the diagonals of the circumscribing four-side. Hence the theorem
Any four-point on a curve of the second order and the four-side
formed by the tangents at these points stand in this relation that the
diagonal points of the four-point lie in the diagonals of the four-side.
And conversely,
If a four-point and a circumscribed four-side stand in the above
relation, then a curve of the second order may be described which passes
through the four points and touches there the four sides of these figures.
That the last part of the theorem is true follows from the fact
that the four points A, B, C, D and the line a, as tangent at A, deter-
FIG. 21.
mine a curve of the second order, and the tangents to this curve at
the other points B, C, D are given by the construction which leads
to fig. 21.
The theorem reciprocal to the last is
Any four-side circumscribed about a curve of second class and the
four-point formed by the points of contact stand in this relation that the
diagonals of the four-side pass through the diagonal points of the
four-point. And conversely,
If a four-side and an inscribed four-point stand in the above relation,
then a curve of the second class may be described which touches the sides
of the four-side at the points of the four-point.
56. The four-point and the four-side in the two reciprocal
theorems are alike. Hence if we have a four-point ABCD and a
four-side abed related in the manner described, then not only may
a curve of the second order be drawn, but also a curve of the second
class, which both touch the lines a, b, c, d at the points A, B, C, D.
The curve of second order is already more than determined by the
points A, B, C and the tangents a, b, c at A, B and C. The point D
may therefore be any point on this curve, and d any tangent to the
curve. On the other hand the curve of the second class is more
than determined by the three tangents a, b, c and their points of
contact A, B, C, so that d is any tangent to this curve. It follows
that every tangent to the curve of second order is a tangent of a
curve of the second class having the same point of contact. In
other words, the curve of second order is a curve of second class,
anci vice versa. Hence the important theorems
Every curve of second order is Every curve of second class is a
a curve of second class. curve of second order.
The curves of second order and of second class, having thus been
proved to be identical, shall henceforth be called by the common
name of Conies.
For these curves hold, therefore, all properties which have been
proved for curves of second order or of second class. We may
therefore now state Pascal's and Brianchpn's theorem thus
Pascal's Theorem. If a hexagon be inscribed in a conic, then
the intersections of opposite sides lie in a line.
Brianchon's Theorem. If a hexagon be circumscribed about a
conic, then the diagonals forming opposite centres meet in a point.
57. If we suppose in fig. 21 that the point D together with the
tangent d moves along the curve, whilst A, B, C and their tangents
a, b, c remain fixed, then the ray DA will describe a pencil about
A, the point Q a projective row on the fixed line BC, the point F
the row b, and the ray EF a pencil about E. But EF passes always
through Q. Hence the pencil described by AD is projective to the
pencil described by EF, and therefore to the row described by F on
b. At the same time the line BD describes a pencil about B pro-
jective to that described by AD ( 53). Therefore the pencil BD
and the row F on ft are projective. Hence
// on a conic a point A be taken and the tangent a at this point, then
the cross-ratio of the four rays -which join A to any four points on the
curve is equal to the cross-ratio of the points in which the tangents at
these points cut the tangent at A.
58. There are theorems about cones of second order and second
class in a pencil which are reciprocal to the above, according to 43.
We mention only a few of the more important ones.
The locus of intersections of corresponding planes in two pro-
jective axial pencils whose axes meet is a cone of the second order.
The envelope of planes which join corresponding lines in two
projective flat pencils, not in the same plane, is a cone of the second
class.
Cones of. second order and cones of second class are identical.
Every plane cuts a cone of the second order in a conic.
A cone of second order is uniquely determined by five of its edges
or by five of its tangent planes, or by four edges and the tangent plane
at one of them, &c. &c.
Pascal's Theorem. If a solid angle of six faces be inscribed in a
cone of the second order, then the intersections of opposite faces
are three lines in a plane.
Brianchon's Theorem. If a solid angle of six edges be circum-
scribed about a cone of the second order, then the planes through
opposite edges meet in a line.
Each of the other theorems about conies may be stated for cones
of the second order.
59. Projective Definitions of the Cbnics. We now consider the
shape of the conies. We know that any line in the plane of the conic,
and hence that the line at infinity, either has no point in common
with the curve, or one (counting for two coincident points) or two
distinct points. If the line at infinity has no point on the curve the
latter is altogether finite, and is called an Ellipse (fig. 21). If the line
at infinity has only one point in common with the conic, the latter
extends to infinity, and has the line at infinity a tangent. It is
called a Parabola (fig. 22). If, lastly, the line at infinity cuts the
curve in two points, it
consists of two separate
parts which each extend
in two branches to the
points at infinity where
they meet. The curve is
in this case called an
Hyperbola (see fig. 20).
The tangents at the
two points at infinity
are finite because the
line at infinity is not
a tangent. They are
called Asymptotes. The
branches of the hyper- >>
bola approach these lines
indefinitely as a point on
the curves moves to in-
finity.
60. That the circle
belongs to the curves of
the second order is seen
at once if we state in
a slightly different form the theorem that in a circle all angles at
the circumference standing upon the same arc are equal. If two
points Si, Sj on a circle be joined to any other two points A and B
on the circle, then the angle included by the rays SiA and SiB is
equal to that between the rays SjA and SjB, so that as A moves
along the circumference the rays SiA and SjA describe equal and
therefore projective pencils. The circle can thus be generated bv
two projective pencils, and is a curve of the second order.
PROJECTIVE1
GEOMETRY
699
If we join point in (pace to all point* on a circle, we get a (circular)
cone at the second order (S 43)- Every plane section of this cone is a
cook. Thi* conic will be an ellipse, a parabola, or an hyperbola,
according u the line at infinity in the plane has no, one or two points
in common with the conk in whkh the plane at infinity cuts the
cone. It follow* that our curve* of second order may_be obtained
at section* of a circular cone, and that they are identical with the
" Conk Section* " of the Greek mathematician*.
f 61. Any two tangent* to parabola are cut by all others in
protective row*: but the line at infinity being one of the tangents,
the point* at infinity on the row* are corresponding points, and the
rows therefore similar. Hence the theorem
Tke hmgenls to a parabola cut tack other proportionally.
POLE AND POLAR
i 63. We return once again to fig. 21. which we obtained in { 55.
If a four-side be circumscribed about and a four-point inscribed
in a conk, *o that the vertices of the second are the points of contact
of the side* of the first, then the triangle formed by the diagonals
of the first is the same as that formed by the diagonal points of the
other.
Such a triangle will be called a polar-triangle of the conic, o that
PQR in fig. 31 is a polar-triangle. It has the property that on the
tide opposite P meet the tangents at A and B, and also those at C
and D. From the harmonic properties of four-points and four-sides
it follows further that the points L, M, where it cuts the lines AH
and CD. are harmonic conjugates with regard to AB and CD
respectively.
If the point P is given, and we draw a line through it, cutting
the conk in A and B, then the point Q harmonic conjugate to P
with regard to AB, and the point H where the tangents at A and B
meet, are determined. But they lie both on p, and therefore this
line is determined. If we now draw a second line through P, cutting
the conk in C and D, then the point M harmonic conjugate to P
with regard to CD, and the point G where the tangents at C and D
meet, must also lie on p. As the first line through P already deter-
mine* p, the second may be any line through P. Now every two
line* through P determine a four-point ABCD on the conic, and
therefore a polar-triangle which has one vertex at P and its opposite
tide at p. This result, together with its reciprocal, gives the
theorems
All polar-triangles which hose one vertex tn common have also the
opposite side in common.
All polar-triangles which hose one side in common have also the
opposite vertex in common. .
I 63. To any point P in the plane of, but not on, a conic corresponds
thus one line p as the side opposite to P in all polar-triangles which
have one vertex at P, and reciprocally to every line p corresponds
one point P a* the vertex opposite to p in all triangles which have p
as one side.
We call the line p the polar of P, and the point P the pole of the
line p with regard to the conic.
If a point lies on the conic, we call the tangent at that point its
polar; and reciprocally we call the point of contact the pole of
tangent.
jjkt- From these definitions and former results follow
The polar of any point P not The pole of any line p not a
on the conic is a line />, which has tangent to the conic is a point
the following properties: P, which has the following pro-
perties:
I. On every line through P I. Of all lines through a point
whkh cut* the conk, the polar on p from which two tangents
of P contain* the harmonic con- may be drawn to the conic, the
jugate of P with regard to those pole P contains the line which is
points on the conic. harmonic conjugate to p, with
regard to the two tangents.
3. If tangent* can be drawn 2. If p cuts the conic, the
from P, their points of contact lie tangents at the intersections
on p. meet at P.
3. Tangent* drawn at the 3. The point of contact of
point* where any line through P tangent* drawn from any point
cuts the conk meet on p; and on p to the conic lie in a line with
conversely, P; and conversely,
4. If from any point on p, 4. Tangents drawn at points
tangent* be drawn, their point* where any line through P cuts the
of contact will lie in a line with P. conic meet on p.
5. Any four-point on the conk 5. Any four-side circumscribed
whkh ha* one diagonal point at about a conic which has one
P has the other two lying on p. diagonal on p has the other two
meeting at P.
The truth of 2 follow* from I. If T be a point where p cut* the
conk, then one of the point* where PT cut* the conk, and which
are harmonic conjugates with regard to PT, coincides with T; hence
the other doe* that is, PT touches the curve at T.
That 4 i* true follows thus: If we draw from a point H on the
polar one tangent a to the conk, join its point of contact A to the
pole P. determine the second point of intersection B of this line with
the conk, and draw the tangent at B, it will pass through H, and
win therefore be the second tangent whkh may be drawn from H to
the curve.
65. The second property of the polar or pole gives rise to the
theorem
From a point in the plane of a
no
A line in the plane of a conic
has two, one or no points in
common with the conic, accord-
ing as two, one or no tangents
can be drawn from its pole to the
conic.
conic, two, one or no tangents
may be drawn to the conic,
according as its polar has two,
one, or no points in common with
the curve.
Of any point in the plane of a conic we say that it was without,
on or wtthin the curve according as two, one or no tangents to the
curve pass through it. The points on the conic separate those within
the conic from those without. That this is true for a circle is known
from elementary geometry. That it also holds for other conies
follows from the fact that every conic may be considered as the
projection of a circle, which will DC proved later on.
The fifth property of pole and polar stated in { 64 shows how
to find the polar of any point ind the pole of any line by aid of the
straight-edge only. Practical.y it is often convenient to draw three
secants through the pole, and to determine only one of the diagonal
points for two of the four-points formed by pairs of these lines and
the conic (fig. 22).
These constructions also solve the problem
From a point without a conic, to draw the two tangents to the
conic by aid of the straight-edge only.
For we need only draw the polar of the point in order to find the
points of contact.
66. The property of a polar-triangle may now be stated thus
In a polar-triangle each side is the pplar_of the opposite vertex,
and eacn vertex is the pole of the opposite side.
If P is one vertex of a polar-triangle, then the other vertices, Q
and R, lie on the polar f> of P. One ol these vertices we mav choose
arbitrarily. For if from
any point Q on the polar
a secant be drawn cutting
the conic in A and D (fig.
23), and if the lines joining
these points to P cut the
conic again at B and C,
then the line BC will pass
through Q. Hence P and
Q are two of the vertices
on the polar-triangle which
is determined by the four-
point ABCD. The third
vertex R lies also on the
line p. It follows, therefore,
also
IfQis a point on the polar
of P, then P is a point on the
polar 0/Q; and reciprocally,
If q is a line through the
pole of p, ihen p is a line
through the pole of q.
This is a very important theorem,
thus
// a point moves along a line describing a row. its polar turns about
the pole of the line describing a pencil.
This pencil is projective to the row, so that the cross-ratio of four
poles in a row equals the cross-ratio of its four polars, which pass
through the pole of the row.
To prove the last part, let us suppose that P, A and B in fig. 23
remain fixed, whilst Q moves along the polar p of P. This will
make CD turn about P and move R along p, whilst QD and RD
describe projective pencils about A and B. Hence Q and R describe
projective rows, and hence PR, which is the polar of Q, describes a
pencil projective to either.
67. Two points, of which one, and therefore each, lies on the
polar of the other, are said to be conjugate with regard to the conic;
and two lines, of which one, and therefore each, passes through the
pole of the other, are said to be conjugate with regard to the conic.
Hence all points conjugate to a point P lie on the polar of P ; all lines
conjugate to a line p pass through the pole of p.
If the line joining two conjugate poles cuts the conic, then the
poles are harmonic conjugates with regard to the points of inter-
section; hence one lies within the other without the conic, and all
points conjugate to a point within a conic lie without it.
Of a polar-triangle any two vertices are conjugate poles, any two
sides conjugate lines. If, therefore, one side cuts a conic, then
one of the two vertices which lie on this side is within and the other
without the conic. The vertex opposite this side lies also without,
for it is the pole of a line which cuts the curve. _In this case there-
fore one vertex lies within, the other two without. If, on the
other hand, we begin with a side which does not cut the conic,
then its pole lies within and the other vertices without. Hence^
Every polar-triangle has one and only one vertex within the conic.
We add, without a proof, the theorem
The four points in which a conic is cut by two conjugate polars
are four harmonic points in the conic.
i 68. If two conies intersect in four points (they cannot have
more points in common, $ 52), there exists one and only one
Fio. 23.
It may also be stated
700
GEOMETRY
[PROJECTIVE
four-point which is inscribed in both, and therefore one polar-triangle
common to both.
Theorem. Two conies which intersect in four points have always
one and only one common polar-triangle ; and reciprocally,
Two conies which have four common tangents have always one
and only one common polar-triangle.
DIAMETERS AND AXES OF COMICS
69. Diameters. The theorems about the harmonic properties
of poles and polars contain, as special cases, a number of important
metrical properties of conies. These are obtained if either the pole
or the polar is moved to infinity, it being remembered that the
harmonic conjugate to a point at infinity, with regard to two points
A, B, is the middle point of the segment AB. The most important
properties are stated in the following theorems :
The middle points of parallel chords of a conic lie in a line viz. on
the polar to the point at infinity on the parallel chords.
This line is called a diameter.
The polar of every point at infinity is a diameter.
The tangents at the end points of a diameter are parallel, and are
parallel to the chords bisected by the diameter.
All diameters pass through a common point, the pole of the line at
infinity.
All diameters of a parabola are parallel, the pole to the line at
infinity being the point where the curve touches the line at infinity.
In case of the ellipse and hyperbola, the pole to the line at infinity
is a finite point called the centre of the curve.
A centre of a conic bisects every chord through it.
The centre of an ellipse is within the curve, for the line at infinity
does not cut the ellipse.
The centre of an hyperbola is without the curve, because the line at
infinity cuts the curve. Hence also
From the centre of an hyperbola two tangents can be drawn to the
curve which have their point of contact at infinity. These are called
Asymptotes (59)-
To construct a diameter of a conic, draw two parallel chords and
join their middle points.
To find the centre of a conic, draw two diameters; their inter-
section will be the centre.
70. Conjugate Diameters. A polar-triangle with one vertex at
the centre will have the opposite side at infinity. The other two
sides pass through the centre, and are called conjugate diameters,
each being the polar of the point at infinity on the other.
Of two conjugate diameters each bisects the chords parallel to the
other, and if one cuts the curve, the tangents at its ends are parallel to
the other diameter.
Further
Every parallelogram inscribed in a conic has its sides parallel to
two conjugate diameters ; and
Every parallelogram circumscribed about a conic has as diagonals two
conjugate diameters.
This will be seen by considering the parallelogram in the first
case as an inscribed four-point, in the other as a circumscribed
four-side, and determining in each case the corresponding polar-
triangle. The first may also be enunciated thus
The lines which join any point on an ellipse or an hyperbola to the
ends of a diameter are parallel to two conjugate diameters.
71. // every diameter is perpendicular to its conjugate the conic is
a circle.
For the lines which join the ends of a diameter to any point on
the curve include a right angle.
A conic which has more than one pair of conjugate diameters at right
angles to each other is a circle.
Let AA' and BB' (fig. 24) be one pair of conjugate diameters at
right angles to each other, CC' and DD' a second pair. If we draw
through the end point A of one
diameter a chord AP parallel to
DD', and join P to A', then PA and
PA' are, according to 70, parallel to
two conjugate diameters. But PA is
parallel to DD', hence PA' is parallel
to CC', and therefore PA and PA'
are perpendicular. If we further
draw the tangents to the conic at A
and A', these will be perpendicular
to AA', they being parallel to the
conjugate diameter BB'. We know
thus five points on the conic, viz. the
points A and A' with their tangents,
and the point P. Through these a
circle may be drawn having AA' as
diameter; and as through five points
one conic only can be drawn, this circle must coincide with the
given conic.
72. A xes. Conjugate diameters perpendicular to each other
are called axes, and the points where they cut the curve vertices
of the conic.
In a circle every diameter is an axis, every point on it is a vertex;
and any two lines at right angles to each other may be taken as a
pair of axes of any circle which has its centre at their intersection.
FIG. 24.
If we describe on a diameter AB of an ellipse or hyperbola a circle
concentric to the conic, it will cut the latter in A and B (fig. 25).
Each of the semicircles in which it is divided by AB will be partly
within, partly without the curve, and must cut the latter therefore
again in a point. The circle and the conic have thus four points
A, B, C, D, and therefore
one polar-triangle, in com-
mon (68). Of this the
centre is one vertex, for
the line at infinity is the
polar to this point, both
with regard to the circle
and the other conic. The
other two sides are con-
jugate diameters of both,
hence perpendicular to
each other. This gives
An ellipse as well as an
hyperbola has one pair of
axes.
This reasoning shows at
the same time how to con-
struct the axis of an ellipse p.
or of an hyperbola. 5'
A parabola has one axis,
if we define an axis as a diameter perpendicular to the chords
which it bisects. It is easily constructed. The line which bisects
any two parallel chords is a diameter. Chords perpendicular to it
will be bisected by a parallel diameter, and this is the axis.
73. The first part of the right-hand theorem in 64 may be
stated thus: any two conjugate lines through a point P without a
conic are harmonic conjugates with regard to the two tangents
that may be drawn from P to the conic.
If we take instead of P the centre C of an hyperbola, then the
conjugate lines become conjugate diameters, and the tangents
asymptotes. Hence
Any two conjugate diameters of an hyperbola are harmonic conjugates
with regard to the asymptotes.
As the axes are conjugate diameters at right angles to one another,
it follows ( 23)
The axes of an hyperbola bisect the angles between the asymptotes.
Let O be the centre of the hyperbola (fig. 26), t any secant which
cuts the hyperbola in C,D and the asymptotes in E,F, then the
line OM which bisects the chord CD is a diameter conjugate to the
FIG. 26.
diameter OK which is parallel to the secant /, so that OK and OM
are harmonic with regard to the asymptotes. The point M there-
fore bisects EF. But by construction M bisects CD. It follows
that DF = EC, and ED = CF ; or
On any secant of an hyperbola the segments between the curve and the
asymptotes are equal.
If the chord is changed into a tangent, this gives
The segment between the asymptotes on any tangent to an hyperbola
is bisected by the point of contact.
The first part allows a simple solution of the problem to find any
number of points on an hyperbola, of which the asymptotes and one
point are given. This is equivalent to three points and the tangents
at two of them. This construction requires measurement.
74. For the parabola, too, follow some metrical properties. A
diameter PM (fig. 27) bisects every chord conjugate to it, and the
pole P of such a chord BC lies on the diameter. But a diameter cuts
the parabola once at infinity. Hence
The segment PM which joins the middle point M of a chord of a para-
bola to the pole P of the chord is bisected by the parabola at A.
75. Two asymptotes and any two tangents to an hyperbola
may be considered as a quadrilateral circumscribed about the
PROJECTIVE]
GEOMETRY
701
hyperbola.
But in such a quadrilateral the intersections of the
xl the point* of contact of opposite sides lie in a line
(|54). If therefore DEFG
(fig. 28) is such a quadri-
lateral, then the diagonals
DF and GE will meet on
the line which joins the
points of contact of the
asymptotes, that is, on the
line at infinity ; hence they
are parallel. From this
the following theorem is
a simple deduction:
All triantlfs formed by a
tangent and the asymptotes
of an hyperbola are equal in
area.
If we draw at a point P
(fig. 28) on an hyperbola
a tangent, the part HK
between the asymptotes
FIG. 27. is bisected at P. The
parallelogram PQOQ'
formed by the asymptotes and lines parallel to them through
P will be half the triangle OHK, and will therefore be con-
stant. If we now take the asymptotes OX and OY as oblique
FIG. 28.
i ot co-ordinates, the lines OQ and QP will be the co-ordinates of
P, and will satisfy the equation xy const, a 1 .
For tke asymptotes as axes of co-ordinates the equation of the hyperbola
it xjr-const.
INVOLUTION
| 76. If we have two projective rows, ABC on u and A'B'C' on
', and place their bases on the same line, then each point in this
line counts twice, once as a point in the row u and once as a point
in the row u'. In fig. 29 we denote the points as points in the one
row by letters above the line A, B, C . . ., and as points in the second
row by A', B', C' . . . below the
_* B line. Let now A and B' be the
I l ( I same point, then to A will corre-
A spond a point A' in the second,
FIG. 29. and to B' a point B in the first
row. In general these points A'
and B will be different. It may, however, happen that they coincide.
Then the correspondence is a peculiar one, as the following theorem
// tteo projeclm rows lie on the same base, and if it happens that to one
point in the base the same point corresponds, whether we consider the
point as belonging to Ike first or to the second row, then the same will
happen for every point in the base that is to say, to every point in the
line corresponds the same point in the first as in the second row.
In order to determine the correspondence, we may assume three
pain of corresponding points in two projective rows. Let then
A', B', C', in fig. 30, correspond to
A ? ? ? A> B> C> * that A and B/> and also
I I I , I , B and A', denote the same point.
Let us further denote the point
C' when considered as a point in
the first row by D; then it is to
C'
FIG. 30.
be proved that the point D', which corresponds to D, is the same
point as C. We know that the cross-ratio of four points is equal
to that of the corresponding row. Hence
(AB. CD)-(A'B',C'D')
bat replacing the dashed letters by those undashed ones which
denote the same points, the second cross-ratio equals (BA, DD'),
which, according to { 15, equals (AB, D'D); so that the equation
becomes
(AB, CD)-(AB.D'D).
This requires that C and D' coincide.
J 7Z- Two projective rows on the same base, which have the above
property, that to every point, whether it be considered as a point jn
the one or in the other row, corresponds the same point, are said
to be in involution, or to form an involution of points on the line.
We mention, but without proving it, that any two projective
rows may be placed so as to form an involution.
An involution may be said to consist of a row of pairs of points,
to^very point A corresponding a point A', and to A' again the
point A. These points are said to be conjugate, or, better, one point
is termed the " mate " of the other.
From the definition, according to which an involution may be
considered as made up of two projective rows, follow at once the
following important properties:
I. The cross-ratio of lour points equals that of the four conjugate
points.
3. If we call a point which coincides with its mate a " focus "
or " double point of the involution, we may say : An involution
has either two foci, or one, or none, and is called respectively a
hyperbolic, parabolic or elliptic involution ( 34).
3. In a hyperbolic involution any two conjugate points are
harmonic conjugates with regard to the two foci.
For if A, A' be two conjugate points, Fi, F the two foci, then to the
points Fi, Fi, A, A' in the one row correspond the points Fi, Ft, A', A
in the other, each focus corresponding to itself. Hence (FiFi, AA')
(FiFj.A'A) that is, we may interchange the two points AA' without
altering the value of the cross-ratio, which is the characteristic
property of harmonic conjugates ( 18).
4. The point conjugate to the point at infinity is called the
" centre " of the involution. Every involution has a centre, unless
the point at infinity be a focus, in which case we may say that
the centre is at infinity.
In an hyperbolic involution the centre is the middle point between
the foci.
5. The product 6f the distances of two conjugate points A, A'
from the centre O is constant : OA . OA' =c.
For let A, A' and B, B' be two pairs of conjugate points, O the
centre, I the point at infinity, then
(AB,OI) = (A'B', IO),
or
OA.OA'=OB.OB'.
In order to determine the distances of the foci from the centre,
we write F for A and A' and get
OP-e; OF=*Vc.
Hence if c is positive OF is real, and has two values, equal and
opposite. The involution is hyperbolic.
If c=o, OF o, and the two foci both coincide with the centre.
If c is negative, \'r becomes imaginary, and there are no foci.
Hence we may write
In an hyperbolic involution, OA . OA' i 1 ,
In a parabolic involution, OA . OA' = o,
In an elliptic involution, OA . OA' ft*.
From these expressions it follows that conjugate points A, A' in an
hyperbolic involution lie on the same side of the centre, and in an
elliptic involution on opposite sides of the centre, and that in a
parabolic involution one coincides with the centre.
In the first case, for instance, OA . OA' is positive; hence OA
and OA' have the same sign.
It also follows that two segments, AA' and BB', between pairs of
conjugate points have the following positions: in an hyperbolic
involution they lie either one altogether within or altogether without
each other; in a parabolic involution they have one point in common ;
and in an elliptic involution they overlap, each being partly within
and partly without the other.
Proof. We have OA . OA' -OB . OB' = k* in case of an hyperbolic
involution. Let A and B be the points in each pair which are
nearer to the centre O. If now A, A' and B, B' lie on the same side of
O, and if B is nearer to O than A, so that OB < OA, then OB' > OA' ;
hence B' lies farther away from O than A', or the segment AA' lies
within BB'. And so on for the other cases.
6. An involution is determined
(0) By two pairs of conjugate points. Hence also
OS) By one pair of conjugate points and the centre;
M By the two foci ;
(1) By one focus and one pair of conjugate points;
() By one focus and the centre.
7. The condition that A, B, C and A', B', C' may form an in-
volution may be written in one of the forms
at
tt
(AB, CC')-(A'B', C'C),
(AB, CA')-(A'B', C'A),
(AB, C'A') - (A'B', CA),
for each expresses that in the two projective rows in which A, B, C
702
GEOMETRY
[PROJECTIVE
and A', B', C' are conjugate points two conjugate elements may be
interchanged.
8. Any three pairs, A, A', B, B', C, C', of conjugate points are
connected by the relations:
AB'.BC'.CA' AB'.BC.C'A' AB.B'C'.CA' AB.B'C.C'A'
A'B.B'C.C'A~A'B.B'C'.CA~A'B'.BC.C'A~A'B'.BC'.CA '
These relations readily follow by working out the relations in (7)
(above).
78. Involution of a quadrangle. The sides of any four-point are
cut by any line in six points in involution, opposite sides being cut in
conjugate points.
Let AiBiCiDi (fig. 31) be the four-point. If its sides be cut by
the line p in the points A, A', B, B', C, C', if further, CiDi cuts the
line AjBi in Cs, and if we project the row AiBiCzC to p once from
Di and once from Ci, we get (A'B', C'C) = (BA, C'C).
Interchanging in the last cross-ratio the letters in each pair we get
(A'B', C'C) = (AB, CC'). Hence by 77 (7) the points are in in-
volution.
The theorem may also be stated thus:
The three points in which any line cuts the sides of a triangle and the
projections, from any point in the plane, of the vertices of the triangle
on to the same line are six points in involution.
Or again
The projections from any point on to any line of the six vertices
of a four-side are six points in involution, the projections of opposite
vertices being conjugate points.
This property gives a simple means to construct, by aid of the
straight edge only, in an involution of which two pairs of conjugate
points are given, to any point its conjugate.
79. Pencils in Involution. The theory of involution may at once
be extended^ from the row to the flat and the axial pencil viz. we say
that there is an involution in a flat or in an axial pencil if any line
cuts the pencil in an involution of points. An involution in a pencil
consists of pairs of conjugate rays or planes; it has two, one or no
focal rays (double lines) or planes, but nothing corresponding to a
centre.
An involution in a flat pencil contains always one, and in general
only one, pair of conjugate rays which are perpendicular to one
another. For in two projective flat pencils exist always two corre-
sponding; right angles ( 40).
Each involution in an axial pencil contains in the same manner
one pair of conjugate planes at right angles to one another.
As a rule, there exists but one pair of conjugate lines or planes
at right angles to each other. But it is possible that there are
more, and then there is an infinite number of such pairs. An in-
volution in a flat pencil, in which every ray is perpendicular to its
conjugate ray, is said to be circular. That such involution is
possible is easily seen thus: if in two concentric flat pencils each
ray on one is made to correspond to that ray on the other which
is perpendicular to it, then the two pencils are projective, for if
we turn the one pencil through a right angle each ray in one coincides
with its corresponding ray in the other. But these two projective
pencils are in involution.
A circular involution has no focal rays, because no ray in a pencil
coincides with the ray perpendicular to it.
80. Every elliptical involution in a row may be considered as a
section of a circular involution.
In an elliptical involution any two segments AA' and BB' lie
partly within and partly without each other (fig. 32). Hence two
circles described on AA and BB' as diameters will intersect in two
points E and E'. The line EE' cuts the base of the involution at a
point O, which has the property that OA.OA' = OB.OB', for
each is equal to OE.OE'. The point O is therefore the centre of
the involution. If we wish to construct to any point C the conjugate
point C', we may draw the circle through CEE'. This will cut the
base in the required point C' for OC.OC' = OA.OA'. But EC and
EC' are at right angles. Hence the involution which is obtained
by joining E or E' to the points
in the given involution is cir-
cular. This may also be ex-
pressed thus:
Every elliptical involution has
the property that there are two
definite points in the plane from
which any two conjugate points
are seen under a right angle.
At the same time the follow-
ing problem has been solved :
To determine the centre and FIG. 32.
also the point corresponding
to any given point in an elliptical involution of which two pairs of
conjugate points are given.
81. Involution Range on a Conic. By the aid of 53, the points
on a conic may be made to correspond to those on a line, so that the
row of points on the conic is projective to a row of points on a line.
We may also have two projective rows on the same conic, and these
will be in involution as soon as one point on the conic has the same
point corresponding to it all the same to whatever row it belongs.
An involution of points on a conic will have the property (as follows
from its definition, and from 53) that the lines which join conjugate
points of the involution to any point on the conic are conjugate lines
of an involution in a pencil, and that a fixed tangent is cut by the
tangents at conjugate points on the conic in points which are again
conjugate points of an involution on the fixed tangent. For such
involution on a conic the following theorem holds:
The lines which join corresponding points in an involution on a conic
all pass through a fixed point; and reciprocally, the points of inter-
section of conjugate lines in an involution among tangents to a conic
lie on a line.
We prove the first part only. The involution is determined by
two pairs of conjugate points, say by A, A' and B, B' (fig. 33). Let
A A' and B B r
meet in P. If we
join the points in
involution to any
point on the conic,
and the conjugate
points to another
point on the conic,
we obtain two
projective pencils.
We take A and
A' as centres of
these pencils, so
that the pencils
A(A'BB') and
A'(AB'B) are pro-
jective, and in
perspective posi-
tion, because AA'
corresponds to
A' A. Hence cor- FIG. 33-
responding rays
meet in a line, of which two points are found by joining AB' to
A'B and AB to A'B'. It follows that the axis of perspective is the
polar of the point P, where AA' and BB' meet. If we now wish
to construct to any other point C on the conic the corresponding
point C', we join C to A' and the point where this line cuts p to A.
The latter line cuts the conic again in C'. But we know from the
theory of pole and polar that the line CC' passes through P. The
point of concurrence is called the " pole of the involution," and
the line of collinearity of the meets is called the " axis of the
involution."
INVOLUTION DETERMINED BY A CONIC ON A LINE. Foci
82. The pplars, with regard to a conic, of points in a row * form
a pencil P projective to the row ( 66). This pencil cuts the base of
the row p in a projective row.
If A is a point in the given row, A' the point where the polar of
A cuts p, then A and A will be corresponding points. If we take
A' a point in the first row, then the polar of A' will pass through
A, so that A corresponds to A' in other words, the rows are in
involution. The conjugate points in this involution are conjugate
points with regard to the conic. Conjugate points coincide only if
the polar of a point A passes through A that is, if A lies on the
conic. Hence
A conic determines on every line in Us plane an involution, in which
those points are conjugate which are also conjugate with regard to the
conic.
If the line cuts the conic the involution is hyperbolic, the points oj
intersection being the foci.
If the line touches the conic the involution is parabolic, the two foci
coinciding at the point of contact.
If the line does not cut the conic the involution is elliptic, having no
fact.
PROJECTIVE]
GEOMETRY
73
If, on the other hand, we take a point P in the plane of a conic,
we get to each line j through P one conjugate line which joins P
to the pole of a. These pair* of conjugate lines through P form an
involution in the pencil at P. The focal rays of this involution are
the tangrnti drawn from P to the conic. This gives the theorem
reciprocal to the last, viz:
A conic determines in every pencil in its plane an involution, corre-
Ipfmding lines teinf conjugate lines with regard to the conic.
If Ike point is uithoul the conic the involution is Hyperbolic, the
ttntrntsfrom the points being the focal rays.
If the point lies on the conic the involution is parabolic, the tangeni
at the point counting for coincident focal rays.
If the point is within the conic the involution is elliptic, having no
focal rays.
It will further be seen that the involution determined by a conic
on any line p is a .<eciion of the involution, which is determined by
the conk at the pole P of p.
f 83. Foci. The centre of a pencil in which the conic determines
circular involution is called a focus " of the conic.
In other words, a focus is such a point that every line through it is
perpendicular to its conjugate line. The polar to a focus is called a
directrix of the conic.
From the definition it follows that every focus lies on an axis, for
the line joining a focus to the centre of the conic is a diameter to
which the conjugate lines are perpendicular; and every line joining
two foci is an axis, for the perpendiculars to this line through the foci
are conjugate to it. These conjugate lines pass through the pole of
the line, the pole lies therefore at infinity, and the line is a diameter,
hence by the last property an axis.
It follow* that all foci lie on one axis, for no line joining a point
in one axu to a point in the other can be an axis.
As the conic determines in the pencil which has its centre at a focus
circular involution, no tangents can be drawn from the focus to
the conk. Hence each focus Ties within a conic ; and a directrix does
not cut the conic.
Further properties are found by the following considerations:
f 84. Through a point P one line p can be drawn, which is with
regard to a given conic conjugate to a given line q, viz. that line
which joins the point P to the pole of the line q. If the line q is made
to describe a pencil about a point Q, then the line p will describe a
pencil about P. These two pencils will be protective, for the line
p passes through the pole of q, and whilst ^ describes the pencil Q,
its pole describes a projective row, and this row is perspective to
the pencil P.
We now take the point P on an axis of the conic, draw any line
p through it, and from the pole of p draw a perpendicular q to p.
Let q cut the axis in Q. Then, in the pencils of conjugate lines,
which have their centres at P and Q, the lines p and q are conjugate
lines at right angles to one another. Besides, to the axis as a ray
in either pencil will correspond in the other the perpendicular to the
axis ( 72). The conk generated by the intersection of corresponding
lines in the two pencils is therefore the circle on PQ as diameter,
to that every line in P is perpendicular to its corresponding line
**$
To every point P on an axis of a conic corresponds thus a point
Q, such that conjugate lines through P and Q are perpendicular.
We shall show that these point-pairs P, Q form an involution.
To do this let us move P along the axis, and with it the line p,
keeping the latter parallel to itself. Then P describes a row, p a
perspective pencil (of parallels), and the pole of p a projective row.
At the same time the line q describes a pencil of parallels perpendicular
to p. and perspective to the row formed by the pole of p. The point
Q, therefore, where 9 cuts the axis, describes a row projective to the
row of points P. The two points P and Q describe thus two pro-
jective rows on the axis; and not only does P as a point in the first
row correspond to Q, but also Q as a point in the first corresponds
to P. The two rows therefore form an involution. The centre of
this involution, it is easily seen, is the centre of the conic.
A focus of this involution has the property that any two conjugate
lines through it are perpendicular; hence, it is a focus to the conic.
Such involution exists on each axis. But only one of these can
have foci, because all foci lie on the same axis. The involution on
one of the axes is elliptic, and appears (f So) therefore as the section
of two circular involutions in two pencils whose centres lie in the
other axis. These centres are foci, hence the one axis contains two
foci, the other axis none; or every central conic has two foci which lie
on one axis equidistant from the centre.
The axis whkh contains the foci is called the principal axis; in
case of an hyperbola it is the axis which cuts the curve, because the
foci lie within the conk.
In case of the parabola there is but one axis. The involution
on this axis has its centre at infinity. One focus is therefore at
infinity, the one focus only is finite. A parabola has only one
focus.
I 8$. If through any point P (fig. 54) on a conk the tangent PT
and the normal PN li.e. the perpendicular to the tangent through
the point of contact) be drawn, these will be conjugate lines with
regard to the conk, and at right angles to each other. They will
therefore cot the principal axis in two points, which are conjugate
in the involution considered in f 84; hence they are harmonic
conjugates with regard to the foci. If therefore the two foci F t and
FI be joined to P, these lines will be harmonic with regard to the
FIG. 34.
tangent and normal. As the latter are perpendicular, they will
bisect the angles between the other pair. Hence
The lines joining any point on a conic to the two foci are equally
inclined to the tangent and normal at that point.
In case of the parabola this becomes
The line joining any point on a parabola to the focus and the diameter
through the point, are equally inclined to the tangent and normal at
that point.
From the definition of a focus it follows that
The segment of a tangent between the directrix and the point of
contact is seen from the focus belonging to the directrix under a right
angle, because the lines joining the focus to the ends of this
segment are conjugate with regard to the conic, and therefore
perpendicular.
With equal ease the following theorem is proved:
The two lines which join the points of contact of two tangents each
to one focus, but not both to the same, are seen from the intersection of
the tangents under equal angles.
86. Other focal properties of a conic are obtained by the following
considerations:
Let F (fig. 35) be a focus to a conic, / the corresponding directrix,
A and B the points of contact of two tangents meeting at T, and P
the point where the
line AB cuts the direc-
trix. Then TF will be >
the polar of P (because A
polars of F and T meet
at P). Hence TF and
PF are conjugate lines
through a focus, and
therefore perpendicular.
They are further har-
monic conjugates with
regard to FA and FB
(j 64 and 13), so that A
they bisect the angles
formed by these lines.
This by the way
proves
The segments between
the point of intersection
of two tangents to a conic
and their points of con-
tact are seen from a focus
under equal angles.
If we next draw
through A and B lines
parallel to TF, then the
points A i, Bi where
these cut the directrix
will be harmonic conju- /
gates with regard to P
and the point where FT
cuts the directrix. The
lines FT and FP bisect
therefore also the angles
between FAi and FBi.
From this it follows
easily that the triangles
FAAi and FBBi are
H
FIG. 35.
equiangular, and therefore similar, so that FA : AA ( =FB : BB|.
The triangles AAiAi and BB, Bj formed by drawing perpendiculars
from A and B to the directrix are also similar, so that AA, : AAt
= BB| : BBt. This, combined with the above proportion, gives
FA : AA,-FB : BBi. Hence the theorem:
The ratio of the distances of any point on a conic from a focus and
the corresponding directrix is constant.
To determine this ratio we consider its value for a vertex on the
principal axis. In an ellipse the focus lies between the two vertices
on this axis, hence the focus is nearer to a vertex than to the corre-
sponding directrix. Similarly, in an hyperbola a vertex is nearer
704
GEOMETRY
[PROJECTIVE
to the directrix than to the focus. In a parabola the vertex lies
halfway between directrix and focus.
It follows in an ellipse the ratio between the distance of a point
from the focus to that from the directrix is less than unity, in the
parabola it equals unity, and in the hyperbola it is greater than
unity.
It is here the same which focus we take, because the two foci
lie symmetrical to the axis of the conic. If now P is any point on
the conic having the distances n and r 2 from the foci and the distances
di and d t from the corresponding directrices, then rifdi=rildi = e,
where e is constant. Hence also ,' , 2 = e.
didt
In the ellipse, which lies between the directrices, di+di is constant,
therefore also ri+r 2 . In the hyperbola on the other hand di-d* is
constant, equal to the distance between the directrices, therefore
in this case rr-ft is constant.
If we call the distances of a point on a conic from the focus its
focal distances we have the theorem :
In an ellipse the sum of the focal distances is constant; and in an
hyperbola the difference of the focal distances is constant.
This constant sum or difference equals in both cases the length of
the principal axis.
PENCIL OF COMICS
87. Through four points A, B, C, D in a plane, of which no three
lie in a line, an infinite number of conies may be drawn, viz. through
these four points and any fifth one single conic. This system of
conics_is called a pencil of conies. Similarly, all conies touching four
fixed lines form a system such that any fifth tangent determines one
and only one conic. We have here the theorems:
The pairs of points in which The pairs of tangents which
any_ line is cut by a system of can be drawn from a point to
conies through four fixed points a system of conies touching four
are in involution. fixed lines are in involution.
We prove the first theorem only. Let ABCD (fig. 36) be the
four-point, then any line t will cut two opposite sides AC, BD in
FIG. 36.
the points E, E', the pair AD, BC in points F, F', and any conic
of the system in M, N, and we have A(CD, MN) =B(CD, MN).
If we cut these pencils by t we get
(EF, MN) = (F'E', MN)
or (EF, MN) = (E'F', NM).
But this is, according to 77 (7), the condition that M, N are
corresponding points in the involution determined by the point pairs
E, E', F, F' in which the line t cuts pairs of opposite sides of the
four-point ABCD. This involution is independent of the particular
conic chosen.
88. There follow several important theorems:
Through four points two, one, or no conies may be drawn which touch
any given line, according as the involution determined by the given
four-point on the line has real, coincident or imaginary foci.
Two, one, or no conies may be drawn which touch four given lines
and pass through a given point, according as the involution determined
by the given four-side at the point has real, coincident or imaginary
focal rays.
For the conic through four points which touches a given line has
its point of contact at a focus of the involution determined by the
four-point on the line.
As a special case we get, by taking the line at infinity :
Through four points of which none is at infinity either two or no
parabolas may be drawn.
The problem of drawing a conic through four points and touching
a given line is solved by determining the points of contact on the
line, that is, by determining the foci of the involution in which the
line cuts the sides of the four-point. The corresponding remark
holds for the problem of drawing the conies which touch four lines
and pass through a given point.
RULED QUADRIC SURFACES
89. We have considered hitherto projective rows which lie in
the same plane, in which case lines joining corresponding points
envelop a conic. We shall now consider projective rows whose
bases do not meet. In this case, corresponding points will be joined
by lines which do not lie in a plane, but on some surface, which
like every surface generated by lines is called a ruled surface. This
surface clearly contains the bases of the two rows.
If the points in either row be joined to the base of the other, we
obtain two axial pencils which are also projective, those planes
being corresponding which pass through corresponding points in the
given rows. If A', A be two corresponding points, o, a' the planes in
the axial pencils passing through them, then AA' will be the line
of intersection of the corresponding planes a, a' and also the line
joining corresponding points in the rows.
If we cut the whole figure by a plane this will cut the axial pencils
in two projective flat pencils, and the curve of the second order
generated by these will be the curve in which the plane cuts the
surface. Hence
The locus of lines joining corresponding points in two projective
rows which do not lie in the same plane is a surface which contains the
bases of the rows, and which can also be generated by the lines of inter-
section of corresponding planes in two projective axial pencils. This
surface is cut by every plane in a curve of the second order, hence either
in a conic or in a line-pair. No line which does not lie altogether on
the surface can have more than two points in common with the surface,
which is therefore said to be of the second order or is catted a ruled
guadric surface.
That no line which does not lie on the surface can cut the surface
in more than two points is seen at once if a plane be drawn through
the line, for this will cut the surface in a conic. It follows also that
a line which contains more than two points of the surface lies alto-
gether on the surface.
90. Through any point in space one line can always be drawn
cutting two given lines which do not themselves meet.
If therefore three lines in space be given of which no two meet,
then through every point in either one line may be drawn cutting
the other two.
// a line moves so that it always cuts three given lines of which no
two meet, then it generates a ruled guadric surface.
Let a, b, c be the given lines, and/>, g, r . . . lines cutting them in the
points A, A', A'...; B, B', B*...; C, C', C' ... respectively; then
the planes through a containing p, q, r, and the planes through b con-
taining the same lines, may be taken as corresponding planes in two
axial pencils which are projective, because both pencils cut the line
c in the same row, C, C , C . . . ; the surface can therefore be gener-
ated by projective axial pencils.
Of the lines p, q, r . . . no two can meet, for otherwise the lines
a, b, c which cut them would also lie in their plane. There is a single
infinite number of them, for one passes through each point of a.
These lines are said to form a set of lines on the surface.
If now three of the lines p, q, r be taken, then every line d cutting
them will have three points in common with the surface, and win
therefore lie altogether on it. This gives rise to a second set of lines
on the surface. From what has been said the theorem follows :
A ruled guad*ic surface contains two sets of straight lines. Every
line of one set cuts every line of the other, but no two lines of the same
set meet.
Any two lines of the same set may be taken as bases of two projective.
rows, or of two projective pencils which generate the surface. They are
cut by the lines of the other set in two projective rows.
The plane at infinity like every other plane cuts the surface either
in a conic proper or in a line-pair. In the first case the surface is
called an Hyperboloid of one sheet, in the second an Hyperbolic
Paraboloid.
The latter may be generated by a line cutting three lines of which
one lies at infinity, that is, cutting two lines and remaining parallel
to a given plane.
QUADRIC SURFACES
91. The conies, the cones of the second order, and the ruled
quadric surfaces complete the figures which can be generated by
projective rows or flat and axial pencils, that is, by those aggre-
gates of elements which are of one dimension ( 5, 6). We shall
now consider the simpler figures which are generated by aggregates of
two dimensions. The space at our disposal will not, however, allow
us to do more than indicate a few of the results.
92. We establish a correspondence between the lines and planes
in pencils in space, or reciprocally between the points and lines in
two or more planes, but consider principally pencils.
In two pencils we may either make planes correspond to planes
and lines to lines, or else planes to lines and lines to planes. If
hereby the condition be satisfied that to a flat, or axial, pencil
corresponds in the first case a projective flat, or axial, pencil, and in
the second a projective axial, or flat, pencil, the pencils are said to be
projective in the first case and reciprocal in the second.
For instance, two pencils which join two points Si and S to the
different points and lines in a given plane are projective (and
in perspective position), if those lines and planes be taken as
PROJECT1VE]
GEOMETRY
705
perspecuve).
The corrtspendenct
determined, if to four
corresponding which mrrt the plane w in the same point or in the
tame line, fn this case cvi-rv plane through both centre* Si and Si
of the two pencils will correspond to itself. If these pencils are
brought into any other position they will be protective (but not
bettften two projective pencils it uniquely
rays (or plants) in the one the corresponding
rays (or plants) in the other art given, provided that no three rays of
either stl lie in a plant.
Let a, b.c.dbe four rays in the one, a', 6', <', d' the corresponding
ray* in the other pencil. We shall show that we can find for every
ray e in the first a single corresponding ray e' in the second. To
the axial pencil a (b. t, d . . .) formed by the planes which join a to
, c. A . . . , respectively corresponds the axial pencil a' (b', c'.d' . . . ),
and this correspondence is determined. Hence, t he plane V e' which
corresponds to the plane ae is determined. Similarly the plane
V may be found and both together determine the ray t'.
Similarly the correspondence between two reciprocal pencils is
determined if for four rays in the one the corresponding planes in
the other are given.
I 93. We may now combine
l. Two reciprocal pencils.
Each ray cuts its corresponding plane in a point, the locus
of these points is a quadric surface.
a. Two projective pencils.
Each plane cuts its corresponding plane in a line, but a
ray as a rule does not cut its corresponding ray. The
locus of points where a ray cuts its corresponding ray
is a twisted cubic. The lines where a plane cuts its
corresponding plane are secants.
3. Three projective pencils.
The locus of intersection of corresponding planes is a
cubic surface.
Of these we consider only the first two cases.
94. If two pencils arc reciprocal, then to a plane in either corre-
sponds a line in the other, to a flat pencil an axial pencil, and so on.
Every line cuts its corresponding plane in a point. If Si and Sj be
the centres of the two pencils, and P be a point where a line a\ in the
first cuts its corresponding plane oj, then the line bt in the pencil_St
i passes through P will meet its corresponding plane ft in P.
For
i is a line in the plane a,. The corresponding plane ft must therefore
pass through the line a>. hence through P.
The points in which the lines in Si cut the planes corresponding
to them in S, are therefore the same as the points in which the lines
in Si cut the planes corresponding to them tn Si.
The locus of these points is a surface which is cut by a plane in a
conic or in a line-pair and by a line in not more than two points unless
it lift altogether on the surface. The surface itself is therefore called a
quadric turf ace, or a surface of the second order.
To prove this we consider any line p in space.
The flat pencil in Si which lies in the plane drawn through p
and the corresponding axial pencil in Si determine on p two pro-
jective rows, and those points in these which coincide with their
corresponding points lie on the surface. But there exist only two,
or one, or no such points, unless every point coincides with its
corresponding point. In the latter case the line lies altogether on
the surface.
This proves also that a plane cuts the surface in a curve of the
second order, as no line can have more than two points in common
with it. To show that this is a curve of the same kind as those
considered before, we have to show that it can be generated by
projective flat pencils. We prove first that this is true for any
plane through the centre of one of the pencils, and afterwards that
every point on the surface may be taken as the centre of such pencil.
Let then a, be a plane through Si. To the flat pencil in S, which
it contains corresponds in S, a projective axial pencil with axis
t and this cuts i in a second flat pencil. These two flat pencils
in i are projective, and, in general, neither concentric nor per-
tiwe. They generate therefore a conic. But if the line a passes
gh Si the pencils will have Si as common centre, and may
aore have two, or one, or no lines united with their corresponding
linn. The section of the surface by the plane a, will be accordingly
a tine-pair or a single line, or else the plane 01 will have only the
point S, in common with the surface.
Every line It through Si cuts the surface in two points, viz. first
in Si and then at the point where it cuts its corresponding plane.
If now the corresponding plane passes through Si, as in the case
just considered, then the two points where /i cuts the surface coincide
at Si, and the line is called a tangent to the surface with Si as point
of contact. Hence if A be a tangent, it lies in that plane r, which
corresponds to the line SS| as a line in the pencil S>. The section
of this plane has just been considered. It follows that
All tangents to quadric surface at the centre of one of the reciprocal
ptntils lie in a plane which is called the tangent plane to the surface
at that point as point of contact.
To lite line joining the centres of the two pencils as a line in one
corresponds in the other the tangent plane at its centre.
The tangent plane to a quadric surface either cuts the surface in
two lines, or it has only a single line, or else only a single point in
nmmtn with the surface.
n. 33
In the first case the point of contact is said to be hyperbolic, in the
second parabolic, in the third elliptic.
J 95. It remains to be proved that every point S on the surface,
may be taken as centre of one of the pencils which generate the
surface. Let S be any point on the surface <!' generated by the
reciprocal pencils Si and Si. We have to establish a reciprocal
correspondence between the pencils S and Si, so that the surface
generated by them is identical with *. To do this we draw two
planes o, and ft through S,, cutting the surface 4> in two conies
which we also denote by a, and ft. These conies meet at Si, and
at some other point T where the line of intersection of n, and ft
cuts the surface.
In the pencil S we draw some plane a which passes through T,
but not through Si or Si. It will cut the two comes first at T, and
therefore each at some other point which we call A and B respec-
tively. These we join to S by lines a and b, and now establish the
required correspondence between the pencils Si and S as follows:
To SiT shall correspond the plane <r, to the plane ai the line a, and
to ft the line b, hence to the flat pencil in , the axial pencil a.
These pencils are made projective by aid of the conic in 01.
In the same manner the flat pencil in ft is made projective to the
axial pencil b by aid of the conic in ft, corresponding dements being
those which meet on the conic. This determines the correspondence,
for we know for more than four rays in Si the corresponding planes
in S. The two pencils S and Si thus made reciprocal generate a
quadric surface *', which passes through the point S and through
the two conies n, and ft.
The two surfaces * and *' have therefore the points S and Si and
the conies a, and ft in common. To show that they are identical,
we draw a plane through S and Si, cutting each of the conies a, and
ft in two points, which will always be possible. This plane cuts
* and '!' in two conies which have the point S and the points where
it cuts a, and ft in common, that is five points in all. The conies
therefore coincide.
This proves that all those points P on *' lie on * which have the
property that the plane SSiP cuts the conies 01, ft in two points
each. If the plane SSP has not this property, then we draw a plane
SSiP. This cuts each surface in a conic, and these conies have in
common the points S, Si, one point on each of the conies pi, ft, and
one point on one of the conies through S and Si which lie on both
surfaces, hence five points. They are therefore coincident, and our
theorem is proved.
96. The following propositions follow :
A quadric surface has at every point a tangent plane.
Every plane section of a quadric surface is a conic or a line-pair.
Every line which has three points in common with a quadric surface
lies on the surface.
Every conic which has five points in common with a quadric surface
lies on the surface.
Through two conies which lie in different planes, but have two points
in common, and through one external point always one quadric surface
may be drawn.
97. Every plane which cuts a quadric surface in a line-pair is a
tangent plane. For every line in this plane through the centre of
the line-pair (the point of intersection of the two lines) cuts the
surface in two coincident points and is therefore a tangent to the
surface, the centre of the line-pair being the point of contact.
If a quadric surface contains a line, then every plane through this
line cuts the surface in a line-pair (or in two coincident lines). For
this plane cannot cut the surface in a conic. Hence
// a quadric surface contains one line p then it contains an infinite
number of lines, and through every point Q on the surface, one line
q can be drawn which cuts p. _ For the plane through the point Q
and the line p cuts the surface in a line-pair which must pass through
Q and of which p is one line.
No two such lines q on the surface can meet. For as both meet p
their plane would contain p and therefore cut the surface in a
triangle.
Every line which cuts three lines q will be on the surface; for it
has three points in common with it.
Hence the quadric surfaces which contain lines are the same as the
ruled quadric surfaces considered in 89-93, uut w ' tn one important
exception. In the last investigation we have left out of considera-
tion the possibility of a plane having only one line (two coincident
lines) in common with a quadric surface.
98. To investigate this case we suppose first that there is one
point A on the surface through which two different lines o, b can be
drawn, which lie altogether on the surface.
If P is any other point on the surface which lies neither on a nor
b, then the plane through P and a will cut the surface in a second
line a' which passes through P and which cuts a. Similarly there
is a line b' through P which cuts b. These two lines a' and b' may
coincide, but then they must coincide with PA.
If this happens for one point P, it happens for every other point
Q. For if two different lines could be drawn through Q, then by the
same reasoning the line PQ would be altogether on the surface,
hence two lines would be drawn through P against the assumption.
From this follows:
// there is one point on a quadric surface through which one, but only
one, line can be drawn on the surface, then through every point one line
706
GEOMETRY
[PROJECTIVE
can be drawn, and all these lines meet in a point. The surface is a cone
of the second order.
If through one point on a quadric surface, two, and only two, lines
can be drawn on the surface, then through every point two lines may
be drawn, and the surface is a ruled quadric surface.
If through one point on a quadric surface no line on the surface can
be drawn, then the surface contains no lines.
Using the definitions at the end of 95, we may also say :
On a quadric surface the points are all hyperbolic, or all parabolic,
or all elliptic.
As an example of a quadric surface with elliptical points, we
mention the sphere which may be generated by two reciprocal
pencils, where to each line in one corresponds the plane perpendicular
to it in the other.
99. Poles and Polar Planes. The theory of poles and polars
with regard to a conic is easily extended to quadric surfaces.
Let P be a point in space not on the surface, which we suppose
not to be a cone. On every line through P which cuts the surface
in two points we determine the harmonic conjugate Q of P with
regard to the points of intersection. Through one of these lines we
draw two planes a and 0. The locus of the points Q in a is a line a,
the polar of P with regard to the conic in which a cuts the surface.
Similarly the locus of points Q in /3 is a line b. This cuts a, because
the line of intersection of a and /3 contains but one point Q. The
locus of all points Q therefore is a plane. This plane is called the
polar plane of the point P, with regard to the quadric surface. If P
lies on the surface we take the tangent plane of P as its polar.
The following propositions hold :
1. Every point has a polar plane, which is constructed by drawing
the polars of the point with regard to the conies in which two planes
through the point cut the surface.
2. If Q is a point in the polar of P, then P is a point in the polar
of Q, because this is true with regard to the conic in which a plane
through PQ cuts the surface.
3. Every plane is the polar plane of one point, which is called the
Pole of the plane.
The pole to a plane is found by constructing the polar planes of
three points in the plane. Their intersection will be the pole.
4. The points in which the polar plane of P cuts the surface are
points of contact of tangents drawn from P to the surface, as is easily
seen. Hence :
5. The tangents drawn from a point P to a quadric surface form a
cone of the second order, for the polar plane of P cuts it in a conic.
6. // the pole describes a line a, its polar plane will turn about
another line a', as follows from 2. These lines a and a' are said to be
conjugate with regard to the surface.
100. The pole of the line at infinity is called the centre of the
surface. If it lies at the infinity, the plane at infinity is a tangent
plane, and the surface is called a paraboloid.
The polar plane to any point at infinity passes through the centre,
and is called a diametrical plane.
A line through the centre is called a diameter. It is bisected at the
centre. The line conjugate to it lies at infinity.
If a point moves along a diameter its polar plane turns about the
conjugate line at infinity; that is, it moves parallel to itself, its centre
moving on the first line.
The middle points of parallel chords lie in a plane, viz. in the polar
plane of the point at infinity through which the chords are drawn.
The centres of parallel sections lie in a diameter which is a line
conjugate to the line at infinity in which the planes meet.
TWISTED CUBICS
101. If two pencils with centres Si and S 2 are made projective,
then to a ray in one corresponds a ray in the other, to a plane a
plane, to a fiat or axial pencil a projective flat or axial pencil, and
so on.
There is a double infinite number of lines in a pencil. We shall
see that a single infinite number of lines in one pencil meets its
corresponding ray, and that the points of intersection form a curve
in space.
Of the double infinite number of planes in the pencils each will
meet its corresponding plane. This gives a system of a double
infinite number of lines in space. We know ( 5) that there is a
quadruple infinite number of lines in space. From among these we
may select those which satisfy one or more given conditions. The
systems of lines thus obtained were first systematically investigated
and classified by Pllicker, in his Geometrie des Raumes. He uses the
following names:
A treble infinite number of lines, that is, all lines which satisfy one
condition, are said to form a complex of lines; e.g. all lines cutting
a given line, or all lines touching a surface.
A double infinite number of lines, that is, all lines which satisfy
two conditions, or which are common to two complexes, are said to
form a congruence of lines; e.g. all lines in a plane, or all lines
cutting two curves, or all lines cutting a given curve twice.
A single infinite -number of lines, that is, all lines which satisfy
three conditions, or which belong to three complexes, form a ruled
surface; e.g. one set of lines on a ruled quadric surface, or develop-
able surfaces which are formed by the tangents to a curve.
It follows that all lines in which corresponding planes in two
projective pencils meet form a congruence. We shall see this con-
gruence consists of all lines which cut a twisted cubic twice, or of
all secants to a twisted cubic.
102. Let li be the line 8182 as a line in the pencil Si. To it
corresponds a line h in Sj. At each of the centres two corresponding
lines meet. The two axial pencils with l\ and fe as axes are pro-
jective, and, as their axes meet at Sj, the intersections of corre-
sponding planes form a cone of the second order ( 58), with 82 as
centre. If n and ir 2 be corresponding planes, then their intersection
will be a line p% which passes through 82. Corresponding to it in
Si will be a line p\ which lies in the plane in, and which therefore
meets pi at some point P. Conversely, if fa be any line in Sj which
meets its corresponding line pi at a point P, then to the plane hpt
will correspond the plane hpi, that is, the plane SiSjP. These
E lanes intersect in p 2 , so that fa is a line on the quadric cone generated
y the axial pencils l\ and / 2 . Hence :
All lines in one pencil which meet their corresponding lines in the
other form a cone of the second order which has its centre at the centre
of the first pencil, and passes through the centre of the second.
From this follows that the points in which corresponding rays
meet lie on two cones of the second order which have the ray joining
their centres in common, and form therefore, together with the line
SiS 2 or A, the intersection of these cones. Any plane cuts each of the
cones in a conic. These two conies have necessarily that point in
common in which it cuts the line l\, and therefore besides either
one or three other points. It follows that the curve is of the third
order as a plane may cut it in three, but not in more than three,
points. Hence:
The locus of points in which corresponding lines on two projective
pencils meet is a curve of the third order or a " twisted cubic " k, which
passes through the centres of the pencils, and which appears as the
intersection of two cones of the second order, which have one line in
common.
A line belonging to the congruence determined by the pencils is a
secant of the cubic; it has two, or one, or no points in common with
this cubic, and is called accordingly a secant proper, a tangent, or a
secant improper of the cubic. A secant improper may be considered,
to use the language of coordinate geometry, as a secant with
imaginary points of intersection.
103. If GI and a t be any two corresponding lines in the two
pencils, then corresponding planes in the axial pencils having a t and
02 as axes generate a ruled quadric surface. If P be any point on
the cubic k, and if pi, pi be the corresponding rays in Si and S 2 which
meet at P, then to the plane a\ pi in Si corresponds O 2 pz in 82. These
therefore meet in a line through P.
This may be stated thus:
Those secants of the cubic which cut a ray ai, drawn through the
centre Si of one pencil, form a ruled quadric surf ace which passes through
both centres, and which contains the twisted cubic k. Of such surfaces
an infinite number exists. Every ray through Si or 82 which is not a
secant determines one of them.
If, however, the rays QI and a 2 are secants meeting at A, then the
ruled quadric surface becomes a cone of the second order, having
A as centre. Or all lines of the congruence which pass through a point
on the twisted cubic kform a cone of t/ie second order. In other words,
the projection of a twisted cubic from any point in the curve on to
any plane is a conic.
If ai is not a secant, but made to pass through any point Q in
space, the ruled quadric surface determined by <Zi will pass through
Q. There will therefore be one line of the congruence passing through
Q, and only one. For if two such lines pass through Q, then the lines
SiQ and S?Q will be corresponding lines ; hence Q will be a point on
the cubic k, and an infinite number of secants will pass through it.
Hence:
Through every point in space not on the twisted cubic one and only
one secant to the cubic can be drawn.
104. The fact that all the secants through a point on the cubic
form a quadric cone shows that the centres of the projective pencils
generating the cubic are not distinguished from any other pouits on
the cubic. If we take any two points S, S' on the cubic, and draw
the secants through each of them, we obtain two quadric cones,
which have the line SS' in common, and which intersect besides
along the cubic. If we make these two pencils having S and S' as
centres projective by taking four rays on the one cone as corre-
sponding to the four rays on the other which meet the first on the
cubic, the correspondence is determined. These two pencils will
generate a cubic, and the two cones of secants having S and S' as
centres will be identical with the above cones, for each has five
rays in common with one of the first, viz. the line SS' and the four
lines determined for the correspondence; therefore these two cones
intersect in the original cubic. This gives the theorem :
On a twisted cubic any two points may be taken as centres of pro-
jective pencils which generate the cubic, corresponding planes being
those which meet on the same secant.
Of the two projective pencils at S and S' we may keep the first
fixed, and move the centre of the other along the curve. The pencils
will hereby remain projective, and a plane o in S will be cut by its
corresponding plane a' always in the same secant a. Whilst S'
moves along the curve the plane a' will turn about a, describing an
axial pencil.
DESCRIPTIVE]
GEOMETRY
707
AUTHORITIES. In thi* article we have given a purely geometrical
theory of conks, cones of the second order, quadric surfaces, &c. In
doing so we have followed, to a great extent, Reye's Geometric der
Lagt, and to this excellent work those readers are referred who wish
for a more exhaustive treatment of the subject. Other works
especially valuable as showing the development of the subject are:
Moon. CttmjHrit destriptm: Carnot, Geometric de position
(1803). containing a theory of transversals; Poncelet's great work
TroM (Ui propneles projector dtt figures (1832); Mcibins, Bary-
CMtrucfar Calful (1826); Striner, Abkangigkeil geometrischer
Gtttalitn (1833), containing the first full discussion of the projective
relations between rows, pencils, Ac.; Von Staudt, Geometrie der
Lap (1847) and Btitrdgt nur Gtometru der Luge (1856-1860), in
which a system of geometry is built up from the beginning without
any reference to number, so that ultimately a number itself gets
a geometrical definition, and in which imaginary elements are
systematically introduced into pure geometry; Chasles, Aperfu
kutorique (1837), in which the author gives a brilliant account of
the piugiess of modern geometrical methods, pointing out the
advantages of the different purely geometrical methods as compared
with the analytical ones, but without taking as much account of
the German as of the French authors; Id., Rapport sur Us prptres
dt la gtomttrie (1870), a continuation of the Aperfu; Id., Traite de
ittmtliit suprneure (1853); Cremona, Introdutione ad Una teoria
ffimttrita dieUt curve piane (1862) and its continuation Preliminari
at uma teoria gtometrva delle -superficie (German translations by
Curtie). As more elementary books, we mention: Cremona,
EUmenis of Projective Geometry, translated from the Italian by
C. Leudesdorf (2nd ed., 1894) ; I. W. Russell, Pure Geometry (2nd ed.,
90S). (O. H.)
III. DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY
This branch of geometry is concerned with the methods for
representing solids and other figures in three dimensions by
drawings in one plane. The most important method is that
which was invented by Monge towards the end of the iSth
century. It is based on parallel projections to a plane by rays
perpendicular to the plane. Such a projection is called ortho-
graphic (see PROJECTION, 18). If the plane is horizontal the
projection is called the plan of the figure, and if the plane is
vertical the elevation. In Monge's method a figure is represented
by its plan and elevation. It is therefore often called drawing
in plan and elevation, and sometimes simply orthographic
projection.
{ i. We suppose then that we have two planes, one horizontal,
the other vertical, and these we call the planes of plan and of eleva-
tion respectively, or the horizontal and the vertical plane, and
denote them by the letters wi and *- t . Their line of intersection is
called the axis, and will be denoted by xy.
If the surface of the drawing paper is taken as the plane of the
plan, then the vertical plane will be the plane perpendicular to it
through the axis xy. To bring this also into the plane of the drawing
paper we turn it about the axis till it coincides with the horizontal
plane. This process of turning one plane down till it coincides with
another is called rabatting one to the other. Of course there is no
necessity to have one of the two planes horizontal, but even when
this is not the case it is convenient to retain the above names.
The whole arrangement will be better understood by referring to
fig. 37. A point A in space is there projected by the perpendicular
N
;C,
B. .c. D O
A
D.
FIG. 37.
FIG. 38.
AA, and AA, to the planes TI and T t so that A ( and At are the
horizontal and vertical projections of A.
If we remember that a line is perpendicular to a plane that is
perpendicular to every line in the plane if only it is perpendicular
to any two intersecting lines in the plane, we see that the axis which
is perpendicular both to AAi and to AAt is also perpendicular to
AiA, and to A*A. because these four lines are all in the same plane.
Hence, if the plane TI be turned about the axis till it coincides with
the plane T,, then AA will be the continuation of AiA*. This
position of the planes is represented in fig. 38, in which the line A, A,
is perpendicular to the axis x.
'!
Conversely any two points AI, AI in a line perpendicular to the
axis will be the projections of some point in space when the plane
i. is turned about the axis till it is perpendicular to the plane TI,
because in this position the two perpendiculars to the planes *i
and i through the points A, and At will be in a plane and therefore
meet at some point A.
Representation of Points. We have thus the following method
of representing in a single plane the position of points in space:
icv take in the plane a line xy as the axis, and then any pair of points
AI, At in the plane on a line perpendicular to the axis represent a
point A in spate. If the line A|A, cuts the axis at Ac, and if at A,
a perpendicular be erected to the plane, then the point A will be in
it at a height AiA AA t above the plane. This gives the position
of the point A relative to the plane TI. In the same way, if in a
perpendicular to TI through A ? a point A be taken such that AiA -
A, A,, then this will give the point A relative to the plane TI.
2. The two planes TI, TI in their original position divide space
into four parts. These are called the four quadrants. We suppose
that the plane TI is turned as indicated in
fig- 37. so that the point P comes to Q and
R to S, then the quadrant in which the
point A lies is called the firstj and we say i< l '
that in the first quadrant a point lies above
the horizontal and in front of the vertical II
plane. Now we go round the axis in the C. B,, I A. S
sense in which the plane TI is turned and Q~~|
come in succession to the second, third III iv
and fourth quadrant. In the second a
point lies above the plane of the plan and
behind the plane of elevation, and so on.
In fig. 39, which represents a side view of
the planes in fig. 37 the quadrants are FIG. 39.
marked, and in each a point with its pro-
jection is taken. Fig. 38 shows how these are represented when
the plane TI is turned down. We see that
A point lies in the first quadrant if the plan lies below, the elevation
above the axis; in the second if plan and elevation both lie above; in
the third if the plan lies above, the elevation below; in the fourth if plan
and elevation both lie below the axis.
If a point lies in the horizontal plane, its elevation lies in the axis
and the plan coincides with the point itself. // a point lies in the
vertical plane, its plan lies in the axis and the elevation coincides
with the point itself. // o point lies in the axis, both its plan and
elevation lie in the axis and coincide with it.
Of each of these propositions, which will easily be seen to be true,
.the converse holds also.
3. Representation of a Plane. Aswearethusenabled to represent
points in a plane, we can represent any finite figure by representing
its separate points. It is, however, not possible to represent a plane
in this way, for the projections of its points completely cover the
planes TI and TI, and no plane would appear different from any other.
But any plane a cuts each of the planes TI, TI in a line. These are
called the traces of the plane. They cut each other in the axis at the
point where the latter cuts the plane o.
A plane is determined by its two traces, which are two lines that meet
on the axis, and, conversely, any two lines which meet on the axis
determine a plane.
If the plane is parallel to the axis its traces are parallel to the axis.
Of these one may be at infinity; then the plane will cut one of the
planes of projection at infinity and will be parallel to it. Thus a
plane parallel to the horizontal plane of the plan has only one finite
trace, viz. that with the plane of elevation.
// the plane passes through the axis both its traces coincide with the
axis. This is the only case in which the representation of the plane
by its two traces fails. A third plane of projection is therefore
introduced, which is best taken perpendicular to the other two.
We call it simply the third plane and denote it by T. As it is
perpendicular to TI, it may be
taken as the plane of elevation,
its line of intersection y with TI
being the axis, and be turned
down to coincide with TI. This
is represented in fig. 40. OC is
the axis xy whilst OA and OB
are the traces of the third plane.
They lie in one line y. The plane
is rabatted about y to the hori-
zontal plane. A plane a through
the axis xy will then show in it
a trace ai. In fig. 40 the lines OC
and OP will thus be the traces
of a plane through the axis xy,
which makes an angle POQ with
the horizontal plane.
We can also find the trace
which any other plane makes
with T,. In rabatting the plane
T t its trace OB with the plane TI will come to the position OD.
Hence a plane ft having the traces CA and CB will have with the
third plane the trace 0., or AD if OD -OB.
708
GEOMETRY
[DESCRIPTIVE
It also follows immediately that
If a plane a. is perpendicular to the horizontal plane, then every point
in it has its horizontal projection in the horizontal trace of the plane,
as all the rays projecting these points lie in the plane itself.
Any plane which is perpendicular to the horizontal plane has its
vertical trace perpendicular to the axis.
Any plane which is perpendicular to the vertical plane has its hori-
zontal trace perpendicular to the axis and the vertical projections of all
points in the plane lie in this trace.
4. Representation of a Line. A line is determined either by two
points in it or by two planes through it. We get accordingly two
representations of it either by projections or by traces.
First. A line a is represented by its projections 01 and at on the
two planes m and *%. These may be any two lines, for, bringing
the planes m, ITS into their original position, the planes through these
lines perpendicular to in and ITS respectively will intersect in some line
a which has 01, dj as its projections.
Secondly. A line a is represented by its traces that is, by Hie points
in which it cuts the two planes m, ir 2 . Any two points may be taken
as the traces of a line in space, for it is determined when the planes
are in their original position as the line joining the two traces. This
representation becomes undetermined if the two traces coincide in
the axis. In this case we again use a third plane, or else the pro-
jections of the line.
The fact that there are different methods of representing points
and planes, and hence two methods of representing lines, suggests
the principle of duality (section ii., Protective Geometry, 41). It
is worth while to keep this in mind. It is also worth remembering
that traces of planes or lines always lie in the planes or lines which
they represent. Projections do not as a rule do this excepting when
the point or line projected lies in one of the planes of projection.
Having now shown how to represent points, planes and lines,
we have to state the conditions which must hold in order that these
elements may lie one in the other, or else that the figure formed by
them may possess certain metrical properties. It will be found that
the former are very much simpler than the latter.
Before we do this, however, we shall explain the notation used;
for it is of great importance to have a systematic notation. We
shall denote points in space by capitals A, B, C; planes in space
by Greek letters a, ft, y; lines in space by small letters a, b, c;
horizontal projections by suffixes I, like AI, ai; vertical projections
by suffixes 2, like As, Oj; traces by single and double dashes o' a",
a , a*. Hence Pi will be the horizontal projection of a point P in
space; a line a will have the projections 01, 02 and the traces a' and
a'; a plane a has the traces a' and a*.
5. If a point lies in a line, the projections of the point lie in the
projections of the line.
If a line lies in a plane, the traces of the line lie in the traces of the
plane.
These propositions follow at once from the definitions of the
projections and of the traces.
If a point lies in two lines its projections must lie in the projections
of both. Hence
If two lines, given by their projections, intersect, the intersection of
their plans and the intersection of their elevations must lie in a line
perpendicular to the axis, because they must be the projections of
the point common to the two lines.
Similarly // two lines given by their traces lie in the same plane
or intersect, then the lines joining their horizontal and vertical traces
respectively must meet on me axis, because they must be the traces
of the plane through them.
6. To find the projections of a line which joins two points A, B
given by their projections Ai, As and Bi, Bs, we join Ai, BI and As,
Bs; these will be the projections required. For example, the
traces of a line are two points in the line whose projections are
known or at all events easily found. They are the traces themselves
and the feet of the perpendiculars from them to the axis.
Hence if a' a* (fig. 41) are the traces of a line a, and if the per-
pendiculars from them cut the axis in P and Q respectively, then the
line o'Q will be the horizontal and
a'P the vertical projection of the
line.
Conversely, if the projections
01, Oj of a line are given, and if
these cut the axis in Q and P
respectively, then the perpen-
diculars Pa' and Qa* to the axis
drawn through these points cut the
projections 01 and ai in the traces
a' and a".
To find the line of intersection of
two planes, we observe that this
P line lies in both planes; its traces
must therefore lie in the traces
of both. Hence the points where the horizontal traces of the given
planes meet will be the horizontal, and the point where the vertical
traces meet the vertical trace of the line required.
7. To decide whether a point A, given by its projections, lies in
a plane o, given by its traces, we draw a line p by joining A to some
point in the plane a and determine its traces. If these lie in the
of.'
traces of the plane, then the line, and therefore the point A, lies
in the plane; otherwise not. This is conveniently done by joining
Ai to some point p' in the trace o'; this gives p l ; and the point
where the perpendicular from p' to the axis cuts the latter we join
to As; this gives pi. If the vertical trace of this line lies in the
vertical trace of the plane, then, and then only, does the line p, and
with it the point A, lie in the plane a.
8. Parallel planes have parallel traces, because parallel planes are
cut by any plane, hence also by in and by ir 2 , in parallel lines.
Parallel lines have parallel projections, because points at infinity
are projected to infinity.
// a line is parallel to a plane, then lines through the traces of the
line and parallel to the traces of the plane must meet on the axis, because
these lines are the traces of a plane parallel to the given plane.
9. To draw a plane through two intersecting lines or through two
parallel lines, we determine the traces of the lines; the lines joining
their horizontal and vertical traces respectively will be the horizontal
and vertical traces of the plane. They will meet, at a finite point
or at infinity, on the axis if the lines do intersect.
To draw a plane through a line and a point without the line, we
join the given point to any point in the line and determine the plane
through this and the given line.
To draw a plane through three points which are not in a line, we
draw two of the lines which each join two of the given points and
draw the plane through them. If the traces of all three lines AB,
BC, CA be found, these must lie in two lines which meet on the
axis.
10. We have in the last example got more points, or can easily
get more points, than are necessary for the determination of the
figure required in this case the traces of the plane. This will
happen in a great many constructions and is of considerable im-
portance. It may happen that some of the points or lines obtained
are not convenient in the actual construction. The horizontal
traces of the lines AB and AC may, for instance, fall very near
together, in which case the line joining them is not well defined.
Or, one or both of them may fall beyond the drawing paper, so that
they are practically non-existent for the construction. In this case
the traces of the line BC may be used. Or, if the vertical traces of
AB and AC are both in convenient position, so that the vertical
trace of the required plane is found and one of the horizontal traces
is got, then we may join the latter to the point where the vertical
trace cuts the axis.
The draughtsman must remember that the lines which he draws
are not mathematical lines without thickness, and therefore every
drawing is affected by some errors. It is therefore very desirable
to be able constantly to check the latter. Such checks always
present themselves when the same result can be obtained by different
constructions, or when, as in the above case, some lines must meet
on the axis, or if three points must lie in a line. A careful draughts-
man will always avail himself of these checks.
II. To draw a plane through a given point parallel to a given
plane o, we draw through the point two lines which are parallel to
the plane o, and determine the plane through them; or, as we
know that the traces of the required plane are parallel to those of
the given one ( 8), we need only draw one line I through the point
Parallel to the plane and find one of its traces, say the vertical trace
'; a line through this parallel to the vertical trace of a will be the
vertical trace ft* of the required plane ft, and a line parallel to the
horizontal trace of a meeting ft* on the axis will be the horizontal
trace ft 1 .
Let Ai As (fig. 42) be the given point, a' a" the given plane, a
line /i through AI, parallel to o' and a horizontal line It through
As will be the projections of
a line I through A parallel
to the plane, because the
horizontal plane through
this line will cut the plane
a in a line c which has its
horizontal projection c\
parallel to o'.
12. We now come to
the metrical properties of
figures.
A line is perpendicular
to a plane if the projec- p
lions of the line are per-
pendicular to. the traces of the plane. We prove it for the horizontal
projection. If a line p is perpendicular to a plane o, every plane
through p is perpendicular to a; hence also the vertical plane which
projects the line p to pi. As this plane is perpendicular both to the
horizontal plane and to the plane o, it is also perpendicular to their
intersection that is, to the horizontal trace of o. It follows that
every line in this projecting plane, therefore also pi, the plan of p, is
perpendicular to the horizontal trace of o.
To draw a plane through a given point A perpendicular to a given
line p, we first draw through some point O in the axis lines y , y'
perpendicular respectively to the projections pi and pt of the given
line. These will be the traces of a plane y which is perpendicular
to the given line. We next draw through the given point A a plane
parallel to the plane y; this will be the plane required.
D8SCRIPTIVE]
GEOMETRY
709
Other metrical properties depend on the determination of the real
size or shape of a figure.
In general the projection of a figure differs both in tue and shape
from the ngure itself. But figure* in a plane parallel to a plane
of projection will be identical with their projections, and will thus
be given in their true dimensions, tin other cases there is the
problem, constantly recurring, either to find the true shape and
sue of a plane figure when plan and elevation an- given, or, con-
versely, to find the Utter from the known true shape of the figure
itself. To do this, the plane is turned about one of its traces till it
is laid down into that pune of projection to which the trace belongs.
This is technically called rabatting the plane respectively into t bi-
plane of the plan or the elevation. As tnere is no difference in the
treatment of the two rssrs we shall consider only the case of rabatt-
ing a plane into the plane of the plan. The plan of the figure is
parallel (orthographic) projection of the figure itself. The results
el parallel projection (sec PROJECTION, (f 17 and 18) may there-
fore now be used. The trace will hereby take the place of what
formerly was called the axis of projection. Hence we see that corre-
sponding points in the plan and in the rabatted plane are joined by
lines which are perpendicular to the trace a' and that corresponding
lines meet on this trace. We also see that the correspondence is
completely determined if we know for one point or one line in the
plan the corresponding point or line in the rabatted plane.
Before, however, we treat of this we consider some special cases.
| 13. To determine the distance between two points A, B given by their
projections Ai, BI and At, Bt, or, in other words, to determine the true
JMftfc of a line the plan and elevation of which are given.
Solution. The two points A, B in space lie vertically above their
i At, Bt (fig. 43) and A,A-AAi, BiB-B B,. The four points
A, B, AI, Bi therefore form a plane
quadrilateral on the base AiBi and
having right angles at the base.
This plane we rabatt about AiBi
by drawing A|A and BiB per-
pendicular to AiBi and making
A,A-AA|, B,B-BoB t . Then
y AB will give the length required.
The construction might have
been performed in the elevation
by making AtA AoAi and
BtB BoBi on lines perpendicular
to AjBj. Of course AB must have
the same length in both cases.
This figure may be turned into
a model. Cut the paper along
AiA, AB and BB,, and fold the
piece AiABBi over along AiBi till
FIG. 43.
it stands upright at right angles to the horizontal plane. The points
A, B will then be in their true position in space relative to r\. Simi-
larly if BiBAAt be cut out and turned along AjB through a right
ogle we shall get AB in its true position relative to the plane
i. Lastly we fold the whole plane of the paper along the axis x
till the plane v> is at right angles to r t . In this position the two
sets of points AB will coincide if the drawing has been accurate.
Models of this kind can be made in many cases and their con-
struction cannot be too highly recommended in order to realize
orthographic projection.
| 14. To find the angle between two given lines a, b of which the
projections a,, fr, and a,, b, are given.
Stiutio*. Let fli, 61 (fig. 44) meet in Pi, at, b, in T, then if the line
PiT is not perpendicular to the axis the two lines will not meet. In
this case we draw a line parallel
to 6 to meet the line a. This is
easiest done by drawing first the
line PiP perpendicular to the
axis to meet a* in P,, and then
drawing through P! a line c,
parallel to 6j ; then 61, ct will be
the projections of a line c which
U parallel to b and meets a in P.
The plane o which these two
lines determine we rabatt to the
plan. We determine the traces
a' and c' of the lines a and c;
then a'c' U the trace o' of their
plane. On rabatting the point
P comes to a point Son the line
PiQ perpendicular to a'c', so
that QS-QP. But QP is the hypotenuse of a triangle PP,Q with
a right angle PI. This we construct by making QR - P Pi ; then
PiR - PQ. The lines o'S and c'S will therefore include angles equal
to those made by the given lines. It is to be remembered that two
lines include two angles which are supplementary. Which of these
is to be taken in any special case depends upon the circumstances.
To determine the angle between a tine and a plane, we draw through
any point in the line a perpendicular to the plane (f 12) and determine
the angle between it and the given line. The complement of this
angle is the required one.
T determine the angle between two planes, we draw through any
point two lines perpendicular to the two planes and determine the
angle between the latter as above.
In special cases it U simpler to determine at once the angle between
the two planes by taking a plane section perpendicular to the inter-
section of the two planes and rabatt this. This is especially the
case if one of the planes is the horizontal or vertical plane of pro-
jection.
Thus in fig. 45 the angle PiQR is the angle which the plane a
makes with the Horizontal plane.
| 15. We return to the general case of rabatting a plane a of
which the traces o' o' are given.
Here it will be convenient to determine first the position which
the trace a' which is a line in a assumes when rabatted. Points
in this line coincide with their elevations. Hence it is given in
its true dimension, and we can measure off along it the true distance
between two points in it. If therefore (fig. 45) P is any point in o*
originally coincident with
its elevation l' s , and if O
is the point where a' cuts
the axis xy, so that O is
also in a', then the point P
will after rabatting the
plane assume such a posi-
tion that OP-OPi. At
the same time the plan is
an orthographic projection
of the plane a. Hence the
line joining P to the plan
Pi will after rabatting be
perpendicular to a'. But
Pi is known, it is the foot
of the perpendicular from
Pi to the axis xy. We FIG. 45.
draw therefore, to find P,
from PI a perpendicular PiQ to a' and find on it a point P such that
OP-OPi. Then the line OP will be the position of a" when
rabatted. This line corresponds therefore to the plan of a* that
is, to the axis xy, corresponding points on these lines being those
which lie on a perpendicular to a'.
We have thus one pair 'of corresponding lines and can now find
for any point Bi in the plan the corresponding point B in the rabatted
plane. We draw a line through Bi, say BiPi, cutting a' in C. To it
corresponds the line CP, and the point where this is cut by the project-
ing ray through BI, perpendicular to a', is the required point B.
Similarly any figure in the rabatted plane can be found when the
plan is known; but this is usually found in a different manner
without any reference to the general theory of parallel projection.
As this method and the reasoning employed for it nave their peculiar
advantages, we give it also.
Supposing the planes r t and 2 to be in their positions in space
perpendicular to each other, we take a section of the whole figure
by a plane perpendicular to the trace a' about which we are going
to rabatt the plane a. Let this section pass through the point Q in
a'. Its traces will then be the lines QPi and PiP (fig. 9). These
will be at right angles, and will therefore, together with the section
QPi of the plane o, form a right-angled tnangle QPiPj with the
right angle at Pi, and having the sides PiQ and 1'il'j which both
are given in their true lengths. This triangle we rabatt about its
base PiQ, making PiR-P,P|. The line QR will then give the true
length of the line QP in space. If now the plane a be turned about
a' the point P will describe a circle about Q as centre with radius
QP = QR, in a plane perpendicular to the trace o'. Hence when the
plane a has been rabatted into the horizontal plane the point P will
lie in the perpendicular Pip to o', so that QP = QR.
If Ai is the plan of a point A in the plane a, and if Ai lies in QI'j,
then the point A will he vertically above Ai in the line QP. On
turning down the triangle QPiPj, the point A will come to A, the
line AiA being perpendicular to QPi. Hence A will be a point in
QP such that QA-QAo.
If BI is the plan of another point, but such that AiBi is parallel
to a', then the corresponding line AB will also be parallel to o'.
Hence, if through A a line AB be drawn parallel to o', and Bi B
perpendicular to a', then their intersection gives the point B. Thus
of any point given in plan the real position in the pjane a, when
rabatted, can be found by this second method. This is the one
most generally given in books on geometrical drawing. The first
method explained is, however, in most cases preferable as it gives
the draughtsman a greater variety of constructions. It requires a
somewhat greater amount of theoretical knowledge.
If instead of our knowing the plan of a figure the latter is itself
given, then the process of finding the plan is the reverse of the
above and needs little explanation. We give an example.
1 1 6. It is required to draw the plan and elevation of a polygon of
which the real shape and position in a given plane a are known.
We first rabatt the plane a (fig. 46) as before so that PI comes to
P, hence OPi to OP. Let the given polygon in o be the figure
ABCDE. We project, not the vertices, but the sides. To project
the line AB, we produce it to cut a' in F and OP in G, and draw GGi
perpendicular to o'; then GI corresponds to G, therefore FGi to FG.
In the same manner we might project all the other sides, at least
yio
GEOMETRY
[DESCRIPTIVE
those which cut OF and OP in convenient points. It will be best,
however, first to produce all the sides to cut OP and o' and then to
draw all the projecting rays through A, B, C . . . perpendicular to
a', and in the same
direction the lines
G, G,, &c. By
drawing FG we
get the points A t ,
BI on the project-
ing ray through A
and B. We then
join B to the point
M where BC pro-
duced meets the
trace a'. ' This
gives Ci. So we
go on till we have
found Ei. The
line AI Ei must
then meet AE in
a', and this gives
a check. If one
of the sides cuts
a or OP beyond
the drawing paper
this method fails,
but then we may
easily find the pro-
jection of some
other line, say of
a diagonal, or
directly the pro-
jection of a point,
by the former
methods. The
FIG. 46. diagonals may
also serve to check
the drawing, for two corresponding diagonals must meet in the
trace o'.
Having got the plan we easily find the elevation. The elevation
of G is above Gi in a", and that of F is at Fa in the axis. This
gives the elevation F 2 G2 of FG and in it we get AjB 2 in the verticals
through Ai and BI. As a check we have OG = OG2. Similarly the
elevation of the other sides and vertices are found.
17. We proceed to give some applications of the above principles
to the representation of solids and of the solution of problems
connected with them.
Of a pyramid are given its base, the length of the perpendicular from
the vertex to the base, and the point where this perpendicular cuts the
base; it is required first to develop the whole surface of the pyramid
into one plane, and second to determine its section by a plane which
cuts the plane of the base in a given line and makes a given angle
with it.
1. As the planes of projection are not given we can take them as we
like, and we select them in such a manner that the solution becomes
as simple as possible. We take the plane of the base as the horizontal
plane and the vertical plane perpendicular to the plane of the section.
Let then (fig. 47) ABCD be the base of the pyramid, Vi the plan of
the vertex, then the elevations of A, B, C, D will be in the axis at
A, BI, Cs, Dz, and the vertex at some point Vj above Vi at a known
distance from the axis. The lines ViA, ViB, &c., will be the plans
and the lines VaA2, V 2 B 2 , &c., the elevations of the edges of the
pyramid, of which thus plan and elevation are known.
We develop the surface into the plane of the base by turning
each lateral face about its lower edge into the horizontal plane by
the method used in 14. If one face has been turned down, say
ABV to ABP, then the point Q to which the vertex of the next
face BCV comes can be got more simply by finding on the line
ViQ perpendicular to BC the point Q such that BQ = BP, for these
lines represent the same edge BV of the pyramid. Next R is
found by making CR = CQ, and so on till we have got the last vertex
in this case S. The fact that AS must equal AP gives a convenient
check.
2. The plane a whose section we have to determine has its hori-
zontal trace given perpendicular to the axis, and its vertical trace
makes the given angle with the axis. This determines it. To find
the section of the pyramid by this plane there are two methods
applicable : we find the sections of the plane either with the faces
or with the edges of the pyramid. We use the latter.
As the plane a is perpendicular to the vertical plane, the trace
a.* contains the projection of every figure in it; the points Ej, Fj,
Gi, Hi where this trace cuts the elevations of the edges will therefore
be the elevations of the points where the edges cut o. From these
we find the plans Ei, Fi, Gi, HI, and by joining them the plan
of the section. If from Ei, Fi lines be drawn perpendicular to AB,
these will determine the points E, F on the developed face in which
the plane a cuts it ; hence also the line EF. Similarly on the other
faces. Of course BF must be the same length on BP and on BQ-
If the piano a be rabatted to the plan, we get the real shape of the
section as shown in the figure in EFGH. This is done easily by
making FoF = OF s , &c. If the figure representing the development
of the pyramid, or better a copy of it, is cut out, and if the lateral
faces be bent along the lines AB, BC, &c., we get a model of the pyra-
mid with the section marked on its faces. This may be placed on
its plan ABCD and the plane of elevation bent about the axis x.
The pyramid stands then in front of its elevations. If next the plane
a with a hole cut out representing the true section be bent along the
trace a' till its edge coincides with o", the edges of the hole ought to
coincide with the lines EF, FG, &c., on the faces.
18. Polyhedra like the pyramid in 17 are represented by the
projections of their edges and vertices. But solids bounded by
curved surfaces, or surfaces themselves, cannot be thus represented.
For a surface we may use, as in case of the plane, its traces that
is, the curves in which it cuts the planes of projection. We may
also project points and curves on the surface. A ray cuts the
surface generally in more than one point; hence it will happen
that some of the rays touch the surface, if two of these points coincide.
The points of contact of these rays will form some curve on the surface,
and this will appear from the centre of projection as the boundary
of the surface or of part of the surface. The outlines of all surfaces
of solids which we see about us are formed by the points at which
rays through our eye touch the surface. The projections of these
contours are therefore best adapted to give an idea of the shape of a
surface.
Thus the tangents drawn from any finite centre to a sphere form
a right circular cone, and this will be cut by any plane in a conic.
T,
FIG. 47.
It is often called the projection of a sphere, but it is better called
the contour-line of the sphere, as it is the boundary of the projections
of all points on the sphere.
If the centre is at infinity the tangent -cone becomes a right
circular cylinder touching the sphere along a great circle, and if
the projection is, as in our case, orthographic, then the section of
this cone by a plane of projection will be a circle equal to the great
circle of the sphere. We get such a circle in the plan and another in
the elevation, their centres being plan and elevation of the centre of
the sphere.
Similarly the rays touching a cone of the second order will lie
in two planes which pass through the vertex of the cone, the contour-
line of the projection of the cone consists therefore of two lines
meeting in the projection of the vertex. These may, however,
be invisible if no real tangent rays can be drawn from the centre of
projection; and this happens when the ray projecting the centre
of the vertex lies within the cone. In this case the traces of the
cone are of importance. Thus in representing a cone of revolution
with a vertical axis we get in the plan a circular trace of the surface
whose centre is the clan of the vertex of the cone, and in the elevation
the contour, consisting of a pair of lines intersecting in the elevation
of the vertex of the cone. The circle in the plan and the pair of lines
in the elevation do not determine the surface, for an infinite number
of surfaces might be conceived which pass through the circular trace
and touch two planes through the contour lines in the vertical plane.
The surface becomes only completely defined if we write down to
the figure that it shall represent a cone. The same holds for all
ANALYTICAL)
GEOMETRY
711
surface*. Even a plane i fully represented by its traces only under
the silent undemanding that the traces are those of a plane.
| 19. Some of the simpler problems connected with the repre-
sentation of surfaces are the determination of plane sections and of
the curve* of intersection of two such surfaces. The former is
constantly used in nearly all problems conn-ruing surfaces. Its
solution depends of course on the nature of the surface.
To determine the curve of intersection of two surfaces, we take a
plane and determine its section with each of the two surfaces,
rabatting this plane if necessary. This gives two curves which lie
in the same plane and whose intersections will give us points on
both surface*. It must here be remembered that two curves in
pace do not necessarily intersect, hence that the points in which
their projections intersect are not necessarily the projections of
points common to the two curves. This will, however, be the case
if the two curves lie in a common plane. By taking then a numlxjr
of plane sections of the surfaces we can get as many points on their
curve of intersection as we like. These planes have, of course, to
be selected in such a way that the sections are curves as simple as
the case permits of, and such that they can be easily and accurately
drawn. Thus when |xsil>le the sections should be straight lines
or circles. This not only save* time in drawing but determines all
points on the sections, and therefore also the points where the two
curves meet, with equal accuracy.
| 20. We give a lew examples how these sections have to be
selected. A cone is cut by every plane through the vertex in lines,
and if it is a cone of revolution by planes perpendicular to the
axis in circle*.
A cylinder is cut by every plane parallel to the axis in lines, and
if it is a cylinder of revolution by planes perpendicular to the axis
in circle*.
A sphere is cut by every plane in a circle.
Hence in case of two cones situated anywhere in space we take
sections through both vertices. These will cut both cones in lines.
Similarly in case of two cylinders we may take sections parallel to
the axis of both. In case of a sphere and a cone of revolution with
vertical axis, horizontal sections will cut both surfaces in circles
whose plans are circles and whose elevations are lines, whilst vertical
sections through the vertex of the cone cut the latter in lines and
the sphere in circles. To avoid drawing the projections of these
circles, which would in general be ellipses, we rabatt the plane and
then draw the circles in their real shape. And so on in other cases.
Special attention should in all cases be paid to those points in
which the tangents to the projection of the curve of intersection are
parallel or perpendicular to the axis x, or where these projections
touch the contour of one of the surfaces. (O. H.)
IV. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
i. In the name geometry there is a lasting record that the
science had its origin in the knowledge that two distances may
be compared by measurement, and in the idea that measurement
must be effectual in the dissociation of different directions as well
as in the comparison of distances in the same direction. The
distance from an observer's eye of an object seen would be
specified as soon as it was ascertained that a rod, straight to the
eye and of length taken as known, could be given the direction
of the line of vision, and had to be moved along it a certain
number of times through lengths equal to its own in order to
reach the object from the eye. Moreover, if a field had for two
of its boundaries lines straight to the eye, one running from south
to north and the other from west to cast, the position of a point
in the field would be specified if the rod, when directed west,
bad to be shifted from the point one observed number of times
westward to meet the former boundary, and also, when directed
south, had to be shifted another observed number of times
southward to meet the latter. Comparison by measurement,
the beginning of geometry, involved counting, the basis of arith-
metic; and the science of number was marked out from the
first as of geometrical importance.
But the arithmetic of the ancients was inadequate as a science
of number. Though a length might be recognized as known
when measurement certified that it was so many times a standard
length, it was not every length which could be thus specified
in terms of the same standard length, even by an arithmetic
enriched with the notion of fractional number. The idea of
possible incommensurability of lengths was introduced into
Europe by Pythagoras; and the corresponding idea of irration-
ality of number was absent from a crude arithmetic, while there
were great practical difficulties in the way of its introduction.
Hence perhaps it arose that, till comparatively modern times,
appeal to arithmetical aid in geometrical reasoning was in all
possible ways restrained. Geometry figured rather as the helper
of the more difficult science of arithmetic.
3. It was reserved for algebra to remove the disabilities of
arithmetic, and to restore the earliest ideas of the land-measurer
to the position of controlling ideas in geometrical investigation.
This unified science of pure number made comparatively little
headway in the hands of the ancients, but began to receive
due attention shortly after the revival of learning. It expresses
whole classes of arithmetical facts in single statements, gives
to arithmetical laws the form of equations involving symbols
which may mean any known or sought numbers, and provides
processes which enable us to analyse the information given by an
equation and derive from that equation other equations, which
express laws that are in effect consequences or causes of a law
started from, but differ greatly from it in form. Above all, for
present purposes, it deals not only with integral and fractional
number, but with number regarded as capable of continuous
growth, just as distance is capable of continuous growth. The
difficulty of the arithmetical expression of irrational number,
a difficulty considered by the modern school of analysts to have
been at length surmounted (see FUNCTION), is not vital to it.
It can coll the ratio of the diagonal of a square to a side, for
instance, or that of the circumference of a circle to a diameter,
a number, and let a or x denote that number, just as properly
as it may allow either letter to denote any rational number
which may be greater or less than the ratio in question by a
difference less than any minute one we choose to assign.
Counting only, and not the counting of objects, is of the essence
of arithmetic, and of algebra. But it is lawful to count objects,
and in particular to count equal lengths by measure. Tin:
widened idea is that even when a or x is an irrational number
we may speak of a or x unit lengths by measure. We may give
concrete interpretation to an algebraical equation by allowing
its terms all to mean numbers of times the same unit length,
or the same unit area, or &c. and in any equation lawfully
derived from the first by algebraical processes we may do the
same. Descartes in his Gtomttrie (1637) was the first to system-
atize the application of this principle to the inherent first
notions of geometry; and the methods which he instituted have
become the most potent methods of all in geometrical research.
It is hardly too much to say that, when known facts as to a
geometrical figure have once been expressed in algebraical
terms, all strictly consequential facts as to the figure can be
deduced by almost mechanical processes. Some may well be
unexpected consequences; and in obtaining those of which
there has been suggestion beforehand the often bewildering
labour of constant attention to the figure is obviated. These
are the methods of what is now called analytical, or sometimes
algebraical, geometry.
3. The modern use of the term " analytical " in geometry has
obscured, but not made obsolete, an earlier use, one as old as
Plato. There is nothing algebraical in this analysis, as dis-
tinguished from synthesis, of the Greeks, and of the expositors
of pure geometry. It has reference to an order of ideas in
demonstration, or, more frequently, in discovering means to
effect the geometrical construction of a figure with an assigned
special property. We have to suppose hypothetically that the
construction has been performed, drawing a rough figure which
exhibits it as nearly as is practicable. We then analyse or
critically examine the figure, treated as correct, and ascertain
other properties which it can only possess in association with
the one in question. Presently one of these properties will often
be found which is of such a character that the construction of
a figure possessing it is simple. The means of effecting synthetic-
ally a construction such as was desired is thus brought to light by
what Plato called analysis. Or again, being asked to prove a
theorem A, we ascertain that it must be true if another theorem
B is, that B must be if C is, and so on, thus eventually finding
that the theorem A is the consequence, through a chain of inter-
mediaries, of a theorem Z of which the establishment is easy.
This geometrical analysis is not the subject of the present article;
but in the reasoning from form to form of an equation or system
712
GEOMETRY
[ANALYTICAL
of equations, with the object of basing the algebraical proof
of a geometrical fact on other facts of a more obvious character,
the same logic is utilized, and the name " analytical geometry "
is thus in part explained.
4. In algebra real positive number was alone at first dealt
with, and in geometry actual signless distance. But in algebra
it became of importance to say that every equation of the first
degree has a root, and the notion of negative number was intro-
duced. The negative unit had to be defined as what can be
added to the positive unit and produce the sum zero. The
corresponding notion was readily at hand in geometry, where
it was clear that a unit distance can be measured to the left
or down from the farther end of a unit distance already measured
to the right or up from a point O, with the result of reaching O
again. Thus, to give full interpretation in geometry to the
algebraically negative, it was only necessary to associate distinct-
ness of sign with oppositeness of direction. Later it was discovered
that algebraical reasoning would be much facilitated, and that
conclusions as to the real would retain all their soundness, if a pair
of imaginary units ="= V i of what might be called number were
allowed to be contemplated, the pair being defined, though not
separately, by the two properties of having the real sum o and
the real product i. Only in these two real combinations do they
enter in conclusions as to the real. An advantage gained was
that every quadratic equation, and not some quadratics only,
could be spoken of as having two roots. These admissions of
new units into algebra were final, as it admitted of proof that all
equations of degrees higher than two have the full numbers of
roots possible for their respective degrees in any case, and that
every root has a value included in the form a+b V i, with a, b,
real. The corresponding enrichment could be given to geometry,
with corresponding advantages and the same absence of danger,
and this was done. On a line of measurement of distance we
contemplate as existing, not only an infinite continuum of points
at real distances from an origin of measurement O, but a doubly
infinite continuum of points, all but the singly infinite continuum
of real ones imaginary, and imaginary in conjugate pairs, a
conjugate pair being at imaginary distances from O, which have
a real arithmetic and a real geometric mean. To geometry
enriched with this conception all algebra has its application.
5- Actual geometry is one, two or three-dimensional, i.e.
lineal, plane or solid. In one-dimensional geometry positions
and measurements in a single line only are admitted. Now
descriptive constructions for points in a line are impossible
without going out of the line. It has therefore been held that
there is a sense in which no science of geometry strictly confined
to one dimension exists. But an algebra of one variable can be
applied to the study of distances along a line measured from a
chosen point on it, so that the idea of construction as distinct
from measurement is not essential to a one-dimensional geo-
metry aided by algebra. In geometry of two dimensions, the
flat of the land-measurer, the passage from one point O to any
Other point, can be effected by two successive'marches, one east
or west and one north or south, and, as will be seen, an algebra
of two variables suffices for geometrical exploitation. In
geometry of three dimensions, that of space, any point can be
reached from a chosen one by three marches, one east or west,
one north or south, and one up or down; and we shall see that
an algebra of three variables is all that is necessary. With
three dimensions actual geometry stops; but algebra can supply
any number of variables. Four or more variables have been
used in ways analogous to those in which one, two and three
variables are used for the purposes of one, two and three-
dimensional geometry, and the results have been expressed in
quasi-geometrical language on the supposition that a higher
space can be conceived of, though not realized, in which four
independent directions exist, such that no succession of marches
along three of them can effect the same displacement of a point
as a march along the fourth; and similarly for higher numbers
than four. Thus analytical, though not actual, geometries exist
for four and more dimensions. They are in fact algebras furnished
with nomenclature of a geometrical cast, suggested by convenient
forms of expression which actual geometry has, in return for
benefits received, conferred on algebras of one, two and three
variables.
We will confine ourselves to the dimensions of actual geometry,
and will devote no space to the one-dimensional, except incident-
ally as existing within the two-dimensional. The analytical
method will now be explained for the cases of two and three
dimensions in succession. The form of it originated by Descartes,
and thence known as Cartesian, will alone be considered in much
detail.
I. Plane Analytical Geometry.
6. Coordinates. It is assumed that the points, lines and figures
considered lie in one and the same plane, which plane therefore need
not be in any way referred to. In the plane a point O, and two lines
x'Qx, y'Oy, intersecting in O, are taken once for all, and regarded as
fixed. O is called the origin, and x'Qx, y'Oy the axes of x and y
respectively. Other positions in the plane are specified in relation
to this fixed origin and these fixed axes. From any point P we
M
FIG. 48.
FIG. 49.
suppose PM drawn parallel to the axis of y to meet the axis of * in
M, and may also suppose PN drawn parallel to the axis of x to meet
the axis of y in N, so that OMPN is a parallelogram. The position
of P is determined when we know OM ( = NP) and MP (=ON).
If OM is x times the unit of a scale of measurement chosen at pleasure,
and MP is y times the unit, so that x and y have numerical values,
we call x and y the (Cartesian) coordinates of P. To distinguish
them we often speak of y as the ordinate, and of x as the abscissa.
It is necessary to attend to signs; x has one sign or the other
according as the point P is on one side or the other of the axis of y,
and y one sign or the other according as P is on one side or the other
of the axis of x. Using the letters N, E, S, W, as in a map, and
considering the plane as divided into four quadrants by the axes,
the signs are usually taken to be :
x y For quadrant
+ + N E
+ S E
- + N W
- - S W
A point is referred to as the point (a, 6), when its coordinates are
x=a, y = 6. A point may be fixed, or it may be variable, i.e. be
regarded for the time being as free to move in the plane. The
coordinates (x, y) of a variable point are algebraic variables, and are
said to be " current coordinates."
The axes of x and y are usually (as in fig. 48) taken at right angles
to one another, and we then speak of them as rectangular axes,
and of x and y as " rectangular coordinates " of a point P; OMPN
is then a rectangle. Sometimes, however, it is convenient to use
axes which are oblique to one another, so that (as in fig. 49) the angle
xOy between their positive directions is some known angle to
distinct from a right angle, and OMPN is always an oblique parallelo-
gram with given angles ; and we then speak of * and y as ' oblique
coordinates." The coordinates are as a rule taken to be rectangular
in what follows.
7. Equations and loci. If (x, y) is the point P, and if we are
given that *=o, we are told that, in fig. 48 or fig. 49, the point M lies
at O, whatever value y may have, i.e. we are told the one fact that
P lies on the axis of y. Conversely, if P lies anywhere on the axis
of y, we have always OM =o, i.e. xo. Thus the equation * _= o is
one satisfied by the coordinates (x, y) of every point in the axis of y,
and not by those of any other point. We say that # = o is the
equation of the axis of y, and that the axis of y is the locus repre-
sented by the equation xo. Similarly y o is the equation of the
axis of x. An equation x = a, where o is a constant, expresses that
P lies on a parallel to the axis of y through a point M on the axis
of * such that OM =a. Every line parallel to the axis of y has an
equation of this form. Similarly, every line parallel to the axis of x
has an equation of the form y = 6, where b is some definite constant.
These are simple cases of the fact that a single equation in the
current coordinates of a variable point (*, y) imposes one limitation
on the freedom of that point to vary. The coordinates of a point
ANALYTICAL]
GEOMETRY
7*3
taken at random in the plane will, a* a rule, not satisfy the equation,
but infinitely many points, and in most canes infinitely many real
one*, have coordinate* which do satisfy it, and these point* arc
exactly those which lie upon some locus of one dimension, a straight
line or more frequently a curve, which is said to be represented oy
the equation. Take, for instance, the equation ymx, where m
tt a liven constant. It is satisfied by the coordinates ot every point
P, whit h is such that, in tig. 4, tne distance Ml', with its proper sign,
is m times the distance DM, with its proper sign, i.e. by the co-
ordinates of every point in the straight line through O which we
arrive at by making a line, originally coincident with x'Ojc, revolve
about O in the direction opposite to that of the hands of a watch
through an angle of which m is the tangent, and by those of no other
points. That line is the locus which it represents. Take, more
generally, the equation y f (x), where >(x) is any given non-ambigu-
ous function of x. Choosing any point M on xOx in fig. I, and
giving to x the value of the numerical measure of OM, the equation
determines a single corresponding y, and so determines a single
point P on the line through M parallel to y'Ov. This is one point
whose coordinates satisfy the equation. Now let M move from the
extreme left to the extreme right of the line x'Ox, regarded as
extended both way* a* far as we like, i.e. let x take all real values
from oo to o . With every value goes a point P, as above, on
the parallel to /Oy through the corresponding M; and we thus find
that there is a path from the extreme left to the extreme right of
the figure, all points P along which arc distinguished from other
points by the exceptional property of satisfying the equation by
their coordinate*. This path is a locus; and the equation y </>(*)
represents it. More generally still, take an equation /(x, y)=o
which involves both x and y under a functional form. Any particular
value given to x in it produces from it an equation for the determina-
tion ofa value or values of y, which go with that value of x in specify-
ing a point or points (x, y), of which the coordinates satisfy the
equation /(x, y) -o. Here again, as x takes all values, the point or
points describe a path or paths, which constitute a locus represented
by the equation. Except when y enters to the first degree only in
/(x, y), it is not to be expected that all the values of y, determined
as going with a chosen value of x, will be necessarily real; indeed
it is not uncommon for all to be imaginary for some range:; of values
of x. The locus may largely consist of continua of imaginary
points; but the real parts of it constitute a real curve or real curves.
Note that we have to allow x to admit of all imaginary, as well as
of all real, values, in order to obtain all imaginary parts of the
locus.
A locus or curve may be algebraically specified in another way;
viz, we may be given two equations x -/(), y-F(9), which express
the coordinate* of any point of it as two functions of the same
variable parameter t to which all values are open. As takes all
values in turn, the point (x, y) traverses the curve.
It is a good exercise to trace a number of curves, taken as defined
by the equations which represent them. This, in simple cases, can
be done approximately by plotting the values of y given by the
equation of a curve as going with a considerable number of values
of x, and connecting the various points (x, y) thus obtained. But
methods exist for diminishing the labour of this tentative process.
Another problem, which will be more attended to here, is that of
determining the equations of curves of known interest, taken as
defined by geometrical properties. It is not a matter for surprise
that the curves which have been most and longest studied geo-
metrically are among those represented by equations of the simplest
character.
8. The Straight Lint. This is the simplest type of locus. Also
the simplest type of equation in x and y is Ax+By+C-o, one of
the first degree. Here the coefficients A, B, C are constants. They
are, like the current coordinates, x, y, numerical. But, in giving
interpretation to such an equation, we must of course refer to
numbers Ax, By, C of unit magnitudes of the same kind, of units
of counting for instance, or unit lengths or unit squares. It will
now be seen that every straight
line has an equation of the first
degree, and that every equation
of the first degree represents a
straight line.
It has been seen (J 7) that lines
parallel to the axes have equa-
tions of the first degree, free
from one of the variables. Take
now a straight line ABC inclined
to both axes. Let it make a
given angle a with the positive
direction of the axis of x, i.e. in
fig. 50 let this be the angle
through which Ax must be re-
volved counter-clockwise about
A in order to be made coin-
cident with the line. Let C, of
coordinates (h, ft), be a fixed point
FIG. 50.
on the line, and P (x, y) any other point upon it. Draw the ordinatcs
CD, PM of C and P. and let the parallel to the axis of x through C
PM, produced if necessary, in R. The right-angled triangle
CRP tells us that, with the signs appropriate to their directions
attached to CR and RP,
RP-CR tan a, i.e. MP-DC-(OM-OD) tan a,
and this gives that
y-t-tan a (x-*),
an equation of the first degree satisfied by x and y. No point not
on the line satisfies the same equation; for the line from C to any
point off the line would make with CR some angle different from a,
and the point in question would satisfy an equation y k - tan 0(x A),
which is inconsistent with the above equation.
The equation of the line may also De written y-mx+6, where
m tan a, and 6 * A tan a. Here b is the value obtained for y
from the equation when o is put for x, i.e. it is the numerical measure,
with proper sign, of OB, the intercept made by the line on the axis
of y, measured from the origin. For different straight lines, m and 6
may have any constant values we like.
Now the general equation of the first degree Ax-t-By+C-O may
be written y- gx g, unless B-o, in which case it represents a
line parallel to the axis of y; and A/B, C/B are values which
can be given to m and b, so that every equation of the first degree
represents a straight line. It is important to notice that the general
equation, which in appearance contains three constants A, B, C, in
effect depends on two only, the ratios of two of them to the third.
In virtue of this last remark, we see that two distinct conditions
suffice to determine a straight line. For instance, it is easy from the
above to see that
is the equation of a straight line determined by the two conditions
that it makes intercepts OA, OB on the two axes, of which a and b
are the numerical measures with proper signs: note that in fig. 50 o
is negative. Again,
..
(yi -yi)x - (xi -xOy+xiyi -xiyi -o,
represents the line determined by the data that it passes through
two given points (xi, yi) and (xi, y,). To prove this find m in the
equation y yi-m(x xi) of a line through (x t , yi), from the con-
dition that (x, yi) lies on the line.
In this paragraph the coordinates have been assumed rectangular.
Had they been oblique, the doctrine of similar triangles would have
given the same results, except that in the forms of equation y k
m(xh), y~mx+b, we should not have had m tan o.
9. The Circle. It is easy to write down the equation of a given
circle. Let (h, k) be its given centre C, and p the numerical measure
of its given radius. Take P (x, y) any point on its circumference,
and construct the triangle CRP, in fig. 50 as above. The fact that
this is right-angled tells us that
CR'+RP-CP 1 ,
and this at once gives the equation
A point not upon the circumference of the particular circle is at some
distance from (h, h) different from p, and satisfies an equation
inconsistent with this one; which accordingly represents the cir-
cumference, or, as we say, the circle.
The equation is of the form , ,
o.
Conversely every equation of this form represents a circle: we have
only to take A, B, A*+B J C for h, k, p 1 respectively, to obtain
its centre and radius. But this statement must appear too un-
restricted. Ought we not to require A'+B 1 C to be positive?
Certainly, if by circle we are only to mean the visible round cir-
cumference of the geometrical definition. Yet, analytically, w;e
contemplate altogether imaginary circles, for which ff is negative,
and circles, for which p o, with all their reality condensed into
their centres. Even when f is positive, so that a visible round
circumference exists, we do not regard this as constituting the
whole of the circle. Giving to K any value whatever in (x h)*+
(y k) 1 ~p*, we obtain two values of y, real, coincident or imaginary,
each of which goes with the abscissa x as the ordinatc of a point,
real or imaginary, on what is represented by the equation of the
circle.
The doctrine of the imaginary on a circle, and in geometry gener-
ally, is of purely algebraical inception; but it has been in its entirety
accepted by modern pure geometers, and signal success has attended
the efforts of those who, like K. G. C. von Staudt, have striven (o
base its conclusions on principles not at all algebraical in form,
though of course cognate to those adopted in introducing ' the
imaginary into algebra.
A circle with its centre at the origin has an equation x'+y 1 ff.
In oblique coordinates (he general equation of a circle is
x'+ixy cos +y 1 +2Ax-t-2By-f C -o.
to. The conic sections are the next simplest loci; and it will be
seen later that they are the loci represented by equations of the
second degree. Circles are particular cases of conic sections; and
GEOMETRY
[ANALYTICAL
they have just been seen to have for their equations a particular
class of equations of the second degree. Another particular class
of such equations is that included in the form (Ax+By+C) (A'x +
B'y+C') =o, which represents two straight lines, because the product
on the left vanishes if, and only if, one of the two factors does, i.e.
if, and only if, (x, y) lies on one or other of two straight lines. The
condition that ax*+2hxy+by'+2gx+2fy+c = o, which is often
is this form is abc+2fgh a/ 2
may, in particular cases, be
Fn(*, y)=o, of which
written (a, b, c, f, g, h) (x,y, i) 2 =o, takes this form is abc+2fghaf*
bg t -ch t =o. Note that the two lines
parallel or coincident.
Any equation like Fi(x, y) FI(X, y)
FIG. 51.
the left-hand side breaks up into factors, represents all the loci
separately represented by Fi(x, y) =o, Fj(x, y) =o, . . . F n (*, y) =o.
In particular an equation of degree n which is free from * represents
n straight lines parallel to the axis of x, and one of degree n which
is homogeneous in * and y, i.e. one which upon division by x" be-
comes an equation in the ratio y/x, represents n straight lines through
the origin.
Curves represented by equations of the third degree are called
cubic curves. The general equation of this degree will be written
(*)(*, y, i)'=o.
II. Descriptive Geometry. A geometncal proposition is either
descriptive or metrical: in the former case the statement of it is
independent of the idea of magnitude (length, inclination, &c.),
and in the latter it has reference to this idea. The method of co-
ordinates seems to be by its inception essentially metrical. Yet
in dealing by this method with descriptive propositions we are
eminently free from metrical considerations, because of our power to
use general equations, and
to avoid all assumption that
measurements implied are
any particular measure-
ments.
12. It is worth while to
illustrate this by the in-
stance of the well-known
theorem of the radical centre
of three circles. The theorem
is that, given any three circles
A, B, C (fig. 51), the common
chords aaf, 0ft', yy' of the
three pairs of circles meet in
a point.
The geometrical proof is
metrical throughout :
Take O the point of inter-
section of aa', 0/3', and joining
this with y', suppose that -y'O does not pass through 7, but that it
meets the circles A, B in two distinct points 72 , 71 respectively. We
have then the known metrical property of intersecting chords of a
circle ; viz. in circle C, where aa', 00 , are chords meeting at a point O,
Oo.0o' = 00.00',
where, as well as in what immediately follows, Oo, &c., denote, of
course, lengths or distances.
Similarly in circle A,
O/3.O/3' = 072.07',
and in circle B,
Oo.Oa' = Oyi.O7'.
Consequently 071.07' = On.Oy', that is, O7i=O7s, or the points
71 and 72 coincide ; that is, they each coincide with 7.
We contrast this with the analytical method :
Here it only requires to be known that an equation A*+By+C =o
represents a line, and an equation * 2 +y 2 +A*+By+C =o represents
a circle. A, B, C have, in the two cases respectively, metrical
significations; but these we are not concerned with. Using S to
denote the function x*+y t +Ax+By+C, the equation of a circle is
S=o. Let the equation of any other circle be S', = x t +y*+A'x+
B'y-r-C'=O; the equation S S'=o is a linear equation (S S' is in
iact = (A-A')*+(B-B') y+C-C'), and it thus represents a line;
this equation is satisfied by the coordinates of each of the points of
intersection of the two circles (for at each of these points S = o and
S' = o, therefore also S S'=o); hence the equation S S' = o is
that of the_ line joining the two points of intersection of the two circles,
or say it is the equation of the common chord of the two circles.
Considering then a third circle S",=x*+y>+A"x+B"y+C"=o, the
equations of the common chords are S S' o, S S' = o, S' S*=o
(each of these a linear equation) ; at the intersection of the first and
second of these lines S = S' and S = S", therefore also S' = S", or the
equation of the third line is satisfied by the coordinates of the point
in question; that is, the three chords intersect in a point O, the co-
ordinates of which are determined by the equations S = S' = S".
It further apoears that if the two circles S =o, S' = o do not intersect
in any real points, they must be regarded as intersecting in two
imaginary points, such that the line joining them is the real line
represented by the equation S S'=o; or that two circles, whether
their intersections be real or imaginary, have always a real common
chord (or radical axis), and that for any three circles the common
chords intersect in a point (of course real) which is the radical centre.
And by this very theorem, given two circles with imaginary inter-
sections, we can, by drawing circles which meet each of them in
real points, construct the radical axis of the first-mentioned two
circles.
13. The principle employed in showing that the equation of the
common chord of two circles is S S' = o is one of very extensive
application, and some more illustrations of it may be given.
Suppose S = o, S' = o are lines (that is, let S, S now denote linear
functions Ax+By+C, A'x+B'y+C'), then S - S' = o ( an arbitrary
constant) is the equation of any line passing through the point
of intersection of the two given lines. Such a line may be made to
pass through any given point, say the point (x a , y ) ; i.e. if So, S' are
what S, S' respectively become on writing for (x, y) the values (x a , yo),
then the value of k is h = So -! S'o. The equation in fact is SS'o SoS' = o ;
and starting from this equation we at once verify it a posteriori;
the equation is a linear equation satisfied by the values of (x, y)
which make S=o, S' = o; and satisfied also by the values (xt>, yo);
and it is thus the equation of the line in question.
If , as before, S = o, S' = o represent circles, then (k being arbitrary)
S fcS' = o is the equation of any circle passing through the two
points of intersection of the two circles; and to make this pass
through a given point (XQ, yo) we have again fe = So-;-S'o. In the
particular case k = i, the circle becomes the common chord (more
accurately, it becomes the common chord together with the line
infinity; see 23 below).
If S denote the general quadric function,
S = ax*+2hxy+by*+2fy+2gx+ c,
then the equation S = o represents a conic; assuming this, then, if
S'=o represents another conic, the equation S kS' o represents
any conic through the four points of intersection of the two conies.
14. The object still being to illustrate the mode of working with
coordinates for descriptive pur-
poses, we consider the theorem
of the polar of a point in regard
to a circle. Given a circle and
a point O (fig. 52), we draw
through O any two lines meeting
the circle in the points A, A' and
B, B' respectively, and then
taking Q as the intersection of
the lines AB' and A'B, the
theorem is that the locus of the
point Q is -a right line de-
FIG. 52.
pending only upon O and the circle, but independent of the
particular lines OAA' and OBB'.
Taking O as the origin, and for the axes any two lines through O
at right angles to each other, the equation of the circle will be
and if the equation of the line OAA' is taken to be y = mx, then the
points A, A' are found as the intersections of the straight line with
the circle ; or to determine x we have
* 2 (i +m?) +2x(A+Bm) +C =o.
If (*i. yi) are the coordinates of A, and (* 2 , y2) of A', then the roots
of this equation are Xi, Xi, whence easily
i, J. A+Bm
xi Xt C
And similarly, if the equation of the line OBB' is taken to be y = m'x,
and the coordinates of B, B' to be (xa, ya) and (xi, y t ) respectively,
then
We have then by 8
*(yi yt) y(xi
x t yt =o,
as the equations of the lines AB' and A'B respectively. Reducing
by means of the relations yi m*i=o, y t mxi=o, y t m'x t = o,
ytm'xt=o, the two equations become
x(mx\ m'xt) y(xi
and if we divide the first of these equations by Xix t , and the second
by xiXt, and then add, we obtain
+2m' 2tn=o,
or, what is the same thing,
which by what precedes is the equation of a line through the point Q.
Substituting herein for +, jr+J" their foregoing values, the
equation becomes
-(A+Bm) (y-m'x) + (A+Bm') (y-mx)+C(m'-m)"0;
that is,
(rn-rn') (A*+By+C)-o;
ANALYTICAL)
GEOMETRY
or finally it is Ax + By+C -o, showing that the point Q lie* in a line
the pout ioc of whicn is independent of the particular lines OAA',
OBB' used in the construction. It i* proper to notice that there is
no correspondence to each other of the points A. A' and B, B'; the
grouping might a-, well have been A, A' and B', B; and it thence
appears that the line Ax + By+C -O just obtained is in fact the line
join inn the point <j with the point R which is the intersection of
AB and A'B\
15. In | 8 it has been seen that two conditions determine the
equation of straight line, because in Ax + By+C -o one of the
coefficients may be divided out, leaving only two parameters to be
determined. Similarly five conditions instead of six determine an
equation of the second degree (a, 6, e,f, t< *) (* ?. i)'-o, and nine
instead of ten determine a cubic () (x, y, i)'-o. It thus appears
that a cubic can be made to pass through 9 given points, and that
the cubic to passing through 9 given points is completely determined.
There is, however, a remarkable exception. Considering two given
cubic curve* S-o, S'-o, these intersect in 9 points, and through
these 9 point* we have the whole aeries of cubics S AS'-o, where
k is an arbitrary constant : k may be determined so that the cubic
hall pass through a given tenth point (*-S+S', if the coordinates
are (x. y). and S*. S' denote the corresponding values of S, S').
The resulting curve SS', S'S.-o may be regarded as the cubic
determined by the conditions of passing through 8 of the 9 points
and through the given point (*, y.): and from the equation it
thence appear* that the curve passes through the remaining one of
the 9 points. In other words, we thus have the theorem, any cubic
curve which passes through 8 of the 9 intersections of two given
cubic curves passes through the 9th intersection.
The applications of this theorem are very numerous; for instance,
we derive from it Pascal's theorem of the inscribed hexagon. Con-
sider a hexagon inscribed in a conic. The three alternate sides
constitute a cubic, and the other three alternate sides another cubic.
The cubics intersect in 9 points, being the 6 vertices of the hexagon,
and the 3 Pascalian points, or intersections of the pairs of opposite
aide* of the hexagon. Drawing a line through two of the Pascalian
points, the conic and this line constitute a cubic passing through 8
of the 9 points of intersection, and it therefore passes through the
remaining point of intersection that is, the third Pascalian point ;
and since obviously this does not lie on the conic, it must lie on the
line that is, we have the theorem that the three Pascalian points
(or points of intersection of the pairs of opposite sides) lie on a
line.
16. tfetricai Theory resumed. Projections and Perpendiculars. It
i* a metrical fact of fundamental importance, already used in 8,
that, if a finite line PQ be projected on any other line OO' by per-
pendicular* PP*, GO 7 to OO', the length of the projection P'Q' is
equal to that of PQ multiplied by the cosine of the acute angle
between the two lines. Also the algebraical sum of the projections
of the sides of any closed polygon upon any line is zero, because as a
point goes rpuna the polygon, from any vertex A to A again, the
point which is its projection on the line passes from A' the projection
of A to A' again, i.e. traverses equal distances along the line in
positive and negative senses. If we consider the polygon as con-
sisting of two broken lines, each extending from the same initial
to the same terminal point, the sum of the projections of the lines
which compose the one is equal, in sign and magnitude, to the sum
of the projections of the lines composing the other. Observe that
the projection on a line of a length perpendicular to the line is
MX
Let us hence find the equation of a straight line such that the
perpendicular OD on it from the origin is of length p taken as
positive, and i* inclined to the axis of x at an angle xOD o,
measured counter-clockwise from Ox. Take any point P (x, y) on
the line, and construct OM and MP as in fig. 48. The sum of the
projections of OM and MP on OD is OD itself; and this gives the
equation of the tine
x cos a-fy sin a p.
Observe that cos and sin a here are the sin a and cos a, or the
sin and cos of i 8 according to circumstances.
We can write down an expression for the perpendicular distance
from this line of any point (r, y") which does not lie upon it. If the
parallel through (r, y) to the line meet OD in E, we have x' cos a +
jf sin OE, and the perpendicular distance required is OI) OK,
i.e. p x' cos y sin a; it is the perpendicular distance taken
positively or negatively according as (x', y 1 ) lie* on the same side
of the line as the origin or not.
The general equation Ax+By+C -o may be given the form
x co* t+y sin --p by dividing it by vXA'+B 1 ). Thus (Ax' +
BV+C) + V (A'-f-B*) is in absolute value the perpendicular distance
ol Or 1 , /) from the line Ax+ By+C-o. Remember, however, that
there is an essential ambiguity of sign attached to a square root.
The expression found gives the distance taken positively when
(r'. /) is on the origin side of the line, if the sign of C is given to
V(A+B).
17. Transformation of Coordinates. We often need to adopt new
axes of reference in place of old ones; and the above principle of
projections readily expresses the old coordinates of any point in
term* of the new.
Suppose, for instance, that we want to take for new origin the
point O' of old coordinates OA A, AO' *, and for new axes of
X and Y lines through O' obtained by rotating parallel* to the old
axes of x and y through an angle counter-clockwise. Construct
(fig. 53) the old and new co-
ordinates of any point P. Ex-
pressing that the projections,
first on the old axis of x and
secondly on the old axis of v, of
OP are equal to the sums of the
projections, on those axes respec-
tively, of the parts of the broken
line OO'M'l', we obtain:
x-A+Xcosfl+Ycos
A+X cos0-Y sin 0,
and
y-*+X cos(Jir-fl)+Y cos 9-
*+Xsin9+Ycos.
V
M
FIG. 53.
Be careful to observe that these
formulae do not apply to every
conceivable change of reference from one set of rectangular axes to
another. It might have been required to take O'X, O'Y' for the
positive directions of the new axes, so that the change of directions
of the axes could not be effected by rotation. We must then write
Y for Y in the above.
Were the new axes oblique, making angles o, ft respectively with
the old axis of x, and so inclined at the angle ft a, the game method
would give the formulae
x-A+X cos o+Y cos0, y-*+X sin a+Y sin /S.
18. The Conic Sections. The conies, as they are now called, were
at first denned as curves of intersection of planes and a cone; but
Apollonius substituted a definition free from reference to space of
three dimensions. This, in effect, is that a conic is the locus of a
point the distance of which from a given point, called the focus, has
a given ratio to its distance from a given line, called the directrix
(see CONIC SECTION). If e : I is the ratio, e is called the eccentricity.
The distances are considered signless.
Take (h, k) for the focus, and x cos a+y sin a = o for the
directrix. The absolute valuesof V |(x A) J +(y *)'| and px cos a
y sin a are to have the ratio e : i ; and this gives
(x-A) I +Cy-*)-(/>-x cos a-y sin a) 1
as the general equation, in rectangular coordinates, of a conic.
It is of the second degree, and is the general equation of that
degree. If, in fact, we multiply it by an unknown \, we can, by
solving six simultaneous equations in the six unknowns X, h, k, e, p, a,
so choose values for these as to make the coefficients in the equation
equal to those in any equation of the second degree which may be
given. There is no failure of this statement in the special case
when the given equation represents two straight lines, as in 10,
but there is speciality: if the two lines intersect, the intersection
and either bisector of the angle between them are a focus and
directrix; if they are united in one line, any point on the line and a
perpendicular to it through the point are: if they are parallel,
the case is a limiting one in which e and h'+k* have become infinite
while e^W+k 1 ) remains finite. In the case ( 9) of an equation
such as represents a circle there is another instance of proceeding
to a limit: e has to become o, while ep remains finite: moreover a
is indeterminate. The centre of a circle is its focus, and its directrix
has gone to infinity, having no special direction. This last fact
illustrates the necessity, which is also forced on plane geometry by
three-dimensional considerations, of treating all points at infinity
in a plane as lying on a single straight line.
Sometimes, in reducing an equation to the above focus and directrix
form, we find for h, k, e, p, tan a, or some of them, only imaginary
values, as quadratic equations have to be solved ; and we have in
fact to contemplate the existence of entirely imaginary conies.
For instance, no real values of x and y satisfy x*+2y*+3=o. Even
when the locus represented is real, we obtain, as a rule, four sets of
values of k, k, e, p, of which two sets are imaginary; a real conic
has, besides two real foci and corresponding directrices, two others
that are imaginary.
In oblique as well as rectangular coordinates equations of the
second degree represent conies.
19. The three Species of Conies. A real conic, which does not
degenerate into straight lines, is called an ellipse, parabola or hyper-
bola according a* e<, , or >i. To trace the three forms it is
best so to choose the axe* of reference as to simplify their equations.
In the case of a parabola, let 21 be the distance between the given
focus and directrix, and take axes referred to which these are the
point (c, o) and the line x= c. The equation becomes (x c)*-)-y 1 '=
(x+e) 1 , i.e. -p-tfx-
In the other cases, take a such that a(e~e~ l ) is the distance of focus
from directrix, and so choose axes that these are (at, o) and x ae~ l ,
thus getting the equation (x -o^'+y* - e*(x of- 1 )*, i.e. (i - e)x +y =
o*(l *). When e<i, i.e. in the case of an ellipse, this may be
written x*/a i +y t /b t -\, where 6*-a(l-); and when e>i, i.e.
in the case of an hyperbola, x t /a' y t /o i l, where W-a'(e* i).
716
GEOMETRY
The axes thus chosen for the ellipse and hyperbola are called the
principal axes.
In figs. 54, 55, 56 in order, conies of the three species, thus referred
are depicted.
The oblique straight lines in fig? 56 are the asymptotes x/a=
of the hyperbola, lines to which the curve tends with unlimi
unlimitec
FIG. 54.
FIG. 55.
FIG. 56.
closeness as it goes to infinity. The hyperbola would have an equa-
tion of the form xy = c if referred to its asymptotes as axes, the co-
ordinates being then oblique, unless a = b, in which case the hyperbola
is called rectangular. An ellipse has two imaginary asymptotes.
In particular a circle x > +y*=a 1 , a particular ellipse, has for asymp-
totes the imaginary lines x= =tyV-l. These run from the centre
to the so-called circular points at infinity.
20. Tangents and Curvature. Let (x f , /) and (x'+h, y+k) be
two neighbouring points P, P' on a curve. The equation of the line
on which both lie is h(yy') =k(xx'). Now keep P fixed, and let
P' move towards coincidence with it along the curve. The con-
necting line will tend towards a limiting position, to which it can
never attain as long as P and P' are distinct. The line which
occupies this limiting position is the tangent at P. Now if we sub-
tract the equation of the curve, with (*', y') for the coordinates in it,
from the like equation in (x'+h, y+k), we obtain a relation in h
and k, which will, as a rule, be of the form o = AA+Bfe+ terms of
higher degrees in h and k, where A, B and the other coefficients
involve a'and /. This gives k/h= A/B-f terms which tend to
vanish as h and k do, so that A : B is the limiting value tended to
byfe :h. Hence the equation of the tangent is B(y y')+A(x #')=o.
The normal at (*', y') is the line through it at right angles to the
tangent, and its equation is A(y y') B(x *')=o.
In the case of the conic (a, b, c, f, g, h) (x, y, i) 2 =o we find that
A/B = (ax'+hy+g)l(hx'+by+f).
We can obtain the coordinates of Q, the intersection of the normals
QP, QP' at (x', y') and (x'+h, y+k), and then, using the limiting
value of Jk : ft, deduce those of its limiting position as P' moves up
to P. This is the centre of curvature of the curve at P (x', y'), and
is so called because it is the centre of the circle of closest contact
with the curve at that point. That it is so follows from the facts
that the closest circle is the limit tended to by the circle which touches
the curve at P and passes through P', and that the arc from P to P'
of this circle lies between the circles of centre Q and radii QP, QP',
which circles tend, not to different limits as P' moves up to P, but
to one. The distance from P to the centre of curvature is the radius
of curvature.
21. Differential Plane Geometry. The language and notation of the
differential calculus are very useful in the study of tangents and
curvature. Denoting by (, ij) the current coordinates, we find,
as above, that the tangent at a point (x, y) of a curve is try =
(tr-x)dy/dx, where dy/dx is found from the equation of the curve. If
this be/(x, y) =o the tangent is (-x) (df/dx) + (iry) (df/dy) =o. If p
and (a, jS) are the radius and centre of curvature at (x, y) , we find that
q(tt-x) =-p(i+f*),q(P-y) = !+/>*, gV = (!+/>*), where p, q denote
dy/dx, d*y/dx l respectively. (See INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.)
In any given case we can, at all events in theory, eliminate x, y
between the above equations for a* and ft y, and the equation
of the curve. The resulting equation in (o, ff) represents the locus
of the centre of curvature. This is the evolute of the curve.
22. Polar Coordinates. In plane geometry the distance of any
point P from a fixed origin (or pole) O, and th inclination xOP of OP
[ANALYTICAL
to a fixed line Ox, determine the point : r, the numerical measure
of OP, the radius vector, and B, the circular measure of *OP, the
inclination, are called polar coordinates of P. The formulae x =
r cos 9,y = r sin 6 connect Cartesian and polar coordinates, and make
transition from either system to the other easy. In polar coordinates
the equations of a circle through O, and of a conic with O as focus,
take the simple forms r = 2a cos (0-a), r\i-e cos (9-a)| =/. The
use of polar coordinates is very convenient in discussing curves
which have properties of symmetry akin to that of a regular polygon,
such curves for instance as r=a cos mS, with m integral, and also the
curves called spirals, which have equations giving r as functions of
8 itself, and not merely of sin 6 and cos 6. In the geometry of
motion under central forces the advantage of working with polar
coordinates is great.
23. Trilinear and Area! Coordinates. Consider a fixed triangle
ABC, and regard its sides as produced without limit. Denote, as
in trigonometry, by a, b, c the positive numbers of units of a chosen
scale contained in the lengths BC, CA, AB, by A, B, C the angles,
and by A the area, of the triangle. We might, as in 6, take CA,
CB as axes of x and y, inclined at an angle C. Any point P (*, y)
in the plane is at perpendicular distances y sin C and * sin C from
CA and CB. Call these and a respectively. The signs of ft and a
are those of y and x, i.e. ft is positive or negative according as P lies
on the same side of CA as B does or the opposite, and similarly for o.
An equation in (x, y) of any degree may, upon replacing in it x and y
by a cosec C and ft cosec C, be written as one of the same degree in
(o, ft). Now let y be the perpendicular distance of P from the third
side AB, taken as positive or negative as P is on the C side of AB or
not. The geometry of the figure tells us that aa+bft+cy = 2&.
By means of this relation in a, ft, y we can give an equation con-
sidered countless other forms, involving two or all of a, ft, y. In
particular we may make it homogeneous in a, ft, y: to do this we
have only to multiply the terms of every degree less than the highest
present in the equation by a power of (aa+bft+cy)/2A just sufficient
to raise them, in each case, to the highest degree.
We call (o, ft, y) trilinear coordinates, and an equation in them
the trilinear equation of the locus represented. Trilinear equations
are, as a rule, dealt with in their homogeneous forms. An advantage
thus gained is that we need not mean by (o, ft, y) the actual measures
of the perpendicular distances, but any properly signed numbers
which have the same ratio two and two as these distances.
In place of a, ft, y it is lawful to use, as coordinates specifying
the position of a point in the plane of a triangle of reference ABC,
any given multiples of these. For instance, we may use x = aa/2&,
y = bft/2&, z = c>/2A, the properly signed ratios of the triangular
areas PBC, PCA, PAB to the triangular area ABC. These are called
the areal coordinates of P. In areal coordinates the relation which
;nables us to make any equation homogeneous takes the simple
form x+y+z=i; and, as before, we need mean by x, y, z, in a
lomogeneous equation, only signed numbers in the right ratios.
Straight lines and conies are represented in trilinear and in areal,
Decause in Cartesian, coordinates by equations of the first and
second degrees respectively, and these degrees are preserved when
the equations are made homogeneous. What must be said about
joints infinitely far off in order to make universal the statement,
:o which there is no exception as long as finite distances alone are
considered, that every homogeneous equation of the first degree
represents a straight line? Let the point of areal coordinates
(x , y', z') move infinitely far off, and mean by x, y, z finite quantities
n the ratios which *', y', z' tend to assume as they become infinite.
The relation x'+y'+z' = i gives that the limiting state of things
:ended to is expressed by x+y+z=o. This particular equation of
the first degree is satisfied by no point at a finite distance; but we
see the propriety of saying that it has to be taken as satisfied by
all the points conceived of as actually at infinity. Accordingly the
special property of these points is expressed by saying that they lie
on a special straight line, of which the areal equation is x+y+z=o.
In trilinear coordinates this line at infinity has for equation aa+bft+
cy = o.
On the one special line at infinity parallel lines are treated as
meeting. There are on it two special (imaginary) points, the circular
joints at infinity of 19, through which all circles pass in the same
In fact if S = O be one circle, in areal coordinates,
+z) (Ix+my+nz) =o may, by proper choice of /, m, n, be
made any other; since the added terms are once Ix+my+nz, and
lave the generality of any expression like a'x+b'y+c' in Cartesian
coordinates. Now these two circles intersect in the two points where
either meets x+y+z=o as well as in two points on the radical axis
x+my+nz=o.
24. Let us consider the perpendicular distance of a point (o', ft 1 , y')
torn a line la+mft+ny. We can take rectangular axes of Cartesian
coordinates (for clearness as to equalities of angle it is best to
choose an origin inside ABC), and refer to them, by putting expres-
sions p x cos 8 y sin 9, &c., for a &c.; we can then apply 16 to
get the perpendicular distance; and finally revert to the trilinear
notation. The result is to find that the required distance is
(la 1 +mff +ny')l\l, m,n\,
where |/, m, n\ i = P+m*+n t 2mn cos A 2nl cos B 2lm cos C.
In area! coordinates the perpendicular distance from (*', /, I*)
ANALYTICAL]
GEOMETRY
717
to l*+ y+-o U aA(ix'-f my'+nt')/ {al. bm. cn\. In both cue*
the coordinate* are of course actual values.
Now let {. 4. f be the perpendiculars on the line from the vertices
A, B, C. .. the points (I. o, o), (o. I. o), (o, o, i). with signs in
accord with a convention that oppositeness of sign implies dis-
tinction between one side of the line and the other. Three applica-
tions of the result above give
|// - 2A/ \al. bm, cn\ - ,/* - f / ;
and we thus have the important fact that fct'+irv'+t*' is the
perpendicular distance between a point of area! coordinates (x y I )
aada line on which the perpendiculars from A, B, C are f, if, {
reflectively. We have also that {x+ty+f-o is the areal equation
of the line on which the perpendiculars are . *, f ; and, by equating
the two expressions for the perpendiculars from (x . /, r) on the
line, that in all cases |o{. ft,. cfl 1 -^'.
25. Litu^oordinatts. Duality A quite different order of ideas
may be followed in applying analysis to geometry. The notion of a
straight line specified may precede that of a point, and points may
be dealt with as the intersections of lines. The specification of
a line may be by means of coordinates, and that of a point by an
equation, satisfied by the coordinates of lines which pass through it.
Systems of line-coordinates will here be only briefly considered.
Every such system is allied to some system of point -coordinates;
mA ipoce will be saved by giving prominence to this fact, and not
recommencing oft inttio.
Suppose that any particular system of point-coordinates, in which
Ix+my + ns-o may represent any straight line, is before us: notice
that not only are trilinear and areal coordinates such systems, but
Cartesian coordinates also, since we may write x/, y/i for the
Cartesian x, y. and multiply through by . The line is exactly
assigned if I, m, n, or their mutual ratios, are known. Call (/, m, M
the coordinates of the line. Now keep x, y. i constant, and let the
coordinates of the line vary, but always so as to satisfy the equation.
This equation, which we now write xl+ym+tno, is satisfied by
the coordinates of every line through a certain fixed point, and by
those of no other line; it is the equation of that point in the line-
coordinates /, m, n.
Line-coordinates are also called tangential coordinates. A curve
is the envelope of lines which touch it. as well as the locus of points
which lie on it. A homogeneous equation of degree above the first
in /, m. m is a relation connecting the coordinates of every line which
ItruchfT some curve, and represents that curve, regarded as an
envelope. For instance, the condition that the line of coordinates
(/, M, ), i.e. the line of which the allied point-coordinate equation
tt'lx+my+**-o, may touch a conic (a, b, c, f, g, h)(x, y. sj'-o,
i* readily found to be of the form (A, B, C. F, G, H)(/, m, n)'-o,
i.. to be of the second degree in the line-coordinates. It is not hard
to show that the general equation of the second degree in /, m, n
thus represents a conic ; but the degenerate conies of line-coordinates
are not line-pairs, as in point -coordinates, but point-pairs.
The degree of the point-coordinate equation of a curve is _ the
rrfer of the curve, the number of points m which it cuts a straight
line. That of the line-coordinate equation is its class, the number
of tangent* to it from a point. The order and class of a curve are
generally different when either exceeds two.
26. The system of line-coordinates allied to the areal system of
point -coordinates has special interest.
The /. m, n of this system are the perpendiculars f , ij, f of J 24 ;
and . t '{-j-/*+j'f -o is the equation of the point of areal coordinates
(jr'. /, i*), i.e. is a relation which the perpendiculars from the vertices
of the triangle of reference on every line through the point, but no
other line, satisfy. Notice that a non-homogeneous equation of the
first degree in f , n. f does not, as a homogeneous one does, represent
a point, but a circle. In fact x't+y'ii+e'r-R expresses the con-
stancy of the perpendicular distance of the fixed point ar{+y>+
I'f -o from the variable line (f, ,. f), i.e. the fact that (, n. f) touches
a circle with the fixed point lor centre. The relation in any f, i), f
which enables us to make an equation homogeneous is not linear,
as in point-coordinates, but quadratic, viz. it is the relation {at, bit,
crt-4A* of I 24. Accordingly the homogeneous equation of the
4A'(*'t+r'*+T)'-R t |o. hi, eft*.
Every circle has an equation of this form in the present system of
line-coordinates. Notice that the equation of any circle is satisfied
by those coordinates of lines which satisfy both x'{-t-y'i+*'f ~>
the equation of iu centre, and [at, fc, cf|*-o. This last equation,
of which the left-hand side satisfies the condition for breaking up
into two factors, represents the two imaginary circular points at
infinity, through which all circles and their asymptotes pass.
There U strict duality in descriptive geometry between point-linc-
locus and line-point-envelope theorems. But in metrical geometry
duality is encumbered by the fact that there is in a plane one special
line only, associated with distance, while of special points, associated
with direction, there are two: moreover the line is real, and the
points both imaginary.
II. Solid Analytical Geometry.
rj. Any point in space may be specified by three coordinates.
We consider three fixed planes of reference, and generally, as in all
that follows, three which are at right angles two and two. They
intersect, two and two, in lines xT)x, y'Oy, t'Os, called the axes
of x, y, * respectively, and divide all space into eight parts called
octants. If from any point P in space we draw PN parallel to
tOi^ to meet the plane xOy in N, and then from N draw NM parallel
*' o
/
FIG. 57. FIG. 58.
to yOy' to meet x'Ox in M, the coordinates (x, y, ) of P are the
numerical measures of OM, MN, NP; in the case of rectangular
coordinates these are the perpendicular distances of P from the three
planes of reference. The sign of each coordinate is positive or
negative as P lies on one side or the other of the corresponding
plane. In the octant delineated the signs arc taken all positive.
In fig. 57 the delineation is on a plane of the paper taken parallel
to the plane *Ox, the points of a solid figure being projected on that
plane by parallels to some chosen line through O in the positive
octant. Sometimes it is clearer to delineate, as in fig. 58, by pro-
jection parallel to that line in the octant which is equally inclined to
Ox, Oy, O* upon a plane of the paper perpendicular to it. It is
possible by parallel projection to delineate equal scales along O*,
Oy, Oz by scales having any ratios we like along lines in a plane
having any mutual inclinations we like.
For the delineation of a surface of simple form it frequently
suffices to delineate the sections by the coordinate planes; and, in
particular, when the surface has symmetry about each coordinate
plane, to delineate the
quarter-sections _ be-
longing to a single
octant. Thus fig. 59
conveniently repre-
sents an octant of the
wave surface, which
cuts each coordinate
plane in a circle and
an ellipse. Or we may
delineate a series of
contour lines, i.e. sec-
tions by planes parallel
to xOy, or some other
chosen plane; of course
other sections may be
indicated too for
greater clearness. For
the delineation of a-
curve a good method
is to represent, as FIG. 59.
above, a series of points
P thereof, each accompanied by its ordmate PN, which serves to
refer it to the plane of xy. The employment of stereographic
projection is also interesting.
28. In plane geometry, reckoning the line as a curve of the first
order, we have only the point and the curve. In solid geometry,
reckoning a line as a curve of the first order, and the plane as a surface
of the first order, we have the point, the curve and the surface;
but the increase of complexity is far greater than_ would hence at
first sight appear. In plane geometry a curve is considered in
connexion with lines (its tangents); but in solid geometry the curve
is considered in connexion with lines and planes (its tangents and
osculating planes), and the surface also in connexion with lines and
planes (its tangent lines and tangent planes) ; there are surfaces
arising out of the line cones, skew surfaces, developables, doubly
and triply infinite systems of lines, and whole classes of theories
which have nothing analogous to them in plane geometry: it is thus
a very small part indeed of the subject which can be even referred
to in the present article.
In the case of a surface we have between the coordinates (x, -y. *)
a single, or say a onefold relation, which can be represented by a
single relation /(x, y, *)-o; or we may consider the coordinates
expressed each of them as a given function of two variable para-
meters p, q; the form *-/(x, y) is a particular case of each of these
modes of representation ; in other words, we have in the first mode
f(x, y, t)-t-f(x, y), and in the second mode x-p, y-? for the
expression of two of the coordinates in terms of the parameters.
718
GEOMETRY
[ANALYTICAL
In the case of a curve we have between the coordinates (*, y, z) a
twofold relation: two equations /(*, y, z)=o, <>(*, y, z)=o give
such a relation; t.. the curve is here considered as the intersection
of two surfaces (but the curve is not always the complete intersection
of two surfaces, and there are hence difficulties) ; or, again, the co-
ordinates may be given each of them as a function of a single variable
parameter. The form y = <t>(x) , z = <//(x) , where two of the coordinates
are given in terms of the third, is a particular case of each of these
modes of representation.
29. The remarks under plane geometry as to descriptive and
metrical propositions, and as to the non-metrical character of the
method of coordinates when used for the proof of a descriptive
proposition, apply also to solid geometry; and they might be
illustrated in like manner by the instance of the theorem of the radical
centre of four spheres. The proof is obtained from the consideration
that S and S' being each of them a function of the form x*+y*+z*+
ax+by+cz+d, the difference S S' is a mere linear function of the
coordinates, and consequently that S S'=o is the equation of the
plane containing the circle of intersection of the two spheres S = o
andS'=o.
30. Metrical Theory. The foundation in solid geometry of the
metrical theory is in fact the before-mentioned theorem that if a
finite right line PQ be projected upon any other line OO' by lines
perpendicular to OO', then the length of the
projection P'Q' is equal to the length of PQ
into the cosine of its inclination to P'Q' or
(in the form in which it is now convenient
to state the theorem) the perpendicular
distance P'Q' of two parallel planes is equal
to the inclined distance PQ into the cosine
of the inclination. The principle of 16,
that the algebraical sum of the projections of
the sides of any closed polygon on any line is
zero, or that the two sets of sides of the
polygon which connect a vertex A and a
vertex B have the same sum of projections
on the line, in sign and magnitude, as we pass
from A to B, is applicable when the sides do
not all lie in one plane.
31. Consider the skew quadrilateral QMNP,
the sides QM, MN, NP being respectively
parallel to the .three rectangular axes Ox,
Oy, Oz; let the lengths of these sides be
, i), f, and that of the side QP be = p; and
FIG. 60.
let the cosines of the inclinations (or say the cosine-inclinations) of
p to the three axes be o, ft, y, then projecting successively on
the three sides and on QP we have
. 1. f = pa. pft, PT,
and p = a{+/3ij-t-Yf,
whence p 2 = ? 2 +? 2 +J*, which is the relation between a distance p
and its projections |, ij, f upon three rectangular axes. And from
the same equations we obtain cf+ft i +y t = j , which is a relation con-
necting the cosine-inclinations of a line to three rectangular axes.
Suppose we have through Q any other line QT, and let the cosine-
inclinations of this to the axes be o', ft', y', and 5 be its cosine-
inclination to QP ; also let p be the length of the projection of QP
upon QT; then projecting on QT we have
And in the last equation substituting for {, i), f their values pa,
pft, py we find
S = aa'-h3|3'+rx',
which is an expression for the mutual cosine-inclination of two
lines, the cosine-inclinations of which to the axes are o, ft, y and
a', ft 1 , y' respectively. We have of course a 1 +ft 2 +y t =l and
a 'i-|-j3'2-j-yz = i ; an d hence also
= (07'-/3'7) 2 +(7a'-7'a) 2 +(a0'-aW 2 ;
so that the sine of the inclination can only be expressed as a square
root. These formulae are the foundation of spherical trigonometry.
32. Straight Lines, Planes and Spheres. The foregoing formulae
give at once the equations of these loci.
For first, taking Q to be a fixed point, coordinates (a, 6, c), and
the cosine-inclinations (o, ft, y) to be constant, then P will be a
point in the line through Q in the direction thus determined; or,
taking (x, y, z) for its coordinates, these will be the current co-
ordinates of a point in the line. The values of , TJ, f then are
xa, y b, zc, and we thus have
xa yb zc, .
~T" ft "(-
which (omitting the last equation, = p) are the equations of the line
through the point (o, b, c), the cosine-inclinations to the axes being
o, ft, y, and these quantities being connected by the relation
a 1 -r-0 l -r-7 2 = l. This equation may be omitted, and then a, ft, y,
instead of being equal, will only be proportional, to the cosine-
inclinations.
Using the last equation, and writing
*, y, z = a + op, b+ftp, c-\-yp,
these are expressions for the current coordinates in terms of a
parameter p, which is in fact the distance from the fixed point
(a, b, c).
It is easy to see that, if the coordinates (x, y, z) are connected by
any two linear equations, these equations can always be brought
into the foregoing form, and hence that the two linear equations
represent a line.
Secondly, taking for greater simplicity the point Q to be coincident
with the origin, and a', ft', y', p to be constant, then p is the perpen-
dicular distance of a plane from the origin, and o', ft', y' are the cosine-
inclinations of this distance to the axes (a' 2 -r-/3' 2 -rV 2 = l). P is
any point in this plane, and taking its coordinates to be (x, y, z) then
(. f. f) are = (*. y, z), and the foregoing equation p = a'f+j8'ij-f-7'f
becomes
a'x+ft'y+y'z = p,
which is the equation of the plane in question.
If, more generally, Q is not coincident with the origin, then,
taking its coordinates to be (o, b, c), and writing pi instead of p, the
equation is
a'(x-a)+ft'(y-b)+y'(z-c)=p l ;
and we thence have pi=p (aa'+bft'+cy'), which is an expression
for the perpendicular distance of the point (a, b, c) from the plane
in question.
It is obvious that any linear equation Az+By+Cz+D = o between
the coordinates can always be brought into the foregoing form,
and hence that such an equation represents a plane.
Thirdly, supposing Q to be a fixed point, coordinates (a, 6, c),
and the distance QP, =p, to be constant, say this is =d, then, as
before, the values of , 17, f are xa, yb, zc, and the equation
= (? becomes
which is the equation of the sphere, coordinates of the centre = (a,b,c),
and radius = d.
A quadric equation wherein the terms of the second order are
* 2 +y+z 2 i viz. an equation
* 2 +y 2 +z 2 +A*+By+Cz-f D =o,
can always, it is clear, be brought into the foregoing form ; and it
thus appears that this is the equation of a sphere, coordinates of
the centre -JA, -JB, -$C, and squared radius = i (A 2 + B 2 +C 2 )-D.
33. Cylinders, Cones, ruled Surfaces. If the two equations of a
straight line involve a parameter to which any value may be given,
we have a singly infinite system of lines. They coyer a surface, and
the equation of the surface is obtained by eliminating the parameter
between the two equations.
If the lines all pass through a given point, then the surface is a
cone; and, in particular, if the lines are all parallel to a^given line,
then the surface is a cylinder.
Beginning with this last case, suppose the lines are parallel to
the line x = mz, y=nz, the equations of a line of the system are
x = mz+a, y = nz+&, where a, b are supposed to be functions of
the variable parameter, or, what is the same thing, there is between
them a relation f(a, b)o: we have a = x mz, b = ynz, and the
result of the elimination of the parameter therefore is f(xmz,
y nz)=o, which is thus the general equation of the cylinder the
generating lines whereof are parallel to the line x=mz, y=nz. The
equation of the section by the plane z = O isf(x, y) =o, and conversely
if the cylinder be determined by means of its curve of intersection
with the plane z=o, then, taking the equation of this curve to be
/(*, y) =o, the equation of the cylinder is f(x mz, y nz) =o. Thus,
if the curve of intersection be the circle (* o) 2 +(y ft) t = y 1 , we
have (x mz a) 2 +(y nz /3) 2 = 7 a as the equation of an oblique
cylinder on this base, and thus also (x a) 2 -f-(y /3) 2 = 7 2 as the
equation of the right cylinder.
If the lines all pass through a given point (a, b, c), then the equa-
tions of a line are x a = o(z c), yb = ft(zc), where a, ft are
functions of the variable parameter, or, what is the same thing,
there exists between them an equation /(a, 0)=o; the elimination
of the parameter gives, therefore, /(r^-, ^17) = ! an< ^ this
equation, or, what is the same thing, any homogeneous equation
/(xa, y b, zc)=o, or, taking / to be a rational and integral
function of the order n, say (*) (xa, yb, z c)" = o,is the general
equation of the cone having the point (o, 6, c) for its vertex. Taking
the vertex to be at the origin, the equation is (*) (x, y, z) n =o; and,
in particular, (*) (x, y, z)*=o is the equation of a cone of the second
order, or quadricone, having the origin for its vertex.
34. In the general case of a singly infinite system of lines, the
locus is a ruled surface (or regulus). Now, when a line is changing
its position in space, it may be looked upon as in a state of turning
about some point in itself, while that point is, as a rule, in a state of
moving out of the plane in which the turning takes place. If in-
stantaneously it is only in a state of turning, it is usual, though not
strictly accurate, to say that it intersects its consecutive po_sition.
A regulus such that consecutive lines on it do not intersect, in this
sense, is called a skew surface, or scroll; one on which they do is
called a developable surface or torse.
Suppose, for instance, that the equations of a line (depending on
ANALYTICAL)
GEOMETRY
719
the variable parameter ) are ;+*-(+) M'K'"
then, eliminating . we have fj-jl- 1 -$ ^ "^ ? +?"?" !>
the equation of a quadric surface, afterwards called the hyperboloid
at one iheet ; this Mirface is consequently a scroll. It is to be re-
marked that we have upon the surface a second singly infinite
series of line*; the equation* of a line of this second system (de-
pending on the variable parameter 4) are
It is easily shown that any line of the one system intersects every
line of the other system.
Considering any curve (of double curvature) whatever, the tangent
lines of the curve form a singly infinite system of lines, each line
intersecting the consecutive line of the system, that is, they form
a developable, or tone; the curve and torse are thus inseparably
connected together, forming a single geometrical figure. An osculat-
ing plane of the curve (see $ 38 below) is a tangent plane of the torse
all a long a generating line.
35. Transformation of Coordinates. There is no difficulty in
changing the origin, and it is for brevity assumed that the origin
remains unaltered. We have. then, two sets of rectangular axes,
Ox. Oy, Oz, and Oxi. Oyi, Oft. the mutual cosine-inclinations being
shown by the diagram
X
9
1
Xl
1
yi
a'
0'
y'
S|
a"
/*'
-,'
that is, , ft, i are the cosine-inclinations of Oxi to Ox, Oy, Oz;
'.0W those of Oyi.ftc.
And this diagram gives also the linear expressions of the co-
ordinates (XL y\, ii) or (x, y. z) of cither set in terms of those of the
other set ; we thus have
xi- x+0 y+y t, x-xi+a'yi+a'z,,
-*i+0.+0V
z,-'x+0'y-rVz. z
which are obtained by projection, as above explained. Each of
these equations is, in fact, nothing else than the before-mentioned
equation 'f+0'ii+Vf, adapted to the problem in hand.
But we have to consider the relations between the nine coefficients.
By what precedes, or by the consideration that we must have
identically *+/+* -*i*+yi t +*i 1 , it appears that these satisfy
the relations
.1, a+a" +C* 1 -1,
1. t +0* +0" -1.
,1 > . 7+y +? -1,
o. 0T+0V+0V-0,
* -i-0*0 +y'y -0, 7sy4-tV-Hr***ft
either set of six equations being implied in the other set.
It follows that the square of the determinant
'. ft'. .
is-l; and hence that the determinant itself is- *l. The dis-
tinction of the two cases is an important one: if the determinant is
-+l, then the axes Oxi, Oyi. Ozj are such that they can by a
rotation about O be brought to coincide with Ox, Oy, Oz respect-
ively; if it is- -I, then they cannot. But in the latter case, by
measuring x\, y,. t, in the opposite directions we change the signs of
all the coefficients and so make the determinant to be +l ; hence
the former case need alone be considered, and it is accordingly
assumed that the determinant is - +1. This being so, it is found
that we have the equality a-0V-0V, and el ? ht '' ke ones '
obtained from this by cyclical interchanges of the letters a, 0, y,
and of unaccented, singly and doubly accented letters.
36. The nine cosine-inclinations above are, as has been seen,
connected by six equations. It ought then to be possible to express
them all in terms of three parameters. An elegant means of doing
this has been given by Rodrigues. who has shown that the tabular
expression of the formulae of transformation may be written
y *
p*-*)
the meaning being that the coefficients in the transformation arc
fractions, with numerators expressed as in the table, and the common
37. The Species of Quadric Surfaces. Surfaces represented by
equations of the second degree are called quadric surfaces. Quadric
surfaces arc either proper or special. The special ones arise when the
coefficients in the general equation are limited to satisfy certain
special equations; they comprise (i) plane-pairs, including in
particular one plane twice repeated, and (a) cones, including in
particular cylinders; there is out one form of cone, but cylinders
may be elliptic, parabolic or hyperbolic.
A discussion of the general equation of the second degree shows
that the proper quadric surfaces are of five kinds, represented
respectively, when referred to the most convenient axes of reference,
by equations of the five types (a and b positive) :
! st
z- +2-T, elliptic paraboloid.
(O
(2)
(3)
(4)
to>
It is at once seen that these are distinct surfaces; and the equa-
tions also show very readily the
general form and mode of genera-
tion of the several surfaces.
In the elliptic paraboloid (fig. 6l)
the sections by the planes of zx and
zy are the parabolas
t- ^r, hyperbolic paraboloid.
+3 -i, ellipsoid.
j= i, hyperboloid of one sheet.
5j- i ,' hvperboloid of two sheets.
having the common axes Oz; and
the section by any plane z 7
parallel to that of xy is the ellipse
so that the surface is generated by
a variable ellipse moving parallel to itself along the parabolas as
directrices.
In the hyperbolic paraboloid (figs. 62 and 63) the sections by the
planes of zx, zy are the parabolas z**x-,z = ~gj> having the opposite
axes Oz, Oz*, and the section by a plane Z-T parallel to that of
xy is the hyperbola y s- ~oTt which has its transverse axis parallel
to Ox or Oy according as y is positive or negative. The surface is thus
generated by a variable hyperbola moving parallel to itself along
the parabolas as directrices. The form is best seen from fig. 63,
which represents the sec-
tions by planes parallel to
the plane of xy, or say the
contour lines; the con-
tinuous lines are the sec-
tions above the plane of
xy, and the dotted lines
the sections below this
plane. The form is, in
Fact, that of a saddle.
In the ellipsoid (fig. 64)
the sections by the planes
of zx, zy, and xy are each
of them an ellipse, and the
section by any parallel -^
plane is also an ellipse, y
The surface may be con- FIG. 64.
sidered as generated by
an ellipse moving parallel to itself along two ellipses as directrices.
720
GEOMETRY
[ANALYTICAL
In the hyperboloid of one sheet (fig. 65), the sections by the planes
of sx, zy are the hyperbolas
a? !? . z .
7"?" 1 'P"F" 1>
having a common conjugate axis zOz'; the section by the plane of
*, y, and that by any parallel plane, is an ellipse; and the surface
may be considered as generated by a variable ellipse moving parallel
to itself along the two hyperbolas as directrices. If we imagine two
equal and parallel circular disks, their points connected by strings
of equal lengths, so that these are the generators of a right circular
cylinder, and if we turn one of the disks about its centre through an
angle in its plane, the strings in their new positions will be one
system of generators of a hyperboloid of one sheet, for which a = 6;
and if we turn it through the same angle in the opposite direction,
FIG. 65.
we get in like manner the generators of the other system ; there will
be the same general configuration when a 4= b. The hyperbolic
paraboloid is also covered by two systems of rectilinear generators
as a method like that used in 34 establishes without difficulty.
The figures should be studied to see how they can lie.
In the hyperboloid of two sheets (fig. 66) the sections by the planes
of zx and zy are the hyperbolas
* r* " 2
Jrs?" 1 . 1 3
having a common transverse axis along z'Oz; the section by any
plane z= 7 parallel to that of xy is the ellipse
provided 7 2 >c 2 , and the_surface, consisting of two distinct portions
or sheets, may be considered as generated by a variable ellipse
moving parallel to itself along the hyperbolas as directrices.
38. Differential Geometry of Curves. For convenience consider the
coordinates (x, y, z) of a point on a curve in space to be given as
functions of a variable parameter 0, which may in particular be one
of themselves. Use the notation x', x" for dx/d$, d 2 x/dS*, and simi-
larly as to y and z. Only a few formulae will be given. Call the
current coordinates (, if, f).
The tangent at (x, y, z) is the line tended to as a limit by the
connector of (x, y, z) and a neighbouring point of the curve when the
latter moves up to the former: its equations are
The osculating plane at (x, y, z) is the plane tended to as a limit by
that through (x, y, z) and two neighbouring points of the curve as
these, remaining distinct, both move up to (x, y, z) : its one equation
The normal plane is the plane through (x, y, z) at right angles to the
tangent line, i.e. the plane
It cuts the osculating plane in a line called the principal normal.
Every line through (x, y, z) in the normal plane is a normal. The
normal perpendicular to the osculating plane is called the binormal.
A tangent, principal normal, and binormal are a convenient set of
rectangular axes to use as those of reference, when the nature of a
curve near a point on it is to be discussed.
Through (x, y, z) and three neighbouring points, all on the curve,
passes a single sphere ; and as the three points all move up to (x, y, z)
continuing distinct, the sphere tends to a limiting size and position.
The limit tended to is the sphere of closest contact with the curve at
*, y, z) \ its centre and radius are called the centre and radius of
spherical curvature. It cuts the osculating plane in a circle, called the
circle of absolute curvature ; and the centre and radius of this circle
are the centre and radius of absolute curvature. The centre of
absolute curvature is the limiting position of the point where the
principal normal at (*, y,z) is cut by the normal plane at a neighbour-
ing point, as that point moves up to (x, y, z).
39. Differential Geometry of Surfaces. Let (x, y, z) be any chosen
point on a surface /(*, y, z) =o. As a second point of the surface
moves up to (x, y, z), its connector with (x, y, z) tends to a limiting
position, a tangent line_ to the surface at (x, y, z). All these tangent
lines at (x, y, z), obtained by approaching (x, y, z) from different
directions on a surface, lie in one plane
This plane is called the tangent plane at (x, y, z). One line through
(*, y, z) is at right angles to the tangent plane. This is the normal
<*-*) /-<,-,) /-<r-
ve Y dx " *'/ dy ^
The tangent plane is cut by the surface in a curve, real or imaginary,
with a node or double point at (x, y, z). Two of the tangent lines
touch this curve at the node. They are called the " chief tangents "
(Haupt-tangenlen) at (x, y, z) ; they have closer contact with the
surface than any other tangents.
In the case of a quadric surface the curve of intersection of a
tangent and the surface is of the second order and has a node,
it must therefore consist of two straight lines. Consequently a
quadric surface is covered by two sets of straight lines, a pair through
every point on it ; these are imaginary for the ellipsoid, hyperboloid
of two sheets, and elliptic paraboloid.
A surface of any order is covered by two singly infinite systems
of curves, a pair through every point, the tangents to which are all
chief tangents at their respective points of contact. These are
called chief-tangent curves; on a quadric surface they are the above
straight lines.
40. The tangents at a point of a surface which bisect the angles
between the chief tangents are called the principal tangents at the
point. They are at right angles, and together with the normal
constitute a convenient set of rectangular axes to which to refer the
surface when its properties near the point are under discussion.
At a special point which is such that the chief tangents there run
to the circular points at infinity in the tangent plane, the principal
tangents are indeterminate; such a special point is called an umbilic
of the surface.
There are two singly infinite systems of curves on a surface, a
pair cutting one another at right angles through every point upon it,
all tangents to which are principal tangents of the surface at their
respective points of contact. These are called lines of curvature,
because of a property next to be mentioned.
As a point Q moves in an arbitrary direction on a surface from
coincidence with a chosen point P, the normal at it, as a rule, at
once fails to meet the normal at P; but, if it takes the direction of a
line of curvature through P, this is instantaneously not the case.
We have thus on the normal two centres of curvature, and the
distances of these from the point on the surface are the two principal
radii of curvature of the surface at that point ; these are also the radii
of curvature of the sections of the surface by planes through the
normal and the two principal tangents respectively; or say they are
the radii of curvature of the normal sections through the two principal
tangents respectively. Take at the point the axis of z in the direction
of the normal, and those of x and y in the directions of the principal
tangents respectively, then, if the radii of curvature be a, b (the signs
being such that the coordinates of the two centres of curvature are
z = a and z = 6 respectively), the surface has in the neighbourhood
of the point the form of the paraboloid
and the chief-tangents are determined by the equation o = -
r-
The two centres of curvature may be on the same side of the point
or on opposite sides; in the former case a and b have the same sign,
the paraboloid is elliptic, and the chief -tangents are imaginary;
in the latter case a and 6 have opposite signs, the paraboloid is
hyperbolic, and the chief-tangents are real.
The normal sections of the surface and the paraboloid by the same
plane have the same radius of curvature; and it thence readily
follows that the radius of curvature of a normal section of the surface
by a plane inclined at an angle 9 to that of zx is given by the equation
1 cos 2 8 . sin^
P = +
The section in question is that by a plane through the normal
and a line in the tangent plane inclined at an angle 6 to the principal
tangent along the axis of *. To complete the theory, consider the
section by a plane having the same trace upon the tangent plane,
but inclined to the normal at an angle <t>; then it is shown without
difficulty (Meunier's theorem) that the radius of curvature of this
inclined section of the surface is =p cos <t>.
AUTHORITIES. The above article is largely based on that by
Arthur Cayley in the oth edition of this work. Of early and im-
portant recent publications on analytical geometry, special mention
LINE]
is to be made of R. Descartes, Giomtlrie (Leyden, 1637); John
GEOMETRY
721
analyst* infinitoritm. ii. (Lausanne, 1748); Gaspard Monge, " Appli-
cation d'afgebre a la geometric" (Jour*. Stole Polyttck., 1801);
Julius PtOcker. Analytisfk-tffmttnscke BMvfcMMfM, 3 Bde.
(E*sen. 1838-1831); System der anolytischen Geometrie (Berlin,
1835); G. Salmon. A Treatise on Conic Sections (Dublin, 1848;
6th ed., London, 1879); Ch. Briot and J. Bouquet, Lemons de t.to-
mmne tnolytique (Paris, 1851; i6th ed.. 1897); M. Chasles, Traitt
<U ftomttrie suptriettre (Pans, 1852); Wilhelm Fiedler, Analytiscke
Geometrie der kttelschnitte nach G. Salmon frci bcarbeitet (Leipzig.
e Aufl.. 1887-1888); N. M. Ferrers, An Elementary Treatise on
Trtltnear Coordinates (London, 1 861); Otto Hesse, Vorlesungrn
tu der analytistken Geometrie (Leipzig. 1865. 1881); W. A. Whit-
worth. Trilinear Coordinates and other Methods of Modern Analytical
Gmmitry (Cambridge. 1866); J. Booth, A Treatise on Some New
Geometrical Methods (London, i., 1873; ii., 1877); A. Clebsch-
F. Lindemann, Vorlesunffn vber Geometrie, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1876,
ate Aufl., 1891); R. Baltser, Analytiscke Geometrie (Leipzig, 1882);
Charlotte A. Scott, Modem Methods of Analytical Geometry (London,
1894); G. Salmon. A Treatise on the Analytical Geometry of three
Dimensions (Dublin, 1863; 4th ed., 1882); Salmon-Fiedler, Analy-
Geometrie des Raumes (Leipzig, 1863; 4te Aufl., 1898); P.
Frost, Solid Geometry (London, 3rd ed., 1886; 1st ed., Frost and
J. Wolstenholme). See also E. Pascal, Repertorio di matemaliche
snperiori, II. Geometria (Milan, 1900), and articles now appearing
in the EncyUopddie der mathematischen Wissenschaften, Bd. ui. I, 2.
(E. B. EL.)
V. LINK GEOMETRY
Line geometry is the name applied to those geometrical
investigations in which the straight line replaces the point as
element. Just as ordinary geometry deals primarily with points
and systems of points, this theory deals in the first instance
with straight lines and systems of straight lines. In two dimen-
sions there is no necessity for a special line geometry, inasmuch
as the straight line and the point are interchangeable by the
principle of duality; but in three dimensions the straight line
is its own reciprocal, and for the better discussion of systems
of lines we require some new apparatus, e.g., a system of co-
ordinates applicable to straight lines rather than to points.
The essential features of the subject are most easily elucidated
by analytical methods: we shall therefore begin with the notion
of line coordinates, and in order to emphasize the merits of the
system of coordinates ultimately adopted, we first notice a
system without these advantages, but often useful in special
investigations.
In ordinary Cartesian coordinates the two equations of a straight
line may be reduced to the form y rx+s, * tx+u, and r, s, I, u
may be regarded as the four coordinates of the line. These co-
ordinates lack symmetry: moreover, in changing from one base of
reference to another the transformation is not linear, so that the
degree of an equation is deprived of real significance. For purposes
of the general theory we employ homogeneous coordinates; if
*iyi*itp| and sty&fft are two points on the line, it is easily verified
that the six determinants of the array
i I
are in the same ratios for alt point-pairs on the line, and further,
that when the point coordinates undergo a linear transformation
to also do these six determinants. We therefore adopt these six
determinants for the coordinates of the line, and express them by the
symbols /, \, m, 11, n, r where 1-XiWi Xjit>i, X-yi* VjZi, &c.
There is the further advantage that if a\b,c\d, and OtbiCtdt be two
plane* through the line, the six determinants
a\b\c\d\ I
are in the same ratios as the foregoing, so that except as regards a
factor of proportionality we have X-ti 6^1, 1eAejli, &c.
The identical relation l\+m^+ni"'o reduces the number of inde-
pendent constants in the six coordinates to four, for we are only
concerned with their mutual ratios; and the quadratic character
of this relation marks an essential difference between point geometry
and line geometry. The condition of intersection of two line* U
where the accented letters refer to the second line. If the coordinates
are Cartesian and /, m, n are direction cosines, the quantity on the
left is the mutual moment of the two lines.
Since a line depends on four constants, there are three distinct types
of configurations arising in line geometry those containing a triply-
infinite. a doubly- infinite and a singly-infinite number of lines; they
are called Complexes, Congruences, and Ruled Surfaces or Skews
respectively. A Complex is thus a system of lines satisfying one
condition that is, the coordinates are connected by a single relation;
and the degree of the complex is the degree of this equation supposing
it to be algebraic. The fines of a complex of the nth degree which
pass through any point lie on a cone of the nth degree, those which
lie in any plane envelop a curve of the nth class and there are n line*
of the complex in any plane pencil; the last statement combine*
the former two, for it shows that the cone is of the nth degree and
the curve is of the nth class. To find the lines common to four
complexes of degrees ni, n\, nj, n, we have to' solve five equations, viz.
the four complex equations together with the quadratic equation
connecting the line coordinates, therefore the number of common
lines is j^ninjn,. As an example of complexes we have the lines
meeting a twisted curve of the nth degree, which form a complex
of the nth degree.
A Congruence is the set of lines satisfying two conditions; thus
a finite number m of the lines pass through any point, and a finite
number n lie in any plane; these numbers are called the degree
and class respectively, and the congruence is symbolically written
(m, n).
The simplest example of a congruence is the system of line*
constituted by all those that pass through m points and those that
lie in n planes; through any other point there pass m of these lines,
and in any other plane there lie n, therefore the congruence is of
degree m and class n. It has been shown by G. H. Halphen that the
number of lines common to two congruences is mm'+nn', which may
be verified by taking one of them to be of this simple type. The
lines meeting two fixed lines form the general (i, i) congruence;
and the chords of a twisted cubic form the general type of a (i, 3)
congruence; Halphen 's result shows that two twisteu cubics have
in general ten common chords. As regards the analytical treatment,
the difficulty is of the same nature as that arising in the theory of
curves in space, for a congruence is not in general the complete
intersection of two complexes.
A Ruled Surface, Rcgulus or Skew is a configuration of lines
which satisfy three conditions, and therefore depend on only one
parameter. Such lines all lie on a surface, for we cannot draw one
through an arbitrary point ; only one line passes through a point of
the surface; the simplest example, that of a quadnc surface, is
really two skews on the same surface.
The degree of a ruled surface qua line geometry is the number of
its generating lines contained in a linear complex. Now the number
which meets a given line is the degree of the surface qua point geo-
metry, and as the lines meeting a given line form a particular case
of linear complex, it follows that the degree is the same from which-
ever point of view we regard it. The Tines common to three com-
plexes of degrees, n s n,ni, form a ruled surface of degree 2n l n J n J ;
but not every ruled surface is the complete intersection of three
complexes.
In the case of a complex of the first degree (or linear complex)
the lines through a fixed point lie in a plane called the polar plane
or nul-plane of that point, and those lying in a fixed plane uacmr
pass through a point called the nul-pcint or pole of the
plane. If the nul-plane of A pass through B, then the
nul-plane of B will pass through A; the nul-planes of all points on
one line l\ pass through another line It. The relation between l\ and
It is reciprocal; any line of the complex that meets one will also
meet the other.'and every line meeting both belongs to the complex.
They are called conjugate or polar lines with respect to the complex.
On these principles can be founded a theory of reciprocation with
respect to a linear complex.
This may be aptly illustrated by an elegant example due to A.
Voss. Since a twisted cubic can be made to satisfy twelve conditions,
it might be supposed that a finite number could be drawn to touch
four given lines, but this is not the case. For, suppose one such can
be drawn, then its reciprocal with respect to any linear complex
containing the four lines is a curve of the third class, i.e. another
twisted cubic, touching the same four lines, which are unaltered
in the process of reciprocation; as there is an infinite number of
complexes containing the four lines, there is an infinite number of
cubics touching the four lines, and the problem is poristic.
The following are some geometrical constructions relating to the
unique linear complex that can be drawn to contain five arbitrary
lines:
To construct the nul-plane of any point O, we observe that the
two lines which meet any four of the given five are conjugate lines
of the complex, and the line drawn through O to meet them is
therefore a ray of the complex; similarly, by choosing another
four we can find ancther ray through O: these rays lie in the nul-
plane, and there is clearly a result involved that the five lines so
obtained all lie in one plane. A reciprocal construction will enable
us to find the nul-point of any plane. Proceeding now to the metrical
properties and the statical and dynamical applications, we remark
that there is just one line such that the nul-plane of any point on it
is perpendicular to it. This is called the central axis; if d be the
shortest distance, 6 the angle between it and a ray of the complex,
then d tan 6 -p, where p is a constant called the pitch or parameter.
Any system of forces can be reduced to a force R along a certain line,
and a couple G perpendicular to that line; the lines of nul-moment
722
GEOMETRY
[LINE
for the system form a linear complex of which the given line is the
central axis and the quotient G/R is the pitch. Any motion of a
rigid body can be reduced to a screw motion about a certain line,
i.e. to an angular velocity ia about that line combined with a linear
velocity along the line. The plane drawn through any point
perpendicular to the direction of its motion is its nul-plane with
respect to a linear complex having this line for central axis, and the
quotient u/u for pitch (cf. Sir R. S. Ball, Theory of Screws).
The following are some properties of a configuration of two linear
complexes:
The lines common to the two-complexes also belong to an infinite
number of linear complexes, of which two reduce to single straight
lines. These two lines are conjugate lines with respect to each of
the complexes, but they may coincide, and then some simple modifi-
cations are required. The locus of the central axis of this system
of complexes is a surface of the third degree called the cylindroid,
which plays a leading part in the theory of screws as developed
synthetically by Bali. Since a linear complex has an invariant of
the second degree in its coefficients, it follows that two linear com-
plexes have a lineo-linear invariant. This invariant is fundamental :
if the complexes be both straight lines, its vanishing is the condition
of their intersection as given above; if only one of them be a straight
line, its vanishing is the condition that this line should belong to the
other complex. When it vanishes for any two complexes they
are said to be in involution or apolar; the mil-points P, Q of any
plane then divide harmonically the points in which the plane meets
the common conjugate lines, and each complex is its own reciprocal
with respect to the other. As regards a configuration of these
linear complexes, the common lines from one system of generators
of a quadric, and the doubly infinite system of complexes containing
the common lines, include an infinite number of straight lines which
form the other system of generators of the same quadric.
If the equation of a linear complex is AJ+Bwi+Cn+DX+EM-r-
FK=O, then for a line not belonging to the complex we may regard
. the expression on the left-hand side as a multiple of the
moment of the line with respect to the complex, the word
rdiaates moment being used in the statical sense; and we infer
" that when the coordinates are replaced by linear functions
of themselves the new coordinates are multiples of the moments
of the line with respect to six fixed complexes. The essential features
of this coordinate system are the same as those of the original one,
viz. there are six coordinates connected by a quadratic equation,
but this relation has in general a different form. By suitable choice
of the six fundamental complexes, as they may be called, this con-
necting relation may be brought into other simple forms of which
we mention two: (i.) When the six are mutually in involution it can
be reduced to x l *+xi>+xi'+x t *+x?+x l ? = o; (ii.) When the first
four are in involution and the other two are the lines common to
the first four it is xi>+Xi*+x 3 *+xi' 2*s* 6 = o. These generalized
coordinates might be explained without reference to actual magni-
tude, just as homogeneous point coordinates can be; the essential
remark is that the equation of any coordinate to zero represents a
linear complex, a point of view which includes our original system,
for the equation of a coordinate to zero represents all the lines
meeting an edge of the fundamental tetrahedron.
The system of coordinates referred to six complexes mutually
in involution was introduced by Felix Klein, and in many cases is
more useful than that derived directly from point coordinates; e.g.
in the discussion of quadratic complexes: by means of it Klein has
developed an analogy between line geometry and the geometry of
spheres as treated by G. Darboux and others. In fact, in that
geometry a point is represented by five coordinates, connected by a
relation of the same type as the one just mentioned when the five
fundamental spheres are mutually at right angles and the equation
of a sphere is of the first degree. Extending this to four dimensions
of space, we obtain an exact analogue of Tine geometry, in which
(i.) a point corresponds to a line; (ii.) a linear complex to a hyper-
sphere; (iii.) two linear complexes in involution to two orthogonal
hyperspheres; (iv.) a linear complex and two conjugate lines to
a hypersphere and two jnverse points. Many results may be obtained
by this principle, and more still are suggested by trying to extend
the properties of circles to spheres in three and four dimensions.
Thus the elementary theorem, that, given four lines, the circle*
circumscribed to the four triangles formed by them are concurrent,
may be extended to six hyperplanes in four dimensions; and then
we can derive a result in line geometry by translating the inverse
of this theorem. Again, just as there is an infinite number of spheres
touching a surface at a given point, two of them haying contact of a
closer nature, so there is an infinite number of linear complexes
touching a non-linear complex at a given line, and three of these
have contact of a closer nature (cf. Klein, Math. Ann. v.).
Sophus Lie has pointed out a different analogy with sphere
geometry. Suppose, in fact, that the equation of a sphere of radius
r is
so that r*= a* +&*-)-* d; then introducing the quantity e to make
this equation homogeneous, we may regard the sphere as given by
the six coordinates o, b, c, d, e, r connected by the equation O 2 4
r* de = o, and it is easy to see that two spheres touch if
the polar form 2aa i -{-2bb l +2cc 1 2rr l de 1 d 1 e vanishes. Com-
paring this with the equation x?+X'?- ! rx?+x?-2x& l =o given
above, it appears that this sphere geometry and line geometry are
identical, for we may write a = *i, & = x 2 , c = x 3 , r = x t 5 i, d = x it
e = J* 6 ; but it is to be noticed that a sphere is really replaced by two
lines whose coordinates only differ in the sign of x v so that they are
polar lines with respect to the complex * 4 = o. Two spheres which
touch correspond to two lines which intersect, or more accurately
to two pairs of lines (p, p') and(g, 3'). of which the pairs (p, a) and
(p', q') both intersect. By this means the problem of describing a
sphere to touch four given spheres is reduced to that of drawing a
pair of lines (t, t') (of which / intersects one line of the four pairs
(PP')> (l<l')< ( rr ')< ("'). and t' intersects the remaining four). We
may, however, ignore the accented letters in translating theorems,
for a configuration of lines and its polar with respect to a linear
complex have the same projective properties. In Lie's transforma-
tion a linear complex corresponds to the totality of spheres cutting a
given sphere at a given angle. A most remarkable result is that lines
of curvature in the sphere geometry become asymptotic lines in
the line geometry.
Some of the principles of line geometry may be brought into
clearer light by admitting the ideas of space of four and five
dimensions.
Thus, regarding the coordinates of a line as homogeneous co-
ordinates in five dimensions, we may say that line geometry is
equivalent to geometry on a quadric surface in five dimensions.
A linear complex is represented by a hyperplane section; and if
two such complexes are in involution, the corresponding hyperplanes
are conjugate with respect to the fundamental quadric. By pro-
jecting this quadric stereographically into space of four dimensions
we obtain Klein's analogy. In the same way geometry in a linear
complex is equivalent to geometry on a quadric in four dimensions;
when two lines intersect the representative points are on the same
generator of this quadric. Stereographic projection, therefore,
converts a curve in a linear complex, i.e. one whose tangents all
belong to the complex, into one whose tangents intersect a fixed
conic: when this conic is the imaginary circle at infinity the curve
is what Lie calls a minimal curve. Curves in a linear complex have
been extensively studied. The osculating plane at any point of such
a curve is the nul-plane of the point with respect to the complex,
and points of superosculation always coincide in pairs at the points
of contact of stationary tangents. When a point of such a curve is
given, the osculating plane is determined, hence all the curves through
a given point with the same tangent have the same torsion.
The lines through a given point that belong to a complex of the
nth degree lie on a cone of the nth degree: if this cone has a double
line the point is said to be a singular point. Similarly, ...
a plane is said to be singular when the envelope of the
lines in it has a double tangent. It is very remarkable ^j"'-
that the same surface is the locus of the singular points
and the envelope of the singular planes: this surface is called the
singular surface.and both its degree andclass are in general 2n(n-l) 1 ,
which is equal to four for the quadratic complex.
The singular lines of a complex F = o are the lines common to F
and the complex
SF JF
6F 8F JF
SI S\ 6m Sit Sn Sv
As already mentioned, at each line / of a complex there is an infinite
number of tangent linear complexes, and they all contain the lines
adjacent to /. If now / be a singular line, these complexes all reduce
to straight lines which form a plane pencil containing the line /.
Suppose the vertex of the pencil is A, its plane a, and one of its lines
, then I' being a complex line near I, meets {, or more accurately
the mutual moment of /', and is of the second order of small quan-
tities. If P be a point on /, a line through P quite near / in the plane
a will meet and is therefore a line of the complex; hence the
complex-cones of all points on / touch a and the complex-curves
of all planes through / touch / at A. It follows that / is a double
line of the complex-cone of A, and a double tangent of the complex-
curve of a. Conversely, a double line of a cone or curve is a singular
line, and a singular line clearly touches the curves of all planes
through it in the same point. Suppose now that the consecutive
line /is also a singular line, A' being the allied singular point, a'
the singular plane and ' any line of the pencil (A', a') so that {' is
a tangent line at /' to the complex: the mutual moments of the
pairs V, and /, f are each of the second order; hence the plane a'
meets the lines / and {' in two points very near A. This being true
for all singular planes, near o the point of contact of a with its
envelope is in A, i.e. the locus of singular points is the same as the
envelope of singular planes. Further, when a line touches a complex
it touches the singular surface, for it belongs to a plane pencil like
(Ao), and thus in Klein's analogy the analogue of a focus of a hyper-
surface being a bitangent line of the complex is also a bitangent line
of the singular surface. The theory of cosingular complexes is thus
brought into line with that of confocal surfaces in four dimensions,
and guided by these principles the existence of cosingular quadratic
complexes can easily be established, the analysis required being
I almost the same as that invented for confocal cyclides by Darboux
LINK]
GEOMETRY
723
and other*. CM cosingular complexes of higher degree nothing is
known.
Following J. I'lucker, we give an account of the lines of a quadratic
cosiinlri that meet a given line.
Toe cooti whose vertices are on the given line all pas through
eight fixed points and envelop a surface of the fourth degree: the
conic* whow planes contain tin- given line all lie on a surface of the
fourth claw and touch eight fixed planes. It is easy to see by ele-
mentary geometry that these two surfaces are identical. Further,
the given line contain* four singular points Ai, At, A, A 4 , and the
planes into which their cones degenerate are the eight common
tangent plane* mentioned above; similarly, there are Tour singular
planes, a,, at. a,, at, through the line, and the eight points into
which their conies degenerate are the eight common points above.
The locus of the pole of the line with respect to all the conies in
planes through it is a straight line called the polar line of the given
one; and through this line passes the polar plane of the given line
with respect to each of the cones. The name polar is applied in the
ordinary analytical sense; any line has an infinite number of polar
complexes with respect to the given complex, for the equation of the
latter can be written in an infinite number of ways; one of these
polar* is a straight line, and is the polar line already introduced.
The surface on which lie all the conies through a line / is called the
Pluckrr surface of that line: from the known properties of (2, 2)
correspondences it can be shown that the Pliicker surface of / cuts l\
in a range of the same cross ratio as that of the range in which the
PlQcker surface of l t cuts /. Applying this to the case in which l\
is the polar of /, we find that the cross ratios of (Ai, Ai, Ai, AO and
(,, ), at, at) are equal. The identity of the locus of the A's with the
envelope of the as follows at once; moreover, a line meets the
angular surface in four points having the same cross ratio as that
of the four tangent planes drawn through the line to touch the sur-
face. The Plucker surface has eight nodes, eight singular tangent
planes, and is. a double line. The relation between a line and its
polar line is not a reciprocal one with respect to the complex; but
W. Stahl has pointed out that the relation is reciprocal as far as the
singular surface is concerned.
To facilitate the discussion of the general quadratic complex we
introduce Klein's canonical form. We have, in fact, to
deal with two quadratic equations in six variables; and by
suitable linear transformations these can be reduced to the
form
o,x, +<HX, +atXi* +04X.' -1-aiXi 1 +Ot3Ct* - o
*.'+ *f+ *t+ *"+ *'+ atf-o
subject to certain exceptions, which will be mentioned later.
Taking the first equation to be that of the complex, we remark
that both equations are unaltered by changing the sign of any co-
ordinate; the geometrical meaning of this is, that the quadratic
complex is its own reciprocal with respect to each of the six funda-
mental complexes, for changing the sign of a coordinate is equivalent
to taking the polar of a line with respect to the corresponding
fundamental complex. It is easy to establish the existence of
six systems of bitangent linear complexes, for the complex
i o is a bitangent when
/i-o, and
-=o,
^ a\ Of o\ a\-a\ a^~ a\ ' at a\
and its line* of contact are conjugate lines with respect to the first
fundamental complex. We therefore infer the existence of six systems
of bitangent line* of the complex, of which the first is given by
a QI 0^ a\
Each of these line* is a bitangent of the singular surface, which is
therefore completely determined as being the focal surface of the
(3, a) congruence above. It is thence easy to verify that the two
complexes Zax* o and Zfaf* o are cosingular if b, <j,A -r->/<w +p.
Toe singular surface of the general quadratic complex is the
ftnvnn quartic, with sixteen nodes and sixteen singular tangent
pfa""*, first discovered by E. E. Kiimmer.
We cannot give a full account of its properties here, but we deduce
at once from the above that its bitangents break up into six (2, 2)
congruences, and the six linear complexes containing these are
mutually in involution. The nodes of the singular surface are points
whose complex cones are coincident planes, and the complex conic
in a singular tangent plane consist* of two coincident points. This
configuration of sixteen points and planes has many interesting
properties; thus each plane contain* six points which he on a conic,
while through each point there pass six planes which touch a quadric
cone. In many respect* the Kummer quartic plays .a part in three
i analogous
> to the general quartic curve in two; it further
fives natural representation of certain relations between hyper-
elliptic functions (cf. R. W. H. T. Hudson, Hammer's Quartic, 1905).
t be expected from the magnitude of a form in six variables,
r of projectivally distinct varieties of quadratic complexes
is very great; and in fact Adolf Weiler, by whom the
question was first systematically studied on lines indicated
by Klein, enumerated no fewer than forty-nine different
u types. But the principle of the classification is so im-
portant, and withal so simple, that we give a brief sketch
which indicates it* essential features.
We have practically to study the intersection of two quadrics
F and I- ' in six variables, and to classify the different cases arising
we make use of the results of Karl Weierstrass on the equivalence
conditions of two pairs of quadratics. As far as at present required,
they arc as follows: Supp<i*r that the factorized form of the deter-
minantal equation Disct (F+XF') o is
(X-a)'i+'i+V -(X-fl'i+'i+'rK ...
where the root a occurs fi-f-*i+i . . . times in the determinant.
it+st . . . times in every first minor, s+ . . . times in every second
minor, and so on; the meaning of each exponent is then perfectly
definite. Every factor of the type (X-o)' is called an elemrntarlheti
(elementary divisor) of the determinant, and the condition of equiva-
lence of two pairs of quadratics is -imply that their determinants have
the same elementary divisors. We write the pair of forms symbolic-
ally thus |(i|jj . . .), (/,/! . . .), . . .), letters in the inner brackets
referring to the same factor. Returning now to the two quadratics
representing the complex, the sum of the exponents will be six,
and two complexes arc put in the same class if they have the same
symbolical expression ; i. e. the actual values of the roots of the
determinantal equation need not be the same for both, but their
manner of occurrence, as far as here indicated, must be identical in
the two. The enumeration of all possible cases is thus reduced
to a simple question in combinatorial analysis, and the actual study
of any particular case is much facilitated by a useful rule of Klein B
for writing down in a simple form two quadratics belonging to a
given class one of which, of course, represents the equation con-
necting line coordinates, and the other the equation of the complex. .
The general complex is naturally [niiiij; the complex of tangents
to a quadric is '(ill), (m)l and that of lines meeting a conic is
[(222)]. Full information will be found in Weiler's memoir, Math.
Ann. vol. vii.
The detailed study of each variety of complex opens up a vast
subject; we only mention two special cases, the harmonic complex
and the tetrahedral complex.
The harmonic complex, first studied by Battaglini, is generated
in an infinite number of ways by the lines cutting two quadrics
harmonically. _ Taking the most general case, and referring the
quadrics to their common self-conjugate tetrahedron, we can find its
equation in a simple form, and verify that this complex really
depends only on seventeen constants, so that it is not the most
general quadratic complex. It belongs to the general type in so far
as it is discussed above, but the roots of the determinant are in in-
volution. The singular surface is the " tetrahcdroid " discussed by
Cay ley. As a particular case, from a metrical point of view, we have
L. F. Painvin's complex generated by the lines of intersection of
perpendicular tangent planes of a quadric, the singular surface now
being Fresnel's wave surface. The tetrahedral or Reye complex is
the simplest and best known of proper quadratic complexes. It is
generated by the lines which cut the faces of a tetrahedron in a
constant cross ratio, and therefore by those subtending the same
cross ratio at the four vertices. The singular surface is made up of
the faces or the vertices of the fundamental tetrahedron, and each
edge of this tetrahedron is a double line of the complex. The
complex was first discusssd by K. T. Reyc as the assemblage of lines
joining corresponding points in a homographic transformation of
space, and this point of view leads to many important and elegant
properties. A (metrically) particular case of great interest is the
complex generated by the normals to a family of confocal quadrics,
and for many investigations it is convenient to deal with this com-
plex referred to the principal axes. For example, Lie has developed
the theory of curves in a Reye complex (i.e. curves whose tangents
belong to the complex) as solutions of a differential equation of the
form (l>-c)xdydi+(c-a)ydzdx+(a-b)tdxtly=o, and we can simplify
this equation by a logarithmic transformation. Many theorems
connecting complexes with differential equations have been given
by Lie and his school. A line complex, in fact, corresponds to a
Mongian equation having j ' line integrals.
As the coordinates of a line belonging to a congruence are functions
of two independent parameters, the theory of congruences is analogous
to that of surfaces, and we may regard it as a fundamental _ ^^
inquiry to find the simplest form of surface into which
a given congruence can be transformed. Most of those
whose properties have been extensively discussed can be represented
on a plane by a birationa) transformation. But in addition to the
difficulties of the theory of algebraic surfaces, a subject still in it*
infancy, the theory of congruences has other difficulties in that a
congruence is seldom completely represented, even by two equations.
A fundamental theorem is that the lines of a congruence -are in
general bitangents of a surface; in fact, since the condition of inter-
section of two consecutive straight lines is ld\+dmdu+dndv = o, a
line / of the congruence meets two adjacent lines, say /] and It.
Suppose /, /i lie in the plane pencil (AiOi) and /, h in the plane pencil
(Ajo,), then the locus of the A's is the same as the envelope of the
o's, but <ii is the tangent plane at A, and a, at AI. This surface is
called the focal surface of the congruence, and to it all the lines /
are bitangent. The distinctive property of the points A is that two
of the congruence lines through them coincide, and in like manner
the planes a each contain two coincident lines. The focal surface
consists of two sheets, but one or both may degenerate into curves;
724
GEOMETRY
[NON-EUCLIDEAN
thus, for example, the normals to a surface are bitangents of the
surface of centres, and in the case of Dupin's cyclide this surface
degenerates into two conies.
In the discussion of congruences it soon becomes necessary to
introduce another number r, called the rank, which expresses the
number of plane pencils each of which contains an arbitrary line
and two lines of the congruence. The order of the focal surface is
am(n-i)-2r, and its class is m(m-i)-2r. Our knowledge of
congruences is almost exclusively confined to those in which either
m or n does not exceed two. We give a brief account of those of
the second order without singular lines, those of order unity not
being especially interesting. A congruence generally has singular
points through which an infinite number of lines pass; a singular
point is said to be of order r when the lines through it lie on a cone
of the rth degree. By means of formulae connecting the number of
singular points and their orders with the class m of quadratic con-
gruence Kummer proved that the class cannot exceed seven. The
focal surface is of degree four and class am; this kind of quartic
surface has been extensively studied by Kummer, Cayley, Rohn and
others. The varieties (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5) all belong to at
least one Reye complex; and so also does the most important class
of (2, 6) congruences which includes all the above as special cases.
The congruence (2, 2) belongs to a linear complex and forty different
Reye compjexes; as above remarked, the singular surface is
Rummer's sixteen-nodal quartic, and the same surface is focal for
six different congruences of this variety. The theory of (2, 2)
congruences is completely analogous to that of the surfaces called
cycfides in three dimensions. Further particulars regarding quad-
ratic congruences will be found in Kummer's memoir of 1866, and
the second volume of Sturm's treatise. The properties of quadratic
congruences haying singular lines, i.e. degenerate focal surfaces, are
not so interesting as those of the above class; they have been
discussed by Kummer, Sturm and others.
Since a ruled surface contains only , l elements, this theory is
practically the same as that of curves. If a linear complex contains
Kulcd more than n generators of a ruled surface of the nth degree,
turf aces. ** contains all the generators, hence for n = 2 there are
three linearly independent complexes, containing all the
generators, and this is a well-known property of quadric surfaces.
In ruled cubics the generators all meet two lines which may or may
not coincide; these two cases correspond to the two main classes of
cubics discussed by Cayley and Cremona. As regards ruled quartics,
the generators must lie in one and may lie in two linear complexes.
The first class is equivalent to a quartic in four dimensions and is
always rational, but the latter class has to be subdivided into the
elliptic and the rational, just like twisted quartic curves. A quintic
skew may not lie in a linear complex, and then it is unicursal, while of
sextics we have two classes not in a linear complex, viz. the elliptic
variety, having thirty-six places where a linear complex contains
six consecutive generators, and the rational, having six such
places.
The general theory of skews in two linear complexes is identical
with that of curves on a quadric in three dimensions and is known.
But for skews lying in only one linear complex there are difficulties ;
the curve now lies in four dimensions, and we represent it in three by
stereographic projection as a curve meeting a given plane in n points
on a conic. To find the maximum deficiency for a given degree would
probably be difficult, but as far as degree eight the space-curve
theory of Halphen and Nother can be translated into line geometry
at once. When the skew does not lie in a linear complex at all the
theory is more difficult still, and the general theory clearly cannot
advance until further progress is made in the study of twisted
curves.
REFERENCES. The earliest works of a general nature are Plucker,
Neue Geometric des Raumcs (Leipzig, 1868); and Kummer, " Uber
die algebraischen Strahlensysteme," Berlin Academy (1866). System-
atic development on purely synthetic, lines will be found in the
three volumes of Sturm, Liniengeometrie (Leipzig, 1892, 1893, 1896) ;
vol. i. deals with the linear and Reye complexes, vols. ii. and iii.
with quadratic congruences and complexes respectively. For a
highly suggestive review by Gino Loria see Bulletin des sciences
mathematiqttes (1893, 1807). A shorter treatise, giving a very
interesting account of Klein's coordinates, is the work of Koenigs,
La Geometric regtee et ses applications (Paris, 1898). English treatises
are C. M. Jessop, Treatise on the Line Complex (1903); R. W. H. T.
Hudson, Kummer's Quartic (1905). Many references to memoirs on
line geometry will be found in Hagen, Synopsis der] hoheren Mathe-
matik, ii. (Berlin, 1894) ; Loria, // passato ed ilpresente delle principal!
teorie geometriche (Milan, 1897); a clear resume of the principal
results is contained in the very elegant volume of Pascal, Repertorio
di mathematiche superiori, ii. (Milan, 1900). Another treatise dealing
extensively with line geometry is Lie, Geometrie der Beriihrungstrans-
formationen (Leipzig, 1896). Many memoirs on the subject have
appeared in the Malhematische Annalen; a full list of these will be
found in the index to the first fifty volumes, p. 115. Perhaps the
two memoirs which have left most impression on the subsequent
development of the subject are Klein, " Zur Theorie der Linien-
complexe des ersten und zweiten Grades," Math. Ann. ii. ; and Lie,
" Uber Complexe, insbesondere Linien- und Kugelcomplexe,"
Math. Ann. v. (J. H. GR.)
VI. NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY
The various metrical geometries are concerned with the
properties of the various types of congruence-groups, which are
defined in the study of the axioms of geometry and of their
immediate consequences. But this point of view of the subject
is the outcome of recent research, and historically the subject
has a different origin. Non-Euclidean geometry arose from the
discussion, extending from the Greek period to the present day,
of the various assumptions which are implicit in the traditional
Euclidean system of geometry. In the course of these investiga-
tions it became evident that metrical geometries, each internally
consistent but inconsistent in many respects with each other
and with the Euclidean system, could be developed. A short
historical sketch will explain this origin of the subject, and
describe the famous and interesting progress of thought on the
subject. But previously a description of the chief characteristic
properties of elliptic and of hyperbolic geometries will be given,
assuming the standpoint arrived at below under VII. Axioms
of Geometry.
First assume the equation to the absolute (cf. loc. cit.) to
be P-* s -j^-z I =o. The absolute is then real, and the
geometry is hyberbolic.
The distance (da) between the two points (*i, y\, z\, ie\) and (x, yi,
za, wi) is given by
cosh (dun) = (aWa - *i* - 3WJ - WBO/IOi* - *i* - yi - Zi 1 )
(wf-xt-yf-tf)$ (i)
The only points to which the metrical geometry applies are those
within the region enclosed by the quadric; the other points are
" improper ideal points." The angle (9u) between two planes,
\ix+miy+n\z+riw = o and kx+miy+ntz+rtfv = o, is given by
cos 6 n = (kk+ntitnt+nini - rir 2 )/{(/i+j 1 1 +ni s - n 1 )
W+mf+nf-rf)}t (2)
These planes only have a real angle of inclination if they possess a
line of intersection within the actual space, i.e. if they intersect.
Planes which do not intersect possess a shortest distance along a line
which is perpendicular to both of them. If this shortest distance is
iu, we have
cosh (612/7) = (lih+mimt+nin, - rirdl{(l?+mi t +ni' - n')
W+mf+nf-rf)l (3)
Thus in the case of the two planes one and only one of the two, a
and Sit, is real. The same considerations hold for coplanar straight
lines (see VII. Axioms of Geometry). Let O (fig. 67) be the point
(o, o, o, i), OX the line y=o,
z = o, OY the line z = o, x = o, and
OZ the line * = o, 31 = 0. These are
the coordinate axes and are at
right angles to each other. Let
P be any point, and let p be the
distance OP, 9 the angle POZ, and
<t> the angle between the planes
ZOX and ZOP. Then the co-
ordinates of P can be taken to be
sinh (ply) sm6cos<t>, sinh (ply) sin 8
sin 4>, sinh (ply) cos0, cosh (p/y).
If ABC is a triangle, and the
sides and angles are named accord-
ing to the usual convention.we have
sinh (o/7)/sin A = sinh (b/y)/sin B = sinh (c/7)/sin C, (4)
and also
cosh (0/7) =cosh (6/7) cosh (c/y) sinh (6/7) sinh (c/y) cos A, (5)
with two similar equations. The sum of the three angles of a triangle
is always less than two right angles. The area of the triangle ABC
isA 2 (ir A B C). If the base BC of a triangle is kept fixed
and the vertex A moves in the fixed plane ABC so that the area
ABC is constant, then the locus of A is a line of equal distance from
BC. This locus is not a straight line. The whole tneory of similarity
is inapplicable; two triangles are either congruent, or their angles
are not equal two by two. Thus the elements of a triangle are
determined when its three angles are
given. By keeping A and B and the
line BC fixed, but by making C move
off to infinity along BC, the lines BC
and AC become parallel, and the sides
a and 6 become infinite. Hence from
equation (5) above, it follows that two
parallel lines (cf. Section VII. Axioms of FlG - 68 -
Geometry) must be considered as making a zero angle with each
other. Also if B be a right angle, from the equation (5), remem-
bering that, in the limit,
cosh (o/7)/cosh (6/7) -cosh (0/7) /sinh (6/7) I,
.,
** IG-
tc
NON-EUCLIDEAN]
GEOMETRY
725
e have cos A-tanh (C/JT) ( 6 >-
Tbe ancle A is called by N. I. Lobalchewsky the " angle of parallel-
The whole theory of lines and planes at right angles to each other
i* simply the theory of conjugate elements with respect to the
absolute, where ideal lines and planes are introduced.
Thus if / and {' be anv two conjugate lines with respect to the
absolute (of which one of the two must be improper say I ), then
any plane through f and containing proper points is perpendicular
to L Also if p is any plane containing proper points, and P is its
pole, which is necessarily improper, then the lines through r arc
the normals to P. The equation of the sphere, centre (*i. yi, d. v>i)
^w^ radius p, is
-
The equation of the surface of equal distance () from the plane
Ar-f my+**+rvo is
r t ) (w-x-y-i l ) unh'(a/ir) -
(ne+Jx+my+iw) 1 (8).
A surface of equal distance is a sphere whose centre is improper;
and both type* of surface are included in the family
It^-J-f-^-fa+by+a+dv)* . . (9)-
But this family also includes a third type of surfaces, which can
be looked on cither as the limits of spheres whose centres have
approached the absolute, or as the limits of surfaces of equal distance
whose central planes have approached a position tangential to the
absolute. These surfaces are called limit-surfaces. Thus (9) denotes
a limit-urface, if d > -a t -b t -tf-o. Two limit-surfaces only
differ in position. Thus the two limit-surfaces which touch the plane
YOZ at O, but have their concavities turned in opposite directions,
have as their equations
-x'-y--(w**) 1 .
The geodesic geometry of a sphere is elliptic, that of a surface of
equal distance is hyperbolic, and that of a limit-surface is parabolic
(i*. Euclidean). The equation of the surface (cylinder) of equal
distance (*) from the line OX is
(ut-x*) tanh'(/T)-/-i t =o.
This is not a ruled surface. Hence in this geometry it is not possible
for two straight lines to be at a constant distance from each other.
Secondly, let the equation of the absolute be **+y*+z 1 -J-
-o. The absolute is now imaginary and the geometry is
elliptic.
The distance (da) between the two points (x t , y\, *i, id) and
Thus there are two distances between the points, and if one is d a ,
the other is *y d n . Every straight line returns into itself, forming
a dosed eriea. Thus there are two segments between any two
points, together forming the whole line which contains them; one
ji^mnrr fa associated with one segment, and the other distance_with
the other segment. The complete length of every straight line is -y.
The angle between the two planes /ix+miy+i*+ri-o and
,, t t , v>i)
ne
from
polar plane with respect to the absolute of the point (*i, y,, t t , v
he real plane XiX+yiy+iS+>ii-o, and the pole of the pla
m,y+Hi*+riV-o is the point (/i, mi, n,, r,). Thus (fro
The
b the
equations 10 and n) it fouows that the angle between the polar
pUnes of the points (*i,...) and (*j,...) is duly, and that the
distance between the poles of the planes (/,,...) and (A,...) ls
7*tt. Thus there is complete reciprocity between points and planes
in respect to all properties. This complete reign of the principle
of duality is one of the great beauties of this geometry. The theory
of line* and plane* at right angles is simply the theory of conjugate
element* with respect to the absolute. A tetrahedron self -conjugate
with respect to the absolute has all its intersecting elements (edges
and planes) at right angle*. If / and /' are two conjugate lines, the
pfapg. through one are the planes perpendicular to the other. If
Pis the pole of the plane p, the lines through P are the normals to
the plane p. The distance from P to p is lry. Thus every sphere
it also a surface of equal distance from the polar of its centre, and
conversely. A plane does not divide space ; for the line joining any
two points P and Q only cuts the plane once, in L say, then it is
always possible to go from P to Q by the segment of the line PQ
which doe* not contain L. But P and Q may be said to be separated
by a plane p, if the point in which PQ cuts p lies on the shortest
segment between P and Q. With this sense of " separation," it is
possible ' to find three points P, Q, R such that P and Q are separated
' Cf. A. N. Whitehead, Unaerul Altebra, Bk. vi. (Cambridge
1808).
by the plane p, but P and R are not separated by p, nor are Q
ami R.
Let A, B, C be any three non-collinear points, then four triangles
are defined by these points. Thus if o, o, c and A, B, C are the
elements of any one triangle, then the four triangles have as their
elements :
(i) a, b, c. A, B C.
(a) a, vy b, vye. A, B, C.
(3) "V o. * <nr c, * A, B, C.
(4) *y a, -y b, c, r A, B, C.
The formulae connecting the elements are
sin A/sin (a/y) -sin B/sin (b/y) -sin C/sin (cly), . (12)
ind
cos (a/y) -cos (b/y) cos (cly) +sin (b/y) sin (cly) cos A, (13)
with two similar equations.
Two cases arise, namely (I.) according as one of the four triangles
has as its sides the shortest segments between the angular points,
or (II.) according as this is not the case. When case I. holds there
is said to be a " principal triangle."' If all the figures considered lie
within a sphere of radius \*y only case I. can hold, and the principal
triangle is the triangle wholly within this sphere, also the peculiarities
in respect to the separation of points by a plane cannot then arise.
The sum of the three angles of a triangle ABC is always greater than
two right angles, and the area of the triangle is -^(A+B+C ).
Thus as in hyperbolic geometry the theory of similarity does not
hold, and the elements of a triangle are determined when its_three
angles are given. The coordinates of a point can be written in the
sin (ply) sin B cos <*>, sin (ply) sin 9 sin <t>, sin (ply) cos 8, cos (pM,
where p, 8 and <t> have the same meanings as in the corresponding
formulae in hyperbolic geometry. Again, suppose a watch is laid
on the plane OXY, face upwards with its centre at O, and the line
12 to 6 (as marked on dial) along the line YOY. Let the watch be
continually pushed along the plane along the line OX, that is, in
the direction 9 to 3. Then the line XOXT being of finite length, the
watch will return to O, but at its first return it will be found to be
face downwards on the other side of the plane, with the line 12 to 6
reversed in direction along the line YOY. This peculiarity was first
pointed out by Felix Klein. The theory of parallels as it exists in
hyperbolic space has no application in elliptic geometry. But
another property of Euclidean prallel lines holds in elliptic geo-
metry, and by the use of it parallel lines are defined. For the equa-
tion of the surface (cylinder) of equal distance () from the line
XOX is
(*+!') tan '(8/7) -(
This is also the surface of equal distance, fry t, from the line
conjugate to XOX. Now from the form of the above equation this
is a ruled surface, and through every point of it two generators pass.
But these generators are lines of equal distance from XOX. Thus
and left parallels to / through the point. This property of parallel-
ism is reciprocal, so that if m is a left parallel to /, then I is a left
parallel to m. Note also that two parallel lines / and m are not
coplanar. Many of those properties of Euclidean parallels, which do
not hold for Lobatchewsky's parallels in hyperbolic geometry, do
hold for Clifford's parallels in elliptic geometry. The geodesic
geometry of spheres is elliptic, the geodesic geometry of surfaces of
equal distance from lines (cylinders) is Euclidean, and surfaces of
revolution can be found of which the geodesic geometry is hyper-
bolic. But it is to be noticed that the connectivity of these surfaces
is different to that of a Euclidean plane. For instance there are only
oo congruence transformations of the cylindrical surfaces of equal
distance into themselves, instead of the for the ordinary plane.
It would obviously be possible to state " axioms " which these
geodesies satisfy, and thus to define independently, and not as loci,
q uasi-spaces of these peculiar types. The existence of such Euclidean
quasi-geomctries was first pointed out by Clifford. 4
In both elliptic and hyperbolic geometry the spherical
geometry, i.e. the relations between the angles formed by lines
and planes passing through the same point, is the same as the
" spherical trigonometry " in Euclidean geometry. The constant
y, which appears in the formulae both of hyperbolic and elliptic
geometry, does not by its variation produce different types of
geometry. There is only one type of elliptic geometry and one
type of hyperbolic geometry; and the magnitude of the constant
y in each case simply depends upon the magnitude of the arbitrary
unit of length in comparison with the natural unit of length
* Cf. A. N. Whitehead, loc. cit.
1 Cf. A. N. Whitehead, " The Geodesic Geometry of Surfaces in
non-Euclidean Space," Proc. Land. Math. Soc. vol. xxix.
4 Cf. Klein, " Zur nicht-Euklidischen Geometric, Math. Annai.
vol. xxxvii.
726
GEOMETRY
[NON-EUCLIDEAN
which each particular instance of either geometry presents.
The existence of a natural unit of length is a peculiarity common
both to hyperbolic and elliptic geometries, and differentiates
them from Euclidean geometry. It is the reason for the failure
of the theory of similarity in them. If y is very large, that is,
if the natural unit is very large compared to the arbitrary unit,
and if the lengths involved in the figures considered are not large
compared to the arbitrary unit, then both the elliptic and
hyperbolic geometries approximate to the Euclidean. For from
formulae (4) and (5) and also from (12) and (13) we find, after
retaining only the lowest powers of small quantities, as the
formulae for any triangle ABC,
a/ sin A =6/ sin B =c/ sin C,
and
a 2 = 6 2 +c 2 -2dccos A,
with two similar equations. Thus the geometries of small
figures are in both types Euclidean.
History. " In pulcherrimo Geometriae corpore," wrote Sir
Henry Savile in 1621, " duo sunt naevi, duae labes nee quod
Theory at sc iam plures, in quibus eluendis et emaculendis cum
parallels veterum turn recentiorum . . . vigilavit industria."
before These two blemishes are the theory of parallels and
Oauss - the theory of proportion. The " industry of the
modems," in both respects, has given rise to important branches
of mathematics, while at the same time showing that Euclid
is in these respects more free from blemish than had been
previously credible. It was from endeavours to improve the
theory of parallels that non-Euclidean geometry arose; and
though it has now acquired a far wider scope, its historical
origin remains instructive and interesting. Euclid's " axiom
of parallels " appears as Postulate V. to the first book of his
Elements, and is stated thus, " And that, if a straight line falling
on two straight lines make the angles, internal and on the same
side, less than two right angles, the two straight lines, being
produced indefinitely, meet on the side on which are the
angles less than two right angles.'"' The original Greek is
u lav ets Svo eWeias eufleia eumwTOwa TOS Ivros /cot kiri TO.
aiiro jtepi/ yuvias Svo 6p0>v tXcurowas TroifJ, iKJ3a\\ofifva.s ras
dfo tWeias r' aTreipov avuir'arrew, t<f>' & jtepJJ flcrlv at r&v 5vo
6pO>v t\(uraoves.
To Euclid's successors this axiom had signally failed to appear
self-evident, and had failed equally to appear indemonstrable.
Without the use of the postulate its converse is proved in Euclid's
28th proposition, and it was hoped that by further efforts the
postulate itself could be also proved. The first step consisted
in the discovery of equivalent axioms. Christoph Clavius in
1574 deduced the axiom from the assumption that a line whose
points are all equidistant from a straight line is itself straight.
John Wallis in 1663 showed that the postulate follows from the
possibility of similar triangles on different scales. Girolamo
Saccheri (1733) showed that it is sufficient to have a single
triangle, the sum of whose angles is two right angles. Other
equivalent forms may be obtained, but none shows any essential
superiority to Euclid's. Indeed plausibility, which is chiefly
aimed at, becomes a positive demerit where it conceals a real
assumption.
A new method, which, though it failed to lead to the desired
goal, proved in the end immensely fruitful, was invented by
Saccheri, in a work entitled Euclides ab omni naevo
vindicates (Milan, 1733). If the postulate of parallels
is involved in Euclid's other assumptions, contradictions must
emerge when it is denied while the others are maintained. This
led Saccheri to attempt a reductio ad absurdum, in which he
mistakenly believed himself to have succeeded. What is interest-
ing, however, is not his fallacious conclusion, but the non-
Euclidean results which he obtains in the process. Saccheri
distinguishes three hypotheses (corresponding to what are now
known as Euclidean or parabolic, elliptic and hyperbolic geo-
metry), and proves that some one of the three must be univer
sally true. His three hypotheses are thus obtained: equal
perpendiculars AC, BD are drawn from a straight line AB,
and CD are joined. It is shown that the angles ACD, BDC are
Saaberi.
equal. The first hypothesis is that these are both right angles;
the second, that they are both obtuse; and the third, that they
are both acute. Many of the results afterwards obtained by
Lobatchewsky and Bolyai are here developed. Saccheri fails
to be the founder of non-Euch'dean geometry only because he
does not perceive the possible truth of his non-Euch'dean hypo-
theses.
Some advance is made by Johann Heinrich Lambert in his
Theorie der Parallellinien (written 1766; posthumously published
1786). Though he still believed in the necessary
truth of Euclidean geometry, he confessed that, in
all his attempted proofs, something remained undemonstrated.
He deals with the same three hypotheses as Saccheri, showing
that the second holds on a sphere, while the third would hold on
a sphere of purely imaginary radius. The second hypothesis
he succeeds in condemning, since, like all who preceded Bernhard
Riemann, he is unable to conceive of the straight line as finite
and closed. But the third hypothesis, which is the same as
Lobatchewsky's, is not even professedly refuted. 1
Non-Euclidean geometry proper begins with Karl Friedrich
Gauss. The advance which he made was rather philosophical
than mathematical: it was he (probably) who first Three
recognized that the postulate of parallels is possibly periods of
false, and should be empirically tested by measuring aoa-
the angles of large triangles. The history of non-
Euclidean geometry has been aptly divided by Felix
Klein into three very distinct periods. The first which contains
only Gauss, Lobatchewsky and Bolyai is characterized by its
synthetic method and by its close relation to Euclid. The
attempt at indirect proof of the disputed postulate would seem
to have been the source of these three men's discoveries; but
when the postulate had been denied, they found that the results,
so far from showing contradictions, were just as self-consistent
as Euclid. They inferred that the postulate, if true at all, can
only be proved by observations and measurements. Only one
kind of non-Euclidean space is known to them, namely, that
which is now called hyperbolic. The second period is analytical,
and is characterized by a close relation to the theory of surfaces.
It begins with Riemann's inaugural dissertation, which regards
space as a particular case of a manifold; but the characteristic
standpoint of the period is chiefly emphasized by Eugenic
Beltrami. The conception of measure of curvature is extended
by Riemann from surfaces to spaces, and a new kind of space,
finite but unbounded (corresponding to the second hypothesis
of Saccheri and Lambert), is shown to be possible. As opposed
to the second period, which is purely metrical, the third period
is essentially projective in its method. It begins with Arthur
Cayley, who showed that metrical properties are projective
properties relative to a certain fundamental quadric, and that
different geometries arise according as this quadric is real,
imaginary or degenerate. Klein, to whom the development of
Cayley's work is due, showed further that there are two forms
of Riemann's space, called by him the elliptic and the spherical.
Finally, it has been shown by Sophus Lie, that if figures are to be
freely movable throughout all space in > 6 ways, no other
three-dimensional spaces than the above four are possible.
Gauss published nothing on the theory of parallels, and it
was not generally known until after his death that he had
interested himself in that theory from a very early
date. In 1 799 he announces that Euclidean geometry
would follow from the assumption that a triangle can be drawn
greater than any given triangle. Though unwilling to assume
this, we find him in 1804 still hoping to prove the postulate of
parallels. In 1830 he announces his conviction that geometry
is not an a priori science; in the following year he explains that
non-Euclidean geometry is free from contradictions, and that,
in this system, the angles of a triangle diminish without limit
when all the sides are increased. He also gives for the
1 On the theory of parallels before Lobatchewsky, see Stfickel und
Engel, Theorie der Parallellinien von Euklid bis auf Gauss (Leipzig,
1 895). The foregoing remarks are based upon the materials collected
in this work.
daass.
NON-EUCLIDEAN I
circumference of a circle of radius r the formula
where k is a constant depending upon the nature of the space. In
1831, in reply to the receipt of Bolyai 's Appendix, he gives an
elegant proof that the amount by which the sum of the angles of a
triangle falls short of two right angles is proportional to the area
of the triangle. From these and a few other remarks it appears
that Gauss possessed the foundations of hyperbolic geometry,
which he was probably the first to regard as perhaps true. It
is not known with certainty whether he influenced Lobatchewsky
and Bolyai, but the evidence we possess is against such a view. 1
The first to publish a non-Euclidean geometry was Nicholas
Lobatchewsky, professor of mathematics in the new university
of Kazan.* In the place of the disputed postulate
he puts the following: " All straight lines which, in
a plane, radiate from a given point, can, with respect
to any other straight line in the same plane, be divided into
two classes, the intersecting and the non-intersecting. The
boundary lint of the one and the other class is called parallel
to the given line." It follows that there are two parallels to the
given line through any point, each meeting the line at infinity,
like a Euclidean parallel. (Hence a line has two distinct points
at infinity, and not one only as in ordinary geometry.) The
two parallels to a line through a point make equal acute angles
with the perpendicular to the line through the point. If p be
the length of the perpendicular, either of these angles is denoted
by n(^). The determination of U(p) is the chief problem (cf.
equation (6) above); it appears finally that, with a suitable
choice of the unit of length,
tan I n(/>)-->.
Before obtaining this result it is shown that spherical trigono-
metry is unchanged, and that the normals to a circle or a sphere
still pass through its centre. When the radius of the circle or
sphere becomes infinite all these normals become parallel, but the
circle or sphere does not become a straight line or plane. It
becomes what Lobatchewsky calls a limit-line or limit-surface.
The geometry on such a surface is shown to be Euclidean, limit-
lines replacing Euclidean straight lines. (It is, in fact, a surface
of zero measure of curvature.) By the help of these propositions
Lobatchewsky obtains the above value of U(p), and thence the
solution of triangles. He points out that his formulae result
from those of spherical trigonometry by substituting ia, ib, ic,
for the sides a, b, c.
John Bolyai, a Hungarian, obtained results closely correspond-
ing to those of Lobatchewsky. These he published in an appendix
Bol-iL t work by his father, entitled Appendix Scientiam
tpalii absolute veram exhibens: a veritate ant falsitate
Axiomatis XI. Eudidei (a priori Haud unquam decidenda) in-
dependentem: adjecta ad casum falsitatis, quadratura circuit
geometrica. 1 This work was published in 1831, but its conception
dates from 18*3. It reveals a profounder appreciation of the
importance of the new ideas, but otherwise differs little from
Lobatchewsky 's. Both men point out that Euclidean geometry
as a limiting case of their own more general system, that the
geometry of very small spaces is always approximately Euclidean,
that no a priori grounds exist for a decision, and that observation
can only give an approximate answer. Bolyai gives also, as his
title indicates, a geometrical construction, in hyperbolic space,
for the quadrature of the circle, and shows that the area of the
greatest possible triangle, which has all its sides parallel and all
its angles zero, is Tt'.where i is what we should now call the
space-constant.
'See Stackcl und F.neel, op. cit., and "Gauss, die beiden Bolyai,
und die nicht-Eulclidische Geometric," Math. Annalen, Bd. xfix. ;
also Engel'i translation of Lobatchewsky (Leipzig, 1808), pp. 378 ff.
1 Lobatchewsky ' works on the subject are the following:" On
the Foundations of Geometry," Kazan Messenger, 1820-1830;
" New Foundations of Geometry, with a complete Theory of
Parallel*," Proceedings of the University of Kazan, 1835 (both in
Russian, but translated into German by Engel, Leipzig, 1898);
"Geometric imaginaire," Crelle's Journal, 1837; Theorie der
PvalUUinien (Berlin, 1840; 2nd ed., 1887; translated by Halsted,
Austin, Texas, 1891 ). Hii results appear to have been set forth in a
paper (now lost) which be read at Kazan in 1826.
'Translated by Halsted (Austin, Texas, 4th ed., 1806).
GEOMETRY
727
The works of Lobatchewsky and Bolyai, though known and
valued by Gauss, remained obscure and ineffective until,in 1866,
they were translated into French by J. HoUel. But wfe
aUhistimeRicmann'sdissertation,#6'<fre.r;fyp0Me,
welcfie der Geomelrie tu Crunde liegen* was already about to be
published. In this work Riemann, without any knowledge of
his predecessors in the same field, inaugurated a far more profound
discussion, based on a far more general standpoint; and by
its publication in 1867 the attention of mathematicians and
philosophers was at last secured. (The dissertation dates from
1854, but owing to changes which Ricmann wished to make in it,
it remained unpublished until after his death.)
Riemann's work contains two fundamental conceptions, that
of a manifold and that of the measure of curvature of a continuous
manifold possessed of what he calls flatness in the smallest parts.
By means of these conceptions space is made to appear
at the end of agradual sericsof more and more specialized rn
conceptions. Conceptions of magnitude, he explains, told.
are only possible where we have a general conception
capable of determination in various ways. The manifold consists
of all these various determinations, each of which is an element
of the manifold. The passage from one element to another may
be discrete or continuous; the manifold is called discrete or
continuous accordingly. Where it is discrete two portions of
it can be compared, as to magnitude, by counting; where
continuous, by measurement. But measurement demands
superposition, and consequently some magnitude independent
of its place in the manifold. In passing, in a continuous manifold,
from one element to another in a determinate way, we pass
through a series of intermediate terms, which form a one-
dimensional manifold. If this whole manifold be similarly
caused to pass over into another, each of its elements passes
through a one-dimensional manifold, and thus on the whole
a two-dimensional manifold is generated. In this way we can
proceed to n dimensions. Conversely, a manifold of dimensions
can be analysed into one of one dimension and one of (n i)
dimensions. By repetitions of this process the position of an
element may be at last determined by n magnitudes. We may
here stop to observe that the above conception of a manifold
is akin to that due to Hermann Grassmann in the first edition
(1847) of his Ausdehnungslekre.*
Both concepts have been elaborated and superseded by the
modern procedure in respect to the axioms of geometry, and by
the conception of abstract geometry involved therein.
Riemann proceeds to specialize the manifold by con-
siderations as to measurement. If measurement is to
be possible, some magnitude, we saw, must be independent of
position; let us consider manifolds in which lengths of lines are
such magnitudes, so that every line is measurable by every
other. The coordinates of a point being x\, xi, . . . *, let us con-
fine ourselves to lines along which the ratios dx\\dxi\. . . :dx n
alter continuously. Let us also assume that the element of
length, ds, is unchanged (to the first order) when all its points
undergo the same infinitesimal motion. Then if all the increments
dx be altered in the same ratio, ds is also altered in this ratio.
Hence ds is a homogeneous function of the first degree of the
increments dx. Moreover, ds must be unchanged when all the
dx change sign. The simplest possible case is, therefore, that in
which ds is the square root of a quadratic function of the dx.
This case includes space, and is alone considered in what follows.
It is called the case of flatness in the smallest parts. Its further
discussion depends upon the measure of curvature, the second
of Riemann's fundamental conceptions. This conception, derived
from the theory of surfaces, is applied as follows. Any one of
the shortest lines which issue from a given point(say the origin)
is completely determined by the initial ratios of the dx. Two
such lines, defined by dx and Sx say, determine a pencil, or one-
dimensional series, of shortest lines, any one of which is defined
* Abhandlungen d. Kcmigl. Ges. d. Wiss. zu GOttinren, Bd. xiii. ;
Ges. math. Werke, pp. 254-269; translated by Clifford, Collected
Mathematical Papers.
1 Cf. Gesamm. math, und phys. Werke, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1894).
728
GEOMETRY
[NON-EUCLIDEAN
by \dx+t*6x, where the parameter X : ft may have any value.
This pencil generates a two-dimensional series of points, which
may be regarded as a surface, and for which we may apply
Gauss's formula for the measure of curvature at any point.
Thus at every point of our manifold there is a measure of curvature
corresponding to every such pencil; but all these can be found
when n.n i/2 of them are known. If figures are to be freely
movable, it is necessary and sufficient that the measure of
curvature should be the same for all points and all directions
at each point. Where this is the case, it a be the measure of
curvature, the linear element can be put into the form
ds
If a be positive, space is finite, though still unbounded, and
every straight line is closed a possibility first recognized by
Riemann. It is pointed out that, since the possible values of
a form a continuous series, observations cannot prove that our
space is strictly Euclidean. It is also regarded as possible that,
in the infinitesimal, the measure of curvature of our space should
be variable.
There are four points in which this profound and epoch-making
work is open to criticism or development (i) the idea of a mani-
fold requires more precise determination; (2) the introduction
of coordinates is entirely unexplained and the requisite pre-
suppositions are unanalysed; (3) the assumption that ds is the
square root of a quadratic function of dx\, dx*, ... is arbitrary;
(4) the idea of superposition, or congruence, is not adequately
analysed. The modern solution of these difficulties is properly
considered in connexion with the general subject of the axioms
of geometry.
The publication of Riemann's dissertation was closely followed
by two works of Hermann von Helmholtz, 1 again undertaken
in ignorance of the work of predecessors. In these a
proof is attempted that ds must be a rational integral
quadratic function of the increments of the coordinates. This
proof has since been shown by Lie to stand in need of correction
(see VII. Axioms of Geometry). Helmholtz's remaining works
on the subject 2 are of almost exclusively philosophical interest.
We shall return to them later.
The only other writer of importance in the second period is
Eugenio Beltrami, by whom Riemann's work was brought into
/ connexion with that of Lobatchewsky and Bolyai.
m ' As he gave, by an elegant method, a convenient
Euclidean interpretation of hyperbolic plane geometry, his
results will be stated at some length. 3 The Saggio shows that
Lobatchewsky's plane geometry holds in Euclidean geometry
on surfaces of constant negative curvature, straight lines being
replaced by geodesies. Such surfaces are capable of a conformal
representation on a plane, by which geodesies are represented
by straight lines. Hence if we take, as coordinates on the surface,
the Cartesian coordinates of corresponding points on the plane,
the geodesies must have linear equations.
Hence it follows that
Hclmholtz.
<fc* = R*w - * 1 (at-^du? +2uvdudv + (a 2 - 2
where u> 2 = a 2 u' n 2 , and i/R 2 is the measure of curvature
of our surface (note that k = y as used above). The angle between
two geodesies w = const., ti = const. is 6, where
cos0=/V |(a 1 - J )(a I - J )), sin9=oa>/V ((a'-w'Xo'-p 2 )).
Thus w = o is orthogonal to all geodesies = const., and vice versa.
In order that sin may be real, w 1 must be positive; thus geo-
desies have no real intersection when the corresponding straight
lines intersect outside the circle u t +v 2 = a?. When they intersect on
this circle, = o. Thus Lobatchewsky's parallels are represented
by straight lines intersecting on the circle. Again, transforming
to polar coordinates u = r cos/i, v = r sinp, and calling p the geodesic
1 Wiss. Abh. vol. ii. pp. 610, 618 (1866, 1868).
2 Mind, O.S., vols. i. and iii. ; Vortrage und Reden, vol. ii. pp. I,
256.
' His papers are " Saggio di interpretazione della geometria non-
Euclidea," Giornale di matematiche, vol. vi. (1868); Teoria fonda-
mentale degli spazii di curvatura costante," Annali di matematica,
vol. ii. (1868-1869). Both were translated into French by J. Hoiiel,
Annalcs scientifiques de l'cole Normale suptrieure, vol. vi. (1869).
distance of u, v from the origin, we have, for a geodesic through the
origin,
,
otanh|.
Thus points on the surface corresponding to points in the plane
on the limiting circle r = a, are all at an infinite distance from the
origin. Again, considering r constant, the arc of a geodesic circle
subtending an angle n at the origin is
whence the circumference of a circle of radius p is 2irR sinh (p/R).
Again, if a be the angle between any two geodesies
V-v=m(U-u), V-v=n(U-u),
then tan a=a(nm)w[ |(i+mn)a 2 (v mu) (vnu)}.
Thus a is imaginary when , is outside the limiting circle, and
is zero when, and only when, u, v is on the limiting circle. All
these results agree with those of Lobatchewsky and Bolyai. The
maximum triangle, whose angles are all zero, is represented in the
auxiliary plane by a triangle inscribed in the limiting circle. The
angle of parallelism is also easily obtained. The perpendicular
to = o at a distance 5 from the origin is u=a tanh (d/R), and the
parallel to this through the origin is u=v sinh (i/R). Hence n (S),
the angle which this parallel makes with = o, is given by
tan n() . sinh (5/R) = i, or tan Jn() =e~s/R
which is Lobatchewsky's formula. We also obtain easily for the
area of a triangle the formula R 2 (ir A B C).
Beltrami's treatment connects two curves which, in the earlier
treatment, had no connexion. These are limit-lines and curves
of constant distance from a straight line. Both may be regarded
as circles, the first having an infinite, the second an imaginary
radius. The equation to a circle of radius p and centre Wo is
This equation remains real when p is a pure imaginary, and remains
finite when !0o = o, provided p becomes infinite in such a way that
wo cosh (p/R) remains finite. In the latter case the equation repre-
sents a limit-line. In the former case, by giving different values to C,
we obtain concentric circles with the imaginary centre Kofo. One of
these, obtained by putting C =o, is the straight line a 2 <> OTO=O.
Hence the others are each throughout at a constant distance from
this line. (It may be shown that all motions in a hyperbolic plane
consist, in a general sense, of rotations; but three types must
be distinguished according as the centre is real, imaginary or at
infinity. All points describe, accordingly, one of the three types of
circles.)
The above Euclidean interpretation fails for three or more dimen-
sions. In the Teoria fondamentale, accordingly, where n dimensions
are considered, Beltrami treats hyperbolic space in a purely analytical
spirit. The paper shows that Lobatchewsky's space of any number
of dimensions has, in Riemann's sense, a constant negative measure
of curvature. Beltrami starts with the formula (analogous to that
of the Saggio)
where
He shows that geodesies are represented by linear equations be-
tween xi, *s, . . . , *, and that the geodesic distance p between two
points * and x' is given by
coshw = -
-X,X X,x 3 ...
(a formula practically identical with Cayley's, though obtained by
a very different method). In order to show that the measure of
curvature is constant, we make the substitutions
xi r\i, Xi = r\t...x a = r\ n , where ZX 2 = 1.
Hence
where . <ZA 2 =ZdX 2 .
Also calling p the geodesic distance from the origin, we have
cosh (p/R) = v ( a f_ r 2). sinh
Hence ds* = dp*+(R sinh (p/R)) 2 <2A 2 .
Putting z t =p\i, 2j = pX 2 , ...z n = p
we obtain
* sinh
Hence when p is small, we have approximately
I
Considering a surface element through the origin, we may choose
our axes so that, for this element,
Thus
ds? =
(2).
Now the area of the triangle whose vertices are (o, o), (zi, zj),
(dzi, dzi) is i(zi, dz 2 zjdzi). Hence the quotient when the terms of
the fourth order in (2) are divided by the square of this triangle is
NON-EUCLIDEAN)
GEOMETRY
729
4/3R'; hence, returning to general axes, the same i* the quotient
when the terms of the fourth order in (l) are divided by the square
at the triangle whose vertices are (o, p,...o), (ii, *i. ii,. ..I.),
(&i, 4*. 4s. . .&.). But | of this quotient is denned by Riemann
as the measure of curvature. 1 Hence the measure of curvature is
l/R*. i*. constant and negative. The properties of parallels,
triangle*, Stc., are as in the Satfio. It is also shown that the ana-
logues of limit surfaces have ero curvature; and that spheres of
radius ? have constant positive curvature i/R f sinh 1 (p/R), so that
spherical geometry may be regarded as contained in the paeudo-
spherical (as Beltrami calls Lobatchewsky's system).
The Satfio, as we saw, gives a Euclidean interpretation
-<\nfimsrl to two dimensions. But a consideration of the auxiliary
plane suggests a different interpretation, which may be
extended to any number of dimensions. If, instead
of referring to the pseudosphere, we merely define
distance and angle, in the Euclidean plane, as those
functions of the coordinates which gave us distance and angle
on ihe pseudosphere, we find that the geometry of our plane has
become Lobatchewsky's. All the points of the limiting circle
are now at infinity, and points beyond it are imaginary. If we
give our circle an imaginary radius the geometry on the plane
becomes elliptic. Replacing the circle by a sphere, we obtain
an analogous representation for three dimensions. Instead of
a circle or sphere we may take any conic or quadric. With this
definition, if the fundamental quadric be -u- = o, and if S**'
be the polar form of **, the distance p between x and x' is
given by the projective formula
co(p/*)-s.,7|z...z.Y).
That this formula is projective is rendered evident by observing
that "**/* is the anharmonic ratio of the range consisting of
the two points and the intersections of the line joining them with
the fundamental quadric. With this we are brought to the third
or projective period. The method of this period is due to Cayley;
its application to previous non-Euclidean geometry is due to
Klein. The projective method contains a generalization of dis-
coveries already made by Laguerre 1 in 1853 as regards Euclidean
geometry. The arbitrariness of this procedure of deriving
metrical geometry from the properties of conies is removed by
Lie's theory of congruence. We then arrive at the stage of
thought which finds its expression in the modern treatment of
the axioms of geometry.
The projective method leads to a discrimination, first made
by Klein,* of two varieties of Riemann 's space; Klein calls
n*w these elliptic and spherical. They are also called the
polar and antipodal forms of elliptic space. The latter
names will here be used. The difference is strictly
analogous to that between the diameters and the points
of a sphere. In the polar form two straight lines in a plane
always intersect in one and only one point; in the antipodal
form they intersect always in two points, which are antipodes.
According to the definition of geometry adopted in section VII.
(Axioms of Geometry), the antipodal form is not to be termed
" geometry," since any pair of coplanar straight lines intersect
each other in two points. It may be called a " quasi-geometry."
Similarly in the antipodal form two diameters always determine
a plane, but two points on a sphere do not determine a great
circle when they are antipodes, and two great circles always
intersect in two points. Again, a plane does not form a boundary
among lines through a point: we can pass from any one such
line to any other without passing through the plane. But a great
circle does divide the surface of a sphere. So, in the polar form,
a complete straight line does not divide a plane, and a planedoes
not divide space, and does not, like a Euclidean plane, have two
sides. 4 But, in the antipodal form, a plane is, in these respects,
like a Euclidean plane.
It is explained in section VII. in what sense the metrical
geometry of the material world ran be considered to be deter-
minate and not a matter of arbitrary choice. The scientific
1 Beltrami shows also that this definition agrees with that of Gauss.
" Sur la theorie des foyers," Notts. Ann. vol. xii.
1 Uaik. Annalen, iv. vi., 1871-1872. _
4 For an investigation of these and similar properties, see White-
bead, Universal Algebra (Cambridge, 1898), bk. vi. ch. ii. The polar
form was independently discovered by Simon Newcomb in 1877.
question as to the best available evidence concerning the nature
of this geometry is one beset with difficulties of a peculiar kind.
We are obstructed by the fact that all existing physical science
assumes the Euclidean hypothesis. This hypothesis has been
involved in all actual measurements of large distances, and in all
the laws of astronomy and physics. The principle of simplicity
would therefore lead us, in general, where an observation con-
flicted with one or more of those laws, to ascribe this anomaly,
not to the falsity of Euclidean geometry, but to the falsity of the
laws in question. This applies especially to astronomy. On the
earth our means of measurement are many and direct, and so
long as no great accuracy is sought they involve few scientific
laws. Thus we acquire, from such direct measurements, a
very high degree of probability that the space-constant, if not
infinite, is yet large as compared with terrestrial distances. But
astronomical distances and triangles can only be measured by
means of the received laws of astronomy and optics, all of which
have been established by assuming the truth of the Euclidean
hypothesis. It therefore remains possible (until a detailed proof
of the contrary is forthcoming) that a large but finite space-
constant, with different laws of astronomy and optics, would
have equally explained the phenomena. We cannot, therefore,
accept the measurements of stellar parallaxes, &c., as conclusive
evidence that the space-constant is large as compared with stellar
distances. For the present, on grounds of simplicity, we may
rightly adopt this view; but it must remain possible that, in
view of some hitherto undiscovered discrepancy, a slight correc-
tion of the sort suggested might prove the simplest alternative.
But conversely, a finite parallax for very distant stars, or a
negative parallax for any star, could not be accepted asconclusive
evidence that our geometry is non-Euclidean, unless it were
shown and this seems scarcely possible that no modification
of astronomy or optics could account for the phenomenon.
Thus although we may admit a probability that the space-
constant is large in comparison with stellar distances, a conclusive
proof or disproof seems scarcely possible.
Finally, it is of interest to note that, though it is theoretically
possible to prove, by scientific methods, that our geometry is
non-Euclidean, it is wholly impossible to prove by such methods
that it is accurately Euclidean. For the unavoidable errors of
observation must always leave a slight margin in our measure-
ments. A triangle might be found whose angles were certainly
greater, or certainly less, than two right angles; but to prove
them exactly equal to two right angles must always be beyond our
powers. If, therefore, any man cherishes a hope of proving the
exact truth of Euclid, such a hope must be based, not upon
scientific, but upon philosophical considerations.
BIBLIOGR A PHY. The bibliography appended to section VII. should
be consulted in this connexion. Also, in addition to the citations
already made, the following works may be mentioned.
For Lobatchewsky's writings, cf. Urkunden zur Geschichte der
nichteuklidischen Geometrie, i., Nikolaj Iwanowitsch Lobatschefsky,
Tentamen . . . , published by the Mathematical Society of Budapest ;
the second volume contains the appendix. Cf. also J. Frischauf,
Elemenle der absoluten Geometrie (Leipzig, 1876) ; M. L. Gerard, Sur
la ttometrie non-Euclidienne (thesis for doctorate) (Paris, 1892);
de Tilly, Essai sur les principes jondamentales de la giomftrie et de la
mccamque (Bordeaux, 1879); Sir R. S. Ball, " On the Theory of
Content," Trans. Roy. Irish A cad. vol. xxix. (1889); F. Lindemann,
" Mechanik bci projcctivcr Maasbestimmung," Math. Annul, vol.
vii. ; W. K. Clifford, " Preliminary Sketch of Biquaternions," Proc.
of Land. Math. Soc. (1873), and Coll. Works; A. Buchheim, " On the
Theory of Screws in Elliptic Space," Proc. Land. Math. Soc. vols. xv.,
xvi., xvii. ; H. Cox, On the Application of Quaternions and
Grassmann's Algebra to different Kinds of Uniform Space," Trans.
Camb. Phil. Soc. (1882); M. Dehn, " Die Legendarischen Satze fiber
die Winkelsumme im Dreieck," Math. Ann. vol. 53 (1900), and
" Ober den Rauminhalt," Math. Annal. vol. 55 (1902).
For expositions of the whole subject, cf . F. Klein, Nicht-Euklidische
Geometrie (Gdttingen, 1893); R. Bonola, La Geometria non-Eudidea
(Bologna, 1906) ; P. Barbarin, La Geometrie non-Euclidienne (Paris,
1902) ; W. Killing, Die nichl-Euklidischen Raumformen in analytischer
Bekaridlung (Leipzig, 1885). The last-named work also deals with
geometry of more than three dimensions; in this connexion cf. also
G. Veronese, Fondamenti di geomelria a piti dimensioni ed a piu specie
730
GEOMETRY
[AXIOMS
di unita rettilinee . . . (Padua, 1891, German translation, Leipzig,
1894) ; G. Fontene 1 , L'Hyperespace a (n i) dimensions (Paris, 1892) ;
and A. N. Whitehead, loc. cit. Cf. also E. Study, " t)ber nicht-
Euklidische und Liniengeometrie," Jahr. d. Deutsch. Math. Ver.
vol. xv. (1906) ; W. Burnside, " On the Kinematics of non-Euclidean
Space," Proc. Land. Math. Soc. vol. xxvi. (1894). A bibliography
on the subject up to 1878 has been published by G. B. Halsted,
Amer. Journ. of Math. vols. i. and ii. ; and one up to 1900 by R.
Bonola, Index operum ad geometriam absolutam spectantium . . .
(1902, and Leipzig, 1903). (B. A. W. R. ; A. N. W.)
VII. AXIOMS OF GEOMETRY
Until the discovery of the non-Euclidean geometries (Lobat-
chewsky, 1826 and 1829; J. Bolyai, 1832; B. Riemann, 1854),
geometry was universally considered as being ex-
of space! clusively the science of existent space. (See section
VI. Non-Euclidean Geometry.) In respect to the
science, as thus conceived, two controversies may be noticed.
First, there is the controversy respecting the absolute and
relational theories of space. According to the absolute theory,
which is the traditional view (held explicitly by Newton) , space
has an existence, in some sense whatever it may be, independent
of the bodies which it contains. The bodies occupy space, and
it is not intrinsically unmeaning to say that any definite body
occupies this part of space, and not that part of space, without
reference to other bodies occupying space. According to the
relational theory of space, of which the chief exponent was
Leibnitz, 1 space is nothing but a certain assemblage of the rela-
tions between the various particular bodies in space. The idea of
space with no bodies in it is absurd. Accordingly there can be
no meaning in saying that a body is here and not there, apart
from a reference to the other bodies in the universe. Thus, on
this theory, absolute motion is intrinsically unmeaning. It is
admitted on all hands that in practice only relative motion is
directly measurable. Newton, however, maintains in the
Principia (scholium to the 8th definition) that it is indirectly
measurable by means of the effects of " centrifugal force " as
it occurs in the phenomena of rotation. This irrelevance of
absolute motion (if there be such a thing) to science has led to
the general adoption of the relational theory by modern men
of science. But no decisive argument for either view has at
present been elaborated. 2 Kant's view of space as being a form
of perception at first sight appears to cut across this controversy.
But he, saturated as he was with the spirit of the Newtonian
physics, must (at least in both editions of the Critique) be classed
with the upholders of the absolute theory. The form of per-
ception has a type of existence proper to itself independently
of the particular bodies which it contains. For example he
writes: 3 " Space does not represent any quality of objects by
themselves, or objects in their relation to one another, i.e. space
does not represent any determination which is inherent in the
objects themselves, and would remain, even if all subjective
conditions of intuition were removed."
The second controversy is that between the view that the
axioms applicable to space are known only from experience,
and the view that in some sense these axioms are
given a priori. Both these views, thus broadly stated,
are capable of various subtle modifications, and a discussion
of them would merge into a general treatise on epistemology.
The cruder forms of the a priori view have been made quite
untenable by the modern mathematical discoveries. Geometers
now profess ignorance in many respects of the exact axioms
which apply to existent space, and it seems unlikely that a
profound study of the question should thus obliterate a priori
intuitions.
Another question irrelevant to this article, but with some
relevance to the above controversy, is that of the derivation
1 For an analysis of Leibnitz's ideas on space, cf. B. Russell, The
Philosophy of Leibnitz, chs. viii.-x.
1 Cf. Hon. Bertrand Russell, " Is Position in Time and Space
Absolute or Relative?" Mind, n.s. vol. 10 (1901), and A. N. White-
head, " Mathematical Concepts of the Material World," Phil. Trans.
(1906!, p. 205.
'Cf. Critique of Pure Reason, 1st section: "Of Space," con-
clusion A, Max Muller's translation.
Axioms.
of our perception of existent space from our various types of
sensation. This is a question for psychology. 4
Definition of Abstract Geometry. Existent space is the subject
matter of only one of the applications of the modern science of
abstract geometry, viewed as a branch of pure mathematics.
Geometry has been defined 5 as " the study of series of two or more
dimensions." It has also been defined 6 as " the science of cross
classification." These definitions are founded upon the actual
practice of mathematicians in respect to their use of the term
" Geometry." Either of them brings out the fact that geometry
is not a science with a determinate subject matter. It is concerned
with any subject matter to which the formal axioms may apply.
Geometry is not peculiar in this respect. All branches of pure
mathematics deal merely with types of relations. Thus the
fundamental ideas of geometry (e.g. those of points and of
straight lines) are not ideas of determinate entities, but of any
entities for which the axioms are true. And a set of formal
geometrical axioms cannot in themselves be true or false, since
they are not determinate propositions, in that they do not refer
to a determinate subject matter. The axioms are prepositional
functions. 7 . When a set of axioms is given, we can ask (i)
whether they are consistent, (2) whether their " existence
theorem " is proved, (3) whether they are independent. Axioms
are consistent when the contradictory of any axiom cannot be
deduced from the remaining axioms. Their existence theorem
is the proof that they are true when the fundamental ideas are
considered as denoting some determinate subject matter, so
that the axioms are developed into determinate propositions.
It follows from the logical law of contradiction that the proof
of the existence theorem proves also the consistency of the
axioms. This is the only method of proof of consistency. The
axioms of a set are independent of each other when no axiom
can be deduced from the remaining axioms of the set. The
independence of a given axiom is proved by establishing the
consistency of the remaining axioms of the set, together with the
contradictory of the given axiom. The enumeration of the
axioms is simply the enumeration of the hypotheses 8 (with
respect to the undetermined subject matter) of which some at
least occur in each of the subsequent propositions.
Any science is called a " geometry " if it investigates the
theory of the classification of a set of entities (the points) into
classes (the straight lines), such that (i) there is one and only
one class which contains any given pair of the entities, and (2)
every such class contains more than two members. In the two
geometries, important from their relevance to existent space,
axioms which secure an order of the points on any line also
occur. These geometries will be called " Projective Geometry "
and " Descriptive Geometry." In projective geometry any
two straight lines in a plane intersect, and the straight lines
are closed series which return into themselves, like the circum-
ference of a circle. In descriptive geometry two straight lines in
a plane do not necessarily intersect, and a straight line is an open
series without beginning or end. Ordinary Euclidean geometry
is a descriptive geometry; it becomes a projective geometry
when the so-called " points at infinity " are added.
Projective Geometry.
Projective geometry may be developed from two undefined
fundamental ideas, namely, that of a " point " and that of a
" straight line." These undetermined ideas take different
specific meanings for the various specific subject matters to
which projective geometry can be applied. The number of the
axioms is always to some extent arbitrary, being dependent
upon the verbal forms of statement which are adopted. They will
4 Cf. Ernst Mach, Erkenntniss und Irrtum (Leipzig); the relevant
chapters are translated by T. J. McCormack, Space and Geometry
(London, 1906) ; also A. Meinong, t)ber die Stellung der Gegenstandt-
theorie im System der Wissenschaften (Leipzig, 1907).
6 Cf. Russell, Principles of Mathematics, 352 (Cambridge, 1903).
Cf. A. N. Whitehead, The Axioms of Projective Geometry, 3
(Cambridge, 1906).
7 Cf. Russell, Princ. of Math., ch. i.
8 Cf. Russell, loc. cit., and G. Frege, " t)ber die Grundlagen der
Geometric," Jahresber. der Deutsch. Math. Ver. (1906).
AXIOMS]
GEOMETRY
73 1
be presented 1 here as twelve in number, eight being "axioms
of classification." and four being " axioms of order."
Axioms of Classification. The eight axioms of classification
are as follows:
i. Points form a class of entities with at least two members.
a. Any straight line is a class of points containing at least
three members.
j. Any two distinct points lie in one and only one straight
line.
4. There is at least one straight line which does not contain
all the points.
5. If A, B. (.' are non-collinear points, and A' is on the straight
line BC, and B' is on the straight line CA, then the straight lines
AA' and BB' noemti a point in common.
Definition. If A, B, C are any three non-collinear points, the
ttsmt ABC is the class of points lying on the straight lines joining
A with the various points on the straight line BC.
6. There is at least one plane which does not contain all the
points.
7. There exists a plane a, and a point A not incident in a,
such that any point lies in some straight line which contains
both A and a point in a.
Definition. Harm. (ABC I)) symbolizes the following conjoint
statements: (i) that the points A, B, C, D are collinear, and (2)
that a quadrilateral can be found with one pair of opposite sides
intersecting at A, with the other pair intersecting at C, and with its
diagonals pasting through B and D respectively. Then B and D arc
said to be " harmonic conjugates " with respect to A and C.
8. Harm. (ABCD) implies that B and D are distinct points.
In the above axioms 4 secures at least two dimensions, axiom
5 is the fundamental axiom of the plane, axiom 6 secures at
least three dimensions, and axiom 7 secures at most three
dimensions. From axioms 1-5 it can be proved that any two
distinct points in a straight line determine that line, that any
three non-collinear points in a plane determine that plane, that
the straight line containing any two points in a plane lies wholly
in that plane, and that any two straight lines in a plane intersect.
From axioms 1-6 Desargues's well-known theorem on triangles
in perspective can be proved.
The enunciation of this theorem is as follows: If ABC and
A'B'C' are two coplanar triangles such that the lines AA', BB',
CC' are concurrent, then the three points of intersection of BC and
B'C of CA and C'A', and of AB and A'B' are collinear; and
conversely if the three points of intersection are collinear, the three
lines are concurrent. The proof which can be applied is the usual
projective proof by which a third triangle A'B C" is constructed
at coplanar with the other two, but in perspective with each
of them.
It has been proved 1 that Desargues's theorem cannot be deduced
from axioms 1-5. that is, if the geometry be confined to two
dimensions. All the proofs proceed by the method of producing a
specification of " points " and " straight lines " which satisfies
axioms 1-5, and such that Desargues's theorem does not hold.
It follows from axioms 1-5 that Harm. (ABCD) implies Harm.
(ADCB) and Harm. (CBAD), and that, if A, B, C be any three
distinct collinear points, there exists at least one point D such that
Harm. (ABCD). But it requires Desargues's theorem, and hence
axiom 6, to prove that Harm. (ABCD) and Harm. (ABCD') imply
the identity of D and D'.
The necessity for axiom 8 has been proved by G. Fano, 1 who
has produced a three dimensional geometry of fifteen points,
i.e. a method of cross classification of fifteen entities, in which
each straight line contains three points, and each plane contains
seven straight lines. In this geometry axiom 8 does not hold.
Also from axioms 1-6 and 8 it follows that Harm. (ABCD)
implies Harm. (BCDA).
Definitions. When two plane figures can be derived from one
another by a single projection, they are said to be in perspective.
When two plane figures can be derived one from the other by a finite
erics of perspective relations between intermediate figures, they
1 This formulation though not in respect to number is in all
rmnriili that of M. Fieri, cf. " I principii delta Geomctria di Posi-
rione." Accad R. di Torino (1898); also cf. Whitehead, lor. cit.
Cf. G. Peano. " Sui fondamcnti dclla Geometria," p. 73, Rivisto,
V matematua. vol. iv. (1894), and D. Hilbcrt, Grundlagen der Geo-
mtlrie (Leipzig. 1899): and R. F. Moulton, " A Simple non-Dcsar-
fuesian Plane Geometry." Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., vol. iii. (1902).
1 Cf. " Sui postulati fondamentali delta geometria projettiva."
Giom. & matemalua. vol. xxx. (1891); alto of Pieri, loc. cit., and
Whhehcad. /<v. cit.
are said to be protectively related. Any property of a plane figure
w liirh necessarily also belongs to any projectively related figure, u
called & projective property.
The following theorem, known from its importance as " the
fundamental theorem of projective geometry," cannot be proved 4
from axioms 1-8. The enunciation is: " A projective correspond-
ence between the points on two straight lines is completely deter-
mined when the correspondents of three distinct points on one line
are determined on the other." This theorem is equivalent 1
of A'B and CC'. of BB' and C'A, are collinear." This theorem is
obviously _ Pascal's well-known theorem respecting a hexagon
inscribed in a conic, for the special case when the conic has de-
generated into the two lines / and /'. Another theorem also
equivalent (assuming axioms 1-8^ to the fundamental theorem in
the following : If the three collinear pairs of points, A and A',
B and B', C and C', are such that the three pairs of opposite sides
of a complete quadrangle pass respectively through them, i.e. one
pair through A and A' respectively, and so on, and if also the three
sides of the quadrangle which pass through A, B, and C, are con-
current in one of the corners of the quadrangle, then another quad-
rangle can be found with the same relation to the three pairs of points,
except that its three sides which pass through A, B, and C, are not
concurrent.
Thus, if we choose to take any one of these three theorems as an
axiom, all the theorem* of projective geometry which do not require
ordinal or metrical ideas for their enunciation can be proved. Also
a conic can be defined as the locus of the points found by the usual
construction, based upon Pascal's theorem, for points on the conic
through five given points. But it is unnecessary to assume here
any one of the suggested axioms; for the fundamental theorem can
be deduced from the axioms of order together with axioms 1-8.
Axioms of Order. It is possible to define (cf. Pieri, loc. cit.)
the property upon which the order of points on a straight line
depends. But to secure that this property does in fact range
the points in a serial order, some axioms are required. A straight
line is to be a closed scries; thus, when the points are in order,
it requires two points on the line to divide it into two distinct
complementary segments, which do not overlap, and together
form the whole line. Accordingly the problem of the definition
of order reduces itself to the definition of these two segments
formed by any two points on the line; and the axioms are
stated relatively to these segments.
Definition. If A, B, C are three collincar points, the points on the
segment ABC are defined to be those points such as X, for which
there exist two points Y and Y' with the property that Harm.
(AYCY') and Harm. (BYXY') both hold. The supplementary
segment ABC is defined to be the rest of the points on the line.
This definition is elucidated by noticing that with our ordinary
geometrical ideas, if B and X are any two points between A and C,
then the two pairs of points, A and C, B and X, define an involution
with real double points, namely, the Y and Y' of the above definition.
The property of belonging to a segment ABC is projective, since
the harmonic relation is projective.
The first three axioms of order (cf. Pieri, loc. cit.) are:
9. If A, B, C are three distinct collinear points, the supple-
mentary segment ABC is contained within the segment BCA.
10. If A, B, C are three distinct collinear points, the common
part of the segments BCA and CAB is contained in the supple-
mentary segment ABC.
11. If A, B, C are three distinct collinear points, and D lies
in the segment ABC, then the segment ADC is contained
within the segment ABC.
From these axioms all the usual properties of a closed order
follow. It will be noticed that, if A, B, C are any three collinear
points, C is necessarily traversed in passing from A to B by one
route along the line, and is not traversed in passing from A to B
along the other route. Thus there is no meaning, as referred
to closed straight lines, in the simple statement that C lies
between A and B. But there may be a relation of separation
between two pairs of collinear points, such as A and C, and
B and D. The couple B and D is said to separate A and C, if
Cf. Hilbert, loc. cit.; for a fuller exposition of Hilbert's proof
cf. K. T. Vahlen, A bslrakte Geometric (Leipzig, 1905), also Whitehead,
loc. cit.
Cf. H. Wiener, Jahresber. der Deutsch. Math. Ver. vol. i. (1890);
and F. Schur, " Uber den Fundamentalsatz der projectiven Geo-
metric," Math. Ann. vol. li. (1899).
Cf. Hilbert, loc. cit., and Whitehearl, loc. cit.
732
GEOMETRY
[AXIOMS
the four points are collinear and D lies in the segment comple-
mentary to the segment ABC. The property of the separation
of pairs of points by pairs of points is projective. Also it can be
proved that Harm. (ABCD) implies that B and D separate
A and C.
Definitions. A series of entities arranged in a serial order, open
or closed, is said to be compact, if the series contains no immediately
consecutive entities, so that in traversing the series from any one
entity to any other entity it is necessary to pass through entities
distinct from either. It was the merit of R. Dedekind and of
G. Cantor explicitly to formulate another fundamental property of
series. The Dedekind property * as applied to an open series can
be defined thus: An open series possesses the Dedekind property,
if, however, it be divided into two mutually exclusive classes u and
p, which (l) contain between them the whole series, and (2) are
such that every member of u precedes in the serial order every
member of v , there is always a member of the series, belonging to one
of the two, u or v, which precedes every member of v (other than
itself if it belong to v), and also succeeds every member of u (other
than itself if it belong to u). Accordingly in an open series with the
Dedekind property there is always a member of the series marking
the junction of two classes such as and v. An open series is con-
tinuous if it is compact and possesses the Dedekind property. A
closed series can always be transformed into an open series by taking
any arbitrary member as the first term and by taking one of the two
ways round as the ascending order of the series. Thus the definitions
of compactness and of the Dedekind property can be at once trans-
ferred to a closed series.
12. The last axiom of order is that there exists at least one
straight line for which the point order possesses the Dedekind
property.
It follows from axioms 1-12 by projection that the Dedekind
property is true for all lines. Again the harmonic system A BC,
where A, B, C are collinear points, is defined 2 thus: take the
harmonic conjugates A', B', C' of each point with respect to
the other two, again take the harmonic conjugates of each of
the six points A, B, C, A', B', C' with respect to each pair of the
remaining five, and proceed in this way by an unending series
of steps. The set of points thus obtained is called the harmonic
system ABC. It can be proved that a harmonic system is
compact, and that every segment of the line containing it
possesses members of it. Furthermore, it is easy to prove that
the fundamental theorem holds for harmonic systems, in the
sense that, if A, B, C are three points on a line /, and A', B', C'
are three points on a line /', and if by any two distinct series
of projections A, B, C are projected into A', B', C', then any point
of the harmonic system ABC corresponds to the same point of
the harmonic system A'B'C' according to both the projective
relations which are thus established between / and /'. It now
follows immediately that the fundamental theorem must hold for
all the points on the lines I and /', since (as has been pointed out)
harmonic systems are " everywhere dense " on their containing
lines. Thus the fundamental theorem follows from the axioms
of order.
A system of numerical coordinates can now be introduced,
possessing the property that linear equations represent planes
and straight lines. The outline of the argument by which this
remarkable problem (in that " distance " is as yet undefined) is
solved, will now be given. It is first proved that the points on
any line can in a certain way be definitely associated with all
the positive and negative real numbers, so as to form with them
a one-one correspondence. The arbitrary elements in the
establishment of this relation are the points on the line associated
with o, i and oo .
This association' is most easily effected by considering a
class of projective relations of the line with itself, called by
F. Schur (loc. cil.) prospectivities.
Let I (fig. 69) be the given line, m and n any two lines intersecting
at U on /, S and S' two points on n. Then a projective relation
between / and itself is formed by projecting / from S on to m, and
then by projecting m from S' back on to /. All such projective
1 Cf. Dedekind, Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen (1872).
1 Cf. v. Staudt, Geometrie der Lage (1847).
* Cf . Pasch, Vorlesungen iiber neuere Geometrie (Leipzig, 1882), a
classic work; also Fiedler, Die darstellende Geometrie (1st ed., 1871,
3rd ed., 1888); Clebsch, Vorlesungen uber Geometrie, vol. hi.;
Hilbert, loc. cit.; F. Schur, Math. Ann. Bd. Iv. (1902); Vahlen,
loc. cit.; Whitehead, loc. cit.
relations, however m, n, S and S' be varied, are called " prospec-
tivities," and U is the double point of the prospectivity. If a point
O on I is related to A by a prospectivity, then all prospectivities,
which (i) have the same double point
U, and (2) relate O to A, give the same
correspondent (Q, in figure) to any
point P on the line /; in fact they are
all the same prospectivity, however
m, n, S, and S' may have been varied
subject to these conditions. Such
a prospectivity will be denoted by
The sum of two prospectivities,
written (OAU 2 ) + (OBU 2 ), is defined
to be that transformation of the line
FIG. 69.
into itself which is obtained by first applying the prospectivity
(OAU 2 ) and then applying the prospectivity (OBU 2 ). Such a
transformation, when the two summands have the same double
point, is itself a prospectivity with that double point.
With this definition of addition it can be proved that prospec-
tivities with the same double point satisfy all the axioms of mag-
nitude. Accordingly they can be associated in a one-one corre-
spondence with the positive and negative real numbers. Let E
(fig. 70) be any point on /, distinct from O and U. Then the
prospectivity (OEU 2 ) is associated with unity, the prospectivity
(OOU 2 ) is associated with zero,
and (OUU 2 ) with oo. The pro-
spectivities of the type (OPU 2 ),
where P is any point on the seg-
ment OEU, correspond to the posi-
tive numbers; also if P' is the
harmonic conjugate of P with
respect to O and U, the prospec-
tivity (OP'U 2 ) is associated with
the corresponding negative number.
(The subjoined figure explains this
relation of the positive and nega-
tive prospectivities.) Then any
point P on / is associ
tivity (OPU 2 ).
FIG. 70.
associated with the same number as is the prospec-
It can be proved that the order of the numbers in algebraic order
of magnitude agrees with the order on the line of the associated
points. Let the numbers, assigned according to the preceding
specification, be said to be associated with the points according to
the " numeration-system (OEU)." The introduction of a coordinate
system for a plane is now managed
as follows: Take any triangle OUV
in the plane, and on the lines OU
and OV establish the numeration
systems (OEiU) and (OE 2 V), where
Ei and Ea are arbitrarily chosen.
Then (cf. fig. 71) if M and N are
associated with the numbers x and
y according to these systems, the
coordinates of P are x and y. It then
follows that the equation of a straight
line is of the form ax-\-by-\-c = o. Both coordinates of any point on
the line UV are infinite. This can be avoided by introducing
E,
FIG. 71.
X/Z, and y = Y/Z, an
homogeneous coordinates X, Y, Z, where
Z = o is the equation of UV.
The procedure for three dimensions is similar. Let OUVW
(fig. 72) be any tetrahedron, and associate points on OU, OV, OW
with numbers according to the numera-
tion systems (OEiU), (OEjV), and
(OEaW). Let the planes VWP, WUP,
UVP cut OU, OV, OW in L, M, N respec-
tively; and let x, y, z be the numbers
associated with L, M, N respectively. c<
Then P is the point (*, y, 2). Also
homogeneous coordinates can be in-
troduced as before, thus avoiding" the
infinities on the plane UVW.
The cross ratio of a range of four
collinear points can now be defined
can now be defined ? 2 '
as a number characteristic of that range. Let the coordinates of any
point P r of the range Pi P, P, P t be
(r = i,2, 3, 4)
and let (X^i.) be written for Vju.-X^r- Then the cross ratio
{Pi Pa Ps Pi) is defined to be the number (Xi/*s)(XsM)/(Xu<4)(XMs).
The equality of the cross ratios of the ranges (Pi P Ps ft) and
(Qi Qz Qs Qi) is proved to be the necessary and sufficient conditio_n
for their mutual projectivity. The cross ratios of all harmonic
ranges are then easily seen to be all equal to - I, by comparing with
the range (OEiUE'i) on the axis of *.
Thus all the ordinary propositions of geometry in which distance
and angular measure do not enter otherwise than in cross ratios
can now be enunciated and proved. Accordingly the greater part of
the analytical theory of conies and quadrics belongs to geometry
AXIOMS)
GEOMETRY
733
at ihw stage The theory of distance will be considered utter the
" t at descriptive geometry have been developed.
Descriptive Geometry.
Descriptive geometry is essentially the science of multiple
order for open series. The nrst satisfactory system of axioms
was given by M. Pasch. 1 An improved version is due to G.
Peano. 1 Both these authors treat the idea of the class of points
constituting the segment lying between two points as an undefined
fundamental idea. Thus in fact there are in this system two
fundamental ideas, namely, of points and of segments. It is
then easy enough to define the prolongations of the segments,
o as to form the complete straight lines. D. Hilbert's* formula-
tion of the axioms is in this respect practically based on the same
fundamental ideas. His wcrk is justly famous for some of the
mathematical investigations contained in it, but his exposition of
the axioms is distinctly inferioi to that of Peano. Descriptive
geometry can also be considered ' as the science of a class of
relations, each relation being a two-termed serial relation, as
considered in the logic of relations, ranging the points between
which it holds into a linear ppen order. Thus the relations are
the straight lines, and the terms between which they hold arc
the points. But a combination of these two points of view
yields the simplest statement of all. Descriptive geometry is
then conceived as the investigation of an undefined fundamental
relation between three terms (points), and when the relation
holds between three points A, B, C, the points are said to be " in
the [linear] order ABC."
0. Veblen's axioms and definitions, slightly modified, are as
follows:
1. If the points A, B, C are in the order ABC, they are in the
order CBA.
2. If the points A, B, C are in the order ABC, they are not
in the order BCA.
3. If the points A, B, C are in the order ABC, A is distinct
from C.
4. If A and B are any two distinct points, there exists a point
C such that A, B, C are in the order ABC.
Defiiiticm. The line AB (A *B) consists of A and B, and of all
point* X in one of the possible orders, ABX, AXB, XAB. The
point* X in the order AXB constitute the segment AB.
5. If points C and D (C*D) lie on the line AB, then A lies on
the line CD.
6. There exist three distinct points A, B, C not in any of the
orders ABC, BCA, CAB.
7. If three distinct points A, B, C (fig. 73) do not lie on the
same line, and D and are two distinct points in the ordcis
A BCD and CEA, then a point F exists
in the order AFB, and such that
D, E, F are collinear.
Definition. If A, B, C are three
non-collinear points, the plane ABC
is the class of points which lie on any
one of the lines joining any two of the
D points belonging to the boundary of
,, the triangle ABC, the boundary being
formed by the segments BC, CA and
AB. The interior of the triangle ABC is formed by the points in
segments such as PQ. where P and Q are points respectively on
two of the segments BC. CA, AB.
8. There exists a plane ABC, which does not contain all the
points.
Definition. If A, B, C, D are four non-coplanar points, the space
ABCD is the class of points which lie on any of the lines containing
two points on the surface of the tetrahedron ABCD, the surface
being formed by the interiors of the triangles ABC, BCD, DCA,
9. There exists a space ABCD which contains all the points.
' Cf. lac. tit.
1 Cf. / Principal di geometria (Turin, 1889) and " Sui fondamenti
delta geometria, Rarista di mat. vol. iv. (1894).
Cr lac. cit.
Cf. Vailati, Rmsta di mat. vol. iv. and Russell, loc. tit. ^ 376.
Cf. O. Veblen. "On the Projective Axioms of Geometry,"
Tram. Amer. tlalk. Sac. vol. iii. (1902).
10. The Dedekind property holds for the order of the points
on any straight line.
It follows from axioms 1-9 that the points on any straight line
are arranged in an open serial order. Also all the ordinary
theorems respecting a point dividing a straight line into two
parts, a straight line dividing a plane into two parts, and a plane
dividing space into two parts, follow.
Again, in any plane a consider a line / and a point A {fig. 74).
Let any point B divide / into two half-lines /, and k- Then it can
be proved that the set of half-lines, emanating from A and inter-
secting l\ (such as m), are bounded by two half-lines, of which ABC
js one. Let r be the other. Then it can be proved that r does not
intersect /i. Similarly for the half-line,
such as n, intersecting /.. Let s be its
bounding half-line. Then two cases are
possible, (i) The half-lines r and .\ are
collinear, and together form one com-
plete line. In this case, there is one and
only one line (viz. r+s) through A and
lying in a which docs not intersect /.
This is the Euclidean case, and the
assumption that this case holds is the
Euclidean parallel axiom. But (2) the
half-lines r and s may not be collinear. FIG. 74.
In this case there will be an infinite
number of lines, such as k for instance, containing A and lying in ,
which do not intersect I. Then the lines through A in o are divided
into two classes by reference to /, namely, the secant lines which
intersect /, and the non-secant lines which do not intersect I. The
two boundary non-secant lines, of which r and s are respectively
halves, may be called the two parallels to / through A.
The perception of the possibility of case 2 constituted the starting-
point from which Lobatchewsky constructed the first explicit
coherent theory of non-Euclidean geometry, and thus created^ a
revolution in trie philosophy of the subject. For_ many centuries
the speculations of mathematicians on the foundations of geometry
were almost confined to hopeless attempts to prove the ' parallel
axiom " without the introduction of some equivalent axiom.'
Associated Projective and Descriptive Spaces. A region of a
projective space, such that one, and only one, of the two supple-
mentary segments between any pair of points within it lies
entirely within it, satisfies the above axioms (i-io) of descriptive
geometry, where the points of the region are the descriptive
points, and the portions of straight lines within the region are
the descriptive lines. If the excluded part of the original pro-
jective space is a single plane, the Euclidean parallel axiom also
holds, otherwise it does not hold for the descriptive space of the
limited region. Again, conversely, starting from an original
descriptive space an associated projective space can be con-
structed by means of the concept of ideal points. 11 These are also
called projective points, where it is understood that the simple
points are the points of the original descriptive space. An
ideal point is the class of straight lines which is composed of two
coplanar lines a and b, together with the lines of intersection of
all pairs of intersecting planes which respectively contain a and b,
together with the lines of intersection with the plane ab of all
planes containing any one of the lines (other than a or b) already
specified as belonging to the ideal point. It is evident that, if
the two original lines a and b intersect, the corresponding ideal
point is nothing else than the whole class of lines which are
concurrent at the point ab. But the essence of the definition is
that an ideal point has an existence when the lines a and b do
not intersect, so long as they are coplanar. An ideal point is
termed proper, if the lines composing it intersect; otherwise it
is improper.
A theorem essential to the whole theory is the following: if
any two of the three lines a, b, c are coplanar, but the three lines
arc not all coplanar, and similarly for the lines a, b, d, then c
and d are coplanar. It follows that any two lines belonging to an
ideal point can be used as the pair of guiding lines in the definition.
An ideal point is said to be coherent with a plane, if any of the
lines composing it lie in the plane. An ideal line is the class of
ideal points each of which is coherent with two given planes.
Cf. P. Stackel and F. Engel, Die Theorie der ParalleUinien von
Euklid bis auf Gauss (Leipzig, 1895).
7 Cf Pasch, loc. cit., and R. Bpnola, " Sulla introduzione degli
enti improprii in geometria projettive," Ciorn. di mat. vol. xxxvui.
(1900) ; and Whitehead, Axioms of Descriptive Geometry (Cambridge,
I907)-
734
GEOMETRY
[AXIOMS
If the planes intersect, the ideal line is termed proper, otherwise
it is improper. It can be proved that any two planes, with which
any two of the ideal points are both coherent, will serve as the
guiding planes used in the definition. The ideal planes are
defined as in projective geometry, and all the other definitions
(for segments, order, &c.) of projective geometry are applied
to the ideal elements. If an ideal plane contains some proper
ideal points, it is called proper, otherwise it is improper. Every
ideal plane contains some improper ideal points.
It can now be proved that all the axioms of projective geometry
hold of the ideal elements as thus obtained; and also that the
order of the ideal points as obtained by the projective method
agrees with the order of the proper ideal points as obtained from
that of the associated points of the descriptive geometry. Thus
a projective space has been constructed out of the ideal elements,
and the proper ideal elements correspond element by element with
the associated descriptive elements. Thus the proper ideal
elements form a region in the projective space within which the
descriptive axioms hold. Accordingly, by substituting ideal
elements, a descriptive space can always be considered as a
region within a projective space. This is the justification for the
ordinary use of the " points at infinity " in the ordinary Euclidean
geometry; the reasoning has been transferred from the original
descriptive space to the associated projective space of ideal
elements; and with the Euclidean parallel axiom the improper
ideal elements reduce to the ideal points on a single improper ideal
plane, namely, the plane at infinity. 1
Congruence and, Measurement. The property of physical space
which is expressed by the term " measurability " has now to be
considered. This property has often been considered as essential
to the very idea of space. For example, Kant writes, 2 " Space
is represented as an infinite given quantity." This quantitative
aspect of space arises from the measurability of distances, of
angles, of surfaces and of volumes. These four types of quantity
depend upon the two first among them as fundamental. The
measurability of space is essentially connected with the idea of
congruence, of which the simplest examples are to be found in
the proofs of equality by the method of superposition, as used
in elementary plane geometry. The mere concepts of " part "
and of " whole " must of necessity be inadequate as the founda-
tion of measurement, since we require the comparison as to
quantity of regions of space which have no portions in common.
The idea of congruence, as exemplified by the method of super-
position in geometrical reasoning, appears to be founded upon
that of the " rigid body," which moves from one position to
another with its internal spatial relations unchanged. But unless
there is a previous concept of the metrical relations between the
parts of the body, there can be no basis from which to deduce
that they are unchanged.
It would therefore appear as if the idea of the congruence, or
metrical equality, of two portions of space (as empirically sug-
gested by the motion of rigid bodies) must be considered as a
fundamental idea incapable of definition in terms of those
geometrical concepts which have already been enumerated.
This was in effect the point of view of Pasch. 3 It has, however,
been proved by Sophus Lie 4 that congruence is capable of
definition without recourse to a new fundamental idea. This
he does by means of his theory of finite continuous groups (see
GROUPS, THEORY OF), of which the definition is possible in terms
of our established geometrical ideas, remembering that co-
ordinates have already been introduced. The displacement
of a rigid body is simply a mode of defining to the senses a one-
one transformation of all space into itself. For at any point of
space a particle may be conceived to be placed, and to be rigidly
connected with the rigid body; and thus there is a definite
correspondence of any point of space with the new point occupied
by the associated particle after displacement. Again two suc-
'The original idea (confined to this particular case) of ideal
! >inis is due to von Staudt (loc. cit.).
Cf. Critique, " Trans. Aesth." Sect. i.
Cf . loc. cit.
4 Cf. Ober die Grundlagen der Geometrie (Leipzig, Ber., 1890) ;
and Theorieder Transformationsgruppen (Leipzig, 1893), V <>1. .
cessive displacements of a rigid body from position A to position
B, and from position B to position C, are the same in effect as one
displacement from A to C. But this is the characteristic "group "
property. Thus the transformations of space into itself defined
by displacements of rigid bodies form a group.
Call this group of transformations a congruence-group. Now
according to Lie a congruence-group is defined by the following
characteristics :
1. A congruence-group is a finite continuous group of one-one
transformations, containing the identical transformation.
2. It is a sub-group of the general projective group, i.e. of
the group of which any transformation converts planes into
planes, and straight lines into straight lines.
3. An infinitesimal transformation can always be found satis-
fying the condition that, at least throughout a certain enclosed
region, any definite line and any definite point on the line are
latent, i.e. correspond to themselves.
4. No infinitesimal transformation of the group exists, such
that, at least in the region for which (3) holds, a straight line,
a point on it, and a plane through it, shall all be latent.
The property enunciated by conditions (3) and (4), taken
together, is named by Lie " Free mobility in the infinitesimal."
Lie proves the following theorems for a projective space:
1. If the above four conditions are only satisfied by a group
throughout part of projective space, this part either (a) must be the
region enclosed by a real closed quadric, or (/J) must be the whole of
the projective space with the exception of a single plane. In case
(a) the corresponding congruence group is the continuous group for
which the enclosing quadric is latent ; and in case (0) an imaginary
conic (with a real equation) lying in the latent plane is also latent,
and the congruence group is the continuous group for which the
plane and conic are latent.
2. If the above four conditions are satisfied by a group throughout
the whole of projective space, the congruence group is the continuous
group for which some imaginary quadric (with a real equation) is
latent.
By a proper choice of non-homogeneous co-ordinates the equation
of any quadrics of the types considered, either in theorem I (a), or in
theorem 2, can be written in the form I +c(x t +y 2 +z i ) =o, where c is
negative for a real closed quadric, and positive for an imaginary
quadric. Then the general infinitesimal transformation is defined
by the three equations:
dx/dt = u " 3 y+<*zz+cx(ux+vy+wz
dy/dt=v M iz+' a sX+cy(ux+vy+wz), v (A)
In the case considered in theorem i (/3), with the proper choice of
co-ordinates the three equations defining the general infinitesimal
transformation are :
dx/dt = u <a 3y+"tz, )
dy/dt=v-"iz+>,>x,[ (B)
dz/dt = w<2X+>iy. )
In this case the latent plane is the plane for which at least one of
x, y, z are infinite, that is, the plane o.x+o.j'+o.z-|-a = o; and the
latent conic is the conic in which the cone X 1 +y 1 +z 1 = o intersects
the latent plane.
It follows from theorems i and 2 that there is not one unique
congruence-group, but an indefinite number of them. There is
one congruence-group corresponding to each closed real quadric,
one to each imaginary quadric with a real equation, and one to
each imaginary conic in a real plane and with a real equation.
The quadric thus associated with each congruence-group is
called the absolute for that group, and in the degenerate case
of i (0) the absolute is the latent plane together with the latent
imaginary conic. If the absolute is real, the congruence-group
is hyperbolic; if imaginary, it is elliptic; if the absolute is a
plane and imaginary conic, the group is parabolic. Metrical
geometry is simply the theory of the properties of some particular
congruence-group selected for study.
The definition of distance is connected with the corresponding
congruence-group by two considerations in respect to a range of five
points (Ai, AI, Pi, Pi, P 3 ), of which Ai and A 2 are on the absolute.
Let (AiPiAiPjj stand for the cross ratio (as defined above) of the
range (AiPiA 2 P 2 ), with a similar notation for the other ranges.
Then
(i) logj^PjAjP,! + log|A,P 2 A 2 P 3 ! = log|A,P,A 2 P,|,
(2), if the points Ai, A 2 , Pi, P 2 are transformed into A'i, A' 2 , P'i, P'i
by any transformation of the congruence-group, (a) |AiP|A s Pi| =
lA'iP'iA'tP'jl , since the transformation is projective, and (0) A'i, A',
are on the absolute since Ai and Ai are on it. Thus if we define
GEOMETRY
AXIOMSl
the distance PiPi to be * log |A,P,A,P,|. where A, and At are the
points in which the line I'iPi cuts the absolute, and * is some con-
>tant. the two characteristic properties of distance, namely, (l) the
addition of consecutive lengths on a straight line, and (J) the in-
variability of distances during a transformation ..I the congruence-
troup, are satisfied. This is the well-known Caylcy-Klein project m-
definition ' of distance, which was elaborated in view of the addition
property alone, previously to Lie's discovery of the theory of con-
gruence-croups. For a hyperbolic group when Pi and I', are in the
region enclosed by the absolute, tog|AiPiAtP,| is real, and therefore
It roust be real. For an elliptic group A, and A- are conjugate
imaginaries, and log |A>PiAiPi| U a pure imaginary, and * is chosen
to be i/i, where* U real and i-V -.
Similarly the angle between two planes, pi and pi, is defined to be
(l/a.) log (lipihp,). where /, and d are tangent planes to the absolute
through the line top* The planes /i and h arc imaginary for an
elliptic group, and also for an hyperbolic group when the planes pi
and Pi intersect at points within the region enclosed by the absolute.
The development of the consequences of these metrical definitions
is the subict of non-Euclidean geometry.
The definitions for the parabolic case can be arrived at as limits
of those obtained in either of the other two cases by making k
ultimately to vanish. It is also obvious that, if Pi and P> be the
points (ii, 71, ft) and (x, yi, <i), it follows from equations (B) above
that JOr.-x.y-Kn-^P+fii-*)'!* unaltered by a congruence
transformation and also satisfies the addition property for collmcar
distance*. Also the previous definition of an angle can be adapted
to this case, by making I, and fc to bo the tangent planes through
the line pipi to the imaginary conic. Similarly if p\ and Pi are inter-
secting lines, the same definition of an angle holds, where h and /.
are now the lines from the point Pipi to the two points where the
plane PiP cuts the imaginary conic. These points are in fact the
Circular points at infinity " on the plane. The development of
the consequences of these definitions for the parabolic case gives the
ordinary Kuclidean metrical geometry.
Thus the only metrical geometry for the whole of projective
space is of the elliptic type. But the actual measure-relations
(though not their general properties) differ according to the
elliptic congruence-group selected for study. In a descriptive
space a congruence-group should possess the four characteristics
of such a group throughout the whole of the space. Then form
the associated ideal projective space. The associated congruence-
group for this ideal space must satisfy the four conditions
throughout the region of the proper ideal points. Thus the
boundary of this region is the absolute. Accordingly there can
be DO metrical geometry for the whole of a descriptive space
unless its boundary (in the associated ideal space) is a closed
quadric or a plane. If the boundary is a closed quadric, there
is one possible congruence-group of the hyperbolic type. If
the boundary is a plane (the plane at infinity), the possible
congruence-groups are parabolic; and there is a congruence-
group corresponding to each imaginary conic in this plane,
together with a Euclidean metrical geometry corresponding to
each such group. Owing to these alternative possibilities, it
would appear to be more accurate to say t hat systems of quantities
can be found in a space, rather than that space is a quantity.
Lie has also deduced* the same results with respect to con-
gruence-groups from another set of defining properties, which
explicitly assume the existence of a quantitative relation (the
distance) between any two points, which is invariant for any
transformation of the congruence-group.*
The above results, in respect to congruence and metrical
geometry, considered in relation to existent space, have led to the
doctrine 4 that it is intrinsically unmeaning to ask which system
of metrical geometry is true of the physical world. Any one of
these systems can be applied, and in an indefinite number of ways.
The only question before us is one of convenience in respect to
simplicity of statement of the physical laws. This point of view
seems to neglect the consideration that science is to be relevant
to the definite perceiving minds of men; and that (neglecting
the ambiguity introduced by the invariable slight inexactness
of observation which is not relevant to this special doctrine)
1 Cf. A. Cayley, " A Sixth Memoir on Quantics," Trans. Roy. Soc.,
1859, and Coil. Papers, vol..ii.; and F. Klein, Math. Ann. vol. iv.,
1871.
1 Cf . lac. lit.
' For similar deductions from a third set of axioms, suggested in
essence by Pea no, Riv. mat. vol. iv. Ice. lit. cf. Whitehcad, Den,
Ceem. lac. cil.
Cf. H. Poincarf. La Science tt I'kypoMne, ch. iii.
735
we have, in fact, presented to our senses a definite set of trans-
formations forming a congruence-group, resulting in a set of
measure relations which are in no respect arbitrary. Accordingly
our scientific laws are to be stated relevantly to that particular
congruence-group. Thus the investigation of the type (elliptic,
hyperbolic or parabolic) of this special congruence-group is a
perfectly definite problem, to be decided by experiment. The
consideration of experiments adapted to this object requires some
development of non-Euclidean geometry (sec section VI.,
Non-Euclidean Geometry). But if the doctrine means that,
assuming some sort of objective reality for the material universe,
beings can be imagined, to whom either all congruence-groups
are equally important.or some other congruence-group is specially
important, the doctrine appears to be an immediate deduction
from the mathematical facts. Assuming a definite congruence-
group, the investigation of surfaces (or three-dimensional loci
in space of four dimensions) with geodesic geometries of the form
of metrical geometries of other types of congruence-groups forms
an important chapter of non-Euclidean geometry. Arising
from this investigation there is a widely-spread fallacy, which
has found its way into many philosophic writings, namely, that
the possibility of the geometry of existent three-dimensional
space being other than Euclidean depends on the physical
existence of Euclidean space of four or more dimensions. The
foregoing exposition shows the baselessness of this idea.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For an account of the investigations on the
axioms of geometry during the Greek period, see \f. Cantor, Vor-
lesuneen uber die Geschichte der Mathematik, Bd. i. and iii.; T. L.
Heath, The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements, a New Translation
from the Creek, with Introductory Essays and Commentary, Historical,
Critical, and Explanatory (Cambridge, 1908) this work is the standard
source of information; W. B. Frankland, Euclid, Book I., with a
Commentary (Cambridge, 1905) the commentary contains copious
extracts from the ancient commentators. The next period of really
substantive importance is that of the l8th century. The leading
authors are: G. Saccheri, S.J., Euclides ab omni naevo vindicatus
(Milan, 1733). Saccheri was an Italian Jesuit who unconsciously
discovered non-Euclidean geometry in the course of his efforts to
prove its impossibility. J. H. Lambert, Theorie der Parallellinien
(1766); A. M. Legendre, Elements de gtomklrie (1794). An adequate
account of the above authors is given by P. Stackel and F. Engcl,
Die Theorie der Parallellinien von Euklid bis auf Gauss (Leipzig,
1895). The next period of time (roughly from 1800 to 1 870) contains
two streams of thought, both of which are essential to the modern
analysis of the subject. The first stream is that which produced the
discovery and investigation of non-Euclidean geometries, the second
stream is that which has produced the geometry of position, com-
prising both projectivc ancl descriptive geometry not very accurately
discriminated. The leading authors on non-Euclidean geometry
are K. F. Gauss, in private letters to Schumacher, cf. Stackel and
Engel, loc. cit.; N. Lobatchewsky, rector of the university of Kazan,
to whom the honour of the effective discovery of non-Euclidean
geometry must be assigned. His first publication was at Kazan
in 1826. His various memoirs have been re-edited by Engel;
cf. Urkunden zur Geschichte der nichteuklidischen Geometrie by
Stackel and Engel, vol. i. " Lobatchewsky." J. Bolyai discovered
non-Euclidean geometry apparently in independence of Lobat-
chewsky. His memoir was published in 1831 as an appendix to a
work by his father W. Bolyai, Tentamen juventutem. . . . This
memoir has been separately edited by J. Frischauf,/lfr.so/MteGeom</r'
nach J. Bolyai (Leipzig, 1872); B. Riemann, Uber die Hypothesen,
welche der Geomelrie zu Grunde liegen (1854); cf. Gesamte Werke, a
translation in The Collected Papers of W. K. Clifford. This is a
fundamental memoir on the subject and must rank with the work of
Lobatchewsky. Riemann discovered elliptic metrical geometry,
and Lobatchewsky hyperbolic geometry. A full account of Rie-
mann's ideas, with the subsequent developments due to Clifford,
F. Klein and W. Killing, wilj be found in The Boston Colloquium for
10O3 (New York, 1905), article " Forms of Non-Euclidean Space,"
by F. S. Woods. A. Cayley, loc. cit. (1859), and F. Klein, " Ubcr die
sogcnannte nichteuklidische Geometrie," Math. Annal. vols. iv.
and vi. (1871 and 1872), between them elaborated the projective
theory of distance; H. Helmholtz, " Ubcr die thatsachlichcn
Grundlagcn der Geometrie" (1866), and " Uber die That&achen, die
der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen" (1868), both in his Wissenschaftlicht
Abhandlungen, vol. ii., and . Lie, loc. cit. (1890 and 1893), between
them elaborated the group theory of congruence.
The numberless works which have been written to suggest egui-
valent alternatives to Euclid's parallel axioms may be neglected as
being of trivial importance, though many of them arc marvels of
geometric ingenuity.
The second stream of thought confined itself within the circle of
ideas of Euclidean geometry. Its origin was mainly due to a
73 6
GEOPONICI GEORGE, SAINT
succession of great French mathematicians, for example, G. Monge,
Geometrie descriptive (1800); J. V. Poncelet, Traite des proprietes
projectives des figures (1822); M. Chasles, Aperc.u historique sur
I'origine el le developpement des methodes en geomelrie (Bruxelles, 1837),
and Traite de geometrie superieure (Paris, 1852); and many others.
But the works which have been, and are still, of decisive influence on
thought as a store-house of ideas relevant to the foundations of
geometry are K. G. C. von Staudt's two works, Geometrie der Lage
(Nurnberg, 1847); and Beitrage zur Geometrie der Lage (Nurnberg,
1856, 3rd ed. 1860).
The final period is characterized by the successful production of
exact systems of axioms, and by the final solution of problems
which have occupied mathematicians for two thousand years. The
successful analysis of the ideas involved in serial continuity is due to
R. Dedekind, Stetigkeit und irrationale Zahlen (1872), and to G.
Cantor, Grundlagen einer attgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre (Leipzig,
1883), and Acta math. vol. 2.
Complete systems of axioms have been stated by M. Pasch, loc.
cit.; G. Peano, loc. cit.; M. Fieri, loc. cit.; B. Russell, Principles of
Mathematics ; O. Veblen, loc. cit. ; and by G. Veronese in his treatise,
Fondamenti di geometria (Padua, 1891 ; German transl. by A. Schepp,
Grv.nd.mge der Geomelrie, Leipzig, 1894). Most of the leading memoirs
on special questions involved have been cited in the text; in addition
there may be mentioned M. Fieri, " Nuovi principii di geometria
projettiva complessa," Trans. Accad. R. d. Sci. (Turin, 1905) ;
E. H. Moore, " On the Projective Axioms of Geometry," Trans.
Amer. Math. Soc., 1902; O. Veblen and W. H. Bussey, "Finite
Projective Geometries," Trans. Amer. Math. Soc., 1905; A. B.
Kempe, " On the Relation between the Logical Theory of Classes
and the Geometrical Theory of Points," Proc. Land. Math. Soc.,
1890; J. Royce, "The Relation of the Principles of Logic to the
Foundations of Geometry," Trans, of Amer. Math. Soc., 1905;
A. Schoenflies, " Uber die M6glichkeit einer projectiven Geometrie
bei transfiniter (nichtarchimedischer) Massbestimmung," Deutsch.
M.-V. Jahresb., 1906.
For general expositions of the bearings of the above investiga-
tions, cf. Hon. Bertrand Russell, loc. cit. ; L. Couturat, Les Principes
des mathematiques (Paris, 1905); H. Poincare, loc. cit.; Russell
and Whitehead, Principia mathematica (Cambridge, Univ. Press).
The philosophers whose views on space and geometric truth de-
serve especial study are Descartes, Leibnitz, Hume, Kant and J. S.
Mill. (A. N. W.)
GEOPONICI, 1 or Scriptores rei rusiicae, the Greek and Roman
writers on husbandry and agriculture. On the whole the Greeks
paid less attention than the Romans to the scientific study of
these subjects, which in classical times they regarded as a branch
of economics. Thus Xenophon's Oeconomicm (see also Memo-
rabilia, ii. 4) contains a eulogy of agriculture and its beneficial
ethical effects, and much information is to be found in the writings
of Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus. About, the same time
as Xenophon, the philosopher Democritus of Abdera wrote a
treatise Titpl rcop7ias, frequently quoted and much used by
the later compilers of Geoponica (agricultural treatises) . Greater
attention was given to the subject in the Alexandrian period;
a long list of names is given by Varro and Columella, amongst
them Hiero II. and Attalus III. Philometor. Later, Cassius
Dionysius of Utica translated and abridged the great work of
the Carthaginian Mago, which was still further condensed by
Diophanes of Nicaea in Bithynia for the use of King Delotarus.
From these and similar works Cassianus Bassus (q.v.) compiled
his Geoponica. Mention may also be made of a little work
Repl TetapyiKav by Michael Psellus (printed in Boissonade,
Anecdota Graeca, i.).
The Romans, aware of the necessity of maintaining a numerous
and thriving order of agriculturists, from very early times
endeavoured to instil into their countrymen both a theoretical
and a practical knowledge of the subject. The occupation of
the farmer was regarded as next in importance to that of the
soldier, and distinguished Romans did not disdain to practise
it. In furtherance of this object, the great work of Mago was
translated into Latin by order of the senate, and the elder Cato
wrote his De agri cultura (extant in a very corrupt state), a
simple record in homely language of the rules observed by the old
Roman landed proprietors rather than a theoretical treatise.
He was followed by the two Sasernae (father and son) and Gnaeus
Tremellius Scrofa, whose works are lost. The learned Marcus
Terentius Varro of Reate, when eighty years of age, composed
his Rerunt ruslicarum, libri tres, dealing with agriculture, the
1 The latinized form of a non-existent ro7roi>u(of, used for
convenience.
rearing of cattle, and the breeding of fishes. He was the first to
systematize what had been written on the subject, and supple-
mented the labours of others by practical experience gained
during his travels. In the Augustan age Julius Hyginus wrote
on farming and bee-keeping, Sabinus Tiro on horticulture, and
during the early empire Julius Graecinus and Julius Atticus on
the culture of vines, and Cornelius Celsus (best known for his
De medicina) on farming. The chief work of the kind, however,
is that of Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (<?..). About the
middle of the 2nd century the two Quintilii, natives of Troja,
wrote on the subject in Greek. It is remarkable that Columella's
work exercised less influence in Rome and Italy than in southern
Gaul and Spain, where agriculture became one of the principal
subjects of instruction in the superior educational establishments
that were springing up in those countries. One result of this was
the preparation of manuals of a popular kind for use in the schools.
In the 3rd century Gargilius Martialis of Mauretania compiled
a Geoponica in which medical botany and the veterinary art
were included. The De re rustica of Palladius (4th century), in
fourteen books, which is almost entirely borrowed from Columella,'
is greatly inferior in style and knowledge of the subject- It is a
kind of farmer's calendar, in which the different rural occupations
are arranged in order of the months. The fourteenth book
(on forestry) is written in elegiacs (85 distichs). The whole of
Palladius and considerable fragments of Martialis are extant.
The best edition of the Scriptores rei rusticae is by J. G. Schneider
(1794-1797), and the whole subject is exhaustively treated by
A. Magerstedt, Bilder aus der romischen Landwirtschaft (1858-
1863); see also Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature, 54;
C. F. Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopadie.
GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303), the patron saint of England, Aragon
and Portugal. According to the legend given by Metaphrastes
the Byzantine hagiologist, and substantially repeated in the
Roman Acta sanctorum and in the Spanish breviary, he was born
in Cappadocia of noble Christian parents, from whom he received
a careful religious training. Other accounts place his birth at
Lydda, but preserve his Cappadocian parentage. Having em-
braced the profession of a soldier, he rapidly rose under Dio-
cletian to high military rank. In Persian Armenia he organized
and energized the Christian community at Urmi (Urumiah),
and even visited Britain on an imperial expedition. When
Diocletian had begun to manifest a pronounced hostility towards
Christianity, George sought a personal interview with him, in
which he made deliberate profession of his faith, and, earnestly
remonstrating against the persecution which had begun, resigned
his commission. He was immediately laid under arrest, and
after various tortures, finally put to death at Nicomedia(his body
being afterwards taken to Lydda) on the 23rd of April 303. His
festival is observed on that anniversary by the entire Roman
Catholic Church as a semi-duplex, and by the Spanish Catholics
as a duplex of the first class with an octave. The day is also
celebrated as a principal feast in the Orthodox Eastern Church,
where the saint is distinguished by the titles tieya^onaprvp and
The historical basis of the tradition is particularly unsound,
there being two claimants to the name and honour. Eusebius,
Hist. eccl. viii. 5, writes: " Immediately on the promulgation
of the edict (of Diocletian) a certain man of no mean origin, but
highly esteemed for his temporal dignities, as soon as the decree
was published against the churches in Nicomedia, stimulated
by a divine zeal and excited by an ardent faith, took it as it was
openly placed and posted up for public inspection, and tore it
to shreds as a most profane and wicked act. This, too, was
done when the two Caesars were in the city, the first of whom
was the eldest and chief of all and the other held fourth grade of
the imperial dignity after him. But this man, as the first that
was distinguished there in this manner, after enduring what
was likely to follow an act so daring, preserved his mind, calm
and serene, until the moment when his spirit fled." Rivalling
this anonymous martyr, who is often supposed to have
been St George, is an earlier martyr briefly mentioned in the
Chronicon Pascale: " In the year 225 of the Ascension of our
Lord a persecution of the Christians took place, and many
GEORGE I.
737
suffered martyrdom, among whom also the Holy George was
martyred."
Two Syrian church inscriptions bearing the name, one at Ezr'a
and the other at Shaka, found by Burckhardt and Porter, and
discussed by J. Hogg in the Transactions of Ike Royal Literary
Society, may with some probability be assigned to the middle
of the 4th century. Calvin impugned the saint's existence
altogether, ami Edward Reynolds ( i soo-i676),bishop of Norwich,
like Edward Gibbon a century later, made him one with George
of Laodicea, called " the Cappadocian," the Arian bishop of
Alexandria (see GEORGE or LAODICEA).
Modern criticism, while rejecting this identification, is not
unwilling to accept the main fact that an officer named Georgios,
of high rank in the army, suffered martyrdom probably under
Diocletian. In the canon of Pope Gelasius (494) George is
mentioned in a list of those " whose names are justly reverenced
among men, but whose acts are known only to God," a statement
which implies that legends had already grown up around his
name. The caution of Gelasius was not long preserved; Gregory
of Tours, for example, asserts that the saint's relics actually
existed in the French village of Le Maine, where many miracles
were wrought by means of them; and Bede, while still explaining
that the Cesta Georgii are reckoned apocryphal, commits himself
to the statement that the martyr was beheaded under Dacian,
king of Persia, whose wife Alexandra, however, adhered to the
Christian faith. The great fame of George, who is reverenced
alike by Eastern and Western Christendom and by Mahom-
medans, is due to many causes. He was martyred on the eve
of the triumph of Christianity, his shrine was reared near the
scene of a great Greek legend (Perseus and Andromeda), and
his relics when removed from Lydda, where many pilgrims had
visited them, to Zorava in the Hauran served to impress his fame
not only on the Syrian population, but on their Moslem con-
querors, and again on the Crusaders, who in grateful memory
of the saint's intervention on their behalf at Antioch built a new
cathedral at Lydda to take the place of the church destroyed
by the Saracens. This cathedral was in turn destroyed by
Saladin.
The connexion of St George with a dragon, familiar since the
Gciden Legend of Jacobus de Voragine, can be traced to the
dose of the 6th century. At Arsuf or Joppa neither of them
far from Lydda Perseus had slain the sea-monster that
threatened the virgin Andromeda, and George, like many another
Christian saint, entered into the inheritance of veneration pre-
viously enjoyed by a pagan hero. 1 The exploit thus attaches
itself to the very common Aryan myth of the sun-god as the
conqueror of the powers of darkness.
The popularity of St George in England has never reached
the height attained by St Andrew in Scotland, St David in Wales
or St Patrick in Ireland. The council of Oxford in 1222 ordered
that his feast should be kept as a national festival; but it was
not until the time of Edward III. that he was made patron of
the kingdom. The republics of Genoa and Venice were also
under his protection.
See P. Heylin, The History of ... 5. George of Cappadocia (1631) ;
S. Baring -Could, Curious Myths of the Middle Ages; Fr. Gorres,
" Der kittcr St Georg in der Geschichte, Legende und Kunst " (Zeit-
sthriftfur mssenschafUuke Tkeologie, xxx., 1887, Heft i.); E. A. W.
Budge, The Martyrdom and Miracles of St George of Cappadocia:
the Coptic text* edited with an English translation (1888); Holland,
Acta Sancti, iii. loi ; E. O. Gordon, Saint George (1907); M. H.
Bullcy. St George for Uerrie England (1908).
G.A-Sniith(//ij/. Geog. of Holy Land, p. 164) points out another
coincidence. " The Mahommedans who usually identify St George
with the prophet Elijah, at Lydda confound his legend with one
about Christ himself. Their name for Antichrist it Dajjal, and they
have a tradition that Jesus will slay Antichrist by the gate of Lydda.
The notion sprang from an ancient bas-relief of George and the
Dragon on the Lydda church. But Dajjal may be derived, by a
very com moo confusion between n and /, from Dagon, whose name
two neighbouring village* bear to this day, while one of the gate* of
Lydda used to be called the Gate of Dagon. It is a curious process
by which the monster that symbolized heathenism conquered by
Christianity has been evolved out of the first great rival of the God of
I i
XL 14
GEORGE I. [George Louis] (1660-1727), king of Great Britain
and Ireland, born in 1660, was heir through his father Ernest
Augustus to the hereditary lay bishopric of Osnabruck, and to
the duchy of Calenberg, which formed one portion of the Hano-
verian possessions of the house of Brunswick, whilst he secured
the reversion of the other portion, the duchy of Celle or /ell.
by his marriage (1682) with the heiress, his cousin Sophia
Dorothea. The marriage was not a happy one. The morals
of German courts in the end of the i ;th century took their tone
from the splendid profligacy of Versailles. It became the
fashion for a prince to amuse himself with a mistress or more
frequently with many mistresses simultaneously, and he was
often content that the mistresses whom he favoured should be
neither beautiful nor witty. George Louis followed the usual
course. Count Konigsmark a handsome adventurer seized
the opportunity of paying court to the deserted wife. Conjugal
infidelity was held at Hanover to be a privilege of the male sex.
Count Konigsmark was assassinated. Sophia Dorothea was
divorced in 1694, and remained in seclusion till her death in
1726. When George IV., her descendant in the fourth genera-
tion, attempted in England to call his wife to account for sins of
which he was himself notoriously guilty, free-spoken public
opinion reprobated the offence in no measured terms. But in
the Germany of the 1 7th century all free-spoken public opinion
had been crushed out by the misery of the Thirty Years' War,
and it was understood that princes were to arrange their domestic
life according to their own pleasure.
The prince's father did much to raise the dignity of his family.
By sending help to the emperor when he was struggling against
the French and the Turks, he obtained the grant of a ninth
electorate in 1692. His marriage with Sophia, the youngest
daughter of Elizabeth the daughter of James I. of England,
was not one which at first seemed likely to confer any prospect
of advancement to his family. But though there were many
persons whose birth gave them better claims than she had to the
English crown, she found herself, upon the death of the duke of
Gloucester, the next Protestant heir after Anne. The Act of
Settlement in 1701 secured the inheritance to herself and her
descendants. Being old and unambitious she rather permitted
herself to be burthened with the honour than thrust herself
forward to meet it. Her son George took a deeper interest in
the matter. In his youth he had fought with determined courage
in the wars of William III. Succeeding to the electorate on his
father's death in 1698, he had sent a welcome reinforcement
of Hanoverians to fight under Marlborough at Blenheim. With
prudent persistence he attached himself closely to the Whigs
and to Marlborough, refusing Tory offers of an independent
command, and receiving in return for his fidelity a guarantee by
the Dutch of his succession to England in the Barrier treaty of
1709. In 1714 when Ann.e was growing old, and Bolingbroke
and the more reckless Tories were coquetting with the son of
James II., the Whigs invited George's eldest son, who was duke
of Cambridge, to visit England in order to be on the spot in case
of need. Neither the elector nor his mother approved of a step
which was likely to alienate the queen, and which was specially
distasteful to himself, as he was on very bad terms with his son.
Yet they did not set themselves against the strong wish of the
party to which they looked for support, and it is possible that
troubles would have arisen from any attempt to carry out the
plan, if the deaths, first of the electress (May 28) and then of the
queen (August i, 1714), had not laid open George's way to the
succession without further effort of his own.
In some respects the position of the new king was not unlike
that of William III. a quarter of a century before. Both
sovereigns were foreigners, with little knowledge of English
politics and little interest in English legislation. Both sovereigns
arrived at a time when party spirit had been running high, and
when the task before the ruler was to still the waves of contention.
In spite of the difference between an intellectually great man
and an intellectually small one, in spite too of the difference
between the king who began by choosing his ministers from
both parties and the king who persisted in choosing his ministers
738
GEORGE II.
from only one, the work of pacification was accomplished by
George even more thoroughly than by William.
George I. was fortunate in arriving in England when a great
military struggle had come to an end. He had therefore no
reason to call upon the nation to make great sacrifices. All
that he wanted was to secure for himself and his family a high
position which he hardly knew how to occupy, to fill the pockets
of his German attendants and his German mistresses, to get
away as often as possible from the uncongenial islanders whose
language he was unable to speak, and to use the strength of
England to obtain petty advantages for his German principality.
In order to do this he attached himself entirely to the Whig
party, though he refused to place himself at the disposal of its
leaders. He gave his confidence, not to Somers and Wharton
and Marlborough, but to Stanhope and Townshend, the states-
men of the second rank. At first he seemed to be playing a
dangerous game. The Tories, whom he rejected,were numerically
superior to their adversaries, and were strong in the support
of the country gentlemen and the country clergy. The strength
of the Whigs lay in the towns and in the higher aristocracy.
Below both parties lay the mass of the nation, which cared
nothing for politics except in special seasons of excitement,
and which asked only to be let alone. In 1715 a Jacobite in-
surrection in the north, supported by the appearance of the
Pretender, the son of James II., in Scotland, was suppressed,
and its suppression not only gave to the government a character
of stability, but displayed its adversaries in an unfavourable
light as the disturbers of the peace.
Even this advantage, however, would have been thrown
away if the Whigs in power had continued to be animated by
violent party spirit. What really happened was that the Tory
leaders were excluded from office, but that the principles and
prejudices of the Tories were admitted to their full weight in the
policy of the government. The natural result followed. The
leaders to whom no regard was paid continued in opposition.
The rank and file, who would personally have gained nothing
by a party victory, were conciliated into quiescence.
This mingling of two policies was conspicuous both in the
foreign and the domestic actions of the reign. In the days of
Queen Anne the Whig party had advocated the continuance
of war with a view to the complete humiliation of the king of
France, whom they feared as the protector of the Pretender,
and in whose family connexion with the king of Spain they saw
a danger for England. The Tory party, on the other hand, had
been the authors of the peace of Utrecht, and held that France
was sufficiently depressed. A fortunate concurrence of circum-
stances enabled George's ministers, by an alliance with the
regent of France, the duke of Orleans, to pursue at the same time
the Whig policy of separating France from Spain and from the
cause of the Pretender, and the Tory, policy of the maintenance
of a good understanding with their neighbour across the Channel.
The same eclecticism was discernible in the proceedings of the
home government. The Whigs were conciliated by the repeal
of the Schism Act and the Occasional Conformity Act, whilst
the Tories were conciliated by the maintenance of the Test Act
in all its vigour. The satisfaction of the masses was increased
by the general well-being of the nation.
Very little of all that was thus accomplished was directly
owing to George I. The policy of the reign is the policy of his
ministers. Stanhope and Townshend from 1714 to 1717 were
mainly occupied with the defence of the Hanoverian settlement.
After the dismissal of the latter in 1717, Stanhope in conjunction
with Sunderland took up a more decided Whig policy. The
Occasional Conformity Act and the Schism Act were repealed
in 1719. But the wish of the liberal Whigs to modify if not to
repeal the Test Act remained unsatisfied. In the following
year the bursting of the South Sea bubble, and the subsequent
deaths of Stanhope in 1721 and of Sunderland in 1722, cleared
the way for the accession to power of Sir Robert Walpole, to
whom and not to the king was due the conciliatory policy which
quieted Tory opposition by abstaining from pushing Whig
principles to their legitimate consequences.
Nevertheless something of the honour due to Walpole must
be reckoned to the king's credit. It is evident that at his acces-
sion his decisions were by no means unimportant. The royal
authority was still able within certain limits to make its own
terms. This support was so necessary to the Whigs that they
made no resistance when he threw aside their leaders on his
arrival in England. When by his personal intervention he
dismissed Townshend and appointed Sunderland, he had no
such social and parliamentary combination to fear as that which
almost mastered his great-grandson in his struggle for power.
If such a combination arose before the end of his reign it was
owing more to his omitting to fulfil the duties of his station than
from the necessity of the case. As he could talk no English,
and his ministers could talk no German, he absented himself
from the meetings of the cabinet, and his frequent absences
from England and his want of interest in English politics
strengthened the cabinet in its tendency to assert an independent
position. Walpole at last by his skill in the management of
parliament rose as a subject into the almost royal position denoted
by the name of prime minister. In connexion with Walpole
the force of wealth and station established the Whig aristocracy
in a point of vantage from which it was afterwards difficult
to dislodge them. Yet, though George had allowed the power
which had been exercised by William and Anne to slip through
his hands, it was understood to the last that if he chose to exert
himself he might cease to be a mere cipher in the conduct of
affairs. As late as 1727 Bolingbroke gained over one of the king's
mistresses, the duchess of Kendal; and though her support of
the fallen Jacobite took no effect, Walpole was not without fear
that her reiterated entreaties would lead to his dismissal. The
king's death in a carriage on his way to Hanover, in the night
between loth and nth June in the same year, put an end to
these apprehensions.
His only children were his successor George II. and Sophia
Dorothea (1687-1757), who married in 1706 Frederick William,
crown prince (afterwards king) of Prussia. She was the mother
of Frederick the Great. (S. R. G.)
See the standard English histories. A recent popular work is
L. Melville's The First George in Hanover and England (1908).
GEORGE II. [George Augustus] (1683-1760), king of Great
Britain and Ireland, the only son of George I., was born in 1683.
In 1705 he married Wilhelmina Caroline of Anspach. In 1706
he was created earl of Cambridge. In 1708 he fought bravely
at Oudenarde. At his father's accession to the English throne
he was thirty-one years of age. He was already on bad terms
with his father. The position of an heir-apparent is in no case an
easy one to fill with dignity, and the ill-treatment of the prince's
mother by his father was not likely to strengthen in him a
reverence for paternal authority. It was most unwillingly that,
on his first journey to Hanover in 1716, George I. appointed the
prince of Wales guardian of the realm during his absence. In
1717 the existing ill-feeling ripened into an open breach. At
the baptism of one of his children, the prince selected one god-
father whilst the king persisted in selecting another. The young
man spoke angrily, was ordered into arrest, and was subsequently
commanded to leave St James's and to be excluded from all
court ceremonies. The prince took up his residence at Leicester
House, and did everything in his power to support the opposition
against his father's ministers.
When therefore Georgel. died in 1727, it was generally supposed
that Walpole would be at once dismissed. The first direction
of the new king was that Sir Spencer Compton would draw up
the speech in which he was to announce to the privy council his
accession. Compton, not knowing how to set about his task,
applied to Walpole for aid. Queen Caroline took advantage
of this evidence of incapacity, advocated Walpole's cause with
her husband and procured his continuance in office. This
curious scene was indicative of the course likely to be taken by
the new sovereign. His own mind was incapable of rising above
the merest details of business. He made war in the spirit of a
drill-sergeant, and he economized his income with the minute
regularity of a clerk. A blunder of a master of the ceremonies
GEORGE II.
739
in marshalling the attendants on a levee put him out of tem|HT.
He took the greatest pleasure in counting his money piece by
piece, and he never forgot a date. He was above all things
methodical and regular. " He seems," said one who knew him
well. " to think his having done a thing to-day an unanswerable
reason for his doing it to-morrow."
Most men so utterly immersed in details would be very
impracticable to deal with. They would obstinately refuse to
listen to a wisdom and prudence which meant nothing in their
ears, and which brought home to them a sense of their own
inferiority. It was the happy peculiarity of George II. that he
was exempt from this failing. He seemed to have an instinctive
understanding that such and such persons were either wiser or
even stronger than himself, and when he had once discovered that,
he gave way with scarcely a struggle. Thus it was that, though
in his domestic relations he was as loose a liver as his father had
been, he allowed himself to be guided by the wise but unobtrusive
counsels of his wife until her death in 1737, and that when once
be had recognized Walpole's superiority he allowed himself to
be guided by the political sagacity of the great minister. It is
difficult to exaggerate the importance of such a temper upon the
development of the constitution. The apathy of the nation in
all but the most exciting political questions, fostered by the
calculated conservatism of Walpolc, had thrown power into the
hands of the great landowners. They maintained their authority
by supporting a minister who was ready to make use of corrup-
tion, wherever corruption was likely to be useful, and who could
veil over the baseness of the means which he employed by his
talents in debate and in finance. To shake off a combination
10 strong would not have been easy. George II. submitted to
it without a struggle.
So strong indeed had the Whig aristocracy grown that it
began to lose its cohesion. Walpolc was determined to monopolize
power, and be dismissed from office all who ventured to oppose
him. An opposition formidable in talents was gradually formed.
In its composite ranks were to be found Tories and discontented
Whigs, discarded official hacks who were hungry for the emolu-
ments of office, and youthful purists who fancied that if Walpole
were removed, bribes and pensions would cease to be attractive
to a corrupt generation. Behind them was Bolingbroke, excluded
from parliament but suggesting every party move. In 1737 the
opposition acquired the support of Frederick, prince of Wales.
The young man, weak and headstrong, rebelled against the
strict discipline exacted by his father. His marriage in 1736
to Augusta of Saxony brought on an open quarrel. In 1737,
just as the princess of Wales was about to give birth to her first
child, she was hurried away by her husband from Hampton
Court to St James's Palace at the imminent risk of her life,
simply in order that the prince might show his spite to his father
who had provided all necessary attendance at the former place.
George ordered his son to quit St James's, and to absent himself
from court. Frederick in disgrace gave the support of his name,
and he had nothing else to give, to the opposition. Later in the
year 1737, on the 2oth of November, Queen Caroline died. In
1747 Walpole, weighed down by the unpopularity both of his
reluctance to engage in a war with Spain and of his supposed
remissness in conducting the operations of that war, was driven
from office. His successors formed a composite ministry in which
Walpole's old colleagues and Walpole's old opponents were alike
to be found.
The years which followed settled conclusively, at least for this
reign, the constitutional question of the power of appointing
ministers. The war between Spain and England had broken
out in 1739. In 1741 the death of the emperor Charles VI.
brought on the war of the Austrian succession. The position of
George II. as a Hanoverian prince drew him to the side of Maria
Theresa through jealousy of the rising Prussian monarchy.
Jealousy of France led England in the same direction, and in
1741 a subsidy of 300.000 was voted to Maria Theresa. The
king himself went to Germany and attempted to carry on the
war according to his own notions. Those notions led him to
regard the safety of Hanover as of far more importance than
I lu- wishes of England. Finding that a French army was about
to march upon his German states, he concluded with France a
treaty of neutrality for a year without consulting a single English
minister. In England the news was received with feelings of
disgust. The expenditure of English money and troops was to
be thrown uselessly away as soon as it appeared that Hanover
was in the slightest danger. In 1742 Walpole was no longer in
office. Lord Wilmington, the nominal head of the ministry, was
a mere cipher. The ablest and most energetic of his colleagues,
Lord Carteret (afterwards Granville), attached himself specially
to the king, and sought to maintain himself in power by his
special favour and by brilliant achievements in diplomacy.
In part at least by Carteret's mediation the peace of Breslau
was signed, by which Maria Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederick
(July 28, 1742). Thus relieved on her northern frontier, she
struck out vigorously towards the west. Bavaria was overrun
by her troops. In the beginning of 1743 one French army was
driven across the Rhine. On June 27th another French army
was defeated by George II. in person at Dettingen. Victory
brought elation to Maria Theresa. Her war of defence was
turned into a war of vengeance. Bavaria was to be annexed.
The French frontier was to be driven back. George II. and
Carteret after some hesitation placed themselves on her side.
Of the public opinion of the political classes in England they
took no thought. Hanoverian troops were indeed to be employed
in the war, but they were to be taken into British pay. Collisions
between British and Hanoverian officers were frequent. A
storm arose against the preference shown to Hanoverian
interests. After a brief struggle Carteret, having become
Lord Granville by his mother's death, was driven from office
in November 1744.
Henry Pelham, who had become prime minister in the preceding
year, thus saw himself established in power. By the acceptance
of this ministry, the king acknowledged that the function of
choosing a ministry and directing a policy had passed from his
hands. In 1745 indeed he recalled Granville, but a few days
were sufficient to convince him of the futility of his attempt, and
the effort to exclude Pitt at a later time proved equally fruitless.
Important as were the events of the remainder of the reign,
therefore, they can hardly be grouped round the name of George
II. The resistance to the invasion of the Young Pretender in
1 745, the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1 748, the great war ministry .
of Pitt at the close of the reign, did not receive their impulse from
him. He had indeed done his best to exclude Pitt from office.
He disliked him on account of his opposition in former years to
the sacrifices demanded by the Hanoverian connexion. When
in 1 756 Pitt became secretary of state in the Devonshire adminis-
tration, the king bore the yoke with difficulty. Early in the next
year he complained of Pitt's long speeches as being above his
comprehension, and on April 5, 1757, he dismissed him, only
to take him back shortly after, when Pitt, coalescing with
Newcastle, became master of the situation. Before Pitt's dis-
missal George II. had for once an opportunity of placing himself
on the popular side, though, as was the case of his grandson during
the American war, it was when the popular side happened to be
in the wrong. In the true spirit of a martinet, he wished to see
Admiral Byng executed. Pitt urged the wish of the House of
Commons to have him pardoned. " Sir, " replied the king," you
have taught me to look for the sense of my subjects in another
place than in the House of Commons." When George II. died
in 1760, he left behind him a settled understanding that the
monarchy was one of the least of the forces by which the policy
of the country was directed. To this end he had contributed
much by his disregard of English opinion in 1743; but it may
fairly be added that, but for his readiness to give way to irresistible
adversaries, the struggle might have been far more bitter and
severe than it was.
Of the connexion between Hanover and England in this reign
two memorials remain more pleasant to contemplate than the
records of parliamentary and ministerial intrigues. With the
support of George II., amidst the derision of the English fashion-
able world, the Hanoverian Handel produced in England those
740
GEORGE III.
masterpieces which have given delight to millions, whilst the
foundation of the university of Gottingen by the same king
opened a door through which English political ideas afterwards
penetrated into Germany.
George II. had three sons, Frederick Louis (1707-1751);
George William (1717-1718); and William Augustus, duke of
Cumberland (17 21-1 765); and five daughters, Anne (1700-1 759),
married to William, prince of Orange, 1734; Amelia Sophia
Eleonora (1711-1786); Elizabeth Caroline (1713-1757); Mary
(1723-1772), married to Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel,
1740; Louisa (1724-1751), married to Frederick V., king of
Denmark, 1743. (S. R. G.)
See Lord Hervey, Memoirs of the Reign of George II., ed. by J. W,
Croker (3 vols., London, 1884) ; Horace Walpole, Mem. of the Reign
of George II., with notes by Lord Holland (3 vols., and ed., 1847).
GEORGE HI. [George William Frederick] (1738-1820), king
of Great Britain and Ireland, son of Frederick, prince of Wales,
and grandson of George II., whom he succeeded in 1 760, was born
on the 4th of June 1738. After his father's death in 1751 he had
been educated in seclusion from the fashionable world under
the care of his mother and of her favourite counsellor the earl
of Bute. He had been taught to revere the maxims of Boling-
broke's " Patriot King," and to believe that it was his appointed
task in life to break the power of the Whig houses resting upon
extensive property and the influence of patronage and corruption.
That power had already been gravely shaken. The Whigs
from their incompetency were obliged when the Seven Years'
War broke out to leave its management in the hands of William
Pitt. The nation learned to applaud the great war minister
who succeeded where others had failed, and whose immaculate
purity put to shame the nick of barterers of votes for places and
pensions.
In some sort the work of the new king was the continuation
of the work of Pitt. But his methods were very different. He
did not appeal to any widely spread feeling or prejudice; nor
did he disdain the use of the arts which had maintained his
opponents in power. The patronage of the crown was to be
really as well as nominally his own; and he calculated, not
without reason, that men would feel more flattered in accepting
a place from a king than from a minister. The new Toryism of
which he was the founder was no recurrence to the Toryism of
the days of Charles II. or even of Anne. The question of the
amount of toleration to be accorded to Dissenters had been
entirely laid aside. The point at issue was whether the crown
should be replaced in the position which George I. might have
occupied at the beginning of his reign, selecting the ministers
and influencing the deliberations of the cabinet. For this struggle
George III. possessed no inconsiderable advantages. With an
inflexible tenacity of purpose, he was always ready to give way
when resistance was really hopeless. As the first English-born
sovereign of his house, speaking from his birth the language of
his subjects, he found a way to the hearts of many who never
regarded his predecessors as other than foreign intruders.
The contrast, too, between the pure domestic life which he led
with his wife Charlotte, whom he married in 1761, and the
habits of three generations of his house, told in his favour with
the vast majority of his subjects. Even his marriage had been
a sacrifice to duty. Soon after his accession he had fallen in love
with Lady Sarah Lennox, and had been observed to ride morning
by morning along the Kensington Road, from which the object
of his affections was to be seen from the lawn of Holland House
making hay, or engaged in some other ostensible employment.
Before the year was over Lady Sarah appeared as one of the
queen's bridesmaids, and she was herself married to Sir Charles
Bunbury in 1762.
At first everything seemed easy to him. Pitt had come to
be regarded by his own colleagues as a minister who would pursue
war at any price, and in getting rid of Pitt in 1761 and in carrying
on the negotiations which led to the peace of Paris in 1762, the
king was able to gather round him many persons who would not
be willing to acquiesce in any permanent change in the system
of government. With the signature of the peace his real diffi-
culties began. The Whig houses, indeed, were divided amongst
themselves by personal rivalries. But they were none of them
inclined to let power and the advantages of power slip from their
hands without a struggle. For some years a contest of influence
was carried on without dignity and without any worthy aim.
The king was not strong enough to impose upon parliament a
ministry of his own choice. But he gathered round himself a
body of dependants known as the king's friends, who were secure
of his favour, and who voted one way or the other according
to his wishes. Under these circumstances no ministry could
possibly be stable; and yet every ministry was strong enough
to impose some conditions on the king. Lord Bute, the king's
first choice, resigned from a sense of his own incompetency in
1763. George Grenville was in office till 1765; the marquis of
Rockingham till 1766; Pitt, becoming earl of Chatham, till
illness compelled him to retire from the conduct of affairs in
1767, when he was succeeded by the duke of Grafton. But a
struggle of interests could gain no real strength for any govern-
ment, and the only chance the king had of effecting a permanent
change in the balance of power lay in the possibility of his
associating himself with some phase of strong national feeling,
as Pitt had associated himself with the war feeling caused by
the dissatisfaction spread by the weakness and ineptitude of his
predecessors.
Such a chance was offered by the question of the right to tax
America. The notion that England was justified in throwing
on America part of the expenses caused in the late war was
popular in the country, and no one adopted it more pertinaciously
then George III. At the bottom the position which he assumed
was as contrary to the principles of parliamentary government
as the encroachments of Charles I. had been. But it was veiled in
the eyes of Englishmen by the prominence given to the power
of the British parliament rather than to the power of the British
king. In fact the theory of parliamentary government, like most
theories after their truth has long been universally acknowledged,
had become a superstition. Parliaments were held to be properly
vested with authority, not because they adequately represented
the national will, but simply because they were parliaments.
There were thousands of people in England to whom it never
occurred that there was any good reason why a British parliament
should be allowed to levy a duty on tea in the London docks
and should not be allowed to levy a duty on tea at the wharves
of Boston. Undoubtedly George III. derived great strength
from his honest participation in this mistake. Contending under
parliamentary forms, he did not wound the susceptibilities of
members of parliament, and when at last in 1770 he appointed
Lord North a minister of his own selection prime minister,
the object of his ambition was achieved with the concurrence of a
large body of politicians who had nothing in common with the
servile band of the king's friends.
As long as the struggle with America was carried on with any
hope of success they gained that kind of support which is always
forthcoming to a government which shares in the errors and
prejudices of its subjects. The expulsion of Wilkes from the
House of Commons in 1 769, and the refusal of the House to accept
him as a member after his re-election, raised a grave constitutional
question in which the king was wholly in the wrong; and Wilkes
was popular in London and Middlesex. But his case roused
no national indignation, and when in 1774 those sharp measures
were taken with Boston which led to the commencement of the
American rebellion in 1775, the opposition to the course taken
by the king made little way either in parliament or in the country.
Burke might point out the folly and inexpedience of the proceed-
ings of the government. Chatham might point out that the true
spirit of English gcvernment was to be representative, and that
that spirit was being violated at home and abroad. George III.,
who thought that the first duty of the Americans was to obey
himself, had on his side the mass of unreflecting Englishmen who
thought that the first duty of all colonists was to be useful and
submissive to the mother-country. The natural dislike of every
country engaged in war to see itself defeated was on his side,
and when the news of Burgoyne's surrender at Saratoga arrived
GEORGE III.
in 1777, subscription* of money to raise new regiments poured
freely in.
In March 1778 the French ambassador in London announced
that a treaty of friendship and commerce had been concluded
between France and the new United States of America. Lord
North was anxious to resign power into stronger hands, and
begged the king to receive Chatham as his prime minister.
The king would not hear of it. He would have nothing to say to
" that perfidious man " unless he would humble himself to enter
the ministry as North's subordinate. Chatham naturally refused
to do anything of the kind, and his death in the course of the year
relieved the king of the danger of being again overruled by too
overbearing a minister. England was now at war with France,
and in 17 79 she was also at war with Spain.
George III. was still able to control the disposition of office.
He could not control the course of events. His very ministers
gave up the struggle as hopeless long before he would acknowledge
the true state of the case. Before the end of 1779, two of the
leading members of the cabinet, Lords Cower and Weymouth,
resigned rather than bear the responsibility of so ruinous an
enterprise as the attempt to overpower America and France
together. Lord North retained office, but he acknowledged to
the king that his own opinion was precisely the same as that
of his late colleagues.
The year 1780 saw an agitation rising in the country for
economical reform, an agitation very closely though indirectly
connected with the war policy of the king. The public meetings
held in the country on this subject have no unimportant place
in the development of the constitution. Since the presentation
of the Kentish petition in the reign of William III. there had
been from time to time upheavings of popular feeling against
the doings of the legislature, which kept up the tradition that
parliament existed in order to represent the nation. But these
upheavings had all been so associated with ignorance and violence
as to make it very difficult for men of sense to look with dis-
pleasure upon the existing emancipation of the House of Commons
from popular control. The Sacheverell riots, the violent attacks
upon the Excise Bill, the no less violent advocacy of the Spanish
War, the declamations of the supporters of Wilkes at a more
recent time, and even in this very year the Gordon riots, were
not likely to make thoughtful men anxious to place real power
in the hands of the classes from whom such exhibitions of folly
proceeded. But the movement for economical reform was of
a very different kind. It was carried on soberly in manner, and
with a definite practical object. It asked for no more than the
king ought to have been willing to concede. It attacked useless
expenditure upon sinecures and unnecessary offices in the
household, the only use of which was to spread abroad corruption
amongst the upper classes. George III. could not bear to be
interfered with at all, or to surrender any element of power
which had served him in his long struggle with the Whigs. He
held out for more than another year. The news of the capitula-
tion of York town reached London on the 251(1 of November
1781. On the 2oth of March 1782 Lord North resigned.
George III. accepted the consequences of defeat. He called
the marquis of Rockingham to office at the head of a ministry
composed of pure Whigs and of the disciples of the late earl of
Chatham, and he authorized the new ministry to open negotia-
tions for peace. Their hands were greatly strengthened by
Rodney's victory over the French fleet, and the failure of the
combined French and Spanish attack upon Gibraltar; and
before the end of 1782 a provisional treaty was signed with
America, preliminaries of peace with France and Spain being
signed early in the following year. On the 3rd of September 1 783
the definitive treaties with the three countries were simultane-
ously concluded. " Sir," said the king to John Adams, the first
minister of the United States of America accredited to him,
" I wish you to believe, and that it may be understood in America,
that I have done nothing in the late contest but what I thought
myself indispensably bound to do by the duty which I owed to
my people. I will be very frank with you. I was the last to
consent to the separation: but the separation having been made
and having become inevitable, I have always said, as I say now,
that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United
States as an independent power."
Long before the signature of the treaties Rockingham died
(July i, 1782). The king chose Lord Shclburne, the head of
the Chatham section of the government, to be prime minister.
Fox and the followers of Rockingham refused to serve except
under the duke of Portland, a minister of their own selection,
and resigned office. The old constitutional struggle of the reign
was now to be fought out once more. Fox, too weak to obtain
a majority alone, coalesced with Lord North, and defeated
Shelburne in the House of Commons on the 27th of February
1 783. On the 2nd of April the coalition took office, with Portland
as nominal prime minister, and Fox and North the secretaries
of state as its real heads.
This attempt to impose upon him a ministry which he disliked
made the king very angry. But the new cabinet had a large
majority in the House of Commons, and the only chance of
resisting it lay in an appeal to the country against the House of
Commons. Such an appeal was not likely to be responded to
unless the ministers discredited themselves with the nation.
Goerge III. therefore waited his time. Though a coalition
between men bitterly opposed to one another in all political
principles and drawn together by nothing but love of office was
in itself discreditable, it needed some more positive cause of
dissatisfaction to arouse the constituencies, which were by no
means so ready to interfere in political disputes at that time as
they are now. Such dissatisfaction was given by the India Bill,
drawn up by Burke. As soon as it had passed through the Com-
mons the king hastened to procure its rejection in the House of
Lords by his personal intervention with the peers. He authorized
Lord Temple to declare in his name that he would count any
peer who voted for the bill as his enemy. On the I7th of
December 1783 the bill was thrown out. The next day ministers
were dismissed. William Pitt became prime minister. After
some weeks.' struggle with a constantly decreasing majority in
the Commons, the king dissolved parliament on the 2$th of
March 1784. The country rallied round the crown and the
young minister, and Pitt was firmly established in office.
There can be no reasonable doubt 1 that Pitt not only took
advantage of the king's intervention in the Lords, but was
cognizant of the intrigue before it was actually carried out. It
was upon him, too, that the weight of reconciling the country
to an administration formed under such circumstances lay.
The general result, so far as George III. was concerned, was
that to all outward appearance he had won the great battle of
his life. It was he who was to appoint the prime minister, not
any clique resting on a parliamentary support. But the circum-
stances under which the victory was won were such as to place
the constitution in a position very different from that in which
it would have been if the victory had been gained earlier in the
reign. Intrigue there was indeed in 1783 and 1784 as there had
been twenty years before. Parliamentary support was con-
ciliated by Pitt by the grant of royal favours as it had been in
the days of Bute. The actual blow was struck by a most question-
able message to individual peers. But the main result of the
whole political situation was that George III. had gone a long
way towards disentangling the reality of parliamentary govern-
ment from its accidents. His ministry finally stood because
it had appealed to the constituencies against their representatives.
Since then it has properly become a constitutional axiom that
no such appeal should be made by the crown itself. But it
may reasonably be doubted whether any one but the king
was at that time capable of making the appeal. Lord Shelburne,
the leader of the ministry expelled by the coalition , was unpopular
in the country, and the younger Pitt had not had time to make
his great abilities known beyond a limited circle. The real
question for the constitutional historian to settle Js not whether
under ordinary circumstances a king is the proper person to
place himself really as well as nominally at the head of the
government; but whether under the special circumstances
'See Lord Fitzmaurice's Life of Shelburne, iii. 393.
742
GEORGE III.
which existed in 1783 it was not better that the king should
call upon the people to support him, than that government
should be left in the hands of men who rested their power on
close boroughs and the dispensation of patronage, without
looking beyond the walls of the House of Commons for support.
That the king gained credit far beyond his own deserts by the
glories of Pitt's ministry is beyond a doubt. Nor can there be
any reasonable doubt that his own example of domestic propriety
did much to strengthen the position of his minister. It is true
that that life was insufferably dull. No gleams of literary or
artistic taste lightened it up. The dependants of the court
became inured to dull routine unchequered by loving sympathy.
The sons of the household were driven by the sheer weariness of
such an existence into the coarsest profligacy. But all this was
not visible from a distance. The tide of moral and religious
improvement which had set in in England since the days of
Wesley brought popularity to a king who was faithful to his
wife, in the same way that the tide of manufacturing industry
and scientific progress brought popularity to the minister who
in some measure translated into practice the principles of the
Wealth of Nations.
Nor were there wanting subjects of importance beyond the
circle of politics in which George III. showed a lively interest.
The voyages of discovery which made known so large a part of
the islands and coasts of the Pacific Ocean received from him
a warm support. In the early days of the Royal Academy,
its finances were strengthened by liberal grants from the privy
purse. His favourite pursuit, however, was fanning. When
Arthur Young was issuing his Annals of Agriculture, he was
supplied with information by the king, under the assumed name
of Mr Ralph Robinson, relating to a farm at Petersham.
The life of the king was suddenly clouded over. Early in his
reign, in 1765, he had been out of health, and though the fact
was studiously concealed at the time symptoms of mental
aberration were even then to be perceived. In October 1788 he
was again out of health, and in the beginning of the following
month his insanity was beyond a doubt. Whilst Pitt and Fox
were contending in the House of Commons over the terms on
which the regency should be committed to the prince of Wales,
the king was a helpless victim to the ignorance of physicians and
the brutalities of his servants. At last Dr Willis, who had made
himself a name by prescribing gentleness instead of rigour in
the treatment of the insane,' was called in. Under his more
humane management the king rapidly recovered. Before the
end of February 1789 he was able to write to Pitt thanking him
for his warm support of his interests during his illness. On the
23rd of April he went in person to St Paul's to return thanks
for his recovery.
The popular enthusiasm which burst forth around St Paul's
was but a foretaste of a popularity far more universal. The
French Revolution frightened the great Whig landowners till
they made their peace with the king. Those who thought that
the true basis of government was aristocratical were now of one
mind with those who thought that the true basis of government
was monarchical; and these two classes were joined by a far
larger multitude which had no political ideas whatever, but which
had a moral horror of the guillotine. As Elizabeth had once
been the symbol of resistance to Spain, George was now the
symbol of resistance to France. He was not, however, more
than the symbol. He allowed Pitt to levy taxes and incur debt,
to launch armies to defeat, and to prosecute the English imitators
of French revolutionary courses. At last, however, after the
Union with Ireland was accomplished, he learned that Pitt was
planning a scheme to relieve the Catholics from the disabilities
under which they laboured. The plan was revealed to him by
the chancellor, Lord Loughborough, a selfish and intriguing
1 politician who had served all parties in turn, and who sought to
forward his own interests by falling in with the king's prejudices.
George III. at once took up the position from which he never
swerved. He declared that to grant concessions to the Catholics
involved a breach of his coronation oath. No one has ever
doubted that the king was absolutely convinced of the serious
nature of the objection. Nor can there be any doubt that he
had the English people behind him. Both in his peace ministry
and in his war ministry Pitt had taken his stand on royal favour
and on popular support. Both failed him alike now, and he
resigned office at once. The shock to the king's mind was so.
great that it brought on a fresh attack of insanity. This time,
however, the recovery was rapid. On the i4th of March 1801
Pitt's resignation was formally accepted, and the late speaker,
Mr Addington, was installed in office as prime minister.
The king was well pleased with the change. He was never
capable of appreciating high merit in any one; and he was
unable to perceive that the question on which Pitt had resigned
was more than an improper question, with which he ought never
to have meddled. " Tell him," he said, in directing his physician
to inform Pitt of his restoration to health, " I am now quite well,
quite recovered from my Hlness; but what has he not to answer
for, who has been the cause of my having been ill at all? "
Addington was a minister after his own mind. Thoroughly
honest and respectable, with about the same share of abilities
as was possessed by the king himself, he was certainly not likely
to startle the world by any flights of genius. But for one circum-
stance Addington's ministry would have lasted long. So strong
was the reaction against the Revolution that the bulk of the nation
was almost as suspicious of genius as the king himself. Not only
was there no outcry for legislative reforms, but the very idea of
reform was unpopular. The country gentlemen were predominant
in parliament, and the country gentlemen as a body looked upon
Addington with respect and affection. Such a minister was there-
fore admirably suited to preside over affairs at home in the existing
state of opinion. But those who were content with inaction at
home would not be content with inaction abroad. In time of
peace Addington would have been popular for a 'season. In
time of war even his warmest admirers could not say that he
was the man to direct armies in" the most terrible struggle which
had ever been conducted by an English government.
For the moment this difficulty was not felt. On the ist of
October 1801, preliminaries of peace were signed between
England and France, to be converted into the definitive peace
of Amiens on the 27th of March 1802. The ruler of France was
now Napoleon Bonaparte, and few persons in England believed
that he had any real purpose of bringing his aggressive violence
to an end. " Do you know what I call this peace?" said the
king; " an experimental peace, for it is nothing else. But it
was unavoidable."
The king was right. On the i8th of May 1803 the declaration
of war was laid before parliament. The war was accepted by
all classes as inevitable, and the French preparations for an
invasion of England roused the whole nation to a glow of
enthusiasm only equalled by that felt when the Armada
threatened its shores. On the 26th of October the king reviewed
the London volunteers in Hyde Park. He found himself the
centre of a great national movement with which he heartily
sympathized, and which heartily sympathized with him.
On the 1 2th of February 1804 the king's mind was again
affected. When he recovered, he found himself in the midst
of a ministerial crisis. Public feeling allowed but one opinion
to prevail in the country that Pitt, not Addington, was the
proper man to conduct the administration in time of war. Pitt
was anxious to form an administration on a broad basis, including
Fox and all prominent leaders of both parties. The king would
not hear of the admission of Fox. His dislike of him was personal
as well as political, as he knew that Fox had had a great share
in drawing the prince of Wales into a life of profligacy. Pitt
accepted the king's terms, and formed an administration in
which he was the only man of real ability. Eminent men, such
as Lord Grenville, refused to join a ministry from which the king
had excluded a great statesman on purely personal grounds.
The whole question was reopened on Pitt's death on the 23rd of
January 1806. This time the king gave way. The ministry of
All the Talents, as it was called, included Fox amongst its
members. At first the king was observed to appear depressed
at the necessity of surrender. But Fox's charm of manner soon
GEORGE IV.
743
(mined upon him. " Mr Fox," said the king, " I little thought
that you and I should ever meet again in this place; but I have
no desire to look back upon old grievances, and you may rest
assured I never shall remind you of them." On the i.;:h of
September Fox died, and it was not long before the king and the
ministry were openly in collision. The ministry proposed a
measure enabling all subjects of the crown to serve in the army
and navy in spite of religious disqualifications. The king objected
even to so slight a modification of the laws against the Catholics
and Dissenters, and the ministers consented to drop the bill.
The king asked more than this. He demanded a written and
positive engagement that this ministry would never, under any
circumstances, propose to him " any measure of concession to
the Catholics, or even connected with the question." The
ministers very properly refused to bind themselves for the future.
They were consequently turned out of office, and a new ministry
was formed with the duke of Portland as first lord of the treasury
and Mr Perceval as its real leader. The spirit of the new ministry
was distinct hostility to the Catholic claims. On the 27th of April
1807 a dissolution of parliament was announced, and a majority
in favour of the king's ministry was returned in the elections
which speedily followed.
The elections of 1807, like the elections of 1784, gave the
king the mastery of the situation. In other respects they were
the counterpart of one another. In 1784 the country declared,
though perhaps without any clear conception of what it was
doing, for a wise and progressive policy. In 1807 it declared
(or an unwise and retrogressive policy, with a very clear under
standing of what it meant. It is in his reliance upon the prejudices
and ignorance of the country that the constitutional significance
of the reign of George III. appears. Every strong government
derives its power from its representative character. At a time
when the House of Commons was less really representative than
at any other, a king was on the throne who represented the
country in its good and bad qualities alike, in its hatred of
revolutionary violence, its moral sturdincss, its contempt of
foreigners, and its defiance of all ideas which were in any way
strange. Therefore it was that his success was not permanently
injurious to the working of the constitution as the success of
Charles I. would have been. If he were followed by a king
less English than himself, the strength of representative
power would pass into other hands than those which held
the sceptre.
The overthrow of the ministry of All the Talents was the last
political act of constitutional importance in which George III.
took part. The substitution of Perceval for Portland as the
nominal head of the ministry in 1809 was not an event of any
real significance, and in 181 1 the reign practically came to an end.
The king's reason finally broke down after the death of the
princess Amelia, his favourite child; and the prince of Wales
(see GEORGE IV.) became prince regent. The remaining nine
yean of George III.'s life were passed in insanity and blindness,
and he died on the igth of January 1820.
His wife, Charlotte Sophia (1744-1818), was a daughter of
Charles Louis of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 1816), and was married
to the king in London on the 8th of September 1761. After a
peaceful and happy married life the queen died at Kew on the
1 7th of November 1818.
George III. had nine sons. After his successor came Frederick,
duke of York and Albany (1763-1827); William Henry, duke
of Clarence, afterwards King William IV. (1765-1837); Edward
Augustus, duke of Kent (1767-1825), father of Queen Victoria;
Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, afterwards king of
Hanover (1771-1851); Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex
(1773-1843); Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge (1774-
1850); Octavius (i779-783); Alfred (1780-1782). He had
also six daughters Charlotte Augusta (1766-1828), married in
1797 to Frederick, afterwards king of WUrttemberg; Augusta
Sophia (1768-1840); Elizabeth (1770-1840), married Frederick,
landgrave of Hesse-Homburg, 1818; Mary (1776-1857), married
to William Frederick, duke of Gloucester, 1816; Sophia (1777-
1848); Amelia (1783-1810). (S. R. G.)
The numerous contemporary memoirs and diaries are full of the
best material for a picture of George III.'s reign, apart from the
standard histories. Thackeray's Four Georges must not be trusted
so far as historical judgment is concerned; Jesse's Memoirs of the
Life and Reign of George ill. (2nd ed., 1867) is chiefly concerned with
personalities. See also Heckles Willson, George III., as Man,
Monarch and Statesman (1907).
GEORGE IV. [George Augustus Frederick] (1762-1830), king
of Great Britain and Ireland, eldest son of George III., was born
at St James's Palace, London, on the i2th of August 1762. He
was naturally gifted, was well taught in the classics, learnt to
speak French, Italian and German fluently, and had considerable
taste for music and the arts; and in person he was remarkably
handsome. His tutor, Bishop Richard Kurd, said of him when
fifteen years old that he would be " either the most polished
gentleman or the most accomplished blackguard in Europe
possibly both "; and the latter prediction was only too fully
justified. Reaction from the strict and parsimonious style of
his parents' domestic life, which was quite out of touch with the
gaiety and extravagance of London " society," had its natural
effect in plunging the young prince of Wales, flattered and
courted as he was, into a whirl of pleasure-seeking. At the outset
his disposition was brilliant and generous, but it was essentially
unstable, and he started even before he came of age on a career of
dissipation which in later years became wholly profligate. He
had an early amour with the actress Mary (" Perdita ") Robinson,
and in the choice of his friends he opposed and annoyed the king,
with whom he soon became (and always remained) on the worst
of terms, by associating himself with Fox and Sheridan and the
Whig party. When in 1783 he came of age, a compromise
between the coalition ministry, and the king secured him an
income of 50,000 from the Civil List, and 60,000 was voted
by parliament to pay his debts and start his separate establish-
ment at Carlton House. There, under the auspices of C. J. Fox
and Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire, he posed as a patron of
Whig politics and a leader in all the licence and luxury of gay
society the " First gentleman in Europe," as his flatterers
described him as years went on. And at this early age he fell
seriously in love with the famous Mrs Fitzherbert.
His long connexion with this lady may most conveniently
be summarized here. It was indeed for some time the one re-
deeming and restraining factor in his life, though her devotion
and self-sacrificing conduct were in marked contrast with his
unscrupulousness and selfishness. Mary Anne (or as she always
called herself, Maria) Fitzherbert (1756-1837) was the daughter
of Walter Smythe, the second son of Sir John Smythe, Bart.,
of Acton Burnell Park, Shropshire, and came of an old Roman
Catholic family. Educated at a French convent, she married
first in 1775 Edward Weld, who died within the year, and
secondly in 1778 Thomas Fitzherbert, who died in 1781, leaving
his widow with a comfortable fortune. A couple of years later
she became a prominent figure in London society, and her beauty
and charm at once attracted the young prince, who wooed her
with all the ardour of a violent passion. She herself was distracted
between her desire to return his love, her refusal to contemplate
becoming his mistress, and her knowledge that state reasons
made a regular marriage impossible. The Act of Settlement
(1689) entailed his forfeiture of the succession if he married a
Roman Catholic, apart from the fact that the Royal Marriage
Act of 1772 made any marriage illegal without the king's consent,
which was out of the question. But after trying for a while
to escape his attentions, her scruples were overcome. In Mrs
Fitzherbert's eyes the state law was, after all, not everything.
To a Roman Catholic, and equally to any member of t he Christian
church, a formal marriage ceremony would be ecclesiastically
and sacramentally binding; and after a period of passionate
importunacy on his part they were secretly married by the Rev.
R. Burt, a clergyman of the Church of England, on the isth
of December 1785.' There is no doubt as to Mrs Fitzherbert's
belief, supported by ecclesiastical considerations, in her correct
1 For a discussion of the ecclesiastical validity of the marriage
see W. H. Wilkins, Mrs Fitzherbert and George I'V. (1005), chs. vi.
and vii.
744
GEORGE IV.
and binding, though admittedly illegal, relationship to the prince
as his canonical wife; and though that relationship was not, and
for political reasons could not be, publicly admitted, it was in
fact treated by their intimates on the footing of a morganatic
marriage. The position nevertheless was inevitably a false one;
Mrs Fitzherbert had promised not to publish the evidence of the
marriage (which, according to a strict interpretation of the Act
of Settlement might have barred succession to the crown), and
the rumours which soon got about led the prince to allow it to be
disavowed by his political friends. He lived in the most extra-
vagant way, became heavily involved in debt, and as the king
would not assist him, shut up Carlton House, and went to live
with Mrs Fitzherbert at Brighton. In 1787 a proposal was
brought before the House of Commons by Alderman Newnham
for a grant in relief of his embarrassments. It was on this
occasion that Fox publicly declared in the House of Commons,
as on the prince's own authority, in answer to allusions to the
marriage, that the story was a malicious falsehood. A little
later Sheridan, in deference to Mrs Fitzherbert's pressure and
to the prince's own compunction, made a speech guardedly
modifying Fox's statement; but though in private the denial was
understood, it effected its object, the House voting a grant of
2 2 1,000 to the prince and the king adding 10,000 to his income;
and Mrs Fitzherbert, who at first thought of severing her
connexion with the prince, forgave him. Their union there was
no child of the marriage was brutally broken off in June 1794
by the prince, when further pressure of debts (and the influence of
a new Egeria in Lady Jersey) made him contemplate his official
marriage with princess Caroline; in 1800, however, it was
renewed, after urgent pleading on the prince's part, and after
Mrs Fitzherbert had obtained a formal decision from the pope
pronouncing her to be his wife, and sanctioning her taking him
back; her influence over him continued till shortly before the
prince became regent, when his relations with Lady Hertford
brought about a final separation. For the best years of his life
he had at least had in Mrs Fitzherbert the nearest approach to
a real wife, arid this was fully recognized by the royal family. 1
But his dissolute nature was entirely selfish, and his various
liaisons ended in the dominance of Lady Conyngham, the " Lady
Steward " of his household, from 1821 till his death.
Notorious as the prince of Wales had become by 1788, it
was in that year that his father's first attack of insanity made
his position in the state one of peculiar importance. Fox main-
tained and Pitt denied that the prince of Wales, as the heir-
apparent, had a right to assume the regency independently
of any parliamentary vote. Pitt, with the support of both
Houses, proposed to confer upon him the regency with certain
restrictions. The recovery of the king in February 1 789 put an
end, however, to the prince's hopes. In 1794 the prince con-
1 Mrs Fitzherbert herself, after her final separation from the prince,
with an annuity of 6000 a year, lived an honoured and more or less
retired life mainly at Brighton, a town which owed its rapid develop-
ment in fashionable popularity and material wealth to its selection
by the prince and herself as a residence from the earliest years of
their union; and there she died, seven years after the death of
George IV., in 1837. William IV. on his accession offered to create
her a duchess, but she declined; she accepted, however, his per-
mission to put her servants in royal livery. "William IV. in fact did
all he could, short of a public acknowledgment (which the duke of
Wellington opposed on state grounds), to recognize her position
as his brother's widow. Charles Greville, writing of her after her
death, says in his Diary, " She was not a clever woman, but of a very
noble spirit, disinterested, generous, honest and affectionate.
The actual existence of a marriage tie and the documentary evidence
of her rights were not definitely established for many years; but in
1905 a sealed packet, deposited at Coutts's bank in 1833, was at
length opened by royal permission, and the marriage certificate
and other conclusive proofs therein contained were published in
Mr W. H. Wilkins's Mrs Fitzherbert and George IV. In 1796 the
prince 'had made a remarkable will in Mrs Fitzherbert's favour,
which he gave her in 1799, and it is included among these documents
(now in the private archives at Windsor). In this he speaks of her
emphatically throughout as " my wife." It also contained directions
that at his death a locket with her miniature, which he always wore,
should be interred with him; and Mrs Fitzherbert was privately
assured, on the duke of Wellington's authority, that when the king
was buried at Windsor the miniature was on his breast.
sented to a marriage with a German Protestant princess, because
his father would not pay his debts on any other terms, and his
cousin, Princess Caroline of Brunswick, was brought over from
Germany and married to him in 1795. Her behaviour was
light and flippant, and he was brutal and unloving. The ill-
assorted pair soon parted, and soon after the birth of their
only child, the princess Charlotte, they were formally separated.
With great unwillingness the House of Commons voted fresh
sums of money to pay the prince's debts.
In 1811 he at last became prince regent in consequence of his
father's definite insanity. No one doubted at that time that it
was in his power to change the ministry at his pleasure. He had
always lived in close connexion with the Whig opposition, and
he now empowered Lord Grenville to form a ministry. There
soon arose differences of opinion between them on the answer
to be returned to the address of the Houses, and the prince
regent then informed the prime minister, Mr Perceval, that he
should continue the existing ministry in office. The ground
alleged by him for this desertion of his friends was the fear lest
his father's recovery might be rendered impossible if he should
come to hear of the advent of the opposition to power. Lord
Wellesley's resignation in February 1812 made the reconstruction
of the ministry inevitable. As there was no longer any hope of
the king's recovery, the former objection to a Whig administration
no longer existed. Instead of taking the course of inviting
the Whigs to take office, he asked them to join the existing
administration. The Whig leaders, however, refused to join,
on the ground that the question of the Catholic disabilities was
too important to be shelved, and that their difference of opinion
with Mr Perceval was too glaring to be ignored. The prince
regent was excessively angry, and continued Perceval in office
till that minister's assassination on the nth of May, when he
was succeeded by Lord Liverpool, after a negotiation in which
the proposition of entering the cabinet was again made to the
Whigs and rejected by them. In the military glories of the
following years the prince regent had no share. When the
allied sovereigns visited England in 1814, he played the part of
host to perfection. So great was his unpopularity at home that
hisses were heard in the streets as he accompanied his guests
into the city. The disgust which his profligate and luxurious
life caused amongst a people suffering from almost universal
distress after the conclusion of the war rapidly increased. In
1817 the windows of the prince regent's carriage were broken
as he was on his way to open parliament.
The death of George III. on the 2pth of January 1820, gave to
his son the title of king without in any way altering the position
which he had now held for nine years. Indirectly, however,
this change brought out a manifestation of popular feeling such
as his father had never been subjected to even in the early days
of his reign, when mobs were burning jack-boots and petticoats.
The relations between the new king and his wife unavoidably
became the subject of public discussion. In 1806 a charge
against the princess of having given birth to an illegitimate
child had been conclusively disproved, and the old king had
consequently refused to withdraw her daughter, the princess
Charlotte, from her custody. When in the regency the prince
was able to interfere, and prohibited his wife from seeing her
daughter more than once a fortnight. On this, in 1813, the
princess addressed to her husband a letter setting forth her
complaints, and receiving no answer published it in the Morning
Chronicle. The prince regent then referred the letter, together
with all papers relating to the inquiry of 1806, to a body of
twenty-three privy councillors for an opinion whether it was fit
that the restrictions on the intercourse between the princess
Charlotte and her mother should continue in force. All except
two answered as the regent wished them to answer. But if the
official leaning was towards the husband, the leaningof the general
public was towards the wife of a man whose own life had not been
such as to justify him in complaining of her whom he had thrust
from him without a charge of any kind. Addresses of sympathy
were sent up to the princess from the city of London and
other public bodies. The discord again broke out in 1814 in
GEORGE V.
74-5
cnce of the exclusion of the princess from court during the
visit of the allied sovereigns. In August in that year she left
England, and after a little time took up her abode in Italy. The
accession of George IV. brought matters to a crisis. He ordered
that no prayer for his wife as queen should be admitted into the
Prayer Book. She at once challenged the accusation which was
implied in this omission by returning to England. On the 7th of
June she arrived in London. Before she left the continent she
had been informed that proceedings would be taken against her
for adultery if she landed in Kngland. Two years before, in 1818,
commissioners had been sent to Milan to investigate charges
gainst her, and their report, laid before the cabinet in 1819,
was made the basis of the prosecution. On the day on which
she arrived in London a message was laid before both Houses
recommending the criminating evidence to parliament. A
secret committee in the House of Lords after considering this
evidence brought in a report on which the prime minister founded
a Bill of Pains and Penalties to divorce the queen and to deprive
her of her royal title. The bill passed the three readings with
diminished majorities, and when on the third reading it obtained
only a majority of nine, it was abandoned by the Government.
The king's unpopularity, great as it had been before, was now
greater than ever. Public opinion, without troubling itself
to ask whether the queen was guilty or not, was roused to
indignation by the spectacle of such a charge being brought by a
husband who had thrust away his wife to fight the battle of life
alone, without protection or support, and who, whilst surrounding
her with spies to detect, perhaps to invent, her acts of infidelity,
was himself notorious for his adulterous life. In the following
year (1821) she attempted to force her way into Westminster
Abbey to take her place at the coronation. On this occasion
the popular support failed her; and her death in August relieved
the king from further annoyance.
Immediately after the death of the queen, the king set out for
Ireland. He remained there but a short time, and his effusive
declaration that rank, station, honours were nothing compared
with the exalted happiness of living in the hearts of his Irish
subjects gained him a momentary popularity which was beyond
his attainment in a country where he was better known. His
reception in Dublin encouraged him to attempt a visit to Edin-
burgh in the following year (August 1822). Since Charles II.
had come to play the sorry part of a covenanting king in 1650
no sovereign of the country had set foot on Scottish soil. Sir
Walter Scott took the leading pan in organizing his reception.
The enthusiasm with which he was received equalled, if it did
not surpass, the enthusiasm with which he had been received in
Dublin. But the qualities which enabled him to fix the fleeting
sympathies of the moment were not such as would enable him
to exercise the influence in the government which had been
indubitably possessed by his father. He returned from Edin-
burgh to face the question of the appointment of a secretary of
state which had been raised by the death of Lord Londonderry
(Castlereagh). It was upon the question of the appointment of
ministers that the battle between the Whigs and the king had
been fought in the reign of George III. George IV. had neither
the firmness nor the moral weight to hold the reins which his
father had grasped. He disliked Canning for haying taken his
wife's side very much as his father had disliked Fox for taking
his own. But Lord Liverpool insisted on Canning's admission
to office, and the king gave way. Tacitly and without a struggle
the constitutional victory of the last reign was surrendered.
But it was not surrendered to the same foe as that from which
it had been won. The coalition ministry in 1 784 rested on the
great landowners and the proprietors of rotten boroughs. Lord
Liverpool's ministry had hitherto not been very enlightened,
and it supported itself to a great extent upon a narrow constitu-
ency. But it did appeal to public opinion in a way that the
coalition did not, and what it wanted itself in popular support
would be supplied by its successors. What one king had gained
from a clique another gave up to the nation. Once more, on
Lord Liverpool's death in 1827, the same question was tried
with the same result. The king not only disliked Canning
personally, but he was opposed to Canning's policy. Yet after
some hesitation he accepted Canning as prime minister; and
when, after Canning's death and the short ministry of Lord
Goderich, the king in 1828 authorized the duke of Wellington to
form a ministry, he was content to lay down the principle that the
members of it were not expected to be unanimous on the Catholic
question. When in 1839 the Wellington ministry unexpectedly
proposed to introduce a Bill to remove the disabilities of the
Catholics, he feebly strove against the proposal and quickly
withdrew his opposition. The worn-out debauchee had neither
the merit of acquiescing in the change nor the courage to
resist it.
George IV. died on the 26th of June 1830, and was succeeded
by his "brother, the duke of Clarence, as William IV. His only
child by Queen Caroline, the princess Charlotte Augusta, was
married in 1816 to Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, afterwards king of
the Belgians, and died in childbirth on the 6th of November
1817.
George IV. was a bad king, and his reign did much to disgust the
country with the Georgian type of monarchy; but libertine and
profligate as he became, the abuse which has been lavished on his
personal character has hardly taken into sufficient consideration
the loose morals of contemporary society, the political position of
the Whig party, and his own ebullient temperament. Thackeray,
in his Four Georges, is frequently unfair in this respect. The just
condemnation of the moralist and satirist requires some qualification
in the light of the picture of the period handed down in the memoirs
and diaries of the time, such as Greville's, Croker's, Creevey's, Lord
Holland's, Lord Malmesbury'g, &c. Among later works see The
First Gentleman of Europe, by Lewis Melville (1906), a book for the
general reader. (S. R. G. ; H. Cu.)
GEORGE V. [GEORGE FREDERICK ERNEST ALBERT], king of
Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond
the Seas, emperor of India (1865- ), second son of King
Edward VII., was born at Marlborough House, London, on the
3rd of June 1865. When four years old, he and his elder brother,
Prince Albert Victor, two years his senior, were placed under
the tutorship of John Neale Dalton, then curate of Sand-
ringham. In 1877 the two princes became naval cadets on the
" Britannia " at Spithead, where they passed through the
ordinary curriculum,' and in 1879 they joined H.M.S. " Bac-
chante " under the command of Captain Lord Charles Scott,
making a voyage to the West Indies, in the course of which
they were rated midshipmen. After a month at home in 1880
they returned to the ship to make another prolonged cruise in
H.M.S. " Bacchante," in the course of which they visited South
America, South Africa, Australia, the Fiji Islands, Japan,Ceylon,
Egypt, Palestine and Greece. A narrative of this voyage,
The Cruise of H.M.S. " Bacchante," compiled from the letters,
diaries and notebooks of the princes, was published in 1886.
At the close of this tour in 1882 the brothers separated. Prince
George, who remained in the naval service, was appointed to
H.M.S. " Canada," commanded by Captain Durrant, on the
North American and West Indian station, and was promoted
sub-lieutenant. On his return home he passed through the
Royal Naval College at Greenwich and the gunnery and torpedo
schools, being promoted lieutenant in 1885. A year later he
was appointed to H.M.S. " Thunderer " of the Mediterranean
squadron, and was subsequently transferred to H.M.S. " Dread-
nought " and H.M.S. " Alexandra." In 1889 he joined the
flagship of the Channel squadron, H.M.S. " Northumberland,"
and in that year was in command of torpedo boat No. 79 for
the naval manoeuvres. In 1800 he was put in command of
the gunboat H.M.S. " Thrush " for serviceon theNorth American
and West Indian station. After his promotion as commander
in 1891 he commissioned H.M.S. " Melampus," the command
of which he relinquished on the death of his brother, Albert
Victor, the duke of Clarence, in January 1892, since his duties
as eventual heir to the crown precluded him from devoting
himself exclusively to the navy. He was promoted captain
in 1893, rear-admiral in 1901, and vice-admiral in 1903. He
was created duke of York, earl of Inverness, and Baron Killarney
in 1892, and on the 6th of July 1893 he married Princess Victoria
Mary (b. 26th May 1867), daughter of Francis, duke of Teck,
746 GEORGE V., OF HANOVERGEORGE, OF SAXONY
and Princess Mary Adelaide, duchess of Teck, daughter of
Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge. Their eldest son,
Prince Edward Albert, was born at White Lodge, Richmond,
on the 23rd of June 1894; Prince Albert Frederick George was
born at Sandringham on the i4th of December 1895; Princess
Victoria Alexandra on the zsth of April 1897; Prince Henry
William Frederick Albert on the 3ist of March 1900; Prince
George Edward Alexander Edmund on the zoth of December
1902; and Prince John Charles Francis on the i2th of July 1905.
The duke and duchess of York visited Ireland in 1899, and
it had been arranged before the death of Queen Victoria that
they should make a tour in the colonies. On the accession of
King Edward VII. (1901) this plan was confirmed. They sailed
in the " Ophir " on the i6th of March 1901, travelling by the
ordinary route, and landed at Melbourne in May, when they
opened the first parliament of the Commonwealth. They then
proceeded to New Zealand, returning by way of South Africa
and Canada. An official account of the tour was published by
Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace as The Web of Empire (1902). In
November 1901 the duke was created prince of Wales. On the
death of Edward VII. (May 6, 1910) he succeeded to the Crown
as George V., his consort taking the style of Queen Mary.
GEORGE V., king of Hanover (1819-1878), was the only son
of Ernest Augustus, king of Hanover and duke of Cumberland,
and consequently a grandson of the English king George III.
Born in Berlin on the 27th of May 1819, his youth was passed
in England anct in Berlin until 1837, when his father became
king of Hanover and he took up his residence in that country.
He lost the sight of one eye during a childish illness, and the
other by an accident in 1833. Being thus totally blind there
were doubts whether he was qualified to succeed to the govern-
ment of Hanover; but his father decided that he should do so,
as the law of the dissolved empire only excluded princes who
were born blind. This decision was a fatal one to the dynasty.
Both from his father and from his maternal uncle, Charles
Frederick, prince of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1785-1837), one of
the most influential men at the Prussian court, George had learned
to take a very high and autocratic view of royal authority. His
blindness prevented him from acquiring the shrewdness and
knowledge of the world which had assisted his father, and he
easily fell into the hands of unwise, and perhaps dishonest and
disloyal, advisers. A man of deep religious feeling, he formed
a fantastic conception of the place assigned to the house of Guelph
in the divine economy, and had ideas of founding a great Guelph
state in Europe. It is, therefore, not surprising that from the
time of his accession in November 1851 he was constantly
engaged in disputes with his Landtag or parliament, and was
consequently in a weak and perilous position when the crisis
in the affairs of Germany came in 1866. Having supported
Austria in the diet of the German confederation in June 1866,
he refused, contrary to the wishes of his parliament, to assent
to the Prussian demand that Hanover should observe an unarmed
neutrality during the war. As a result his country and his
capital were at once occupied by the Prussians, to whom his
army surrendered on the 29th of June 1866, and in the following
September Hanover was formally annexed by Prussia. From
his retreat at Hietzing near Vienna, George appealed in vain
to the powers of Europe; and supported by a large number of
his subjects, an agitation was carried on which for a time caused
some embarrassment to Prussia. All these efforts, however,
to bring about a restoration were unavailing, and the king passed
the remainder of his life at GmUnden in Austria, or in France,
refusing to the last to be reconciled with the Prussian government.
Whilst visiting Paris for medical advice he died in that city on
the izth of June 1878, and was buried in St George's chapel,
Windsor. In February 1843 he had married Marie, daughter
of Joseph, duke of Saxe-Altenburg, by whom he left a son and
two daughters. His son, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland
(b. 1845), continued to maintain the claim of his house to the
kingdom of Hanover.
By the capitulation of 1866 the king was allowed to retain
bis personal property, which included money and securities
equal to nearly 1,500,000, which had been sent to England
before the Prussian invasion of Hanover. The crown jewels
had also been secretly conveyed to England. His valuable
plate, which had been hidden at Herrenhausen, was restored
to him in 1867; his palace at Herrenhausen, near Hanover,
was reserved as his property; and in 1867 the Prussian govern-
ment agreed to compensate him for the loss of his landed estates,
but owing to his continued hostility the payment of the in-
terest on this sum was suspended in the following year (see
HANOVER).
See O. Klopp, Konig Geprg V. (Hanover, 1878); O. Theodor,
Erinnerungen an Georg V. (Bremerhaven, 1878); and O. Meding,
Memoiren zur Zeitgeschichte (Leipzig, 18811884).
GEORGE I., king of the Hellenes (1845- ), second son of
King Christian IX. of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen on
the 24th of December 1845. After the expulsion of King Otho
in 1862, the Greek nation, by a plebiscite, elected the British
prince, Alfred, duke of Edinburgh (subsequently duke of Coburg),
to the vacant throne, and on his refusal the national assembly
requested Great Britain to nominate a candidate. The choice
of the British government fell on Prince Christian William
Ferdinand Adolphus George of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Gliicksburg, whose election as king of the Hellenes, with the
title George I., was recognized by the powers (6th of June 1863).
The sister of the new sovereign, Princess Alexandra, had a few
months before (loth March) married the prince of Wales, after-
wards King Edward VII., and his father succeeded to the crown
of Denmark in the following November. Another sister, Princess
Dagmar, subsequently married .the grand duke Alexander
Alexandrovitch, afterwards Emperor Alexander III. of Russia.
On his accession, King George signed an act resigning his right
of succession to the Danish throne in favour of his younger
brother Prince Waldemar. He was received with much enthusiasm
by the Greeks. Adopting the motto, " My strength is the love
of my people," he ruled in strict accordance with constitutional
principles, though not hesitating to make the fullest use of the
royal prerogative when the intervention of the crown seemed to
be required by circumstances. For the events of his reign see
GREECE: History.
King George married, on the 27th of October 1867, the grand
duchess Olga Constantinovna of Russia, who became distinguished
in Greece for her activity on behalf of charitable objects. Their
children were Prince Constantine, duke of Sparta (b. 1868), who
married in 1889 Princess Sophia of Prussia, daughter of the
emperor Frederick, and granddaughter of Queen Victoria;
Prince George (b. 1869), from November 1898 to October 1906
high commissioner of the powers in Crete; Prince Nicholas
(b. 1872), who married in 1902 the grand duchess Helen- Vladi-
mirovna of Russia; Prince Andrew (b. 1882), who married in
1903 Princess Alice of Battenberg; Prince Christopher (b. 1888);
and a daughter, Princess Marie (b. 1876), who married in 1900
the grand duke George Michailovlch of Russia.
GEORGE, king of Saxony (1832-1904), the youngest son of
King John of Saxony (d. 1873) and Queen Amelia, was born at
Dresden on the 8th of August 1832. From an early age he
received a careful scientific and military training, and in 1846
entered the active army as a lieutenant of artillery. In 1840-
1850 he was a student at the university of Bonn, but soon returned
to military life, for which he had a predilection. In the Austro-
Prussian War of 1866 he commanded a Saxon cavalry brigade,
and in the early part of the war of 1870-71 a division, but
later succeeded to the supreme command of the XII. (Saxon)
army corps in the room of his brother, the crown prince Albert
(afterwards king) of Saxony. His name is inseparably associated
with this campaign, during which he showed undoubted military
ability and an intrepidity which communicated itself to all
ranks under his command, notably at the battles of St Privat
and Beaumont, in which he greatly distinguished himself. On
his brother succeeding to the throne he became commander-in-
chief of the Saxon army, and was in 1888 made a Prussian
field marshal by the emperor William I. He married in 1859
the infanta Maria, sister of King Louis of Portugal, and King
GEORGE OF LAODICEA GEORGE, HENRY
Albert's marriage being childless, succeeded on his death in IQOJ
to the throne of Saxony. He died on the i sth of October 1004
at Pillnitz.
GEORGE OF LAODICEA in Syria, often called " the Cappa-
docian," from 356 to 361 Arian archbishop of Alexandria, wa;
born about the beginning of the 4th century. According tc
Ammianus (xxii. n), he was a native of Epiphania, in Cilicia
Gregory Naziaiucn tells us that his father was a fuller, and that
he himself soon became notorious as a parasite of so mean a
type that he would " sell himself for a cake." After many
wanderings, in the course of which he seems to have amassed
a considerable fortune, first as an army-contractor and then as
a receiver of taxes, he ultimately reached Alexandria. It is not
known how or when he obtained ecclesiastical orders; but,
after Athanasius had been banished in 356, George was pro-
moted by the influence of the then prevalent Arian faction to the
vacant see. His theological attitude was that known as semi-
Arian or Homoiousian, and his associates were Eustathius ol
Sebaste and Basil of Ancyra. At George's instigation the
second Sirmian formula (promulgated by the third council ol
Sirmium 337). which was conciliatory towards strict Arianism,
was opposed at the council of Ancyra in 358 (Harnack, Hist,
of Dogma, iv. 76). His persecutions and oppressions of the
orthodox ultimately raised a rebellion which compelled him to
flee for his life; but his authority was restored, although with
difficulty, by a military demonstration. Untaught by experience,
he resumed his course of selfish tyranny over Christians and
heathen alike, and raised the irritation of the populace to such
a pitch that when, on the accession of Julian, his downfall was
proclaimed and he was committed to prison, they dragged him
thence and killed him, finally casting his body into the sea
(*4lh of December 361). With much that was sordid and
brutal in his character George combined a highly cultivated
literary taste, and in the course of his chequered career he had
found the means of collecting a splendid library, which Julian
ordered to be conveyed to Antioch for his own use. An anony-
mous work against the Manicheans discovered by Lagarde in
1859 in a MS. of Titus of Bostra has been attributed to him.
The original sources for the facts of the life of George of Laodicca
are Ammianus, Gregory Nazianzcn, Epiphanius and Athanasius.
His character has been drawn with graphic fidelity by Gibbon in
the 23rd chapter of the Decline and tall; but the theory, accepted
by Gibbon, which identifies him with the patron saint of England is
now rejected (see GKOICE. SAINT). See C. S. Hulst, St George of
Cappadocia in Legend and History (1910).
GEORGE OP TREBIZOND (1395-1484), Greek philosopher
and scholar, one of the pioneers of the revival of letters in the
Western world, was born in the island of Crete, and derived
his surname Trapezuntios from the fact that his ancestors were
from Trebizond. At what period he came to Italy is not certain;
according to some accounts he was summoned to Venice about
1430 to act as amanuensis to Francesco Barbara, who appears
to have already made his acquaintance; according to others he
did not visit Italy till the time of the council of Florence (1438-
1439). He learned Latin from Vittorino da Feltre, and made
such rapid progress that in three years he was able to teach
Latin literature and rhetoric. His reputation as a teacher and
a translator of Aristotle was very great, and he was selected as
secretary by Pope Nicholas V., an ardent Aristotelian. The
needless bitterness x>f his attacks upon Plato (in the Comparatio
Arislotdu el PlaUmis), which drew forth a powerful response
from Bessarion (?..), and the manifestly hurried and inaccurate
character of his translations of Plato, Aristotle and other classical
authors, combined to ruin his fame as a scholar, apd to endanger
his position as a teacher of philosophy. The indignation against
him on account of his first-named work was so great that he
would probably have been compelled to leave Italy had not
Alpbonso V. given him protection at the court of Naples. He
subsequently returned to Rome, where he died in great poverty
on the uth of August 1484. He had long outlived his
reputation, and towards the end of his life his intellect failed him.
From all accounts he was a man of very disagreeable character,
conceited and quarrelsome.
747
See G. Voigt, Die Wittier belt bung des klassischen Alter turns (1893),
and article by C. I Biihr in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklo-
pddie. For a complrtr list of hU numcrouii works, consisting of
translations from Greek into Latin (l'l-"o, Aristotle antl tin- Fathers)
and original essays in Greek (chiefly theological) and Latin (gram-
in.iiic.il and rhetorical), Me Fabricius, BMiolheca Graeca (ed.
1 1 arlcs), xii.
GEORGE THE MONK [GEORGIOS MONACHOS], called Hamar-
tolos (Greek for " sinner "), Byzantine chronicler, lived during
the reign of Michael III. (843-867). He wrote a Chronicle of
events, in four books, from the creation of the world to the death
of the emperor Theophilus (842), whose widow Theodora restored
the worship of images in the same year. It is the only original
contemporary authority for the years 813-842, and therefore
so far indispensable; the early parts of the work are merely a
compilation. In the introduction the author disclaims all pre-
tensions to literary style, and declares that his only object was
to relate such things as were " useful and necessary " with a
strict adherence to truth. Far too much attention, however,
is devoted to religious matters; the iconoclasts are fiercely
attacked, and the whole is interlarded with theological discussions
and quotations from the fathers. The work was very popular,
and translations of it served as models for Slavonic writers.
The MSS. give a continuation down to 948, the author of which
is indicated simply as " the logothete," by whom probably
Symeon Metaphrastes (second half of the loth century) is meant.
In this religious questions are relegated to the background,
more attention is devoted to political history, an.d the language
is more popular. Still further continuations of little value go
down to 1143. The large circulation of the work and its sub-
sequent reissues, with alterations and interpolations, make it
very difficult to arrive at the original text. i,
EDITIONS: E. de Muralt (St Petersburg, 1859); J. P. Migne,
Patrologia Graeca, ex.; C. de Boor (in Teubner series, 1904- ).
See F. Hirsch, Byzantinische Studitn (1876); C. de Boor in His-
lorische Untersuchungen (in honour of Arnold Schafer, Bonn, 1882);
C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897).
GEORGE THE SVNCELLUS [GEORGIOS SYNKELLOS], of
Constantinople, Byzantine chronicler and ecclesiastic, lived
at the end of the 8th and the beginning of the gth century A.D.
He was the syncellus (cell-mate, the confidential campanion
assigned to the patriarchs, sometimes little more than a spy;
see SYNCELLUS) or private secretary of Tara(u)sius, patriarch
of Constantinople (784-806), after whose death he retired to a
convent, and wrote his Chronicle of events from Adam to Dio-
cletian (285). At his earnest request, the work, which he doubt-
less intended to bring down to his own times, was continued after
his death by his friend Theophanes Confessor. The Chronicle,
which, as its title implies, is rather a chronological table (with
notes) than a history, is written with special reference to pre-
Christian times and the introduction of Christianity, and exhibits
the author as a staunch upholder of orthodoxy. But in spite of
its religious bias and dry and uninteresting character, the frag-
ments of ancient writers and apocryphal books preserved in it
render it specially valuable. For instance, considerable portions
of the original text of the Chronicle of Eusebius have been
restored by the aid of Syncellus. His chief authorities were
Annianus of Alexandria (sth century) and Panodorus, an
Egyptian monk, who wrote about the year 400 and drew largely
from Eusebius, Dexippus and Julius Africanus.
Editio princeps, by J. Goar (1652); in Bonn Corpus scriptorum
hist. Byz., by VV. Dindorf (1829). See also H. Gelzer, Sextus Julius
Afntanus, u. I (1885) ; C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen
Litteratur (1897).
GEORGE, HENRY (1839-1897), American author and political
economist, was born in Philadelphia, Penn., on the 2nd of Sep-
tember 1839. He settled in California in 1858.; removed to
New York, 1880; was first a printer, then an editor, but finally
devoted all his life to economic and social questions. In 1871
ic published Our Land Policy, which, as further developed in
1879 under the title of Progress and Poverty, speedily attracted
he widest attention both in America and in Europe. In 1886
ic published Protection or Free Trade. Henry George had no
political ambition, but in 1886 he received an independent
nomination as mayor of New York City, and became so popular
GEORGE PISIDA GEORGE, LAKE
that it required a coalition of the two strongest political parties
to prevent his election. He received 68,000 votes, against
90,000 for the coalition candidate. His death on the 2gth of
October 1897 was followed by one of the greatest demonstrations
of popular feeling and general respect that ever attended the
funeral of any strictly private citizen in American history.
The fundamental doctrine of Henry George, the equal right of
all men to the use of the earth, did not originate with him; but
his clear statement of a method by which it could be enforced,
without increasing state machinery, and indeed with a great
simplification of government, gave it a new form. This method
he named the Single Tax. His doctrine may be condensed as
follows: The land of every country belongs of right to all the
people of that country. This right cannot be alienated by one
generation, so as to affect the title of the next, any more than
men can sell their yet unborn children for slaves. Private
ownership of land has no more foundation in morality or reason
than private ownership of air or sunlight. But the private
occupancy and use of land are right and indispensable. Any
attempt to divide land into equal shares is impossible and un-
desirable. Land should be, and practically is now, divided for
private use in parcels among those who will pay the highest price
for the use of each parcel. This price is now paid to some persons
annually, and it is called rent. By applying the rent of land,
exclusive of all improvements, to the equal benefit of the whole
community, absolute justice would be done to all. As rent is
always more than sufficient to defray all necessary expenses of
government, those expenses should be met by a tax upon rent
alone, to be brought about by the gradual abolition of all other
taxes. Landlords should be left in undisturbed possession and
nominal ownership of the land, with a sufficient margin over the
tax to induce them to collect their rents and pay the tax. They
would thus be transformed into mere land agents. Obviously
this would involve absolute free trade, since all taxes on imports,
manufactures, successions, documents, personal property, build-
ings or improvements would disappear. Nothing made by man
would be taxed at all. The right of private property in all things
made by man would thus be absolute, for the owner of such
things could not be divested of his property, without full com-
pensation, even under the pretence of taxation. The idea of
concentrating all taxes upon ground-rent has found followers
in- Great Britain, North America, Australia and New Zealand.
In practical politics this doctrine is confined to the " Single Tax,
Limited," which proposes to defray only the needful public
expenses from ground-rent, leaving the surplus, whatever it
may be, in the undisturbed possession of land-owners.
The principal books by Henry George are: Progress and Poverty
(1879), The Irish Land Question (1881), Social Problems (1884),
Protection or Free Trade (1886), The Condition of Labor (1891),
A Perplexed Philosopher (1892), Political Economy (1898). His son,
Henry George (b. 1862), has written a Life (1900). For the Single
Tax theory see Shearman's Natural Taxation (1899). (T. G. S.)
GEORGE PISIDA [GEOEGIOS PISIDES], Byzantine poet, born in
Pisidia, flourished during the 7th century A.D. Nothing is known
of him except that he was a deacon and chartophylax (keeper
of the records) of the church of St Sophia. His earliest work,
in three cantos (<x(cpocurs), on the campaign of the emperor
Heraclius against the Persians, seems to be the work of an eye-
witness. This was followed by the Avarica, an account of a
futile attack on Constantinople by the Avars (626), said to have
been repulsed by the aid of the Virgin Mary ; and by the Heraclias,
a general survey of the exploits of Heraclius both at home and
abroad down to the final overthrow of Chosroes in 627. George
Pisida was also the author of a didactic poem, Hexaemeron or
Cosmourgia, upon the creation of the world; a treatise on the
vanity of life, after the manner of Ecclesiastes; a controversial
composition against Severus, bishop of Antioch; two short poems
upon the resurrection of Christ and on the recovery of the sacred
crucifix stolen by the Persians. The metre chiefly used is the
iambic. As a versifier Pisida is correct and even elegant; as a
chronicler of contemporary events he is exceedingly useful;
and later Byzantine writers enthusiastically compared him with,
and even preferred him to Euripides. Recent criticism, however,
characterizes his compositions as artificial and almost uniformly
dull.
Complete works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, xcii.; see also
De Georgii Pisidae apud Theophanem aliosque historicos reliquiis.
(1900), by S. L. Sternbach, who has edited several new poems for
the first time from a Paris MS. in Wiener Studien, xiii., xiv. (1891-
1892); C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur
(1897) ; C. F. Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyklopddie.
GEORGE, LAKE, a lake in the E. part of New York, U.S.A.,
among the S.E. foothills of the Adirondack Mountains. It
extends from N.N.E. to S.S.W. about 34 m., and varies in width
from 2 to 4 m. It has a maximum depth of about 400 ft., and is
323 ft. above the sea and 227 ft. above Lake Champlain, into
which it has an outlet to the northward through a narrow channel
and over falls and rapids. The lake is fed chiefly by mountain
brooks and submerged springs; its bed is for the most part
covered with a clean sand; its clear water is coloured with
beautiful tints of blue and green; and its surface is studded with
about 220 islands and islets, all except nineteen of which belong
to the state and constitute a part of its forest reserve. Near the
head of the lake is Prospect Mountain, rising 1736 ft. above the
sea, while several miles farther down the shores is BlackMountain,
2661 ft. in height. Lake George has become a favourite summer
resort. Lake steamers ply between the village of Lake George
(formerly Caldwell) at the southern end of the lake and Baldwin,
whence there is rail connexion with Lake Champlain steamers.
Lake George was formed during the Glacial period by glacial
drift which clogged a pre-existing valley. According to Prof. J. F.
Kemp the valley occupied by Lake George was a low pass before
the Glacial period; a dam of glacial drift at the southern end
and of lacustrine clays at the northern end formed the lake which
has submerged the pass, leaving higher parts as islands. Before
the advent of the white man the lake was a part of the war-path
over which the Iroquois Indians frequently made their way
northward to attack the Algonquins and the Hurons, and during
the struggle between the English and the French for supremacy
in America, waterways being still the chief means of communica-
tion, it was of great strategic importance (see CHAMPLAIN, Lake).
Father Isaac Jogues, Rene Goupil and Guillaume Couture
seem to have been the first white men to see the lake (on the pth
of August 1642) as they were being taken by their Iroquois
captors from the St Lawrence to the towns of the Mohawks,
and in 1646 Father Jogues, having undertaken a half- religious,
half-political mission to the Mohawks, was again at the lake,
to which, in allusion to his having reached it on the eve of Corpus
Christi, he gave the name Lac Saint Sacrement. This name
it bore until the summer of 1755, when General William Johnson
renamed it Lake George in honour of King George II.
General Johnson was at this time in command of a force of
colonists and Indians sent against the French at Crown Point on
Lake Champlain. The expedition, however, had proceeded
no farther than to the head of Lake George when Johnson was
informed that a force of French and Indians under Baron Ludwig
August Dieskau was pushing on from Crown Point to Fort
Lyman (later Fort Edward), 14 m. to the S. of their encampment.
Accordingly, on the morning of the 8th of September a detach-
ment of 1000 colonials under Colonel Ephraim Williams (1715-
1755) and 200 Indians under Hendrick, a Mohawk chief, was
sent to aid Fort Lyman, but when about 3 m. S. of the lake this
detachment fell into an ambuscade prepared for it by Dieskau
and both Williams and Hendrick were killed. The survivors
were pursued to their camp, and then followed on the same day
the main battle of Lake George, in which 1000 colonials fighting
at first behind a hastily prepared barricade defeated about 1400
French and Indians. Both commanders were wounded; Dieskau
was captured; the French lost about 300; and the colonials
nearly the same (including those who fell earlier in the day).
Johnson now built on the lake shore, near the battlefield, a fort
of gravel and logs and called it Fort William Henry (the site was
occupied by the Fort William Henry Hotel till it was burned
in 1909). In the meantime the French entrenched them-
selves at Ticonderoga at the foot of the lake. In March 1757
Fort William Henry successfully withstood an attack of 1600
GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC GEORGETOWN
men sent out by the marquis de Vaudreuil, governor of Canada,
but on the gth of August of the same year its garrison, after
being reduced to desperate straits, surrendered to the marquis dc
Montcalm. By the terms of surrender the garrison was to be
allowed to march out with the honours of war and was to be
escorted to Fort Edward, but the guard provided by Montcalm
was inadequate to protect them from his Indian allies and on the
day following the surrender many were massacred or taken
prisoners. The fort was razed to the ground. In 1758 General
James Abercrombie proceeded by way of Lake George aguinst
Fort Ticonderoga, and in 1759 Baron Jeffrey Amherst, while on
his way to co-operate with General James Wolfe against Quebec,
built near the site of Fort William Henry one bastion of a fort
since known as Fort George, the ruins of which still remain.
A monument commemorative of the battle of Lake George
was unveiled on the 8th of September 1003, on the site of the
battle, and within the state reservation of 35 acres known as
Fort George Battle Park. Horicon is a name that was given
4o the lake by James Fenimore Cooper. The Indian name of
the lake was Andia-ta-roc-te.
See Francis Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe (Boston, 1884); and
E. E. Seelye, Late George in History (Lake George, 1897).
GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC, an American industrial
institution, situated near the small village of Freeville, in Tomp-
kins county, New York, U.S.A., 9 m. E.N.E. of Ithaca, at the
junction of the Sayre-Auburn and the Elmira-Cortland branches
of the Lehigh Valley railway. The George Junior Republic
forms a miniature state whose economic, civic and social condi-
tions, as nearly as possible, reproduce those of the United States,
and whose citizenship is vested in young people, especially those
who are neglected or wayward, who are thus taught self-reliance,
self-control and morality. The founder, William Reuben George
(b. 1866), was a native of West Dryden, a village near Freeville,
who as a business man in New York City became interested in
the Fresh Air Fund charity supervised by the New York Tribune,
took charge of summer outings for city children (1800-1804),
and, becoming convinced that such charities tended to promote
pauperism and crime among the older of their proteges, devised
first (1804) the plan of requiring payment by the children in
labour for all they received during these summer jaunts, then
(1895) self-government for a summer colony near Freeville,
and finally a permanent colony, in which the children stay for
several years. The Republic was founded on the loth of July
1895; the only check on the powers of executive, representative
and judicial branches of the government lies in the veto of the
superintendent. " Nothing without labour " is the motto of
the community, so strictly carried out that a girl or boy in the
Republic who has not money ' to pay for a night's lodging must
sleep in jail and work the next day for the use of the cell. The
legislative body, originally a House of Representatives and a
Senate, in 1809 became more like the New England town meeting.
The respect for the law that follows its enactment by the citizens
themselves is remarkable in a class so largely of criminal tend-
encies; and it is particularly noticeable that positions on the
police force are eagerly coveted. Fifteen is the age of majority;
suffrage is universal, children under fifteen must be in charge of a
citizen guardian. The average age of citizens was seventeen in
1008. The proportion of girls to boys was originally small, but
gradually increased; in 1008 there were about 70 girls and 90 boys.
The tendency is to admit only those aged at least sixteen and
physically well equipped. In the Republic's earlier years the
citizens lived in boarding-houses of different grades, but later in
family groups in cottages (there were in 1910 twelve cottages)
under the care of " house-mothers." The labour of the place is
divided into sewing, laundry work, cooking and domestic service
for the girls, and furniture making, carpentry, farm work, baking
bread and wafers (the business of an Auburn biscuit factory was
bought in 1003), plumbing and printing for the boys. Masonry and
1 Tbe_ " government " imued iu own currency in tin and later
in aluminium, and " American " money could not be passed within
the 48 acre* of the Republic until 1906, when depreciation forced the
Republic's coinage out of me and " American * coin was made legal
749
shoe and harness making were tried for a few years. There is
an efficient preparatory and high school, from which students
enter directly leading colleges. The religious influence is strong,
wholesome and unscctarian; students in Auburn Theological
Seminary have assisted in the religious work; Roman Catholic
and Hebrew services are also held; and attendance at church
services is compulsory only on convicts and prisoners.
There are " Woman's Aid " societies in New York City,
Ithaca, Syracuse, Buffalo, Boston and elsewhere, to promote
the work of the Republic. A " republic " for younger boys,
begun at Freevillc, was established in Litchfield, Connecticut;
and a National junior Republic near Annapolis Junction,
Maryland, and a Carter Junior Republic at Rcadington, near
Easton, Pennsylvania, are modelled on the George Junior
Republic. In 1008-1910 new " states " were established at
Chino, California, Grove City, Pennsylvania, and Flemington
Junction, New Jersey. In February 1008 the National Associa-
tion of Junior Republics was formed with Mr George (its founder)
as its director, its aims being to establish at least one " republic "
in each state of the Union, and in other countries similar institu-
tions for youth and miniature governments modelled on that of
the country in which each " state " is established, and to establish
colonies for younger children, to be sent at the age of fifteen
to the Junior Republic. At the time of its formation the National
Association included the " states " at Freeville, N.Y., Litchfield,
Conn., and Annapolis Junction, Md.; others joined the federa-
tion later.
See William R. George, The Junior Republic: its History and
Ideals (New York, 1910); The Junior Republic Citizen (Freeville,
1895 sqq-). written and printed by "citizens"; Nothing Without
Labor, George Junior Republic (?th ed., Freeville, 1909), a manual;
J. R. Commons, " The Junior Republic," in The American Journal
of Sociology (1898); D. F. Lincoln, " The George Junior Republic,"
in The Coming Age (1900); and Lyman Abbott, "A Republic
within a Republic, in the Outlook for February 15, 1908.
GEORGETOWN, the capital of British Guiana (see GUIANA),
and the seat of the colonial government, situated on the left
bank of the Demerara river at its mouth, in 6 29' 24* N. and
58 n' 30' W. It was known during the Dutch occupation
as Stabroek, and was established as the seat of government
of the combined colonies of Essequibo and Demerara (now with
Berbice forming the three counties of British Guiana) in 1784,
its name being changed to Georgetown in 1812. It is one of
the finest towns in this part of the world, the streets being wide
and straight, intersecting each other at right angles, several
having double roadways with lily-covered canals in the centre,
the grass banks on either side carrying rows of handsome shade
trees. In Main Street, the finest street in Georgetown, the canal
has been filled in to form a broad walk, an obvious precedent
for the treatment of the other canals, which (however beautiful)
are useless and merely act as breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
The principal residences, standing in their own gardens surrounded
by foliage and flowers, are scattered over the town, as are also
the slums, almost the worst of which abut on the best residential
quarters. Water Street, the business centre, runs parallel to
the river for about ^\ m. and contains the stores of the wholesale
and retail merchants, their wharves running out into the river
to allow steamers to come alongside. Most of the houses and
public buildings are constructed of wood, the former generally
raised on brick pillars some 4 ft. to 10 ft. from the ground, the
bright colouring of the wooden walls, jalousies and roofs adding
to the beauty of the best streets. The large structure known
as the Public Buildings in the centre of the city, containing
the offices of the executive government and the hall of the
court of policy, was erected between 1829 and 1834. It is a
handsome, E-shaped, brick-plastered building of considerable
size, with deep porticos and marble-paved galleries carried on
cast-iron columns. The law courts, built in the 'eighties, have
a ground floor of concrete and iron, the upper storey being of
hardwood. Among other public buildings arc the town hall,
the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, several handsome
churches, the local banks and insurance offices, and the almshouse.
The public hospital consists of several large blocks. The Royal
750
GEORGETOWN
Agricultural and Commercial Society has a large reading-room
and lending library. The assembly rooms, above and owned
by the Georgetown club, has a good stage and is admirably
adapted to dramatic and musical entertainments. A museum
(free), belonging to the Royal Agricultural and Commercial
Society, is chiefly devoted to the fauna of British Guiana, but
also contains an instructive collection of local economic, minera-
logical and botanical exhibits, a miscellaneous collection of
foreign birds and mammals, and an interesting series of views
of the colony. The botanical gardens to the east of the city
are of considerable extent and admirably laid out. The nurseries
cover a large area and are devoted chiefly to the raising of plants
of economic importance which can be purchased at nominal
rates. The collections of ferns and orchids are very fine. In the
gardens are also located the fields of the board of agriculture,
where experimental -work in the growth of sugar-cane, rice,
cotton and all tropical plants of economic importance is carried
on. Other popular resorts are the sea wall and the promenade
gardens in the centre of the city.
The local government of Georgetown is vested in a mayor and
town council elected under a very restricted franchise. The
city is divided into fourteen wards each with one representative.
A councillor must possess, either personally or through his wife,
premises within the city of the appraised value of at least $1500.
A voter must either own house property of the appraised value
of $250 or occupy premises of an annual rental of $240. There
are indeed only 297 municipal voters in a population of nearly
50,000. The revenue, just over 50,000 annually, is mainly
derived from a direct rate on house property. The colonial
government pays rates on its property and also gives a grant-
in-aid towards the upkeep of the streets. The expenditure is
principally on sanitation, fire brigade, streets, water-supply,
street lighting and drainage. Street lighting is carried out under
contract by the Demerara Electric Company, which has a
monopoly of private lighting and works an excellent tram service.
Water for public and domestic purposes is taken from the con-
servancy of the east coast and is delivered by pumping throughout
the city, but drinking-water is collected in tanks attached to
the dwellings from the rain falling on the roofs. The fire brigade
is a branch of the police force, half the cost being borne by the
rates and half by the general revenue. There is an excellent
service of telephones, a branch of the post office, and halfpenny
postage within the city boundaries. There are in Georgetown
two well-equipped foundries, a dry dock, and factories for the
manufacture of rice, cigars, soap, boots, chocolate, candles,
aerated waters and ice. Georgetown is connected by rail and
ferry with New Amsterdam, by ferry and rail with the west
coast of Demerara, and by steamer with all the country districts
along the coast and up the navigable reaches of the principal
rivers. (A. G. B.*)
GEORGETOWN, formerly a city of the District of Columbia,
U.S.A., and now part (sometimes called West Washington)
of the city of Washington, U.S.A., at the confluence of the
Potomac river and Rock Creek, and on the Chesapeake and Ohio
Canal, about z\ m. W.N.W. of the National Capitol. Pop.
(1890) 14,046; (1900) 14,549. The streets are old-fashioned,
narrow and well shaded. On the " Heights " are many fine
residences with beautiful gardens; the Monastery and Academy
(for girls) of Visitation, founded in 1799 by Leonard Neale,
second archbishop of Baltimore; and the college and the
astronomical observatory (1842) of Georgetown University.
The university was founded as a Roman Catholic Academy in
1789, was opened in 1791, transferred to the Society of Jesus
in 1805, authorized in 1815 by Congress to confer college or
university degrees, and by the Holy See in 1833 to confer degrees
in philosophy and theology, incorporated as Georgetown College
by Act of Congress in 1844, and began graduate work about
1856. The college library includes the historical collection of
James Gilmary Shea. A school of medicine was opened in 1851,
a dental school in 1001 and a school of law in 1870. In 1909-
1910 the university had an enrolment of 859 students. Rising
in terraces from Rock Creek is Oak Hill Cemetery, a beautiful
burying-ground containing the graves of John Howard Payne,
the author of " Home, Sweet Home," Edwin McMasters Stanton
and Joseph Henry. On the bank of the Potomac is a brick house
which was for several years the home of Francis Scott Key, author
of " The Star-Spangled Banner "; on Analostan Island in the
river was a home of James Murray Mason; Georgetown Heights
was the home of the popular novelist, Mrs Emrna Dorothy
Eliza Nevitte Southworth (1819-1899). Before the advent of
railways Georgetown had an important commerce by way of the
Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, by which considerable coal as well
as some grain is still brought hither, and of which Georgetown
is now a terminus; the canal formerly crossed the Potomac
at this point on an aqueduct bridge (1446 ft. long), but in 1887
the crossing was abandoned and the old bridge was purchased
by the United States government, which in 1889 constructed
a new steel bridge upon the old masonry piers. Chief among the
manufactories are several large flour mills Georgetown flour
was long noted for its excellence. There is a very large fish-
market here. Georgetown was settled late in the i7th century,*
was laid out as a town in 1751, chartered as a city in 1789,
merged in the District of Columbia in 1871, and annexed
to the city of Washington in 1878. In the early days of
Washington it was a social centre of some importance, where
many members of Congress as well as some cabinet officers
and representatives of foreign countries lived and the President
gave state dinners; and here were the studio, for two years, of
Gilbert Stuart, and " Kalorama," the residence of Joel Barlow.
GEORGETOWN, a city and the county-seat of Scott county,
Kentucky, U.S.A., about n miles N. of Lexington. Pop.
(1900)3823 (1677 negroes); (1910)4533. Georgetown is served
by the Cincinnati Southern (Queen & Crescent Route), the
Frankfort & Cincinnati, and the Southern railways, and is
connected with Lexington by an electric line. It is the seat
of Georgetown College (Baptist, co-educational), chartered in
1829 as the successor of Rittenhouse Academy, which was founded
in 1798. Georgetown is situated in the Blue Grass region of
Kentucky, and the surrounding country is devoted to agriculture
and stock-raising. One of the largest independent oil refineries
in the country (that of the Indian Refining Co.) is in Georgetown,
and among manufactures are bricks, flour, ice, bagging and hemp.
The remarkable " Royal Spring," which rises near the centre
of the city, furnishes about 200,000 gallons of water an hour
for the city's water supply, and for power for the street railway
and for various industries. The first settlement was made in
1775, and was named McClellan's, that name being changed to
Lebanon a few years afterwards. In 1790 the place was incor-
porated as a town under its present name (adopted in honour
of George Washington), and Georgetown was chartered as a city
of the fourth class in 1894. Bacon College, which developed into
Kentucky (now Transylvania) University (see LEXINGTON, Ky.),
was established here by the Disciples of Christ in 1836, but in
1839 was removed to Harrodsburg.
GEORGETOWN, a city, a port of entry and the county-seat
of Georgetown county, South Carolina, U.S.A., at the head of
Winyah Bay, and at the mouth of the Pedee river, about ism.
from the Atlantic Ocean, and about 55 m. N.E. of Charleston.
Pop. (1890) 2895; (1900) 4138 (2718 negroes); (1910) 5530.
Georgetown is served by the Georgetown & Western railway,
has steamship communication with Charleston, Wilmington,
New York City and other Atlantic ports, and, by the Pedee
river and its tributaries (about 1000 m. of navigable streams),
has trade connexions with a large area of South Carolina and part
of North Carolina. The principal public buildings are the post
office and custom house. Among the city's manufactures are
lumber, foundry and machine-shop products, naval stores and
oars; and there are shad and sturgeon fisheries. The growing
of cotton and truck-gardening are important industries in the
neighbouring region, and there is considerable trade in such
products. The first settlement here was made about 1700;
and the town was laid out a short time before 1 734. The Winyah
Indigo Society grew out of a social club organized about 1740,
and was founded in 1757 by a group of planters interested in
GEORGETOWN GEORGIA
raising indigo; it long conducted a school (discontinued during
the Civil War) which eventually became part of the city's public
school system. In 1780 Georgetown was occupied by a body
of Loyalist troops, with whom the American troops had several
skirmishes, but on the loth of August 1781 General Francis
Marion forced the evacuation of the town and took possession
of it. A few days later, an American named Manson, who had
joined the British forces, attacked the town from an armed
vessel, and burned about forty houses, the small body of militia
being unable to make an effective resistance. General Lafayette
first landed on American soil at Georgetown on the 24th of April
1777. Georgetown was incorporated as a town in 1805, and was
chartered as a city in 1895.
GEORGETOWN, a city and the county-seat of Williamson
county, Texas, U.S.A., on the San Gabriel river, about 13 m. N.
by E. of Austin. Pop. (1800) 2447; (1900) 2790 (608 negroes);
(1910) 3096. The city is served by the International
& Great Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas rail-
ways. Georgetown is the seat of the Southwestern University
(Methodist Episcopal, South, co-educational), formed in 1873
(chartered 1875) by the combination of Ruterville College
(Methodist Episcopal, at Ruterville, Texas, chartered in 1840,
and closed in 1850), McKenzie College (at Clarksville, Texas,
founded in 1841 and closed in 1872), Wcslcyan College at San
Augustine (chartered in 1844, burned a few years later, and not
rebuilt), and Soule University at Chapel Hill (chartered in 1856,
but closed in 1870). The university includes a fitting school
at Georgetown, and a medical department at Dallas, Texas;
in 1009 it had an enrolment of 1037 students. The principal
manufactures of Georgetown are cotton and cotton-seed oil,
and planing-mill products. In Page Park are mineral springs,
whose waters have medicinal qualities similar to the famous
Karlstad waters. The first settlement was made here in 1848;
and Georgetown was incorporated as a town in 1866, and was
chartered as a city in 1890.
GEORGIA, a southern state of the United States of America,
one of the thirteen original states, situated between 30 31' 39'
and 35 N., and between 81 and 85 53' 38' W. It is bounded
N. by Tennessee and North Carolina, E. by South Carolina and
the Atlantic Ocean, S. by Florida, and W. by Alabama. The
total area of the state is 59,265 sq. m., of which 540 sq. m. are
water surface.
The surface at Georgia is divided into five physiographic zones.
From the sea coast, which is skirted by fertile, semi-tropical islands,
a plain of 35-ooo so. m., known as South Georgia, extends northward
to the " fall-line ' passing from Augusta, through Milledgeville
and Macon, to Columbus. This is a part of the great Atlantic
Coastal Plain. For 20 m. from the coast its elevation is 10 ft.,
then it rises abruptly 70 ft. higher, and 20 m. farther N. another
elevation begins, which reaches 575 ft. at Milledgeville, the average
elevation of the entire region being 250 ft. North of the line men-
tioned, and collectively known as North Georgia, are the four other
regions, each with well-defined characteristics. The largest and
southernmost, a broad belt extending from the " fall-line " to a
line passing through Clarkesville, Habersham county, Cartersville,
Bartow county and Buchanan, Haralson county (approximately)
>!"wn as the Piedmont Belt or Plateau, being a region of faint
tf eroded on highly complicated crystalline rocks. The Blue
Ridge escarpment, a striking topographic feature in Virginia and
the Carolina*, extends into Georgia along the north-eastern border
of this belt, but is lew strongly developed here than elsewhere,
dying out entirely towards the south-west. North of the Piedmont
Belt lie the Appalachian Mountains Region and the Great Valley
Region, the_ former to the east, the latter to the west of a dividing
line from Cartersville northward. The former region consists of
detached mountain masse* of crystalline rocks, not yet eroded
down to the level of the Piedmont Belt. In Towns county, in the
Appalachian Region, is the highest point in the state. Brasstown Bald ,
abo called Enota Mountain (4768 ft.). The Great Valley Region
coMsts of folded sedimentary rocks, extensive erosion having
removed the soft layers to form valleys, leaving the hard layers
as ridges, both layers running in a N.E.-S.W. direction. In the
rttreme north-west corner of the state is a small part of the Cumber-
land Plateau, represented by Lookout and Sand Mts.
On the Blue Ridge escarpment near the N.E. corner of the state
* a water-parting separating the waters which find their way
respectively V\V. to the Tennessee river. S.W. to the Gulf of Mexico
and S.E to the Atlantic Ocean: indeed, according to B. M. and
M. R. Hall (Water Retourcei of Georgia, p. 2). " there are three
springs in north-east Georgia within a stone's throw of each other
that send out their waters to Savannah, Ga., to Apalachicola, Fla.,
and to New Orleans, La." The water-parting between the waters
flowing into the Atlantic and those flowing into the Gulf extend!)
from this point first S.E. for a few miles, then turns S.W. to Atlanta,
and from there extends S.S.E. to the Florida line. West of where
the escarpment dies out, the Great Valley Region and a considerable
portion of the Appalachian Mountains Region are drained by the
Coosa, the Tallapoosa and their tributaries, into Mobile Bay, but
the Cumberland Plateau, like that part of the Appalachian Moun-
tains Region which lies directly N. of the Blue Ridge escarpment,
constitutes a part of the Tennessee Basin. The principal rivers
of the state are the Chattahoochcc and the Flint, which unite in
the S.W. corner to form the Apalachicola; the Ocmulgee (whose
western tributary, the Towaliga, falls 96 ft. in less than a quarter
of a mile), and the Oconce, which unite in the S.E. to form the
Altamaha; and the Savannah, which forms the boundary between
( '.eorgia and South Carolina. All of these rise in the upper part of the
Piedmont Plateau, through which they pursue a rapid course over
rocky beds, and are navigable only south of the " fall-line," at
which and north of which they furnish an abundance of water-power.
The upper Savannah river first flows S.W., then turns abruptly
S.E., while the Chattahoochee river rises near this point and con-
tinues S.W. This is because the upper Savannah ' was formerly
part of the Chattahoochee, but was captured and turned S.E. by
hcadward growth of the Savannah. As a result of the capture
there is a deep gorge along the upper Savannah, especially along the
branch called tne Tallulah river; and the upper Tallulah, in a scries
of cascades, 2f m. long, falls 525 ft. from the former higher level
down to the main bed of the upper Savannah, at Tallulah Falls, a
summer resort.
The fauna and flora have no distinctive features. [See UNITED
STATES.)
Climate and Soils. The climate of Georgia, though temperate,
differs considerably in different parts of the state. All the nine
climate belts in the United States, except that of southern
Florida, are represented within its borders. The lowest mean
annual temperature, 40 F. and below, is that of some of the
mountain tops of northern Georgia; from the mountain-sides
to the Piedmont Plateau this mean temperature varies from
45 to 60; on the Piedmont Plateau from 60 to 65; and on the
Coastal Plain from 60 to 70. The July isotherm of 80 crosses
the state a little N. of Augusta and Macon, touching the W.
boundary at West Point, Troup county. The mean July tempera-
ture for the whole state is 81-8; for the part S. of the 80
isotherm the average temperature for July is between 80 and
85. The average rainfall for the state is 49-3 in. ; the maximum
is 71-7 in., at Rabun Gap in the extreme N.E. part of the state;
the minimum is 39-4 at Swainsboro, Emanuel county, a little S.E.
of the centre of the state. f
Georgia is also notable for the variety of its soils. In the
Cumberland Plateau and Great Valley Regions are a red or brown
loam, rich in decomposed limestone and calcareous shales, and
sandy or gravelly loams. In the Piedmont Plateau and Appala-
chian Mountains Regions the surface soil is generally sandy, but
in considerable areas the subsoil is a red clay derived largely
from the decomposition of hornblende. By far the greatest
variety of soils is found in the Coastal Plain Region. Here the
Central Cotton Belt, extending from the " fall-line " as far S.
as a line bisecting Early county in the W. and passing through
Baker, Worth, Dooly, Dodge, Laurens, Johnson, Jefferson
and Burke counties, has three distinct kinds of soil; a sand,
forming what is known as the sand-hill region; red clay derived
from silicious rock in the red hills; and grey, sandy soils with
a subsoil of yellow loam. South of the Cotton Belt is the Lime
Sink Region, which includes Miller, Baker, Mitchell, Colquitt
and Worth counties, the northern portions of Decatur, Grady,
Thomas, Brooks and Lowndes, the eastern parts of Dooly and
Lee, and the eastern portions of Berrien, Irwin, Wilcox, Dodge,
and some parts of Burke, Scrcven and Bulloch. The soft lime-
stone underlying this region is covered, in the uplands, with
grey, sandy soils, which have a subsoil of loam; in the lowlands
the surface soils are loams, the subsoils clays. Adjoining this
region are the pine barrens, which extend S. to a line passing
through the northern portions of Pierce, Wayne, Liberty, Bryan
1 According to the usual nomenclature, the branch flowing S.W.
is called the Chattooga; this unites with the Tallulah to form the
Tngaloo, which in turn unites with the Kioweetoform the Savannah
proper.
752
GEORGIA
and Effingham counties. Here the prevailing soils are grey and
sandy with a subsoil of loam, but they are less fertile than those
of the Lime Sink or Cotton Belts. The coast counties of the S.E.
and generally those on the Florida frontier are not suitable for
cultivation, on account of the numerous marshes and swamps,
Okefinokee Swamp being 45 m. long and approximately 30 m.
wide; but the southern portions of Decatur, Grady, Thomas and
Brooks counties are sufficiently elevated for agriculture, and the
islands off the coast are exceedingly productive.
Minerals. The mineral resources of Georgia are as varied as its
climate and soils, a total of thirty-nine different mineral products
being found within its borders. The most important is stone: in
1905 the value of the granite quarried in the state was $971,207
(Georgia ranking fifth in the United States), of the marble $774,550
(Georgia ranking third in the United States, Vermont and New York
being first and second) ; in 1908 the granite was valued at $970,832
(Georgia ranking fifth in the United States), and the marble at
$916,281 (Georgia ranking second in the United States.Vermont being
first). Generally more than one-fourth of the granite is used for pav-
ing; curb, building and monument stone are next in importance in
. __i granite
was first quarried about 1850; it is extensively used as building
material in Georgia and other southern states. A laminated granite,
otherwise like the Stone Mountain granite, is found in De Kalb,
Rockdale and Gwinnett counties, and is used for curbing and build-
ing. Biotite granites, which take a good polish and are used for
monuments and for decoration, are quarried in Oglethorpe and
Elbert counties. Georgia marble was first quarried on a large scale
in Pickens county in 1884; the pure white marble of this county
had been worked for tombstones near Tate, the centre of the marble
belt, in 1840; after its commercial exploitation it was used in the
capitol buildings of Georgia, Rhode Island, Mississippi and Minne-
sota, in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., and in St
Luke's Hospital, New York City. It is sometimes used for the
entire building, and sometimes only for decoration. Other colours
than the snowy white are found in the main marble belt of the
state, which runs from Canton, Cherokee county, 60 m. generally
N. to the northern boundary of the state. Other deposits, less well
known, are the dark brown and light grey marbles of Whitfield
county, which resemble the stone quarried in eastern Tennessee.
Limestone and slate are quarried at Rock Mart, Polk county, and
there are cement quarries at Cement, near Kingston, Bartow county.
Iron deposits occur in Bartow, Polk and Floyd counties, where are
the more important brown ores, and (red ores) in Walker and
Chattooga counties. The quantity of iron ore mined in Georgia
declined from 1890 to 1900; it was 200,842 long tons in 1905 and
321,060 long tons in 1908, when 319,812 tons were brown haematite
and 1248 tons were red haematite. Before the discovery of gold
in California the Georgia " placers " were very profitable, the earliest
mining being in 1829 by placer miners from the fields of Burke
county, North Carolina, who began work in what is now White
county, and went thence to Habersham and Lumpkin counties.
Dahlonega and Auraria, the latter named by John C. Calhoun, who
owned a mine there, were the centres of this early gold mining.
Work was summarily stopped by Federal troops enforcing the
governor's proclamation in 1831, because of the disorder in the
mining region; but it was soon renewed and a mint was established
at Dahlonega in 1838. After the discovery of gold in California,
mining in Georgia was not renewed on anything but the smallest
scale until the early 'eighties. In 1908 the gold product was valued
at $56,207 (it was $96,910 in 1905) and the silver product at
$106. Up to 1909 the gold product of Georgia (see State Geol.
Survey Bulletin iy) was about $17,500,000. Extensive clay deposits
occur in all parts of the state, and are remarkable for their com-
parative freedom from impurities and for their high fusion point;
the most valuable are sedimentary, and form a belt several miles
wide across the middle of the state from Augusta to Columbus.
In 1908 the clay products of the state were valued at $1,928,611.
More asbestos has been found in Georgia than in any other state of
the Union ; it occurs in the amphibole form throughout the N. part
of the state, and most of the country's domestic supply comes from
the Sail Mountain mine in White county. Manganese ores, found
in Bartow, Polk and Floyd counties, were formerly important;
in 1896 4096 long tons were mined, in 1905 only 150 tons, and in
1908 none.. Bauxite was found in Georgia first of the United States,
near Rome, in 1887; the output, principally from Floyd, Bartow
and Polk counties, was the entire product of the United States until
1891, and in 1902 was more than half the country's product, but in
1908, even when combined with the Alabama output, was less than
the amount mined in Arkansas. Coal is not extensively found, but
the mine on Sand Mountain, in Walker county, was one of the first
opened S. of the Ohio river; in 1908 the value of the coal mined in the
state was $364,279 (264,822 short tons), the value of coke at the ovens
was $137,524 (39,422 short tons), and the value of ammonium sul-
phate, coal tar, illuminating gas and gas coke was more than $800,000.
Copper was mined in Fannin and Cherokee counties before the Civil
War. In 1906 the copper mined was valued at $5057. Corundum
was discovered on Laurel Creek in Rabun county in 1871, and was
worked there and at Trackrock, Union county, especially between
1880 and 1893, but in later years low prices closed most of the mines.
The limestone formations furnished most of the lime for domestic
use. Sandstone, ochre, slate, soapstone, graphite are also mined,
and lead, zinc, barytes, gypsum and even diamonds have been
discovered but not exploited.
Agriculture . The principal occupation in Georgia is agricul-
ture, which in 1900 engaged seven-tenths of the land surface of the
state and the labour of three-fifths of the population, ten years
old and over, who are employed in profitable occupations. The
products are so diversified that, with the exception of some
tropical fruits of California and Florida, almost everything
cultivated in the United States can be produced. The chief
staple is cotton, of which a valuable hybrid called the Floradora,
a cross of long and short staple, has been singularly successful.
Cotton is raised in all counties of the state except Rabun, Towns
and Fannin in the extreme north, and about one-third of the
total cultivated land of the state was devoted to it in 1900-1907.
In 1890-1904 the crop exceeded that of the other cotton-produc-
ing states except Texas, and in 1899, 1900 and 1903 Mississippi,
averaging 1,467,121 commercial bales per annum; the crop
in 1904 was 1,991,719 bales, and in 1907-1908 the crop was
1,815,834 bales, second only to the crop of Texas. The cause of
this extensive cultivation of cotton is not a high average yield
per acre, but the fact that before 1860 " Cotton was King,"
and that the market value of the staple when the Civil War
closed was so high that farmers began to cultivate it to the ex-
clusion of the cereals, whose production, Indian corn excepted,
showed a decline during each decade from 1879 to 1899. But
in the 'nineties the price of the cotton fell below the cost of pro-
duction, owing to the enormous supply, and this was accompanied
by economic depression. These conditions have caused some
diversification of crops, and successful experiments in cattle-
raising, movements encouraged by the Department of Agriculture
and the leading newspapers.
The principal cereals cultivated are Indian corn (product,
53,750,000 bushels in 1908) and wheat; the cultivation of the
latter, formerly remunerative, declined on account of the com-
petition of the Western States, but revived after 1899, largely
owing to the efforts of the Georgia Wheat Growers' Association
(organized in 1897), and in 1908 the yield was 2,208,000 bushels.
The sugar-cane crop declined in value after 1890, and each
year more of it was made into syrup. In 1908 the tobacco crop
was 2,705,625 Ib, and the average farm price was 35 cents,
being nearly as high as that of the Florida crop; Sumatra leaf
for wrappers is grown successfully. The acreage and product of
tobacco and peanuts increased from 1890 to 1900 respectively
188% and 319-2%, and 92-6% and 129-9%, and in the pro-
duction of sweet potatoes Georgia was in 1899 surpassed only
by North Carolina. Alfalfa and grasses grow well. Truck
farming and the cultivation of orchard and small fruits have
long been remunerative occupations; the acreage devoted to
peaches doubled between 1890 and 1900. Pecan nuts are an
increasingly important crop.
' Agriculture in Georgia was in a state of transition at the beginning
of the 2Oth century. Owing to the abundance of land and to negro
slavery, exploitative methods of cultivation were employed before
the Civil War, and such methods, by which lands after being worked
to exhaustion are deserted for new fields, had not yet been altogether
abandoned. One reason for this was that, according to the census
of 1900, 36-9% of the farms were operated by negroes, of whom
86% were tenants who desired to secure the greatest possible product
without regard to the care of the soil. Consequently there were
large tracts of untilled " waste " land; but these rapidly responded
to fertilization and rotation of crops, often yielding 800 to 1200 ft>
of cotton per acre, and Georgia in 1899 used more fertilizers than any
other state in the Union. Another feature of agriculture in Georgia
was the great increase in the number of farms, the average size of
plantations having declined from 440 acres in 1860 to 117-5 i" 1900,
or almost 75%, while the area in cultivation increased only 15-6%
between 1850 and 1900. The tenantry system was also undergoing a
change the share system which developed in the years succeeding
the Civil War being replaced by a system of cash rental.
Manufactures. Although excelled by Alabama in the
R T H c
ioiikliii A
GEORGIA
Scale, I: ..'.400,000
O 10 30 W 40 tt> 60
Httittintf.'i
County $rats
Comity 8'Htiitiiii it-
de Wc*l 83 ufCrccnui
I!inf v V^rkcr K.
GEORGIA
753
manufacture of mineral products, and by North Carolina and
South Carolina in the number and output of cotton mills, in 1000
and in 1905 Georgia surpassed each of those stales in the total
value of factory products, which was, however, less than the value
of the factory products of Louisiana and Virginia among the
southern states. The chief features of this industrial activity
are its early beginning and steady, constant development. As
far back as 1850 there were 1522 manufacturing establishments
(35 of which were cotton mills) in the state, whose total product
was valued at $7,082,075. Despite the Civil War, there was
some advance during each succeeding decade, the most prosperous
relatively being that from 1880 to 1890. In 1000 the number of
establishments was 7504, an increase of 75-1 % over the number
in 1800; the capital invested was $89,780,656, an increase of
57-7%, and the value of products ($106,654,527) was 54-8%
more than in 1890. CM the 7504 establishments in 1000, 3015
were conducted under .the " factory system," and had a capital
of $79,303,316 and products valued at $04,532,368. In 1905
there were 3219 factories, with a capital of $135,211,551 (an
increase of 70-5% over 1900), and a gross product valued at
$151,040,455 (59-8% greater than the value of the factory
product in 1000).
The most important manufacturing industries are those that
depend upon cotton for raw material, with a gross product in 1900
valued at $26.521,757. In that year l there were 67 mills engaged
in the manufacture of cotton goods, with a capital of $24,158,159,
and they yielded a grow product valued at $18,457,645; the increase
between 1900 and 1905 was actually much larger (and proportion-
ately very much larger) than between 1800 and 1900; the number
of factories in 1005 was 103 (an increase of 53-7% over 1900);
their capital was $42.349,618 (75-3 % more than in 1900); and their
(TOM product was valued at $35,174,248 (an increase of 90-6% since
1900). The rank of Georgia among the cotton manufacturing
Mates was seventh in 1900 and fourth in 1905. Cotton-seed oil ana
cake factories increased in number from 17 to 43 from 1890 to 1900,
and to 112 in 1905. and the value of their product increased from
$1.670,196 to$8,o64,H2,or382-8%in 1890-1900, and to $13,539,899
in 1905. or an increase of 67-9% over 1900, and in 1900 and in 1905
the Mate ranked second (to Texas) in this industry in the United
States. This growth in cotton manufactures is due to various
causes, among them being the proximity of raw material, convenient
water-power, municipal exemption from taxation and the cheapness
of labour. The relation between employer and employee is in the
main far more personal and kindly than in the mills of the Northern
States.
The forests of Georgia, next to the fields, furnish the largest
amount of raw material for manufactures. The yellow pines of the
southern pan of the state, which have a stand of approximately
13,778.000 ft., yielded in 1900 rosin and turpentine valued at
$8,1 10.468 (more than the product of any other state in the Union)
and in 1905 valued at $7,705,643 (second only to the product of
Florida). Prom the same source was derived most of the lumber
product valued * in 1900 at $13,341,160 (more than double what it
was in 1890) and in 1905 at $16,716,594. The other important
woods are cypress, oak and poplar.
Fourth in value in 1905 (first, cotton goods; second, lumber and
timber; third, cotton-seed oil and cake) were fertilizers, the value of
which increased from $3,367,353 in 1000 to $9,461 ,415 in 1905, when
the state ranked first of the United States in this industry; in 1000
it had ranked sixth.
Communications. Means of transportation for these products
are furnished by the rivers, which are generally navigable as far
north as the " tall line " passing through Augusta, Milledgevillc,
Macon and Columbus; by ocean steamsnip lines which have piers
at St Mary's, Brunswick, Darien and Savannah; and by railways
whose mileage in January 1909 was 6,87 1 -8 m. T K c most important
of the railways are the Central oi Georgia, the Southern, the Atlantic
Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Georgia and the Georgia
Southern & Florida. In 1878 a state railway commission was estab-
lished which has mandatory power for the settlement of all traffic
problems and makes annual reports.
Population. The population of Georgia in 1880 was 1,542,180;
in 1890 i, 837,353, an increase of 19-1% ; in 1900 2,216,331, a fur-
1 The manufacturing statistics for 1900 which follow are not
thoae given in the Twelfth Census, but are taken from the Census
at Manufactures, 1905, the 1900 figures here given being only for
establishments on a factory basis," and thus being comparable
with those of 1905. In 1890 there were 53 mills with a capital of
$17.664,675 and a product valued at $12,035,629.
* In these valuations for looo and for 1905 the rough lumber
drmtd or reman uf act ured in planing mills enters twice into the value
of the product.
therincreaseof 20'6% 3 ,in 1910,2,609,1 21. Of the 1900 population,
53'3% were whites and 46-7% were negroes,' the centre of the
black population being a little south of the " fall line." Here the
negroes increased, from 1890 to 1900, faster than the whites in
eighteen counties, but in northern Georgia, where the whites
are in the majority, the negro population declined in twelve
counties. Also the percentage of negro illiteracy is higher
in northern Georgia than in other parts of the state, the per-
centage of negro male illiterates of voting age being 38-3% in
Atlanta in 1900, and in Savannah only 30-7%. The population
of Georgia has a very slight foreign-born element (-6% in 1900)
and a small percentage (1-7% in 1900) of people of foreign
parentage. The urban population (i.e. the population in places
of 2500 inhabitants and over) was 15-6% of the total in 1900,
and the number of incorporated cities, towns and villages was
372. Of these only forty had a population exceeding 2000, and
thirteen exceeding 5000. The largest city i-n 1900 was Atlanta,
the capital since 1868 (Louisville, Jefferson county, was the
capital in 1795-1804, and Milledgeville in 1804-1868), with
89,872 inhabitants. Savannah ranked second with 54,244,
and Augusta third with 39,441. In 1900 the other cities in the
state with a population of more than 5000 were: Macon (23,272),
Columbus (17,614), Athens (10,245), Brunswick (9081), Americus
(7674), Rome (7291), Griffin (6857), Waycross (5919), Valdosta
(5613), and Thomasville (5322).
The total membership of the churches in 1906 was about
1,029,037, of whom 596,319 were Baptists, 349,079 were Metho-
dists, 24,040 were Presbyterians, 19,273 were Roman Catho-
lics, 12,703 were Disciples of Christ, 9790 were Protestant
Episcopalians, and 5581 were Congregationalists.
Government. The present constitution, which was adopted
in 1877,' provides for a system of government similar in general
to that of the other states (see UNITED STATES). The executive
officials are elected for a term of two years, and the judges of
the Supreme Court and of the court of appeals for six years,
while those of the superior court and of the ordinaries and the
justices of the peace are chosen every four years. Before 1909
all male citizens of the United States at least twenty-one years
of age (except those mentioned below), who had lived in the state
for one year immediately preceding an election and in the county
six months, and had paid their taxes, were entitled to vote.
From the suffrage and the holding of office are excluded idiots
and insane persons and all those who have been convicted of
treason, embezzlement, malfeasance in office, bribery or larceny,
or any crime involving moral turpitude and punishable under
the laws of the state by imprisonment in the penitentiary this
last disqualification, however, is removable by a pardon for
the offence. Before 1909 there was no constitutional discrimina-
tion aimed against the exercise of the suffrage by the negro,
but in fact the negro vote had in various ways been greatly
reduced. By a constitutional amendment adopted by a large
majority at a special election in October 1908, new requirements
for suffrage, designed primarily to exclude negroes, especially
illiterate negroes, were imposed (supplementary to the require-
ments mentioned above concerning age, residence and the
payment of taxes), the amendment coming into effect on the
ist of January 1909: in brief this amendment requires that
the voter shall have served in land or naval forces of the United
States or of the Confederate States or of the state of Georgia
in time of war, or be lawfully descended from some one who did
so serve; or that he be a person of good character who proves
to the satisfaction of the registrars of elections that he under-
stands the duties and obligations of a citizen; or that he read
correctly in English and (unless physically disabled) write any
paragraph of the Federal or state constitution; or that he own
40 acres of land or property valued at $500 and assessed for
1 The population of the state was 82,548 in 1790, 162,686 in 1800,
252,433 in 1810, 340,989 in 1820, 516,823 in 1830, 691,392 in 1840,
906,185 in 1850, 1,057,286 in 1860, and 1,184,100 in 1870.
'This negro percentage includes 211 Chinese, Japanese and
Indians.
* The state has had four other constitutions those of 1777, 1789,
1798 and 1868.
754
GEORGIA
taxation. After the ist of January 1915 no one may qualify
as a voter under the first or second of these clauses (the " grand-
father " and "understanding" clauses); but those who shall
have registered under their requirements before the ist of
January 1915 thus become voters for life.
The governor, who receives a salary of $5000, must be at least
thirty years old, must at the time of his election have been a
citizen of the United States for fifteen years and of the state for
six years, and " shall not be eligible to re-election after the
expiration of a second term, for the period of four years." In
case of his " death, removal or disability," the duties of his
office devolve in the first instance upon the president of the
Senate, and in the second upon the speaker of the House of
Representatives. The governor's power of veto extends to
separate items in appropriation bills, but in every case his veto
may be overriden by a two-thirds vote of the legislature. An
amendment to the constitution may be proposed by a two-
thirds vote of the legislature, and comes into effect on receiving
a majority of the popular vote. Members of the Senate must
be at least twenty-five years old, must be citizens of the United
States, and must, at the time of their election, have been citizens
of the state for four years, and of the senatorial district for one
year; representatives must be at least twenty-one years old,
and must, at the time of their election, have been citizens of the
state for two years. By law, in Georgia, lobbying is a felony.
Habitual intoxication, wilful desertion for three years, cruel
treatment, and conviction for an offence the commission of
which involved moral turpitude and for which the offender
has been sentenced to imprisonment for at least two years, are
recognized as causes for divorce. All petitions for divorce
must be approved by two successive juries, and a woman holds
in her own name all property acquired before and after marriage.
Marriage between the members of the white and negro races
is prohibited by law.
As the result of the general campaign against child labour, an
act was passed in 1906 providing that no child under 10 shall
be employed or allowed to labour in or about any factory, under
any circumstances; after the ist of January 1907 no child
under 12 shall be so employed, unless an orphan with no
other means of support, or unless a widowed mother or disabled
or aged father is dependent on the child's labour, in which case
a certificate to the facts, holding good for one year only, is
required; after the ist of January 1908 no child un'der 14
shall be employed in a factory between the hours of 7 P.M. and
6 A.M.; after the same date no child under 14 shall be employed
in any factory without a certificate of school attendance
for 12 weeks (of which 6 weeks must be consecutive) of
the preceding year; no child shall be employed without the
filing of an affidavit as to age. Making a false affidavit as to
age or as to other facts required by the act, and the violation
of the act by any agent or representative of a factory or by any
parent or guardian of a child are misdemeanours.
In 1907 a state law was passed prohibiting after the ist of
January 1908 the manufacture or sale of intoxicating liquors;
nine-tenths of the counties of the state, under local option laws,
were already " dry " at the passage of this bill. The law permits
druggists to keep for sale no other form of alcoholic drink than
pure alcohol; physicians prescribing alcohol must fill out a
blank, specifying the patient's ailment, and certifying that
alcohol is necessary; the prescription must be filled the day
it is dated, must be served directly to the physician or to the
patient, must not call for more than a pint, and may not be
refilled. 1
The state supports four benevolent institutions: a lunatic
asylum for the whites and a similar institution for the negroes,
both at Milledgeville, an institute for the deaf and dumb at
Cave Spring, and an academy for the blind at Macon: There are
1 Owing to the custom which holds in Georgia of choosing state
senators in rotation from each of the counties making up a senatorial
district, it happened in 1907 that few cities were represented directly
by senators chosen from municipalities. It is believed that this fact
contributed to the passage of the prohibition law.
also a number of private charitable institutions, the oldest being
the Bethesda orphan asylum, near Savannah, founded by George
Whitefield in 1739. The Methodist, Baptist, Roman Catholic
and Protestant Episcopal Churches, and the Hebrews of the state
also support homes for orphans. A penitentiary was established
in 1817 at Milledgeville. In 1866 the lease system was introduced,
by which the convicts were leased for a term of years to private
individuals. In 1897 this was supplanted by the contract
system, by which a prison commission accepted contracts for
convict labour, but the prisoners were cared for by state officials.
But the contract system for convicts and the peonage system
(under which immigrants were held in practical slavery while
they " worked out " advances made for passage-money, &c.)
were still sources of much injustice. State laws made liable
to prosecution for misdemeanour any contract labourer who,
having received advances, failed for any but good cause to
fulfil the contract; or any contract labourer who made a second
contract without giving notice to his second employer of a prior
and unfulfilled contract; or any employer of a labourer who had
not completed the term of a prior contract. In September 1908,
after an investigation which showed that many wardens had
been in the pay of convict lessees and that terrible cruelty had
been practised in convict camps, an extra session of the legislature
practically put an end to the convict lease or contract system;
the act then passed provided that after the 3131 of March 1909,
the date of expiration of leases in force, no convicts may be
leased for more than twelve months and none may be leased
at all unless there are enough convicts to supply all demands
for convict labour on roads made by counties, each county to
receive its pro rala share on a population basis, and to satisfy
all demands made by municipalities which thus secure labour
for $100 per annum (per man) paid into the state treasury,
and all demands made by the state prison farm and factory
established by this law.
Education. Georgia's system of public instruction was not
instituted until 1870, but as early as 1817 the legislature provided
a fund for the education in the private schools of the state of
children of indigent parents. The constitution of 1868 authorized
" a thorough system of general education, to be for ever free
to all children of the State," and in 1870 the first public school
law was enacted. Education, however, has never been made
compulsory. The constitution, as amended in 1905, provides
that elections on the question of local school taxes for counties
or for school districts may be called upon a petition signed by
one-fourth of the qualified voters of the county, or district, in
question; under this provision several counties and a large
number of school districts are supplementing the general fund.
But the principal source of the annual school revenue is a state
tax; the fund derived from this tax, however, is not large
enough. In 1908 the common school fund approximated
$3,786,830, of which amount the state paid $2,163,200 and
about $1,010,680 was raised by local taxation. In 1908 69%
of the school population (79% of whites; 58% of negroes)
were enrolled in the schools; in 1902 it was estimated that the
negroes, 52-3 % of whom (10 years of age and over) were illiterates
(i.e. could not write or could neither read nor write) in 1900
(Si -6% of them were illiterate in 1880), received the benefit
of only about a fifth of the school fund. Of the total population,
10 years of age and over, 30-5% were illiterates in 1900 49-9%
were illiterates in 1880 and as regards the whites of native
birth alone, Georgia ranked ninth in illiteracy, in 1900, among
the states and territories of the Union. Of the illiterates about
four-fifths were negroes in 1900. In addition to the public
schools, the state also supports the University of Georgia; and
in 1906 $235,000 was expended for the support of higher educa-
tion. In 1906-1907 eleven agricultural and mechanical arts
colleges were established, one in each congressional district of
the state. Of the colleges of the university, Franklin was the
first state college chartered in America (1785); the Medical
College of Georgia, at Augusta, was opened in 1829; the State
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts was established at
Athens in 1872; the North Georgia Agricultural College, at
GEORGIA
755
Dahlonega, was opened in 1873; the Georgia School of Tech-
nology, at Atlanta, in 1888; the Georgia Normal and Industrial
College (for women), in Milledgcville, in 1809; the Georgia
State Normal School, at Athens, in 1805; the Georgia State
Industrial College for Coloured Youth, near Savannah, in 1800;
the School of Pharmacy, at Athens, in 1003; and the School
of Forestry, and the Georgia State College of Agriculture, at
Athens, in 1006. Affiliated with the university, but not receiving
state funds, are three preparatory schools, the South Georgia
Military and Agricultural College at Thomasvillc, the Middle
Georgia Military and Agricultural College at Milledgeville,
and the West Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical College at
Hamilton. Among the institutions generally grouped as denomi-
national are Baptist: Mercer University, at Macon (Pcnfield,
1837; Macon, 1871), Shorter College (1877) at Rome, Spelman
Seminary (1881) in Atlanta for negro women and girls, and
Bessie Tift College, formerly Monroe College (1849) for women,
at Forsyth; Methodist Episcopal: Emory College (1836), at
Oxford, and Wesleyan Female College (1836) at Macon, both
largely endowed by George Ingraham Scney (1837-1893), and
the latter one of the earliest colleges for women in the country;
Methodist Episcopal Church, South: Young Harris College
(1855) at Young Harris, Andrew Female College (1854) at
Cuthbert, and Dalton Female College (1872) at Dalton; Presby-
terian: Agnes Scott College at Decatur; and African Methodist
Episcopal: Morris Brown College (1885) at Atlanta. A famous
school for negroes is the non-sectarian Atlanta University
(incorporated in 1867, opened in 1869), which has trained many
negroes for teaching and other professions. Non-sectarian
colleges for women are: Lucy Cobb Institute (1858) at Athens,
Cox College (1843) at College Park, near Atlanta, and Brenau
College Conservatory (1878) at Gainesville.
Finance. The assessed value of taxable property in 1910 was
about $735,000,000. A general property tax, which furnishes about
four-fifths of the public revenue, worked so inequitably that a
Board of Equalization was appointed in loot. By the Constitution
the tax rate is limited to $5 on the thousand, and, as the rate of
taxation has increased faster than the taxable property, the state
ha* been forced to contract several temporary loans since 1901,
none of which has exceeded $200,000, the limit for each year set by
the Constitution. On the 1st of January 1910 the bonded debt
was S6.944.ooo, mainly incurred by the extravagance of the Re-
construction administration (sec Hiitory, below). Each year
$100.000 of this debt is paid off, and there arc annual appropriations
for the payment of interest (about $303,260 in 1910). The state
owns the Western & Atlantic railway (i 37 m. long) from Chattanooga,
Tennessee, to Atlanta, which has valuable terminal facilities in both
cities, and which in 1910 was estimated to be worth $8,400,240
(more than the amount of the bonded debt); this railway the state
built in 1841-1850, and in 1890 leased for 29 years, at an annual
rental of $420,012, to the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis railway.
Banking in Georgia is in a prosperous condition. The largest
das* of depositors are the farmers, who more and more look to the
banks for credit, instead of to the merchants and cotton speculators.
Hence the number of banks in agricultural districts is increasing.
The state treasurer is the bank examiner, and to him all banks must
make a quarterlystatement and submit their books for examination
twice a year. The legal rate of interest is 7% but by contract
it may be 8 %.
History. Georgia derives its name from K-ng George II. of
Great Britain. It was the last to be established of the English
colonies in America. Its formation was due to a desire of the
British government to protect South Carolina from invasion
by the Spaniards from Florida and by the French from Louisiana,
as well as to the desire of James Edward Oglethorpe (q.v.) to
found a refuge for the persecuted Protestant sects and the
unfortunate but worthy indigent classes of Europe. A charter
was granted in 1732 to " the Trustees for establishing the colony
of Georgia in America," and parliament gave 10,000 to the
enterprise. The first settlement was made at Savannah in 1733
under the personal supervision of Oglethorpe. The early colonists
were German Lutherans (Salzburgers), Piedmontese, Scottish
Highlanders, Swiss, Portuguese Jews and Englishmen; but
the main tide of immigration, from Virginia and the Carolinas,
did not set in until 1752. As a bulwark against the Spanish,
the colony was successful, but as an economic experiment it
was a failure. The trustees desired that there should be grown
in the colony wine grapes, hemp, silk und medical plants (barilla,
kali, cubeb, caper, madder, &c.) for which England was dependent
upon foreign countries; they required the settlers to plant
mulberry trees, and forbade the salt of rum, the chief commercial
staple of the colonies. They also forbade the introduction of
negro slaves. Land was leased by military tenure, and until
'739 grants were made only in male tail and alienations were
forbidden. The industries planned for the colony did not thrive,
and as sufficient labour could not be obtained, the importation
of slaves was permitted under certain conditions in 1749. About
the same time the House of Commons directed the trustees
to remove the prohibition on the sale of rum. In 1753 the
charter of the trustees expired and Georgia became a royal
province.
Under the new regime the colony was so prosperous that
Sir James Wright (1716-1785), the last of the royal governors,
declared Georgia to be " the most flourishing colony on the
continent." The people were led to revolt against the mother
country through sympathy with the other colonies rather than
through any grievance of their own. The centre of revolutionary
ideas was St John's Parish, settled by New Englandcrs (chiefly
from Dorchester, Massachusetts). The Loyalist sentiment was
so strong that only five of the twelve parishes sent repre-
sentatives to the First Provincial Congress, which met on the
i8th of January 1775, and its delegates to the Continental
Congress therefore did not claim seats in that assembly. But
six months later all the parishes sent representatives to another
Provincial Congress which met on the 4th of July 1775. Soon
afterward the royal government collapsed and the administration
of the colony was assumed by a council of safety.
The war that followed was really a severe civil conflict, the
Loyalist and Revolutionary parties being almost equal in
numbers. In 1778 the British seized Savannah, which they
held until 1782, meanwhile reviving the British civil administra-
tion, and in 1779 they captured Augusta and Sunbury; but
after 1780 the Revolutionary forces were generally successful.
Civil affairs also fell into confusion. In 17773 state constitution
was adopted, but two factions soon appeared in the government,
led by the governor and the executive council respectively, and
harmony was not secured until 1781.
Georgia's policy in the formation of the United States govern-
ment was strongly national. In the constitutional convention
of 1787 its delegates almost invariably gave their support to
measures designed to strengthen the central government.
Georgia was the fourth state to ratify (January 2, 1788), and one
of the three that ratified unanimously, the Federal Constitution.
But a series of conflicts between the Federal government and the
state government caused a decline of this national sentiment
and the growth of States Rights theories.
First of these was the friction involved in the case, before the
Supreme Court of the United States, of Chisolm v. Georgia, by
which the plaintiff, one Alexander Chisolm, a citizen of South
Carolina, secured judgment in 1793 against the state of Georgia
(see 2 Dallas Reports 419). In protest, the Georgia House of
Representatives, holding that the United States Supreme Court
had no constitutional power to try suits against a sovereign state,
resolved that any Federal marshal who should attempt to execute
the court's decision would be " guilty of felony, and shall suffer
death, without benefit of clergy, by being hanged." No effort
was made to execute the decision, and in 1798 the Eleventh
Amendment to the Federal Constitution was adopted, taking
from Federal courts all jurisdiction over any suit brought
" against one of the United States by citizens of another state,
or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state."
The position of Congress and of the Supreme Court with
reference to Georgia's policy in the Yazoo Frauds also aroused
distrust of the Federal government. In 1795 the legislature
granted for $500,000 the territory extending from the Alabama
and Coosa rivers to the Mississippi river and between 35 and
31 N. lat. (almost all of the present state of Mississippi and more
than half of the present state of Alabama) to four land companies,
but in the following year a new legislature rescinded the contracts
756
GEORGIA
on the ground that they had been fraudulently and corruptly
made, as was probably the case, and the rescindment was em-
bodied in the Constitution of 1798. In the meantime the United
States Senate had appointed a committee to inquire in to Georgia's
claim to the land in question, and as this committee pronounced
that claim invalid, Congress in 1800 established a Territorial
government over the region. The legislature of Georgia remon-
strated but expressed a willingness to cede the land to the United
States, and in 1802 the cession was ratified, it being stipulated
among other things that the United States should pay to the
state $1,250,000, and should extinguish " at their own expense,
for the use of Georgia, as soon as the same can be peaceably
obtained on reasonable terms," the Indian title to all lands
within the state of Georgia. Eight years later the Supreme
Court of the United States decided in the case of Fletcher v. Peck
(6 Cranch 87) that such a rescindment as that in the new state
constitution was illegal, on the ground that a state cannot
pass a law impairing the obligation of contracts; and at an
expense of more than four millions of dollars the Federal govern-
ment ultimately extinguished all claims to the lands.
This decision greatly irritated the political leaders of Georgia,
and the question of extinguishing the Indian titles, on which
there had long been a disagreement, caused further and even more
serious friction between the Federal and state authorities. The
National government, until the administration of President
Jackson, regarded the Indian tribes as sovereign nations with
whom it alone had the power to treat, while Georgia held that the
tribes were dependent communities with no other right to the
soil than that of tenants at will. In 1785 Georgia made treaties
with the Creeks by which those Indians ceded to the state their
lands S. and W. of the Altamaha river and E. of the Oconee
river, but after a remonstrance of one of their half-breed chiefs
Congress decided that the cessions were invalid, and the National
government negotiated, in 1790, a new treaty which ceded only
the lands E. of the Oconee. The state appealed to the National
government to endeavour to secure further cessions, but none
had been made when, in 1802, the United States assumed its
obligation to extinguish all Indian titles within the state. Several
cessions were made between 1802 and 1824, but the state in
the latter year remonstrated in vigorous terms against the
dilatory manner in which the National government was discharg-
ing its obligation, and the effect of this was that in 1825 a treaty
was negotiated at Indian Springs by which nearly all the Lower
Creeks agreed to exchange their remaining lands in Georgia
for equal territory beyond the Mississippi. But President
J. Q. Adams, learning that this treaty was not approved by the
entire Creek nation, authorized a new one, signed at Washington
in 1826, by which the treaty of 1825 was abrogated and the
Creeks kept certain lands W. of the Chattahoochee. The Georgia
government, under the leadership of Governor George M. Troup
(1780-1856), had proceeded to execute the first treaty, and the
legislature declared the second treaty illegal and unconstitutional.
In reply to a communication of President 'Adams early in 1827
that the United States would take strong measures to enforce its
policy, Governor Troup declared that he felt it his duty to resist
to the utmost any military attack which the government of the
United States should think proper to make, and ordered the
military companies to prepare to resist " any hostile invasion
of the territory of this state." But the strain produced by these
conditions was relieved by information that new negotiations
had been begun for the cession of all Creek lands in Georgia.
These negotiations were completed late in the year.
There was similar conflict in the relation of the United States
and Georgia with the Cherokees. In 1785 the Cherokees of
Georgia placed themselves under the protection of the Federal
government, and in 1823 their chiefs, who were mostly half-breeds,
declared: " It is the fixed and unalterable determination of this
nation never again to cede one foot more of land," and that they
could not " recognize the sovereignty of any state within the
limits of their territory "; in 1827 they framed a constitution
and organized a representative government. President Monroe
and President J. Q. Adams treated the Cherokees with the
courtesy due to a sovereign nation, and held that the United States
had done all that was required to meet the obligation assumed
in 1802. The Georgia legislature, however, contended that the
United States had not acted in good faith, declared that all
land within the boundaries of the state belonged to Georgia,
and in 1828 extended the jurisdiction of Georgia law to the
Cherokee lands. Then President Jackson, holding that Georgia
was in the right on the Indian question, informed the Cherokees
that their only alternative to submission to Georgia was emigra-
tion. Thereupon the chiefs resorted to the United States
Supreme Court, which in 1832 declared that the Cherokees
formed a distinct community " in which the laws of Georgia
have no force," and annulled the decision of a Georgia court
that had extended its jurisdiction into the Cherokee country
(Worcester v. Georgia). But the governor of Georgia declared
that the decision was an attempt at usurpation which would
meet with determined resistance, and President Jackson refused
to enforce the decree. The President did, however, work for
the removal of the Indians, which was effected in 1838.
On account of these conflicts a majority of Georgians adopted
the principles of the Democratic-Republican party, and early
in the igth century the people were virtually unanimous in
their political ideas. Local partisanship centred in two factions:
one, led by George M. Troup, which represented the interests
of the aristocratic and slave-holding communities; the other,
formed by John Clarke (1766-1832) and his brother Elijah,
found support among the non-slave-holders and the frontiersmen.
The cleavage of these factions was at first purely personal;
but by 1832 it had become one of principle. Then the Troup
faction under the name of States Rights party, endorsed the
nullification policy of South Carolina, while the Clarke faction,
calling itself a Union party, opposed South Carolina's conduct,
but on the grounds of expediency rather than of principle.
On account, however, of its opposition to President Jackson's
attitude toward nullification, the States Rights party affiliated
with the new Whig party, which represented the national
feeling in the South, while the Union party was merged into
the Democratic party, which emphasized the sovereignty of
the states.
The activity of Georgia in the slavery controversy was import-
ant. As early as 1835 the legislature adopted a resolution
which asserted the legality of slavery in the Territories, a principle
adopted by Congress in the Kansas Bill in 1854, and in 1847
ex-Governor Wilson Lumpkin (1783-1870) advocated the
organization of the Southern states to resist the aggression of
the North. Popular opinion at first opposed the Compromise
of 1850, and some politicians demanded immediate secession from
the Union; and the legislature had approved the Alabama
Platform of 1848. But Congressmen Robert Toombs, Alexander
H. Stephens, Whigs, and Howell Cobb, a Democrat, upon their
return from Washington, contended that the Compromise was
a great victory for the South, and in a campaign on this issue
secured the election of such delegates to the state convention
(at Milledgeville) of 1850 that that body adopted on the icth
of December, by a vote of 237 to 19, a series of conciliatory
resolutions, since known as the "Georgia Platform," which
declared in substance: (i) that, although the state did not
wholly approve of the Compromise, it would " abide by it as a
permanent adjustment of this sectional controversy," to preserve
the Union, as the thirteen original colonies had found compromise
necessary for its formation; (2) that the state " will and ought
to resist, even (as a last resort) to the disruption of every tie
that binds her to the Union," any attempt to prohibit slavery
in the Territories or a refusal to admit a slave state. The adoption
of this platform was accompanied by a party reorganization,
those who approved it organizing the Constitutional Union party,
and those who disapproved, mostly Democrats, organizing the
Southern Rights party; the approval in other states of the
Georgia Platform in preference to the Alabama Platform (see
ALABAMA) caused a reaction in the South against secession.
The reaction was followed for a short interval by a return to
approximately the former party alignment, but in 1854 the rank
GEORGIA
757
and file of the Whigs joined the American or Know-Nothing party
while most of the Whig leaders went over to the Democrats.
The Know-Nothing party was nearly destroyed by its crushing
defeat in 1856 and in the next year the Democrats by a large
majority elected for governor Joseph Emerson Brown (1821-
1894), who by three successive re-elections was continued in
that office until the close of the Civil War. Although Governor
Brown represented the poorer class of white citizens he had
taken a course in law at Yale College, had practised law, and at
the time of his election was judge of a superior court; although
he had never held slaves he believed that the abolition of
slavery would soon result in the ruin of the South, and he was
a man of strong convictions. The Kansas question and the
attitude of the North toward the decision in the Dred Scott
case were arousing the South when he was inaugurated the first
'time, and in his inaugural address he clearly indicated that he
would favour secession in the event of any further encroachment
on the part of the North. In July 1859 Senator Alfred Iverson
(1708-1874) declared that in the event of the election of a Free-
Soil president in 1860 he would favour the establishment of an
independent confederacy; later in the same year Governor
Brown expressed himself to a similar effect and urged the improve-
ment of the military service. On the 7th of November following
the election of President Lincoln the governor, in a special
message to the legislature, recommended the calling of a con-
vention to decide the question of secession, and Alexander H.
Stephens was about the only prominent political leader who
contended that Lincoln's election was insufficient ground for
such action. On the i;th of November the legislature passed
an act directing the governor to order an election of delegates
on the 2nd of January 1861 and their meeting in a convention
on the i6th. On the igth this body passed an ordinance of
secession by a vote of 208 to 89. Already the first regiment of
Georgia Volunteers, under Colonel Alexander Lawton (1818-
1806) had seized Fort Pulaski at the mouth of the Savannah
river and now Governor Brown proceeded to Augusta and seized
the Federal arsenal there. Toward the close of the same year,
however, Federal warships blockaded Georgia's ports, and early
in 1862 Federal forces captured Tybee Island, Fort Pulaski,
St Mary's, Brunswick and St Simon Island. Georgia had
responded freely to the call for volunteers, but when the Con-
federate Congress had passed, in April 1862, the Conscript Law
which required all white men (except those legally exempted
from service) between the ages of 18 and 35 to enter
the Confederate service, Governor Brown, in a correspondence
with President Davis which was continued for several months,
offered serious objections, his leading contentions being that
the measure was unnecessary as to Georgia, unconstitutional,
subversive of the state's sovereignty, and therefore " at war
with the principles for the support of which Georgia entered
into this revolution."
In 1863 north-west Georgia was involved in the Chattanooga
campaign. In the following spring Georgia was invaded from
Tennessee by a Federal army under General William T. Sherman;
the resistance of General Joseph . Johnston and General J. B.
Hood proved ineffectual; and on the ist of September Atlanta
was taken. Then Sherman began his famous " march to the sea,"
from Atlanta to Savannah, which revealed the weakness of the
Confederacy. In the spring of 1865, General J. H. Wilson with
a body of cavalry entered the state from Alabama, seized
Columbus and West Point on the i6th of April, and on the loth
of May captured Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy,
at Irwinville in Irwin county.
In accord with President Andrew Johnson's plan for reorganiz-
ing the Southern States, a provisional governor, James Johnson,
was appointed on the i7th of June 1865, and a state convention
reformed the constitution to meet the new conditions, rescinding
the ordinance of secession, abolishing slavery and formally
repudiating the state debt incurred in the prosecution of the war.
A governor and legislature were elected in November 1865, the
legislature ratified the Thirteenth Amendment on the oth of
December and five days later the governor-elect was inaugurated.
But both the convention and legislature incurred the suspicion
and ill-will of Congress; the convention had congratulated the
president on his policy, memorialized him on behalf of Jefferson
Davis, and provided pensions for disabled Confederate soldiers
and the widows of those who had lost their lives during the war,
while the legislature passed apprenticeship, labour and vagrancy
laws to protect and regulate the negroes, and rejected the
Fourteenth Amendment. Although the civil rights were con-
ferred upon the freedmen, Congress would not tolerate the
political incapacity and social inferiority which the legislature
had assigned to them, and therefore Georgia was placed under
military government, as part of the third military district, by the
Reconstruction Act of the 2nd of March 1867. Under the auspices
of the military authorities registration of electors for a new state
convention was begun and 95,168 negroes and 96,333 whites
were registered. The acceptance of the proposition to call the
convention and the election of many conscientious and intelligent
delegates were largely due to the influence of ex-Governor
Brown, who was strongly convinced that the wisest course for
the South was to accept quickly what Congress had offered.
The convention met in Atlanta on the pth of December 1867
and by March 1868 had revised the constitution to meet the
requirements of the Reconstruction Acts. The constitution
was duly adopted by popular vote, and elections were held for
the choice of a governor and legislature. Rufus Brown Bullock
(b. 1834), Republican, was chosen governor, the Senate had a
majority of Republicans, but in the House of Representatives
a tie vote was cast for the election of a speaker. On the 2ist of
July the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified, and a section of
the state constitution (which denied the power of state courts
to entertain against any resident of the state suits founded on
contracts existing on the isth of June 1865) was repealed by the
legislature in pursuance of the congressional " Omnibus Bill "
of the 2$th of June 1868, and as evidence of the restoration of
Georgia to the Union the congressmen were seated on the 25th
of July in that year.
But in September of the same year the Democrats in the
state legislature, being assisted by some of the white
Republicans, expelled the 27 negro members and seated their
defeated white contestants, relying upon the legal theory that
the right to hold office belonged only to those citizens designated
by statute, the common law or custom. In retaliation the 4ist
Congress excluded the state's representatives on a technicality,
and, on the theory t,hat the government of Georgia was a pro-
visional organization, passed an act requiring the ratification of
the Fifteenth Amendment before the admission of Georgia's
senators and representatives. The war department now con-
cluded that the state was still subject to military authority, and
placed General A. H. Terry in command. With his aid, and that
of Congressional requirements that all members of the legislature
must take the Test Oath and none be excluded on account of
colour, a Republican majority was secured for both houses,
and the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified. Georgia was now
finally admitted to the Union by Act of Congress, on the isth of
July 1870.
The Reconstruction period in Georgia is remarkable for its
comparative moderation. Although there was great political
excitement, there was not as much extravagance in public
administration as there was in other Southern States, .the
state debt increasing approximately from $6,600,000 to
$16,000,000. The explanation lies in the fact that there were
comparatively few " carpet-baggers " or adventurers in the
state, and that a large number of conservative citizens, under the
leadership of ex-Governor Brown, supported the Reconstruction
policy of Congress and joined the Republican party.
The election of 1871 gave the Democrats a majority in the
legislature; Governor Bullock, fearing impeachment, resigned,
and at a special election James M. Smith was chosen to fill the
uncxpired term. After that the control of the Democrats was
complete. In 1891 the Populist party was organized, but it
never succeeded in securing a majority of the votes in the
state.
758
GEORGIA
LIST OF GOVERNORS
1. Administration of the Trustees.
James Edward Oglethorpc ' . . 1732-1743
William Stephens 2 .... 1743-1751
Henry Parker 1 I75'-I753
Patrick Graham = .... 1753-1754
II. Royal Administration.
John Reynolds 1 754-1757
Henry Ellis 1757-1760
Sir James Wright .... 1760-1782
III. Provincial Administration.
William Ewen 3 .... 1775
Archibald Bulloch 4 .... 1776
Button Gwinnett 4 .... 1777
Jonathan Bryan '..-.. 1777
IV. Georgia as a State.
John A. Treutlen
John Houston
John Wereat 6
George Walton .
Richard Hawley
Stephen Heard 6
Myrick Davies 6
Nathan Brownson
John Martin
Lyman Hall
Samuel Elbert .
Edward Telfair .
George Matthews
George Handley
George Walton .
Edward Telfair .
George Matthews
ared Irwin
.ames Jackson .
David Emanuel .
osiah Tattnall .
ohn Milledge .
.ared Irwin
David B. Mitchell .
Peter Early
David B. Mitchell .
William Rabun '
Matthew Talbot ' .
John Clarke
George M. Troup
John Forsyth
George R. Gilmer
Wilson Lumpkin
William Schley .
George Gilmer .
Charles J. McDonald
George W. Crawford .
George W. B. Towns
Howell Cobb .
Herschell V. Johnson
Joseph E. Brown
James Johnson 8
Charles J. Jenkins
Thomas H. Ruger
Rufus B. Bullock
Benjamin Conley 7
James M. Smith
Alfred H. Colquitt .
Alexander H. Stephens
James S. Boynton 7 .
Henry D. McDaniel .
John B. Gordon
W. J. Northen .
W. Y. Atkinson .
A. D. Candler
Joseph M. Terrell
Hoke Smith
Joseph M. Brown
Hoke Smith
1777-1778
778-i779
1779
I/79-I780
. . 1780
. 1780-1781
1781
. 1781-1782
. 1782-1783
1783-1785
. 1785-1786
. 1786-1787
. 1787-1788
. 1788-1789
1789-1790 Democratic-Republican
1790-1793
1793-1796
1796-1798
1798-1801
1801
1801-1802
1802-1806
1806-1809
1809-1813
1813-1815
1815-1817
1817-1819
1819
1819-1823
1823-1827
1827-1829
1829-1831 National Republican
1831-1835 Democratic-Republican
1835-1837 Union
1837-1839 Democrat
1839-1843 Union
1843-1847 Whig
1847-1851 Democrat
1851-1853 Constitutional Union
1853-1856 Democrat
1857-1865
1865
1865-1868
1868
1868-1871 Republican
1871-1872
1872-1876 Democrat
1876-1882
1882-1883
1883
1883-1886
1886-1890
1890-1894
1894-1898
1898-1902
1902-1907
1907-1909
1909-1911
1911-
A brief bibliography, chiefly of historical materials, is given by
U. B. Phillips in his monograph " Georgia and State Rights," in
vol. ii. of the A nnual Report of the A merican Historical A ssociation
for IQOI (Washington, 1902). Valuable information concerning the
resources and products of the state is given in the publications of
1 De facto. ' President of the Colony.
'President of the Council of Safety. ' President of Georgia.
1 First Governor under a State Constitution.
1 President Executive Council and de facto Governor.
' President of Senate. ' Provisional.
the Department of Agriculture, which include weekly and monthly
Bulletins, biennial Reports and a volume entitled Georgia, Historical
and Industrial (Atlanta, 1901). The Reports of the United States
Census (especially the Twelfth Census for 1900 and the special census
of manufactures for 1905) should be consulted, and Memoirs of
Georgia (2 vols., Atlanta, Ga., 1895) contains chapters on industrial
conditions.
The principal sources for public administration are the annual
reports of the state officers, philanthropic institutions, the prison
commission and the railroad commission, and the revised Code of
Georgia (Atlanta, 1896), adopted in 1895; see also L. F. Schmecke-
bier's " Taxation in Georgia " (Johns Hopkins University Studies, vol.
xviii.) and " Banking in Georgia " (Banker's Magazine, vol. xlviii.).
Education and social conditions are treated in C. E. Jones's History
of Education in Georgia (Washington, 1890), the Annual Reports of
the School Commissioner, and various magazine articles, such as
" Georgia Cracker in the Cotton Mill " (Century Magazine, vol. xix.)
and "A Plea for Light " (South Atlantic Quarterly, vol. iii.). The
view of slavery given in Frances A. Kemble's Journal of a Residence
on a Georgia Plantation in 1838-1839 (New York, 1863) should be com-
pared with R. Q. Mallard's Plantation Life before Emancipation
(Richmond, Va., 1897), and with F. L. Olmsted's A Journey in the
Seaboard Slave States (New York, 1856).
The best book for the entire field of Georgia history is Lawton
B. Evans's A Student's History of Georgia (New York, 1898), a text-
book for schools. This should be supplemented by C. C. Jones's
Antiquities of the Southern Indians, particularly of the Georgia Tribes
(New York, 1873), for the aborigines; W. B. Stevens's History of
Georgia to 1798 (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1 847-1859) and C. C. Jones, jun. ,
History of Georgia (2 vols., Boston, 1883) for the Colonial and Revolu-
tionary periods; C. H. Haskins's The Yazoo Land Companies
(Washington, 1891); the excellent monograph (mentioned above)
by U. B. Phillips for politics prior to 1860; Miss Annie H. Abel's
monograph " The History of Events Resulting in Indian Consolida-
tion West of the Mississippi," in vol. i. of the Annual Report of the
American Historical Association for 1906 (Washington, 1908), for a
good account of the removal of the Indians from Georgia; the
judicious monograph by E. C. Woolley, Reconstruction in Georgia
(New York, 1901); and I. W. Avery's History of Georgia from 1850
to 1881 (New York, 1881), which is marred by prejudice but contains
material of value. The Confederate Records of the Stale of Georgia were
published at Atlanta in 1909. See also : E. J. Harden's Life of George
M. Troup (Savannah, 1840) ; R. M. Johnston and W. H. Browne, Life
of Alexander H. Stephens (Philadelphia, 1878), and Louis Pendleton,
Life of Alexander H. Stephens (Philadelphia, 1907) ; P. A. Stovall's
Robert Toombs (New York, 1892); H. Fielder's Life, Times and
Speeches of Joseph E. Brown (Springfield, Mass., 1883) and C. C.
Jones, jun., Biographical Sketches of Delegates from Georgia to the
Continental Congress (New York, 1891). There is much valuable
material, also, m the publications (beginning with 1840) of the
Georgia Historical Society (see the list in vol. ii. of the Report of the
American Historical Association for 1905).
GEORGIA, a former kingdom of Transcaucasia, which existed
historically for more than 2000 years. Its earliest name was
Karthli or Karthveli; the Persians knew it as Gurjistan, the
Romans and Greeks as Iberia, though the latter placed Colchis
also in the west of Georgia. Vrastan is the Armenian name and
Gruzia the Russian. Georgia proper, which included Karthli
and Kakhetia, was bounded on the N. by Ossetia and Daghestan,
on the S. by the principalities of Erivan and Kars, and on the
W. by Guria and Imeretia; but the kingdom also included at
different times Guria, Mingrelia, Abkhasia, Imeretia and Dag-
hestan, and extended from the Caucasus range on the N. to the
Aras or Araxes on the S. It is now divided between the Russian
governments of Tiflis and Kutais, under which headings further
geographical particulars are given. (See also CAUCASIA.)
History. According to traditional accounts, the Georgian
(Karthlian), Kakhetian, Lesghian, Mingrelian and other races of
Transcaucasia are the descenda nts of Thargamos, great-grandson
of Japheth, son of Noah, though Gen. x. 3 makes Togarmah to
be the son of Gomer, who was the son of Japheth. These various
races were subsequently known under the general name of
Thargamosides. Karthlos, the second son of Thargamos, is the
eponymous king of his race, their country being called Karthli
after him. Mtskhethos, son of Karthlos, founded the city of
Mtskhetha (the modern Mtskhet) and made it the capital of his
kingdom. We come, however, to firmer historic ground when
we read that Georgia was conquered by Alexander the Great,
or rather by one of his generals. The Macedonian yoke was
shaken off by Pharnavaz or Pharnabazus, a prince of the royal
race, who ruled from 302 to 237 B.C. All through its history
Georgia, being on the outskirts of Armenia and Persia, both of
GEORGIA
759
them more powerful neighbours than itself, was at times more
or lew closely affected by their destinies. In this way it was
sometimes opposed to Rome, sometimes on terms of friendship
with Byzantium, according as these were successively friendly
or hostile to the Armenians and the Persians. In the end of the
.ml century B.C. the last Pharnavazian prince was dethroned
by his own subjects and the crown given to Arsarcs, king of
Armenia, whose son Arshag, ascending the throne of Georgia
in oj B.C., established there the Arsacid dynasty. This close
association with Armenia brought upon the country an invasion
(65 B.C.) by the Roman general Pompey, who was then at war
with Mithradates, king of Pontus and Armenia; but Pompey
did not establish his power permanently over Iberia. A hundred
and eighty years later the Emperor Trajan penetrated (A.O. 114)
into the bean of the country, and chastised the Georgians; yet
his conquest was only a little more permanent than Pompey 's.
During one of the internecine quarrels, which were not infrequent
in Georgia, the throne fell to Mirhan or Mirian (265-342), a son
of the Persian king, who had married a daughter of Asphagor,
the last sovereign of the Arsacid dynasty.
With Mirian begins the Sassanian dynasty. He and his subjects
were converted to Christianity by a nun Nuno (Nino), who had
escaped from the religious persecutions of Tiridates, king of
Armenia. Mirian erected the first Christian church in Georgia on
the site now occupied by the cathedral of Mtskhet. In or about
the year 371 Georgia was overrun In 1 the Persian king Shapur
or Sapor II., and in 379 a Persian general built the stronghold
of Tphilis (afterwards Tiflis) as a counterpoise to Mtskhet. The
Persian grasp upon Georgia was loosened by Tiridates, who
reigned from 393 to 405. One of Mirian's successors, Yakhtang
(446-409), surnamed Gurgaslan or Gurgasal, the Wolf-Lion,
established a patriarchate at Mtskhet and made Tphilis his
capital. This sovereign, having conquered Mingrelia and
Abkhazia, and subdued the Ossetes, made himself master of a
large part of Armenia. Then, co-operating for once with the
king of Persia, he led an army into India; but towards the
end of his reign there was enmity between him and the Persians,
against whom he warred unsuccessfully. His son Dachi or
Darchil (499-514) upon ascending the throne transferred the
eat of government permanently from Mtskhet to Tphilis (Tiflis).
Again Persia stretched out her hand over Georgia, and proved a
formidable menace to the existence of the kingdom, until, owing
to the severe pressure of the Turks on the one side and of the
Byzantine Greeks on the other, she found it expedient to relax
her grasp. The Georgians, seizing the opportunity, appealed
(571) to the Byzantine emperor, Justin II. who gave them a king
in the person of Guaram, a prince of the Bagratid family of
Armenia, conferring upon him the title, not of king, but of viceroy.
Thus began the dynasty of the Bagratids, who ruled until 1803.
This was not, however, the first time that Byzantine influence
had been effectively exercised in Georgia. As early as the
reign of Mirian, in the 3rd century, the organizers of the early
Georgian church had looked to Byzantium, the leading Christian
power in the East, for both instruction and guidance, and the
connexion thus begun had been strengthened as time went on.
From this period until the Arab (i.e. Mahommcdan) invasions
began, the authority of Byzantium was supreme in Georgia.
Some seventy years after the Bagratids began to rule in Georgia
the all-conquering Arabsappeared on the frontiers of the country,
and for the next one hundred and eighty years they frequently
devastated the land, compelling its inhabitants again and again
to accept Islam at the sword's point. But it was not until the
death of the Georgian king Ashod (787-826) that they completely
subdued the Caucasian state and imposed their will upon it.
Nevertheless they were too much occupied elsewhere or too
indifferent to its welfare to defend it against alien aggressors,
for in 842 Bogha, a Turkish chief, invaded the country, and early
in the loth century the Persians again overran it. But a period
of relief from these hostile incursions was afforded by the reign
of Bagrat III. (980-1014). During his father's lifetime he had
been made king of Abkhasia, his mother belonging to the royal
house of that land, and after ascending the Georgian throne he
made his power felt far beyond the frontiers of his hereditary
dominions, until his kingdom extended from the Black Sea
to the Caspian, while Armenia, Azerbaijan and Kirman all
paid him tribute. Not only did he encourage learning and
patronize the fine arts, but he built, in 1003, the cathedral at
Kutais, one of the finest examples extant of Georgian architecture.
During the reign of Bagrat IV. (1027-1072) the Seljuk Turks
more than once burst, after 1048, into the country from Asia
Minor, but they were on the whole successfully repulsed, although
they plundered Tiflis. During the reign of the next king, George
II., they again devastated Tiflis. But once more fortune changed
after the accession of David II. (1080-1125), surnamed the
Renovator, one of the greatest of Georgian kings. With the help
of the Kipchaks, a Mongol or Turkish race, from the steppe
lands to the north of the Caucasus, whom he admitted into his
country, David drove the Seljuks out of his domains and forced
them back over the Armenian mountains. Under George III.
(1156-1184), a grandson of David II., Armenia was in part
conquered, and Ani, one of its capitals, taken. George's daughter
Thamar or Tamara, who succeeded him, reigned over the kingdom
as left by David II. and further extended her power over
Trebizond, Erzerum, Tovin (in Armenia) and Kars. These
successes were continued by her son George IV. (1212-1223),
who conquered Ganja (now Elisavetpol) and repulsed the attacks
of the Persians; but in the last years of his reign there appeared
( 1 2 20 and 1222) the people who were to prove the ruin of Georgia,
namely the Mongol hosts of Jenghiz Khan, led by his sons.
George IV. was succeeded by his sister Rusudan, whose capital
was twice captured by the Persians and her kingdom overrun
and fearfully devastated by the Mongols in 1236. Then, after a
period of wonderful recovery under George V. (1318-1346),
who conquered Imeretia and reunited it to his crown, Georgia
was again twice (1386 and 1393-1394) desolated by the Mongols
under Timur (Tamerlane), prince of Samarkand, who on the
second occasion laid waste the entire country with fire and
sword, and crushed it under his relentless heel until the year
1403. Alexander I. (1413-1442) freed his country from the last
of the Mongols, but at the end of his. reign divided his territory
between his three sons, whom he made sovereigns of Imeretia,
Kakhetia and Karthli (Georgia) respectively. The first men-
tioned remained a separate state until its annexation to Russia
in 1810; the other two were soon reunited.
Political relations between Russia and Georgia began in the
end of the same century, namely in 1492, when the king of
Kakhetia sought the protection of Ivan III. during a war between
the Turks and the Persians. In the i7th century the two
states were brought into still closer relationship. In 1619,
when Georgia was harried by Shah Abbas of Persia, Theimuraz
(1620-1634), king of Georgia, appealed for help to Michael,
the first of the Romanov tsars of Russia, and his example was
followed later in the century by the rulers of other petty Tharga-
mosid or Caucasian states, namely Imeretia and Guria. In
1638 the prince of Mingrclia took the oath of allegiance to the
Russian tsar, and in 1650 the same step was taken by the prince
of Imeretia. Yakhtang VI. of Georgia put himself under the
protection of Peter the Great early in the i8th century. When
Persia fell into the grip of the Afghans early in the i8th century
the Turks seized the opportunity, and, ousting the Persians from
Georgia, captured Tiflis and compelled Vakhtang to abdicate.
But in 1735 they renounced all claim to supremacy over the
Caucasian states. This left Persia with the predominating
influence, for though Peter the Great extorted from Persia
(1722) her prosperous provinces beside the Caspian, he left
the mountaineers to their own dynastic quarrels. Heraclius II.
of Georgia declared himself the vassal of Russia in 1783, and when,
twelve years later, he was hard pressed by Agha Mahommed,
shah of Persia, who seized Tiflis and laid it in ruins, he appealed
to Russia for help. The appeal was again renewed by the next
king of Georgia, George XIII., in 1798, and in the following
year he renounced his crown in favour of the tsar, and in 1801
Georgia was converted into a Russian province. The state of
Guria submitted to Russia in 1829. (J. T. BE.)
GEORGIA
Ethnology. Of the three main groups into which the Caucasian
races are now usually divided, the Georgian is in every respect
the most important and interesting. It has accordingly largely
occupied the attention of Orientalists almost incessantly from
the days of Klaproth. Yet such are the difficulties connected
with the origin and mutual relations of the Caucasian peoples
that its affinities are still far from being clearly established.
Anton von Schiefner and P. V. Uslar, however, arrived at some
negative conclusions valuable as starting-points for further
research. In their papers, published in the Memoirs of the St
Petersburg Imperial Academy of Sciences and elsewhere (1859
et seq.), they finally disposed of the views of Bopp and
Brosset (1836), who attempted on linguistic grounds to connect
the Georgians with the Indo-European family. They also clearly
show that Max Miiller's " Turanian " theory is untenable,
and they go a long way towards proving that the Georgian,
with all the other Caucasian languages except the Ossetian.
forms a distinct linguistic family absolutely independent of all
others. This had already been suspected by Klaproth, and
the same conclusion was arrived at by Fr. Miiller and Zagarelli.
Uslar's " Caucasian Family " comprises the following three
great divisions:
1. Western Group. Typical races: Circassians and Abkhasians.
2. Eastern Group. Typical races: Chechens and Lesghians.
3. Southern Group. Typical race : Georgians.
Here the term " family " must be taken in a far more elastic
sense than when applied, for instance, to the Indo-European,
Semitic or Eastern Polynesian divisions of mankind. Indeed
the three groups present at least as wide divergences as are found
to exist between the Semitic and Hamitic linguistic families.
Thus, while the Abkhasian of group i is still at the agglutinating,
the Lesghian of group 2 has fairly reached the inflecting stage,
and the Georgian seems still to waver between the two. In
consequence of these different stages of development, Uslar
hesitated finally to fix the position of Georgian in the family,
regarding it as possibly a connecting link between groups i and
2, but possibly also radically distinct from both.
Including all its numerous ramifications, the Georgian or
southern group occupies the greater part of Transcaucasia,
reaching from about the neighbourhood of Batum on the Black
Sea eastwards to the Caspian, and merging southwards with the
Armenians of Aryan stock. It comprises altogether nine sub-
divisions, as in the subjoined table:
1. The GEORGIANS PROPER, who are the Iberians of the ancients
and the Grusians of the Russians, but who call themselves Karthlians,
and who in medieval times were masters of the Rion and Upper
Kura as far as its confluence with the Alazan.
2. The IMERETIANS, west of the Suram mountains as far as the
river Tskheniz-Tskhali.
3. The GURIANS, between the Rion and Lazistan.
4. The L.AZIS of Lazistan on the Black Sea.
5. The SVANETIANS, SHVANS or SWANIANS, on the Upper Ingur
and Tskheniz-Tskhali rivers.
6. The MINGRELIANS, between the rivers Tskheniz-Tskhali, Rion,
Ingur and the Black Sea.
8' The PSHAV! or F&S5U ' l about the "eadstreams of the
Alazan and Yora rivers.
The representative branch of the race has always been the
Karthlians. It is now pretty well established that the Georgians
are the descendants of the aborigines of the Pambak highlands,
and that they found their way to their present homes from the
south-east some four or five thousand years ago, possibly under
pressure from the great waves of Aryan migration flowing from
the Iranian tableland westwards to Asia Minor and Europe.
The Georgians proper are limited on the east by the Alazan, on
the north by the Caucasus, on the west by the Meskes hills,
separating them from the Imeretians, and on the south by the
Kura river and Kara-dagh and Pambak mountains. South-
wards, however, no hard and fast ethnical line can be drawn,
for even immediately south of Tiflis, Georgians, Armenians and
Tatars are found intermingled confusedly together.
The Georgian race, which represents the oldest elements of
civilization in the Caucasus, is distinguished by some excellent
mental qualities, and is especially noted for personal courage and
a passionate love of music. The people, however, are described
as fierce and cruel, and addicted to intemperance, though Max
von Thielmann (Journey in the Caucasus, &c., 1875) speaks of
them as " rather hard drinkers than drunkards." Physically
they are a fine athletic race of pure Caucasian type; hence
during the Moslem ascendancy Georgia supplied, next to Cir-
cassia, the largest number of female slaves for the Turkish
harems and of recruits for the Osmanli armies, more especially
for the select corps of the famous Mamelukes.
The social organization rested on a highly aristocratic basis,
and the lowest classes were separated by several grades of
vassalage from the highest. But since their incorporation
with the Russian empire, these relations have become greatly
modified, and a more sharply defined middle class of merchants,
traders and artisans has been developed. The power of life
and death, formerly claimed and freely exercised by the nobles
over their serfs, has also been expressly abolished. The Georgians
are altogether at present in a fairly well-to-do condition, and
under Russian, administration they have become industrious,
and have made considerable moral and material progress.
. Missionaries sent by Constantine the Great introduced Chris-
tianity about the beginning of the 4th century. Since that time
the people have, notwithstanding severe pressure from sur-
rounding Mahommedan communities, remained faithful to the
principles of Christianity, and are still amongst the most devoted
adherents of the Orthodox Greek Church. Indeed it was their
attachment to the national religion that caused them to call in
the aid of thf Christian Muscovites against the proselytizing
attempts of the Shiite Persians a step which ultimately brought
about their political extinction.
As already stated, the Karthli language is not only funda-
mentally distinct from the Indo-European linguistic family,
but cannot be shown to possess any clearly ascertained affinities
with either of the two northern Caucasian groups. It resembles
them chiefly in its phonetic system, so that according to Rosen
(Sprache der Lazen) all the languages of central and western
Caucasus might be adequately rendered by the Georgian alphabet.
Though certainly not so harsh as the Avar, Lesghian and other
Daghestan languages, it is very far from being euphonious, and
the frequent recurrence of such sounds as ts, ds, Ihz, kh, khh, gh
(Arab. ) q (Arab, ^jj), for all of which there are distinct
characters, renders its articulation rather more energetic and
rugged than is agreeable to ears accustomed to the softer tones
of the Iranian and western Indo-European tongues. It presents
great facilities for composition, the laws of which are very
regular. Its peculiar morphology, standing midway between
agglutination and true inflexion, is well illustrated by its simple
declension common to noun, adjective and pronoun, and its
more intricate verbal conjugation, with its personal endings,
seven tenses and incorporation of pronominal subject and
object, all showing decided progress towards the inflecting
structure of the Indo-European and Semitic tongues.
Georgian is written in a native alphabet obviously based on
the Armenian, and like it attributed to St Mesropius (Mesrop),
who flourished in the sth century. Of this alphabet there
are two forms, differing so greatly in outline and even in the
number of the letters that they might almost be regarded as two
distinct alphabetic systems. The first and oldest, used exclusively
in the Bible and liturgical works, is the square or monumental
Khutsuri, i.e. "sacerdotal," consisting of 38 letters, and approach-
ing the Armenian in appearance. The second is the Mkhedruli
kheli, i.e. " soldier's hand," used in ordinary writing, and
consisting of 40 letters, neatly shaped and full of curves, hence
at first sight not unlike the modern Burmese form of the Pali.
Of the Karthli language there are several varieties ;'and, besides
those comprised in the above table, mention should be made
of the Kakhetian current in the historic province of Kakhetia.
A distinction is sometimes drawn between the Karthlians proper
and the Kakhetians, but it rests on a purely political basis,
having originated with the parti tionin 1424 of the ancient Iberian
GEORGIAN BAY GERANDO
761
estates into the three new kingdoms of Karthlinia, Kakhetia
and Imeretia. On the other hand, both the Lax of Lazistan
and the Svanetian present such serious structural and verbal
differences from the common type that they seem to stand
rather in the relation of sister tongues than of dialects to the
Georgian proper. All derive obviously from a common source,
but have been developed independently of each other. The
Tush or Mosok appears to be fundamentally a Kistinian or
Chechen idiom affected by Georgian influences.
The Bible is said to have been translated into Georgian as
early as the 5th century. The extant version, however, dates
only from the Sth century, and is attributed to St Euthymius.
But even so, it is far the most ancient work known to exist in
the language. Next in importance is, perhaps, the curious
poem entitled The Amours of Turiel and N titan Darejan, or The
mam clothed in the panther's skin, attributed to Rustevcl, who
lived during the prosperous reign of Queen Thamar (nth
century). Other noteworthy compositions are the national epics
of the Baramiani and the Rostomiani, and the prose romances
of \'urjmitini and Darejaniani, the former by Sarg of Thmogvi,
the latter by Mosi of Khoni. Apart from these, the great bulk
of Georgian literature consists of ecclesiastical writings, hymns
sacred and profane, national codes and chronicles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The standard authority on the history is M. F.
Broaset's translation of the Georgian chronicles under the title of
Hiitoirt de la dorp* (5 vols., St Petersburg, 1849-1858); but com-
pare also Khakanov. Ilistvirt de Geortie (Paris, IQOO). See further
A. Letst. Das georgiscke V'olk (Dresden, 1903); M. de Villeneuve,
La Giorfit (Paris, 1870); O. Wardrop, The Kingdom of Georgia
(London, 1888); and Langlois, Numifmatiquc georgienne (Paris,
1860). For the philology see Zagarelli, Examen de la liUerature
retain* d la grammaire georgienne (1873); Friedrich Mailer, Grund-
riu der Sftrackwissemchaft (1887), iii. 2; Leist, Georgische Dichter
(1887); Erslcert. Sprackm des kautasiscken Slammes (1895). For
other points as to anthropology, Mirhel Smirnow's paper in Revue
fanthrofiologie (April 15. 1878) ; Chant re, Recherches anthropologiques
dans U Cancan (1885-1887); and Erclcert, Der Kaukasus und seine
VMur (1887).
GEORGIAN BAY. the N.E. section of Lake Huron, separated
from it by Manitoulin Island and the peninsula comprising
the counties of Grey and Bruce, Ontario. It is about 100 m.
long and 50 m. wide, and is said to contain 30,000 islands. It
receives numerous rivets draining a large extent of country; of
these the chief are the French river draining Lake Nipissing,
the Maganatawan draining a number of small lakes, the Muskoka
draining the Muskoka chain of lakes (Muskoka, Rosseau, Joseph,
&c.) and the Severn draining Lake Simcoe. Into its southern
extremity, known as Nottawasaga Bay, flows the river of the
same name. The Trent valley canal connects Georgian Bay
with the Bay of Quinte and Lake Ontario, and a canal system
has long been projected to Montreal by way of the French and
Ottawa rivers and Lake Nipissing.
GEORGSWALDE. a town of Bohemia, Austria, 115 m. N.E.
of Prague by rail. Pop. (IQOO) 8131, including Neu-Gcorgswalde,
Wiesenthal and Philippsdorf, which form together a single
commune. Georgswalde is one of the oldest industrial places
of Bohemia, and together with the neighbouring town of Rum-
burg is the principal centre of the linen industry. The village
of Philippsdorf, now incorporated with Georgswalde, has become
since 1866 a famous place of pilgrimage, owing to the miracles
attributed to an image of the Virgin, placed now in a magnificent
new church (1885).
GEPHYREA, the name used for several groups of worm-like
animals with certain resemblances but of doubtful affinity. In
the article " Annelida " in the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia,
W. C. Mclntosh followed the accepted view in associating
in this group the Echiuridae, Sipunculidae and Priapulidae.
E. Ray Lankester, in the preface to the English translation of
C. Gegenbaur's Comparative Anatomy (1878), added the Phoro-
nidae to these forms. Afterwards the same author (article
" Zoology," Ency. Brit., 9th ed.) recognized that the Phoronidae
had other affinities, and placed the other " gephyreans " in
association with the Polyzoa as the two classes of a phylum
Padaxonia. In the present state of knowledge the old group
Gephyrea is broken up into Echiuroidea (q.v.) or Gephyrea
armala, which are certainly Annelids; the Sipunculuidm (q.v.) or
Gephyrea achaeta, an independent group, certainly coelomate,
but of doubtful affinity; the Priapuloidea (q.v.), equally of
doubtful affinity; and the Phoronidta (q.v.), which are almost
certainly Hemichordata.
GER A. a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Reuss-
Schleiz (called also Rcuss younger line), situated in a valley
on the banks of the White Elstcr, 45 m. S.S.W. of Leipzig on
the railway to Probstzella. Pop. (1885) 34,iS; (1905) 47,435-
It has been mostly rebuilt since a great fire in 1780, and the streets
are in general wide and straight, and contain many handsome
houses. There are three Evangelical churches and one Roman
Catholic. Among other noteworthy buildings are the handsome
town-hall (1376, afterwards restored) and the theatre (1902). Its
educational establishments include a' gymnasium, a commercial
and a weaving school. The castle of Osterstein, the residence
of the princes of Reuss, dates from the gth century, but has been
almost entirely rebuilt in modern times. Gcra is noted for its
industrial activity. Its industries include wool-weaving and
spinning, dyeing, iron-founding, the manufacture of cotton and
silk goods, machinery, sewing machines and machine oil, leather
and tobacco, and printing (books and maps) and flower gardening.
Gera (in ancient chronicles Geraha) was raised to the rank of
a town in the nth century, at which time it belonged to the
counts of Groitch. In the izth century it came into the posses-
sion of the lords of Rcuss. It was stormed and sacked by the
Bohemians in 1450, was two-thirds burned down by the Swedes
in 1639 during the Thirty Years' War, and suffered afterwards
from great conflagrations in 1686 and 1780, being in the latter
year almost completely destroyed.
GERALDTON, a town in the district of Victoria, West Australia,
on Champion Bay, 306 m. by rail N.W. of Perth. Pop. (1901)
2593. It is the scat of a Roman Catholic bishop, an important
seaport carrying on a considerable trade with the surrounding
gold-fields and agricultural districts, the centre of a considerable
railway system and an increasingly popular seaside resort.
The harbour is safe and extensive, having a pier affording
accommodation for large steamers. The chief exports are gold,
copper, lead, wool and sandalwood.
GERANDO, MARIE JOSEPH DE (1772-1842), French
philosopher, was born at Lyons on the zgth of February 1772.
When the city was besieged in 1793 by the armies of the Republic,
de GSrando took up arms, was made prisoner and with difficulty
escaped with his life. He took refuge in Switzerland, whence he
afterwards fled to Naples. In 1796 the establishment of the
Directory allowed him to return to France. At the age of twenty-
five he enlisted as a private in a cavalry regiment. About this
time the Institute proposed as a subject for an essay this question,
" What is the influence of symbols on the faculty of thought ? "
De G6rando gained the prize, and heard of his success after the
battle of ZUrich, in which he had distinguished himself. This
literary triumph was the first step in his upward career. In
1799 he was attached to the ministry of the interior by Lucien
Bonaparte; in 1804 he became general secretary under Cham-
>agny; in 1805 he accompanied Napoleon into Italy; in 1808
lie was nominated master of requests; in 1811 he received the
title of councillor of state; and in the following year he was
appointed governor of Catalonia. On the overthrow of the
empire, de Grando was allowed to retain this office; but having
been sent during the hundred days into the department of the
Moselle to organize the defence of that district, he was punished
at the second Restoration by a few months of neglect. He
was soon after, however, readmitted into the council of state,
where he distinguished himself by the prudence and conciliatory
:endency of his views. In 1819 he opened at the law-school of
Paris a class of public and administrative law, which in 1822
was suppressed by government, but was reopened six years
atcr under the Martignac ministry. In 1837 he was made a
ron. He died at Paris on the 9th of November 1842.
De Gerando's best-known work is his Histoire comparee des
systlmes de philosophic reiativement aux principes des connais-
sances humaines (Paris, 1804, 3 vols.). The germ of this work
7 62
GERANIACEAE
had already appeared in the author's Memoire de la generation
des connaissances humaines (Berlin, 1802), which was crowned
by the Academy of Berlin. In it de Gerando, after a rapid
review of ancient and modern speculations on the origin of our
ideas, singles out the theory of primary ideas, which he endeavours
to combat under all its forms. The latter half of the work,
devoted to the analysis of the intellectual faculties, is intended
to show how all human knowledge is the result of experience;
and reflection is assumed as the source of our ideas of substance,
of unity and of identity. It is divided into two parts, the first
of which is purely historical, and devoted to an exposition of
various philosophical systems; in the second, which comprises
fourteen chapters of the entire work, the distinctive characters
and value of these systems are compared and discussed. In
spite of the disadvantage that it is impossible to separate
advantageously the history and critical examination of any
doctrine in the arbitraiy manner which de Gerando chose, the
work has great merits. In correctness of detail and comprehensive-
ness of view it was greatly superior to every work of the same kind
that had hitherto appeared in France. During the Empire and
the first years of the Restoration, de Gerando found time to
prepare a second edition (Paris, 1822, 4 vols.), which is enriched
with so many additions that it may pass for an entirely new
work. The last chapter of the part published during the author's
lifetime ends with the revival of letters and the philosophy
of the isth century. The second part, carrying the work down
to the close of the i8th century, was published posthumously
by his son in 4 vols. (Paris, 1847). Twenty-three chapters of this
were left complete by the author in manuscript; the remaining
three were supplied from other sources, chiefly printed but
unpublished memoirs.
His essay Du perfectionnement moral etde I' education de soi-meme
was crowned by the French Academy in 1825. The fundamental
idea of this work is that human life is in reality only a great
education, of which perfection is the aim.
Besides the works already mentioned, de Gerando left many
others, of which we may indicate the following: Considerations sur
diverses methodes d' observation des peuples sauvages (Paris, 1801);
Eloge de Dumarsais, discours qui a remporte le prix propose par la
seconde classe de I'Institut National (Paris, 1805) ; Le Visiteur
de pauvre (Paris, 1 820) ; Instituts du droit administratif (4 vols. ,
Pans, 1830) ; Cours normal des instituleurs primaires ou directions
relatives a Veducation physique, morale, et intellectuelle dans les ecoles
primaires (Paris, 1832); De Veducation des sourds-muets (2 vols.,
Paris, 1832) ; De la bienfaisance publique (4 vols., 1838). A detailed
analysis of the Histoire comparee des systemes will be found in the
Fragments philosophiques of M. Cousin. In connexion with his
psychological studies, it is interesting that in 1884 the French
Anthropological Society reproduced his instructions for the obser-
vation of primitive peoples, and modern students of the beginnings
of speech in children and the cases of deaf-mutes have found useful
matter in his works. See also J. P. Damiron, Essai sur la philosophic
en France au XIX' siecle.
GERANIACEAE, in botany, a small but very widely distributed
natural order of Dicotyledons belonging to the subclass Poly-
petalae, containing about 360 species in n genera. It is re-
presented in Britain by two genera, Geranium (crane's-bill) and
Erodium (stork 's-bill), to which belong nearly two-thirds of the
total number of species. The plants are mostly herbs, rarely
becoming shrubby, with generally simple glandular hairs on
the stem and leaves. The opposite or alternate leaves have a
pair of small stipules at the base of the stalk and a palminerved
blade. The flowers, which are generally arranged in a cymose
inflorescence, are hermaphrodite, hypogynous, and, except in
Pelargonium, regular. The parts are arranged in fives. There
are five free sepals, overlapping in the bud, and, alternating with
these, five free petals. In Pelargonium the flower is zygomorphic
with a spurred posterior sepal and the petals differing in size
or shape. In Geranium the stamens are obdiplostemonous, i.e.
an outer whorl of five opposite the petals alternates with an
inner whorl of five opposite the sepals; at the base of each of
the antisepalous stamens is a honey-gland. In Erodium the
members of the outer whorl are reduced to scale-like structures
(staminodes), and in Pelargonium from two to seven only are
fertile. There is no satisfactory explanation of this break in
the regular alternation of successive whorls; the outer whorl
of stamens arises in course of development before the inner, so
that there is no question of subsequent displacement. There
are five, or sometimes fewer, carpels, which unite to form an
ovary with as many chambers, in each of which are one or two,
rarely more, pendulous anatropous ovules, attached to the
central column in such a way that the micropyle points outwards
and the raphe is turned towards the placenta. The long beak-like
style divides at the top into a corresponding number of slender
stigmas.
The larger-flowered species of Geranium are markedly protan-
drous, the outer stamens, inner stamens and stigmas becoming
functional in succession. For instance, in meadow crane's-bill,
G. pratense, each whorl of stamens ripens in turn, becoming
erect and shedding their pollen; as the anthers wither the fila-
ments bend outwards, and when all the anthers have diverged
the stigmas become mature and ready for pollination. By this
Meadow Crane's-bill, Geranium pratense, \ nat. size. (After
Curtis, Flora Londinensis.)
1, Flower after removal of petals. 3, Floral diagram, the dots
2, Fruit after splitting. I and 2 opposite the inner stamens
about natural size. represent honey-glands.
arrangement self-pollination is prevented and cross-pollination
ensured by the visits of bees which come for the honey secreted
by the glands at the base of the inner stamens.
In species with smaller and less conspicuous flowers, such as
G. molle, the flowers of which are only j to 5 in. in diameter,
self-pollination is rendered possible, since the divisions of the
stigma begin to separate before the outer stamens have shed
all their pollen; the nearness of the stigmas to the dehiscing
anthers favours self-pollination.
In the ripe fruit the carpels separate into five one-seeded
portions (cocci), which break away from the central column,
either rolling elastically outwards and upwards or becoming
spirally twisted. In most species of Geranium the cocci split
open on the inside and the seeds are shot out by the elastic
uptwisting (fig. i); in Erodium and Pelargonium each coccus
remains closed, and the long twisted upper portion separates
from the central column, forming an awn, the distribution of
which is favoured by the presence of bristles or hairs. The
embryo generally fills the seed, and the cotyledons are rolled or
folded on each other.
GERANIUM
763
GrmtMW is the most widely distributed genus; it has 160
species and is spread over all temperate regions with a few
species in the tropics. Three British species G. tylvaiicum,
C. pretense and C. Robtrtianum (herb-Robert) reach the
arctic tone, while G. patagonitum and G. magtUaiticum arc
found in the antarctic. Erodium contains 50 species (three are
British), most of which are confined to the Mediterranean
region and west Asia, though others occur in America, in South
Africa and West Australia. Pelargonium, with 175 species, has
its centre in South Africa; the well-known garden and green-
house " geraniums " are species of Pelargonium (see GERANIUM).
GERANIUM, the name of a genus of plants, which is taken by
botanists as the type of the natural order Geraniaceae. The
name, as a scientific appellation, has a much more restricted
application than when taken in its popular sense. Formerly
the genus Geranium was almost conterminous with the order
Geraniaceae. Then as now the geranium was very popular
as a garden plant, and the species included in the original genus
became widely known under that name, which has more or less
dung to them ever since, in spite of scientific changes which
have removed the larger number of them to the genus Pelar-
gonium. This result has been probably brought about in some
degree by an error of the nurserymen, who seem in many cases
to have acted on the conclusion that the group commonly
known as Starlet Geraniums were really geraniums and not
pelargoniums, and were in consequence insetted under the
former name in their trade catalogues. In fact it may be said
that, from a popular point of view, the pelargoniums of the
botanist are still better known as geraniums than are the
geraniums themselves, but the term " zonal Pelargonium " is
gradually making its way amongst the masses.
The species of Geranium consist mostly of herbs, of annual or
perennial duration, dispersed throughout the temperate regions
of the world. They number about 160, and bear a considerable
family resemblance. The leaves are for the most part palmatcly-
lobed, and the flowers arc regular, consisting of five sepals, five
imbricating petals, alternating with five glandules at their base,
ten stamens and a beaked ovary. Eleven species are natives
of the British Isles and are popularly known as crane's-bill.
G. Roberlianum is herb-Robert, a common plant in hedgebanks.
G. sanguineum, with flowers a deep rose colour, is often grown
in borders, as are also the double-flowered varieties of G. pratense.
Many others of exotic origin form handsome border plants in
our gardens of hardy perennials; amongst these G. armtnum,
G. Entrust, G. ibericum and its variety plalypclaium are con-
spicuous.
From these regular-flowered herbs, with which they had
been mixed up by the earlier botanists, the French botanist
L'Heritier in 1787 separated those plants which have since
borne the name of Pelargonium, and which, though agreeing
with them in certain points of structure, differ in others which
are admitted to be of generic value. One obvious distinction of
Pelargonium is that the flowers are irregular, the two petals
which stand uppermost being different larger, smaller or
differently marked from the other three, which latter are
occasionally wanting. This difference of irregularity the modern
florist has done very much to annul, for the increased size given
to the flowers by high breeding has usually been accompanied
by the enlargement of the smaller petals, so that a very near
approach to regularity has been in some cases attained. Anot her
well-marked difference, however, remains in Pelargonium: the
back or dorsal sepal has a hollow spur, which spur is adnate, i.e.
joined for its whole length with the flower-stalk; while in
Geranium there is no spur. This peculiarity is best seen by
cutting clean through the flower-stalk just behind the flower,
when in Pelargonium there will be seen the hollow tube of the
spur, which in the case of Geranium will not be found, but the
stalk will appear as a solid mass. There are other characters
which support those already pointed out, such as the absence of
the glandules, and the declination of the stamens; but the
features already described offer the most ready and obvious
distinctions.
To recapitulate, the geraniums properly so-called are regular-
flowered herbs with the flower-stalks solid, while many geraniums
falsely so-called in popular language are really pelargoniums,
and may be distinguished by their irregular flowers and hollow
flower-stalks. In a great majority of cases too, the pelargoniums
so commonly met with in greenhouses and summer parterres
are of shrubby or sub-shrubby habit.
The various races of pelargoniums have sprung from the
intermixture of some of the species obtained from the Cape.
The older show-flowered varieties have been gradually acquired
through a long scries of years. The fancy varieties, as well as
the French spotted varieties and the market type, have been
evolved from them. The zonal or bedding race, on the other
hand, has been more recently perfected; they are supposed
to have arisen from hybrids between Pelargonium inquinans
and P. sonale. In all the sections the varieties are of a highly
ornamental character, but for general cultivation the market
type is preferable for indoor purposes, while the zonals arc
effective either in the greenhouse or flower garden. Some of the
Cape species are still in cultivation the leaves of many of them
being beautifully subdivided, almost fern-like in character,
and some of them are deliriously scented; P. quercifolium
is the oak-leaf geranium. The ivy-leaf geranium, derived
from P. pellatum, has given rise to an important class of both
double- and single-flowered forms ' adapted especially for pot
culture, hanging baskets, window boxes and the greenhouse.
Of late years the ivy-leaf " geraniums " have been crossed with
the " zonals," and a new race is being gradually evolved from
these two distinct groups.
The best soil for pelargoniums is a mellow fibrous loam with
good well-rotted stable manure or leaf-mould in about the pro-
portion of one-fifth; when used it should not be sifted, but
pulled to pieces by-the hand, and as much sand should be added
as will allow the water to pass freely through it. The large-
flowered and fancy kinds cannot bear so much water as most
soft-wooded plants, and the latter should have a rather lighter
soil.
All the pelargoniums are readily increased by cuttings made
from the snoots when the plants are headed down after flowering,
or in the spring, when they will root freely in a temperature of
65 to 70. They must not be kept too close, and must be very
moderately watered. When rooted they may be moved into
well-drained 3-in. pots, and when from 6 to 8 in. high, should
have the points pinched out in order to induce them to push
out several shoots nearer the base. These shoots are, when long
enough, to be trained in a horizontal direction; and when they
have made three joints they should have the points again pinched
out. These early-struck plants will be ready for shifting into
6-in. pots by the autumn, and should still be trained outwards.
The show varieties after flowering .should be set out of doors in
a sunny spot to ripen their wood, and should only get water
enough to keep them from flagging. In the course of two or
three weeks they will be ready to cut back within two joints
of where these were last stopped, when they should be placed
in a frame or pit, and kept close and dry until they have broken.
When they have pushed an inch or so, turn them out of their
pots, shake off the old soil, trim the straggling roots, and repot
them firmly in smaller pots if practicable; keep them near the
light, and as the shoots grow continue to train them outwardly.
They require to be kept in a light house, and to be set well up
to the glass; the night temperature should range about 45;
and air should be given on all mild days, but no cold currents
allowed, nor more water than is necessary to keep the soil from
getting parched. The young shoots should be topped about
the end of October, and when they have grown an inch or two
beyond this, they may be shifted into 7-in. pots for flowering.
The shoots must be kept tied out so as to be fully exposed to
the light. If required to flower early they should not be stopped
again; if not until June they may be stopped in February.
The zonal varieties, which arc almost continuous bloomers,
are of much value as decorative subjects; they seldom require
much pruning after the first stopping. For winter flowering,
7 6 4
GERARD GERARD, F.
young plants should be raised from cuttings about March, and
grown on during the summer, but should not be allowed to
flower. When blossoms are required, they should be placed
close up to the glass in a light house with a temperature of 65,
only just as much water being given as will keep them growing.
For bedding purposes the zonal varieties are best struck towards
the middle of August in the open air, taken up and potted or
planted in boxes as soon as struck, and preserved in frames or in
the greenhouse during winter.
The fancy varieties root best early in spring from the half-
ripened shoots; they are slower growers, and rather more
delicate in constitution than the zonal varieties, and very im-
patient of excess of water at the root.
GERARD (d. 1108), archbishop of York under Henry I., began
his career as a chancery clerk in the service of William Rufus.
He was one of the two royal envoys who, in 1095, persuaded
Urban II. to send a legate and Anselm's pallium to England.
Although the legate disappointed the king's expectations,
Gerard was rewarded for his services with the see of Hereford
(1006). On the death of Rufus he at once declared for Henry I.,
by whom he was nominated to the see of York. He made diffi-
culties when required to give Anselm the usual profession of
obedience; and it was perhaps to assert the importance of his
see that he took the king's gide on the question of investitures.
He pleaded Henry's cause at Rome with great ability, and claimed
that he had obtained a promise, on the pope's part, to condone
the existing practice of lay investiture. But this statement
was contradicted by Paschal, and Gerard incurred the suspicion
of perjury. About 1103 he wrote or inspired a series of tracts
which defended the king's prerogative and attacked the oecumeni-
cal pretensions of the papacy with great freedom of language.
He changed sides in 1105, becoming a stanch friend and sup-
porter of Anselm. Gerard was a man of considerable learning
and ability; but the chroniclers accuse him of being lax in his
morals, an astrologer and a worshipper of the devil.
See the Tractatus Eboracenses edited by H. Bochmer in Libelli de
lite Sacerdotii et Imperil, vol. iii. (in the Monumenta hist. Germaniae,
quarto series), and the same author's Kirche und Stoat in England
und in der Normandie (Leipzig, 1899). (H. W. C. D.)
GERARD (c. 1040-1120), variously surnamed TUM, TUNC,
TENQUE or THOM, founder of the order of the knights of St John
of Jerusalem (q.v.), was born at Amain about the year 1040.
According to other accounts Martigues in Provence was his
birthplace, while one authority even names the Chateau d'Avesnes
in Hainaut. Either as a soldier or a merchant, he found his way
to Jerusalem, where a hospice had for some time existed for the
convenience of those who wished to visit the holy places. Of
this institution Gerard became guardian or provost at a date not
later than noo; and here he organized that religious order of
St John which received papal recognition from Paschal II. in
1113, by a bull which was renewed and confirmed by Calixtus II.
shortly before the death of Gerard in 1120.
GERARD OF CREMONA (c. 1114-1187), the medieval trans-
lator of Ptolemy's Astronomy, was born at Cremona, Lombardy,
in or about 1114. Dissatisfied with the meagre philosophies
of his Italian teachers, he went to Toledo to study in Spanish
Moslem schools, then so famous as depositories and interpreters
of ancient wisdom; and, having thus acquired a knowledge of
the Arabic language, he appears to have devoted the remainder
of his life to the business of making Latin translations from its
literature. The date of his return to his native town is uncertain,
but he is known to have died there in 1187. His most celebrated
work is the Latin version by which alone Ptolemy's Almagest
was known to Europe until the discovery of the original Me7<xAij
Zfora&j. In addition to this, he translated various other
treatises, to the number, it is said, of sixty-six; among these
were the Tables of " Arzakhel," or Al Zarkala of Toledo, Al
Farabi On the Sciences (De scientiis), Euclid's Geometry, Al
Farghani's Elements of Astronomy, and treatises on algebra,
arithmetic and astrology. In the last-named latitudes are
reckoned from Cremona and Toledo. Some of the works, how-
ever, with which he has been credited (including the Theoria
or Theorica planelarum, and the versions of Avicenna's Canon
of Medicine the basis of the numerous subsequent Latin
editions of that well-known work and of the Almansorius of
Abu Bakr Razi) are probably due to a later Gerard, of the I3th
century, also called Cremonensis but more precisely de Sabloneta
(Sabbionetta). This writer undertook the task of interpreting
to the Latin world some of the best work of Arabic physicians,
and his translation of Avicenna is said to have been made by
order of the emperor Frederic II.
See Pipini, " Cronica," in Muratori, Script, rer. Hal. vol. be. ;
Nicol. Antonio, Bibiiotheca Hispana vetus, vol. ii. ; Tiraboschi,
Storia della lelteratura Italiana, vols. iii. (333) and iv. ; Arisi,
Cremona lilerata; Jourdain, Recherches sur . . . I'origine des
Inductions latines d'Aristote; Chasles, Aperfu hislorique des melhodes
en geometric, and in Comptes rendus de I'Academie des Sciences, vol.
xiii. p. 506; J. T. Reinaud, Geographic d'Aboulfeda, introduction,
vol. i. pp. ccxlvi.-ccxlviii. ; Boncompagni, Delia vita e delle opere di
Gherardo CremoneseediGherardoda Sabbionetta (Rome, 1851). Much
of the work of both the Gerards remains in manuscript, as in Paris,
National Library, MSS. Lat. 7400, 7421 ; MSS. Suppl.Lat.49;Rome,
Vatican library, 4083, and Ottobon, 1826; Oxford, Bodleian library,
Digby, 47, 61. The Vatican MS. 2392 is stated to contain a eulogy
of" Gerard of Cremona " and a list of " his " translations, apparently
confusing the two scholars. The former's most valuable work was
in astronomy ; the latter's in medicine. (C. R. B.)
GERARD, ETIENNE MAURICE, COUNT (i 773-1852), French
general, was born at Damvilliers (Meuse), on the 4th of April
1773. He joined a battalion of volunteers in 1791, and served
in the campaigns of 1792-1793 under Generals Dumouriez and
Jourdan. In 1795 he accompanied Bernadotte as aide-de-camp.
In 1799 he was promoted chef d'escadron, and in 1800 colonel.
He distinguished himself at the battles of Austerlitz and Jena,
and was made general of brigade in November 1806, and for his
conduct in the battle of Wagram he was created a baron. In
the Spanish campaign of 1810 and 1811 he gained special dis-
tinction at the battle of Fuentes d'Onor; and in the expedition
to Russia he was present at Smolensk and Valutina, and displayed
such bravery and ability in the battle of Borodino that he was
made general of division. He won further distinction in the
disastrous retreat from Moscow. In the campaign of 1813, in
command of a division, he took part in the battles of Ltitzen and
Bautzen and the operations of Marshal Macdonald, and at the
battle of Leipzig (in which he commanded the XI. corps) he was
dangerously wounded. After the battle of Bautzen he was
created by Napoleon a count of the empire. In the campaign
of France of 1814, and especially at La Rothiere and Montereau,
he won still greater distinction. After the first restoration he
was named by Louis XVIII. grand cross of the Legion of Honour
and chevalier of St Louis. In the Hundred Days Napoleon made
Gerard a peer of France and placed him in command of the IV.
corps of the Army of the North. In this capacity Gerard took
a brilliant part in the battle of Ligny (see WATERLOO CAMPAIGN),
and on the morning of the i8th of June he was foremost in advis-
ing Marshal Grouchy to march to the sound of the guns. Gdrard
retired to Brussels after the fall of Napoleon, and did not return
to France till 1817. He sat as a member of the chamber of
deputies in 1-822-1824, and was re-elected in 1827. He took part
in the revolution of 1830, after which he was appointed minister
of war and named a marshal of France. On account of his
health he resigned the office of war minister in the October
following, but in 1 83 1 he took the command of the northern army,
and was successful in thirteen days in driving the army of Holland
out of Belgium. In 1832 he commanded the besieging army in
the famous scientific siege of the citadel of Antwerp. He was
again chosen war minister in July 1834, but resigned in the
October following. In 1836 he was named grand chancellor of
the Legion of Honour in succession to Marshal rMortier, and in
1838 commander of the National Guards of the Seine, an office
which he held till 1842. He became a senator under the empire
in 1852, and died on the i7th of April in the same year.
GERARD, FRANCOIS, BARON (1770-1837), French painter,
was born on the 4th of May 1770, at Rome, where his father
occupied a post in the house of the French ambassador. At the
age of twelve Gerard obtained admission into the Pension du
Roi at Paris. From the Pension he passed to the studio of
GERARD, J. I. I. GERASA
765
Pajou (sculptor), which he led at the end of two years for that
of the painter Brenet, whom he quitted almost immediately to
place himself under David. In 1789 he competed for the Prix
de Rome, which was carried off by his comrade Girodet. In the
following year (1790) he again presented himself, but the death
of his father prevented the completion of his work, and obliged
him to accompany his mother to Rome. In 1791 he returned to
Paris; but his poverty was so great that he was forced to forgo
his studies in favour of employment which should bring in
immediate profit. David at once availed himself of his help,
and one of that master's most celebrated pictures Le Pelletier
de St Fargeau may owe much to the hand of Gerard. This
painting was executed early in 1793, the year in which (icrard,
at the request of David, was named a member of the revolu-
tionary tribunal, from the fatal decisions of which he, however,
invariably absented himself. In 1 794 he obtained the first prize
in a competition, the subject of which was " The Tenth of August,"
and, further stimulated by the successes of his rival and friend
Girodet in the Salons of 1793 and 1704, Gerard (nobly aided
by Isabey the miniaturist) produced in 1795 his famous " Belis-
aire." In 1796 a portrait of his generous friend (in the Louvre)
obtained undisputed success, and the money received from
Isabey for these two works enabled Gerard to execute in 1797
his "Psych* et 1 'Amour. " At last, in 1799, his portrait of
Madame Bonaparte established his position as one of the first
portrait-painters of the day. In 1808 as many as eight, in 1810
no less than fourteen portraits by him, were exhibited at the
Salon, and these figures afford only an indication of the enormous
numbers which he executed yearly; all the leading figures of
the empire and of the restoration, all the most celebrated men
mad women of Europe, sat to Girard. This extraordinary
vogue was due partly to the charm of his manner and conversa-
tion, for his salon was as much frequented as his studio; Madame
de StaeJ, Canning, Talleyrand, the duke of Wellington, have all
borne witness to the attraction of his society. Rich and famous,
Gerard was stung by remorse for earlier ambitions abandoned ;
at intervals he had indeed striven to prove his strength with
Girodet and other rivals, and his " Bataille d'Austerlitz " (1810)
showed a breadth of invention and style which are even more
conspicuous in " L'Entree d'Henri IV " (Versailles) the work
with which in 1817 he did homage to the Bourbons. After this
date Gerard declined, watching with impotent grief the progress
of the Romantic school. Loaded with honours baron of the
empire, member of the Institute, officer of the legion of honour,
tint painter to the king he worked on sad and discouraged;
the revolution of 1830 added to his disquiet; and on the nth of
January 1837, after three days of fever, he died. By his portraits
Gerard is best remembered; the colour of his paintings has
suffered, but his drawings show in uninjured delicacy the purity
of his line; and those of women are specially remarkable for a
virginal simplicity and frankness of expression.
M. Ch. Lenonnant published in 1846 Essai de biographie el de
critique ntr Francois Gerard, a second edition of which appeared
in 1847 ; and M. Delecluze devoted several pages to the same subject
in hi* work Louis David, ton fcole et son temps.
GERARD. JEAN IGNACE ISIDORE (1803-1847), French
caricaturist, generally known by the pseudonym of Grandville
the professional name of his grandparents, who were actors
was born at Nancy on the 131(1 of September 1803. He received
his first instruction in drawing from his father, a miniature
painter, and at the age of twenty-one came to Paris, where he
soon afterwards published a collection of lithographs entitled
Lei Tribulations de la petite preprint. He followed this by Let
Plaitirs de touMge and La Sibylle des salons; but the work
which first established his fame was Metamorphoses du jour,
published in 1828, a series of seventy scenes in which individuals
with the bodies of men and faces of animals are made to play a
human comedy. These drawings are remarkable for the extra-
ordinary skill with which human characteristics are represented
in animal features. The success of this work led to his being
engaged as artistic contributor to various periodicals, such as La
Silhouette, L' Artiste, La Caricature, Le Charivari; And his political
caricatures, which were characterized by marvellous fertility of
satirical humour, soon came to enjoy a general popularity.
Besides supplying illustrations for various standard works,
such as the songs of Bcranger, the fables of La Fontaine, Don
Quixote, Gulliver's Travels, Robinson Crusoe, he also continued
the issue of various lithographic collections, among which may
be mentioned La Vie privie et publique des animaux, I.es Cent
Proverbes, L'Autre Monde and Les Flews animtes. Though
the designs of Gerard are occasionally unnatural and absurd,
they usually display keen analysis of character and marvellous
inventive ingenuity, and his humour is always tempered and
refined by delicacy of sentiment and a vein of sober thoughtful-
ness. He died of mental disease on the i?th of March 1847.
A short notice of GeVard, under the name of Grandville. is con-
tained in Theophile Gauticr'8 Portraits contemporains. See also
Charles Blanc, Grandville (Paris, 1855).
GERARD, JOHN (1545-1612), English herbalist and surgeon,
was born towards the end of 1545 at Nantwich in Cheshire. He
was educated at Wisterson, or Willaston, 2 m. from Nantwich,
and eventually, after spending some time in travelling, took up
his abode in London, where he exercised his profession. For
more than twenty years he also acted as superintendent of the
gardens in London and at Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, of William
Cecil, Lord Burghley. In 1596 he published a catalogue of
plants cultivated in his own garden in Holborn, London, 1039 in
number, inclusive of varieties of the same species. Their English
as well as their Latin names arc given in a revised edition of the
catalogue issued in 1 599. In 1 597 appeared Gerard's well-known
Herball, described by him in its preface as " the first fruits of
these mine own labours," but more truly an adaptation of the
Stirpium historiae pemptades of Rembcrt Dodoens (1518-1585),
published in 1583, or rather of a translation of the whole or part
of the same by Dr Priest, with M. Lobel's arrangement. Of the
numerous illustrations of the Herball sixteen appear to be
original, the remainder are mostly impressions from the wood
blocks employed by Jacob Theodorus Tabernaemontanus in
his Icones stirpium, published at Frankfort in 1590. A second
edition of the Herball, with considerable improvements and
additions, was brought out by Thomas Johnson in 1633, ar >d
reprinted in 1636. Gerard was elected a member of the court of
assistants of the barber-surgeons in 1595, by which company
he was appointed an examiner in 1598, junior warden in 1605,
and master in 1608. He died in February 1612, and was buried
at St Andrews, Holborn.
See Johnson's preface to his edition of the Herball; and A Cata-
logue of Plants cultivated in the Garden of John Gerard in the years
1596^-1599, edited with Notes, References to Gerard's Herball, the
Addition of modern names, and a Life of the Author, by Benjamin
Daydon Jackson, F.L.S., privately printed (London, 1876, 410).
G&IARDMER, a town of north-eastern France, in the depart-
ment of Vosges, 33 m. E.S.E. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1906)
of the town, 3993; of the commune, 10,041. Gerardmer is
beautifully situated at a height of 2200 ft. at' the eastern end
of the small Lake of Gerardmer (285 acres in extent) among
forest-clad mountains. It is the chief summer-resort of the
French Vosges and is a centre for excursions, among which may
be mentioned those to the Hohneck (4481 ft.), the second
highest summit in the Vosges, the Schlucht, the mountain pass
from France to Germany, and, nearer the town, the picturesque
defile of Granges, watered by the Vologne, which at one point
forms the cascade known as the Saut des Cuves. The town
itself, in which the chief object of interest is the huge lime-tree
in the market-place, carries on cloth-weaving, bleaching, wood-
sawing and the manufacture of wooden goods; there is trade
in the cheeses (gtromts) manufactured in the neighbourhood.
Geiardmer is said to owe its name to Gerard of Alsace, ist duke
of Lorraine, who in the nth century built a tower on the bank
of the lake or mer, near which, in 1 285, a new town was founded.
GERASA (mod. Gerash or Jerash), a city of Palestine, and a
member of the league known as the Decapolis (q.v.), situated amid
the mountains of Gi.lead, about 1757 ft. above the sea, 20 m.
from the Jordan and 21 m. N. of Philadelphia. Of its origin
nothing is known; it has been suggested that it represents
the biblical Ramoth Gilcad. From Joscphus we learn that it
766
GERAULT-RICHARD GERBERT
was captured by Alexander Jannaeus (c. 83 B.C.), rebuilt by the
Romans (c. A.D. 65), burned by the Jews in revenge for the
massacre at Caesarea, and again plundered and depopulated
by Annius, the general of Vespasian; but, in spite of these
disasters, it was still in the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Christian
era one of the wealthiest and most flourishing cities of Palestine.
It was a centre of Greek civilization, devoted especially to the
worship of Artemis, and producing famous teachers, of whom
Stephen the Byzantine mentions Ariston, Kerykos and Plato.
As late as 1121 the soldiers of Baldwin II. found it defended by
a castle built by a king of Damascus; but at the beginning of
the following century the Arabian geographer Yaqut speaks of
it as deserted and overthrown. The ruins of Jerash, discovered
about 1806, and since then frequently visited and described,
still attest the splendour of the Roman city. They are distributed
along both banks of the Kerwan, a brook which flows south
through the Wadi-ed-Der to join the Zerka or Jabbok; but all
the principal buildings are situated on the level ground to the
right of the stream. The town walls, which can still be traced
and indeed are partly standing, had a circuit of not more than
2 m., and the main street was less than half a mile in length;
but remains of buildings on the road for fully a mile beyond the
south gate, show that the town had outgrown the limit of its
fortifications. The most striking feature of the ruins is the pro-
fusion of columns, no fewer than 230 being even now in position;
the main street is a continuous colonnade, a large part of which
is still entire, and it terminates to the south in a forum of similar
formation. Among the public buildings still recognizable are a
theatre capable of accommodating 6000 spectators, a naumachia
(circus for naval combats) and several temples, of which the
largest was probably the grandest structure in the city, possessing
a portico of Corinthian pillars 38 ft. high. The desolation of
the city is probably due to earthquake; and the absence of
Moslem erections or restorations seems to show that the disaster
took place before the Mahommedan period.
The town is now occupied by a colony of Circassians, whose
houses have been built with materials from the earlier buildings,
and there has been much destruction of the interesting ruins.
" The country of the Gerasenes " (Matt. viii. 28 and parallels;
other readings, Gadarenes, Gergesenes) must be looked for in
another quarter on the E. coast of the Sea of Galilee, probably
in the neighbourhood of the modern Khersa (C. W. Wilson in
Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 369). (R. A. S. M.)
GER A ULT- RICHARD, ALFRED LEON (1860- ), French
journalist and politician, was born at Bonnetable in the depart-
ment of Sarthe, of a peasant family. He began life as a working
upholsterer, first at Mans, then at Paris (1880), where his peasant
and socialist songs soon won him fame in the Montmartre quarter.
Lissagaray, the communist, offered him a position on La Bataille,
and he became a regular contributor to the advanced journals,
especially to La Petite Republique, of which he became editor-in-
chief in 1897. In 1893 he founded Le Chambard, and was im-
prisoned for a year (1894) on account of a personal attack upon
the president, Casimir-Perier. In January 1895 he was elected
to the chamber as a Socialist for the thirteenth arrondissement
of Paris. He was defeated at the elections of 1898 at Paris,
but was re-elected in 1902 and in 1906 by the colony of
Guadeloupe.
GERBER, ERNST LUDWIG (1746-1819), German musician,
author of a famous dictionary of musicians, was born at Sonders-
hausen in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen on
the 29th of September 1746. His father, Henry Nicolas Gerber
(1702-1775), a pupil of J. S. Bach, was an organist and composer
of some distinction, and under his direction Ernst Ludwig at.
an early age had made great progress in his musical studies.
In 1765 he went to Leipzig to study law, but the claims of music,
which had gained additional strength from his acquaintanceship
with J. A. Hitler, soon came to occupy almost his sole attention.
On his return to Sondershausen he was appointed music teacher
to the children of the prince, and in 1775 he succeeded his father
as court organist. Afterwards he devoted much of his time to
the study of the literature and history of music, and with this
view he made himself master of several modern languages. His
Historisch-biographisches Lexikon der Tonkiinsller appeared in
1790 and 1792 in two volumes; and the first volume of what
was virtually an improved and corrected edition of this work
was published in 1810 under the title Neues historisch-bio-
graphisches Lexikon der Tonkunstler, followed by other three
volumes in 1812, 1813 and 1814. Gerber also contributed a
number of papers to musical periodicals, and published several
minor musical compositions. He died at Sondershausen on the
3oth of June 1819.
GERBERON, GABRIEL (1628-1711), French Jansenist monk,
was born on the I2th of August 1628 at St Calais, in the depart-
ment of Sarthe. At the age of twenty he took the vows of the
Benedictine order at the abbey of Ste Melaine, Rennes, and after-
wards taught rhetoric and philosophy in several monasteries.
His open advocacy of Jansenist opinions, however, caused his
superiors to relegate him to the most obscure houses of the order,
and finally to keep him under surveillance at the abbey of St
Germain-des-Pres at Paris. Here he wrote a defence of the
doctrine of the Real Presence against the Calvinists in the form
of an apology for Rupert, abbot of Deutz (Apologia pro Ruperto
abbate Tuitensi, Paris, 1669). In 1676 he published at Brussels,
under the name of " Sieur Flore de Ste Foi " his Miroir de la
piete chretienne, an enlarged edition of which appeared at Liege
in the following year. This was condemned by certain arch-
bishops and theologians as the repetition of the five condemned
propositions of Jansen, and Gerberon defended it, under the
name of " Abbe Valentin " in Le Miroir sans tache (Paris, 1680).
He had by this time aroused against him the full fury of the
Jesuits, and at their instigation a royal provost was sent to
Corbie to arrest him. He had, however, just time to escape,
and fled to the Low Countries, where he lived in various towns.
He was invited by the Jansenist clergy to Holland, where he
wrote another controversial work against the Protestants:
Defense de I'Eglise Rontain contre la calomnie des Protestants
(Cologne, 1688-1691). This produced unpleasantness with the
Reformed clergy, and feeling himself no longer safe he returned
to Brussels. In 1700 he published his history of Jansenism
(Histoire generals du Jansenisme) , a dry work, by which, however,
he is best remembered. He adhered firmly to the Augustinian
doctrine of Predestination, and on the 3oth of May 1 703 he was
arrested at Brussels at the instance of the archbishop of Malines,
and ordered to subscribe the condemnation of the five sentences
of Jansen. On his refusal, he was handed over to his superiors
and imprisoned in the citadel of Amiens and afterwards at
Vincennes. Every sort of pressure was brought to bear upon
him to make his submission, and at last, broken in health and
spirit, he consented to sign a formula which the cardinal de
Noailles claimed as a recantation. Upon this he was released
in 1710. The first use he made of his freedom was to write a
work (which, however, his friends prudently prevented him from
publishing), Le Vaine Triomphedu cardinal de Noailles, containing
a virtual withdrawal of the compulsory recantation. He died
at the abbey of St Denis on the 29th of March 1711.
GERBERT, MARTIN (1720-1793), German theologian,
historian and writer on music, belonged to the noble family of
Gerbert von Hornau, and was born at Horb on the Neckar,
Wiirttemberg, on the i2th (or nth or i3th) of August 1720.
He was educated at Freiburg in the Breisgau, at Klingenau in
Switzerland and at the Benedictine abbey of St Blasien in the
Black Forest, where in 1737 he took the vows. In 1744 he was
ordained priest, and immediately afterwards appointed professor,
first of philosophy and later of theology. Between 1754 and
1764 he published a series of theological treatises, their main
tendency being to modify the rigid scholastic system by an
appeal to the Fathers, notably Augustine; from 1759 to 1762
he travelled in Germany, Italy and France, mainly with a view
to examining the collections of documents in the various monastic
libraries. In 1764 he was elected prince-abbot of St Blasien,
and proved himself a model ruler both as abbot and prince.
His examination of archives during his travels had awakened
in him a taste for historical research, and under his rule St
GERBIL GERHARD, J.
767
Blasien became a notable centre of the methodical study of
history; it was here that Marquard Herrgott wrote his Monu-
menta damns Aiislriacae. of which the first two volumes urn-
edited, for the second edition, by Gerbert, who also published a
Codes tpistolaris Rudolfki I., Romani regis (1772) and /'.
Rudolpko Suevico comile de Rhinfelden, Jufc et rege, deque rjus
familia (1785). It was. however, in sacramental theology,
liturgiology, and notably ecclesiastical music that Gerbert was
mainly interested. In 1774 he published two volumes De cantu
etmiuica sacra; in 1777, Atomtmentafelerislilurgiae Alemanniciir;
and in 1784, in three volumes, Scriptores ecclesiastic* de musica
sacra, a collection of the principal writers on church music from
the 3rd century till the invention of printing. The materials
for this work he had gathered during his travels, and although
it contains many textual errors, its publication has been of great
importance for the history of music, by preserving writings
which might either have perished or remained unknown. His
interest in music led to his acquaintance with the composer
Cluck, who became his intimate friend.
As a prince of the Empire Gerbert was devoted to the interests
of the house of Austria; as a Benedictine abbot he was opposed
to Joseph II. 's church policy. In the Febronian controversy
(see FEBRONIANISM) he had early taken a mediating attitude,
and it was largely due to his influence that Bishop Hontheim
had been induced to retract his extreme vir\v>.
In 1768 the abbey of St Blasien, with the library and church,
was burnt to the ground, and the splendid new church which
rote on the ruins of the old (1783) remained until its destruction
by fire in 1874, at once a monument of Gerbert 's taste in archi-
tecture and of his Habsburg sympathies. It was at his request
that it was made the mausoleum of all the Austrian princes
buried outside Austria, whose remains were solemnly transferred
to its vaults. In connexion with its consecration he published
his Historio Nigrae Silvae, orJinis S. Benedicli coloniae (3 vols.,
St Blasien, 1783).
Gerbert, who was beloved and respected by Catholics and
Protestants alike, died on the 3rd of May 1793.
See Joseph Badcr, Das ehemalige Kloster St Blasien und seine
Gtlfkrtfnaktuitmit (Frriburg-im-Brcisgau, 1874), which contains
a chronological list of Gerbert 's works.
GERBIL, or GERBILLE, the name of a group of small, elegant,
large-eyed, jumping rodents typified by the North African
GerbiUus aegyptiacus (or grrbMus), and forming a special sub-
family, Gerbillinae, of the rat tribe or Muridae. They are found
over the desert districts of both Asia and Africa, and are classed
in the genera Gerbillus (or Talera), Pachyuromys, Meriones,
Psammomys and Rhombomys, with further divisions into sub-
genera. They have elongated hind-limbs and long hairy tails;
and progress by leaps, in the same manner as jerboas, from which
they differ in having five hind-toes. The cheek-teeth have trans-
verse plates of enamel on the crowns; the number of such plates
diminishing from three in the first tooth to one or one and a half
in the third. The upper incisor teeth are generally marked by
grooves. Gerbils are inhabitants of open sandy plains, where
they dwell in burrows furnished with numerous exits, and con-
taining large grass-lined chambers. The Indian G. indicus
produces at least a dozen young at a birth. All are more or less
completely nocturnal.
G ERENUK, the Somali name of a long-necked aberrant gazelle,
commonly known as Waller's gazelle (Lithocranius -waller i),
and ranging from Somaliland to Kilimanjaro. The long neck
and limbs, coupled with peculiarities in the structure of the skull,
entitle the gerenuk, which is a large species, to represent a genus.
The horns of the bucks are heavy, and have a peculiar forward
curvature at the tips; the colour of the coat is red-fawn, with
a broad brown band down the back. Gerenuk are browsing
ruminants, and, in Somaliland, are found in small family-parties,
and feed more by browsing, on the branches and leaves of trees and
shrubs than by grazing. Frequently they raise themselves by
standing on their hind-legs with the fore-feet resting against the
trunk of the tree on which they are feeding. Their usual pace is
an awkward trot, not unlike that of a camel; and they seldom
break into a gallop. The Somali form has been separated as
L. sclateri, but is not more than a local race. (See ANTELOPI:.)
GERGOVIA (mod. Gergovie), in ancient geography, the chief
town of the Arverni, situated on a hill in the Auvcrgne, about
8 m. from the Puy de Dome, France. Julius Caesar attacked
it in 52 B.C., but was beaten ofT; some walls and earthworks
seem still to survive from this period. Later, when Gaul had been
subdued, the place was dismantled and its Gaulish inhabitants
resettled 4 m. away in the plain at the new Roman city of
Augustonem$tum (mod. Clermonl-Frrrand).
GERHARD, FRIEDRICH WILHELM EDUARD (1795-1867),
German archaeologist, was born at Posen on the 29th of
November 1795, and was educated at Brcslau and Berlin. The
reputation he acquired by his Lectiones Apollonianae (1816)
led soon afterwards to his being appointed professor at the
gymnasium of Posen. On resigning that office in 1819, on
account of weakness of the eyes, he went in 1822 to Rome, where
he remained for fifteen years. He contributed to Platner's
Beschreibung der Stadt Rom, then under the direction of Bunsen,
and was one of the principal originators and during his residence
in Italy director of the Institute di corrispondenza archeologica,
founded at Rome in 1828. Returning to Germany in 1837 he was
appointed archaeologist at the Royal Museum of Berlin, and in
1 844 was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences, and a pro-
fessor in the university. He died at Berlin on the 1 2th of May 1867.
Besides a large number of archaeological papers in periodicals, in
the Annali of the Institute of Rome, and in the Transactions of the
Berlin Academy, and several illustrated catalogues of Greek, Roman
and other antiquities in the Berlin, Naples and Vatican Museums,
Gerhard was the author of the following works: Antike Bildwerke
(Stuttgart, 1827-1844) ; Auserlesene griech. Vasenbilder (1839-1858);
Etruskische Spiegel (1839-1865); Hyperboreisch-rom. Studien (vol. i.,
1833: vol. 1852); Prodromus mytholog. Kunsterklarung (Stutt-
gart and Tubingen, 1828) ; and Griech. Mytholoeie (1854-1855). His
Gesammelte akademische Abhandlungen und klcinc Schrijten were
published posthumously in 2 vols., Berlin, 1867.
GERHARD, JOHANN (1582-1637), Lutheran divine, was born
in Quedlinburg on the i7th of October 1582. In his fifteenth
year, during a dangerous illness, he came under the personal
influence of Johann Arndt, author of Das -wahre Christenthum,
and resolved to study for the church. He entered the university
of Wittenberg in 1599, and first studied philosophy. He also
attended lectures in theology, but, a relative having persuaded
him to change his subject, he studied medicine for two years.
In 1603, however, he resumed his theological reading at Jena,
and in the following year received a new impulse from J. W.
Winckelmann (1551-1626) and Balthasar Mentzer (1565-1627)
at Marburg. Having graduated and begun to give lectures at
Jena in 1605, he in 1606 accepted the invitation of John Casimir,
duke of Coburg, to the superintendency of Heldburg and master-
ship of the gymnasium; soon afterwards he became general
superintendent of the duchy, in which capacity he was engaged
in the practical work of ecclesiastical organization until 1616,
when he became theological professor at Jena, where the re-
mainder of his life was spent. Here, with Johann Major and
Johann Himmel, he formed the " Trias Johannea." Though
still comparatively young, Gerhard had already come to be
regarded as the greatest living theologian of Protestant Germany ;
in the numerous " disputations " of the period he was always
protagonist, while on all public and domestic questions touching
on religion or morals his advice was widely sought. It is recorded
that during the course of his lifetime he had received repeated
calls to almost every university in Germany (e.g. Giessen, Altdorf,
Helmstadt, Jena, Wittenberg), as well as to Upsala in Sweden.
He died in Jena on the 2Oth of August 1637.
His writings are numerous, alike in exegetical, polemical, dog-
matic and practical theology. To the first category belong the
Commenlarius in harmonium historiae evangelicae de passione Christi
(1617), the Comment, super priorem D. Petri epistotam (1641), and
also his commentaries on Genesis (1637) and on Deuteronomy
(1658). Of a controversial character are the Confessio Catholica
(1633-1637), an extensive work which seeks to prove the evangelical
and catholic character of the doctrine of the Augsburg Confession
from the writings of approved Roman Catholic authors; and the
Loci communes theoloeici (1610-1622), his principal contribution
to science, in which Lutheranism is expounded " nervosc, solide.
7 68
GERHARDT, C. F. GERICAULT
et copiose," in fact with a fulness of learning, a force of logic and
a minuteness of detail that had never before been approached.
The Meditationes sacrae (1606), a work expressly devoted to the
uses of Christian edification, has been frequently reprinted in Latin
and has been translated into most of the European languages,
including Greek. . The English translation by R. Winterton (1631)
has passed through at least nineteen editions. There is also an
edition by W. Papillon in English blank verse (1801). His life,
Vita Joh. Gerhardi, was published by E. R. Fischer in 1723, and by
C. J. Bottcher, Das Leben Dr Johann Gerhards, in 1858. See also
W. Gass, Geschichte der protestantischen Dogmatik (1854-1867), and
the article in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic.
GERHARDT, CHARLES FREDERIC (1816-1856), French
chemist, was born at Strassburg on the 2ist of August 1816.
After attending the gymnasium at Strassburg and the polytechnic
at Karlsruhe, he was sent to the school of commerce at Leipzig,
where he studied chemistry under Otto Erdmann. Returning
home in 1834 he entered his father'swhite lead factory, but soon
found that business was not to his liking, and after a sharp
disagreement with his father enlisted in a cavalry regiment.
In a few months military life became equally distasteful, and he
purchased his discharge with the assistance of Liebig, with whom,
after a short interval at Dresden, he went to study at Giessen
in 1836. But his stay at Giessen was also short, and in 1837
he re-entered the factory. Again, however, he quarrelled with
his father, and in 1838 went to Paris with introductions from
Liebig. There he attended Jean Baptiste Dumas' lectures and
worked with Auguste Cahours (1813-1891) on essential oils,
especially cumin, in Michel Eugene Chevreul's laboratory, while
he earned a precarious living by teaching and making translations
of some of Liebig's writings. In 1841 , by the influence of Dumas,
he was charged with the duties of the chair of chemistry at the
Montpellier faculty of sciences, becoming titular professor in
1844. In 1842 he annoyed his friends in Paris by the matter and
manner of a paper on the classification of organic compounds,
and in 1845 he and his opinions were the subject of an attack
by Liebig, unjustifiable in its personalities but not altogether
surprising in view of his wayward disregard of his patron's
advice. The two were reconciled in 1850, but his faculty for
disagreeing with his friends did not make it easier for him to
get another appointment after resigning the chair at Montpellier
in 1851, especially as he was unwilling to go into the provinces.
He obtained leave of absence from Montpellier in 1848 and from
that year till 1855 resided in Paris. During that period he
established an " Ecole de chimie pratique " of which he had
great hopes; but these were disappointed, and in 1855, after
refusing the offer of a chair of chemistry at the new Zurich
Polytechnic in 1 854, he accepted the professorships of chemistry
at the Faculty of Sciences and the Ecole Polytechnique at
Strassburg, where he died on the igth of August in the following
year. Although Gerhardt did some noteworthy experimental
work for instance, his preparation of acid anhydrides in 1852
his contributions to chemistry consist not so much in the dis-
covery of new facts as in the introduction of new ideas that
vitalized and organized an inert accumulation of old facts.
In particular, with his fellow-worker Auguste Laurent (1807-
1853), he did much to reform the methods of chemical formula-
tion by insisting on the distinction between atoms, molecules
and equivalents; and in his unitary system, directly opposed
to the dualistic doctrines of Berzelius, he combined Dumas'
substitution theory with the old radicle theory and greatly
extended the notion of types of structure. His chief works were
Precis de chimie organique (1844-1845), and Traile de chimie
organique (1853-1856).
_See Charles Gerhardt, sa vie, son ceuvre, sa correspondance, by
his son, Charles Gerhardt, and E. Grimaux (Paris, 1900).
GERHARDT, PAUL (c. 1606-1676), German hymn-writer,
was born of a good middle-class family at Grafenhainichen, a
small town on the railway between Halle and Wittenberg, in
1606 or 1607 some authorities, indeed, give the date March 12,
1607, but neither the year nor the day is accurately known.
His education appears to have been retarded by the troubles
of the period, the Thirty Years' War having begun about the
time he reached his twelfth year. After completing his studies
for the church he is known to have lived for some years at
Berlin as tutor in the family of an advocate named Berthold,
whose daughter he subsequently married, on receiving his first
ecclesiastical appointment at Mittelwald (a small town in the
neighbourhood of Berlin) in 1651. In 1657 he accepted an
invitation as " diaconus " to the Nicolaikirche of Berlin; but,
in consequence of his uncompromising Lutheranism in refusing
to accept the elector Frederick William's " syncretistic " edict
of 1664, he was deprived in 1666. Though absolved from
submission and restored to office early in the following year, on
the petition of the citizens, his conscience did not allow him to
retain a post which, as it appeared to him, could only be held on
condition of at least a tacit repudiation of the Formula Concordiae,
and for upwards of a year he lived in Berlin without fixed employ-
ment. In 1668 he was appointed archdeacon of Liibben in the
duchy of Saxe-Merseburg, where, after a somewhat sombre
ministry of eight years, he died on the 7th of June 1676. Gerhardt
is the greatest hymn-writer of Germany, if not indeed of Europe.
Many of his best-known hymns were originally published in
various church hymn-books, as for example in that for Branden-
burg, which appeared in 1658; others first saw the light in
Johann Cruger's Geistliche Kirchenmelodien (1649) and Praxis
pietatis melica (1656). The first complete set of them is the
Geistliche Andachten, published in 1666-1667 by Ebeling, music
director in Berlin. No hymn by Gerhardt pf a later date than
1667 is known to exist.
The life of Gerhardt has been written by Roth (1829), by Lang-
becker (1841), by Schultz (1842), by Wildenhahn (1845) and by
Bachmann (1863); also by Kraft in Ersch u. Gruber's Attg. Encycl.
(1855). The best modern edition of the hymns, published by
Wackernagel in 1843, has often been reprinted. There is an English
translation by Kelly (Paid Gerhardt' s Spiritual Songs, 1867).
GERICAULT, JEAN LOUIS ANDRg THEODORE (1791-1824),
French painter, the leader of the. French realistic school, was
born at Rouen in 1791. In 1808 he entered the studio of Charles
Vernet, from which, in 1810, he passed to that of Gu6rin, whom
he drove to despair by his passion for Rubens, and by the un-
orthodox manner in which he persisted in interpreting nature.
At the Salon of 181 2 Gericault attracted attention by his "Officier
de Chasseurs a Cheval " (Louvre), a work in which he personified
the cavalry in its hour of triumph, and turned to account the
solid training received from Guerin in rendering a picturesque
point of view which was in itself a protest against the cherished
convictions of the pseudo-classical school. Two years later
(1814) he re-exhibited this work accompanied with the reverse
picture " Cuirassier blesse " (Louvre), and in both subjects
called attention to the interest of contemporary aspects of life,
treated neglected types of living form, and exhibited that
mastery of and delight in the horse which was a feature of his
character. Disconcerted by the tempest of contradictory
opinion which arose over these two pictures, Gericault gave way
to his enthusiasm for horses and soldiers, and enrolled himself
in the mousquetaires. During the Hundred Days he followed
the king to Bethune, but, on his regiment being disbanded,
eagerly returned to his profession, left France for Italy in 1816,
and at Rome nobly illustrated his favourite animal by his great
painting " Course des Chevaux Libres." Returning to Paris,
Gericault exhibited at the Salon of 1819 the " Radeau de la
Meduse " (Louvre), a subject which not only enabled him to
prove his zealous and scientific study of the human form, but
contained those elements of the heroic and pathetic, as existing
in situations of modern life, to which he had appealed in his
earliest productions. Easily depressed or elated, Gericault
took to heart the hostility which this work excited, and passed
nearly two years in London, where the " Radeau " was exhibited
with success, and where he executed many series of admirable
lithographs now rare. At the close of 1822 he was again in Paris,
and produced a great quantity of projects for vast compositions,
models in wax, and a horse ecorche, as preliminary to the produc-
tion of an equestrian statue. His health was now completely
undermined by various kinds of excess, and on the 26th of
January 1824 he died, at the age of thirty-three.
Gericault's biography, accompanied by a catalogue raisonnt of
his works, was published by M. C. Clement in 1868.
GERIZIM-^GERMAN BAPTIST BRETHREN
769
GERIZIM. a mountain in the hill-country of Samaria, 2849 ft.
above the sea-level, and enclosing, with its companion Ebal,
the valley in which lies the town of Nftblus (Shechem). It is the
holy place of the community of the Samaritans, who hold thai
it was the scene of the sacrifice of Isaac a tradition accepted
by Dean Stanley but no other western writers of importance.
Here, on the formal entrance of the Israelites into the possession
of the Promised Land, were pronounced the blessings connected
with a faithful observance of the law (Josh. viii. 33, 34; cf.
Deut. xi. 20,, 30, xxvii. 12-26), the six tribes, Simeon, Levi,
Judah, Issachar. Joseph and Benjamin, standing here for the
purpose while the remaining tribes stood on Ebal to accept
the curses attached to specific violations thereof. Gerizim was
probably chosen as the mount of blessing as being on the right
hand, the fortunate side, of a spectator facing east. The counter-
suggestion of Eusebius and Jerome that the Ebal and Gerizim
associated with this solemnity were not the Shechem mountains
at all, but two small hills near Jericho, is no longer considered
important. From this mountain Jotharn spoke his parable to
the elders of Shechem (Judg. ix. 7). Manassch, the son of the
Jewish high-priest in the days of Nehcmiah, married the daughter
of Sanballat and, about 432 B.C., erected on this mountain a
temple for the Samaritans; it was destroyed by Hyrcanus about
300 years afterwards. Its site is a small level plateau a little
under the summit of the mountain. Close to this is the place
where the Passover is still annually celebrated in exact accordance
with the rites, prescribed in the Pentateuch. On the summit of
the mountain, which commands a view embracing the greater
part of Palestine, are a small Moslem shrine and the ruins of a
castle probably dating from Justinian's time. There was an
octagonal Byzantine church here, but the foundations alone
remain. Josephus describes it as the highest of the mountains of
Samaria, but Ebal and Tell Azur are both higher. (R. A. S. M.)
GERLACHE. BTIENNB CONSTANTIN, BARON DE (1785-
1871), Belgian politician and historian, was born at Biourge,
Luxemburg, on the 24th of December 1785. He studied law
in Paris and practised there for some time, but settled at Li6ge
after the establishment of the kingdom of the Netherlands.
As member of the states-general he was an energetic member
of the opposition, and, though he repudiated an ultramontane
policy, he supported the alliance of the extreme Catholics with
the Liberal party, which paved the way for the revolution of
1830. On the outbreak of disturbance in August 1830 he still,
however, thought the Orange-Nassau dynasty and the union
with the Dutch states essential; but his views changed, and,
after holding various offices in the provisional government, he
became president of congress, and brought forward the motion
inviting Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to become king of the Belgians.
In 1832 he was president of the chamber of representatives, and
for thirty-five years he presided over the court of appeal. He
presided over the Catholic congresses held at Malines between
1863 and 1867. That his early Liberal views underwent some
modification is plain from the Conservative principles enunciated
in his Eisai lur It mourtment des partis en Kclgique (Brussels,
1852). As an historian his work was strongly coloured by his
anti-Dutch prejudices and his Catholic predilections. His
Hiitoire des Pays-Bos depuil 1814 jusqu'en 1830 (Brussels, 2
vols., 1839), which reached a fourth edition in 1875, was a piece
of special pleading against the Dutch domination. The most
important of bis other works were his Hisloire de Litge (Brussels,
1 843) and his fjudes sur Salluste etsur quelques-uns des principaux
kutoriens de I'antiquiK (Brussels, 1847).
A complete edition of his works (6 vols., Brussels, 1874-1875)
contains a biography by M. Thonisoen.
GERLE, CHRISTOPHE ANTOINE (1736^.1801), French
revolutionist and mystic, was born at Riom in Auvergne. Enter-
ing the Carthusian order early in life, he became prior of Laval-
Dieu in Perche.and afterwards of Pont-Sainte-Marie at Moulins.
Elected deputy to the states-general in 1780, Gerle became very
popular, and though he had no seat in the assembly until after
the Tennis Court oath, being only deputy supplfant, he is repre-
sented in David's classic painting as taking part in it. In 1792
n. 75
he was chosen elector of Paris. In the revolutionary turmoil
Gerlc developed a strong vein of mysticism, mingled with ideas
of reform, and in June 1700 the prophetic powers of Suzanne
Labrousse (1747-1821), a visionary who had predicted the
Revolution ten years before, were brought by him to the notice
of the Convention. In Paris, where he lived first with a spiritual-
istic doctor and afterwards, like Robespierre, at the house of a
cabinetmaker, his mystical tendencies were strengthened. The.
insane fancies of Catherine Thtot, a convent servant turned
prophetess, who proclaimed herself the Virgin, the " Mother of
God " and the " new Eve," were eminently attractive to Gerle;
in the person of Robespierre he recognized the Messiah, and at the
meetings of the Theorists he officiated with the aged prophetess
as co-president. But the activities of Catherine and her adepts
were short-lived. The Theotists' cult of Robespierre was a
weapon in the hands of his opponents; and shortly after the
festival of the Supreme Being, Vadier made a report to the
Convention calling for the prosecution of Catherine, Gerle and
others as fanatics and conspirators. They were arrested, thrown
into prison and, in the confusion of Robespierre's fall, apparently
forgotten. Catherine died in prison, but Gerle, released by the
Directory, became one of the editors of the Messager du soir, and
was afterwards in the office of Pierre Bnzcch (1775-1802),
minister of the interior. Having renounced his monastic vows
in Paris, he is thought to have married, towards the close of
his life, Christine Raffet, aunt of the artist Denis Raffet. The
date of his death is uncertain.
GERMAN BAPTIST BRETHREN, or GERMAN BRETHREN, a
sect of American Baptists which originated in Germany, and
whose members are popularly known in the United States as
" Dunkers," " Dunkards " or " Tunkers," corruptions of the
German verb tunken, " to dip," in recognition of the sect's
continued adherence to the practice of trine immersion. The
sect was the outcome of one of the many Pietistic movements
of the I7th century, and was founded in 1708 by Andrew Mack
of Swartzenau, Germany, and seven of his followers, upon the
general issue that both the Lutheran and Reformed churches
were taking liberties with the literal teachings of the Scriptures.
The new sect was scarcelyorganized in Germany when its members
were compelled by persecution to take refuge in Holland, whence
they emigrated to Pennsylvania, in small companies, between
1719 and 1729. The first congregation in America was organ-
ized on Christmas Day 1723 by Peter Becker at Germantown,
Pennsylvania, and here in 1743 Christopher Sauer, one of the
sect's first pastors, and a printer by trade, printed the first
Bible (a few copies of which are still in existence) published in a
European language in America. From Pennsylvania the sect
spread chiefly westward, and, after various vicissitudes, caused
by defections and divisions due to doctrinal differences, in 1008
were most numerous in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas and North
Dakota.
There is much uncertainty about the early theological history
of the sect, but it is probable that Mack and his followers were
influenced by both the Greek Catholics and the Waldensians.
P. H. Bashor in his historical sketch, read before the World's Fair
Congress of the Brethren Church (1894), says: "From the history
of extended labour by Greek missionaries, from the active pro-
paganda of doctrine by scattered Waldensian refugees, through
parts of Germany and Bavaria, from the credence that may
generally be given to local tradition, and from the strong simi-
larity between the three churches in general features of circum-
stantial service, the conclusion, without additional evidence, is
both reasonable and natural that the founders of the new church
received their teaching, their faith and much of their church
idea from intimate acquaintance with the established usages of
both societies, and from their amplification and enforcement
by missionaries and pastors. ... In doctrine the church has
been from the first contentious for believers' baptism, holding
that nowhere in the New Testament can be found any authority
even by inference, precept or example for the baptism of infants.
On questions of fundamental doctrine they held to the belief
770
GERMAN CATHOLICS
in one self-existing supreme ruler of the Universe the Divine
Godhead the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit the tri-
personality." Hence their practice of triple immersion, which
provides that the candidate shall kneel in the water and be
immersed, face first, three times in the name of the Father,
the Son and the Holy Spirit. (From this practice the sect
received the less commonly used nickname " Dompelaers,"
meaning " tumblers.") They accept implicitly and literally the
New Testament as the infallible guide in spiritual matters,
holding it to be the inspired word of God, revealed through Jesus
Christ and, by inspiration, through the Apostles. They also
believe in the inspiration of the Old Testament. In their cele-
bration of the communion service they aim exactly to imitate
the forms observed by Christ. It is celebrated in the evening,
and is accompanied by the ancient love feast (partaken by all
communicants seated at a common table), by the ceremony of
the washing of feet and by the salutation of the holy kiss, the
three last-named ceremonies being observed by the sexes separ-
ately. They pray over their sick and, when so requested,
anoint them with oil. They are rigid non-resistants, and will
not bear arms or study the art of war; they refuse to take oaths,
and discountenance going to law over issues that can possibly
be settled out of the courts. The taking of interest was at first
forbidden, but that prohibition is not now insisted upon. They
" testify " against the use of intoxicating liquor and tobacco,
and advocate simplicity in dress. In its earlier history the sect
opposed voting or taking any active part in political affairs, but
these restrictions have quite generally disappeared. Similarly
the earlier prejudice against higher education, and the mainten-
ance of institutions for that purpose, has given place to greater
liberality along those lines. In 1782 the sect forbade slave-
holding by its members.
The church officers (generally unpaid) comprise bishops (or
ministers), elders, teachers, deacons (or visiting brethren) and
deaconesses chiefly aged women who are permitted at times
to take leading parts in church services. The bishops are chosen
from the teachers; they are itinerant, conduct marriage and
funeral services, and are present at communions, at ordinations,
when deacons are chosen or elected, and at trials for the ex-
communication of members. The elders are the first or oldest
teachers of congregations, for which there is no regular bishop.
They have charge of the meetings of such congregations, and
participate in excommunication proceedings, besides which
they preach, exhort, baptize, and may, when needed, take the
offices of the deacons. The teachers, who are chosen by vote,
may also exhort or preach, when their services are needed for
such purposes, and may, at the request of a bishop, perform
marriage or baptismal ceremonies. The deacons have general
oversight of the material affairs of the congregation, and are
especially charged with the care of poor widows and their children.
In the discharge of these duties they are expected to visit each
family in the congregation at least once a year. The govern-
ment of the church is chiefly according to the congregational
principle, and the women have an equal voice with the men;
but annual meetings, attended by the bishops, teachers and
other delegates from the several congregations are held, and at
these sessions the larger questions involving church polity are
considered and decided by a committee of five bishops.
An early secession from the general body of Dunkers was that
of the Seventh Day Dunkers, whose distinctive principle was
that the seventh day was the true Sabbath. Their founder
was Johann Conrad Beissel (1690-1768), a native of Eberbach
and one of the first emigrants, who, after living as a hermit for
several years on Mill Creek, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania,
founded the sect (1725), then again lived as a hermit in a cave
(formerly occupied by another hermit, one Elimelech) on the
Cocalico Creek in Pennsylvania, and in 1732-1735 established a
semi-monastic community (the " Order of the Solitary ") with a
convent (the " Sister House ") and a monastery (the " Brother
House ") at Ephrata, in what is now Lancaster county, about
55 m. W. by N. from Philadelphia. Among the industries of
the men were printing (in both English and German), book-
binding, tanning, quarrying, and the operation of a saw mill,
a bark mill, and perhaps a pottery; the women did embroidery,
quilting, and engrossing in a beautiful but peculiar hand, known
as Fracturschrift. 1 The monastic feature was gradually aban-
doned, and in 1814 the Society was incorporated as the Seventh
Day Baptists, its affairs being placed in the hands of a board
of trustees. More important in the history of the modern
church was the secession, in the decade between 1880 and 1890,
of the Old Order Brethren, who opposed Sunday Schools and
the missionary work of the Brethren, in Asia Minor and India,
and in several European countries; and also in 1882 of the
radicals, or Progressives, who objected to a distinctive dress and
to the absolute supremacy of the yearly conferences. Higher
education was long forbidden and is consistently opposed by
the Old Order. The same element in the Brethren opposed a
census, but according to Howard Miller's census of 1880 (Record
of the Faithful) the number of Dunkers was 59,749 in that
year; by the United States census of 1890 it was then 73,795;
the, figures for 1904 are given by Henry King Carroll in his
" Statistics of the Churches " in the Christian Advocate (Jan.
5, 1905): Conservatives, or German Baptist Brethren, 95,000;
Old Order, 4000; Progressives or Brethren, 15,000; Seventh
Day, 194; total, 114,194. In 1909 the German Baptist Brethren
had an estimated membership of approximately 100,000, and the
Brethren of 18,000. The main body, or Conservatives, support
schools at Huntingdon, Pennsylvania; Mt. Morris, Illinois;
Lordsburg, California; McPherson, Kansas; Bridgewater,
Virginia; Canton, Ohio; Chicago, Illinois; North Manchester,
Indiana; Plattsburg, Missouri; Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania;
Union Bridge, Maryland; and Fruitdale, Alabama. They
have a publishing house at Elgin, Illinois, and maintain missions
in Denmark, Sweden, France, Italy, India and China. The
Progressives have a college, a theological seminary and a publish-
ing house at Ashland, Ohio; and they carry on missionary
work in Canada, South America and Persia.
AUTHORITIES. Lamech and Agrippa, Chronicon Ephratense, in
German (Ephrata, Penn., 1786) and in English (Lancaster, 1889);
G. N. Falkenstein, " The German Baptist Brethren, or Dunkers,"
part 8 of " Pennsylvania: The German Influence in its Settlement
and Development," in vol. x. of the Pennsylvania German Society,
Proceedings and Addresses (Lancaster, Penn., 1900) ; Julius Friedrich
Sachse, The German Sectarians of Pennsylvania, 1742-1800: A
Critical and Legendary History of the Ephrata Cloister and the Dunkers
(Philadelphia, 1900) ; and John Lewis Gillin, The Dunkers: A
Sociological Interpretation (New York, 1906), a doctor's dissertation,
with full bibliography.
GERMAN CATHOLICS (Deutscltkatlwliken), the name assumed
in Germany towards the close of 1844 by certain dissentients
from the Church of Rome. The most prominent leader of the
German Catholic movement was Johann Ronge, a priest who
in the Sachsische Vaterlandsbliilter for the I5th of October 1844
made a vigorous attack upon Wilhelm Arnold!, bishop of Trier
since 1842, for having ordered (for the first time since 1810) the
exposition of the " holy coat of Trier," alleged to be the seamless
robe of Christ, an event which drew countless pilgrims to the
cathedral. Ronge, who had formerly been chaplain at Grottkau,
was then a schoolmaster at Laurahiitte near the Polish border.
The article made a great sensation, and led to Rongc's excom-
munication by the chapter of Breslau in December 1844. The
ex-priest received a large amount of public sympathy, and a
dissenting congregation was almost immediately formed at
Breslau with a very simple creed, in which the chief articles
were belief in God the Father, creator and ruler of the universe;
1 Beissel (known in the community as " Friedsam ") was their
leader until his death; he published several collections of hymns.
The stone over his grave bears the inscription: " Here rests an out-
growth of the love of God, ' Friedsam, a Solitary Brother, after-
wards a leader of the Solitary and the Congregation of Grace in and
around Ephrata . . . Fell asleep July 6, 1768, in the 52nd year of
his spiritual life, but the 72nd year and fourth month of his natural
life.' The borough of Ephrata was separated from the township
in 1891. Pop. (1900) of the borough, 2451 ; of the township, 2390.
The Brother House " and the " Sister House " are still standing
(though in a dilapidated condition). In 1777, after the battle of
Branaywine, many wounded American soldiers were nursed here by
the Sisters, and about 200 are buried here.
GERMAN EAST AFRICA
771
in Jesus Christ the Saviour, who delivers from the bondage of sin
by his life, doctrine and death; in the operation of the Holy
Ghost; in a holy, universal, Christian church; in forgiveness
of sins and the life everlasting. The Bible was made the sole rule,
and all external authority was barred. Within a few weeks
similar communities were formed at Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin,
Offenbach, Worms? Wiesbaden and elsewhere; and at a
" council " convened at Leipzig at Easter 1845, twenty-seven
congregations were represented by delegates, of whom only two
or at most three were in clerical orders.
Even be/ore the beginning of the agitation led by Ronge,
another movement fundamentally distinct, though in some
respects similar, had been originated at SchneidemUhl, Posen,
under the guidance of Johann Czerski (1813-1893), also a priest,
who had come into collision with the church authorities on the
then much discussed question of
mixed marriages, and also on that
of the celibacy of the clergy. The
result had been his suspension from
office in March 1844; his public
withdrawal, along with twenty-four
adherents, from the Roman com-
munion in August; his excom-
munication; and the formation, in
October, of a " Christian Catholic "
congregation which, while rejecting
clerical celibacy, the use of Latin
in public worship, and the doctrines
of purgatory and transubstantia-
tion, retained the Nicene theology
and the doctrine of the seven sacra-
ments. Czerski had been at some of
thesittingsof the"Gcrman Catholic"
council of Leipzig; but when a
formula somewhat similar to that
of Breslau had been adopted, he
refused his signature because the
divinity of Christ had been ignored,
and he and his congregation con-
tinued to retain by preference the
name of " Christian Catholics,"
which they had originally assumed.
Of the German Catholic congrega-
tions which had been represented at
Leipzig some manifested a preference
for the fuller and more positive creed
of SchneidemUhl, but a great majority
continued to accept the compara-
tively rationalistic position of the
Breslau school. The number of these
rapidly increased, and the congrega-
tions scattered over Germany num-
bered nearly 200. External and in-
ternal checks, however, soon limited
this advance. In Austria, and ulti-
mately also in Bavaria, the use of the
name German Catholics was officially prohibited, that of " Dis-
sidents " being substituted, while in Prussia, Baden and Saxony
the adherents of the new creed were laid under various disabilities,
being suspected both of undermining religion and of encouraging
the revolutionary tendencies of the age. Ronge himself was a
foremost figure in the troubles of 1848; after the dissolution of
the Frankfort parliament he lived for some time in London,
returning in 1861 to Germany. He died at Vienna on the 26th of
October 1887. In 1859 some of the German Catholics entered
into corporate union with the " Free Congregations," an associa-
tion of free-thinking communities that had since 1844 been
gradually withdrawing from the orthodox Protestant Church.
when the united body took the title of " The Religious Society
of Free Congregations." Before that time many of the congrega-
tions which were formed in 1844 and the years immediately
following had been dissolved, including that of SchneidemUhl
itself, which ceased to exist in 1857. There arc now only about
.2000 strict German Catholics, all in Saxony. The movement
has been superseded by the Old Catholic (<?.t>.) organization.
See G. G. Gervinus, Die Mission drs Deutsehkathoficismus (1846);
F. Kamnv, Das Wesen des Deutschkatholicismus (1860); Findcl,
Der DtulscHkatholitismus in Sachstn (1895); Carl Mirbt, in Herzog-
Hauck's Realencyk. far prol. Theol. iv. 583.
GERMAN EAST AFRICA, a country occupying the east-
central portion of the African continent. The colony extends
at its greatest length north to south from i to 11 S., and west
to east from 30 to 40 E. It is bounded E. by the Indian Ocean
(ihe coast -line extending from 4 20' to 10 40' S.), N.E. and N.
by British East Africa and Uganda, W. by Belgian Congo, S.W.
by British Central Africa and S. by Portuguese East Africa.
Area and Boundaries. On the north the boundary line runs N.W.
from the mouth of the Umba river to Lake Jipe and Mount Kili-
GERMAN
EAST AFRICA
Scale. i:io.ooo.ox
English Mile*
.*> *9> *f
I irfy Wilktr
manjaro, including both in the protectorate, and thence to Victoria
Nyanza, crossing it at 1 S., which parallel it follows till it reaches
30 E. In the west the frontier is as follows: From the point of
intersection of i S. and 30 E., a line running S. and S.W. to the
north-west end of Lake Kivu, thence across that lake near its
western shore, and along the river Rusizi, which issues from it, to the
spot where the Rusizi enters the north end of Lake Tanganyika;
along the middle line of Tanganyika to near its southern end, when
it is deflected eastward to the point where the river Kalambo enters
the lake (thus leaving the southern end of Tanganyika to Great
Britain). From this point the frontier runs S.E. across the plateau
between Lakes Tanganyika and N'yasa, in its southern section follow-
ing the course of the river Songwe. Thence it goes down the middle
of Nyasa as far as n 30' S. The southern frontier goes direct
from the last-named point eastward to the Rovuma river, which
separates German and Portuguese territory. A little before the
Indian Ocean is reached the frontier is deflected south so as to leave
the mouth of the Rovuma in German East Africa. These boundaries
include an area of about 364,000 sq. m. (nearly double the size of
Germany), with a population estimated in 1910 at 8,000,000. Of
772
GERMAN EAST AFRICA
these above 10,000 were Arabs, Indians, Syrians and Goanese, and
3000 Europeans (over 2000 being Germans). The island of Mafia
(see below) is included in the protectorate.
Physical Features. The coast of German East Africa (often
spoken of as the Swahili coast, after the inhabitants of the seaboard)
is chiefly composed of coral, is little indented, and is generally low,
partly sandy, partly rich alluvial soil covered with dense bush or
mangroves. Where the Arabs have established settlements the
coco-palm and mango tree introduced by them give variety to the
vegetation. The coast plain is from 10 to 30 m. wide and 620 m.
long ; it is bordered on the west by the precipitous eastern side of
the interior plateau of Central Africa. This plateau, considerably
tilted from its horizontal position, attains its highest elevation north
of Lake Nyasa (see LIVINGSTONE MOUNTAINS), where several peaks
rise over 7000 ft., one to 9600, while its mean altitude is about
3000 to 4000 ft. From this region the country slopes towards the
north-west, and is not distinguished by any considerable mountain
ranges. A deep narrow gorge, the so-called " eastern rift-valley,"
traverses the middle of the plateau in a meridional direction. In
the northern part of the country it spreads into several side valleys,
from one of which rises the extinct volcano Kilimanjaro (q.v.), the
highest mountain in Africa (19,321 ft.). Its glaciers send down a
thousand rills which combine to form the Pangani river. About
40 m. west of Kilimanjaro is Mount Meru (14,955 ft.), another
volcanic peak, with a double crater. The greater steepness of its
sides makes Meru in some aspects a more striking object than its taller
neighbour. South-east of Mount Kiiimanjaro are the Pare Moun-
tains and Usambara highlands, separated from the coast by a com-
paratively narrow strip of plain. To the south of the Usambara
hills, and on the eastern edge of the plateau, are the mountainous
regions of Nguru (otherwise Unguru), Useguha and Usagara. As
already indicated, the southern half of Victoria Nyanza and the
eastern shores, in whole or in part, of Lakes Kivu, Tanganyika and
Nyasa, are in German territory. (The lakes are separately de-
scribed.) Several smaller lakes occur in parts of the eastern rift-
valley. Lake Rukwa (q.v.) north-west of Nyasa is presumably
only the remnant of a much larger lake. Its extent varies with
the rainfall of each year. North-west of Kilimanjaro is a sheet of
water known as the Natron Lake from the mineral alkali it contains.
In the northern part of thecolony the Victoria Nyanza isthedominant
physical feature. The western frontier coincides with part of the
eastern wall of another depression, the Central African or Albertine
rift-valley, in which lie Tanganyika, Kivu and other lakes. Along
the north-west frontier north of Kivu are volcanic peaks (see
MFUMBIRO).
The country is well watered, but with the exception of the Rufiji
the rivers, save for a few miles from their mouths, are unnavigable.
The largest streams are the Royuma and Rufiji (q.v.), both rising
in the central plateau and flowing to the Indian Ocean. Next in
importance is the Pangani river, which, as stated above, has its head
springs on the slopes of Kilimanjaro. Flowing in a south-easterly
direction it reaches the sea after a course of some 250 m. The
Wami and Kingani, smaller streams, have their origin in the moun-
tainous region fringing the central plateau, and reach the ocean
opposite the island of Zanzibar. Of inland river systems there are
foury-one draining to Victoria Nyanza, another to Tanganyika,
a third to Nyasa and a fourth to Rukwa. Into Victoria Nyanza
are emptied, on the east, the waters of the Mori and many smaller
streams; on the west, the Kagera (q.v.), besides smaller rivers.
Into Tanganyika flows the Malagarasi, a considerable river with
many affluents, draining the west-central part of the plateau. The
Kalambo river, a comparatively small stream near the southern
end of Tanganyika, flows in a south-westerly direction. Not far
from its mouth there is a magnificent fall, a large volume of water
falling 600 ft. sheer over a rocky ledge of horse-shoe shape. Of
the streams entering Nyasa the Songwe has been mentioned. The
Ruhuhu, which enters Nyasa in 10 30' S., and its tributaries
drain a considerable area west of 36 E. The chief feeders of Lake
Rukwa are the Saisi and the Rupa-Songwe.
Mafia Island lies off the coast immediately north of 8 N. It
has an area of 200 sq. m. The island is low and fertile, and exten-
sively planted with coco-nut palms. It is continued southwards
by an extensive reef, on which stands the chief village, Chobe, the
residence of a few Arabs and Banyan traders. Chobe stands on a
shallow creek almost inaccessible to shipping.
Geology. The narrow foot-plateau of British East Africa broadens
out to the south of Bagamoyo to a width of over 100 m. This is
covered to a considerable extent by rocks of recent and late Tertiary
ages.. Older Tertiary rocks form the bluffs of Lindi. Cretaceous
marls and limestones appear at intervals, extending in places to the
edge of the upper plateau, and are extensively developed on the
Makonde plateau. They are underlain by Jurassic rocks, from
beneath which sandstones and shales yielding Glossopteris browniana
var. indica, and therefore of Lower Karroo age, appear in the south
but are overlapped on the north by Jurassic strata. The central
plateau consists almost entirely of metamorphic rocks with extensive
tracts of granite in Unyamwezi. In the vicinity of Lakes Nyasa
and Tanganyika, sandstones and shales of Lower Karroo age and
yielding seams of coal are considered to owe their position and
preservation to being let down by rift faults into hollows of the
crystalline rocks. In Karagwe certain quartzites, slates and
schistose sandstones resemble the ancient gold-bearing rocks of
South Africa.
The volcanic plateau of British East Africa extends over the
boundary in the region of Kilimanjaro. Of the sister peaks, Kibo
and Mawenzi.the latter is far the oldest and hasbeengreatlydenuded,
while Kibo retains its crateriform shape intact. The rift-valley
faults continue down the depression, marked by numerous volcanoes,
in the region of the Natron Lake and Lake Manyara; while the
steep walls of thedeep depression of Tanganyika and Nyasa represent
the western rift system at its maximum development.
Fossil remains of saurians of gigantic size have been found; one
thigh bone measures 6 ft. 10 in., the same bone in the Diplodoctis
Carnegii measuring only 4 ft. II in.
Climate. The warm currents setting landwards from the Indian
Ocean bring both moisture and heat, so that the Swahili coast has
a higher temperature and heavier rainfall than the Atlantic seaboard
under the same parallels of latitude. The mean temperature on the
west and east coasts of Africa is 72 and 80 Fahr. respectively, the
average rainfall in Angola 36 in., in Dar-es-Salaam 60 in. On the
Swahili coast the south-east monsoon begins in April and the north-
east monsoon in November. In the interior April brings south-east
winds, which continueuntil about the beginning of October. During
the rest of the year changing winds prevail. These winds are charged
with moisture, which they part with on ascending the precipitous
side of the plateau. Rain comes with the south-east monsoon, and
on the northern part of the coast the rainy season is divided into
two parts, the great and the little Masika: the former falls in the
months of September, October, November; the latter in February
and March. In the interior the climate has a more continental
character, and is subject to considerable changes of temperature;
the rainy season sets in a little earlier the farther west and north the
region, and is well marked, the rain beginning in November anil
ending in April ; the rest of the year is dry. On the highest parts
of the plateau the climate is almost European, the nights being
sometimes exceedingly cold. Kilimanjaro has a climate of its own ;
the west and south sides of the mountain receive the greatest rainfall,
while the east and north sides are dry nearly all the year. Malarial
diseases are rather frequent, more so on the coast than farther
inland. The Kilimanjaro region is said to enjoy immunity. Small-
pox is frequent on the coast, but is diminishing before vaccination ;
other epidemic diseases are extremely rare.
Flora and Fauna. The character of the vegetation varies with
and depends on moisture, temperature and soil. On the low littoral
zone the coast produced a rich tropical bush, in which the mangrove
is very prominent. Coco-palms and mango trees have been planted
in great numbers, and also many varieties of bananas. The bush
is grouped in copses on meadows, which produce a coarse tall grass.
The river banks are lined with belts of dense forest, in which
useful timber occurs. The Hyphaene rjalm is frequent, as
well as various kinds of gum-producing mimosas. The slopes of
the plateau which face the rain-bringing monsoon are in some
places covered with primeval forest, in which timber is plentiful.
The silk-cotton tree (Bombax ceiba), miomba, tamarisk, copal tree
(Hymenaea courbaril) are frequent, besides sycamores, banyan trees
(Ficus indica) and the deleb palm (Borassus aethiopum). It is
here we find the Landolphia florida, which yields the best rubber.
The plateau is partly grass land without bush and forest, partly
steppe covered with mimosa bush, which sometimes is almost
impenetrable. Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Meru exhibit on a
vertical scale the various forms of vegetation which characterize
East Africa (see KILIMANJARO).
East Africa is rich in all kinds of antelope, and the elephant,
rhinoceros and hippopotamus are still plentiful in parts. Character-
istic are the giraffe, the chimpanzee and the ostrich. Buffaloes and
zebras occur in two or three varieties. Lions and leopards are
found throughout the country. Crocodiles are numerous in all the
larger rivers. Snakes, many venomous, abound. Of birds there are
comparatively few on the steppe, but by rivers, lakes and swamps
they are found in thousands. Locusts occasion much damage, and
ants of various kinds are often a plague. The tsetse fly (Glossina
morsitans) infests several districts ; the sand-flea has been imported
from the west coast. Land and water turtles are numerous.
Inhabitants. On the coast and at the chief settlements inland
are Arab and Indian immigrants, who are merchants and agri-
culturists. The Swahili (q.v.) are a mixed Bantu and Semitic race
inhabiting the seaboard. The inhabitants of the interior may be
divided into two classes, those namely of Bantu and those of
Hamitic stock. What may be called the indigenous population
consists of the older Bantu races. These tribes have been subject
to the intrusion from the south of more recent Bantu folk, such as
the Yao, belonging to the Ama-Zulu branch of the race, while
from the north there has been an immigration of Hamito-Negroid
peoples. Of these the Masai and Wakuafi are found in the region
between Victoria Nyanza and Kilimanjaro. The Masai (q.v.)
and allied tribes are nomads and cattle raisers. They are warlike,
GERMAN EAST AFRICA
and live in square mud-plastered houses railed tembt which ran be
easily fortified and defended. The Bantu tribes arc in general
peaceful agriculturists, though the Bantus of recent immigration
retain the warlike instincts of the Zulus. The most important
group of the Bantus is the Wanyamwezi (see UNYAMWEa),divided
into many tribes. They are spread over the central plains, and
have for neighbours on the south-east, between Nyasa and the
Rufiji, the warlike Wahehe. The Wangoni (Angoni), a branch
of the Ama-Zulu, are widely spread over the central and Nyasa
regions. Other well-known tribes are the Wasambara, who have
given their name to the highlands between Kilimanjaro and the
coast, and the Warundi, inhabiting the district between Tangan-
yika and the Kagera. In Karagwc. a region adjoining the south-
west shores of Victoria Nyanza, the Bahima are the ruling caste.
Formerly Karagwc under its Bahima kings was a powerful state.
Many different dialects are spoken by the Bantu tribes, Swahili
being the most widely known (see BANTU LANGUAGES). Their
religion is the worship of spirits, ancestral and otherwise, accom-
panied by a vague and undefined belief in a Supreme Being,
generally regarded as indifferent to the doings of the people.
The task of civilizing the natives is undertaken in various
ways by the numerous Protestant and Roman Catholic missions
established in the colony, and by the government. The slave
trade has been abolished, and though domestic slavery is allowed,
all children of slaves born after the 3tst of December 1005 arc
free. For certain public works the Germans enforce a system of
compulsory labour. Efforts are made by instruction in govern-
ment and mission schools to spread a knowledge of the German
language among the natives, in order to fit them for subordinate
posts in administrative offices, such as the customs. Native
rhiefs in the interior are permitted to help in the administration
of justice. The Mission du Sacr6 Coeur in Bagamoyo, the oldest
mission in the colony, has trained many young negroes to be
useful mechanics. The number of native Christians is small.
The Moslems have vigorous and successful missions.
Chief Tovni. The seaports of the colony are Tanga (pop. about
6000), Bagamoyo 5000 (with surrounding district some 18,000),
Dar-es-Salaam 24.000, Kilwa Sooo, (these have separate notices),
Pangani, Sadani, Lindi and Mikindani. Pangani (pop. about 3500)
b situated at the mouth of the river of the same name; it serves a
district rich in tropical products, and does a thriving trade with
Zanzibar and Pemba. Sadani is a smaller port midway between
Pangani and Bagamoyo. Lindi (10* o' S., 39 40' E.) is So m. north
of Cape Detgado. Lindi (Swahili for The Deep Below) Bay runs
inland 6 m. and is 3 m. across, affording deep anchorage. Hills to
the west of the bay rise over 1000 ft. The town (pop. about 4000)
M picturesquely situated on the north side of the bay. The Arab
boma, constructed in 1800, has been rebuilt by the Germans, who
have retained the fine sculptured gateway. Formerly a rendezvous
for slave caravans Lindi now has a more legitimate trade in white
ivory. Mikindani is the most southern port in the colony. Owing
to the prevalence of malaria there, few Europeans live at the town,
and trade is almost entirely in the hands of Banyans.
Inland the principal settlements are Korogwe, Mrogoro, Kilossa,
Mpapua and Tabora. Korogwe is in the Osambara hills, on the
north bank of the Pangani river, and is reached by railway from
Tanga. Mrogoro is some 140 m. due west of Dar-os- Salaam, and is
the first important station on the road to Tanganyika. Kilossa and
Mpapua are farther inland on the same caravan route. Tabora (pop.
about 37,000), the chief town of the Wanyamwezi tribes, occupies an
important position on the central plateau, beinj the meeting-place
of the trade routes from Tanganyika, Victoria Nyanza and the
coast. In the railway development of the colony Tabora is destined
to become the central junction of lines going north, south, cast and
On Victoria Nyanza there are various settlements. Mwanza, on
the southern shore, is the lake terminus of the route from Bagamoyo:
Bukoba is on the western shore, and Schirati on the eastern shore;
both situated a little south of the British frontier. On the German
coast of Tanganyika are L'jiji (q.t.). pop. about 14,000, occupying a
central position; Usumbura, at the northern end of the lake where
is a fort built by the Germans,; and Bismarckburg, near the southern
end. On the snores of the lake between L'jiji and Bismarckburg are
four stations of the Algerian " While Fathers," all possessing
churches, schools and other stone buildings. Langenburg is a
settlement on the north-east side of Lake Nyasa. The government
Ullrim. called New Langenburg, occupies a higher and more healthy
she north-west of the lake. Wiedhafen is on the east side of Nyasa
at the mouth of the Ruhuhu, and is the terminus of the caravan
route from Kilwa.
t. The chief wealth of the country is derived from
773
and the produce of the forests. From the forests are
obtained rubber, copal, bark, various kinds of fibre, and timber
(teak, mahogany, &c.). The cultivated products include coffee, the
coco-nut palm, tobacco, sugar-cane, cotton, vanilla, sorghum, earth-
nuts, sesame, maize, rice, beans, peas, bananas (in large quantities),
yams, manioc and hemp. Animal productsare ivory, hides, tortoise-
shell and pearls. On the plateaus large numbers of cattle, goats ami
sheep are reared. The natives have many small smithies. Gold,
coal, iron, graphite, copper and salt have been found. Garnets an
plentiful in the Lindi district, and agates, topaz, moonstone and
other precious stones are found in the colony. The chief gold and
iron deposits are near Victoria Nyanza. In the Mwanza district
are conglomerate reefs of great extent. Mining began in 1905.
Mica is mined near Mrogoro. The chief exports are sisal fibre,
rubber, hides and skins, wax, ivory, copra, coffee, ground-nuts and
cotton. The imports are chiefly articles of food, textiles, and metal-.
and hardware. More than half the entire trade, both export and
import, is with Zanzibar. Germany takes about 30% of the trade.
In the ten years 1896-1905 the value of the external trade increased
from about 600,000 to over 1,100,000. In 1907 the imports wen-
valued at 1,190,000, the exports at 625,000.
Numerous companies are engaged in developing the resources of
the country by trading, planting and mining. The most important
is the Deutsch-Ostafrikanische Gesetlschaft, founded in 1885, which
has trading stations in each seaport, and flourishing plantations in
various parts of the country. It is the owner of vast tracts of land.
From 1890 to 1903 this company was in possession of extensive
mining, railway, banking and coining rights, but in the last-named
year, by agreement with the German government, it became a land
company purely. The company has a right to a fifth part of the
land within a zone of 10 m. on either side of any railway built in the
colony previously to 1935. In addition to the companies a com-
paratively large number of private individuals have laid out planta-
tions, Usambara and Pare having become favourite districts for
agricultural enterprise. In the delta of the Rufiji and in the Kilwa
district cotton-growing was begun in 1901. The plantations arc all
worked by native labour. The government possesses large forest
reserves.
Communications. Good roads for foot traffic have been made
from the seaports to the trading stations on Lakes Nyasa, Tangan-
yika and Victoria. Caravans from Dar-es-Salaam to Tanganyika
take 60 days to do the journey. The lack of more rapid means of
communication hindered the development of the colony and led to
economic cnses (1898-1902), which were intensified, and in part
created, by the building of a railway in the adjacent British pro-
tectorate from Mombasa to Victoria Nyanza, the British line securing
the trade with the lake. At that time the only railway in the country
was a line from Tanga to the Usambara highlands. This railway
passes through Korogwe (52 m. from Tanga) and is continued via
Mombo to \\ ilhcliiiM.il, a farther distance of 56 m. The building
of a trunk line from Dar-es-Salaam to Mrogoro (140 m.), and ulti-
mately to Ujiji by way of Tabora, was begun in 1905. Another
proposed line would run from Kilwa to Wiedhafen on Lake Nyasa.
This railway would give the quickest means of access to British
Central Africa and the southern part of Belgian Congo. On each
of the three lakes is a government steamer. British steamers on
Victoria Nyanza maintain communication between the German
stations ana the lake terminus of the Uganda railway. The German
East Africa Line of Hamburg runs a fleet of first-class steamers to
East Africa, which touch at Tanga, Dar-es-Salaam and Zanzibar.
There is a submarine cable from Dar-es-Salaam to Zanzibar, and an
overland line connecting all the coast stations.
Administration, Revenue, ffc. For administrative purposes the
country is divided into districts {Bezirksdmler),aLndstat\ons(Slations-
bezirke). Each station has a chief, who is subordinate to the official
of his district, these in their turn being under the governor, who
resides in Dar-es-Salaam. The governor is commander of the
colonial force, which consists of natives under white officers. District
councils are constituted, on which the European merchants and
planters are represented. Revenue is raised by taxes on imports
and exports, on licences for the sale of land and spirituous liquors,
and for wood-cutting, by harbour and other dues, and a hut tax on
natives. The deficiency between revenue and expenditure is met
by a subsidy from the imperial government. In no case during the
first twenty-one years' existence of the colony had the local revenue
reached 60% of the local expenditure, which in normal ycarsamountcd
to about 500,000. In 1909, however, only the expenditure necessary
for military purposes (183,500) was received by way of subsidy.
History. Until nearly the middle of the ipth century only the
coast lands of the territory now forming German East Africa
were known cither to Europeans or to the Arabs. When at the
beginning of the i6th century the Portuguese obtained possession
of the towns along the East African coast, they had been, for
periods extending in some cases fully five hundred years, under
Arab dominion. After the final withdrawal of the Portuguese in
the early years of the i8th century, the coast towns north of
Cape Delgado fell under the sway of the Muscat Arabs, passing
774
GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD
from them to the sultan of Zanzibar. From about 1830, or a
little earlier, the Zanzibar Arabs began to penetrate inland,
and by 1850 had established themselves at Ujiji on the eastern
shore of Lake Tanganyika. The Arabs also made their way
south to Nyasa. This extension of Arab influence was accom-
panied by vague claims on the part of the sultan of Zanzibar
to include all these newly opened countries in his empire. How
far from the coast the real authority of the sultan extended was
never demonstrated. Zanzibar at this time was in semi-
dependence on India, and British influence was strong at the
court of Bargash, who succeeded to the sultanate in 1870.
Bargash in 1877 offered to Sir (then Mr) William Mackinnon a
lease of all his mainland territory. The offer, made in the year
in which H. M. Stanley's discovery of the course of the Congo
initiated the movement for the partition of the continent, was
declined. British influence was, however, still so powerful
in Zanzibar that the agents of the German Colonization Society,
who in 1884 sought to secure for their country territory on the
east coast, deemed it prudent to act secretly, so that both Great
Britain, and Zanzibar might be confronted with accomplished
facts. Making their way inland, three young Germans, Karl
Peters, Joachim Count Pfeil and Dr Jtihlke, concluded a
" treaty " in November 1884 with a chieftain in Usambara who
was declared to be independent of Zanzibar. Other treaties
followed, and on the i7th of February 1885, the German emperor
granted a charter of protection to the Colonization Society.
The German acquisitions were resented by Zanzibar, but were
acquiesced in by the British government (the second Gladstone
administration). The sultan was forced to acknowledge their
validity, and to grant a German company a lease of his mainland
territories south of the mouth of the Umba river, a British
company formed by Mackinnon taking a lease of the territories
north of that point. The story of the negotiations between
Great Britain, Germany and France which led to this result is
told elsewhere (see AFRICA, section 5). By the agreement of the
ist of July 1890, between the British and German governments,
and by agreements concluded between Germany and Portugal in
1886 and 1894, and Germany and the Congo Free State in 1884
and later dates, the German sphere of influence attained its
present area. On the 28th of October 1 890 the sultan of Zanzibar
ceded absolutely to Germany the mainland territories already
leased to a German company, receiving as compensation 200,00x3.
While these negotiations were going on, various German
companies had set to work to exploit the country, and on the
i6th of August 1888 the German East African Company, the
lessee of the Zanzibar mainland strip, took over the administra-
tion from the Arabs. This was followed, five days later, by a
revolt of all the coast Arabs against German rule the Germans,
raw hands at the task of managing Orientals, having aroused
intense hostility by their brusque treatment of the dispossessed
rulers. The company being unable to quell the revolt, Captain
Hermann Wissmann subsequently Major Hermann von Wiss-
mann (1853-1905) was sent out by Prince Bismarck as imperial
commissioner. Wissmann, with 1000 soldiers, chiefly Sudanese
officered by Germans, and a German naval contingent, succeeded
by the end of 1889 in crushing the power of the Arabs. Wissmann
remained in the country until 1891 as commissioner, and later
(1895-1896) was for eighteen months governor of the colony
as the German sphere had been constituted by proclamation
(ist of January 1897). Towards the native population Wiss-
mann's attitude was conciliatory, and under his rule the develop-
ment of the resources of the country was pushed on. Equal
success did not attend the efforts of other administrators; in
1891-1892 Karl Peters had great trouble with the tribes in
the Kilimanjaro district and resorted to very harsh methods,
such as the execution of women, to maintain his authority.
In 1896 Peters was condemned by a disciplinary court for a
misuse of official power, and lost his commission. After 1891,
in which year the Wahehe tribe ambushed and almost completely
annihilated a German military force of 350 men under Baron
von Zelewski, there were for many years no serious risings
against German authority, which by the end of 1898 had been
established over almost the whole of the hinterland. The
development of the country was, however, slow, due in part to
the disinclination of the Reichstag to vote supplies sufficient for
the building of railways to the fertile lake regions. Count von
Gotzen (governor 1901-1906) adopted the policy of maintaining
the authority of native rulers as far as possible, but as over the
greater part of the colony the natives have no political organiza-
tions of any size, the chief burden of government rests on the
German authorities. In August 1905 serious disturbances
broke out among the Bantu tribes in the colony. The revolt
was due largely to resentment against the restrictions enforced
by the Germans in their efforts at civilization, including com-
pulsory work on European plantations in certain districts.
Moreover, it is stated that the Herero in rebellion in German
South-west Africa sent word to the east coast natives to follow
their example, an instance of the growing solidarity of the black
races of Africa. Though the revolt spread over a very large
area, the chief centre of disturbance was the region between
Nyasa and the coast at Kilwa and Lindi. Besides a number of
settlers a Roman Catholic bishop and a party of four missionaries
and nuns were murdered in the Kilwa hinterland, while nearer
Nyasa the warlike Wangoni held possession of the country.
The Germans raised levies of Masai and Sudanese, and brought
natives from New Guinea to help in suppressing the rising,
besides sending naval and military contingents from Germany.
In general, the natives, when encountered, were easily dispersed,
but it was not until March 1906 that the coast regions were
again quiet. In July following the Wangoni were beaten in a
decisive engagement. It was officially stated that the death-roll
for the whole war was not below 120,000 men, women and
children. In 1907 a visit was paid to the colony by Herr B.
Dernburg, the colonial secretary. As a result of this visit more
humane methods in the treatment of the natives were introduced,
and measures taken to develop more fully the economic resources
of the country.
AUTHORITIES. S. Passarge and others, Das deutsche Kolonial-
reich, Erster Band (Leipzig, 1909); P. Reichard, Deutsch Ostafrika,
das Land and seine Bewohner (Leipzig, 1892); F. Stuhlmann, Mil
Emin Pasha im Herzen von Afrika (Berlin, 1894); Brix Foerster,
Deutsch-Ostafrika; Geographic und Geschichte (Leipzig, 1890); Oscar
Baumann, InDeutsch-Ostafrikawdhrenddes Aufstands (Vienna, 1890),
Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete (Berlin, 1891), and Durch
Massailand zur Nilquelle (Berlin, 1894). For special studies see P.
Samassa, Die Besiedelung Deutsch-Ostafrihas (Leipzig, 1909); A.
Engler, Die Pflanzenwelt Ost-Afrikas und der Nachbargebiete (Berlin,
1895-1896) and other works by the same author; Stromer von
Reichenbach, Die Geologic der deutschen Schutzgebiete in Afrika
(Munich and Leipzig, 1896); W. Bornhardt, Deutsch-Ostafrika
(Berlin, 1898); F. Fullerborn, Beitrdge zur physischen Anthropoiogie
der Nord-Nyassalander (Berlin, 1902), a fine series of pictures of
native types, and Das Deutsche Nyassa- und Ruviuma-gebiet, Land
und Leute (Berlin, 1906); K. Weule, Native Life in East Africa
(London, 1909); Hans Meyer, Der Kilimandjaro (Berlin, 1900) and
Die Eisenbahnen im tropiichen Afrika (Leipzig, 1902) ; J. Strandes,
Die Portugiesenzeit von Deutsch- u. Englisch-Ostafrika (Berlin, 1899),
a valuable monograph on the Portuguese period. See also British
Official Reports on East Africa (specially No. 4221 ann. ser.), the
German White Books and annual reports, the Mitteilungen aus den
deutschen Schutzgebiete, and the Deutsches Kolonialblatt, published
fortnightly at Berlin since 1890. The Deutscher Kolonial-Atlas has
maps on the 1 : 1,000,000 scale. (F. R. C.)
GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD OF NORTH AMERICA,
a Protestant church dating from October 1840, and known,
in its early years, as the German Evangelical Association of the
West. It was formed by six German ministers who had been
ordained in Prussia and were engaged in missionary and pioneer
work in Missouri and Illinois. The original organization was
strengthened in 1858 by amalgamation with the German Evan-
gelical Church Association of Ohio, and later by the inclusion of
the German United Evangelical Synod of the East (1860), the
Evangelical Synod of the North-West (1872) and the United
Evangelical Synod of the East (1872). The church bases its
position on the Bible as interpreted by the symbols of the
Lutheran and Reformed churches so far as they are in agreement,
points of difference being left to " that liberty of conscience
which, as a component part of the basis of man's ultimate
GERMANIC LAWS
775
responsibility to God himself, is the inalienable privilege of
every believer." The church, which has (1009) 083 ministers
and some 138,000 communicant members, is divided into seven-
teen districts, with officers responsible to the General Synod,
which meets every four years. There are boards for home
and foreign missions, the latter operating chiefly in the Central
Provinces of India. The literature of the church is mainly in
German, though English is rapidly gaining ground.
GERMANIC LAWS. EARLY. Of those Germanic laws of
the early middle ages which are known as leges barbarorum,
we here deal with the principal examples other than Frankish,
viz. (i) Leges Wisigotharum, (2) Lex Burgundionum, (3) Pactus
AlamaHHontm and Lex Alamannorum, (4) Lex Bajuvoriorum,
(5) Lex Saxonum, (6) Lex Frisionum, (7) Lex Angliorum el Weri-
norum, hoc est, Thuringorum, and (8) Leges Langobardorum.
All these laws may in general be described as codes of procedure
and tariffs of compositions. They present somewhat similar
features with the Salic law, but often differ from it in the date of
compilation, the amount of fines, the number and nature of
the crimes, the number, rank, duties and titles of the officers,
&c. For the Salic law and other Frankish laws, see SALIC LAW,
and for the edict of Theodoric I., which was applicable to the
Ostrogoths and Romans, see ROMAN LAW.
For the whole body of the Germanic laws see P. Canciani, Bar-
barorum leges antvfuae (Venice, 1781-1789); F. Walter, Corpus
juris fermanifi axitqui (Berlin, 1824); Monumenta Germaniae
mslonta, Letts. For further information on the codes in general,
Me H. M. ZOpfl, Deulicke Rechtigeichichte (4th ed., Heidelberg,
1871-1876); J. E. O. Scobbc, Gesthuhte der deutichen Rcchtsquelltn
(Brunswick. 1860-1864) : Paul Viollet, Hisloire du droit civil franfais
(2nd ed.. Paris, 1893); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte
(2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906).
i. Leges Wisigothorum. Karl Zeumer's edition of these laws
in the 410 series of the Man. Germ. Hist, throws new light on all
questions relating to their date and composition. It is now
certain that the earliest written code of the Visigoths dates back
to King Euric (466-485). Besides his own constitutions, Euric
included in this collection constitutions of his predecessors,
Theodoric I. (419-451), Thorisraund (451-453), and Theodoric II.
(453-466), and he arranged the whole in a logical order. Of
this code fragments of chapters cclxxvi. to cccxxxvi. 1 have been
discovered in a palimpsest MS. in the Bibliothcque Nationale
at Paris (Latin coll., No. 12161), a fact which proves that the
code ran over a large area. Euric's code was used for all cases
between Goths, and between them and Romans; in cases
between Romans, Roman law was used. At the instance of
Euric's son, Alaric II., an examination was made of the Roman
laws in use among Romans in his dominions, and the resulting
compilation was approved in 506 at an assembly at Aire, in
Gascony, and is known as the Breviary of Alaric, and sometimes
as the Liber Aniani, from the fact that the authentic copies
bear the signature of the referendaries Anian.
Euric's code remained in force among the Visigoths of Spain
until the reign of Leovigild (568-586), who made a new one,
improving upon that of his predecessor. This work is lost, and
we have no direct knowledge of any fragment of it. In the 3rd
codification, however, many provisions have been taken from
the 2nd, and these are designated by the word " antique" ; by
means of these " antiqua " we are enabled in a certain measure
to reconstruct the work of Leovigild.
After the reign of Leovigild the legislation of the Visigoths
underwent a transformation. The new laws made by the kings
were declared to be applicable to all the subjects in the king-
dom, of whatever race in other words, they became territorial;
and this principle of territoriality was gradually extended to
the ancient x'e. Moreover, the conversion of Reccared I.
(586-601) to orthodoxy effaced the religious differences among
his subjects, and all subjects, qua Christians, had to submit to
the canons of the councils, which were made obligatory by the
kings. After this change had been accepted, Recceswinth (640-
672) made a new code, which was applicable to Visigoths and
Romans alike. This code, known as the Liber judiciorum, is
' The lacunae in these fragments have been filled in by the aid of
the law of the Bavarians, where thechief provisions are reproduced.
divided into 12 books, which are subdivided into tiliili and
chapters (aerae). It comprises 324 constitutions taken from
Leovigild's collection, a few of the laws of Reccared and Sisebut,
99 laws of Chindaswinth (642-653), and 87 of Recceswinth.
A recension of this code of Recceswinth was made in 68 1 by
King Erwig (680-687), and is known as the Lex Wisigothorum
renovala; and, finally, some additamenta were made by Egica
(687-702). In Zcumer's edition of the Leges Wisigolhorum the
versions of Recceswinth and Erwig, where they differ from each
other, are shown in parallel columns, and the laws later than
Erwig are denoted by the sign " nov."
For further information see the preface to Zeumer's edition ;
H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906);
Urena y Smenyaud, La Legislation Gotico-kispana (Madrid, 1905).
2. Lex Burgundionum. This code was compiled by King
Gundobald (474-516), very probably after his defeat by Clovis
in 500. Some additamenta were subsequently introduced either
by Gundobald himself or by his son Sigismund. This law bears
the title of Liber Constitulionum, which shows that it emanated
from the king; it is also known as the Lex Gitndobada or Lex
Gombata. It was used for cases between Burgundians, but was
also applicable to cases between Burgundians and Romans.
For cases between Romans, however, Gundobald compiled the
Lex Romana Burgundionum, called sometimes, through a mis-
reading of the MSS., the Liber Papiani or simply Papianus.
The barbarian law of the Burgundians shows strong traces of
Roman influence. It recognizes the will and attaches great
importance to written deeds, but on the other hand sanctions
the judicial duel and the cojuratores (sworn witnesses). The
vehement protest made in the 9th century by Agobard, bishop
of Lyons, against the Lex Gundobada shows that it was still in
use at that period. So late as the loth and even the nth
centuries we find the law of the Burgundians invoked as personal
law in Cluny charters, but doubtless these passages refer to
accretions of local customs rather than to actual paragraphs
of the ancient code.
The text of the Lex Burgundionum has been published by F.
Bluhme in the Man. Germ.ltist., Leges, iii. 525; by Karl Binding
in the Fontes rerum Bernensium (vol. i., 1880); by J. E. Valentin
Smith (Paris, 1889 seq.); and by von Salis (1892) in the 410 series
of the Man. Germ. hist. Cf. R. Dareste, " La Loi Gombette," in the
Journal des savants (]u\y 1891).
3. Pactus Alamannorum and Lex Alamannorum. Of the
laws of the Alamanni, who dwelt between the Rhine and the
Lech, and spread over Alsace and what is now Switzerland to
the south of Lake Constance, we possess two different texts.
The earlier text, of which five short fragments have come down
to us, is known as the Pactus Alamannorum, and from the per-
sistent recurrence of the expression " et sic convenit " was most
probably drawn up by an official commission. The reference to
affranchisement in ecclesia shows that it was composed at a period
subsequent to the conversion of the Alamanni to Christianity.
There is no doubt that the text dates back to the reign of
Dagobert I., i.e. to the first half of the 7th century. The later
text, known as the Lex Alamannorum, dates from a period when
Alamannia was independent under national dukes, but recognized
the theoretical suzerainty of the Frankish kings. There seems
no reason to doubt the St Gall MS., which states that the law
had its origin in an agreement between the great Alamannic
lords and Duke Landfrid, who ruled the duchy from 709 to 730.
The two texts have been published by J. Merkel in the Man.
Germ, hist.. Leges, iii., and by Karl Lehmann in the 410 series of
the same collection.
4. Lex Bajuvoriorum.We possess an important law of the
Bavarians, whose duchy was situated in the region east of the
Lech, and was an outpost of Germany against the Huns, known
later as Avars. Parts of this law have been taken directly from
the Visigothic law of Euric and from the law of the Alamanni.
The Bavarian law, therefore, is later than that of the Alamanni.
It dates unquestionably from a period when the Frankish
authority was very strong in Bavaria, when the dukes were
vassals of the Frankish kings. Immediately after the revolt of
Bavaria in 743 the Bavarian duke Odilo was forced to submit
to Pippin and Carloman, the sons of Charles Martel, and to
776
GERMANICUS CAESAR
recognize the Prankish suzerainty. About the same period, too,
the church of Bavaria was organized by St Boniface, and the
country divided into several bishoprics; and we find frequent
references to these bishops (in the plural) in the law of the
Bavarians. On the other hand, we know that the law is anterior
to the reign of Duke Tassilo III. (740-788). The date of com-
pilation must, therefore, be placed between 743 and 749.
There is an edition of the Lex Bajuvariorum by J. Merkel in the
Man. Germ, hist., Leges, iii. 183, and another was undertaken by
E. von Schwind for the 4to series of the same collection. Cf. von
Schwind's article in the Neues Archiv, vol. xxxi.
5. Lex Saxonum. Germany comprised two other duchies,
Saxony and Frisia, of each of which we possess a text of law.
The Lex Saxonum has come down to us in two MSS. and two old
editions (those of B. J. Herold and du Tillet), and the text has
been edited by Karl von Richthofen in the Man. Germ, hist.,
Leges, v. The law contains ancient customary enactments of
Saxony, and, in the form in which it has reached us, is later than
the conquest of Saxony by Charlemagne. It is preceded by two
capitularies of Charlemagne for Saxony the Capitulatio de
partibus Saxoniae (A. Boretius i. 68), which dates undoubtedly
from 782, and is characterized by great severity, death being the
penalty for every offence against the Christian religion; and the
Capitulare Saxonicum (A. Boretius i. 71), of the 28th of October
797, in which Charlemagne shows less brutality and pronounces
simple compositions for misdeeds which formerly entailed death.
The Lex Saxonum apparently dates from 803, since it contains
provisions which are in the Capitulare legi Ribuariae additum
of that year. The law established the ancient customs, at the
same time eliminating anything that was contrary to the spirit
of Christianity; it proclaimed the peace of the churches, whose
possessions it guaranteed and whose right of asylum it recognized.
6. Lex Frisionum. This consists of a medley of documents
of the most heterogeneous character. Some of its enactments
are purely pagan thus one paragraph allows the mother to kill
her new-born child, and another prescribes the immolation to
the gods of the defiler of their temple; others are purely Christian,
such as those which prohibit incestuous marriages and working
on Sunday. The law abounds in contradictions and repetitions,
and the compositions are calculated in different moneys. From
this it would appear that the documents were merely materials
collected from various sources and possibly with a view to the
compilation of a homogeneous law. These materials were appar-
ently brought together at the beginning of the gth century, at a
time of intense legislative activity at the court of Charlemagne.
There are no MSS. of the document extant ; our knowledge of it
is based upon B. J. Herald's edition (Originum ac Germanicarum
antiqv.itatum libri, Basel, 1557), which has been reproduced by
Karl von Richthofen in the Man. Germ, hist., Leges, iii. 631.
7. Lex Angliorum et Werinorum, hoc est, Thuringomm. In
early times there dwelt in Thuringia, south of the river Unstrut,
the Angli, who gave their name to the pagus Engili, and to the
east, between the Saale and the Elster, the Warni (Werini, or
Varini), whose name is seen in Werenofeld. In the gth century,
however, this region (then called Werenofeld) was occupied by
the Sorabi, and the Warni and Angli either coalesced with the
Thuringi or sought an asylum in the north of Germany. A
collection of laws has come down to us bearing the name of
these two peoples, the Lex Angliorum et Werinorum, hoc est,
Thuringorum. This text is a collection of local customs arranged
in the same order as the law of the Ripuarians. Parts of it are
based on the Capitulare legi Ribuariae additum of 803, and it
seems to have been drawn up in the same conditions and circum-
stances as the law of the Saxons. There is an edition of this code
by Karl von Richthofen in the Man. Germ, hist., Leges, v. 103.
The old opinion that the law originated in south Holland is '
entirely without foundation.
8. Leges Langobardorum. We possess a fair amount of
information on the origin of the last barbarian code, the laws
of the Lombards. The first part, consisting of 388 chapters,
is known as the Edictus Langobardorum, and was promulgated
by King Rothar at a diet held at Pavia on the 22nd of November
643. This work, composed at one time and arranged on a
systematic plan , is very remarkable. The compilers knew Roman
law, but drew upon it only for their method of presentation and
for their terminology; and the document presents Germanic law
in its purity. Rothar's edict was augmented by his successors:
Grimoald (668) added nine chapters; Liutprand (713-735),
fifteen volumes, containing a great number of ecclesiastical
enactments; Ratchis (746), eight chapters; and Aistulf (755),
thirteen chapters. After the union of the Lombards to the
Prankish kingdom, the capitularies made for the entire kingdom
were applicable to Italy. There were also special capitularies
for Italy, called Capitula Italica, some of which were appended
to the edict of Rothar.
At an early date compilations were formed in Italy for the use
of legal practitioners and jurists. Eberhard, duke and margrave
of Rhaetia and Friuli, arranged the contents of the edict with its
successive additamenta into a Concordia de singulis causis
(829-832). In the loth century a collection was made of the
capitularies in use in Italy, and this was known as the Capitulare
Langobardorum. Then appeared, under the influence of the
school of law at Pavia, the Liber legis Langobardorum, also
called Liber Papiensis (beginning of nth century), and the
Lombarda (end of nth century) in two forms that given in a
Monte Cassino MS. and known as the Lombarda Casinensis, and
the Lombarda Vulgata.
There are editions of the Edictus, the Concordia, and the Liber
Papiensis by F. Bluhme and A. Boretius in the Man. Germ, hist.,
Leges, iv. Bluhme also gives the rubrics of the Lombardae, which
were published by F. Lindenberg in his Codex legum antiquarum in
1613. For further information on the laws of the Lombards see
J. Merkel, Geschichte des Langobardenrechts (1850) ; A. Boretius,
Die Kapitularien im Langobardenreich (1864); and C. Kier, Edictus
Rotari (Copenhagen, 1898). Cf. R. Dareste in the Nouvelle Revue
historique de droit fran$ ais et etranger (1900, p. 143). (C. PF.)
GERMANICUS CAESAR (15 B.C.-A.D. 19), a Roman general
and provincial governor in the reign of Tiberius. The name
Germanicus, the only one by which he is known in history, he
inherited from his father, Nero Claudius Drusus, the famous
general, brother of Tiberius and stepson of Augustus. His mother
was the younger Antonia, daughter of Marcus Antonius and
niece of Augustus, and he married Agrippina, the granddaughter
of the same emperor. It was natural, therefore, that he should
be regarded as a candidate for the purple. Augustus, it would
seem, long hesitated whether he should name him as his successor,
and as a compromise required his uncle Tiberius to adopt him,
though Tiberius had a son of his own. Of his early years and
education little is known. That he possessed considerable
literary abilities, and that these were carefully trained, we gather,
both from the speeches which Tacitus puts into his mouth, and
from the reputation he left as an orator, as attested by Suetonius
and Ovid, and from the extant fragments of his works.
At the age of twenty he served his apprenticeship as a soldier
under Tiberius, and was rewarded with the triumphal insignia
for his services in crushing the revolt in Dalmatia and Pannonia.
In A.D. 1 1 he accompanied Tiberius in his campaign on the Rhine,
undertaken, in consequence of the defeat of Varus, with the
object of securing the German frontier. In 12 he was made
consul, and increased his popularity by appearing as an advocate
in the courts of justice, and by the celebration of brilliant games.
Soon afterwards he was appointed by Augustus to the important
command of the eight legions on the Rhine. The news of the
emperor's death (14) found Germanicus at Lugdunum (Lyons),
where he was superintending the census of Gaul. Close upon this
came the report that a mutiny had broken out among his legions
on the lower Rhine. Germanicus hurried back to the camp,
which was now in open insurrection. The tumult was with
difficulty quelled, partly by well-timed concessions, for which
the authority of the emperor was forged, but chiefly owing to
his personal popularity. Some of the insurgents actually
proposed that he should put himself at their head and secure
the empire for himself, but their offer was rejected with indig-
nation. In order to calm the excitement Germanicus determined
at once on an active campaign. Crossing the Rhine, he attacked
and routed the Marsi, and laid waste the valley of the Ems.
GERMANIUM GERMAN LANGUAGE
777
In the following year he marched against Arminius, the conqueror
of Varus, and performed the last rites over the remains of the
Roman soldiers that still lay there unburicd, erecting a barrow
to mark the spot. Arminius, however, favoured by the marshy
ground, was able to bold his own, and it required another
campaign before he was finally defeated. A masterly combined
movement by land and water enabled Germanicus to concentrate
his forces against the main body of the Germans encamped on
the Weser, and to crush them in two obstinately contested battles.
A monument erected on the field proclaimed that the army of
Tiberius had conquered every tribe between the Rhine and the
Elbe. Great, however, as the success of the Roman arms had
been, it was not such as to justify this boastful inscription; we
read of renewed attacks from the barbarians, and plans of a
fourth campaign for the next summer.
But the success of Germanicus had already stirred the jealousy
and fears of Tiberius, and he was reluctantly compelled to return
to Rome. On the 26th of May 17 he celebrated a triumph.
The enthusiasm with which he was welcomed, not only by the
populace, but by the emperor's own praetorians, was so great
that the earliest pretext was seized to remove him from the capital.
He was sent to the East with extraordinary powers to settle a
disputed succession in Parthia and Armenia. At the same time
Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, one of the most violent and ambitious
of the old nobility, was sent as governor of Syria to watch his
movements. Germanicus proceeded by easy stages to his
province, halting on his way in Dalmalia, and visiting the battle-
field of Actium, Athens, Ilium, and other places of historic interest.
At Rhodes he met his coadjutor Piso, who was seeking everywhere
to thwart and malign him. When at last he reached his destina-
tion, he found little difficulty in effecting the settlement of the
disturbed provinces, notwithstanding Piso's violent and persistent
opposition. At Artaxata Zeno, the popular candidate for the
throne, was crowned king of Armenia. To the provinces of
Cappadocia and Commagene Roman governors were assigned;
Parthia was conciliated by the banishment of the dethroned
king Vonones.
After wintering in Syria Germanicus started for a tour in
Egypt. The chief motive for his journey was love of travel and
antiquarian study, and it seems never to have occurred to him,
till he was warned by Tiberius, that he was thereby transgressing
an unwritten law which forbade any Roman of rank to set foot
in Egypt without express permission. On his return to Syria
be found that all his arrangements had been upset by Piso.
Violent recriminations followed, the result of which, it would
seem, was a promise on the part of Piso to quit the province.
But at this juncture Germanicus was suddenly attacked at
Epidaphne near Antioch by a violent illness, which he himself
and his friends attributed to poison administered by Plancina,
the wife of Piso, at the instigation of Tiberius. Whether these
suspicions were true is open to question; it seems more probable
that his death was due to natural causes. His ashes were brought
to Rome in the following year (20) by his wife Agrippina, and
deposited in the grave of Augustus. He had nine children,
six of whom, three sons and three daughters, survived him,
amongst them the future emperor Gaius and the notorious
Agrippina, the mother of Nero. The news of his death cast a
gloom over the whole empire. Nor was Germanicus unworthy
of this passionate devotion. He had wiped out a great national
disgrace; be had quelled the most formidable foe of Rome.
His private life had been stainless, and he possessed a singularly
attractive personality. Yet there were elements of weakness
in his character which his short life only half revealed: an
impetuosity which made him twice threaten to take his own
life; a superstitious vein which impelled him to consult oracles
and shrink from bad omens; an amiable dilettantism which led
him to travel in Egypt while his enemy was plotting his ruin;
a want of nerve and resolution which prevented him from coming
to aa open rupture with Piso till it was too late.
He possessed considerable literary abilities; his speeches and
Greek comedies were highly spoken of by his contemporaries.
But the only specimen of bis work that has come down to us is
the translation in Latin hexameters (generally attributed to
him, although some consider Domitian the author), together with
scholia, of the Phaenomena of Arams, which is superior to those
of Cicero and Avienus (best edition by A. Breysig, 1867; 1899,
without the scholia). A few extant Greek and Latin epigrams
also bear the name Germanicus.
In addition to monographs by A. Zingcrle (Trent, 1867) and
A. Breysig (Erfurt, 1892), there are treatises on the German i.im
luiktns by E. von Wictcrshcim (1850), P. Hofer (1884), F. Knoke
(1887. 1880), W. Frickc (1889), A. Taramclli (1891), Dahm (1902).
Sec Tacitus, Annals, i.-iv. (cd. Furncaux); Suetonius, Augustus,
Tiberius;}. C. Tarver, Tiberius (1902) ; Mcrivalc, Hist, of the Romans
under the Empire, chs. 43, 43; H. Schiller, Cesckichte der rdmischen
Kaistrteit. i. I (1883), pp. 227, 258, 261-266, 270-276; M. Schanz,
Ge schickte der rotnischen LUttratur, pt. ii. (2nd cd., 1901), and Teuffel-
Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. tr., 1900), 275.
GERMANIUM (symbol Ge, atomic weight 72-5); one of the
metallic elements included in the same natural family as carbon,
silicon, tin and lead. It was discovered in 1886 by C. Winkler
in argyrodite, a mineral found at Freiberg in Saxony. On ex-
amination of the metal and its salts it was shown to be identical
with the hypothetical element ekasilicon, whose properties
had been predicted by D. Mendel6efl many years previously.
The element is of extremely rare occurrence, being met with
only in argyrodite and, to a very small extent, in euxenitc. It
may be obtained from argyrodite by heating the mineral in a
current of hydrogen; or by heating the dioxide to redness with
carbon. It forms grey coloured octahedra of specific gravity
5-496 at 20 C., melting at 900 C.; it burns at a red heat, is ,
insoluble in hydrochloric acid, but dissolves in aqua regie, and
is also soluble in molten alkalis. Two oxides of germanium
are known, the dioxide, GcOi, being obtained by roasting the
sulphide and treatment with nitric acid. It is a white powder,
very slightly soluble in water, and possesses acid properties.
By heating with a small quantity of magnesium it is converted
into germanious oxide, GeO. By heating the metal with chlorine,
germanic chloride, GeCl, is obtained as a colourless fuming
liquid boiling at 86-87 C., it is decomposed by water forming
a hydrated germanium dioxide. Germanium dichloride, GeClz,
and germanium chloroform, GeHCli, have also been described.
Germanium compounds on fusion with alkaline carbonates
and sulphur form salts known as thiogermanales. If excess of
a mineral acid be added to a solution of an alkaline thiogermanate
a white precipitate of germanium disulphide, GeSj, is obtained.
It can also be obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through
a solution of the dioxide in hydrochloric acid. It is appreciably
soluble in water, and also in solutions of the caustic alkalis and
alkaline sulphides. By heating the disulphide in a current of
hydrogen, germanious sulphide, GeS, is formed. It sublimes in
thin plates of a dark colour and metallic lustre, and is soluble
in solutions of the caustic alkalis. Alkyl compounds of ger-
manium such as germanium tetra-ethyl, Ge(CtHj), a liquid boiling
at 160 C., have been obtained. The germanium salts are
most readily recognized by the white precipitate of the disulphide,
formed in acid solutions, on passing sulphuretted hydrogen.
The atomic weight of the element was determined by C. Winkler
by analysis of the pure chloride GeCU, the value obtained being
72-32, whilst Lecoq de Boisbaudran (Comptes rendus, 1886, 103,
4S 2 ), by a comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of
the element, deduced the value 72-3.
GERMAN LANGUAGE. Together with English and Frisian,
the German language forms part of the West Germanic group
of languages. To this group belongs also Langobardian, a
dialect which died out in the 9th or icth century, while Burgun-
dian, traces of which are not met with later than the sth century,
is usually classed with the East Germanic group. Both these
tongues were at an early stage crushed out by Romance dialects,
a fate which also overtook the idiom of the Western Franks,
who, in the so-called Strassburg Oaths ' of 842, use the
Romance tongue, and are addressed in that tongue by Louis
the German.
Leaving English and Frisian aside, we understand by Deutsche
1 K. Mullenhoff and W. Scherer, Denkmaler deutscher Poesie und
Prosa, 3rd ed., by E. Stcinmeycr, 1892, No. Ixvii.
778
GERMAN LANGUAGE
Sprache the language of those West Germanic tribes, who,
at their earliest appearance in history, spoke a Germanic tongue,
and still speak it at the present day. The chief of these tribes
are: the Saxons, the Franks (but with the restriction noted
above), the Chatti (Hessians), Thuringians, Alemannians and
Bavarians. This definition naturally includes the languages
spoken in the Low Countries, Flemish and Dutch, which are
offsprings of the Low Franconian dialect, mixed with Frisian
and Saxon elements; but, as the literary development of these
languages has been in its later stages entirely independent of
that of the German language, they are excluded from the present
survey.
The German language, which is spoken by about seventy-one
millions, and consequently occupies in this respect the third
place among European languages, borders, in the west and south,
on Romance languages (French, Italian), and also to some
extent on Slavonic. On Italian and Slovenian territory there
are several German-speaking " islands," notably the Sette and
Tredici Communi, east and north-east of the Lake of Garda,
and the " Gottschee Landchen " to the south of Laibach. The
former of these is, however, on the point of dying out. Neighbours
on the east, where the boundary line runs by no means as straight
as on the west or south, are the Magyars and again Slavonic
races. Here, too, there are numerous " islands " on Hungarian
and Slavonic territory. Danes and Frisians join hands with
the Germans in the north. 1
In the west and south the German language has, compared
with its status in earlier periods, undoubtedly lost ground,
having been encroached upon by Romance tongues. This is
the case in French Flanders, in Alsace and Lorraine, at any
rate before the war of 1870, in the valleys south of Monte Rosa
and in southern Tirol; in Styria and Carinthia the encroachment
is less marked, but quite perceptible. On the east, on the other
hand, German steadily spread from the days of Charles the
Great down to recent times, when it has again lost considerable
ground in Bohemia, Moravia and Livonia. At the time of
Charles the Great the eastern frontier extended very little beyond
the lower Elbe, following this river beyond Magdeburg, whence
it passed over to the Saale, the Bohemian forest and the river
Enns (cf. the map in F. Dahn, Urgeschichte der germanischen
und romanischen Volker, vol. iii.). Partly as a result of victories
gained by the Germans over the Avars and Slavs, partly owing to
peaceful colonization, the eastern boundary was pushed forward
in subsequent centuries; Bohemia was in this way won for the
German tongue by German colonists in the I3th century, Silesia
even a little earlier; in Livonia German gained the upper hand
during the I3th century, while about the same time the country
of the Prussians was conquered and colonized by the knights
of the Teutonic order. The dialect which these colonists and
knights introduced bore the Middle German character; and this,
in various modifications, combined with Low German and even
Dutch elements, formed the German spoken in these newly-won
territories. In the north (Schleswig), where at the time of
Charles the Great the river Eider formed the linguistic boundary,
German has gained and is still gaining on Danish.
Before considering the development of the language spoken
within these boundaries, a word of explanation is perhaps
necessary with regard to the word deutsch. As applied to the
language, deutsch first appears in the Latin form theotiscus,
lingua theotisca, teulisca, in certain Latin writings of the 8th and
9th centuries, whereas the original Old High German word
thiudisc, liutisc (from thiot, diot, " people," and the suffix -in;)
signified only " appertaining to the people," " in the manner
of the people." Cf. also Gothic }>iudisko as a translation of etfmus
(Gal. ii. 14). It, therefore, seems probable that if the application
of the word to the language (lingua theotisca) was not exactly
an invention of Latin authors of German nationality, its use
in this sense was at least encouraged by them in order to
1 For a detailed description of the boundary line cf. O. Behaghel's
article in Paul's Grundriss, 2nd ed., pp. 652-657, where there is also
a map, and a very full bibliography relative to the changes in the
boundary.
distinguish their own vernacular (lingua vulgaris) from Latin as
well as from the lingua romana?
In the 8th and gth centuries German or " Deutsch " first
appears as a written language in the dialects of Old High German
and Old Low German. Of an " Urdeutsch " or primitive
German, i.e. the common language from which these sharply
distinguished dialects of the earliest historical period must have
developed, we have no record; we can only infer its character
and it was itself certainly not free from dialectic variations
by a study of the above-named and other Germanic dialects.
It is usual to divide the history of the German language from
this earliest period, when it appears only in the form of proper
names and isolated words as glosses to a Latin text, down to
the present day, into three great sections: (i) Old High German
(Althochdeutsch) and Old Low German (Old Saxon; Altnieder-
deutsch, Altsdchsisch) ; (2) Middle High German (Miilelhoch-
deutsch) and Middle Low German (Millelniederdeutsch); and
(3) Modern High German and Modern Low German (Neuhoch-
deutsch and Neuniederdeutsch). It is more difficult to determine
the duration of the different periods, for it is obvious that the
transition from one stage of a language to another takes place
slowly and gradually.
The first or Old High German period is commonly regarded
as extending to about the year i too. The principal characteristic
of the change from Old High German to Middle High German
is the weakening of the unaccented vowels in final syllables
(cf. O.H.G. tagd, gesli, geban, gabum and M.H.G. tage, geste,
geben, gdben). But it must be remembered that this process
began tentatively as early as the loth century in Low German,
and also that long, unaccented vowels are preserved in the
Alemannic dialect as late as the i4th century and even later.
Opinion is more at variance with regard to the division between
the second and third periods. Some would date Modern High
German from the time of Luther, that is to say, from about
1500. But it must be noted that certain characteristics attributed
to the Modern German vowel system, such as lengthening of
Middle High German short vowels, the change from Middle
High German i, ii, iu to Modern High German ei, au, eu (ou),
of Middle High German ie, uo, tie to Modern High German
i, u, U, made their appearance long before 1500. Taking this
fact into consideration, others distinguish a period of classical
Middle High German extending to about 1250, and a period
of transition (sometimes called Fruhneuhochdeutsch, or Early
Modern High German) from 1250 to 1650. The principal
characteristics of Modern High German would then consist in
a greater stability of the grammatical and syntactical rules, due
to the efforts of earlier grammarians, such as Schottelius,
Gottsched and others, and the substitution of a single vowel
sound for the varying vowels of the singular and plural of the
preterite of strong verbs (cf. Middle High German schreib,
schriben, and Modern High German schrieb, schrieben, &c.).
The much debated question of the origins of Modern High German
has been recently reopened by 0. Behaghel (Geschichte der
deutschen Sprache, I.e. 661), who hopes that a more satisfactory
solution may be arrived at by the study of certain syntac-
tical peculiarities to be seen in the dialects of more recent
periods.
As the middle ages did not produce a German Schriftsprache
or literary language in the modern sense of the word, which
as is undoubtedly the case in Modern German might have
influenced the spoken language (Umgangssprache), the history
of the language in its earlier stages is a history of different
dialects. These dialects will, therefore, claim our attention at
some length.
It may be assumed that the languages of the different West
Germanic tribes enumerated above were, before the appearance
of the tribes in history, distinguished by many dialectic variations;
8 Cf. J. Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, 3rd ed., i. p. 13; F. Kluge,
Etymologisches Worterbuch, 6th ed., pp. 75 ff. ; K. Luick, " Zur
Geschichte des Wortes 'deutsch,' " in Anzeigerfur deutsches Altertum,
xv., pp. 135, 248; H. Fischer, " Theotiscus, Deutsch," in Paul and
Braune's Beitrdge, xviii. p. 203; H. Paul, Deutsches Wdrterbuch
(1897), p. 93.
GERMAN LANGUAGE
779
this was certainly the case immediately after the Migrations,
when the various races began to settle down. But these differ-
ences, consisting presumably in matters of phonology and
vocabulary, were nowhere so pronounced as to exclude a mutual
understanding of individuals belonging to different tribes.
One might compare the case of the Poles and Czechs of the
present day. During the 6th century, however, a phonological
process set in, which ultimately resulted in the separation of
Germany into two great linguistic divisions, south and north,
or, as the languages are called, High and Low German. This
fundamental change, which is known as the second or High
German Soundshifting (Ltiutmsckiekung), spread northward
from the mountainous districts in the south, and, whatever its
cause may have been, 1 left behind it clear and cosily recognizable
effects on the Germanic voiced stop d, which became changed
to I, and more especially on the voiceless stops /, p and k.
Dialects which have shifted initial t and // in the middle of a
word to the affricate It (written s, /i) and p and k in corresponding
positions to the affricates //and *x (written ch), further, /, /> and
* in the middle of words between vowels, to the double spirant
(now written w, ss),ff,kh (written c*),are called High German;
those in which these changes have not token place form the
Low German group, this group agreeing in this respect with
English and Frisian.
Of these sound changes, that of / to Is and tx (ss) is the most
universal, extending over the whole region in which shifting
occurs; that of * to *x fc*). the m *t restricted, being only found
in Old Bavarian, and in the Swiss pronunciation, e.g. in cliimL
The remaining dialects occupy positions between the two
extremes of complete shifting and the absence of shifting. Some
Franconian dialects, for instance, leave p unchanged under
certain conditions, and in one dialect at least, Middle Franconian,
( has remained after vowels in certain pronominal forms (dot,
wot, aUel, &c.). On this ground a subdivision has been made in
the High German dialects into (a) an Upper German (Obcrdeulsch)
and (b) a Middle German (.\filteldeulsch) group; and this sub-
division practically holds good for all periods of the language,
although in Old High German times the Middle German group
is only represented, as far as the written language is onccrned,
by Franconian dialects.
As the scientific study of the German language advanced
there arose a keen revival of interest and that not merely on the
part of scholars in the dialects which were so long held in con-
tempt as a mere corruption of the Schriftfprache.* We are st ill in
the midst of a movement which, under the guidance of scholars,
has, during the last three decades, bestowed great care on many
of the existing dialects; phonological questions have received
most attention, but problems of syntax have also not been
neglected. Monumental works like Wenker's Sprachatlas des
deutsfhen Rticku and dialect dictionaries are either in course
of publication or preparing; ' while the difficult questions
concerned with denning the boundaries if the various dialects
1 Cf. P. Kretschmer, Einlfilunf in die Geschichte der grtechischen
Spracke (Gottingen, 1896), who holds the mingling of Celtic and
Germanic elements in southern and south-western Germany re-
sponsible for the change. It might also be mentioned here that
H. Meyer (Zeitschriftf. deal. Alterlum, xlv. pp. 101 ff.) endeavours to
explain the first soundshifting by thechangeof abode of the Germanic
tribes from the lowlands to the highlands of the Carpathian
Mountain*.
'Of writers who have made extensive use of dialects, it must
suffice to mention here the names of I. H. V'oss, Hebcl, Klaus Groth,
Fritz Reuter, t'steri, G. D. Arnold, Holtei, Castelli, J. G. Seidl and
Anzengruber, and in our own days G. Hauptmann.
Cf. F. Staub and L. Tobler. Sckvxiuritches Idiotikon (1881 ff.);
E. Martin and F. Lienhart, Wdrlerbueh der elsdstischen Mundarten
fStranburg, 1899 ff.); H. Fischer, Sckwabisches Worttrburh
(Tubingen. 1901 ff.). Earlier works, which are already completed,
are I. A. Schmcller, Bayrisdut Wdrterbuch (2nd ed., 2 vols., Munich,
1872-1877); J. B. School. Tiroler Idiotikon (Innsbruck, 1886);
M. Lexer, Kdmtiukes Wdrterbtuk (1862); H. Gradl, Egerlander
Worttrbuck. i. (Eger. 1883); A. F. C. Vilmar, Idiotikon von Kur-
ketten (Marburg. 1883) (with supplements by H. von Pfister);
\V. Crecdius, Otxrhesiiiches Wortertnuk (Darmstadt, 1800-1898).
Professor J. Franck is responsible for a Rheinisches Worlerbuch for
the Prussian Academy.
and explaining the reasons for them form the subject of many
monographs. 4
Beginning in the north we shall now pass briefly in review the
dialects spoken throughout the German-speaking area.
A. THE Low GERMAN DIALECTS
The Low German dialects, as we have seen, stand nearest to the
English and Frisian languages, owing to the total absence of the
consonantal shifting which characterises High German, as well as
to other IH-. uli.uin. > of sounds and inflections, e.g. the loss of the
nasals m and n before the spirants/, s and />. Cf. Old Saxon M (five),
us (us), kuf> (cf. uncouth). The boundary-line between Low and
High German, the so-called Benralher Linie, may roughly be
indicated by the following place-names, on the understanding,
however, that the Ripuarian dialect (sec below) is to be classed
with High German: Montjoie (French border-town), Eupen,
Aachen, i tcnr.it li, DUsscldorf, north of Siegcn, Cassel, Hriligenstadt,
Harzgcrodc, to the Elbe south of Magdeburg; this river forms the
boundary as far as Wittenberg, whence the line passes to Lubben on
the Spree, Filrstenwald on the Oder and Birnbaum near the river
Wart he. Beyond this point the Low Germans have Slavs as their
neighbours. Compared with the conditions in the I3th century,
it appears that Low German has lost ground; down to the I4th
and i.stli centuries several towns, such as Mansfeld, Eislcben,
Merseburg, Halle, Dessau and Wittenberg, spoke Low German.
Low German falls into two divisions, a western division, namely,
Low Franconian, the parent, as we have already said, of Flemish and
Dutch, and an eastern division, Low Saxon (PUtttdeutsch, or, as it
is often simply called, Low German). The chief characteristic of
the division is to be sought in the ending of the first and third person
plural of the present indicative of verbs, this being in the former case
-en, in the latter -et. Inasmuch as the south-eastern part of Low
Franconian inclusive of Gelderland and Cleves shifts final k to
ch (e.g. ich, mich, auch, -lich), it must obviously be separated from
the rest, and in this respect be grouped with High German. Low
Saxon is usually divided into Westphalian (to the west of the Weser)
and Low Saxon proper, between Weser and Elbe. The south-
eastern part of the latter has the verbal ending -en and further shows
the peculiarity that the personal pronoun has the same form in the
dative and accusative (mik, dick), whereas the remainder, as well
as the Westphalian, has mi, di in the dative, and m ; , di or mik, dik
in the accusative. To these Low German dialects must also be
added those spoken east of the Elbe on what was originally Slavonic
territory ; they have the ending -en in the first and third person plural
of verbs.*
B. THE HIGH GERMAN DIALECTS
I. The Middle German Group. This group, which comprises the
dialects of the Middle Rhine, of Hesse, Thuringia, Upper Saxony
(Meissen), Silesia and East Prussia to the east of the lower Vistula
between Bischofswerder, Marienburg, Elbing, Wormditt and
Wartenberg a district originally colonized from Silesia may be
most conveniently divided into an East and a West Middle German
group. A common characteristic of all these dialects is the diminu-
tive suffix -chen, as compared with the Low German form -ken and
the Upper German -lein (O.H.G. tin). East Middle German consists
of Silesian, Upper Saxon and Thuringian,* together with the lin-
guistic colony in East Prussia. While these dialects have shifted
initial Germanic p to ph, or even to/ (fert*>Pferd), the West Middle
German dialects (roughly speaking to the west of the watershed of
Werra and Fulda) have retained it. If, following a convincing
article in the Zeitschrift fur deutschei Altertum (37, 288 ff.) by F.
Wrede, we class East and South Franconian both together may
be called High Franconian with the Upper German dialects, there
only remain in the West Middle German group:* (a) Middle
4 Cf. the article " Mundarten " by R. Locwe in R. Bethge, Ergeb-
nisse und Fortschritte der germanislischen Wissenschafl (Leipzig,
1902), pp. 75-88; and F. Mcntz, Bibliographie der deutschen Mund-
arlforschunr (Leipzig, 1892). Of periodicals may be mentioned
Deutsche Mundarten, by J. W. Nael (Vienna, 1896 ff.); Zeitschrift
fur hochdeutsche Mundarten, by O. Heilig and Ph. Lenz (Heidelberg,
1900 ff.), continued as Zeitschrift f. deutsche Mundarten, Verlag des
Allgemeinen Deutschen Sprachvereins. Owing to its importance as a
model for subseq uent monographs I . Kintcler's Die Kerenzer Mundart
des Kanlons Glarus (Leipzig, 1876) should not be passed unnoticed.
Cf. especially H. Tumpel, " Die Mundarten des alten niedersach-
sischen Gebietes zwischen 1300 und 1500 " (Paul und Braune's
Beitrdee, vii. pp. 1-104); Niederdeutsche Studien, by the same writer
(Bielefeld, 1898); Bahnke, " Uber Sprach- und Gaugrenzen zwischen
Elbe und Weser " (Jahrbuch des Vereins fur niederdeutsche Sprachfor-
schung, vii. p. 77).
' Upper Saxon and Thuringian are sometimes taken as a separate
group.
1 Cf. W. Braune, " Zur Kenntnis des Friinkischen " (Beilrdge, i.
pp. 1-56); O. Bohme, Zur Kenntnis des Oberfrankischen im jj. 14.
und 75. Jahrh. (Dissertation) (Leipzig, 1893^ where a good account
of the differences between the Rhenish Franconian and South
Franconian dialects will be found.
780
GERMAN LANGUAGE
Franconian and (6) Rhenish Franconian. The former of these, 1 which
with its dat, wat, allet, &c. (cf. above) and its retention of the voiced
spirant 6 (written v) represents a kind of transition dialect to Low
German, is itself divided into (a) Ripuarian or Low Rhenish with
Cologne and Aachen (Aix-la-Chapellej as centres, and (/8) Moselle
Franconian 2 with Trier (Treves) as principal town. The latter is
distinguished by the fact that in the Middle High German period
it shifts Germanic -rp- and -rd-, which are retained in (a), to-r/-and
-rt- (cf. werfen, hirtin with werpen, hirdin). 3 The Rhenish Franconian
dialect is spoken in the Rhenish palatinate, in the northern part of
Baden (Heidelberg), Hesse 4 and Nassau, and in the German-
speaking part -of Lorraine. A line drawn from Falkenberg at the
French frontier to Siegen on the Lahn, touching the Rhine near
Boppard, roughly indicates the division between Middle and Rhenish
Franconian.
2. The Upper German Group. The Upper German dialects,
which played the most important part in the literature of the early
periods, may be divided into (a) a Bavarian-Austrian group and (6)
a High Franconian-Alemannic group. Of all the German dialects
the Bavarian-Austrian has carried the soundshifting to its furthest
extreme; here only do we find the labial voiced stop b written p
in the middle of a word, viz. old Bavarian kapames, old Alemannic
kdbames (" we gave "); here too, in the I2th century, we find the
first traces of that broadening of i, u, iu (it) to ei, an, eu, a change
which, even at the present day, is still foreign to the greater part of
the Alemannic dialects. Only in Bavarian do we still find the old
pronominal dual forms es and enk (for ihr and euch). Finally,
Bavarian forms diminutives in -el and -erl (Model, Mdderl), while
the Franconian-Alemannic forms are -la and -le (Madle). On the
other hand, the pronunciation of -.J as -sch, especially -st as -scht
(cf. Last, Haspel, pronounced Lascht, Haschpel), may be mentioned
as characteristic of the Alemannic, just as the fortis pronuncia-
tion of initial t is characteristic of High Franconian, while
the other Franconian and Upper German dialects employ the
lenis.
The Alemannic dialect which, roughly speaking, is separated
from Bavarian by the Lech and borders on Italian territory in the
south and on French in the west, is subdivided into: (a) Swabian,
the dialect of the kingdom of Wurttemberg and the north-western
part of Tirol (cf. H. Fischer, Geographic der schwdbischen Mundart,
1895); (b) High Alemannic (Swiss), including the German dialects
of Switzerland, of the southern part of the Black Forest (the Basel-
Breisgau dialect), and that of Vorarlberg; (c) Low Alemannic,
comprising the dialects of Alsace and part of Baden (to the north
of the Feldberg and south of Rastatt), also, at the present day, the
town of Basel. Only Swabian has taken part in the change of i to
ei, &c., mentioned above, while initial Germanic k has been shifted
to ch (x) only in High Alemannic (cf. chalt, chind, chorn, for kalt,
kind, horn). The pronunciation of as u, u (Hits for Haus) is
peculiar to Alsatian.
The High Franconian dialects, that is to say, east and south (or
south-Rhenish) Franconian, which are separated broadly speaking
by the river Neckar, comprise the language spoken in a part of
Baden, the dialects of the Main valley from Wurzburg upwards to
Bamberg, the dialect of Nuremberg and probably of the Vpgtland
(Plauen) and Egerland. During the older historical period the
principal difference between East and South Franconian consisted
in the fact that initial Germanic d was retained in the latter dialect,
while East Franconian shifted it to t. Both, like Bavarian and
Alemannic, shift initial German p to the affricate pf.
Finally, the Bavarian-Austrian dialect is spoken throughout the
greater part of the kingdom of Bavaria (i.e. east of the Lech and a
fine drawn from the point where the Lech joins the Danube to the
sources of the rivers'EIster and Mulde, this being the East Franconian
border-line), in Austria, western Bohemia, and in the German
linguistic " islands " embedded in Hungary, in Gottschee and the
Sette and Tredici Communi (cf. above). 6
1 Cf. C. Norrenberg, " Lautverschiebungsstufe des Mittelfran-
kischen " (Beitrdge, ix. 371 ff.) ; R. Heinzel, Geschichte der niederfran-
kischen Geschdftssprache (Paderborn, 1874).
* This is also the dialect of the so-called Siebenbiirger Sachsen.
Cf. E. Sieyers, Oxforder Benediktinerregel (Halle, 1887),
p. xvi.; J. Meier, Jolande (1887), pp. vii. ff. ; O. Bohme, I.e.
p. 60.
4 Lower Hesse (the northern and eastern parts) goes, however,
in many respects its own way.
'On the High German dialects cf. K. Weinhold, Alemannische
Grammatik (Berlin, 1863); F. Kauffmann, Geschichte der schwa-
bischen Mundart (Strassburg, 1870); E. Haendcke, Die mundartlichen
Elemente in den elsdssischen Urkunden (Strassburg, 1894) ; K.
Weinhold, Bairische Grammatik (1867); J. A. Schmeljer, Die Mund-
arten Baierns (Munich, 1821); J. N. Schwabl, Die altbairischen
Mundarten (Mtinchen, 1903) ; O. Brenner, Mundarten und Schrift-
sprache in Bayern (Bamberg, 1890); J. Schatz, Die Mundart von
fmsl (Strassburg, 1897) ; J. W. Nagl, Der Vocalismus der bairisch-
osterreichischen Mundarten (1890-1891); W. Gradl, Die Mundarten
Westb6hmens (Munich, 1896) ; P. Lessiak, " Die Mundart von Pernegg
in Karnten " (Paul and Braune, Beitrdge, vol. xxviii.).
THE OLD HIGH GERMAN PERIOD
The language spoken during the Old High German period, that
is to say, down to about the year 1050, is remarkable for the fulness
and richness of its vowel-sounds in word-stems as well as in inflections.
Cf. elilenti, Elend; luginari, Lugner; karkari, Kerker; menniskono
slahta, Menschengeschlecht; herzono, Herzen (gen. pi.); furisto,
vorderste; hartost, (am) hdrteslen', sibunzug, siebzig; ziohemes, (wir)
ziehen ; salbota, (er) salbte ; gaworahtos, (2w) wirktest, &c. Of the
consonantal changes which took place during this period that of
the spirant th (preserved only in English) to d (werlhan, werdan;
theob, deob) deserves mention. It spread from Upper Germany,
where it is noticeable as early as the 8th century to Middle and
finally, in the nth and I2th centuries, to Low Germany. Further,
the initial h in hi, hn, hr, hie (cf. hwer, wer; hreini rein; hlahhan,
lachen) and w in wr (wrecceo, Recke) disappeared, this change also
starting in Upper Germany and spreading slowly north. The most
important vowel-change is the so-called mutation (Umlaut),* that
is to say, the qualitative change of a vowel (except i) in a stem-
syllable, owing to the influence of an i or j in the following syllable.
This process commenced in the north where it seems to have been
already fully developed in Low German as early as the 8th century.
It is to be found, it may be noted, in Anglo-Saxon, as early as the
6th century. It gradually worked its way southwards to Middle
and Upper Germany where, however, certain consonants seem to
have protected the stem syllable from the influence of i in a following
syllable. Cf., for instance, Modern High German drucken and
driicken; glauben, kaufen, Haupt, words which in Middle German
dialects show mutation. Orthographically, however, this process
is, during the first period, only to be seen in the change of a to e;
from the loth century onwards there are, it is true, some traces
of other changes, and vowels like it, o, ou must have already been
affected, otherwise we could not account for the mutation of these
vowels at a period when the cause of it, the i orj, no longer existed. A
no less important change, for it helped to differentiate High from Low
German, was that of Germanic ei (a closed e-sound) and 6 diph-
thongs in Old High German, while they were retained in Old Low
German. Cf. O.H.G. her, hear, hiar, O.L.G. her; O.H.G.fuoz, O.L.G.
fot. The final result was that in the loth century ie (older forms, to,
ea) and uo (older ua, oa in Alemannic, ua in South Franconian) had
asserted themselves throughout all the High German dialects. Again
while in Old High German the older diphthongs ai and au were pre-
served as ei and ou, unless they happened to stand at the end of a word
or were followed by certain consonants (h, w, r in the one case, and
h, r, I, n, th, d, t, z, s in the other; cf. zeh from zthan, zoh from ziohan,
verlos, &c.) , the Old Low German shows throughout the monophthongs
e (in Middle Low German a closed sound) and 6 (cf. O.L.G. sten,
oga). These monophthongs are also to be heard in Rhenish Fran-
conian, the greater part of East Franconian and the Upper Saxon
and Silesian dialects of modern times (cf. Stein: Steen or Stan;
laiifen: lofen or lopen).
Of the dialects enumerated above, Bavarian and Alemannic,
High and Rhenish Franconian as well as Old Saxon are more or
less represented in the literature of the first period. But this litera-
ture, the chief monuments of which are Otfrid's Evangelienbuch
(in South Franconian), the Old Saxon Heliand (a life of Christ in
alliterative verse), the translation of Tatian's Gospel Harmony
(East Franconian) and that of a theological tract by Bishop Isidore
of Seville and of parts of the Bible (Rhenish Franconian), is almost
exclusively theological and didactic in character. One isconsequently
inclined to attach more value to the scanty remains of the Hilde-
brandslied and some interesting and ancient charms. The didactic
spirit again pervades the translations and commentaries of Notker
of St Gall in the early part of the nth century, as well as a para-
phrase of the Song of Songs by an abbot Williram of Ebersberg a
little later. Latin, however, reigned supreme throughout this
period, it being the language of the charters, the lawbooks (there is
nothing in Germany to compare with the laws of the Anglo-Saxons),
of science, medicine, and even poetry. It is thus needless to say that
there was no recognized literary language (Schriftsprache) during
this period, nor even any attempt to form one ; at most, we might
speak of schools in the large monasteries, such as Reichenau, St
Gall, Fulda, which contributed to the spread and acceptance of
certain orthographical rules.
THE MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN PERIOD
The following are the chief changes in sounds and forms which
mark the development of the language in the Middle High German
period. The orthography of the MSS. reveals a much more extensive
employment of mutation (Umlaut) than was the case in the first
period ; we find, for instance, as the mutation of o, 6, of o, as, of u, iu
(u), of uo, ue, of ou, ou, and eu (cf. holer, base, hiuser, guete, bourne),
although many scribes, and more especially those of Middle and
Low German districts, have no special signs for the mutation of
u, u, and o. Of special interest is the so-called " later (or weaker)
Cf., for a hypothesis of two Umlautsperioden during the Old High
German time, K. Kauffmann, Geschichte der schwabischen Mundart
(Strassburg, 1890), S. 152.
GERMAN LANGUAGE
78,
muution " (iuntfff o*** stktriehfnr Umlaut) of a to a very open e
Mind, which i* often written a. Cf. makte lO.II.G. mahli). matede
ufoJiK The earlier mutation of this sound produced an
(, a closed sound (i.. nearer i). Cf. gesle (O.H G. tesri).
The various Old High German vowels in unstressed syllables were
either weakened to an indifferent e sound (gebrn, O.H.G. geban;
bolt. O.H.O. boto; site, O.H.G. situ) or disappeared altogether.
The latter phenomenon is to be observed after / and r, and partly
after and m (cf. ar(t). O.H.C. aro; tat, O.H.G. tola; u-undern,
O.H.G. wiAjrd. &c.); but it by no means took place everywhere
in the same degree and at the same time. It has been already
noted that the Alemannic di.iltvt (as well as the archaic poets of
the German national epic) retained at least the long unstressed vowels
until a-i late a th<- t4th century (gemarlerSt, gekriuzetot, &c.), and
n preserved the weakened e sound in many
Low and Middle I .t rui.in
caw- when- l'p|>er lierman dropped it. In this period the bcginijincs
are also to be seen in Low and Middle German (lleinrioh von Yeldckc
bows the first traces of it) of a process which became of great
importance for the formation of the Modern German literary lan-
guage. This is the lengthening of originally short vowels in open
syllables. 1 for example, in Modern High German Ttges. Wlget, lobe
(Middle High German lit", *(". Wo-?). In Austria, on the other
hand, there began as far back as the first half of the I2th century
another movement of equal importance for Modern High German,
namely, the conversion of the long vowels, i, u, 3, into ft (ou), au,
fu (dm).' It is, therefore, in MSS. written in the south-east that we
find forms like tfil. tauter (later), keuie. &c., for the first time. With
the exception of Low German and Alemannic Swabian, however,
follows in this respect the majority all the German dialects par-
ticipated in this change bctwein the yth and it>th centuries,
although not all to the same degree. The change was perhaps
inline n by the influence of the literary language which had recognized
the new sounds. In England the same process has led to the
modern pronunciation of time, house. &c., and in Holland to that of
ttjd. k*ii. Ac. F. Wredc (Zeitukrifl fur deuliches Altertum xxxix.
357 ff.) has suggested that the explanation of the change is to be
sought in the apocope and syncope of the final e. and the greater
stress which was in consequence put on the stem-syllable. The
tendency toa change in the opposite direction, namely, the narrowing
of diphthongs to monophthongs, is to be noticed in Middle German
dialects, i.e. in dialects which resisted the apocope of the final e,
where it, uo. ue become i, u, S; thus we have for Brief, I'rif. for
kium. kin, for brueder, bruder, and this too was taken over into the
Modern High German literary language.*
No consonantal change was so widespread during this period as
that of initial s to tch before /, n, m, vr, p and /. Cf. slingen, schlingen ;
nttr (e) n, tdntdren. &c. The forms sckl- and schp- are often to be
met with in Alemannic MSS., but they were discarded again, al-
though modern German recognizes the pronunciation schp, scht. 1
With regard to changes affecting the inflections of verbs and nouns,
it mut suffice here to point out that the weakening or disappearance
of vowels in unstressed syllables necessarily affected the characteristic
endings of the older language; group* of verbs and substantives
which in Old High German were distinct now become confused.
This is best seen in the case of the weak verbs, where the three
Old High German classes (cf. ncrien, lalbdn, (login) were fused intc
one. Similarly in the declensions we find an increasing tendency ol
certain forms to influence substantives belonging to other classes
there is, for instance, an increase in the number of neuter nouns
taking -er (-ir) in the plural, and of those which show mutation in
the plural on the model of the '- stems (O.H.G. gast. pi. gesti; cf
forms like ban, benne; hats, kelse; wold, leelde). Of changes in
syntax the gradual decay in the use of the genitive case dependent
on a noun or governed by a verb (cf. constructions like tine brunne
retts gUet, or des lodes tcunxhen) towards the end of the period
and also the disappearance of the Old High German sequence oi
tenses ought at least to be mentioned.
In the Middle High German period, the first classical period ol
German poetry, the German language made great advances as <
vehicle of literary expression ; its power of expression was increasec
and it acquired a beauty of style hitherto unknown. This was the
period of the Uinnesant and the great popular and court epics, o
Walther von der Vogelweide, Hartmann von Aue, Wolfram von
Escbenbacb and Gottfried von Strassburg; it was a period when
literature enjoyed the fostering care of the courts and the nobility
At the tame time German prose celebrated its first triumphs in the
sermons of Bert hold von Regensburg, and in the mystic writing!
and sermons of Meister Eckhart. Tauler and others. History (Kike
von Repkow's Weluhronik) and law (Sachsenspiegel.Schwabenspiegel
no longer despised the vernacular, and from about the middle o
the 1 3th century German becomes, in an ever-increasing percentage
the language of deeds and charters.
300-
Cf. W. Wilmanns, Deutsche Crammatik, i. (2nd edition) pp
- .Tn.iiinnv I.e. pp. 273-280. It might be mentioned that
in Modern High Orman. these new diphthongs arc neither in spelling
nor in educated pronunciation distinguished from the older ones.
Cf. Wilmanns. pp. 280-2*4. '* M - PP
It has been a much debated ques^n how far Germany in Middle
li^h German times possessed or aspired to possess a Schriftsprache
r literary language.' About the year 1200 there was undoubtedly
marked tendency towards a unification of the literary language
>n the part of the more careful poets like Walther von derVogclwcide,
lartmann von Aue and Gottfried von Strassburg; they avoid,
norc particularly in their rhymes, dialectic peculiarities, such as the
iavarian dual forms es and enk, or the long vowels in unstressed
vllaMrs, retained in Alemannic, and they do not make use of
rrh.iic words or forms. We have thus a right to speak, if not of a
Middle High German literary language in the widest sense of the
word, at least of a Middle High German Dichtersprache or poetic
anguage, on an Alemannic-Franconian basis. Whether, or in how
ar, this may have affected the ordinary speech of the nobility or
courts, ie a matter of conjecture; but it had an undeniable influence
in Middle and Low German poets, who endeavoured at least to use
'iigh German forms in their rhymes. Attempts were also made in
^ow German districts, though at a later stage of this period, to unify
he dialects and raise them to the level of an accepted literary lan-
;uagc. It will be shown later why these attempts were unsuccessful.
Jnfortunately, however, the efforts of the High German poets to
orm a uniform language were also shortlived ; by the end of the 131 h
century the Dichtersprache had disappeared, and the dialects again
reigned supreme.
MODERN HIGH GERMAN
Although the Middle High German period had thus not succeeded
n effecting any permanent advance in the direction of a uniform
iterary language, the desire for a certain degree of uniformity wa>
never again entirely lost. At the close of the I3th century literature
i.nl passed from the hands of the nobility to those of the middle
classes of the towns; the number of writers who used the German
:ongue rapidly increased; later the invention of printing, the in-
creased efficiency of the schools, and above all the religious movement
of the Reformation, contributed to awakening the desire of being
understood by those who stood outside the dialectic community of
the individual. A single authoritative form of writing and spelling
was felt on all sides to be particularly necessary. This was found in
the language used officially by the various chanceries (Kanzleien),
and more especially the imperial chancery. Since the days of
Charles IV. (1347-1378) the latter had striven after a certain uniform
language in the documents it issued, and by the time of Maximilian I.
( I 493~ I 5'9) a" ' ts official documents were characterized by pretty
much the same phonology, forms and vocabulary, in whatever part
of Germany they originated. And under Maximilian's successor,
Charles V., the conditions remained pretty much the same. The
fact that the scat of the imperial chancery had for a long time been
in Prague, led toa mingling of Upper and Middle German sounds and
inflections; but when the crown came with Frederick III. (1440-
1493) to the Habsburgs, the Upper German elements were con-
siderably increased. The chancery of the Saxon electorate, whose
territory was exclusively Middle German, had to some extent,
under the influence of the imperial chancery, allowed Upper German
characteristics to influence its official language. This is clearly
marked in the second hajf of the I5th century, and about the year
1500 there was no essential difference between the languages of the
two chanceries. Thuringia, Silesia and Brandenburg soon followed
suit, and even Low German could not ultimately resist the accepted
High German notation (6, o, it, u, u, ie, &c.). We have here very
favourable conditions for the creation of a uniform literary language,
and, as has already been said, the tendency to follow these authorities
is clearly marked.
In the midst of this development arose the imposing figure of
Luther, who, although by no means the originator of a common High
German speech, helped very materially to establish it. He deliber-
ately chose (cf. the often quoted passage in his Tischreden, ch. 69)
the language of the Saxon chancery as the vehicle of his Bible
translation and subsequently of his own writings. The differences
between Luther's usage and that of the chancery, in phonology and
inflection, are small; still he shows, in his writings subsequent to
1524, a somewhat more pronounced tendency towards Middle
German. But it is noteworthy that he, like the chancery, retained
the old vowel-change in the singular and plural of the preterite of the
strong verbs (i.e. sleig, stigen; starb, sturben), although before
Luther's time the uniformity of the modern preterite had already
begun to show itself here and there. The adoption of the language
1 Cf. K. Lachmann. Kleinere Schriften, i. p. 161 ff. ; MUllcnhoff
and Scherer's Denkmdler (3rd ed.), i. p. xxvii.; H. Paul, Cab es eine
mhd. Schriftsprache? (Halfe, 1873); O. Behaghel, Zur Frage nach
einer mhd. Schriftsprache (Basel, 1886) (Cf. Paul and Bnunei
Beilrdge, xiii. p. 464 ff.); A. Socin, Schriftsprache und Dialektr
(Hcilbronn, 1888); H. Fischer, Zur Geschichte des Mitlelhoch-
deulschen (Tubingen, 1889); O. Behaghel, Schriftsprache und Afund-
art (Giesscn, 1896); K. Zwierzina, Beobachlungen turn Reimgebrauch
Hartmanns und Wolframs (Halle, 1898) ; S. Singer, Die mhd. Schrifl-
sprache (1900); C. Kraus, Heinrich von Veldeke und die mhd.
Dichtersprache (Halle, 1899); G. Roethe, Die Reimvorreden des
Sachsenspiegels (Berlin, 1899); H. TUmpel, Niederdeulsclte Studien
(1898).
782
GERMAN LANGUAGE
of the chancery gave rise to the mixed character of sounds and
forms which is still a feature of the literary language of Germany.
Thus the use of the monophthongs J, fi, and u, instead of the old
diphthongs ie, uo and ue, comes from Middle Germany; the forms
of the words and the gender of the nouns follow Middle rather than
Upper German usage, whereas, on the other hand, the consonantal
system (p to pf; d to t) betrays in its main features its Upper
German (Bavarian-Austrian) origin.
The language of Luther no doubt shows greater originality in its
style and vocabulary (cf. its influence on Goethe and the writers of
the Sturm und Drang), for in this respect the chancery could obviously
afford him but scanty help. His vocabulary is drawn to a great
extent from his own native Middle German dialect, and the fact
that, since the I4th century, Middle German literature (cf. for in-
stance, the writings of the German mystics, at the time of and
subsequent to Eckhart) had exercised a strong influence over Upper
Germany, stood him in good stead. Luther is, therefore, strictly
speaking, not the father of the modern German literary language,
but he forms the most important link in a chain of development
which began long before him, and did not reach its final stage until
long after him. To infer that Luther's language made any rapid
conquest of Germany would not be correct. It was, of course,
immediately acceptable to the eastern part of the Middle German
district (Thuringia and Silesia), and it did not find any great difficulty
in penetrating into Low Germany, at least into the towns and districts
lying to the east of the Saale and Elbe (Magdeburg, Hamburg).
One may say that about the middle of the l6th century Luther's
High German was the language of the chanceries, about 1600 the
language of the pulpit (the last Bible in Low German was printed at
Goslar in 1621) and the printing presses. Thus the aspirations of
Low Germany to have a literary language of its own were at an early
stage crushed. Protestant Switzerland, on the other hand, resisted
the " uncommon new German " until well into the I7th century.
It was also natural that the Catholic Lower Rhine (Cologne) and
Catholic South Germany held out against it, for to adopt the language
of the reformer would have seemed tantamount to offering a helping
hand to Protestant ideas. At the same time, geographical and
political conditions, as well as the pronounced character of the Upper
German dialects, formed an important obstacle to a speedy unifica-
tion. South German grammarians of the i6th century, such as
Laurentius Albertus, raise a warning, voice against those who,
although far distant from the proper use of words and the true
pronunciation, venture to teach nos puriores Germanos, namely, the
Upper Germans.
I* 1 '593 } Helber, a Swiss schoolmaster and notary, spoke of three
separate dialects as being in use by the printing presses- 1 (i)
Mitteldeutsch (the language of the printers in Leipzig, Erfurt, Nurem-
berg, Wiirzburg, Frankfort, Mainz, Spires, Strassburg and Cologne;
at the last mentioned place in the event of their attempting to
print Ober-Teutsch) ; (2) Donauisch (the printers' language in South
Germany, but limited to Bavaria and Swabia proper here more
particularly the Augsburg idiom, which was considered to be par-
ticularly zierlich) ; * (3) Hochst Reinisch, which corresponds to Swiss
German. Thus in the l6th century Germany was still far from real
unity in its language; but to judge from the number and the
geographical position of the towns which printed in Milteldeutsch
it is pretty clear which idiom would ultimately predominate. During
the 171(1 century men like M. Opitz (Buck von der deutschen Poeterey)
and }. G. Schottelius (Teutsche Sprachkunst, 1641, and Von der
teutschen Sprachkunst, 1663), together with linguistic societies
like the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft and the Nuremberg Pegnitzorden,
did a great deal to purify the German language from foreign (especi-
ally French) elements; they insisted on the claims of the vernacular
to a place beside and even above Latin (in 1687 Christian Thomasius
held for the first time lectures in the German language at the uni-
versity of Leipzig), and they established a firm grammatical basis
for Luther's common language, which especially in the hymnals
had become modernized and more uniform. About the middle of
the 1 7th century the disparity between the vowels of the singular
and plural of the preterite of the strong verbs practically ceases;
under East Middle German influence the final e is restored to words
like Kna.be, Jude, Pfaffe, which in South German had been Knab, &c. ;
the mixed declension (Ekre, Ehren; Schmerz, Schmerzen) was
established, and the plural in -er was extended to some masculine
nouns (Wold, Wdlder); 3 the use of the mutated sound has now
1 For literature bearing on the complicated question of the
Druckersprachen, readers are referred to the article " Neuhoch-
deutsche Schriftsprache," by W. Scheel, in Bethge's Ergebnisse . . .
der germanislischen Wissenschaft (1902), pp. 47, 50 f. Cf. also K. von
Bahder, Grundlagen des nhd. Lautsy 'stems (1890), pp. 15 ff.
1 A German Priamel mentions as an essential quality in a beautiful
woman: " die red dort her von Swaben."
1 Cf. for a detailed discussion of the noun declension, K. Boiunga,
Die Entwickelung der mhd. Substantivflexion (Leipzig, 1890); and,
more particularly for the masculine and neuter nouns, two articles
by H. Molz, " Die Substantivflexion seit mhd. Zeit," in Paul and
Braune's Beitrdee, xxvii. p. 209 ff. and xxxi. 277 ff. For the changes
in the gender of nouns, A. Polzin, Geschlechtswandel der Subslantiva
im Deutschen (Hildesheim, 1903).
become the rule as a plural sign (Vater, Baume). How difficult,
even in the first half of the i8th century, it was for a Swiss to write
the literary language which Luther had established is to be seen
from the often quoted words of Haller (1708-1777) : " I am a Swiss,
the German language is strange to me, and its choice of words was
almost unknown to me." The Catholic south clung firmly to its own
literary language, based on the idiom of the imperial chancery,
which was still an influential force in the I7th century or on local
dialects. This is apparent in the writings of Abraham a Sancta
Clara, 4 who died in 1709, or in the attacks of the Benedictine monk,
Augustin Dornbliith, on the Meissner Schriftsprache in 1755.
In the l8th century, to which these names have introduced us,
the grammatical writings of ]. C. Gottsched (Deutsche Sprachkunst,
1748) and J. C. Adelung (Grammatisch-kritisches Worterbuch der
hochdeutschen Mundirt, 1774-1786) exercised a decisive and far-
reaching influence. Gottsched took as his basis the spoken language
(Umgangssprache)of the educated classes of Upper Saxony (Meissen),
which at this time approximated as nearly as possible to the literary
language. His Grammar did enormous services to the cause of
unification, ultimately winning over the resisting south; but he
carried his purism to pedantic lengths, he would tolerate no archaic
or dialectical words, no unusual forms or constructions, and con-
sequently made the language unsuited for poetry. Meanwhile an
interest in Old German literature was being awakened by Bodmer ;
Herder set forth better ideas on the nature of language, and insisted
on the value of native idioms; and the Sturm und Drang led by
Goethe encouraged all individualistic tendencies. All this gave rise
to a movement counter to Gottsched's absolutism, which resulted
in the revival of many obsolete German words and forms, these being
drawn partly from Luther's Bible translation (cf. V. Hehn, " Goethe
und die Sprache der Bibel," in the Goethe- Jahrbuch, viii. p. 187 ff.),
partly from the older language and partly from the vocabulary
peculiar to different social ranks and trades. 6 The latter is still
a source of linguistic innovations. German literary style underwent
a similar rejuvenation, for we are on the threshold of the second
classical period of German literature. It had strengthened Gott-
sched's hand as a linguistic reformer that the earlier leaders of
German literature, such as Gellert, Klopstock and Lessing, were
Middle Germans; now Wieland's influence, which was particularly
strong in South Germany, helped materially towards the establish-
ment of one accepted literary language throughout all German-
speaking countries; and the movement reaches its culmination with
Goethe and Schiller. At the same time this unification did not
imply the creation of an unalterable standard; for, just as the lan-
guage of Opitz and Schottelius differed from that of Luther, so
although naturally in a lesser degree the literary language of our
day differs from that of the classic writers of the i8th century.
Local peculiarities are still to be met with, as is to be seen in the
modern German literature that emanates from Switzerland or
Austria.
But this unity, imperfect as it is, is limited to the literary language.
The differences are much more sharply accentuated in the Umgangs-
sprache," whereby we understand the language as it is spoken by
educated people throughout Germany; this is not only the case
with regard to pronunciation, although it is naturally most noticeable
here, but also with regard to the choice of words and the construction
of sentences. Compared with the times of Goethe and Schiller a
certain advance towards unification has undoubtedly been made,
but the differences between north and south are still very great.
This is particularly noticeable in the pronunciation of r either the
uvular r or the r produced by the tip of the tongue; of the voiced
and voiceless (stops, b, p, d, t, g and_ k ; of the i sounds ; of the
diphthongs; of the long vowels e and oe, &c. (cf. W. Vietor, German
Pronunciation, 2nd ed., 1890). The question as to whether a unified
pronunciation (Einheitaussprache) is desirable or even possible has
occupied the attention of academies, scholars and the educated
public during recent years, and in 1898 a commission made up of
scholars and theatre directors drew up a scheme of pronunciation
for use in the royal theatres of Prussia. 7 This scheme has since been
recommended to all German theatres by the German Buhnenverein.
Desirable as such a uniform pronunciation is for the national theatre,
it is a much debated question how far it should be adopted in the
:h as W. Braune,
tion; 8 Braune's
ordinary speech of everyday life. Some scholars, such as W. Braune,
declared themselves strongly in favour of its adoptic
4 Cf. C. Blanckenburg, Studien tiber die Sprache Abrahams a S.
Clara (Halle, 1897); H. Strigl, " Einiges tiber die Sprache des P.
Abraham a Sancta Clara (Zeitschr. f. deutsche Wortforschung, viii.
206 ff.).
6 Cf. F. Kluge, Etymologisches Worterbuch (6th ed.), pp. 508 ff.
One can speak of: Studenten-, Soldaten-, Weidmanns-, Bergmanns-,
Drucker-, Juristen-, und Zigeunersprache, und Rotwelsch. Cf.
F. Kluge, Die deutsche Studentensprache (Strassburg, 1894) ; Rotwelsch
i. (Strassburg, 1901); R. Bethge, Ergebnisse, &c., p. 55 f.
6 Cf. H. Wunderlich, Unsure Umgangssprache (Weimar, 1894).
7 Cf. Th. Siebs, Deutsche Buhnenaussprache (2nd ed., Berlin. 1901),
and the same writer's Grundzuge der Biihnensprache (1900).
8 W. Braune, Uber die Einigung der deutschen Aussprache (Halle,
1905) ; and the review by O. Brenner, in the Zeitschrift des allgemeinen
deutschen Sprachvereins, Beihefte iv. 27, pp. 228-232.
GERMAN LITERATURE
7*3
argument bring that the system of modern pronunciation i* l>.i-> !
on the tpelling, not on the sounds produced in speaking. The
Utter, he holds, is only responsible (or the pronunciation of -(ks- at
*j- in wacksen, Otkst, Ac., or for that of sp- and si- in ipieltn, ttrktn,
Ac. Other scholars, again, utch as K. Luick and O. Brenner, warn
against any such attempts to create a living language on an artilu ial
basis; 1 the BukitsnJeulsik or " stage-German " they regard as
little more than an abstract ideal. Thus the decision must be left
to time.
AUTHORITIES. General Literatim: J. Grimm, Gesckickte der
deutxken Spracke (Leipzig, 1848; 4th ed., 1880); W. Scherer, Zur
Gexkickle der dfutscken Spracke (Berlin, 1868; 2nd ed., 1878);
E. V6rntn\Ann,Geii-kiiktedesdfuls(km Sprackstammes (Nordhausen.
1874-1875); O. Behaghet, Die dfulitke Spracke (Leipzig, 1886;
2nd ed., 1902); the same, " Geschkhte der deutschen Sprache," in
Paul's Grttndrisi der germaniscken Pkilologte (2nd ed.), i. pp. 650 ff. ;
O. Weise. I'nieredeutxke Spracke, ikr \\'trden Hint ikr Wtsrn (Leipzig.
1808); K. von Raumer, Gesckicklt der germaniscken Pkilolayc
(Munich, 1870); j. Grimm, Deutuht Grammatik (4 vols., vols. i.-iii.
in new edition, 1870-1890); Dieter. Laut- und FormenUhre dtr
altgermaniscken Dialekte (2 vols., Leipzig, 1808-1000) ; F. Kauffmann,
Deutscke Grammatik (2nd ed.. 1895); \V. Wilmanns, Drutscke
Grammalik, to far, vols. L, ii. and iii., I (Strassburg, 1893-1906, vol. i.,
2nd ed., 1897); O. Brenner, Grundnlgt dtr gesfkichtlicken Grammatik
der deutscken Spracke (Munich, 1896); if. Lichtenbcrgcr, Htstoire
de la langue allemande (Paris, 1895).
OU and Middle Hi t h German Period: W. Braune, Allkockdeutscke
Grammatik (2nd ed., Halle. 1891); the same, Abriss der altkoch-
deutscken Grammatik (3rd ed., 1900); F. Holthausen, AltsucHsisckes
Elementarbuck (Heidelberg, 1899); W. SchlOter. Untersuckungen tur
Gesckickte der alUacksicken Spratke, i. (Gdttingen, 1802) ; O. Schadc,
Altdeutsckes Wdrterbuck (2nd ed.. Halle, 1872-1882); G. E. Graff,
AUkackdeutseker Spracksckat* (6 vols., Berlin, 1834-1842) (Index by
Massmann, 1846); E. Steinmeyer and E. Sicvcrs, Altkockdeutscht
Classen (4 vols., Berlin, 1879-1898); J. A. Schmeller, Glossarium
Saxonifum (Munich. 1840); K. Weinhold, UitUlkochdeutiche
Grammatik (3rd ed., Paderborn, 1892); H. Paul, Millelkockdeutsche
Grammatik (sth ed., Halle, 1900); V. MichcU, Miltflhochdrutsckes
Elementarbuck (Heidelberg. 1000); O. Brenner, Uiltelkockdeutscke
Grammatik (3rd ed., Munich, 1894); K. Zwicrzina, " Mittclhoch-
deutsche Studien," in Zeiljckrift fur deutsckes Altertum, vols. xliv.
and xlv.; A. Lubben. Miltelnirdrrdeutscke Grammatik (Leipzig,
1882): W. Mttller and F. Zarncke, \fitlelhockdeutsckes Wdrterbuck
(4 vob.. Leipzig, 1854-1866); M. Lexer, Mitlelkochdrutsckrs Hand-
wtrterbuck (3 vols., 1872-1878); the same, Mittelhockdtulsckes
T<uckenw6rterbuck (8th ed., 1006); K. Schiller and A. LQbben,
Uittelniederdeutsckes Worterbuck (6 vols., Bremen, 1875-1881);
A. LQbben. Mittelniederdeutsckrs Ilandworterbuck (Norden, 1888);
F. Sefler, Die Entieickelung derdeutsck. KuUurim Spiegel des deutscken
Leknvorts (Halle, i., 1895, 2nd ed., 1005. ii., 1900).
Modem Higk German Period: E. Wttlcker, " Die Entstchung der
kunichsischen Kanzleisprache " (in the Zeitsckrift des Vereins fur
kursdcksiscke Gesckickte, ix. p. 349); the same, ''Luthers Stellung
zur kursichsischen Kanzleisprache " (in Germania, xxviii. pp. 191 ff.) ;
P. Pietsch, Martin Lutker und die kockdeutscke Sckrifisprache (Breslau,
1883); K. Burdach, Die Einigung der neukockdeutseken Sckrif Is pracke,
(1883); E. Opiiz. Die Spracke Lutkers (Halle, 1869); I. Luther, Die
Spracke Lutkers in der Sepiemberbibel (Halle, 1887); F. Kluge. Von
Lulker bis Letting (Strassburg, 1888) (cf. E. Schroder's review in the
Gottingrr gelekrte Anieiger, 1888, 249); H. RQckert, Geschickte der
neukaekdeutscken Sckrifliprache bis zur Mitle des 18. Jakrkunderls
(1875): J. Kehrein, Grammatik der deulscken Spracke des 13. bis 17.
Jakrkunderts (Leipzig, 2nd cd., 1863); K. von Bahder, Grundlagen
des neukockdeutseken Lautsystems (Strassburg, 1890); R. Meyer,
Einfukrung in das dttere Neukockdeutscke (Leipzig, 1894) ; W. Scheel,
Beitrdge tur Gesckifkle der neukockdeutseken Gemeinspracke in Kiln
(Marburg, 1892); R. Brandstetter, Die Rezeption der neukock-
deutstken SckrUlspracke in Sladt und Landsckafl Luiern (1802);
K. Burdach," ZurGeschichtederneuhochdeutschcnSchriftsprache "
( Forsckungen tur deutscken Pkilologie, 1894) ; the same, " Die Sprache
des iungen Goethe " ( VerkantUungen der Dessauer Pkilolagenver-
sammlunr. 1884, P. 164 ff.); F. Kasch, Die Spracke des jungrn
SfkUler (Dissertation, 1900); F. Kluge, " Uber die Entstehung
Bitterer Schriftsprache " (Beihefte zur Zeitsckrifl des allgemetnen
Spnckttreins. Heft 6, 1894); A. Waag, Bedeutungsentteickelung
unseres Wortsckaties (Lahr, 1901).
Mention must also be made of the work of the German commission
of the Royal Prussian Academy, which in 1904 drew up plans for
making an inventory of all German literary MSS. dating from before
the year 1600 and for the publication of Middle High German and
earfy Modern High German tes. This undertaking, which has
made considerable progress, provides rich material for the study of
the somewhat neglected period between the I4th and l6th centuries;
at the same time it provide* bub on which a monumental history
of Modern High German may be built up. as well as for a Tkesaurus
linguae germanicae. (R.PR.)
1 Cf K Luick. Deutscke LauOekre mit besonderer BerUcksitkligung
der Spretkweise Wiens und der osterreukiscken Alpenlander (1004);
O. Brenner. " Zur Aussprache des Hochdeutschen, ' I.e., pp. 218-228.
GERMAN LITERATURE. Compared with other literatures,
that of the German-speaking peoples presents a strangely broken
and interrupted course; it falls into more or less isolated groups,
separated from each other by periods which in intellectual
darkness and ineptitude are virtually without a parallel in other
European lands. The explanation of this irregularity of develop-
ment is to be sought less in the chequered political history of
the German people although this was often reason enough
than in the strongly marked, one might almost say, provocative
character of the national mind as expressed in literature. The
Germans were not able, like their partially latinized English
cousins or even their Scandinavian neighbours to adapt
themselves to the various waves of literary influence which
emanated from Italy and France and spread with irresistible
power over all Europe; their literary history has been rather a
struggle for independent expression, a constant warring against
outside forces, even when the latter like the influence of English
literature in the iSth century and of Scandinavian at the close
of the iijth were hailed as friendly and not hostile. It is a
peculiarity of German literature that in those ages when, owing
to its own poverty and impotence, it was reduced to borrowing
its ideas and its poetic forms from other lands, it sank to the
most servile imitation; while the first sign of returning health
has invariably been the repudiation of foreign influence and the
assertion of the right of genius to untrammelled expression.
Thus Germany's periods of literary efflorescence rarely coincide
with those of other nations, and great European movements,
like the Renaissance, passed over her without producing a single
great poet.
This chequered course, however, renders the grouping of Ger-
man literature and the task of the historian the easier. The first
and simplest classification is that afforded by the various stages
of linguistic development. In accordance with the three divisions
in the history of the High German language, there is an Old High
German, a Middle High German and a New High German or
Modern High German literary epoch. It is obvious, however,
that the last of these divisions covers too enormous a period of
literary history to be regarded as analogous to the first two.
The present survey is consequently divided into six main
sections:
I. The Old High German Period, including the literature of
the Old Saxon dialect, from the earliest times to the middle of
the nth century.
II. The Middle High German Period, from the middle of the
nth to the middle of the i4th century.
III. The Transition Period, from the middle of the i4th century
to the Reformation in the i6th century.
IV. The Period of Renaissance and Pseudo-classicism, from
the end of the i6th century to the middle of the i8th.
V. The Classical Period of Modern German literature, from
the middle of the i8th century to Goethe's death in 1832.
VI. The Period from Goethe's death to the present day.
I. THE OLD HIGH GERMAN PERIOD (c. 750-1050)
Of all the Germanic races, the tribes with which we have more
particularly to deal here were the latest to attain intellectual
maturity. The Goths had, centuries earlier, under their famous
bishop Ulfilas or Wulfila, possessed the Bible in their vernacular,
the northern races could point to their Edda, the Germanic
tribes in England to a rich and virile Old English poetry, before
a written German literature of any consequence existed at all.
At the same time, these continental tribes, in the epoch that lay
between the Migrations of the sth century and the age of Charles
the Great, were not without poetic literature of a kind, but it
was not committed to writing, or, at least, no record of such a
poetry has come down to us. Its existence is vouched for by
indirect historical evidence, and by the fact that the sagas, out
of which the German national epic was welded at a later date,
originated in the great upheaval of the sth century. When the
vernacular b'terature began to emerge from an unwritten state
in the Sth century, it proved to be merely a weak reflection of
the ecclesiastical writings of the monasteries; and this, with
7 8 4
GERMAN LITERATURE [MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN PERIOD
very few exceptions, Old High German literature remained.
Translations of the liturgy, of Tatian's Gospel Harmony (c. 835),
of fragments of sermons, form a large proportion of it. Occasion-
ally, as in the so-called Monsee Fragments, and at the end of the
period, in the prose of Notker Labeo (d. 1022), this ecclesiastical
literature attains a surprising maturity of style and expression.
But it had no vitality of its own; it virtually sprang into
existance at the command of Charlemagne, whose policy with
regard to the use of the vernacular in place of Latin was liberal
and far-seeing; and it docilely obeyed the tastes of the rulers
that followed, becoming severely orthodox under Louis the Pious,
and consenting to immediate extinction when the Saxon emperors
withdrew their favour from it. Apart from a few shorter poetic
fragments of interest, such as the Merseburg Charms (Zauber-
spriiche), an undoubted relic of pre-Christian times, the Wesso-
brunn Prayer (c. 780), the Muspilli, an imaginative description
of the Day of Judgment, and the Ludwigslied (881), which may
be regarded as the starting point for the German historical
ballad, the only High German poem of importance in this early
period was the Gospel Book (Liber evangeliorum) of Otfrid of
Weissenburg (c. 800-870). Even this work is more interesting
as the earliest attempt to supersede alliteration in German
poetry by rhyme, than for such poetic life as the monk of Weissen-
burg was able to instil into his narrative. In fact, for the only
genuine poetry of this epoch we have to look, not to the High
German but to the Low German races. They alone seemed
able to give literary expression to the memories handed down
in oral tradition from the sth century; to Saxon tradition we
owe the earliest extant fragment of a national saga, the Lay
of Hildebrand (Hildebrandslied, c. 800), and a Saxon poet was the
author of a vigorous alliterative version of the Gospel story, the
Heliand (c. 830), and also of part of the Old Testament (Genesis).
This alliterative epic for epic it may be called is the one
poem of this age in which the Christian tradition has been adapted
to German poetic needs. Of the existence of a lyric poetry we
only know by hearsay; and the drama had nowhere in Europe
yet emerged from its earliest purely liturgic condition. Such
as it was, the vernacular literature of the Old High German
period enjoyed but a brief existence, and in the loth and nth
centuries darkness again closed over it. The dominant "German' '
literature in these centuries is in Latin; but that literature is
not without national interest, for it shows in what direction the
German mind was moving. The Lay of Walter (Waltharilied,
c. 930), written in elegant hexameters by Ekkehard of St Gall,
the moralizing dramas of Hrosvitha (Roswitha) of Gandersheim,
the Ecbasis captvn (c. 940), earliest of all the Beast epics, and
the romantic adventures of Ruodlieb (c. 1030), form a literature
which, Latin although it is, foreshadows the future developments
of German poetry.
n. THE MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN PERIOD (1050-1350)
(a) Early Middle High German Poetry. The beginnings of
Middle High German literature were hardly less tentative than
those of the preceding period. The Saxon emperors, with their
Latin and even Byzantine tastes, had made it extremely
difficult to take up the thread where Notker let it drop. Williram
of Ebersherg, the commentator of the Song of Songs (c. 1063),
did certainly profit by Notker's example, but he stands alone.
The Church had no helping hand to offer poetry, as in the more
liberal epoch of the great Charles; for, at the middle of the nth
century, when the linguistic change from Old to Middle High
German was taking place, a movement of religious asceticism,
originating in the Burgundian monastery of Cluny, spread across
Europe, and before long all the German peoples fell under its
influence. For a century there was no room for any literature
that did not place itself unreservedly at the service of the Church,
a service which meant the complete abnegation of the brighter
side of life. Repellent in their asceticism are, for instance,
poems like Memento mori (c. 1050), Vom Glauben, a verse com-
mentary on the creed by a monk Hartmann (c. 1 1 20), and a poem
on " the remembrance of death " ( Von des lodes gehugede) by
Hrinreich von Melk (c. 1 1 50) ; only rarely, as in a few narrative
poems on Old Testament subjects, are the poets of this time able
to forget for a time their lugubrious faith. In the Ezzolied
(c. 1060), a spirited lay by a monk of Bamberg on the life, miracles
and death of Christ, and in the Annolied (c. 1080), a poem in
praise of the archbishop Anno of Cologne, we find, however,
some traces of a higher poetic imagination.
The transition from this rigid ecclesiastic spirit to a freer,
more imaginative literature is to be seen in the lyric poetry
inspired by the Virgin, in the legends of the saints which bulk
so largely in the poetry of the I2th century, and in the general
trend towards mysticism. Andreas, Pilatus, Aegidius, Albanius
are the heroes of monkish romances of that age, and the stories
of Sylvester and Crescentia form the most attractive parts of
the Kaiserchronik (c. 1130-1150), a long, confused chronicle of
the world which contains many elements common to later Middle
High German poetry. The national sagas, of which the poet
of the Kaiserchronik had not been oblivious, soon began to assert
themselves in the popular literature. The wandering Spielleute,
the lineal descendants of the jesters and minstrels of the dark
ages, who were now rapidly becoming a factor of importance in
literature, were here the innovators; to them we owe the romance
of Konig Rather (c. 1160), and the kindred stories of Orendel,
Oswald and Salomon und Markolf (Salman und Morolf). All
these poems bear witness to a new element, which in these years
kindled the German imagination and helped to counteract the
austerity of the religious faith the Crusades. With what
alacrity the Germans revelled in the wonderland of the East
is to be seen especially in the Alexanderlied (c. 1130), and in
Herzog Ernst (c. 1180), romances which point out the way to
another important development of German medieval literature,
the Court epic.' The latter type of romance was the immediate
product of the social conditions created by chivalry and, like
chivalry itself, was determined and influenced by its French
origin; so also was the version of the Chanson de Roland (Rolands-
lied, c. 1135), which we owe to another priest, Konrad of Regens-
burg, who, with considerable probability, has been identified
with the author of the Kaiserchronik.
The Court epic was, however, more immediately ushered in
by Eilhart von Oberge, a native of the neighbourhood of Hildes-
heim who, in his Tristant (c. 1170), chose that Arthurian type
of romance which from now on was especially cultivated by the
poets of the Court epic; and of equally early origin is a knightly
romance of Floris und Blancheflur, another of the favourite love
stories of the middle ages. In these years, too, the Beast epic,
which had been represented by the Latin Ecbasis caplim, was
reintroduced into Germany by an Alsatian monk, Heinrich der
Glichezaere, who based his Reinhart Fuchs (c. 1180) on the French
Roman de Renart. Lastly, we have to consider the beginning
of the Minnesang, or lyric, which in the last decades of the
1 2th century burst out with extraordinary vigour in Austria
and South Germany. The origins are obscure, and it is still
debatable how much in the German Minnesang is indigenous
and national, how much due to French and Provencal influence;
for even in its earliest phases the Minnesang reveals correspond-
ences with the contemporary lyric of the south of France. The
freshness and originality of the early South German singers,
such as Kurenberg, Dietmar von Eist, the Burggraf of Rieten-
burg and Meinloh von Sevelingen, are not, however, to be
questioned; in spite of foreign influence, their verses make the
impression of having been a spontaneous expression of German
lyric feeling in the i2th century. The Spruchdichtung, a form
of poetry which in this period is represented by at least two
poets who call themselves Herger and " Der Spervogel," was
less dependent on foreign models; the pointed and satirical
strophes of these poets were the forerunners of a vast literature
which did not reach its highest development until after literature
had passed from the hands of the noble-born knight to those of
the burgher of the towns.
(b) The Flourishing of Middle High German Poetry. Such
was the preparation for the extraordinarily brilliant, although
brief epoch of German medieval poetry, which corresponded
to the reigns of the Hohenstaufen emperors, Frederick I.
MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN PERIOD] GERMAN LITERATURE
785
Barbarossa, Henry VI. and Frederick II. These rulers, by (heir
ambitious political aspirations and achievements, filled the
German peoples with a sense of " world-mission," as the leading
political power in medieval Europe. Docile pupils of French
chivalry, the Germans had no sooner learned their lesson than
they found themselves in the position of being able to dictate
to the world of chivalry. In the same way, the German poets,
who, in the nth century, had been little better than clumsy
translators of French romances, were able, at the beginning
of the ijth, to substitute for French chansons de geslf epics
based on national sagas, to put a completely German imprint
on the French Arthurian romance, and to sing German songs
before which even the lyric of Provence paled. National epic,
Court epic and Minnesang these three types of medieval
German literature, to which may be added as a subordinate
group didactic poetry comprise virtually all that has come
down to us in the Middle High German tongue. A Middle High
German prose hardly existed, and the drama, such as it was,
was still essentially Latin.
The first place among the National or Popular epics belongs
to the \ibtlungenlied, which received its present form in Austria
about the turn of the nth and i.ith centuries. Combining,
as it does, elements from various cycles of sagas the lower
Rhenish legend of Siegfried, the Burgundian saga of Gunthor
and Hagen, the Gothic saga of Dietrich and Etzel it stands out
as the most representative epic of German medieval life. And
in literary power, dramatic intensity and singleness of purpose
its eminence is no less unique. The vestiges of gradual growth
of irreconcilable elements imperfectly welded together may
not have been entirely effaced, but they in no way lessen the
impression of unity which the poem leaves behind it; whoever
the welder of the sagas may have been, he was clearly a poet
of lofty imagination and high epic gifts (see NIBELUNGENLIED).
Less imposing as a whole, but in parts no less powerful in its
appeal to the modern mind, is the second of the German national
epics, Gudrun, which was written early in the ijth century.
This poem, as it has come down to us, is the work of an Austrian,
but the subject belongs to a cycle of sagas which have their
home on the shores of the North Sea. It seems almost a freak
of chance that Siegfried, the hero of the Rhincland, should occupy
so prominent a position in the ffibelungenlied, whereas Dietrich
von Bern (i.e. of Verona), the name under which Theodoric the
Great had been looked up to for centuries by the German people
as their national hero, should have left the stamp of his person-
ality on no single epic of the intrinsic worth of the ffibelungenlied.
He appears, however, more or less in the background of a number
of romances Die Rabenschlacht, Dielricks Fluchl. Alpharts Tod,
Biteroif und Dietlieb, Laurin, &c. which make up what is
usually called the Heldcnbuch. It is tempting, indeed, to see
in this very unequal collection the basis for what, under more
favourable circumstances, might have developed into an epic
even more completely representative of the German nation
than the ffibelungenlied.
While the influence of the romance of chivalry is to be traced
on all these popular epics, something of the manlier, more
primitive ideals that animated German national poetry passed
over to the second great group of German medieval poetry,
the Court epic. The poet who, following Eilhart von Obergc's
tentative beginnings, established the Court epic in Germany
was Heinrich von Veldeke, a native of the district of the lower
Rhine; his Eneit, written between 1173 and 1186, is based on
a French original. Other poets of the time, such as Herbert
von FriUlar, the author of a Lie! ton Troye, followed Heinrich 's
example, and selected French models for German poems on
antique themes; while Albrecht von Halberstadt translated
about the year 12 to the Metamorphoses of Ovid into German
verse. With the three masters of the Court epic, Hartmann
von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Gottfried von Strass-
borg all of them contemporaries the Arthurian cycle became
the recognized theme of this type of romance, and the accepted
embodiment of the ideals of the knightly classes. Hartmann
was a Swabian, Wolfram a Bavarian, Gottfried presumably a
native of Strassburg. Hartmann, who in his Erec and Iwein,
Gregorius and Der arme tleinruh combined a tendency towards
religious asceticism with a desire to imbue the worldly life of
the knight with a moral and religious spirit, provided the Court
epic of the age with its best models; he had, of all the medieval
court poets, the most delicate sense for the formal beauty of
poetry, for language, verse and style. Wolfram and Gottfried,
on the other hand, represent two extremes of poetic tempera-
ment. Wolfram's Panival is filled with mysticism and obscure
spiritual significance; its flashes of humour irradiate, although
they can hardly be said to illumine, the gloom; its hero is,
unconsciously, a symbol and allegory of much which to the
poet himself must have been mysterious and inexplicable; in
other words, Panival and Wolfram's other writings, Wittehalm
and Titurel, point in the same direction is an instinctive or,
to use Schiller's word, a " naive " work of genius. Gottfried,
again, is hardly less gifted and original, but he is a poet of a
wholly different type. His Tristan is even more lucid than
Hartmann's Iwein, his art is more objective; his delight in
it is that of the conscious artist who sees his work growing
under his hands. Gottfried's poem, in other words, is free
from the obtrusion of those subjective elements which are in
so high a degree characteristic of Panival; in spite of the tragic
character of the story, Tristan is radiant and serene, and yet un-
contaminated by that tone of frivolity which the Renaissance
introduced into love stories of this kind.
Panival and Tristan are the two poles of the German Court
epic, and the subsequent development of that epic stands under
the influence of the three poets, Hartmann, Wolfram and
Gottfried; according as the poets of the I3th century tend to
imitate one or other of these, they fall into three classes. To
the followers and imitators of Hartmann belong Ulrich von
Zatzikhoven, the author of a Lanzclet (c. 1195); Wirnt von
Gravenberg, a Bavarian, whose Wigalois (c. 1205) shows con-
siderable imaginative power; the versatile Spielmann, known as
" Der Strieker,"; and Heinrich von dem TUrlin, author of an
unwieldy epic, Die Krone (" the crown of all ad ventures," c. 1210).
The fascination of Wolfram's mysticism is to be seen in Der
jiingere Titurel of a Bavarian poet, Albrecht von Scharfenberg
(c. 1270), and in the still later Lohengrin of an unknown poet;
whereas Gottfried von Strassburg dominates the Flore und
Blansckeflur of Konrad Fleck (c. 1220) and the voluminous
romances of the two chief poets of the later i3th century, Rudolf
von Ems, who died in 1254, and Konrad von Wurzburg, who lived
till 1287. Of these, Konrad alone carried on worthily the tradi-
tions of the great age, and even his art, which excels within the
narrow limits of romances like Die Herzemoere and Engelhard,
becomes diffuse and wearisome on the unlimited canvas of
Der Trojanerkrieg and Parlonopier und Meliur.
The most conspicuous changes which came over the narrative
poetry of the I3th century were, on the one hand, a steady en-
croachment of realism on the matter and treatment of the epic,
and, on the other, a leaning to didacticism. The substitution
of the " history " of the chronicle for the confessedly imaginative
stories of the earlier poets is to be seen in the work of Rudolf von
Ems, and of a number of minor chroniclers like Ulrich von
Eschenbach, Berthold von Holle and Jans Enikel; while for the
growth of realism we may look to the Pfa/e Amis, a collection
of comic anecdotes by " Der Strieker," the admirable peasant
romance Meier Helmbrecht, written between 1236 and 1250 by
Wernher der Gartenaere in Bavaria, and to the adventures of
Ulrich von Lichtenstein, as described in his Frauendiensl (1255)
and Frauenbuch (1257).
More than any single poet of the Court epic, more even than
the poet of the Nibelungenlied, Walther von der Vogelweide
summed up in himself all that was best in the group of poetic
literature with which he was associated the Minnesang. The
early Austrian singers already mentioned, poets like Heinrich
von Veldeke, who in his lyrics, as in his epic, introduced the French
conception of Minne, or liko the manly Friedrich von Hausen,
and the Swiss imitator of Provencal measures, Rudolf von
Fenis appear only in the light of forerunners. Even more
7 86
GERMAN LITERATURE
[TRANSITION PERIOD
original poets, like Heinrich von Morungen and Walther's own
master, Reinmar von Hagenau, the author of harmonious but
monotonously elegiac verses, or among immediate contemporaries,
Hartmann von Aue and Wolfram von Eschenbach, whose few
lyric strophes are as deeply stamped with his individuality as his
epics seem only tributary to the full rich stream of Walther's
genius. There was not a form of the German Minnesang which
Walther did not amplify and deepen; songs of courtly love
and lowly love, of religious faith and delight in nature, patriotic
songs and political Spriiche in all he was a master. Of Walther's
life we are somewhat better informed than in the case of his con-
temporaries: he was born about 1170 and died about 1230;
his art he learned in Austria, whereupon he wandered through
South Germany, a welcome guest wherever he went, although
his vigorous championship of what he regarded as the national
cause in the political struggles of the day won him foes as well as
friends. For centuries he remained the accepted exemplar of
German lyric poetry; not merely the Minnesanger who followed
him, but also the Meistersinger of the i5th and i6th centuries
looked up to him as one of the founders and lawgivers of their art.
He was the most influential of all Germany's lyric poets, and
in the breadth, originality and purity of his inspiration one of
her greatest (see WALTHER VON DER VOGELWEIDE).
The development of the German Minnesang after Walther's
death and under his influence is easily summed up. Contem-
poraries had been impressed by the dual character of Walther's
lyric; they distinguished a higher courtly lyric, and a lower
more outspoken form of song, free from the constraint of social
or literary conventions. The later Minnesang emphasized this
dualism. Amongst Walther's immediate contemporaries, high-
born poets, whose lives were passed at courts, naturally cultivated
the higher lyric; but the more gifted and original singers of the
time rejoiced in the freedom of Walther's poetry of niedere
Minne. It was, in fact, in accordance with the spirit of the age
that the latter should have been Walther's most valuable legacy
to his successors; and the greatest of these, Neidhart von
Reuental (c. n8o-c. 1250), certainly did not allow himself to
be hampered by aristocratic prejudices. Neidhart sought the
themes of his hofische Dorfpoesie in the village, and, as the mood
happened to dictate, depicted the peasant with humorous banter
or biting satire. The lyric poets of the later i3th century were
either, like Burkart von Hohenfels, Ulrich von Winterstetten
and Gottfried von Neifen, echoes of Walther von der Vogel-
weide and of Neidhart, or their originality was confined to some
particular form of lyric poetry in which they excelled. Thus
the singer known as " Der Tannhauser " distinguished himself as
an imitator of the French pastourelle; Reinmar von Zweter was
purely a Spruchdichter. More or less common to all is the con-
sciousness that their own ideas and surroundings were no longer
in harmony with the aristocratic world of chivalry, which the
poets of the previous generation had glorified. The solid
advantages, material prosperity and increasing comfort of life
in the German towns appealed to poets like Steinmar von
Klingenau more than the unworldly ideals of self-effacing
knighthood which Ulrich von Lichtenstein and Johann Hadlaub
of Zurich clung to so tenaciously and extolled so warmly. On the
whole, the Spruchdichter came best out of this ordeal of changing
fashions; and the increasing interest in the moral and didactic
applications of literature favoured the development of this
form of verse. The confusion of didactic purpose with the
lyric is common to all the later poetry, to that of the learned
Marner, of Boppe, Rumezland and Heinrich von Meissen,
who was known to later generations as " Frauenlob." The
Spruchdichtung, in fact, was one of the connecting links between
the Minnesang of the I3th and the lyric and satiric poetry
of the isth and i6th centuries.
The disturbing and disintegrating element in the literature
of the i3th century was thus the substitution of a utilitarian
didacticism for the idealism of chivalry. In the early decades of
that century, poems like Der Winsbeke, by a Bavarian, and
Der welsche Cast, written in 1215-1216 by Thomasin von Zir-
claere (Zirclaria), a native of Friuli, still teach with uncompromis-
ing idealism the duties and virtues of the knightly life. But in the
Bescheidenheit (c. 1215-1230) of a wandering singer, who called
himself Freidank, we find for the first time an active antagonism
to the unworldly code of chivalry and an unmistakable reflection
of the changing social order, brought about by the rise of what
we should now call the middle class. Freidank is the spokesman
of the Burger, and in his terse, witty verses may be traced the
germs of German intellectual and literary development in the
coming centuries even of the Reformation itself. From the
advent of Freidank onwards, the satiric and didactic poetry went
the way of the epic; what it gained in quantity it lost in quality
and concentration. The satires associated with the name of
Seifried Helbling, an Austrian who wrote in the last fifteen
years of the i3th century, and Der Renner by Hugo von Trimberg,
written at the very end of the century, may be taken as character-
istic of the later period, where terseness and incisive wit have
given place to diffuse moralizing and allegory.
There is practically no Middle High German literature in
prose; such prose as has come down to us the tracts of David
of Augsburg, the powerful sermons of Berthold von Regensburg
(d. 1272), Germany's greatest medieval preacher, and several legal
codes, as the Sachsenspiegel and Schwabenspiegel only prove
that the Germans of the i3th century had not yet realized the
possibilities of prose as a medium of literary expression.
III. THE TRANSITION PERIOD (1350-1600)
(a) The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries. As is the case
with all transitional periods of literary history, this epoch of
German literature may be considered under two aspects: on
the one hand, we may follow in it the decadence and disintegra-
tion of the literature of the Middle High German period; on
the other, we may study the beginnings of modern forms of
poetry and the preparation of that spiritual revolution, which
meant hardly less to the Germanic peoples than the Renaissance
to the Latin races the Protestant Reformation.
By the middle of the I4th century, knighthood with its
chivalric ideals was rapidly declining, and the conditions under
which medieval poetry had flourished were passing away.
The social change rendered the courtly epic of Arthur's Round
Table in great measure incomprehensible to the younger genera-
tion, and made it difficult for them to understand the spirit
that actuated the heroes of the national epic; the tastes to which
the lyrics of the great Minnesingers had appealed were vitiated
by the more practical demands of the rising middle classes.
But the stories of chivalry still appealed as stories to the people,
although the old way of telling.them was no longer appreciated.
The feeling for beauty of form and expression was lost; the
craving for a moral purpose and didactic aim had to be satisfied
at the cost of artistic beauty; and sensational incident was
valued more highly than fine character-drawing or inspired
poetic thought. Signs of the decadence are to be seen in the
Karlmeinet of this period, stories from the youth of Charlemagne,
in a continuation of Parzival by two Alsatians, Claus Wisse
and Philipp Colin (c. 1335), in an Apollonius von Tyrus by
Heinrich von Neuenstadt (c. 1315), and a Konigslochter von
Frankreich by Hans von Biihel (c. 1400). The story of Siegfried
was retold in a rough ballad, Das Lied von hitmen Seyfried, the
Heldenbuch was recast in Knitlelvers or doggerel (1472), and even
the Arthurian epic was parodied. A no less marked symptom
of decadence is to be seen in a large body of allegorical poetry
analogous to the Roman de la rose in France; Heinzelein of
Constance, at the end of the I3th, and Hadamar von Laber and
Hermann von Sachsenheim, about the middle of the 1 5th century,
were representatives of this movement. As time went on, prose
versions of the old stories became more general, and out of these
developed the Volksbiicher, such as Loher und Mailer, Die
Haimons kinder, Die schone Magelone, Melusine, which formed
the favourite reading of the German people for centuries. As
the last monuments of the decadent narrative literature of the
middle ages, we may regard the Buck der Abenteuer of Ulrich
Fuetrer, written at the end of the isth century, and Der Weiss-
kSnig and Teuerdank by the emperor Maximilian I. (1459-1519),
TRANSITION PERIOD)
GERMAN LITERATURE
787
printed in the early years of the i6th. At the beginning of the
new epoch the Minnesang could still point to two masters able
to maintain the great traditions of the i.uh century, Hugo von
Montfort (1357-1413) and Oswald von Wolkenslcin (1367-1445);
but as the lyric passed into the hands of the middle-class poets
of the German towns, it was rapidly shorn of its essentially
lyric qualities; die Uimiu gave place to moral and religious
dogmatism, emphasis was laid on strict adherence to the rules
of composition, and the simple forms of the older lyric were
superseded by ingenious metrical distortions. Under the inllucncc
of writers like Hcinrich von Meissen (" Frauenlob,"c. 1250-1318)
and Hvinrich von Milgeln in the Mth century, like Muskatblut
and Michael Bcheim (1416-4;. 1480) in the isth, the Minnesang
thus passed over into the Mcistergesang. In the later isth and
in the i6th centuries all the south German towns possessed
flourishing Mcistersinger schools in which the art of writing
verse was taught and practised according to complicated rules,
and it was the ambition of every gifted citizen to rise through
the various grades from Sckutrr to Ueister and to distinguish
himself in the " singing contests " instituted by the schools.
Such are the decadent aspects of the once rich literature of
the Middle High German period in the Mth and i$th centuries.
Turning now to the more positive side of the literary movement,
we have to note a revival of a popular lyric poetry the Volkslied
which made the futility and artificiality of the Meistergesang
more apparent. Never before or since has Germany been able
to point to such a rich harvest of popular poetry as is to be seen
in t he Yolksliedcr of these two centuries. Every form of popular
poetry is to be found here songs of love and war, hymns and
drinking-songs, songs of spring and winter, historical ballads,
as well as lyrics in which the old motives of the Minnesang
reappear stripped of all artificiality. More obvious tics with
the literature of the preceding age are to be seen in the develop-
ment of the Sckwank or comic anecdote. Collections of such
stories, which range from the practical jokes of Till Eulenspicgcl
(1515), and the coarse witticisms of the Pfaffe vom Kalenberg
(end of Mth century) and Peter Leu (1550), to the religious and
didactic anecdotes of J. Pauli's Schimff and Ernst (1522) or the
more literary Rollvugrnbuchlrin (1555) of Jdrg Wickram and the
\Ytndunmut (1563 ff.) of H. W. Kirchhoff these dominate in
large measure the literature of the 151(1 and i6th centuries;
they are the literary descendants of the medieval Pfaffe Amis,
tfarkolf and K inhart Fucks. An important development of
this type of popular literature is to be seen in the N arrcnschijf oi
Sebastian Brant (1457-1521), where the humorous anecdote
became a vehicle of the bitterest satire; Brant's own contempt
for the vulgarity of the ignorant, and the deep, unsatisfied
craving of all strata of society for a wider intellectual horizon
and a more humane and dignified life, to which Brant gave
voice, make the Narrenschijff, which appeared in 1494, a landmark
on the way that led to the Reformation. Another form the
Beast fable and Beast epic which is but sparingly represented
in earlier times, appealed with peculiar force to the new genera-
tion. At the very close of the Middle High German period,
Ulrich Boner had revived the Aesopic fable in his Eddstein
(1349), translations of Aesop in the following century added to
the popularity of the fable (q.v.), and in the century of the Re-
formation it became, in the hands of Burkard Waldis (Esopus,
1548) and Erasmus Alberus (Buck von der Tugend und Weiskeit,
1550), a favourite instrument of satire and polemic. A still
more attractive form of the Beast fable was the epic of Keinke
de Vos, which had been cultivated by Flemish poets in the i.?th
and I4th centuries and has come down to us in a Low Saxon
translation, published at Liibeck in 1408. This, too, like Brant's
poem, is a powerful satire on human folly, and is also, like the
Narrenschi/, a harbinger of the coming Reformation.
A complete innovation was the drama (y.t.), which, as we have
teen, had practically no existence in Middle High German
times. As in all European literatures, it emerged slowly and
with difficulty from its original subservience to the church liturgy.
As time went on, the vernacular was substituted for the original
Latin, and with increasing demands for pageantry, the scene
of the play was removed to the churchyard or the market-place;
thus the opportunity arose in tin- 141(1 and istli centuries f6r
developing the Wtihnachtsspiel, Osterspiel and Passionsspiel on
secular lines. The enlargement of the scope of the religious
play to include legends of the saints implied a further step in
the direction of a complete separation of the drama from ecclesi-
astical ceremony. The most interesting example of this encroach-
ment of the secular spirit is the Spiel von Frau Jutten Jutta
being the notorious Pope Joan by an Alsatian, Dietriih
Schcrnbcrg, in 1480. Meanwhile, in the 1 5th century, a beginning
had been made of a drama entirely independent of the church.
The mimic representations originally allegorical in character
with which the people amused themselves at the great festivals
of the year, and more especially in spring, were interspersed
with dialogue, and performed on an improvised stage. This
was the beginning of the Faslnachtsspiel or Shrovetide-play,
the subject of which was a comic anecdote similar to those of
the many collections of Srhwanke. Amongst the earliest culti-
vators of the Faslnachtsspiel were Hans Rosenplilt (fl. c. 1460)
and Hans Folz (fl. c. 1510), both of whom were associated with
Nuremberg.
(b) The Age of the Reformation. Promising as were these
literary beginnings of the isth century, the real significance
of the period in Germany's intellectual history is to be sought
outside literature, namely, in two forces which immediately
prepared the way for the Reformation mysticism and humanism.
The former of these had been a more or less constant factor in
German religious thought throughout the middle ages, but
with Meister Eckhart (? 1260-1327), the most powerful and
original of all the German mystics, with Heinrich Seuse or Suso
(c. 1300-1366), and Johannes Tauler (c. 1300-1361), it became
a clearly defined mental attitude towards religion; it was an
essentially personal interpretation of Christianity, and, as such,
was naturally conducive to the individual freedom which
Protestantism ultimately realized. It is thus not to be wondered
at that we should owe the early translations of the Bible into
German one was printed at Strassburg in 1466 to the mystics.
Johann Geiler von Kaiscrsberg (1445-1510), a pupil of the
humanists and a friend of Sebastian Brant, may be regarded
as a link between Eckhart and the earlier mysticists and Luther.
Humanism was transplanted to German soil with the foundation
of the university of Prague in 1348, and it made even greater
strides than mysticism. Its immediate influence, however,
was restricted to the educated classes; the pre-Reformation
humanists despised the vernacular and wrote and thought
only in Latin. Thus although neither Johann Rcuchlin of
Pforzheim (1455-1522), nor even the patriotic Alsatian, Jakob
Wimpfeling (or Wimpheling) (1450-1528) not to mention the
great Dutch humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-1536)
has a place in the history of German literature, their battle for
liberalism in thought and scholarship against the narrow ortho-
doxy of the Church cleared the way for a healthy national
literature among the German-speaking peoples. The incisive
wit and irony of humanistic satire we need only instance the
Epistolae obscurorum virorum (1515-1517) prevented the
German satirists of the Reformation age from sinking entirely
into that coarse brutality to which they were only too prone.
To the influence of the humanists we also owe many trans-
lations from the Latin and Italian dating from the I5th century.
Prominent among the writers who contributed to the group
of literature were Niklas von Wyl, chancellor of WOrttembcrg,
and his immediate contemporary Albrecht von Eyb (1420-1475).
Martin Luther (1483-1546), Germany's greatest man in this
age of intellectual new-birth, demands a larger share of attention
in a survey of literature than his religious and ecclesiastical
activity would in itself justify, if only because the literary activity
of the age cannot be regarded apart from him. From the
Volkslied and the popular Schwank to satire and drama, literature
turned exclusively round the Reformation which had been
inaugurated on the 3131 of October 1517 by Luther's publication
of the Theses against Indulgences in Wittenberg. In his three
tracts, An den ckristlichen Adel deutscher Nation, De caplivitate
7 88
GERMAN LITERATURE
[THE RENAISSANCE
Babylonica ecdesiae, and Von der Freiheit cincs Chrislenmenschen
(1520), Luther laid down his principles of reform, and in the
following year resolutely refused to recant his heresies in a
dramatic scene before the Council of Worms. Luther's Bible
(1522-1534) had unique importance not merely for the religious
and intellectual welfare of the German people, but also for their
literature. It is in itself a literary monument, a German classic,
and the culmination and justification of that movement which
had supplanted the medieval knight by the burgher and swept
away Middle High German poetry. Luther, well aware that his
translation of the Bible must be the keystone to his work, gave
himself endless pains to produce a thoroughly German work
German both in language and in spirit. It was important that the
dialect into which the Bible was translated should be compre-
hensible over as wide an area as possible of the German-speaking
world, and for this reason he took all possible care in choosing
the vocabulary and forms of his Gemeindeulsch. The language
of the Saxon chancery thus became, thanks to Luther's initiative,
the basis of the modern High German literary language. As a
hymn-writer (Geistliche Lieder, 1564), Luther was equally mindful
of the importance of adapting himself to the popular tradition;
and his hymns form the starting-point for a vast development
of German religious poetry which did not reach its highest point
until the following century.
The most powerful and virile Literature of this age was the
satire with which the losing side retaliated on the Protestant
leaders. Amongst Luther's henchmen, Philipp Melanchthon
(1497-1560), the " praeceptor Germaniae," and Ulrich von
Hutten (1488-1523) were powerful allies in the cause, but their
intellectual sympathies were with the Latin humanists; and
with the exception of some vigorous German prose and still
more vigorous German verse by Hutten, both wrote in Latin.
The satirical dramas of Niklas Manuel, a Swiss writer and the
polemical fables of Erasmus Alberus (c. 1500-1553), on the other
hand, were insignificant compared with the fierce assault on
Protestantism by the Alsatian monk, Thomas Murner (1475-
I S37)- The most unscrupulous of all German satirists, Murner
shrank from no extremes of scurrility, his attacks on Luther
reaching their culmination in the gross personalities of Von dcm
lutherischen Narren (1522). It was not until the following
generation that the Protestant party could point to a satirist
who in genius and power was at all comparable to Murner,
namely, to Johann Fischart (c. isso-c. 1 591); but when Fischart's
Rabelaisian humour is placed by the side of his predecessor's
work, we see that, in spite of counter-reformations, the Protestant
cause stood in a very different position in Fischart's day from that
which it had occupied fifty years before. Fischart took his stand
on the now firm union between humanism and Protestantism.
His chief work, the Ajfentheuerlich N aupengeheurliche Geschicht-
klilterung (1575), a Germanization of the first book of Rabelais'
satire, is a witty and ingenious monstrosity, a satirical comment
on the life of the i6th century, not the virulent expression of
party strife. The day of a personal and brutal type of satire
was clearly over, and the writers of the later 1 6th century reverted
more and more to the finer methods of the humanists. The
satire of Bartholomaeus Ringwaldt (1530-1599) and of Georg
Rollenhagen (1542-1609), author of the Froschmeuseler (1595),
was more " literary " and less actual than even Fischart's.
On the whole, the form of literature which succeeded best in
emancipating itself from the trammels of religious controversy
in the i6th century was the drama. Protestantism proved
favourable to its intellectual and literary development, and the
humanists, who had always prided themselves on their imita-
tions of Latin comedy, introduced into it a sense for form and
proportion. The Latin school comedy in Germany was founded
by J. Wimpfeling with his Stylpho (1470) and by J. Reuchlin
with his witty adaptation of Mattre Patelin in his Henno (1498).
In the i6th century the chief writers of Latin dramas were
Thomas Kirchmair or Naogeorgus (1511-1563), Caspar Briilow
(1585-1627), and Nikodemus Frischlin (1547-1590), who also
wrote dramas in the vernacular. The work of these men bears
testimony in its form and its choice of subjects to the close
relationship bet ween Latin and German dramain the i6th century.
One of the earliest focusses for a German drama inspired by the
Reformation was Switzerland. In Basel, Pamphilus Gengenbach
produced moralizing Faslnachtsspiele in 1515-1516; Niklas
Manuel of Bern (1484-1530) who has just been mentioned
employed the same type of play as a vehicle of pungent satire
against the Mass and the sale of indulgences. But it was not
long before the German drama benefited by the humanistic
example: the Par obeli vam vorlorn Szohn by Burkard Waldis
(1527), the many dramas on the subject of Susanna notably
those of Sixt Birck (1532) and Paul Rebhun (1535) and Frischlin's
German plays are attempts to treat Biblical themes according
to classic methods. In another of the important literary centres
of the 1 6th century, however, in Nuremberg, the drama developed
on indigenous lines. Hans Sachs (1494-1576), the Nuremberg
cobbler and Meistersinger, the most productive writer of the age,
went his own way; a voracious reader and an unwearied story-
teller, he left behind him a vast literary legacy, embracing every
form of popular literature from Spruch and Schwank to com-
plicated Meistergesang and lengthy drama. He laid under
contribution the rich Renaissance literature with which the
humanistic translators had flooded Germany, and he became
himself an ardent champion of the " Wittembergisch Nachtigall "
Luther. But in the progressive movement of the German drama
he played an even smaller role than his Swiss and Saxon con-
temporaries; for his tragedies and comedies are deficient in all
dramatic qualities; they are only stories in dialogue. In the
Fastnachtsspiele, where dramatic form is less essential than anec-
dotal point and brevity, he is to be seen at his best. Rich
as the i6th century was in promise, the conditions for
the development of a national drama were unfavourable. At
the close of the century the influence of the English drama
brought to Germany by English actors introduced the
deficient dramatic and theatrical force into the humanistic
and " narrative " drama which has just been considered. This
is to be seen in the work of Jakob Ayrer (d. 1605) and Duke
Henry Julius of Brunswick (1564-1613). But unfortunately
these beginnings had hardly made themselves felt when the full
current of the Renaissance was diverted across Germany, bringing
in its train the Senecan tragedy. Then came the Thirty Years'
War, which completely destroyed the social conditions indis-
pensable for the establishment of a theatre at once popular
and national.
The novel was less successful than the drama in extricating
itself from satire and religious controversy. Fischart was
too dependent on foreign models and too erratic at one time
adapting Rabelais, at another translating the old heroic romance
of Amadis de Gaula to create a national form of German fiction
in the i6th century; the most important novelist was a much
less talented writer, the Alsatian Meistersinger and dramatist
Jorg Wickram (d. c. 1560), who has been already mentioned as
the author of a popular collection of anecdotes, the Rollwagen-
buchlein. His longer novels, Der Knabenspiegel (1554) and Der
Goldfaden (1557), are in form, and especially in the importance
they attach to psychological developments, the forerunners of
the movement to which we owe the best works of German
fiction in the iSth century. But Wickram stands alone. So
inconsiderable, in fact, is the fiction of the Reformation age in
Germany that we have to regard the old Volksbucher as its
equivalent; and it is significant that of all the prose writings
of this age, the book which affords the best insight into the
temper and spirit of the Reformation was just one of these
crude Volksbucher, namely, the famous story of the magician
Doctor Johann Faust, published at Frankfort in 1587.
IV. THE RENAISSANCE (1600-1740)
The 17th century in Germany presents a complete contrast
to its predecessor; the fact that it was the century of the Thirty
Years' War, which devastated the country, crippled the prosperity
of the towns, and threw back by many generations the social
development of the people, explains much, but it can hardly be
held entirely responsible for the intellectual apathy, the slavery
THE RENAISSANCE]
GERMAN LITERATURE
789
to foreign customs and foreign ideas, which stunted the growth
of the nation. The freedom of Lutheranism degenerated into
a paralyzing Lutheran orthodoxy which was as hostile to the
" Freiheit eines Christ enmenschen " as that Catholicism it had
superseded; the idealism of the humanists degenerated in the
same way into a dry, pedantic scholasticism which held the German
mind in fetters until, at the very close of the century, Leibnitz
set it free. Most disheartening of all, literature which in the i6th
century had been so full of promise and had conformed with such
aptitude to the new ideas, was in all its higher manifestations
blighted by the dead hand of pseudo-classicism. The unkempt
literature of the Reformation age admittedly stood in need of
guidauce and discipline, but the I7th century made the fatal
mistake of trying to impose the laws and rules of Romance
literatures on a people of a purely Germanic stock.
There were, however, some branches of German poetry which
escaped this foreign influence. The- church hymn, continuing
the great Lutheran traditions, rose in the iyth century to extra-
ordinary richness both in quality and quantity. Paul Gcrhardt
(1607-1676), the greatest German hymn-writer, was only one
of many Lutheran pastors who in this age contributed to the
German hymnal. On the Catholic side, Angelus Silesius, or
Jobann Schcffler (1624-1677) showed what a wealth of poetry
lay in the mystic speculations of Jakob Boehmc, the gifted
shoemaker of Gorlitz (1575-1624), and author of the famous
Aurora, oder Uorgenrdte im Aufgang (1612); while Friedrich
von Spee (1591-1635), another leading Catholic poet of the
century, cultivated the pastoral allegory of the Renaissance.
The revival of mysticism associated with Boehme gradually
spread through the whole religious life of the iyth century,
Protestant as well as Catholic, and in the more specifically
Protestant form of pietism, it became, at the close of the period,
a force of moment in the literary revival. Besides the hymn,
the Volkslied, which amidst the struggles and confusion of the
great war bore witness to a steadily growing sense of patriotism,
lay outside the 'domain of the literary theorists and dictators,
and developed in its own way. But all else if we except certain
forms of fiction, which towards the end of the i yth century rose
into prominence stood completely under the sway of the Latin
Renaissance.
The first focus of the movement was Heidelberg, which had
been a centre of humanistic learning in the sixteenth century.
Here, under the leadership of J. W. Zincgref (1591-1635). *
number of scholarly writers carried into practice that interest
in the vernacular which had been shown a little earlier by the
German translator of Marot, Paul Schede or Melissus, librarian
in Heidelberg. The most important forerunner of Opitz was
< . R. Weckherlin (1584-1653), a native of Wurttemberg who had
spent the best pan of his life in England; his Oden und Gesiinge
(1618-1619) ushered in the era of Renaissance poetry in Germany
with a promise that was but indifferently fulfilled by his successors.
Of these the greatest, or at least the most influential, was Martin
Opitz (1597-1639). He was a native of Silesia and, as a student in
Heidelberg, came into touch with Zincgref s circle; subsequently,
in the course of a visit to Holland, a more definite trend was given
to his ideas by the example of the Dutch poet and scholar,
Daniel Heinsius. As a poet, Opitz experimented with every form
of recognized Renaissance poetry from ode and epic to pastoral
romance and Senecan drama; but his poetry is for the most part
devoid of inspiration; and his extraordinary fame among his
contemporaries would be hard to understand, were it not that in
his Buck von der deutichen Poetercy (1624) be gave the German
Renaissance its theoretical textbook. In this tract, in which
Opitz virtually reproduced in German the accepted dogmas of
Renaissance theorists like Scaliger and Ronsard, he not merely
justified his own mechanical verse-making, but also gave Germany
a law-book which regulated her literature for a hundred years.
The work of Opitz as a reformer was furthered by another
institution of Latin origin, namely, literary societies modelled
on the Accademia deUa Crusca in Florence. These societies,
of which the chief were the Fruchtbringende Gesellschafl or
Pdmenorden (founded 1617), the Eibscltwanenordcn in Hamburg
and the Gtkrinkr Blumenorden an der Pegnitt or CeseJischafl
der Pegntasch&fer in Nuremberg, were the centres of literary
activity during the unsettled years of the war. Although they
produced much that was trivial such as the extraordinary
Nitrnberger Trickier (1647-1653) by G. P. Harsdorffer (1607-
1658), a treatise which professed to turn out a fully equipped
German poet in the space of six hours these societies also
did German letters an invaluable service by their attention to
the language, one of their chief objects having been to purify
the German language from foreign and un-Gcrman ingredients.
J. G. Schottelius (1612-1676), for instance, wrote his epoch-
making grammatical works with the avowed purpose of furthering
the objects of the Fruchtbringende CeseUschaft. Meanwhile the
poetic centre of gravity in Germany had shifted from Heidelberg
to the extreme north-cast, to Konigsbcrg, where a group of
academic poets gave practical expression to the Opitzian theory.
Chief among them was Simon Dach (1605-1659), a gentle, elegiac
writer on whom the laws of the Buck von der deutschen Poelerey
did not lie too heavily. He, like his more manly and vigorous
contemporary Paul Fleming (1600-1640), showed, one might say,
that it was possible to write good and sincere poetry notwith-
standing Opitz's mechanical rules.
In the previous century the most advanced form of literature
had been satire, and under the new conditions the satiric vein
still proved most productive; but it was no longer the full-
blooded satire of the Reformation, or even the rich and luxuriant
satiric fancy of Fischart, which found expression in the 171)1
century. Satire pure and simple was virtually only cultivated
by two Low German poets, J. Laurcmbcrg (1590-1658) and
J. Rachel (1618-1669), of whom at least the latter was accepted
by the Opitzian school; but the satiric spirit rose to higher
things in the powerful and scathing sermons of J. B. Schupp
(1610-1661), an outspoken Hamburg preacher, and in the scurril-
ous wit of the Viennese monk Abraham a Sancta Clara (1644 -
1709), who had inherited some of his predecessor Murner's
intellectual gifts. Best of all are the epigrams of the most gifted
of all the Silesian group of writers, Friedrich von Logau (1604-
1 655). Logau 's three thousand epigrams (Deutsche Sinitgedkhtc,
1654) afford a key to the intellectual temper of the i yi !i century;
they arc the epitome of their age. Here are to be seen reflected
the vices of the time, its aping of French customs and its con-
tempt for what was national and German; Logau held up to
ridicule the vain bloodshed of the war in the interest of Chris-
tianity, and, although he praised Opitz, he was far from prostrat-
ing himself at the dictator's feet. Logau is an epigrammatist
of the first rank, and perhaps the most remarkable product of
the Renaissance movement in Germany.
Opitz found difficulty in providing Germany with a drama
according to the classic canon. He had not himself ventured
beyond translations of Sophocles and Seneca, and Johann Rist
(1607-1667) in Hamburg, one of the few contemporary dramatists,
had written plays more in the manner of Duke Heinrich Julius of
Brunswick than of Opitz. It was not until after the tatter's
death that the chief dramatist of the Renaissance movement
came forward in the person of Andreas Gryphius (1616-1664).
Like Opitz, Gryphius also was a Silesian, and a poet of no mean
ability, as is to be seen from his lyric poetry; but his tragedies,
modelled on the stiff Senecan pattern, suffered from the lack of
a theatre, and from his ignorance of the existence of a more highly
developed drama in France, not to speak of England. As it was,
he was content with Dutch models. In the field of comedy,
where he was less hampered by theories of dramatic propriety,
he allowed himself to benefit by the freedom of the Dutch farce
and the comic effects of the English actors in Germany; in his
Horribilicribrij 'ax and H err Peter Squtnlz the latter an adaptation
of the comic scenes of the Midsummer Night's Dream Gryphius
has produced the best German plays of the lyth century.
The German novel of the ryih century was, as has been
already indicated, less hampered by Renaissance laws than other
forms of literature, and although it was none the less at the
mercy of foreign influence, that influence was more varied
and manifold in its character. Don Quixote had been partly
790
GERMAN LITERATURE
[CLASSICAL PERIOD
translated early in the lyth century, the picaresque romance
had found its way to Germany at a still earlier date; while H. M.
Moscherosch (1601-1669) in his Gesichte Philanders von Sittewald
(1642-1643) made the Sueiios of Quevedo the basis for vivid
pictures of the life of the time, interspersed with satire. The
best German novel of the lyth century, Der abentetirliche Simpli-
cissimus (1669) by H. J. Christoffel von Grimmelshausen(c 1625-
1676), is a picaresque novel, but one that owed little more than its
form to the Spaniards. It is in great measure the autobiography
of its author, and describes with uncompromising realism the
social disintegration and the horrors of the Thirty Years' War.
But this remarkable book stands alone; Grimmelshausen's
other writings are but further contributions to the same theme,
and he left no disciples worthy of carrying on the tradition he
had created. Christian Weise (1642-1708), rector of the Zittau
gymnasium, wrote a few satirical novels, but his realism and satire
are too obviously didactic. He is seen to better advantage in his
dramas, of which he wrote more than fifty for performance by
his scholars.
The real successor of Simplicissimus in Germany was the
English Robinson Crusoe, a novel which, on its appearance, was
immediately translated into German (1721); it called forth an
extraordinary flood of imitations, the so-called " Robinsonaden,"
the vogue of which is even still kept alive by Der schiveizerische
Robinson of J. R. Wyss (1812 ff.). With the exception of J. G.
Schnabel's Insel Felsenburg (1731-1743), the literary value of
these imitations is slight. They represented, however, a healthier
and more natural development of fiction than the " galant "
romances which were introduced in the train of the Renaissance
movement, and cultivated by writers like Philipp von Zesen
(1619-1689), Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick (1633-1714),
A. H. Buchholtz (1607-1671), H. A. von Ziegler (1653-1697)
author of the famous Asiatische Banise (1688) and D. C. von
Lohenstein (1635-1683), whose Arminius (1689-1690) is on the
whole the most promising novel of this group. The last men-
tioned writer and Christian Hofmann von Hofmannswaldau
(1617-1679) are sometimes regarded as the leaders of a " second
Silesian school," as opposed to the first school of Opitz. As the
cultivators of the bombastic and Euphuistic style of the Italians
Guarini and Marini, and of the Spanish writer Gongora, Lohen-
stein and Hofmannswaldau touched the lowest point to which
German poetry ever sank.
But this aberration of taste was happily of short duration.
Although socially the recovery of the German people from the
desolation of the war was slow and laborious, the intellectual
life of Germany was rapidly recuperating under the influence
of foreign thinkers. Samuel Pufendorf (1632-1694), Christian
Thomasius (1655-1728), Christian von Wolff (1679-1754) and,
above all, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716), the first
of the great German philosophers, laid the foundations of that
system of rationalism which dominated Germany for the better
part of the i8th century; while German religious life was
strengthened and enriched by a revival of pietism, under mystic
thinkers like Philipp Jakob Spener (1635-1705), a revival
which also left its traces on religious poetry. Such hopeful signs
of convalescence could not but be accompanied by an improve-
ment in literary taste, and this is seen in the first instance in a
substitution for the bombast and conceits of Lohenstein and
Hofmannswaldau, of poetry on the stricter and soberer lines
laid down by Boileau. The so-called " court poets " who
opposed the second Silesian school, men like Rudolf von Canitz
(1654-1699), Johann von Besser (1654-1729) and Benjamin
Neukirch (1665-1729), were not inspired, but they had at least
a certain "correctness" of taste; and from their midst sprang
one gifted lyric genius, Johann Christian Gunther (1695-1723),
who wrote love-songs such as had not been heard in Germany
since the days of the Minnesang. The methods of Hofmanns-
waldau had obtained considerable vogue in Hamburg, where
the Italian opera kept the decadent Renaissance poetry alive.
Here, however, the incisive wit of Christian Wernigke's (1661-
1725) epigrams was an effective antidote, and Barthold Heinrich
Brockes (1680-1 747), a native of Hamburg, who had been deeply
impressed by the appreciation of nature in English poetry, gave
the artificialities of the Silesians their death-blow. But the
influence of English literature was not merely destructive in
these years; in the translations and imitations of the English
Spectator, Taller and Guardian the so-called moralischc Wochen-
schriften it helped to regenerate literary taste, and to implant
healthy moral ideas in the German middle classes.
The chief representative of the literary movement inaugurated
by the Silesian " court poets " was Johann Christoph Gottsched
(1700-1766), who between 1724 and 1740 succeeded in establish-
ing in Leipzig, the metropolis of German taste, literary reforms
modelled on the principles of French 17th-century classicism.
He reformed and purified the stage according to French ideas,
and provided it with a repertory of French origin; in his
Kritische Dichtkunst (i 730) he laid down the principles according
to which good literature was to be produced and judged. As
Opitz had reformed German letters with the help of Ronsard,
so now Gottsched took his standpoint on the principles of
Boileau as interpreted by contemporary French critics and
theorists. With Gottsched, whose services in purifying the
German language have stood the test of time better than his
literary or dramatic reforms, the period of German Renaissance
literature reaches its culmination and at the same time its close.
The movement of the age advanced too rapidly for the Leipzig
dictator; in 1740 a new epoch opened in German poetry and he
was soon left hopelessly behind.
V. THE CLASSICAL PERIOD OF MODERN GERMAN LITERATURE
(1740-1832)
(a) From the Swiss Controversy to the " Sturm und Drang."
Between Opitz and Gottsched German literature passed succes-
sively through the various stages characteristic of all Renaissance
literatures from that represented by Trissino and the French
Pleiade, by way of the aberrations of Marini and the estilo cidto,
to the art poetique of Boileau. And precisely as in France, the
next advance was achieved in a battle between the " ancients "
and the " moderns," the German " ancients " being represented
by Gottsched, the " moderns " by the Swiss literary reformers,
J. J. Bodmer (1698-1783) and J. J. Breitinger (1701-1776).
The latter in his Kritische Dichtkunst (i 739) maintained doctrines
which were in opposition to Gottsched's standpoint in his
treatise of the same name, and Bodmer supported his friend's
initiative; a pamphlet war ensued between Leipzig and Zurich,
with which in 1740-1741 the classical period of modern German
literature may be said to open. The Swiss, men of little origin-
ality, found their theories in the writings of Italian and English
critics; and from these they learned how literature might be
freed from. the fetters of pseudo-classicism. Basing their argu-
ments on Milton's Paradise Lost, which Bodmer had translated
into prose (1732), they demanded room for the play of genius
and inspiration; they insisted that the imagination should not
be hindered in its attempts to rise above the world of reason and
common sense. Their victory was due, not to the skill with
which they presented their arguments, but to the fact that
literature itself was in need of greater freedom. It was in fact
a triumph, not of personalities or of leaders, but of ideas. The
effects of the controversy are to be seen in a group of Leipzig
writers of Gottsched's own school, the Bremer Beitrager as they
were called after their literary organ. These men C. F. Gellert
(1715-1769), the author of graceful fables and tales in verse,
G. W. Rabener (1714-1771), the mild satirist of Saxon provinci-
ality, the dramatist J. Elias Schlegel (1719-1749), who in more
ways than one was Lessing's forerunner, and a number of minor
writers did not set themselves up in active opposition to their
master, but they tacitly adopted many of the principles which
the Swiss had advocated. And in the Bremer Beitrd'ge there
appeared in 1 748 the first instalment of an epic by F. G. Klopstock
(1724-1803), Der Messias, which was the best illustration of
that lawlessness against which Gottsched had protested. More
effectively than Bodmer's dry and uninspired theorizing, Klop-
stock's Messias, and in a still higher degree, his Odes, laid the
foundations of modern German literature in the i8th century.
CLASSICAL PERIOD]
GERMAN LITERATURE
791
Hi* immrtliutr followers, it is true, did not help to advance
matters; Bodmcr and J K. Lavater (1741-1801), whose
" physiognomic " investigations interested Goethe at a later
date, wrote dreary and now long forgotten epics on religious
themes. Klopstock's rhapsodic dramas, together with Macpher-
son's OuwH, which in the 'sixties awakened a widespread
enthusiasm throughout Germany, were responsible for the
so-called " bardic " movement ; but the noisy rhapsodies of
the leaders of this movement, the " bards " H. W. von Gerstcn-
bcff (1737-1813), K. F. Kretschmann (1738-1809) and Michael
Denis (1720-1800), had little of the poetic inspiration of Klop-
stock's Odes.
The indirect influence of Klopstock as the first inspired poet
of modern Germany and as the realization of Bodmer's theories
can, however, hardly be over-estimated. Under Frederick the
Great, who, as the docile pupil of French culture, had little
sympathy for unregulated displays of feeling, neither Klopstock
nor his imitators were in favour in Berlin, but at the university
of Halle considerable interest was taken in the movement
inaugurated by Bodmer. Here, before Klopstock's name was
known at all, two young poets, J. I. Pyra (1715-1744) and S. G.
Lange (1711-1781), wrote Freundsckaflliche Lieder (1737), which
were direct forerunners of Klopstock's rhymeless lyric poetry;
and although the later Prussian poets, J. W. L. Gleim (1710-
1803), J. P. Ux (1710-1796) and J. N. Got* (1721-1781), who
were associated with Halle, and K. W. Rainier (1725-1798) in
Berlin, cultivated mainly the Anacreontic and the Hcratian
ode artificial forms, which kept strictly within the classic
canon yet Fricdrich von Hagedorn (1708-1754) in Hamburg
showed to what perfection even the Anacreontic and the lighter
vert de socitU could be brought. The Swiss physiologist Albrecht
von Haller (1708-1777) was the first German poet to give
expression to the beauty and sublimity of Alpine scenery (Die
Alpen, 1734), and a Prussian officer, Ewald Christian von Kleist
(1715-1759), author of Der FriiUing (1749), wrote the most
inspired nature-poetry of this period. Klopstock's supreme
importance lay. however, in the fact that he was a forerunner of
the movement of Sturm and Drang. But before turning to that
movement we must consider two writers who, strictly speaking,
also belong to the age under consideration Lessing and Wielaml.
As Klopstock had been the first of modern Germany's inspired
poets, so Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781) was the first
critic who brought credit to the German name throughout
Europe. He was the most liberal-minded exponent of iSth-
century rationalism. Like his predecessor Gottsched, whom he
vanquished more effectually than Bodmer had done, he had
unwavering faith in the classic canon, but " classic " meant
for him, as for his contemporary, J. J. Winckelmann (1717-1768),
Greek art and literature, and not the products of French pseudo-
classicism, which it had been Gottsched's object to foist on
Germany. He went, indeed, still further, and asserted that
Shakespeare, with all his irregularities, was a more faithful
observer of the spirit of Aristotle's laws, and consequently a
greater poet, than were the French classic writers. He looked
to England and not to France for the regeneration of the German
theatre, and his own dramas were pioneer-work in this direction.
Miss Sara Sampson (1755) is a bUrgerliche Tragddie on the lines
of Lfllo's Merchant of London, Minna ton Barnhelm (1767), a
comedy in the spirit of Farquhar; in Emilia Galotti (1772),
again with English models in view, he remoulded the "tragedy
of common b'fe " in a form acceptable to the Sturm und Drang;
and finally in Nathan der Weise (1779) he won acceptance for*
iambic blank verse as the medium of the higher drama. His
two most promising disciples J. F. von Cronegk (1731-1758)
and J. W. von Brawe (1738-1758) unfortunately died young,
and C. F. Weisse (1726-1804) was not gifted enough to advance
the drama in its literary aspects. Lessing's name is associated
with Winckelmann's in Laokoon (1766), a treatise in which he
set about defining the boundaries between painting, sculpture
and poetry, and with those of the Jewish philosopher, Moses
Mendelssohn (1720-1786) and the Berlin bookseller C. F. Nicolai
(733-i8' i) in the famous LUeraturbriefe. Here Lessing identified
himself with the best critical principles of the rationalistic move-
ment principles which, in the later years of his life, he employed
in a fierce onslaught on Lutheran orthodoxy and intolerance.
To the widening and deepening of the German imagination
C. M. Wieland (1733-1813) also contributed, but in a different
way. Although no enemy of pseudo-classicism, he broke with
the stiff dogmatism of Gottsched and his friends, and tempered
the pietism of Klopstock by introducing the Germans to the
lighter poetry of the south of Europe. With the exception of his
fairy epic Oberon (1780), Wit-land's work has fallen into neglect;
he did, however, excellent service to the development of German
prose fiction with his psychological novel, Agathon (1766-1767),
which may be regarded as a forerunner of Goethe's Wilhelm
Meister, and with his humorous satire Die Abderiten (1774).
Wieland had a considerable following, both among poets and
prose writers; he was particularly looked up to in Austria,
towards the end of the i8th century, where the literary movement
advanced more slowly than in the north. Here Aloys Blumauer
(1755-1789) and J. B. von Alxingcr (1755-1797) wrote their
travesties and epics under his influence. In Saxony, M. A. von
ThUmmel (1738-1817) showed his adherence to Wieland's
school in his comic epic in prose, Wilhelmine (1764), and in the
general tone of his prose writings; on the other hand, K. A.
Kortum (1745-1824), author of the most popular comic epic of
the time, Die Jobsiade ( 1 784) , was but little influenced by Wieland.
The German novel owed much to the example of Agathon,
but the groundwork and form were borrowed from English
models; Gellcrt had begun by imitating Richardson in his
Sckwedische Grafin (1747-1748), and he was followed by J. T.
Hermes (1738-1821), by Wieland's friend Sophie von Laroche
(1730-1807), by A. von Knigge (1752-1796) and J. K. A. Musaus
(1735-1787), the last mentioned being, however, best known
as the author of a collection of Volksmiirchen (1782-1786).
Meanwhile a rationalism, less materialistic and strict than that
of Wolff, was spreading rapidly through educated middle-class
society in Germany. Men like Knigge, Moses Mendelssohn,
J. G. Zimmermann (1728-1795), T. G. von Hippel (1741-1796),
Christian Carve (1742-1798), J. J. Engel (1741-1802), as well
as the educational theorists J. B. Basedow (1723-1790) and
J. H. Pestalozzi (1746-1827), wrote books and essays on "popular
philosophy " which were as eagerly read as the moralische
Wochensckriften of the preceding epoch; and with this group
of writers must also be associated the most brilliant of German
iSth-century satirists, G. C. Lichtenberg (1742-1799).
Such was the milieu from which sprang the most advanced
pioneer of the classical epoch of modern German literature,
J. G. Herder (1744-1803). The transition from the popular
philosophers of the Aufklitrung to Herder was due in the first
instance to the influence of Rousseau; and in Germany itself
that transition is represented by men like Thomas Abbt (1738-
1766) and J. G. Hamann (1730-1788). The revolutionary
nature of Herder's thought lay in that writer's antipathy to
hard and fast systems, to laws imposed upon genius; he grasped,
as no thinker before him, the idea of historical evolution. By
regarding the human race as the product of a slow evolution from
primitive conditions, he revolutionized the methods and stand-
point of historical science and awakened an interest for which,
of course, Rousseau had prepared the way in the early history
of mankind. He himself collected and published the Volkslicdtr
of all nations (1778-1779), and drew attention to those elements
in German life and art which were, in the best and most precious
sense, national elements which his predecessors had despised
as inconsistent with classic formulae and systems. Herder is
thus not merely the forerunner, but the actual founder of the
literary movement known as Sturm und Drang. New ground
was broken in a similar way by a group of poets, who show the
results of Klopstock's influence on the new literary movement:
the (iot tingcn " Bund " or " Main," a number of young students
who met together in 1772, and for several years published their
poetry in the GSUinger Musenalmanach. With the exception
of the two brothers, Ch. zu Stolberg (1748-1821) and F. L. zu
Stolberg (1750-1819), who occupied a somewhat peculiar position
792
GERMAN LITERATURE
[CLASSICAL PERIOD
in the " Bund," the members of this coterie were drawn from
the peasant class of the lower bourgeoisie; J. H. Voss (1751-
1826), the leader of the " Bund," was a typical North German
peasant, and his idyll, Luise (1784), gives a realistic picture of
German provincial life. L. H. C. Holty (1748-1776) and J. M.
Miller (1750-1814), again, excelled in simple lyrics in the tone
of the Volkslied. Closely associated with the Gottingen group
were M. Claudius (1740-1815), the Wandsbecker Bate as he was
called after the journal he edited an even more unassuming
and homely representative of the German peasant in literature
than Voss, and G. A. BUrger (1748-1794) who contributed to
the Gottinger Musenalmanach ballads, such as the famous Lenore
(i 774), of the very first rank. These ballads were the best products
of the Gottingen school, and, together with Goethe's Strassburg
and Frankfort songs, represent the highest point touched by
the lyric and ballad poetry of the period.
But the Gottingen " Bund " stood somewhat aside from the
main movement of literary development in Germany; it was
only a phase of Sturm und Drang, and quieter, less turbulent
than that on which Goethe had set the stamp of his personality.
Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832) had, as a student in
Leipzig (1765-1768), written lyrics in the Anacreontic vein and
dramas in alexandrines. But in Strassburg, where he went
to continue his studies in 1770-1771, he made the personal
acquaintance of Herder, who won his interest for the new literary
movement. Herder imbued him with his own ideas of the
importance of primitive history and Gothic architecture and
inspired him with a pride in German nationality; Herder
convinced him that there was more- genuine poetry in a simple
Volkslied than in all the ingenuity of the German imitators
of Horace or Anacreon; above all, he awakened his enthusiasm
for Shakespeare. The pamphlet Von deutscher Art und Kunst
(1773), to which, besides Goethe and Herder, the historian
Justus Moser (1720-1794) also contributed, may be regarded
as the manifesto of the Sturm und Drang. The effect on Goethe
of the new ideas was instantaneous; they seemed at once to
set his genius free, and from 1771 to 1775 he was extraordinarily
fertile in poetic ideas and creations. His Golz von Berlichingen
(1771-1773), the first drama of the Sturm und Drang, was followed
within a year by the first novel of the movement, Werthcrs
Leiden (1774); he dashed off Clavigo and Stella in a few weeks
in 1774 and 1775, and wrote a large number of Singspiele,
dramatic satires and fragments including Faust in its earliest
form (the so-called Urfaust) not to mention love-songs which
at last fulfilled the promise of Klopstock. Goethe's lyrics were
no less epoch-making than his first drama and novel, for they
put an end to the artificiality which for centuries had fettered
German lyric expression. In all forms of literature he set the
fashion to his time; the Shakespearian restlessness of Golz von
Berlichingen found enthusiastic imitators in J. M. R. Lenz
(1751-1792), whose Anmerkungenubers Theater (1774) formulated
theoretically the laws, or defiance of laws, of the new drama, in
F. M. von Klinger (1752-1831), J. A. Leisewitz (1752-1806), H.L.
Wagner (1747-1779) and Friedrich Miiller, better known as
Maler Miiller (1749-1825). The dramatic literature of the Sturm
und Drang was its most characteristic product indeed, the
very name of the movement was borrowed from a play by
Klinger; it was inspired, as Golz von Berlichingen had been, by the
desire to present upon the stage figures of Shakespearian grandeur
impelled and tortured by gigantic passions, all considerations of
plot, construction and form being regarded as subordinate to
the development of character. The fiction of the Sturm und
Drang, again, was in its earlier stages dominated by Werthers
Leiden, as may be seen in the novels of F. H. Jacobi (1743-1819)
and J. M. Miller, who has been already mentioned. Later, in the
hands of J. J. W. Heinse (1740-1803), author of Ardinghello
(1787), Klinger, K. Ph. Moritz (1757-1793), whose Anton Reiser
(1785) clearly foreshadows Wilhelm Meister, it reflected not
merely the sentimentalism, but also the philosophic and artistic
ideas of the period.
With the production of Die Rduber (1781) by Johann Friedrich
Schiller (1759-1805), the drama of the Sturm und Drang entered
upon a new development. Although hardly less turbulent in
spirit than the work of Klinger and Leisewitz, Schiller's tragedy
was more skilfully adapted to the exigencies of the theatre; his
succeeding dramas, Fiesco and Kabale und Liebe, were also
admirable stage-plays, and in Don Carlos (1787) he abandoned
prose for the iambic blank verse which Leseing had made accept-
able in Nathan der Weise. The " practical " character of the
new drama is also to be seen in the work of Schiller's contem-
porary, O. von Gemmingen (1755-1836), the imitator of Diderot,
in the excellent domestic dramas of the actors F. L. Schroder
(1744-1816) and A. W. Iffland (1759-1814), and even in the
popular medieval plays, the so-called Ritterdramen of which
Gotz von Berlichingen was the model. Germany owes to the
Sturm und Drang her national theatre; permanent theatres
were established in these years at Hamburg, Mannheim, Gotha,
and even at Vienna, which, as may be seen from the dramas of
C. H. von Ayrenhoff (1733-1819), had hardly then advanced
beyond Gottsched's ideal of a national literature. The Hofburg-
theater of Vienna, the greatest of all the German stages, was
virtually founded in 1776.
(V) German Classical Literature. The energy of the Sturm
und Drang, which was essentially iconoclastic in its methods,
soon exhausted itself. For Goethe this phase in his development
came to an end with his departure for Weimar in 1775, while,
after writing Don Carlos (1787), Schiller turned from poetry
to the study of history and philosophy. These subjects occupied
his attention almost exclusively for several years, and not until
the very close of the century did he,under the stimulus of Goethe's
friendship, return to the drama. The first ten years of Goethe's
life in Weimar were comparatively unproductive; he had left
the Sturm und Drang behind him; its developments, for which
he himself had been primarily responsible, were distasteful to
him; and he had not yet formed a new creed. Under the
influence of the Weimar court, where classic or even pseudo-
classic tastes prevailed, he was gradually finding his way to a
form of literary art which should reconcile the humanistic ideals
of the i8th century with the poetic models of ancient Greece.
But he did not arrive at clearness in his ideas until after his
sojourn in Italy (1786-1788), an episode of the first importance
for his mental development. Italy was, in the first instance, a
revelation to Goethe of the antique; he had gone to Italy to
find realized what Winckelmann had taught, and here he con-
ceived that ideal of a classic literature, which for the next twenty
years dominated German literature and made Weimar its
metropolis. In Italy he gave Iphigenie auf Tauris (1787) its
final form, he completed Egmont (1788) like the exactly con-
temporary Don Carlos of Schiller, a kind of bridge from Sturm
und Drang to classicism and all but finished Torquato Tasso
(1790). W ilhelm M eisters Lehrjahre (1795-1796) bears testimony
to the clear and decisive views which he had acquired on all
questions of art and of the practical conduct of life.
Long before Wilhelm Meister appeared, however, German
thought and literature had arrived at that stability and self-
confidence which are the most essential elements in a great
literary period. In the year of Lessing's death, 1781, Immanuel
Kant (1724-1804), the great philosopher, had published his
Kritik der reinen Vernun/t, and this, together with the two later
treatises, Kritik der praklischen Vernunft (1788) and Kritik der
Urteilskraft (1790), placed the Germans in the front rank of
thinking nations. Under the influence of Kant, Schiller turned
from the study of history to that of philosophy and more especi-
ally aesthetics. His philosophic lyrics, his treatises on Anmut
und Wurde, on the Asthetische Erziehung des Menschen (1795),
and Vber naive und sentimentalische Dichlung (1795) show, on
the philosophic and the critical side, the movement of the century
from the irresponsible subjectivity of Sturm und Drang to the
calm idealism of classic attainment. In the same way, German
historical writing had in these years, under the leadership of
men like Justus Moser, Thomas Abbt, I. Iselin, F. C. Schlosser,
Schiller himself and, greatest of all, Johannes von Miiller (1752-
1809), advanced from disconnected, unsystematic chronicling
to a clearly thought-out philosophic and scientific method. J. G.
CLASSICAL PERIOD)
GERMAN LITERATURE
793
A. Forster (i7S4~>?94). who had accompanied Cook round the
world, and Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), gmve Germany
models of clear and lucid descriptive writing. In practical
politics and economics, when once the unbalanced vagaries of
undiluted Rousseauism had fallen into discredit, Germany pro-
duced much wise and temperate thinking which prevented the
spread of the French Revolution to Germany, and provided
a practical basis on which the social and political fabric could
be built up anew, after the Revolution had made the old regime
impossible in Europe. Men like Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-
1835) and the philosopher J. G. Fichte (1762-1814) were, in
two widely different spheres, representative of this type of
intellectual eminence.
Meanwhile, in 1704, that friendship* between Goethe and
Schiller had begun, which lasted, unbroken, until the younger
poet's death in 1805. These years mark the summit of Goethe
and Schiller's classicism, and the great epoch of Weimar's history
as a literary focus. Schiller's treatises had provided a theoretical
basis; bis new journal, Die Horen, might be called the literary
organ of the movement although in this respect the subsequent
M munalmanofh, in which the two poets published their magnifi-
cent ballad poetry, had more value. Goethe, as director of the
ducal theatre, could to a great extent control dramatic production
in Germany. Under his encouragement, Schiller turned from
philosophy to peetry and wrote the splendid series of classic
dramas beginning with the trilogy of Wallenslein and closing
with Wiihrlm Tell and the fragment of Demetrius; while to
(.oethc we owe, above all, the epic of Hermann und Dorothea.
Less important were the latter's severely classical plays Die
no&rliche Tackier and Pandora; but it must not be forgotten
that it was chiefly owing to Schiller's stimulus that in those
years Goethe brought the first pan of Faurt(i8o8)to a conclusion.
Although acknowledged leaders of German letters, Goethe
and Schiller had considerable opposition to contend with. The
Sturm und Drang had by no means exhausted itself, and the
representatives of the once dominant rationalistic movement
were particularly arrogant and overbearing. The literature
associated with both Sturm und Drang and rationalism was at
this period palpably decadent; no comparison could be made
between the magnificent achievements of Goethe and Schiller,
or even of Herder and Wieland with the " family " dramas of
ISland, still less with the extraordinarily popular plays of A. von
Kotzebue (1761-1819), or with those bustling medieval Kittrr-
dramen, which were especially cultivated in south Germany.
There is a wide gap between Moritz's Anton Reiser or the philo-
sophic novels which Klinger w rote in his later years, and Goethe's
Meister; nor can the once so fervently admired novels of Jean
Paul Richter (1763-1825) take a very high place. Neither the
fantastic humour nor the penetrating thoughts with which
Richter's books are strewn make up for their lack of artistic form
and interest; they are essentially products of Sturm und Drang.
Lastly, in the province of lyric and epic poetry, it is impossible
to regard poets like the gentle F. von Matthisson (1761-1831),
or the less inspired G. L. Kosegartcn (1758-1818) and C. A.
Tiedge (1752-1841), as worthily seconding the masterpieces
of Goethe and Schiller. Thus when we speak of the greatness
of Germany's danfuml period, we think mainly of the work of
her two chief poets; the distance that separated them from
their immediate contemporaries was enormous. Moreover, at
the very close of the iSth century a new literary movement
arose in admitted opposition to the classicism of Weimar, and
to this movement, which first took definite form in the Romantic
school, the sympathies of the younger generation turned. Just
as in the previous generation the Sturm und Drang had been
obliged to make way for a return to classic and impersonal
principles of literary composition, so now the classicism of Goethe
and Schiller, which had produced masterpieces like Wailenslein
and Hermann und Dorothea, had to yield to a revival of individual-
ism and subjectivity, which, in the form of Romanticism, pro-
foundly influenced the literature of the whole igth century.
(c) The Romantic Movement. The first Romantic school,
however, was founded, not as a protest against the classicism of
Weimar, with which its leaders were in essential sympathy,
but against the shallow, utilitarian rationalism of Berlin.
Ludwig Tieck (1773-1853), a leading member of the school,
was in reality a belated StUrmer und Dranger, who in his early
years had chafed under the unimaginative tastes of the Prussian
capital, and sought for a positive faith to put in their place.
Friedrich H5lderlin (1770-1843), one of the most gifted poets of
this age, demonstrates no less clearly than Tieck the essential
affinity between Sturm und Drang and Romanticism; he, too,
forms a bridge from the one individualistic movement to the
other. The theoretic basis of Romanticism was, however,
established by the two brothers, August Wilhelm and Friedrich
Schlegel (1767-1845 and 1772-1829), who, accepting, in great
measure, Schiller's aesthetic conclusions, adapted them to the
needs of their own more subjective altitude towards literature.
While Schiller, like Lessing before him, insisted on the critic's
right to sit in judgment according to a definite code of principles,
these Romantic critics maintained that the first duty of criticism
was to understand and appreciate; the right of genius to follow
its natural bent was sacred. The Henensergiessungen eines
kunslliebenden Klosttrbruders by Tieck 's school-friend W. H.
Wackenroder (1773-1798) contained the Romantic art -theory,
while the hymns and fragmentary novels of Friedrich von
Hardenberg (known as Novalis, 1772-1801), and the dramas
and fairy tales of Tieck, were the characteristic products of
Romantic literature. The universal sympathies of the movement
were exemplified by the many admirable translations greatest
of all, SchlegePs Shakespeare (1797-1810) which were produced
under its auspices. Romanticism was essentially conciliatory in
its tendencies, that is to say, it aimed at a reconciliation of poetry
with other provinces of social and intellectual life; the hard and
fast boundaries which the older critics had set up as to what
poetry might and might not do, were put aside, and the domain
of literature was regarded as co-extensive with life itself; paint-
ing and music, philosophy and ethics, were all accepted as con-
stituent elements of or aids to Romantic poetry. Ficbte, and to
a much greater extent, F. W. J. von Schclling (1775-1854)
were the exponents of the Romantic doctrine in philosophy,
while the theologian F. E. D. Schleiermacher (1768-1834)
demonstrated how vital the revival of individualism was for
religious thought.
The Romantic school, whose chief members were the brothers
Schlegel, Tieck, Wackenroder and Novalis, was virtually founded
in 1798, when the Schlcgels began to publish their journal the
Athenaeum; but the actual existence of the school was of very
short duration. Wackenroder and Novalis died young, and by
the year 1804 the other members were widely separated. Two
years later, however, another phase of Romanticism became
associated with the town of Heidelberg. The leaders of this
second or younger Romantic school were K. Brentano (1778-
1842), L. A. von Arnim (1781-1831) and J. J. von Gdrres (1776-
1848), their organ, corresponding to the Athenaeum, was the
Zeitung fUr Einsiedler, or Trdst-Einsamkeit, and their most
characteristic production the collection of Volkslicdcr, published
under the title Des Knaben Wunderhorn (1805-1808). Compared
with the earlier school the Heidelberg writers were more practical
and realistic, more faithful to nature and the commonplace life
of everyday. They, too, were interested in the German past
and in the middle ages, but they put aside the idealizing glasses
of their predecessors and kept to historic truth; they wrote
historical novels, not stories of an imaginary medieval world
as Novalis had done, and when they collected Volkslieder and
VolksbUcher, they refrained from decking out the simple tradition
with musical effects, or from heightening the poetic situation
by " Romantic irony." Their immediate influence on German
intellectual life was consequently greater; they stimulated
and deepened the interest of the German people in their own
past; and we owe to them the foundations of the study of
German philology and medieval literature, both the brothers
Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm (1785-1863 and 1786-1859) having
been in touch with this circle in their early days. Again, the
Heidelberg poets strengthened the national and patriotic spirit
794
GERMAN LITERATURE
[MODERN
of their people; they prepared the way for the rising against
Napoleon, which culminated in the year 1813, and produced
that outburst of patriotic song, associated with E. M. Arndt
(1769-1860), K. Th. Korner (1791-1813) and M. von Schenken-
dorf (1783-1817).
The subsequent history of Romanticism stands in close
relation to the Heidelberg school, and when, about 1809, the
latter broke up, and Arnim and Brentano settled in Berlin,
the Romantic movement followed two clearly marked lines of
development, one north German, the other associated with
Wurttemberg. The Prussian capital, hotbed of rationalism
as it was, had, from the first, been intimately associated with
Romanticism; the first school had virtually been founded
there, and north Germans, like Heinrich von Kleist (1777-1811)
and Zacharias Werner (i768-i823)had done more for the develop-
ment of the Romantic drama than had the members of either
Romantic school. These men, and more especially Kleist,
Prussia's greatest dramatic poet, showed how the capricious
Romantic ideas could be brought into harmony with the classic
tradition established by Schiller, how they could be rendered
serviceable to the national theatre. At the same time, Berlin
was not a favourable soil for the development of Romantic
ideas, and the circle of poets which gathered round Arnim and
Brentano there, either themselves demonstrated the decadence
of these ideas, or their work contained elements which in sub-
sequent years hastened the downfall of the movement. Friedrich
de la Motte Fouque (1777-1843), for instance, shows how easy
it was for the medieval tastes of the Romanticists to degenerate
into mediocre novels and plays, hardly richer in genuine poetry
than were the productions of the later Sturm und Drang; and
E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776-1822), powerful genius though he
was, cultivated with preference in his stories, a morbid super-
naturalism, which was only a decadent form of the early Romantic
delight in the world of fairies and spirits. The lyric was less
sensitive to baleful influences, but even here the north German
Romantic circle could only point to one lyric poet of the first
rank, J. von Eichendorff (1788-1857); while in the poetry of
A. von Chamisso (1781-1838) the volatile Romantic spirituality
is too often wanting. Others again, like Friedrich Ruckert
(1788-1866), sought the inspiration which Romanticism was no
longer able to give, in the East; still another group, of which
Wilhelm Miiller (1794-1827)15 the chief representative, followed
Byron's example and awakened German sympathy for the
oppressed Greeks and Poles.
Apart from Eichendorff, the vital lyric poetry of the third
and last phase of Romanticism must be looked for in the Swabian
school, which gathered round Uhland. Ludwig Uhland (1787-
1862) was himself a disciple of the Heidelberg poets, and, in his
lyrics and especially in his ballads, he succeeded in grafting the
lyricism of the Romantic school on to the traditions of German
ballad poetry which had been handed down from BUrger, Schiller
and Goethe. But, as was the case with so many other disciples
of the Heidelberg Romanticists, Uhland's interest in the German
past was the serious interest of the scholar rather than the purely
poetic interest of the earlier Romantic poets. The merit of the
Swabian circle, the chief members of which were J. Kerner
(1786-1862), G.Schwab (1792-1850), W.Waiblinger (1804-1830),
W. Hauff (1802-1827) and, most gifted of all, E. Morike (1804-
1875) was that these writers preserved the Romantic traditions
from the disintegrating influences to which their north German
contemporaries were exposed. They introduced few new notes
into lyric poetry, but they maintained the best traditions intact,
and when, a generation later, the anti-Romantic movement
of " Young Germany " had run its course, it was to Wurttemberg
Germany looked for a revival of the old Romantic ideas.
Meanwhile, in the background of all these phases of Romantic
evolution, through which Germany passed between 1798 and
1832, stands the majestic and imposing figure of Goethe.
Personally he had in the early stages of the movement been
opposed to that reversion to subjectivity and lawlessness which
the first Romantic school seemed to him to represent; to the end
of his life he regarded himself as a "classic," not a "romantic"
poet. But, on the other hand, he was too liberal-minded a
thinker and critic to be oblivious to the fruitful influence of the
new movement. Almost without exception he judged the young
poets of the new century fairly, and treated them sympathetically
and kindly; he was keenly alive to the new and for the most
part " unclassical " development of literature in England,
France and Italy; and his own published work, above all, the
first part of Faust (1808), Die W ahlverwandtschaflen (1809),
Dichlung und Wahrheit (1811-1814, a final volume in 1833),
Weslosllicher Divan (1819), Wilhelm Meisters Wandcrjahre
(1821-1829) ar "d the second part of Faust (published in 1832
after the poet's death), stood in no antagonism to the Romantic
ideas of their time. One might rather say that Goethe was the
bond between the two fundamental literary movements of the
German classical age; that his work achieved that reconciliation
of " classic " and " romantic " which, rightly regarded, was the
supreme aim of the Romantic school itself.
VI. GERMAN LITERATURE SINCE GOETHE (1832-1906)
(a) Young Germany. With Goethe's death a great age in
German poetry came to a close. Long before 1832 Romanticism
had, as we have seen, begun to lose ground, and the July revolu-
tion of 1830, the effects of which were almost as keenly felt in
Germany as in France, gave the movement its death-blow.
Meanwhile the march of ideas in Germany itself had not been
favourable to Romanticism. Schelling had given place to G.
W. F. Hegel (1770-1831), now the dominant force in German
philosophy, and the Hegelian metaphysics proved as unfruitful
an influence on literature as that of Fichte and Schelling had been
fruitful. The transference of Romantic ideas to the domain
of practical religion and politics had proved reactionary in its
effects; Romanticism became the cloak for a kind of Neo-
catholicism, and Romantic politics, as enunciated by men like
F. von Gentz (1764-1832) and Adam Miiller (1779-1829), served
as an apology for the Metternich regime in Austria. Only at
the universities in Gottingen, Heidelberg and Berlin did
the movement continue, in the best sense, to be productive;
German philology, German historical science and German
jurisprudence benefited by Romantic ideas, long after Romantic
poetry had fallen into decay. The day of Romanticism was
clearly over; but a return to the classic and humanitarian spirit
of the 1 8th century was impossible. The social condition of
Europe had been profoundly altered by the French Revolution;
the rise of industrialism had created new economic problems,
the march of science had overturned old prejudices. And in a
still higher degree were the ideas which lay behind the social
upheaval of the July revolution incompatible with a reversion
in Germany to the conditions of Weimar classicism. There was,
moreover, no disguising the fact that Goethe himself did not
stand high with the younger generation of German writers
who came into power after his death.
" Young Germany " did not form a school in the sense in which
the word was used by the early Romanticists; the bond of union
was rather the consequence of political persecution. In December
1 83 5 the German " Bund " issued a decree suppressing the writings
of the " literary school " known as " Young Germany," and
mentioned by name Heinrich Heine, Karl Gutzkow, Ludolf
Wienbarg, Theodor Mundt and Heinrich Laube. Of these men,
Heine (1797-1856) was by far the most famous. He had made
his reputation in 1826 and 1827 with Die Harzreise and Das
Buck der Lieder, both of which books show how deeply he was
immersed in the Romantic traditions. But Heine felt perhaps
more acutely than any other man of his time how the ground
was slipping away from beneath his feet; he repudiated the
Romantic movement and hailed the July revolution as the first
stage in the " liberation of humanity "; while ultimately he
sought in France the freedom and intellectual stimulus which
Germany withheld from him. Heine suffered from having been
born in an age of transition; he was unable to realize in a whole-
hearted way all that was good in the new movement, which he
had embraced so warmly; his optimism was counteracted by
doubts as to whether, after all, life had not been better in that
MODERN]
GERMAN LITERATURE
795
I'M Romantic Germany of his childhood for which, to the last,
he retained so warm an affection. Personal disappointments
and unhappiness added to the bitterness of Heine's nature,
and the supremely gifted lyric poet and the hardly less giiu-il
satirist were overshadowed by the cyniofrom whose biting wit
nothing was safe.
Heine's contemporary and although he was not mentioned
in the decree against the school fellow-fighter, Ludwig Borne
(1786-1837), was a more characteristic representative of the
" Young German " point of view; for he was free from Romantic
prejudices. Borne gave vent to his enthusiasm for France in
eloquent Briefe aus Paris (1830-1833), which form a landmark
of importance in the development of German prose style. Wit h
Karl Gutzkow (1811-1878), who was considerably younger
than either Heine or B6rne, the more positive aspects of the
" Young German " movement begin to be apparent. He, too,
had become a man of letters under the influence of the July
revolution, and with an early novel, H'aUy, die Zweiflerin (1835),
which was then regarded as atheistic and immoral, he fought in
the battle for the new ideas. His best literary work, however,
was the comedies with which he enriched the German stage of
the 'forties, and novels like Die RiUer vom Ceisle (1850-1851),
and Der Zaubercr von Rom (1858-1861), which have to be con-
sidered in connexion with the later development of German
fiction. Heinrich Laubc (1806-1884), who, as the author of
lengthy social novels, and Reiseitottllen in the style of Heine's
Reisebildrr, was one of the leaden of the new movement, is
now only remembered as Germany's greatest theatre-director.
Laube's connexion (1850-1867) with the Burgtheater of Vienna
forms one of the most brilliant periods in the history of the
modern stage. Heine and Borne, Gutzkow and Laube these
were the leading spirits of " Young Germany " ; in their train
followed a host of lesser men, who to the present generation are
hardly even names. In the domain of scholarship and learning
the " Young German " movement was associated with the
supremacy of Hcgclianism, the leading spirits being D. F. Strauss
(1808-1874), author of the Leben Jesu (1835), tnc historians
G. G.Grvinus( 1805-187 1 ) and W.MenzeH 1 708-1873), and the
philosopher L. A. Feuerbach (1804-1872), who, although a
disciple of Hegel, ultimately helped to destroy the latter's
influence.
Outside the immediate circle of "Young Germany," other
tentative efforts were made to provide a substitute for the
discredited literature of Romanticism. The historical novel, for
instance, which Romanticists like Arnim had cultivated, fell at
an early date under the influence of Sir Walter Scott ; Wilhelm
Hauff. Heinrich Zschokke (1771-1848) and K. Spindlcr (1796-
1855) were the most prominent amidst the many imitators of
the Scottish novelist. The drama, again, which since Kleist
and Werner had been without definite principles, was, partly
under Austrian influence, finding its way back to a condition of
stability. In Germany proper, the men into whose hands it
fell were, on the one hand, undisciplined geniuses such as C. D.
Grabbe (1801-1836), or, on the other, poets with too little
theatrical blood in their veins like K. L. Immcrmann (i 796- 1 840),
or with too much, like E. von Raupacb (1784-1852), K. von
Holtei (1708-1880) and Adolf Mullner (1774-1829) the last
named being the chief representative of the so-called Schicksals-
trattdie. In those years the Germans were more seriously
interested in their opera, which, under C. M. Weber, H. A.
Marschner, A. Lortzing and O. Nicolai, remained faithful to the
Romantic spirit. In Austria, however, the drama followed
lines of its own; here, at the very beginning of the century,
H. J. von Collin (1771-1811) attempted in Regulus and other
works to substitute for the lifeless pseudo-classic tragedy of
Ayrenhoff the classic style of Schiller. His attempt is the more
interesting, as the long development that had taken place in
Germany between Gottschcd and Schiller was virtually un-
represented in Austrian literature. M. von Collin (1779-1824),
a younger brother of H. J. von Collin, did a similar service for
the Romantic drama. Franz Grillparzcr (1791-1872), Austria's
greatest poet, began in the school of Mullner with a " fate
drama," but soon won an independent pi. in- for himself; more
successfully than any other dramatist of the century, he carried
out that task which Kleist had first seriously faced, the reconcilia-
tion of the classicism of Goethe and Schiller with the Romantic
and modern spirit of the njtli century. It is from this point of
view that works like Das goldene Vliess (1820), Kdtiig Ollokars
GtU(k uml Ende (1825), Der Traum, ein Leben (1834) and Des
Meeres und der Liebe Wellen (1831) must be regarded. As far
as the poetic drama was concerned, Grillparzcr stood alone,
for E. F. J. von Munch-Bellinghausen (1806-1871), his most
promising contemporary, once so popular under the pseudonym
of Fricdrich Halm, soon fell back into the trivial sentimentality
of the later Romanticists. In other forms of dramatic literature
Austria could point to many distinguished writers, notably the
comedy-writer, E. von Baucrnfcld (1802-1890), while a host
of playwrights, chief of whom were F. Raimund (1790-1836)
and J. Nestroy (1801-1862), cultivated the popular Viennese
farce and fairy-play. Thus, in spite of Mctternich's censorship
of the drama, the Viennese theatre was, in the first half of the
Dili century, in closer touch with literature than that of any
other German centre.
The transitional character of the age is best illustrated by two
eminent writers whom outward circumstances rather than any
similarity of character and aim have classed together. These
were K. L. Immermann, who has been already mentioned, and
A. von Platen-Hallermund (1796-1835). Immermann's dramas
were of little practical value to the theatre, but one at least,
Merlin ( 183 2), is a dramatic poem of great beauty. In his novels,
however, Die Epigonen (1836) and Miinchhausen (1838-1839),'
Immcrmann was the spokesman of his time. He looked back-
wards rather than forwards; he saw himself as the belated
follower of a great literary age rather than as the pioneer of a
new one. The bankruptcy of Romanticism and the poetically
arid era of " Young Germany " left him little confidence in the
future. Platen, on the other hand, went his own way; he, too,
was the antagonist both of Romanticism and " Young Germany,"
and with Immcrmann himself he came into sharp conflict.
But in his poetry he showed himself indifferent to the strife of
contending literary schools. He began as an imitator of the
German oriental poets the only Romanticists with whom he
had any personal sympathy and with his matchless Sonette
aus Venedig (1825) he stands out as a master in the art of verse-
writing and as the least subjective of all German lyric poets.
In the imitation of Romance metres he sought a refuge from the
extravagances and excesses of the Romantic decadence.
Meanwhile the political side of the " Young German " move-
ment, which the German Bund aimed at stamping out, gained
rapidly in importance under the influence of the unsettled
political conditions between the revolutions of 1830 and 1848.
The early 'forties were in German literature marked by an
extraordinary outburst of political poetry, which may be aptly
compared with the national and patriotic lyric evoked by the
year 1813. The principles which triumphed in France at the
revolution of 1848 were, to a great extent, fought out by the
German singers of 1841 and 1842. Begun by mediocre talents
like N. Becker (1800-1845) and R. E. Prutz (1816-1872), the
movement found a vigorous champion in Gcorg Herwegh (1817-
'875), who in his turn succeeded in winning Ferdinand Frciligrath
(1810-1876) for the revolutionary cause. Others joined in the
cry for freedom F. Dingelstcdt (1814-1881), A. H. Hoffmann
von Fallersleben (1798-1874), and a number of Austrians, who
had even more reason for rebellion and discontent than the
north Germans. But the best Austrian political poetry, the
Spatterg&nge eines Wiener Poelen, 1831, by " Anastasius Grtln "
(Graf A. A. von Auersperg, 1806-1876), belonged to a decade
earlier. The political lyric culminated in and ended with the
year 1848; the revolutionists of the 'forties were, if not appeased,
at least silenced by the revolution which in their eyes had
effected so little. If Frciligrath be cxcepted, the chief lyric
poets of this epoch stood aside from the revolutionary movement ;
even E. Geibel (1815-1884), the representative poet of the
succeeding age, was only temporarily interested in the political
796
GERMAN LITERATURE
[MODERN
movement, and his best work is of a purely lyric character.
M. von Strachwitz's(i822-i847)promisingtalentdidnotflourish
in the political atmosphere; Annette von Droste-Hiilshoff
(1797-1848), and the Austrian, Nikolaus Lenau (1802-1850),
both stand far removed from the world of politics; they are
imbued with that pessimistic resignation which is, more or
less, characteristic of all German literature between 1850 and
1870.
(A) Mid-Century Literature. When once the revolution of
1848 was over, a spirit of tranquillity came over German letters;
but it was due rather to the absence of confidence in the future
than to any hopefulness or real content. The literature of the
middle of the century was not wanting in achievement, but
there was nothing buoyant or youthful about it; most significant
of all, the generation between 1848 and 1880 was either oblivious
or indifferent to the good work and to the new and germinating
ideas which it produced. Hegel, who held the earlier half of the
1 9th century in his ban, was still all-powerful in the universities,
but his power was on the wane in literature and public life.
The so-called " Hegelian Left " had advanced so far as to have
become incompatible with the original Hegelianism ; the new
social and economic theories did not fit into the scheme of
Hegelian collectivism; the interest in natural science fostered
by the popular books of J. Moleschott (1822-1893), Karl Vogt
(1817-1895) and Ludwig Buchner (1824-1899) created a
healthy antidote to the Hegelian metaphysics. In literature and
art, on which Hegel, as we have seen, had exerted so blight-
ing an influence, his place was taken by the chief exponent
of philosophic pessimism, Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860).
Schopenhauer's antagonism to Hegelianism was of old standing,
for his chief work, Die Welt als Wttle und Vorstellung, had
appeared as far back as 1819; but the century was more than
half over before the movement of ideas had, as it were, caught
up with him, before pessimism became a dominant force in
intellectual life.
The literature produced between 1850 and 1870 was pre-
eminently one of prose fiction. The beginnings which the
" Young German " school had made to a type of novel dealing
with social problems the best example is Gutzkow's Ritter
com Geiste developed rapidly in this succeeding epoch.
Friedrich Spielhagen (born 1829) followed immediately in
Gutzkow's footsteps, and in a series of romances from Problema-
tische Naturen (1860) to Sturmflut (1876), discussed in a militant
spirit that recalls Laube and Gutzkow the social problems
which agitated German life in these decades. Gustav Freytag
(1816-1895), although an older man, freed himself more success-
fully from the " Young German " tradition; his romance of
German commercialism, Soil und Haben (1855), is the master-
piece of mid-century fiction of this class. Less successful was
Freytag's subsequent attempt to transfer his method to the
milieu of German academic life in Die verlorene Handschrift
(1864). As was perhaps only natural in an age of social and
political interests, the historical novel occupies a subordinate
place. The influence of Scott, which in the earlier period had
been strong, produced only one writer, Wilhelm Haring (" Willi-
bald Alexis," 1798-1871), who was more than a mere imitator
of the Scottish master. In the series of six novels, from Der
Roland von Berlin to Dorothe, which Alexis published between
1840 and 1856, he gave Germany, and more particularly Prussia,
a historical fiction which might not unworthily be compared
with the Waverley Novels. But Alexis had no successor, and the
historical novel soon made way for a type of fiction in which
the accurate reproduction of remote conditions was held of
more account than poetic inspiration or artistic power. Such
are the " antiquarian " novels of ancient Egyptian life by
Georg Ebers (1837-1898), and those from primitive German
history by Felix Dahn (born 1834). The vogue of historical
fiction was also transferred to some extent, as in English literature,
to novels of American life and adventure, of which the chief
German cultivators were K. A. Postl, who wrote under the
pseudonym of Charles Sealsfield (1793-1864) and Friedrich
Gerstacker (1816-1872).
Of greater importance was the fiction which owed its inspira-
tion to the Romantic traditions that survived the " Young
German " age. To this group belongs the novel of peasant and
provincial life, of which Immermann had given an excellent
example in Der Oberh'of, a story included in the arabesque of
Munchhausen. A Swiss pastor, Albrecht Bitzius, better known
by his pseudonym " Jeremias Gotthelf " (1797-1854), was,
however, the real founder of this class of romance; and his
simple, unvarnished and naively didactic stories of the Swiss
peasant were followed not long afterwards by the more famous
Schwamvalder Dorfgeschichten (1843-1854) of Berthold Auer-
bach (1812-1882). Auerbach is not by any means so naive
and realistic as Gotthelf, nor is his work free from tendencies
and ideas which recall " Young German " rationalism rather
than the unsophisticated life of the Black Forest; but the
Schwarzwalder Dorfgeschichten exerted a decisive influence;
they were the forerunners of a large body of peasant literature
which described with affectionate sympathy and with a liberal
admixture of dialect, south German village life. With this
group of writers may also be associated the German Bohemian,
A. Stifter (1805-1868), who has called up unforgettable pictures
and impressions of the life and scenery of his home.
Meanwhile, the Low German peoples also benefited by the
revival of an interest in dialect and peasant life; it is to the
credit of Fritz Reuter (1810-1874) that he brought honour
to the Plattdeutsch of the north, the dialects of which had
played a fitful, but by no means negligible r&le in the earlier
history of German letters. His Mecklenburg novels, especially
Ut de Franzosentid (1860), Ut mine Festungstid (1863) and Ut
mine Stromtid (1862-1864), are a faithful reflection of Mecklen-
burg life and temperament, and hold their place beside the best
German fiction of the period. What Reuter did for Plattdeutsch
prose, his contemporary, Klaus Groth (1819-1899), the author
oiQuickborn (1852), did for its verse. We owe, however, the best
German prose fiction of these years to two writers, whose affinity
with the older Romanticists was closer. The north German,
Theodor Storm (1817-1888) is the author of a series of short
stories of delicate, lyric inspiration, steeped in that elegiac
Romanticism which harmonized so well with mid-century
pessimism in Germany. Gottfried Keller (1810-1890), on the
other hand, a native of Zurich, was a modern Romanticist of
a robuster type; his magnificent autobiographical novel, Der
grune Heinrich (1854-1855), might be described as the last m
the great line of Romantic fiction that had begun with Wilhelm
Meister, and the short stories, Die Leute von Seldwyla (1856-
1874) and Zuricher Novellen (1878) are masterpieces of the
first rank.
In the dramatic literature of these decades, at least as it was
reflected in the repertories of the German theatres, there was
little promise. French influence was, in general, predominant;
French translations formed the mainstay of the theatre-directors,
while successful German playwrights, such as R. Benedix (1811-
1873) and Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer (1800-1868), have little claim
to consideration in a literary survey. Gustav Freytag's
admirable comedy, Die Journalisten (1852), was one of the
rare exceptions. But the German drama of this epoch is not
to be judged solely by the theatres. At the middle of the century
Germany could point to two writers who, each in his way, con-
tributed very materially to the development of the modern
drama. These were Friedrich Hebbel (1813-1863) and Otto
Ludwig (1813-1865). Both of these men, as a later generation
discovered, were the pioneers of that dramatic literature which
at the close of the century accepted the canons of realism and
aimed at superseding outward effects by psychological conflicts
and problems of social life. Hebbel, especially, must be regarded
as the most original and revolutionary German dramatist of
the igth century. Unlike his contemporary Grillparzer, whose
aim had been to reconcile the " classic " and the " romantic "
drama with the help of Spanish models, Hebbel laid the founda-
tions of a psychological and social drama, of which the most
modern interpreter has been Henrik Ibsen. Hebbel's first
tragedy, Judith, appeared in 1840, his masterpieces, Herodes
MODERN)
GERMAN LITERATURE
797
urn/ UitrijitHf. Agnes Brrnauer. Gyges und itin Ring, and the
trilogy of Die XiMungt* between 1850 and 1862.
In this period of somewhat confused literary striving, there
is, however, one body of writers who might be grouped together
as a school, although the designation must be regarded rather
as an outward accident of union than as implying conformity
of aims. This is the group which Maximilian II. of Bavaria
gathered round him in Munich between 1852 and 1860. A
leading spirit of the group was Emanuel Geibcl, who, as we have
seen, set a model to the German lyric in this age; F. von Bodcn-
stedt (1819-1892), the popular author of Mina Sckaffy; and
J. V. von Scheffel (1826-1886), who, in his verse-romance, Der
Trompeter von SiUkingrn (1854), broke a lance for a type of
literature which had been cultivated somewhat earlier, but
with no very conspicuous success, by men like O. von Redwitz
(1823-1891) and G. Kinkel (1815-1882). The romance was,
in fact, one of the favourite vehicles of poetic expression of the
Munich school, its most successful exponents being J. Wolff
(b. 1854) and R. Baumbach (1840-1905); while others,
such as H. Lingg (1820-1905) and R. Hamerling (1830-1899)
devoted themselves to the more ambitious epic. The general
tone of the literary movement was pessimistic, the hopelessness
of the spiritual outlook being most deeply engrained in the
verse of H. Lorm (pseudonym for Heinrich Landcsmann, 1821-
1002) and H. Leuthold (1827-1879). On the whole, the most
important member of the Munich group is Paul Heyse (b. 1830),
who, as a writer of " Xovellen " or short stories, may be classed
with Storm and Keller. An essentially Latin genius, Heyse
excels in stories of Italian life, where his lightness of touch
and sense of form are shown to best advantage; but he has also
written several long novels. Of these, Kinder Her Wdt (1873)
and, in a lesser degree, Im Paradiese (1875), sum up the spirit
and tendency of their time, just as, in earlier decades, Die Rilter
torn Geiste, Problemalische Naturen and Soil und Haben were
characteristic of the periods which produced them.
(c) German Literature after 1870. In the years immediately
following the Franco-German War, the prevailing conditions
were unfavourable to literary production in Germany, and the
re-establishment of the empire left comparatively little trace
nn the national literature. All minds were for a time engrossed
by the Kullurkampf, by the financial difficulties the so-called
Crundertum due to unscrupulous speculation, and, finally,
by the rapid rise of social democracy as a political force. The
intellectual basis of the latter movement was laid by Ferdinand
LassaUe (1825-1864) and Karl Marx (1818-1883), author of
Das Kapital (vol. i, 1867). But even had such disturbing elements
been wanting, the general tone of German intellectual life at
that time was not buoyant enough to inspire a vigorous literary
revival. The influence of Hegel was still strong, and the " his-
torical " method, as enunciated in Der alte und der neue Glaube
(1872) by the Hegelian D. F. Strauss, was generally accepted
at the German universities. To many the compromise which
H. Lotze (1817-1881) had attempted to establish between
science and metaphysics, came as a relief from the Hegelian
tradition, but in literature and art the dominant force was still,
as before the war, the philosophy of Schopenhauer. In his
Pkilotophie des Unbemutten (1869), E. von Hartmann (1842-
1906) endeavoured to bring pessimism into harmony with ideal-
ism. In lyric poetry, the dull monotony was broken by the
excitement of the war, and the singers of the revolution of 1848
were among the first to welcome the triumph and unification
of Germany. At the same time, men of the older generation,
like Herwegh, Freiligrath and Geibel could ill conceal a certain
disappointment with the new rfgimc; the united Germany
of 1871 was not what they had dreamed of in their youth, when
all hopes were set on the Frankfort parliament.
The novel continued to be what it was before 1870, the most
vigorous form of German literature, but the novelists who were
popular in the early 'seventies were all older men. Laube,
Gutzkow and Aoerbach were still writing; Fritz Reuter was
a universal favourite; while among the writers of short stories,
Storm, who, between 1877 and 1888, put the crown to his work
with his CkroniknotfUen, and I'uul Heyse were the acknowledged
masters. It was not until at least a decade later that the genius
of Gottfried Keller was generally recognized. The historical
novel seemed, in those days, beyond hope of revival. Gustav
Freytag, it is true, had made the attempt in Die Ahnen (1872-
1881), a number of independent historical romances linked
together to form an ambitious prose epic; but there was more of
the spirit of Ebers and Dahn in Frcytag's work than of the
spacious art of Scott, or of Scott's disciple, Willibald Alexis.
The drama of the 'seventies was in an even less hopeful condition
than during the preceding period. The classical iambic tragedy
was cultivated by the Munich school, by A. Wilbrandt (b. 1837),
A. Lindner (1831-1888), H. Kruse (1815-1902), by the Austrian
F. Nissel (1831-1893), and A. Fitger (b. 1840); but it was
characteristic of the time that Halm was popular, while Hebbel
and Grillparzcr were negtected, it might even be said ignored.
The most gifted German dramatist belonging exclusively to
the decade between 1870 and 1880 was an Austrian, Ludwig
Anzengruber (1839-1889), whose Pfarrer von Kirchfeld (1870)
recalled the controversies of the Kulturkampf. This was Anzen-
gruber's first drama, and it was followed by a scries of power-
ful plays dealing with the life of the Austrian peasant; Anzen-
gruber was, indeed, one of the ablest exponents of that village
life, which had attracted so many gifted writers since the days
of Gotthelf and Auerbach. But the really popular dramatists
of this epoch were either writers who, like Bencdix in the older
generation, cultivated the bourgeoise comedy A. L'Arrongc
(b. 1838), G. von Moser (1825-1903), F. von Schonthan (b. 1849)
and O. Blumcnthal (b. 1852) or playwrights, of whom 1'.
Lindau (b. 1839) may be regarded as representative, who
imitated French models. The only sign of progress in the
dramatic history of this period was the marked improvement
of the German stage, an improvement due, on the one hand, to
the artistic reforms introduced by the duke of Mciningen in the
Court theatre at Meiningcn, and, on the other hand, to the ideals
of a national theatre realized at Bayreuth by Richard Wagner
(1813-1883). The greatest composer of the later igth century
is also one of Germany's leading dramatists; and the first
performance of the trilogy Der Ring der Nibelungen at Bayreuth
in the summer of 1876 may be said to have inaugurated the
latest epoch in the history of the German drama.
The last fifteen or twenty years of the ipth century were
distinguished in Germany by a remarkable literary activity.
Among the younger generation, which was growing up as citizens
of the united German empire, a more hopeful and optimistic
spirit prevailed. Theinflucnceof Schopenhauer was on the wane,
and at the universities Hegclianism had lost its former hold.
The sponsor of the new philosophic movement was Kant, the
master of 18th-century " enlightenment," and under the in-
fluence of the " neo-Kantian " movement, not merely German
school philosophy, but theology also, was imbued with a healthier
spirit. L. von Ranke (1795-1886) was still the dominant force
in German historical science, and between 1881 and 1888 nine
volumes appeared of his last great work, Weltgeschichte. Other
historians of the period were H. von Sybel (1817-1895) and H.
von Treitschke (1834-1896), the latter a vigorous and inspiring
spokesman of the new political conditions; while J. Burckhardt
(1818-1897), author of the masterly Kultur der Renaissance in
Italien (1860) and the friend of Nietzsche, exerted an influence
on German thought which was not confined to academic circles.
Literary criticism perhaps benefited most of all by the dethrone-
ment of Hegel and the more objective attitude towards Schopen-
hauer; it seemed as if in this epoch the Germans first formed
definite ideas and ideas which were acceptable and accepted
outside Germany as to the rank and merits of their great poets.
A marked change came over the nation's attitude towards Goethe,
a poet to whom, as we have seen, neither the era of Hegel nor
that of Schopenhauer had been favourable; Schiller was regarded
with less national prejudice, and most important of all amends
were made by the new generation for the earlier neglect of
Kleist, Grillparzcr, Hebbel and Keller.
The thinker and poet who most completely embodies the spirit
79 8
GERMAN LITERATURE
[MODERN
of this period who dealt the Hegelian metaphysics its death-
blow as far as its wider influence was concerned was Friedrich
Nietzsche (1844-1900). Nietzsche had begun as a disciple of
Schopenhauer and a friend of Wagner, and he ultimately became
the champion of an individualistic and optimistic philosophy
which formed the sharpest possible contrast to mid-century
pessimism. The individual, not the race, the Herrenmensch,
not the slave, self-assertion, not self-denying renunciation
these are some of the ideas round which this new optimistic
ethics turns. Nietzsche looked forward to the human race
emerging from an effete culture, burdened and clogged by tradi-
tion, and re-establishing itself on a basis that is in harmony
with man's primitive instincts. Like Schopenhauer before him,
Nietzsche was a stylist of the first rank, and his literary master-
piece, Also sprach Zaralhustra (1883-1891), is to be regarded as
the most important imaginative work of its epoch.
Nietzschean individualism was only one of many factors
which contributed to the new literary development. The
realistic movement, as it had manifested itself in France under
Flaubert, the Goncourts, Zola and Maupassant, in Russia under
Dostoievsky and Tolstoi, and in Norway under Ibsen and
Bjornson, was, for a time, the dominant force in Germany, and
the younger generation of critics hailed it with undisguised
satisfaction; most characteristic and significant of all, the centre
of this revival was Berlin, which, since it had become the imperial
capital, was rapidly establishing its claim to be also the literary
metropolis. It was the best testimony to the vitality of the
movement that it rarely descended to slavish imitation of the
realistic masterpieces of other literatures; realism in Germany
was, in fact, only an episode of the 'eighties, a stimulating
influence rather than an accepted principle or dogma. And its
suggestive character is to be seen not merely in the writings of
the young Stilrm.tr und Dr linger of this time, but also in those
of the older generation who, in temperament, were naturally
more inclined to the ideals of a past age.
Of the novelists of the latter class, A. Wilbrandt, who has
already been mentioned as a dramatist, has shown, since about
1890, a remarkable power of adapting himself, if not to the style
and artistic methods of the younger school, at least to the
ideas by which it was agitated; F. Spielhagen's attitude towards
the realistic movement has been invariably sympathetic, while
a still older writer, Theodor Fontane (1810-1898), wrote between
1880 and 1898 a series of works in which the finer elements of
French realism were grafted on the German novel. To the older
school belong Wilhelm Jensen (b. 1837), and that fine humorist,
Wilhelm Raabe (b. 1831), with whom may be associated as other
humorists of this period, H Seidel (1842-1906) and W. Busch
(1832-1908). Some of the most interesting examples of recent
German fiction come, however, from Austria and Switzerland.
The two most eminent Austrian authors, Marie von Ebner-
Eschenbach (b. 1830), and Ferdinand von Saar (1833-1906),
' both excel as writers of Novellen or short stories the latter
especially being an exponent of that pessimism which is Austria's
peculiar heritage from the previous generation of her poets.
Austrians too, are Peter Rosegger (b. 1843), who has won
popularity with his novels of peasant life, K. E. Franzos (1848-
1904) and L. von Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895). German prose
fiction is, in Switzerland, represented by two writers of the first
rank: one of these, Gottfried Keller, has already been mentioned;
the other, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer (1825-1898), turned to
literature or, at least, made his reputation, comparatively late
in life. Although, like Keller, a writer of virile, original verse,
Meyer is best known as a novelist; he, too, was a master of the
short story. His themes are drawn by preference from the epoch
of the Renaissance, and his method is characterized by an
objectivity of standpoint and a purity of style exceptional in
German writers.
The realistic novels of the period were written by H. Conradi
(1862-1800), Max Kretzer (b. 1854), M. G. Conrad (b. 1846), H.
Heiberg (b. 1840), K. Bleibtreu (b. 1859), K. Alberti (pseudonym
for Konrad Sittenfeld, b. 1862) and Hermann Sudermann
(b. 1857). A want of stability was, however, as has been already
indicated, characteristic of the realistic movement in Germany;
the idealistic trend of the German mind proved itself ill-adapted
to the uncompromising realism of the French school, and .the
German realists, whether in fiction or in drama, ultimately
sought to escape from the logical consequences of their theories.
Even Sudermann, whose Frau Sorge (1887), Der Kalzensteg
(1889), and the brilliant, if somewhat sensational romance,
Es war (1894), are among the best novels of this period, has
never been a consistent realist. It is consequently not surprising
to find that, before long, German fiction returned to psychological
and emotional problems, to the poetical or symbolical presenta-
tion of life, which was more in harmony with the German tempera-
ment than was the robuster realism of Flaubert or Zola. This
trend is noticeable in the work of Gustav Frenssen (b. 1863),
whose novel Jorn Uhl (1901) was extraordinarily popular;
it is also to be seen in the studies of child life and educational
problems which have proved so attractive to the younger
writers of the present day, such as Hermann Hesse (b. 1877),
Emil Strauss (b. 1866), Rudolf Huch (b. 1862) and Friedrich
Huch (b. 1873). One might say, indeed, that at the beginning
of the 20th century the traditional form of German fiction, the
Bildungsroman, had come into its ancient rights again. Mention
ought also to be made of J. J. David (1859-1907), E. von
Keyserling (b. 1858), W. Hegeler (b. 1870), G. von Ompteda
(b. 1863), J. Wassermann (b. 1873), Heinrich Mann (b. 1871)
and Thomas Mann (b. 1875). Buddenbrooks (1902) by the
last mentioned is one of the outstanding novels of the period.
Some of the best fiction of the most recent period is the work of
women, the most distinguished being Helene Bohlau (b. 1859),
Gabriele Reuter (b. 1859), Clara Viebig (C. Cohn-Viebig,
b. 1860) and-Ricarda Huch (b. 1864). Whether the latest
movement in German poetry and fiction, which, under the catch-
word Heimatkunst, has favoured the province rather than the
city, the dialect in preference to the language of the educated
classes, will prove a permanent gain, it is still too soon to say,
but the movement is at least a protest against the decadent
tendencies of naturalism.
At no period of German letters were literature and the theatre
in closer touch than at the end of the igth and the beginning of
the 2oth centuries; more than at any previous time has the
theatre become the arena in which the literary battles of the day
are fought out. The general improvement in the artistic,
technical and economic conditions of the German stage have
already been indicated; but it was not until 1889 that the effects
of these improvements became apparent in dramatic literature.
Before that date, it is true, Ernst von Wildenbruch (1845-1909)
had attempted to revive the historical tragedy, but the purely
literary qualities of his work were handicapped by a too effusive
patriotism and a Schillerian pathos; nor did the talent of
Richard Voss (b. 1851) prove strong enough to effect any lasting
reform. In October 1889, however, Gerhart Hauptmann's
play, Vor Sonnenaufgang, was produced on the then recently
founded Freie Biihne in Berlin; and a month later, Die Elire
by Hermann Sudermann met with a more enthusiastic reception
in Berlin than had fallen to the lot of any German play for more
than a generation.
Hauptmann (b. 1862), the most original of contemporary
German writers, stands, more or less, alone. His early plays,
the most powerful of which is Die Weber (1892), were written
under the influence either of an uncompromising realism, or of
that modified form of realism introduced from Scandinavia;
but in Hanneles Himmelfahrt (1893) he combined realism with
the poetic mysticism of a child's dream, in Florian Geyer (1895)
he adapted the methods of realism to an historical subject, and
in the year 1896 he, to all appearance, abandoned realism to
write an allegorical dramatic poem, Die versunkene Glocke.
Hauptmann's subsequent work has oscillated between the
extremes marked out by these works from the frank naturalism
of Fuhrmann Henschel (1898) and Rose Berndt (1903), to the
fantastic mysticism of Der arme Heinrich (1902) and Und Pippa
tanzt! (1906).
The dramatic talent of Hermann Sudermann has developed
MODERN]
GERMAN LITERATURE
799
on more even lines; the success of Die Ekre was due in the first
instance to the ability which Sudcrmann had shown in adapting
the ideas of his time and the new methods of dramatic presenta-
tion to the traditional German burfrrlifkrs Drama. This is the
characteristic of the majority of the many plays which followed
of which //wl(i8o3). Das lilui kirn If in AW (1806) and Eilebe
Jos Leben! (IQOJ) may be mentioned as typical. With less
success Sudermann attempted in Johannes (1808) a tragedy on
lilies suggested by Hebbel. A keen observer, a writer of brilliant
and suggestive ideas, Sudermann is, above all, the practical
playwright; but it is unfortunate that the theatrical element
in his work too often overshadows its literary qualities.
Since 1889, the drama has occupied the foreground of interest
in Germany. The permanent repertory of the German theatre
has not, it is true, been much enriched, but it Is at least to the
credit of contemporary German playwrights that they are un-
willing to rest content with their successes and are constantly
experimenting with new forms. Besides Hauptmann and
Sudermann, the most talented dramatists of the day are Max
Halbe (b. 1865), O. E. Hartleben (1864-1905), G. Hirschfeld
(b. 1873), E. Rosmer (pseudonym for Elsa Bernstein, b. 1866),
Ludwig Fulda (b. 1862), Max Dreyer (b. 1862), Otto Ernst
(pseudonym for O. E. Schmidt, b. 1862) and Frank Wedekind
(b. 1864). In Austria, notwithstanding the preponderant influ-
ence of Berlin, the drama has retained its national character-
istics, and writers like Arthur Schnitzler (b. 1862), Hermann
Bahr (b. 1863), Hugo von Hofmannsthal (b. 1874) and R.
Beer-Hofmann (b. 1866) have introduced symbolistic elements
and peculiarly Austrian problems, which are foreign to the
theatre of north Germany.
The German lyric of recent years shows a remarkable variety
of new tones and pregnant poetic ideas; it has, as is natural,
been more influenced by the optimism of Nietzsche himself a
lyric poet of considerable gifts than has either novel or drama.
Detlev von Lilicncron (1844-1009) was one of the first to break
with the traditions of the lyric as handed down from the
Romantic epoch and cultivated with such facility by the Munich
poets. An anthology of specifically modern lyrics, Moderne
Dickterckaraktere (1885) by W. Arent (b. 1864), may be regarded
as the manifesto of the movement in lyric poetry corresponding
to the period of realism in fiction and the drama. Representative
poets of this movement are Richard Dehmel (b. 1863), K.
Henckell (b. 1864), J. H. Mackay (b. 1864 at Greenock), G.
Falke (b. 1853), F. Avenarius (b. 1856), F. Evers (b. 1871), F.
Dormann (b. 1870) and K. Busse (b. 1872). A later development
of the lyric a return to mysticism and symbolism is to be
seen in the poetry of Hofmannsthal, already mentioned as a
dramatist, and especially in Stefan George (b. 1868). Epic
poetry, although little in harmony with the spirit of a realistic
age, has not been altogether neglected. Heinrich Hart (1855-
1006), one of the leading critics of the most advanced school,
is also the author of an ambitious Lieddcr Menschheit (vols. 1-3,
1 88*- 1 806) ; more conservative, on the other hand, is Robespierre
(1894), an epic in the style of Hamerling by an Austrian, Marie
delle Grazie (b. 1864). Attention may also be drawn to the
popularity which, for a few years, the so-called OberbreUl or
cabaret enjoyed, a popularity which has left its mark on the
latest developments of the lyric. Associated with this movement
are O. J. Bicrbaum (1865-1910), whose lyrics, collected in Der
Irrgarten der Liebe (1001), have been extraordinarily popular,
E. von Wolzogen (b. 1855) and the dramatist F. Wedekind,
who has been already mentioned.
Whether or not the work that has been produced in such
rich measure since the year 1889 or however much of it is to
be regarded as a permanent addition to the storehouse of German
national literature, there can be no question of the serious
artistic earnestness of the writers; the conditions for the produc-
tion of literature in the German empire in the early years of the
20th century were eminently healthy, and herein lies the best
promise for the future.
BiBLlOGBArHY. (a) General Histories, Anthologies. &r.: A.
Knhrntrin. Grundrits der Geschifhte der deutschen Nationalliteratur
(1827; 5th ed. by K. Bartsch, 5 vols., 1872-1874; 6th ed.. vol. i..
1884); G. G. Gervinus, GeschUhte der poetischen NationoMiteratur
der neutichrn (5 vols., 1835-1843; 5th ed. by K. Bartsch, 1871-
1874); A. K. C. Vilmar, Geschichle der deulschen Nationallitfrumr
(1848; acth ed., 2 volt., 1900, with a continuation by A. Stern);
W. Wackernagel, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur (1851-1855;
2nd ed. by E. Martin, 1879-1894); K. Goedcke, Grundriss zur
(Ifsihithte der deulschen Dichtung (3 vols., 1857-1881; 2nd ed. by
E. Goetze and others, in 9 vols., 1884 II.); W. Mcnzel, Deutsche
Dicklung von der altesten bis auf die neueste Zeit (1858-1859); H.
Kurz, Cifuhuhte der deutschen Literatur mil ausgewahlten Stucken
(3 vols., 1857-1859; 7th ed., 4 vols., 1876-1882); O. Roquette,
Gfschichle der deutschen Dichlung (2 vols., 1862 ; 3rd ed., 1878-1879) ;
W. Scherer. Geschichte der deulschen Literatur (1883; loth ed., 1905).
English translation by Mrs F. C. Cpnybcare ( 2 vols., 1885; new ed.,
1906); Kuno Kranckc, German Literature as determined by Social
Forces (1806; 6th cd., 1903); F. Vogt and M. Koch, Geschichte der
deutschen Literatur (1897; 2nd cd., 2 vols., 1903); J. G. Robertson,
History of German Literature (1902); A. Bartcls, Geschichte der
deulschen Literatur (2 vols., 1901-1902), with the accompanying
bibliographical summary, Handbuch *ur Geschichte der deutschen
Literatur (1906). There are also histories of the literature of separate
countries and districts, such as J. Bachtold, Geschichte der deutschen
Literatur in der Schweit (1887); R. Krauss, Schwabische Literatur-
geschichte (2 vols., 1897-1899); J. W. Nagl and J. Zeidlcr, Deutsch-
dsterreichische Literatur geschichte (2 vols., 1899 fT.). The most
comprehensive collection of German literature in selections is
J. Kurschner, Deutsche Nationalliteratur (222 vols., 1882-1898).
Of general anthologies mention may be made of W. Wackernagel,
Deutsches Lesebuch (4 vols., 1835-1872; new ed., 1882 ff.), and
F. Max Mailer, The German Classics from the Fourth to the Nineteenth
Century (1858; ed. by F. Lichtcnstcin, 2 vols., 1886; new ed.,
1906). For illustrations to the history of German literature, see
G. Konnecke, Bilderatlas zur Geschithte der deutschen Nationalliteratur
(1887; 2nd ed., 1895).
(b) Special Periods: i. Old High German and Middle High
German Periods : R. Kogel and W. Bruckner, " Geschichte der
althochdeutschen Literatur," and F. Vogt, "Geschichte der mittcl-
hochdcutschen Literatur," in H. Paul's Grundriss der eermanischen
Philologie (2nd ed., vol. ii. pt. i., looi); F. Khull, Geschichte der
altdeutschen Dichtung (1886); J. Kelle, Geschichte der deutschen
Literatur, i.-ii. (1892-1896); R. Kogcl, Geschichte der deutschen
Literatur bis turn Ausgang des Mittelalters, i. (1894-1807); W.
Golther, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur von den ersten Anfangen
bis turn Ausgang des Mittelalters (in Kurschner's Deutsche National-
literatur, vol. 163, pt. i., 1892); W. Scherer, Geschichte der deutschen
Dichtung im 11. und 12. Jahrhundert, and by the same author,
Geistliche Poeten der deutschen Kaiserzeit (both works in Quellen
und Forschungen, 1874-1875); O. Lyon, Minne- und Meistersane
(1882). There are numerous scries of editions of medieval
texts: K. MUllenhoff and W. Scherer, Denkmdler deutscher Poesie
und Prosa aus den 8.-12. Jahrhundert (2 vols., 3rd ed., 1892);
M. Heyne, Bibliothek der altesten deutschen Literaturdenkmaler
(14 vols., begun 1858); F. Pfeiffer, Deutsche Klassiker des Mittel-
alters (12 vols., begun 1865), with the supplementary Deutsche
Dichtuneen des Mittelalters, edited by K. Bartsch (7 vols., 1872 ff.);
K. Goedeke, Deutsche Dichtung im Mittelalter (2nd ed., 1871); J.
Zacher, Germanislische Handbibliothek (9 vols., begun 1860) ; H. Paul,
Alldeulsche Textbibliothek (16 vols., begun 1882); Deutsche Texte des
Mittelalters, ed. by the Berlin Academy (1904 ff.). Convenient
editions of the Mmncsang arc K. Lachmann and M. Haunt, Drs
Minnesangs FrUhling (4th ed. by F. Vogt, 1888), and K. Bartsch,
Deutsche Liederdichter des 12. bis 14. Jahrh. (4th cd. by W. Golther,
ii. From 1350-1700. L. Geiger, Renaissance und llumanismus in
Italien und Deutschland (1882; 2nd ed. 1899); K. Borinski,
Geschichte der deutschen Literatur seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters
fm Kurschner's Deutsche NalionaUiteratur, vol. 163, ii., 1898);
II. Palm, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der deutschen Literatur des 16.
und 17. Jahrhunderts (1877); C. H. Hcrford, Studies in the
Literary Relations of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century
(1886); C. Lemcke, Von Opitz bis Klopstock, i. (1871; 2nd eel.
1882); M. von Waldbcrg, Deutsche Renaissance-Lyrik (1888), and
Die galante Lyrik (1885); F. Bobertag, Geschichle des Romans in
Deutschland, i. (to 1700) (1877-1884); T<. Borinski, Die Poetik der
Renaissance und die Anfange der lilerarischen Kritik in Deutschland
(1886). A vast Quantity of the literature of these centuries has
been rcpublished by the Stuttgarter literarischer Verein (founded
in 1839), whose publications now number considerably over two
hundred volumes; further, W. Braunc, Neudrucke deulscher Literatur-
werke des 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts (begun 1882); K. Goedcke and
J. Tittmann, Deutsche Dichter des 10. Jahrhunderts (18 vols..
1867 ff.), and Deutsche Dichter des 17. Jahrhunderts (15 vols.,
1860 ff.). A valuable anthology is K. Goedeke's Elf Backer deutscher
Dichtung von Sebastian Brant bis auf die Gegenwart (2 vols., 1849).
Since 1890 the Jakresberichle fur neuere deulscke Literalureesckickte
have provided an exhaustive survey of all publications dealing with
modern German literature. A useful practical bibliography for
Knulish readers, covering this and the succeeding periods, is J. S.
Nollen, A Chronology and Practical Bibliography of Modern German
Literature (1903).
8oo
GERMAN REED GERMAN S.-W. AFRICA
iii. The Eighteenth Century. J. Schmidt, Geschichte der deutschen
Literatur von Leibniz bis auf unsere Zeit (4 vols., 1862-1867; 2 "d
ed. 1886-1890); J. Hillebrand, Die deutsche Nationalliteratur im
18. und 19. Jahrhundert (3 vols., 1845-1846; 3rd ed. 1875);
H. Hettner, Geschichte der deutschen Lileratur im 18. Jahrhundert
(4 vols., 1862-1870; 4th ed. by O. Harnack, 1893-1895); J. W.
Schafer, Geschichte der deutschen Literatur des 18. Jahrhunderts
(185571860; 2nd ed. by F. Muncker, 1881); J. K. Morikofer, Die
schweizerische Literatur des 18. Jahrhunderts (1861); J. W.
Lobell, Entwickelung der deutschen Poesie von Klopstock bis zu
Goethes Tod (3 vols., 1856-1865). There are also innumerable more
special treatises, such as A. Eloesser, Das burgerliche Drama (1898);
O. Brahm, Das deutsche Ritterdrama des 18. Jahrhunderts (1880),
&c. Of collections of the literature of this and the following century,
reference need only be made to the Bibliothek der deutschen National-
literatur des 18. und 19. Jahrhunderts, published by Brockhaus
(44 vols., 1868-1891), and Deutsche Lileraturdenkmale des 18. und
19. Jahrhunderts, edited first by B. Seuffert (1882-1894), ar >d subse-
quently by A. Sauer.
iv. The Nineteenth Century. Th. Ziegler, Die geistigen und sozialen
Stromungen des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (1899; 2nd ed. 1901);
R. von Gottschall, Die deutsche Nationalliteratur des 19. Jahr-
hunderts (1854; 7th ed., 4 vols., 1900-1902); R. M. Meyer, Die
deutsche Literatur des 19. Jahrhunderts (1899; 4th ed. 1910);
R. M. Meyer, Grundriss der neueren deutschen Literaturgeschichte
(1902); C. Busse, Geschichte der deutschen Dichtung im neunzehnten
Jahrhundert (1901); R. Haym, Die romantische Schule (1870; 2nd
ed. 1906); G. Brandes, " Den romantiske Skole i Tyskland " (1873),
and " Det unge Tyskland" (1890), in Hovedstromninger i det ipde
Aarhundredes Litteratur, vols. ii. and vi. (German translations, 1887
and 1891; several subsequent editions, Danish and German;
English translations, ii. 1903, and vi. 1905); R. Huch, Die Blutezeit
der Romantik (2nd ed. 1901), and Ausbreitung und Verfall der
Romantik (1902); F. Wehl, Das junge Deutschland (1886); J.
Proelss, Das junge Deutschland (1892); A. Bartels, Die deutsche
Dichtung der Gegenwart (7th ed., 1907); A. von Hanstein, Das
jungste Deutschland (2nd ed., 1901); J. F. Coar, Studies in German
Literature in the Nineteenth Century (1903) ; Ch. Petzet, Die Blutezeit
der deutschen politischen Lyrik (1903); H. Mielke, Der deutsche
Roman des 19. Jahrhunderts (4th ed., 1900); S. Friedmann, Das
deutsche Drama des ig. Jahrhunderts (2 vols., 1900-1903); B.
Litzmann, Das deutsche Drama in den literarischen Bewegungen der
Gegenwart (4th ed., 1898). (J. G. R.)
GERMAN REED ENTERTAINMENT. The dramatic and
musical entertainment which for many years was known in
London by the title of " German Reed " was a form of theatrical
enterprise deserving of commemoration in connexion with those
who made it successful. Mr THOMAS GERMAN REED (born in
Bristol in 1817, died 1888) married in 1844 Miss PRISCILLA
HORTON (1818-1895), and in 1855 they started their entertain-
ment at the " Gallery of Illustration," in Waterloo Place, London.
From 1860 to 1877 they were assisted by JOHN ORLANDO PARRY
(1810-1879), an accomplished pianoforte player, mimic, parodist
and humorous singer; and the latter created a new type of
musical and dramatic monologue which became very popular.
His tradition was carried on after 1870 by Mr CORNEY GRAIN
(1844-1895), who, as a clever, refined, and yet highly humorous
society entertainer (originally a barrister), was one of the best-
known figures of his day. After the retirement of the elder
German Reeds, their son, ALFRED GERMAN REED (1846-1895),
himself a capital actor, carried on the business in partnership
with Corney Grain. The " German Reed Entertainment "-
which was always patronized by a large class of people, many of
whom objected on principle to going or taking their children
to a regular theatre or a music-hall retained its vogue for
forty years at Waterloo Place and at the St George's Hall,
Regent Street. But the death of Mr Corney Grain almost
simultaneously with Mr Alfred German Reed, in 1895, together
with the changed public attitude towards the regular theatre,
ended its career.
GERMAN SILVER or NICKEL SILVER, an alloy of copper,
nickel and zinc, prepared either by melting the copper and nickel
together in a crucible, and adding piece by piece the previously
heated zinc, or by heating the finely divided metals under a layer
of charcoal. To destroy its crystalline structure and so render
it fit for working, it is heated to dull redness, and then allowed
to cool. German silver is harder than silver; it resembles that
metal in colour, but is of a greyer tinge. Exposed to the air it
tarnishes slightly yellow, and with vinegar affords a crust of
verdigris. At a bright red heat it melts, losing its zinc by oxida-
tion unless protected from the atmosphere. At a heat above dull
redness it becomes exceedingly brittle. German silver in various
modifications of composition is much used in the arts. Alloys,
of which about 50% is copper and the residue zinc and nickel
in about equal proportions take a fine polish, and are used as
imitation silver for knives and forks. With a somewhat higher
proportion of copper an alloy is formed suitable for rolling and
for wire. In Chinese white silver or packfong (paktong) the
amount of copper is smaller, about 40%, with about 32% of
nickel, 25 of zinc, and 2 or 3 of iron. German silver for casting
contains 2 or 3 % of lead, which like iron increases the whiteness
of the alloy. German silver, having a high specific resistance
and a low temperature coefficient, has been used for electrical
resistance coils, and these qualities are possessed in a still greater
degree in manganin, which contains manganese in place of zinc,
its composition being 84% of copper, 12 of manganese and 4 of
nickel. The addition of a trace of tungsten to German silver,
as in platinoid, also largely increases the resistance.
GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA. This German possession
is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by Angola, S. by the Cape
province, E. by Bechuanaland and Rhodesia, and is the only
German dependency in Africa suited to white colonization. It
has an area of about 322,450 sq. m., and a population of Bantu
Negroes and Hottentots estimated in 1903 at 200,000.' The
European inhabitants, in addition to the military, numbered
7110 in 1907, of whom the majority were German.
Area and Boundaries. The boundary separating the German
protectorate from the Portuguese possessions of Angola is the lower
Kunene, from its mouth in 17 18' S., 11 40' E. to the limit of
navigability from the sea, thence in a direct line, corresponding
roughly to the lat. of 17 20' S., to the river Okavango, which it
follows eastwards until the stream turns abruptly south (towards
Lake Ngami). From this point a strip of German territory 300 m.
long and about 50 m. broad, projects eastward until it reaches the
Zambezi a little above the Victoria Falls. On the south this narrow
strip of land (known as the Caprivi enclave) is separated from
southern Rhodesia by the Kwando or Chobc river. On the east the
frontier between British and German territory is in its northern half
the 2 ist degree of E. longitude, in its southern half the 2Oth degree.
This frontier is drawn through desert country. The southern frontier
is the Orange river from its mouth to the 20 E. The coast-line
between the Kunene and Orange rivers is not wholly German. Just
north of the tropic of Capricorn is the British enclave of Walfish Bay
(g.i>.). The northern part of the protectorate is known as Ovam-
poland, the central portion as Damara (or Herero) land ; the southern
regions as Great Namaqualand. These names are derived from
those of the dominant native races inhabiting the country.
Physical Features. The coast-line is generally low and little
broken by bays or promontories. In its entire length of about
800 m. it has no good natural harbour, and its bays Angra Pequena,
otherwise Liideritz Bay, Sierra Bay, Sandwich Harbour are in
danger of being filled with sand by the strong, cold, northerly coast
current. Swakopmund is an artificial harbour at the mouth of the
river Swakop. The small islands which stud the coast north and
south of Angra Pequena belong to Great Britain. The coast-line
is bordered by a belt of sand-dunes and desert, which, about 35 m.
wide in the south, narrows towards the north. This coast belt is
flanked by a mountain range, which attains its highest elevation in
Mount Omatako (8972 ft.), in about 21 15' S., 16 40' E. N.E. of
Omatako is the Omboroko range, otherwise known as the Waterberg.
South of Omboroko, occupying the centre of the country, the range
attains its highest average altitude. The following massifs with their
highest points may be distinguished: Cans (7664 ft.), Nu-uibeb
(7480 ft.), Onyati (7201 ft.), Awas (6988 ft.), Komas (5331 ft.) and
Ganab (4002 ft.). In the S.E. are the Karas mountains, which attain
an elevation of 6570 ft. The mountains for the main part form the
escarpment of the great Kalahari plateau, which, gently rising
from the interior towards the west, slopes again towards the south
and north from the point of its highest elevation. The Kalahari
plateau changes the undulating character it has in the west to a
perfect plain in the far east, where the watered and habitable
country merges into the sterile Kalahari desert. In the northern
half of the country the central plateau contains much rich grass-land,
while in the north-eastern region the Omaheke desert has all the
characteristics of the Kalahari.
There are no rivers of importance wholly within German South-
West Africa. The Kunene (q.v.) has but a small portion of the
southern bank in the colony, and similarly only part of the northern
1 As the result of wars with the natives, the population greatly
decreased. The number of adult (native) males in the colony at the
beginning of 1908 wasofficially estimated at 19,900, a figure indicating
a total population of little more than 100,000.
GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
801
the Orange river fo.r) u in German territory. Severn
run south into the Orange; of those the chief is the Grea
of
streams run soutn into the Urange. _. .__
Fish nvcr, whkh has * courae of nearly 500 m. Both the Kunene
and the Urange carry water all the year round, but are not navigable
Neither u the Great Fish river, whkh. however, U rarely dry. Tht
Okayango. whkh come* from the north and run toward* Ngatn
(j.t.), is perennial, but like the Kunene and Orange, belongs onl>
partly to the hydrographk system of the country. From the inne
Mopes of the coast chain many stream* go N.E. to join the Okavango
They cross the Omaheke waste and are usually dry. Ovampola
has a hydrographic system connected with the Kunene, and. m
eatofis of great flood, with that of Ngami. Before the Kunene
breaks through the outer edge of the plateau, it sends divergent
channels south-east to a large marsh or lake called Etosha, whkl
is cut by 17* E. and 19 S. Of these channels the Kwamatuo or
Okipoko, which is perennial, enters Etosha at its N.W. corner. The
lake when full extends about 80 m. W. to E. and 50 m. N. to S
From its S.E. corner issues the Omuramba, which divides into two
branches, known respectively as the Omaheke and the Ovampo.
These stream* have an easterly direction, their beds, often dry
joining the Okavango. The other rivers of the protectorate have
as a rule plenty of water in their upper courses in the rainy season,
though some over beds are dry for years together. After a heavy
thunderstorm such a river bed will be suddenly filled with a turbid
current half a mile wide. The water is, however, before long
absorbed by the thirsty land. Only in exceptionally rainy years
do the streams whkh cross the sand belt carry water to the ocean
But in the sand whkh fills the river beds water may be obtained
by digging. Of nvers running direct to the Atlantic the Little Fish
nver enters the sea at Angra Pequena and the Kuisip in VValfish Bay
The Swakop rises in the hills near the Waterberg, and north of it i
the Omaruru, whkh carries water for the greater part of the year.
Hot springs are numerous, and it is remarkablethat those of Windhoek
Bow more copiously during the dry than the rainy season. There
are also many cold springs, and wells whkh contain water all the year.
Cytogy. Gneiss and schist, with intrusive granites and porphyries,
overlain to a great extent by sand and lateritk deposits, occupy the
coast belt, coast mountains and the plateau of Damaraland. In the
Huib and Han-ami plateaus of Great Namaqualand the crystalline
rocks are overlain by sandstones, slates, quartzites and jasper rocks.
and these in turn by dolomites. They are probably equivalent to
the Transvaal and Pretoria series (see TRANSVAAL : Geology). The
next oldest rocks are of recent geological date. The Kalahari Kalk,
which extends over large areas to the south-east of Ovampoland
may be of Miocene age, but it has not yielded fossils. Extensive
tracts of alluvium occur in the basin of the Ovampo, while the dunes
and sand-tracts of the Kalahari occupy the eastern regions.
Climate. On the coast the mean temperature is low, and there is
ttle rainfall. Moisture is supplied by dense fogs, which rise almost
daily. South-west winds prevail. Inland the climate is temperate
rather than tropical, with bracing, clear atmosphere. There are
considerable differences of temperature between day and night, and
two well-marked seasons, one cold and dry from May to September,
the other hot and rainy from October to April. In winter ice
frequently forms during the night on open water on the plateau
but it never remains all day. The yearly rainfall is about 20 in.
in the Oamara Hills; there is more rain in the north than in the
south, and in the east than in the west. In the greater part of the
colony the climate U favourable for European settlement.
Flora and Fauna. The vegetation corresponds exactly with the
climate. In the dry littoral region are plants able to exist with the
minimum of moisture they derive from the daily fog Amarantaceae,
Sarcocaula. Aloe diekotoma. Ariitida subacaults and the wonderful
Wttvitxkia. Farther inland are plants whkh spring up and dis-
appear with the rain, and others whose roots reach permanent
water. The former are chkfly grasses, the latter exist almost solely
m or near river-beds. Amongst the fine trees often seen here, the
ana tree (Acacia albida) is the most noteworthy, its seeds being
favourite fodder for all domestk animals. Acacia giro/at, Ac.
korrida. A daiuonia sterculia, near the Kunene the Ilyphaene ventricota,
deserve special notice. The vegetation in the mountain valleys is
luxuriant, and towards the north is of a tropical character. The
palm zone extends a considerable distance south of the Kunene,
and here vegetation spreads over the sand-dunes of the coast plain
whkh are covered with grasses.
Large game, formerly abundant, especially pachyderms, is scarce.
X antelopes the following species are plentiful in parts: springbok,
steenbok, kudu, rietbok. pallah; of monkeys, tne Cynocephalus
porcarius is frequent. Various kinds of hyenas and jackals with
fine fur (Cants mesomelas). also Petit caracal, abound. The spring-
hare (Prdeslfo ca/er) and rock-rabbit (Hyrax capeniit) may often be
observed. Of birds there are 728 species. Crocodiles, turtles and
aakes are numerous.
InMabitanli. Among the natives of German South-West
Africa three classes may be distinguished. In the first class are
the Namaqua (Hottentots) and Bushmen. The Namaqua
probably came from the south, while the Bushmen may be
looked upon as an indigenous race. The Hottentots, the purest
XI. 36
existing types of that race, are divided into numerous tribes,
independent of one another, such as the Witbois, Swartzbois,
Bondelzwarts. The Bushmen arc found scattered over the
eastern parts of the country (see HOTTENTOTS and BUSHMEN).
The second class consists of the mountain Damara (Hau-Khoin),
a race of doubtful affinities, probably of Bantu-Negro origin,
but speaking the Hottentot language. The third class belongs
to the Bantu-Negro stock, and came from the north-cast, ex-
polling and enslaving the mountain Damara, and settling in
various parts of the country under different names. The most
prominent are the Herero, thorough nomads and cattle-breeders;
while the Ovampo (Ovambo or Ambo), in the northern part of
the protectorate, are agriculturists. The Herero (q.v.) are also
known by the Hottentot name Damara, and by this name their
country is generally called. The Bastaards, who live in Namaqua-
land, are a small tribe originating from a mingling of Cape Boers
with Hottentots. They are Christians, and able to read and
write. The other natives are spirit-worshippers, save for the
comparatively few converts of the Protestant missions established
in the country. Of white races represented the chief are Germans
and Boers. In the S.E Boer settlers form the bulk of the white
population. There are also numbers of British colonists in this
region emigrants from the Cape. The immigration of Germans
is encouraged by subsidies and in other ways.
Towns. The chief port is Swakopmund, built on the northern
bank of the Swakon nvcr (the southern bank belonging to the
British territory of VValfish Bay). The harbour is partially protected
by a breakwater. There are also settlements at LUderitz Bay (white
pop. 1909, over icoo) and at Sandwich Harbour. Swakopmund is
connected by a narrow gauge railway with Windhoek, the ad-
ministrative capital of the colony, situated in a hilly district 180 m
due east of the port, but 237 m. by the railway. Karibib is the only
place of consequence on the line. Otyimbineue is a government
station TO m . W N W. of Windhoek, and Tsumeb a mfn'ngTntre
240 m. N.N.E. of the same place. Olukonda is a government post
in Uvampoland. In the S.E. corner of the colony, 30 m. N. of the
Orange river, is the town of Warmbad. Keetmanshoop, loo m N
of Warmbad and 180 m. E. of LUderitr Bay, is the centre of a small
mining industry. Gibeon is a government station and missionary
settlement about midway between Keetmanshoop and Windhoek
Besides these places there are numbers of small native towns at
which live a few white traders and missionaries. The missionaries
have given Biblical names to several of their stations, such as Bethany
and Becrsheba in Namaqualand, and Rehoboth in Damaraland.
In the Capnvi enclave are a German residency and the site of the
town of Lmyantc, once the capital of the Makololo dynasty of
Barotseland (see BAROTSE).
Industries. Agriculture is followed by the natives in the northern
districts, but the chief industry is stock-raising. The scarcity of
water in the southern parts is not favourable for agricultural pursuits
while the good grazing lands offer splendid pasturage for cattle
which the Herero raise in numbers amounting to many hundred
thousands. Sheep and goats thrive well. Horses have been im-
ported from the Cape. Unfortunately the climate does not suit
them everywhere, and they are subject to a virulent distemper.
Cattle and sheep also suffer from the diseases which are common
'" ii H^P" ( - olo F l y- Camels have been imported, and are doing
well. Wheat, maize and sorghum are the chief crops raised, though
not enough is grown to meet even local requirements. Near the
coast the natives collect the kernels of the nara, a wild-erowine
lumpkm which, in the words of an early traveller, C. J. Andersson
'are eaten by oxen, mice, men, ostriches and lions." About half
the European settlers are engaged in agriculture. They raise maize
wheat, tobacco, fruit and vegetables. Cotton cultivation and viti-
culture are carried on in some districts.
Minerals, especially copper, are plentiful in the country. The
chief copper deposits are at Tsumeb, which is 4230 ft. above the sea
n the Otayi district. Diamonds are found on and near the surface
of the soil in the LUdcntz Bay district, and diamonds have also been
found in the neighbourhood of Gibeon. A little pottery is made
and the Hottentot women are clever in making fur cloths. In the
north the Ovampo do a little smith-work and grass-plaiting. The
external trade of the country was of slow growth. The exports
previous to the opening up of the Otavi mines, consisted chiefly of
itocksent mainly to Cape Colony guano, ivory, horns, hides
h leathers. The chief imports are food stuffs, textiles and
metals, and hardware. In 1003 the value of the exports was 168,^60,
hat of the imports 388,210. The war which followed (see below
hstory) led to a great shrinking of exports, rendering the figures for
o ./T , ?4-'97 useless for purposes of comparison. About
85% of the imports are from Germany.
Communications. The economic development of the country
i largely dependent on transport facilities. The railway from
802
GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
Swakopmund to Windhoek, mentioned above, was begun in 1 897, and
was opened for traffic in July 1902. It cost nearly 700,000 to build.
Another narrow gauge railway, to serve the Otavi copper mines,
was begun in 1904 and completed in 1908. It starts from Swakop-
mund and is 400 m. long, the terminus being at Grootfontein, 40 m.
S.E. of Tsumeb. The highest point on this Tine is 5213 ft. above the
sea. In 1906-1908 a railway, 180 m. long, was built from Liideritz
Bay to Keetmanshoop. This line is of the standard South African
gauge (3 ft. 6 in.), that gauge being adopted in view of the eventual
linking up of the line with the British railway systems at Kimberley.
A branch from Seeheim on the Keetmanshoop line runs S.E. to
Kalkfpntein.
Besides railways, roads have been made between the chief centres
of population. Along these, in the desert districts, wells have been
dug. Across the Awas Mountains, separating Windhoek from the
central plateau, a wide road has been cut. In 1903 the colony was
placed in telegraphic communication with Europe and Cape Colony
by the laying of submarine cables having their terminus at Swakop-
mund. There is a fairly complete inland telegraphic service.
There is regular steamship communication between Hamburg
and Swakopmund, Walfish Bay and Liideritz Bay. Regular com-
munication is also maintained between Cape Town and the ports
of the colony.
Administration. At the head of the administration is an imperial
governor, responsible to the colonial office in Berlin, who is assisted
by a council consisting of chiefs of departments. The country is
divided into various administrative districts. In each of these there
is a Bezirksamtmann, with his staff of officials and police force. In
each district is a law court, to whose jurisdiction not alone the whites,
but also the Bastaards are subject. As in all German colonies,
there is a court of appeal at the residence of the governor. The
government maintains schools at the chief towns, but education is
principally in the hands of missionaries. The armed force consists
of regular troops from Germany and a militia formed of Bastaards.
The local revenue for some years before 1903 was about 130,000
per annum, the expenditure about 400,000, the difference between
local receipts and expenditure being made good by imperial subsidies.
In 1908 local revenue had risen to 250,000, but the imperial authori-
ties incurred an expenditure of over 2,000,000, largely for military
purposes. On articles of export, such as feathers and hides, 5 % ad
valorem duty has to be paid ; on cattle and horses an export tax per
head. There is a 10 % ad valorem duty on all imports, no difference
being made between German and foreign goods. The sale of
spirituous liquors is subject to a licence.
History. The coast of south-west Africa was discovered by
Bartholomew Diaz in 1487, whilst endeavouring to find his way
to the Indies. He anchored in a bay which by reason of its
smallness he named Angra Pequena. Portugal, however, took
no steps to acquire possession of this inhospitable region, which
remained almost unvisited by Europeans until the early years
of the i gth century. At this time the country was devastated
by a Hottentot chief known as Afrikander, who had fled thither
with a band of outlaws after murdering his master, a Boer
farmer by whom he had been ill-treated, in 1796. In 1805 some
missionaries (of German nationality) went into Namaqualand
in the service of the London Missionary Society, which society
subsequently transferred its missions in this region to the Rhenish
mission, which had had agents in the country since about 1840.
The chief station of the missionaries was at a Hottentot settle-
ment renamed Bethany (1820), a place 125 m. E. by Angra
Pequena. The missionaries had the satisfaction of stopping
Afrikander's career of bloodshed. He became a convert, a great
friend of the mission, and took the name of Christian. The
proximity of Great Namaqualand to Cape Colony led to visits
from British and Dutch farmers and hunters, a few of whom
settled in the country, which thus became in some sense a
dependency of the Cape.
In 1867 the islands along the coast north and south of Angra
Pequena, on which were valuable guano deposits, were annexed
to Great Britain. At this time a small trade between the natives
and the outside world was developed at Angra Pequena, the
merchants engaged in it being British and German. The political
influence of the Cape spread meantime northward to the land of
the Herero (Damara). The Herero had been subjugated by
Jonker Afrikander, a son of Christian Afrikander, who followed
the early footsteps of his sire and had renounced Christianity,
but in 1865 they had recovered their independence. The
Rhenish missionaries appealed (1868) to the British government
for protection, and asked for the annexation of the country.
This request, although supported by the Prussian government,
was refused. In 1876, however, a special commissioner (W.
Coates Palgrave) was sent by the Cape government " to the tribes
north of the Orange river." The commissioner concluded treaties
with the Namaqua and Damara which fixed the limits of the
territories of the two races and placed the whole country now
forming German South- West Africa within the sphere of British
influence. In the central part of Damaraland an area of some
35,000 sq. m. was marked out as a British reservation. The
instrument by which this arrangement was made was known
as the treaty of Okahandya. Neither it nor the treaty relating
to Great Namaqualand was ratified by the British government,
but at the request of Sir Bartle Frere, then high commissioner
for South Africa, Walfish Bay (the best harbour along the coast)
was in 1878 annexed to Great Britain.
In 1880 fighting between the Namaqua, who were led by
Jan Afrikander, son of Jonker and grandson of Christian
Afrikander, and the Damara broke out afresh, and was German
not ended until the establishment of European rule. In rule
1883 F. A. E.Luderitz (1834-1886), aBremen merchant, estab-
with the approval of Prince Bismarck, established a *****
trading station at Angra Pequena. This step led to the annexa-
tion of the whole country to Germany (see AFRICA, 5)
with the exception of Walfish Bay and the islands a'ctually
British territory. On the establishment of German rule Jonker
Afrikander's old headquarters were made the seat of administra-
tion and renamed Windhoek. The Hottentots, under a chieftain
named Hendrik Witboi, offered a determined opposition to the
Germans, but after a protracted war peace was concluded in 1894
and Hendrik became the ally of the Germans. Thereafter,
notwithstanding various local risings, the country enjoyed a
measure of prosperity, although, largely owing to economic
conditions, its development was very slow.
In October 1903 the Bondelzwarts, who occupy the district
immediately north of the Orange river, rose in revolt. This act
was the beginning of a struggle between the Germans Werero
and the natives which lasted over four years, and cost war-
Germany the lives of some 5000 soldiers and settlers,
and entailed an expenditure of i 5,000,000. Abuses committed
by white traders, the brutal methods of certain officials and the
occupation of tribal lands were among the causes of the war,
but impatience of white rule was believed to be the chief reason
for the revolt of the Herero, the most formidable of the opponents
of the Germans. The Herero had accepted the German pro-
tectorate by treaty without fully comprehending that to which
they had agreed. To crush the Bondelzwarts, an object attained
by January 1904, the governor, Colonel Theodor Leutwein, had
denuded Damaraland of troops, and advantage was taken of this
fact by the Herero to begin a long-planned and well-prepared
revolt. On the i2th of January 1904 most of the German
farmers in Damaraland were attacked, and settlers and their
families murdered and the farms devastated. Reinforcements
were sent from Germany, and in June General von Trotha
arrived and took command of the troops. On the i ith of August
von Trotha attacked the Herero in their stronghold, the Water-
berg, about 200 m. N. of Windhoek, and inflicted upon them
a severe defeat. The main body of the enemy escaped, however,
from the encircling columns of the Germans, and thereafter
the Herero, who were under the leadership of Samuel Maherero,
maintained a guerrilla warfare, rendering the whole countryside
unsafe. The Germans found pursuit almost hopeless, being
crippled by the lack of water and the absence of means of trans-
port. To add to their troubles a Herero bastard named Morenga,
with a following of Hottentots, had, in July, recommenced
hostilities in the south. On the and of October 1904 von Trotha,
exasperated at his want of success in crushing the enemy, issued
a proclamation in which he said: " Within the German frontier
every Herero with or without a rifle, with or without cattle,
will be shot. I will not take over any more women and children.
But I will either drive them back to your people or have them
fired on." In a later order von Trotha instructed his soldiers
not to fire into, but to fire over the heads of the women and
children, and Prince Billow ordered the general to repeal the
GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
803
whole proclamation. Whenever they had the chance, however,
the Hermans hunted down the Hcrero, and thousands perished
in the Otnaheke desert, across which numbers succeeded in
passing to British territory near Ngami.
On the day following the issue of von Trot ha 's proclamation
to the Hereto, i.e. on the jrd of October 1004, Hendrik Witboi
sent a formal declaration of war to the Germans. Hendrik had
helped to suppress the Bondelzwarts rising, and had received a
German decoration for his services, and his hostility is said to
have been kindled by the supersession of Colonel Leutwein, for
whom he entertained a great admiration. The Witbois were
joined by other Hottentot tribes, and their first act was to
murder some sixty German settlers in the Gibeon district. Both
British and Boer farmers were spared the Hottentots in this
matter following the example of the Herero. In November,
considerable reinforcements having come from Germany, the
Witbois were attacked, and Hendrik's headquarters, Reitmont,
captured. Another defeat was inflicted on Hendrik in January
1005, but, lacking ammunition and water, the Germans could not
follow up their victory. As in Damaraland, the warfare in
Namaqualand now assumed a guerrilla character, and theGermans
found it almost impossible to meet their elusive enemy, while small
detachments were often surprised and sometimes annihilated.
In May 1005 von Trotha tried the effect on the Hottentots of
another of his proclamations. He invited them to surrender,
adding that in the contrary event all rebels would be exterminated.
A price was at the same time put on the heads of Hendrik Witboi
and other chiefs. This proclamation was unheeded by the
Hottentots, who were in fact continuing the war with rifles and
ammunition seized from the Germans, and replenishing their
stock with cattle taken from the same source. In the north,
however, Samuel Maherero had fled to British territory,
and the resistance of the Herero was beginning to collapse.
Concentration camps were established in which some thousands
of Herero women and children were cared for. Meanwhile, the
administration of von Trotha, who had assumed the governorship
as well as the command of the troops, was severely criticized by
the civilian population, and the non-success of the operations
against the Hottentots provoked strong military criticism.
In August 1005 Colonel (afterwards General) Leutwein, who
had returned to Germany, formally resigned the governorship
of the protectorate, and Herr von Lindequist, late German
consul-general at Cape Town, was nominated as his successor.
Von Trotha, who had publicly criticized Prince Billow's order
to -repeal the Herero proclamation, was superseded. He had
in the summer of 1905 instituted a series of "drives" against
the Witbois, with no particular results. Hendrik always evaded
the columns and frequently attacked them in the rear.
In November 1905 von Lindequist arrived at Windhoek.
The new governor issued a general amnesty to the Herero, and
set aside two large reserves for those who surrendered. His
conciliatory policy was in the end successful, and the Ovampo,
who threatened to give trouble, were kept in hand. The task
of pacifying Damaraland was continued throughout 1006, and
by the close of that year about 16,000 Herero had been established
in the reserves. Some 3000 had sought refuge in British territory,
while the number who hid perished may be estimated at between
20,000 and 30,000.
In Namaqualand von Lindequist found an enemy still unbroken.
On the 3rd of November, however, Hendrik Witboi died, aged
seventy-five, and his son and successor Samuel Isaac
Witboi shortly afterwards surrendered, and the
hostility of the tribe ceased. Morenga now became
the chief of the rebel Hottentots, and " drives " against
him were organized. Early in May 1006 an encounter between
Morenga and a German column was fought close to the British
frontier of the Bechuanaland protectorate. Morenga fled, was
pursued across the frontier, and wounded, but escaped. On
the i6th of May he was found hiding by British patrols and
interned. Other Hottentot chiefs continued the conflict, greatly
aided by the immense difficulty the Germans had in transporting
supplies; to remedy which defect the building of a railway
from Luderitz Bay to Kubub was begun early in 1006. A camel
transport corps was also organized, and Boer auxiliaries engaged.
Throughout the later half of 1906 the Hottentots maintained
the struggle, the Karas mountains forming a stronghold from
which their dislodgment was extremely difficult. Many of their
leaders and numbers of the tribesmen had a considerable strain
of white (chiefly Dutch) blood and were fairly educated men,
with a knowledge not only of native, but European ways; facts
which helped to make them formidable opponents. Gradually
the resistance of the Hottentots was overcome, and in December
1906 the Bondclzwarts again surrendered. Other tribes continued
the fight for months longer, but by March 1907 it was found
possible to reduce the troops in the protectorate to about 5000
men. At the height of the campaign the Germans had 19,000
men in the field.
In August 1907 renewed alarm was created by the escape of
Morenga from British territory. The Cape government, regarding
the chief as a political refugee, had refused to extradite him and
he had been assigned a residence near Upington. This place he
left early in August and, eluding the frontier guards, re-entered
German territory. In September, however, he was again on
the British side of the border. Meantime a force of the Cape
Mounted Police under Major F. A. H. Eliott had been organized
to effect his arrest. Summoned to surrender, Morenga fled into
the Kalahari Desert. Eliott's force of sixty men pursued him
through a waterless country, covering 80 m. in 24 hours. When
overtaken (September zist), Morenga, with ten followers, was
holding a kopje and fired on the advancing troops. After a
sharp engagement the chief and five of his men were killed, the
British casualties being one killed and one wounded. The death
of Morenga removed a serious obstacle to the complete pacifica-
tion of the protectorate. Military operations continued, however,
during 1908. Heir von Lindequist, being recalled to Berlin to
become under-secretary in the colonial office, was succeeded as
governor (May 1007) by Heir von Schuckmann. In 1908 steps
were taken to establish German authority in the Caprivi enclave,
which up to that time had been neglected by the colonial
authorities.
The discovery of diamonds in the LUderitz Bay district in
July 1008 caused a rush of treasure-seekers. The diamonds
were found mostly on the surface in a sandy soil and
were of small size. The stones resemble Brazilian oiteomy
diamonds. By the end of the year the total yield was ai, m oodi.
over 39,000 carats. One of the difficulties encountered
in developing the field was the great scarcity of fresh water.
During 1909 various companies were formed to exploit the
diamondiferous area. The first considerable packet of diamonds
from the colony reached Germany in April 1009. The output for
the year was valued at over 1,000,000.
AUTHORITIES. Karl Dove, Deulsch-SOdwestafrika (Berlin, 1903);
W. KOlz, Deutsch-Sudafrika . . . (Berlin, 1909); T. Leutwein, Elf
Jahrc Gouverneur in Deutsch-Sudweslafrika (Berlin, 1008), an
authoritative work, largely historical; P. Rohrbach, Deutsche
Kolonialivirtscha.fi, Band I : Stidwestafrika (Berlin, 1907), a compre-
hensive economic study; 1. Irle, Die Herero, ein Beitrag xur Landes-,
Volks- und Missionshunde (GUtersloh, 1906), a valuable summary of
information concerning Damaraland; Major K. Schwabe, 1m
deutschen Diamantenlande (Berlin, 1909); T. Rehbock, Deutsch-
S-udwestafrika, seine wirtschaflliche Erschliessung unter besonderer
history of the protectorate up to 1893; H. Schintz, Deutsch-Sudwest-
afrika, F.orschungsreisen durch die deutschen Schuttgebiete Gross-Nama
und Hereroland, nach dent Kunene, Sfc., 1884-1887 (Oldenburg, N.D.
11891!); H. von Francois, Nama und Damara (Magdeburg, N.D.
|i8o61). See also for Ethnology, " Die Eingeborcnen Deutsch-
SUdwestafrilcas nach Geschichte, Charalctcr, Sitten, Gcbrftuchen
und Sprachen," in Mitleilungen des Seminars far orientalische
Sprachen (Berlin and Stuttgart) for 1899 and 1900; and G. W. Stow,
T He Native Races of South Africa (London, 1905) ; ch. xvii. contains
an account of the Afrikander family. For geology consult A. Schenk,
" Die gcologische Entwicklung Sudafrikas (mil Karte)," Peterm.
Milt. (1888); Stromer von Rcichcnbach, Die Geologit der deutschen
Schulzgebiele in Afrika (Munich and Leipzig, 1896). Of early books
of travel the most valuable arc: F. Galton, Tropical South Africa
(1853; new ed. 1889); Charles J. Andersson, Lake Ngami (1856),
804
GERMANTOWN GERMANY
The Okavango River (1861) and Notes of Travel (1875). See also
Sir J. E. Alexander, An Expedition of Discovery into the Interior of
Africa (London, 1838). Reports on the German colonies are pub-
lished by the British foreign office. The Kriegskarte von Deutsch-
Sudwestafrika (Berlin, 1904), in nine sheets on a scale of i : 800,000,
will be found useful. (F. R. C.)
GERMANTOWN, a residential district and former suburb,
now the Twenty-second Ward, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on Wissahickon Creek, in the N. part of the city. It is
served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading
railways. There are many old colonial houses and handsome
modern residences along Main Street (the old Germantown
Road or Avenue). Prominent among the historic houses is
Cliveden, or the " Chew House," built about 1761 by Benjamin
Chew (1722-1810), who was chief-justice of Pennsylvania in
1774-1777 and was imprisoned as a Loyalist in 1777, and whose
home during the battle of Germantown (see below) was occupied
by British troops. The well-preserved Morris House (1772) was
the headquarters of General Howe at the close of the battle,
and in 1793, when Germantown, owing to the yellow fever in
Philadelphia, was the temporary capital of the United States,
it was occupied by President Washington. Three doors above
stood until 1904 the Ashmead House, used for a time by Count
Nicholas Lewis Zinzendorf and his daughters for their Moravian
school, which was removed to Bethlehem. In the same street,
opposite Indian Queen Lane, is the old Wister Mansion, built
as a country-seat in 1744 and occupied by British officers during
the War of Independence. In another old house (now Nos.
5275-5277), John Fanning Watson (1770-1860), the annalist of
Philadelphia, did most of his literary work. Just outside the
ward limits, in what has since become a part of Fairmont Park,
is the house in which David Rittenhouse, the astronomer, was
born; it stands on Monoshore Creek or Paper Mill Run, in what
was long called Roxborough (now the 2ist ward of Philadelphia).
In this vicinity the first paper mill in America was erected in
1690 by a company of which William Rittenhouse, David's
great-grandfather, was the leading member. The King of Prussia
Inn, built about 1740, and the Mermaid Hotel, as old or older,
are interesting survivals of the inns and taverns of old German-
town. The Germantown Academy was built in 1760, and after
the battle of Germantown was used by the British as a hospital.
In Germantown are also a Friends' (orthodox) school, a Friends'
free library, and the Germantown branch of the Philadelphia
public library. The first school in Germantown was established
about 1701, and for the first eighteen years was under the master-
ship of Francis Daniel Pastorius (1651-1719), theleaderin founding
the town, who lived in a house that stood on the site of the present
First Methodist Episcopal church, High Street and Main Street.
He compiled a primer which was the first school book produced
in the state; with three others he drafted and signed in 1688
what seems to have been the first public protest made in America
against slavery; and he is celebrated in Whittier's Pennsylvania
Pilgrim. Later the same school passed to Christopher Dock
(d. 1771), who in 1770 published an essay on teaching (written
in 1750), which is said to have been the first book on pedagogy
published in America. The first Bible printed in America in
any European language was published in Germantown in 1743
by Christopher Sauer (d. 1758), a preacher of the German
Baptist Brethren, who in 1739 established Germantown 's first
newspaper, The High German Pennsylvania Historian, or Collec-
tion of Important News from the Kingdom of Nature and of the
Church. His grandsons are said to have cast about 1772 the
first American printing type. The Friends were the first sect to
erect a meeting-house of their own (about 1 693) . The Mennoni tes
built a log meeting-house in 1 709, and their present stone church
was built in 1770. The town hall of Germantown was used as
a hospital during the last three yearsof the Civil War. In Market
Square a soldiers' monument was erected in 1883. The Site and
Relic Society of Germantown maintains a museum of relics.
Many of the early settlers were linen weavers, and Germantown
still manufactures textiles, knit goods and yarns.
Germantown was founded in October 1683 by thirteen families
from Crefeld, Germany, under the leadership of Francis Daniel
Pastorius. The township, as originally laid out, contained
four distinct villages known as Germantown, Cresheim, Sommer-
housen and Crefield. Cresheim was later known as Mount
Airy, and Sommerhousen and Crefield became known as Chestnut
Hill. The borough of Germantown was incorporated in 1689.
For many years it was a straggling village extending about 2 m.
along Main Street. Its growth was more rapid from the middle
of the 1 8th century. In 1789 a motion for the permanent
location of the national capital at Germantown was carried
in the Senate, and the same measure passed the House, amended
only with respect to the temporary government of the ceded
district; but the Senate killed the bill by voting to postpone
further consideration of it until the next session. Germantown
was annexed to Philadelphia in 1854.
Battle of Germantown. This famous encounter in the American
War of Independence was fought on the 4th of October 1777.
After the battle of Brandywine (q.v.) and the occupation of
Philadelphia, the British force commanded by Sir W. Howe
encamped at Germantown, where Washington determined
to attack them. The Americans advanced by two roads, General
Sullivan leading the column on the right and General Greene
that on the left. Washington himself accompanied Sullivan,
with whom were Stirling (an officer who claimed to be earl of
that name) and Anthony Wayne. The right at first met with
success, driving the British advanced troops back on the main
body near the Chew House. Colonel Musgrave, of the 4oth Foot,
threw a portion of his regiment into this house, and General
Agnew came up with his command. The Americans under
Stirling attempted to dislodge Musgrave, thus losing time and
alarming part of Sullivan's advance who had pushed farther
forward in the fog. General Greene on the left was even less
fortunate. Meeting with unexpected opposition at the first
point of attack his troops were thrown into confusion and
compelled to retreat. One of his brigades extended itself to
the right wing, and by opening fire on the Chew House caused
Wayne to retreat, and presently both of the American columns
retired rapidly in the direction of their camp. The surprise
had failed, with the loss to Washington's army of 673 men as
against 500 on the side of the British. The British General
Agnew and the American General Nash were both mortally
wounded. In December Washington went into winter quarters
at Valley Forge, 40 m. west of Philadelphia. The British wintered
in and around the city.
See N. H. Keyser, " Old Historic Germantown," in the Proceedings
and Addresses of the Pennsylvania-German Society (Lancaster,
1906); S. W. Pennypacker, The Settlement of Germantown, Pennsyl-
vania, and the Beginning of German Emigration to North America
(Philadelphia, 1899), and S. F. Hotchkin, Ancient and Modern
Germantown, Mount Airy and Chestnut Hill (Philadelphia, 1889).
GERMANY (Ger. Deutschland) , or, more properly, THE GERMAN
EMPIRE (Deutsches Reich), a country of central Europe. The
territories occupied by peoples of distinctively Teutonic race
and language are commonly designated as German, and in this
sense may be taken to include, besides Germany proper (the
subject of the present article), the German-speaking sections of
Austria, Switzerland and Holland. But Germany, or the
German empire, as it is now understood, was formed in 1871
by virtue of treaties between the North German Confederation
and the South German states, and by the acquisition, in the
peace of Frankfort (May 10, 1871), of Alsace-Lorraine, and
embraces all the countries of the former German Confederation,
with the exception of Austria, Luxemburg, Limburg and Liech-
tenstein. The sole addition to the empire proper since that
date is the island of Heligoland, ceded by Great Britain in 1890,
but Germany has acquired extensive colonies in Africa and the
Pacific (see below, Colonies).
The German empire extends from 47 16' to 55 53' N., and
from 5 52' to 22 52' E. The eastern provinces project so far
that the extent of German territory is much greater from south-
west to north-east than in any other direction. Tilsit is 815 m.
from Metz, whereas Hadersleben, in Schleswig, is only 540 m.
from the Lake of Constance. The actual difference in time
between the eastern and western points is i hour and 8 minutes,
GEOGRAPHY]
GERMANY
805
but the empire observes but one time i hour E. of Greenwich.
The empire is bounded on the S.E. and S. by Austria and Switzer-
land (for 1659 m.), on the S.W. by France (24] m.), on the W.
by Luxemburg, Belgium and Holland (together 558 m.). The
length of German coast on the North Sea or German Ocean is
193 m., and on the Baltic 927 m., the intervening land boundary
on the north of Schleswig being only 47 m. The eastern boundary
is with Russia 843 m. The total length of the frontiers is thus
4569 m. The area, including rivers and lakes but not the ha/s
or lagoons on the Baltic coast, is 208,830 sq. m., and the popula-
tion (1905) 60,641,278. In respect of its area, the German
empire occupied in 1909 the third place among European
countries, and in point of population the second, coming in point
of area immediately after Russia and Austria-Hungary, and
in population next to Russia.
Political Divisions. The empire is composed of the following
twenty-six states and divisions: the kingdoms of Prussia,
Bavaria, Saxony and WUrttemberg; the grand-duchies of
Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwcrin, Mecklenburg-Strclitz,
Oldenburg and Saxe- Weimar; the duchies of Anhalt, Brunswick,
Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Saxe-Meiningen; the
principalities of Lippe-Detmold, Reuss-Greiz, Reuss-Schlciz,
Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-
Sondershausen and VValdeck-Pyrmont; the free towns of
Bremen, Hamburg and LUbeck, and the imperial territory of
Alsace-Lorraine.
Besides these political divisions there are certain parts of
Germany which, not conterminous with political boundaries,
retain appellations derived either from former tribal settlements
or from divisions of the old Holy Roman Empire. These are
Franconia (Franken), which embraces the districts of Bamberg,
Schweinfurt and WUrzburg on the upper Main; Swabia (Schwa-
ben), in which is included WUrttemberg, parts of Bavaria and
Baden and Hohenzollcrn; the Palatinate (Pfalz), embracing
Bavaria west of the Rhine and the contiguous portion of Baden;
Rhineland, applied to Rhenish Prussia, Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt
and pans of Bavaria and Baden; Vogtland, 1 the mountainous
country lying in the south-west corner of the kingdom of Saxony;
Lusatia (Lausitz), the eastern portion of the kingdom of Saxony
and the adjacent portion of Prussia watered by the upper Spree;
Thuringia (Thuringen), the country lying south of the Harz
Mountains and including the Saxon duchies; East Fricsland
(Ost Friesland), the country lying between the lower course of
the Weser and the Ems, and Westphalia (Wcstfalcn), the fertile
plain lying north and west of the Harz Mountains and extending
to the North Sea and the Dutch frontier.
Coast and Islands. The length of the coast -line is considerably
less than the third part of the whole frontier. The coasts are
shallow, and deficient in natural ports, except on the east of
Schleswig-Holstein, where wide bays encroach upon the land,
giving access to the largest vessels, so that the great naval
harbour could be constructed at Kiel. With the exception of
those on the east coast of Schleswig-Holstein, all the important
trading ports of Germany are river ports, such as Emden. Bremen,
Hamburg, LUbeck, Stettin, Danzig, Konigsberg, Memel. A
great difference, however, is to be remarked between the coasts
of the North Sea and those of the Baltic. On the former, where
the sea has broken up the ranges of dunes formed in bygone
times, and divided them into separate islands, the mainland
has to be protected by massive dikes, while the Frisian Islands
are being gradually washed away by the waters. On the coast of
East Friesland there are now only seven of these islands, of
which Norderney is best known, while of the North Frisian
Tfl""U. on the western coast of Schleswig, Sylt is the most
considerable. Besides the ordinary waste of the shores, there
have been extensive inundations by the sea within the historic
period, the gulf of the Doliart having been so caused in the year
1276. Sands surround the whole coast of the North Sea to such
an extent that the entrance to the ports is not practicable
without the aid of pilots. Heligoland is a rocky island, but it
1 i.e. the territory once under the jurisdiction of an imperial Vogt
or a&ototus (tee ADVOCATE).
also has been considerably reduced by the sea. The tides rise
to the height of 12 or 13 ft. in the Jade Bay and at Bremerhaven,
and 6 or 7 ft. at Hamburg. The coast of the Baltic, on the other
hand, possesses few islands, the chief being Alsen and Fchmarn
off the coast of Schleswig-Holstein, and RUgen off Pomcrania.
It has no extensive sands, though on the whole very flat. The
Baltic has no perceptible tides; and a great part of its coast-line
is in winter covered with ice, which also so blocks up the harbours
that navigation is interrupted for several months every year.
Its hajfs fronting the mouths of the large rivers must be regarded
as lagoons or extensions of the river beds, not as bays. The
Pommersche or Oder Haff is separated from the sea by two
islands, so that the river flows out by three mouths, the middle
one (Swine) being the most considerable. The Frische Haff
is formed by the Nogat, a branch of the Vistula, and by the
Pregel, and communicates with the sea by means of the Pillauer
Tief. The Kurische Haff receives the Mcmel, called Nicmenin
Russia, and has its outlet in the extreme north at Mcmel. Long
narrow alluvial strips called Nehrungen, lie between the last
two hafts and the Baltic. The Baltic coast is further marked
by large indentations, the Gulf of LUbeck, that of Pomcrania,
east of RUgen, and the semicircular Bay of Danzig between
the promontories of Rixhoft and BrUstcrort. The German
coasts are well provided with lighthouses.
Surface. In respect of physical structure Germany is divided into
two entirely distinct portions, which bear to one another a ratio
of about 3 to 4. The northern and larger part may be described as
a uniform plain. South and central Germany, on the other hand,
is very much diversified in scenery. It possesses large plateaus,
such as that of Bavaria, which stretches away from the foot of the
Alps, fertile low plains like that intersected by the Rhine, mountain
chains and isolated groups of mountains, comparatively low in
height, and so situated as not seriously to interfere with communi-
cation either by road or by railway.
Bavaria is the only division of tne country that includes within it
any part of the Alps, the Austro- Bavarian frontier running along the
ridge of the Northern Tirolese or Bavarian Alps. The MouatMlam
loftiest peak of this group, the Zugspitze (57 m. S. of ad '
Munich), is 9738 ft. in height, being the highest summit _ to<MUJ
in the empire. The upper German plain sloping north-
wards from the Bavarian Alps is watered by the Lech, the Isar and
the Inn, tributaries of the Danube, all three rising beyond the
limits of German territory. This plain is separated on the west
from the Swiss plain by the Lake of Constance (Bodcnscc, 1306 ft.
above sea-level), and on the east from the undulating grounds of
Austria by the Inn. The average height of the plain may be esti-
mated at about 1800 ft., the valley of the Danube on its north
border being from 1540 ft. (at Ulm) to 920 ft. (at Passau). The
plain is not very fertile. In the upper part of the plain, towards the
Alps, there are several lakes, the largest being the Ammersec, the
Wurmsee or Starnberger See and the Chiemsee. Many portions of
the plain are covered by moors and swamps of large extent, called
Moose. The left or northern bank of the Danube from Regensburg
downwards presents a series of granitic rocks called the Bavarian
Forest (Bayrischer Wald), which must be regarded as a branch of the
Bohemian Forest (Bdhmcr Wald). The latter is a range of wooded
heights on the frontier of Bavaria and Bohemia, occupying the least
known and least frequented regions of Germany. The summits of
the Bayrischer Wald rise to the height of about 4000 ft., and those
of the Bohmer Wald to 4800 ft., Arber being 4872 ft. The valley of
the Danube above Regensburg is flanked by plateaus sloping gently
to the Danube, but precipitous towards the valley of the Neckar.
The centre of this elevated tract is the Rauhe Alb, so named on
account of the harshness of the climate. The plateau continuing
to the north-east and then to the north, under the name of th
Franconian Jura, is crossed by the valley of the winding AltmUhl,
and extends to the Main. To the west extensive undulating grounds
or low plateaus occupy the area between the Main and the Neckar.
The south-western corner of the empire contains a series of better
defined hill-ranges. Beginning with the Black Forest (Schwarzwald),
we find its southern heights decline to the valley of the Rhine,
above Basel, and to the Jura. The summits are rounded and covered
with wood, the highest being the Feldbcrg (10 m. S.E. of Freiburg,
4898 ft.). Northwards the Black Forest passes into the plateau of
the Neckarbergland (average height, looo ft.). The heights between
the lower Neckar and the Main form the Odcnwald (about 1700 ft.) ;
and the Spewart, which is watered by the Main on three sides, is
nothing but a continuation of the Odenwald. West of this range of
hills lies the valley of the upper Rhine, extending about 180 m.
from south to north, and with a width of only 20 to 25 m. In the
upper parts the Rhine is rapid, and therefore navigable with diffi-
culty: this explains why the towns there are not along the banks of
the river, but some 5 to 10 m. off. But from Spires (Speyer) town
8o6
GERMANY
succeeds town as far down as Diisseldorf. The western boundary
of this valley is formed in the first instance by the Vosges, where
granite summits rise from under the surrounding red Triassic rocks
(Sulzer Belchen, 4669 ft.). To the south the range is not con-
tinuous with the Swiss Jura, the valley of the Rhine being connected
here with the Rhone system by low ground known as the Gate of
Mulhausen. The crest of the Vosges is pretty high and unbroken,
the first convenient pass being near Zabern, which is followed by the
railway from Strassburg to Paris. On the northern side the Vosges
are connected with the Hardt sandstone plateau (Kalmit, 2241 ft.),
which rises abruptly from the plain of the Rhine. The mountains
south of Mainz, which are mostly covered by vineyards, are lower,
the Donnersberg, however, raising its head to 2254 ft. These hills
are bordered on the west by the high plain of Lorraine and the coal-
fields of Saarbrucken, the former being traversed by the river Mosel.
The larger part of Lorraine belongs to France, but the German part
possesses great mineral wealth in its rich layers of ironstone (siderite)
and in the coal-fields of the Saar. The tract of the Hunsriick,
Taunus and Eifel is an extended plateau, divided into separate
sections by the river valleys. Among these the Rhine valley from
Bjngen to Bonn, and that of the Mosel from Trier to Coblenz, are
winding gorges excavated by the rivers. The Eifel presents a sterile,
thinly-peopled plateau, covered by extensive moors in several places.
It passes westwards imperceptibly into the Ardennes. The hills
on the right bank of the Rhine also are in part of a like barren
character, without wood; the Westerwald (about 2000 ft.), which
separates the valleys of the Sieg and Lahn, is particularly so. The
northern and southern limits of the Niederrheimsche Gebirge present
a striking contrast to the central region. In the south the declivities
of the Taunus (2890 ft.) are marked by the occurrence of mineral
springs, as at Ems on the Lahn, Nauheim, Homburg, Soden, Wies-
baden, &c., and by the vineyards which produce the best Rhine wines.
To the north of this system, on the other hand, lies the great coal
basin of Westphalia, the largest in Germany. In the south of the
hilly duchy of Hesse rise the isolated mountain groups of the Vogels-
berg (2530 ft.) and the Rhon (3117 ft.), separated by the valley of the
Fulda, which uniting farther north with the Werra forms the Weser.
To the east of Hesse lies Thuringia, a province consisting of the
far-stretching wooded ridge of the Thuringian Forest (Thuringer-
wald; with three peaks upwards of 3000 ft. high), and an extensive
elevated plain to the north. Its rivers are the Saale and Unstrut.
The plateau is bounded on the north by the Harz, an isolated
group of mountains, rich in minerals, with its highest elevation in
the bare summit of the Brocken (3747 ft.). To the west of the Harz
a series of hilly tracts is comprised under the name of the Weser
Mountains, out of which above Minden the river Weser bursts by
the Porta Westphalica. A narrow ridge, the Teutoburger Wald
(1300 ft.), extends between the Weser and the Ems as far as the
neighbourhood of Osnabruck.
To the east the Thuringian Forest is connected by the plateau of
the Frankenwald with the Fichtelgebirge. This group of mountains,
occupying what may be regarded as ethnologically the centre of
Germany, forms a hydrographical centre, whence the Naab flows
southward to the Danube, the Main westward to the Rhine, the Eger
eastward to the Eibe, and the Saale northward, also into the Elbe.
In the north-east the Fichtelgebirge connects itself directly with
the Erzgebirge, which forms the northern boundary of Bohemia.
The southern sides of this range are comparatively steep; on the
north it slopes gently down to the plains of Leipzig, but is intersected
by the deep valleys of the Elster and Mulde. Although by no
means fertile, the Erzgebirge is very thickly peopled, as various
branches of industry have taken root there in numerous small places.
Around Zwickau there are productive coal-fields, and mining for
metals is carried on near Freiberg. In the east a tableland of
sandstone, called Saxon Switzerland, from the picturesque outlines
into which it has been eroded, adjoins the Erzgebirge; one of its
most notable features is the deep ravine by which the Elbe escapes
from it. Numerous quarries, which supply the North German cities
with stone for buildings and monuments, have been opened along
the valley. The standstone range of the Elbe unites in the east
with the low Lusatian group, along the east of which runs the best
road from northern Germany to Bohemia. Then comes a range of
lesser hills clustering together to form the frontier between Silesia
and Bohemia. The most western group is the Isergebirge, and the
next the Riesengebirge, a narrow ridge of about 20 miles' length,
with bare summits. Excluding the Alps, the Schneekoppe (5266
ft.) is the highest peak in Germany; and the southern declivities
of this range contain the sources of the Elbe. The hills north and
north-east of it are termed the Silesian Mountains. Here one of the
minor coal-fields gives employment to a population grouped round a
number of comparatively small centres. One of the main roads
into Bohemia (the pass of Landshut) runs along the eastern base
of the Riesengebirge. Still farther to the east the mountains are
grouped around the hollow of Glatz, whence the Neisse forces its
way towards the north. This hollow is shut in on the east by the
Sudetic group, in which the Altvater rises to almost 4900 ft. The
eastern portion of the group, called the Gesenke, slopes gently away
to the valley of the Oder, which affords an open route for the inter-
national traffic, like that through the Mulhausen Gate in Alsace.
Geographers style this the Moravian Gate.
The North German plain presents little variety, yet is not abso-
lutely uniform. A row of low hills runs generally parallel to the
mountain ranges already noticed, at a distance of 20 to 30 m. to the
north. To these belongs the upper Silesian coal-basin, which
occupies a considerable area in south-eastern Silesia. North of the
middle districts of the Elbe country the heights are called the
Flaming hills. Westward lies as the last link of this series the
Luneburger Heide or Heath, between the Weser and Elbe, north of
Hanover. A second tract, of moderate elevation, sweeps round the
Baltic, without, however, approaching its shores. This plateau
contains a considerable number of lakes, and is divided into three
portions by the Vistula and the Oder. The most eastward is the
so-called Prussian Seenplatte. Spirdingsee (430 ft. above sea-
level and 46 sq. m. in area) and Mauersee are the largest lakes; they
are situated in the centre of the plateau, and give rise to the Pregel.
Some peaks near the Russian frontier attain to 1000 ft. The
Pomeranian Seenplatte, between the Vistula and the Oder, extends
from S.W. to N.E., its greatest elevation being in the neighbourhood
of Danzig (Turmberg, 1086 ft.). The Seenplatte of Mecklenburg,
on the other hand, stretches from S.E. to N.W., and most of its
lakes, of which the Miiritz is the largest, send their waters towards
the Elbe. The finely wooded heights which surround the bays of
the east coast of Hofstein and Schleswig may be regarded as a con-
tinuation of these Baltic elevations. The lowest parts, therefore,
of the North German plain, excluding the sea-coasts, are the central
districts from about 52 to 53 N. lat., where the Vistula, Netze,
Warthe, Oder, Spree and Havel form vast swampy lowlands (in
German called Briiche), which have been considerably reduced by
the construction of canals and by cultivation, improvements due in
large measure to Frederick the Great. The Spreewald, to the S.E.
of Berlin, is one of the most remarkable districts of Germany. As
the Spree divides itself there into innumerable branches, enclosing
thickly wooded islands, boats form the only means of communication.
West of Berlin the Havel widens into what are called the Havel lakes,
to which the environs of Potsdam owe their charms. In general
the soil of the North German plain cannot be termed fertile, the
cultivation nearly everywhere requiring severe and constant labour.
Long stretches of ground are covered by moors, and there turf-
cutting forms the principal occupation of the inhabitants. The
greatest extent of moorland is found in the westernmost parts of the
plain, in Oldenburg and East Frisia. The plain contains, however,
a few districts of the utmost fertility, particularly the tracts on the
central Elbe, and the marsh lands on the west coast of Holstein and
the north coast of Hanover, Oldenburg and East Frisia, which,
within the last two centuries, the inhabitants have reclaimed from
the sea by means of immense dikes.
Rivers. Nine independent river-systems may be distinguished:
those of the Memel, Pregel, Vistula (Weichsel), Oder, Elbe, Weser,
Ems, Rhine and Danube. Of these the Pregel, Weser and Ems
belong entirely, and the Oder mostly, to the German empire. The
Danube has its sources on German soil ; but only a fifth part of its
course is German. Its total length is 1750 m., and the Bavarian
frontier at Passau, where the Inn joins it, is only 350 m. distant
from its sources. It is navigable as far as Ulm, 220 m. above
Passau; and its tributaries the Lech, Isar, Inn and Altmuhl are also
navigable. The Rhine is the most important river of Germany,
although neither its sources nor its mouths are within the limits
of the empire. From the Lake of Constance to Basel (122 m.) the
Rhine forms the boundary between the German empire and Switzer-
land; the canton of Schaffhausen, however, is situated on the
northern bank of the river. From Basel to below Emmerich the
Rhine belongs to the German empire about 470 m. or four-sevenths
of its whole course. It is navigable all this distance as are also the
Neckar from Esslingen, the Main from Bamberg^ the Lahn, the Lippe,
the Ruhr, the Mosel from Metz, with its affluents the Saar and
Sauer. Sea-going vessels sail up the Ems as far as Halte, and river
craft as far as Greven, and the river is connected with a widely
branching system of canals, as the Ems- Jade and Dortmund-Ems
canals. The Fulda, navigable for 63 m., and the Werra, 38 m.,
above the point where they unite, form by their junction the Weser,
which has a course of 27 1 m., and receives as navigable tributaries the
Aller, the Leine from Hanover, and some smaller streams. Ocean-
going steamers, however, cannot get as far as Bremen, and unload at
Bremerhaven. The Elbe, after a course of 250 m., enters German
territory near Bodenbach, 490 m. from its mouth. It is navigable
above this point through its tributary, the Moldau, to Prague.
Hamburg may be reached by vessels of 17 ft. draught. The navi-
gable tributaries of the Elbe are the Saale (below Naumburg), the
Havel, Spree, Elde, Sude and some others. The Oder begins to be
navigable almost on the frontier at Ratibor, 480 m. from its mouth,
receiving as navigable tributaries the Glatz Neisse and the Warthe.
Only the lower course of the Vistula belongs to the German empire,
within which it is a broad, navigable stream of considerable volume.
On the Pregel ships of 3000 tons reach Konigsberg, and river barges
reach Insterburg; the Alle, its tributary, may also be navigated.
The Memel is navigable in its course of 113 m. from the Russian
frontier. Germany is thus a country abounding in natural water-
ways, the total length of them being estimated at 7000 m. But it is
only the Rhine, in its middle course, that has at all times sufficient
volume of water to meet the requirements of a good navigable river.
GEOLOGY]
GERMANY
807
LaJus. The regions which abound in lakes have already Uvn
pointed out . The Lake of Constance or Bodensee (204} sq. m.) is on
the frontier of the empire, portions of the northern banks belonging
severally to Bavaria. \Vurttemberg and Baden. In the south the
largest lakes are the Chieinsee (33 sq. m.); the Ammersee and the
WQrmsee. A good many mailer lakes arc to be found in t In-
Bavarian Alp*. The North German plain is dotted with upwards
of 500 lakes, covering an are* of about 25 M l- m - The largest of
these are the three Raffs the Oder Haft covering 370 sq. m., the
Frische Haff, 332, and the Ku ruche Haff, 626. The lakes in the
Prussian and Pomeranian provinces, in Mecklenburg and in Holstein,
and those of the Havel, have already been mentioned. In the west
the only lake* of importance are the Steinhuder Meer, 14 m. north-
west of Hanover, and the Duramereee on the southern frontier of
Oldenburg. (P. A. A.)
Gttlity. Germany consists of a floor of folded Palaeozoic rocks
upon which rest unconformably the comparatively little disturbed
beds of the Mesotoic system, while in the North German plain a
covering of modern deposits conceals the whole of the older strata
from view, excepting some scattered and isolated outcrops of
Cretaceous and Tertiary beds. The rocks which compose the ancient
floor are thrown into folds which run approximately from W.S.W.
to E.N.E. They are exposed on the one hand in the neighbourhood
of the Rhine and on the other hand in the Bohemian massif. With
the latter must be included the Frankenwald, the ThQringcrwald,
and even the Han. The oldest rocks, belonging to the Archaean
system, occur in the south, forming the Vosges and the Black Forest
in the west, and the greater pan of the Bohemian massif, including
the Engebirge, in the east. They consist chiefly of gneiss and schist,
with granite and other eruptive rocks. Farther north, in the
Hunsruck, the Taunus, the Eifel and Westerwald, the Harz and the
Frankenwald, the ancient floor is composed mainly of Devonian
beds. Other Palaeozoic systems are, however, included in the folds.
The Cambrian, for example, is exposed at Leimitz near Hof in the
Frankenwald, and the important coal-field of the Saar lies on the
southern side of the Hunsrilck. while Ordovician and Silurian beds
have been found in several localities. Along the northern border
of the folded belt lies the coal basin of the Ruhr in Westphalia,
which is the continuation of the Belgian coal-field, and bears much
the same relation to the Rhenish Devonian area that the coal basin
of Liege bears to the Ardennes. Carboniferous and Devonian beds
are also found south-east of the Bohemian massif, where lies the
extensive coal-field of Silesia. The Permian, as in England, is not
involved in the folds which have affected the older beds, and in
general lies unconformably upon them. It occurs chiefly around the
of ancient rock, and one of the largest areas is that of the
Scar.
Between the old rocks of the Rhine on the west and the ancient
massif of Bohemia on the east a vast area of Triassic beds extends
from Hanover to Basel and from Metz to Bayreuth. Over the
greater pan of this region the Triassic beds are free from folding
and are nearly horizontal, but faulting is by no means absent,
especially along the margins of the Bohemian and Rhenish hills.
The Triasric beds must indeed have covered a large pan of these old
rock mB*****, but they have been preserved only where they were
faulted down to a lower level. Along the southern margin of the
Triassic area there is a long band of Jurassic beds dipping towards
the Danube; and at its eastern extremity this band is continuous
with a synclinal of Jurassic beds, running parallel to the western
border ot the Bohemian massif, but separated from it by a narrow
strip of Triassic beds. Towards the north, in Hanover and West-
phalia, the Triassic beds are followed by Jurassic and Cretaceous
deposits, the latter being here the more important. As in the south of
England, the lower beds of the Cretaceous are of cstuarine origin and
the Upper Cretaceous overlaps the Lower, lying in the valley of the
Ruhr directly upon the Palaeozoic rocks. In Saxony also the upper
Cretaceous beds rest directly upon the Palaeozoic or Archaean rocks.
Still more to the east, in the province of Silesia, both Jurassic and
Cretaceous beds are again met with, but they are to a large extent
concealed by the recent accumulations of the great plain. The
Eocene system is unknown in Germany except in the foothills of the
Alps; but the OHgocene and Miocene are widely spread, especially
in the great plain and in the depression of the Danube. The Oli-
gocene is generally marine. Marine Miocene occurs in N.W. Germany
and the Miocene of the Danube valley is also in pan marine, but in
central Germany it is of fluviatile or lacustrine origin. The lignites
of Hesse, Cassel, Ac., are interstratified with basaltic lava-flows
which form the greater pan of the VogeUbcrg and other hills. The
trachytes of the Siebengebtrge are probably of slightly earlier date.
The precise age of the volcanoes of the Eifel, many of which are in a
very perfect state of preservation, is not clear, but they are certainly
Tertiary or Post-tertiary. Leucite and nepheline lavas are here
abundant. In the Siebengebirge the little crater of Roderberg,
with its lavas and scoriae of leucite-basalt, is posterior to some of
the Pleistocene river deposits.
A glance at a geological map of Germany will show that the greater
pan of Prussia and of German Poland is covered by Quaternary
deposits. These are in part of glacial origin, and contain Scandi-
navian boulders; but fluviatile and aeolian deposits also occur.
Quaternary beds also cover the floor of the broad depression through
which the Rhine meanders from Basel to Mainz, and occupy a large
pan of the plain of the Danube. The depression of the Rhine is a
trough lying between two faults or system of faults. The very
mill li broader depression of the Danube is associated with the
formation of the Alps, and was flooded by the sea during a pan of
the Miocene period. (P. LA.)
Climate. The climate of Germany is to be regarded as intermediate
between the oceanic and nmiiiieiit.il climates of western and eastern
Europe respectively. It has nothing in common with the Mediter-
ranean climate of southern Europe, Germany being separated from
that region by the lofty barrier ofthe Alps. Although there are very
considerable differences in the range of temperature and the amount
of rainfall throughout Germany, these are not so great as they would
be were it not that the elevated plateaus and mountain chains are
in the south, while the north is occupied by low-lying plains. In the
west no chain of hills intercepts the warmer and moister winds
which blow from the Atlantic, and these accordingly influence at
times even the eastern regions of Germany. The mean annual
temperature of south-western Germany, or the Rhine and Danube
basins, is about 52" to 54* F., that of central Germany 48 to 50,
and that of the northern plain 46 to 48. In Pomerania and West
Prussia it is only 44 to 45, and in East Prussia 42 to 44. The
Trlail/l
Permian
Carboni/tnm
mania*
Stluro-Cambnan
Anfiafttn A Jfet
Plutonic Rocks
Volcanic Roclti
mean January temperature varies between 22" and 34 (in Masuren
and Cologne respectively) ; the mean July temperature, between 61
in north Schleswig and 68 at Cologne. The extremes of cold and
heat are, as recorded in the ten years 1895-1905, 7 in Konigsberg
and 93 in Heidelberg (the hottest place in Germany). The difference
in the mean annual temperature between the south-west and north-
west of Germany amounts to about 3. The contrasts of heat and
cold are furnished by the valley of the Rhine above Mainz, which
has the greatest mean heat, the mildest winter and the highest
summer temperature, and the lake plateau of East Prussia, where
Arys on the Spirdingsee has a like winter temperature to the Bracken
at 3200 ft. The Baltic has the lowest spring temperature, and the
autumn there is also not characterized by an appreciably higher
degree of warmth. In central Germany the high plateaus of the
Erz and Fichtelgebirgc are the coldest regions. In south Germany
the upper Bavarian plain experiences an inclement winter and a cold
summer. In Alsace-Lorraine the Vosges and the plateau of Lorraine
are also remarkable for low temperatures. The warmest districts of
the German empire are the northern parts of the Rhine plain, from
Karlsruhe downwards, especially the Rheintal; these are scarcely
300 ft. above the sea-level, and arc protected by mountainous tracts
of land. The same holds true of the valleys of the Neckar, Main and
Mosel. Hence the vine is everywhere cultivated in these districts.
The mean summer temperature there is 66 and upwards, while the
average temperature of January does not descend to the freezing
point (32). The climate of north-western Germany (west of the
Elbe) snows a predominating oceanic character, the summers not
being too hot (mean summer temperature 60 to 62), and snow in
winter remaining but a short time on the ground. West of the
Wescr the average temperature of January exceeds 32"; to the east
it sinks to 30, and therefore the Elbe is generally covered with ice
for some months of the year, as are also ito tributaries. The farther
8o8
GERMANY
[POPULATION
one proceeds to the east the greater are the contrasts of summer and
winter. While the average summer warmth of Germany is 60 to
62, the January temperature falls as low as 26 to 28 in West
Prussia, Posen and Silesia, and 22 to 26 in East Prussia and upper
Silesia. The navigation of the rivers is regularly interrupted by
frost. Similarly the upper basin of the Danube, or the Bavarian
plain, has a rather inclement climate in winter, the average for
January being 25 to 26.
As regards rainfall, Germany belongs to those regions where
precipitation takes place at all seasons, but chiefly in the form of
summer rains. In respect to the quantity of rain the empire takes
a middle position between the humidity of north-western Europe
and the aridity of the east. There are considerable differences
between particular places. The rainfall is greatest in the Bavarian
tableland and the hilly regions of western Germany. For the Eifel,
Sauerland, Harz, Thuringian Forest, Rhon, Vogelsberg, Spessart,
the Black Forest, the Vosges, &c., the annual average may be stated
at 34 in. or more, while in the lower terraces of south-western
Germany, as in the Erzgebirge and the Sudetic range, it is estimated
at 30 to 32 in. only. The same average obtains also on the humid
north-west coast of Germany as far as Bremen and Hamburg. In
the remaining parts of western Germany, on the shores of farther
Pomerania, and in East Prussia, it amounts to upwards of 24 in.
In western Germany there is a district famous for the scarcity of
rain and for producing the best kind of wine: in the valley of the
Rhine below Strassburg, in the Palatinate, and also in the valley
of the Main, no more than from 16 to 20 in. fall. Mecklenburg,
Brandenburg and Lusatia, Saxony and the plateau of Thuringia,
West Prussia, Posen and lower Silesia are also to be classed among
the more arid regions of Germany, the annual rainfall being 16 to
20 in. Thunderstorms are most frequent in July, and vary between
fifteen and twenty-five in the central districts, descending in the
eastern provinces of Prussia to ten annually.
Flora. The flora of Germany comprises 3413 species of phanero-
gamic and 4306 cryptogamic plants. The country forms a section
of the central European zone, and its flora is largely under the
influence of the Baltic and Alpine elements, which to a great degree
here coalesce. All plants peculiar to the temperate zone abound.
Wheat, rye, barley and oats are cultivated everywhere, but spelt
only in the south and buckwheat in the north and north-west.
Maize only ripens in the south. Potatoes grow in every part of the
country, those of the sandy plains in the north being of excellent
quality. All the commoner sorts of fruit apples, pears, cherries,
&c. grow everywhere, but the more delicate kinds, such as figs,
apricots and peaches, are confined to the warmer districts. The vine
flourishes as far as the 51 N., but only yields good wine in the
districts of the Jthine and Danube. Flax is grown in the north,
and hemp more particularly in the central districts. Rape can be
produced everywhere when the soil permits. Tobacco is cultivated
on the upper Rhine and. in the
valley of the Oder. The
northern plain, especially in
the province of Saxony, pro-
duces beet (for sugar), and hops
are largely grown in Bavaria,
Wurttemberg, Alsace, Baden
and the Prussian province of
Posen.
Speaking generally, northern
Germany is not nearly so well
wooded as central
*** and southern Ger-
many, where indeed most of the
lower mountains are covered
with timber, as is indicated by
the frequent use of the termina-
tion wold affixed to the names
of the mountain ranges (as
Schwarzwald, Thuringerwald,
&c.). The " Seenplatten " are
less wooded than the hill
country, but the eastern por-
tion of the northern lowlands
is well provided with timber.
A narrow strip along the shores
of the Baltic is covered with
oaks and beeches; farther in-
land, and especially east of the
Elbe, coniferous trees are the
most prevalent, praticularly
the Scotch fir; birches are also
abundant. The mountain
forests consist chiefly of firs,
pines and larches, but contain
also silver firs, beeches and
oaks. Chestnuts and walnuts
appear on the terraces of the
Rhine valley and in Swabia
and Franconia. The _ whole
north-west of Germany is desti-
tute of wood, but to compensate for this the people have ample
supplies of fuel in the extensive stretches of turf.
Fauna. The number of wild animals in Germany is not very great.
Foxes, martens, weasels, badgers and otters are to be found every-
where; bears are found in the Alps, wolves are rare, but they find
their way sometimes from French territory to the western provinces,
or from Poland to Prussia and Posen. Among the rodents the
hamster and the field-mouse are a scourge to agriculture. Of game
there are the roe, stag, boar and hare; the fallow deer and the
wild rabbit are less common. The elk is to be found in the forests
of East Prussia. The feathered tribes are everywhere abundant in
the fields, woods and marshes. Wild geese and ducks, grouse,
partridges, snipe, woodcock, quails, widgeons and teal are plentiful
all over the country, and in recent years preserves have been largely
stocked with pheasants. The length of time that birds of passage
remain in Germany differs considerably with the different species.
The stork is seen for about 170 days, the house-swallow 1 60, the
snow-goose 260, the snipe 220. In northern Germany these birds
arrive from twenty to thirty days later than in the south.
The waters of Germany abound with fish; but the genera and
species are few. The carp and salmon tribes are the most abundant ;
after them rank the pike, the eel, the shad, the roach, the perch
and the lamprey. The Oder and some of the tributaries of the Elbe
abound in crayfish, and in the stagnant lakes of East Prussia leeches
are bred. In addition to frogs, Germany has few varieties of
Amphibia. Of serpents there are only two poisonous kinds, the
common viper and the adder (Kreuzotter).
Population. Until comparatively recent times no estimate
of the population of Germany was precise enough to be of any
value. At the beginning of the ipth century the country was
divided into some hundred states, but there was no central
agency for instituting an exact census on a uniform plan. The
formation of the German Confederation in 1815 effected but
little change in this respect, and it was left to the different states
to arrange in what manner the census should be taken. On the
foundation, however, of the German customs union, or Zollverein,
between certain German states, the necessity for accurate
statistics became apparent and care was taken to compile
trustworthy tables. Researches show the population of the
German empire, as at present constituted, to have been:
(1816) 24,833,396; (1853) 36,113,644; and (1871) 41,058,792.
The following table shows the population and area of each
of the states included in the empire for the years 1871, 1875,
1 900 and 1905:
Area and Population of the German States.
States of the Empire.
Area
English
Sq. m.
Population.
Density
per
Sq. m.
1871.
1875-
1900.
1905-
Kingdoms
134,616
29,292
5-789
7,534
5,823
2,966
5,o68
i,397
1,131
2,482
1,418
953
5"
764
888
333
363
. 433
122
319
131
469
"5
99
160
5,604
24,691,433
4,863,450
2,556,244
1,818,539
1,461,562
852,894
557,897
286,183
96,982
314-459
3",764
187,957
142,122
174,339
203,437
75,523
67,191
56,224
45,094
89,032
32,059
"1,135
52,158
122,402
338,974
1,549.738
25,742,404
5,022,390
2,760,586
1,881,505
1,507,179
884,218
553,785
292,933
95,673
319,314
327,493
'94,494
145,844
182,599
213,565
76,676
67,480
54-743
46,985
92,375
33.133
"2,452
56,912
142,200
388,618
1,531,804
34,472,509
6,176,057
4,202,216
2,169,480
1,867,944
1,119,893
607,770
362,873
102,602
399,180
464,333
250,731
194,914
229,550
316,085
80,898
93,059
57,9i8
68,396
139,210
43,132
138,952
96,775
224,882
768,349
1,719,470
37,293.324
6,524,372
4,508,601
2,302,179
2,010,728
1,209,175
625,045
388,095
103,451
438,856
485,958
268,916
206,508
242,432
328,029
85,152
96,835
59.127
70,603
144,584
44,992
145,577
105,857
263,440
874,878
1,814,564
277-3
222-7
778-8
305-5
345-3
407-6
123-3
277-8
91-5
176-8
342-5
282-2
404-1
37-3
369-4
255-7
266-7
136-5
578-7
453-2
343-4
310-4
920-5
2661-0
5467-9
323-8
Bavaria
Saxony
Wurttemberg
Grand-Duchies
Baden
Mecklenburg-Schwerin .
Saxe-Weimar
Mecklenburg-Strelitz
Oldenburg . ....
Duchies
Brunswick
Saxe-Meiningen . . .
Saxe-Altenburg ....
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha .
Anhalt .
Principalities
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. .
Waldeck
Reuss-Greiz
Reuss-Schleiz ._ . . ' .
Schaumburg-Lippe .
Lippe
Free Towns
Lfibeck
Imperial Territory
Alsace-Lorraine ....
German Empire .
208,780
41,058,792
42,727,360
56,367,178
60,641,278
290-4
GERMAN EMPIRE
Scale, 1:3,700,000
English Miles
,<^^Ose:^S6
Capitals of States
Capitals of Provinces in Prussia - . a $ ^
Railways Fortifications * | ;
Canals -*-- Marshes
G' =
Pr =Preu$sisch, Prussian.
C Longitude East 1 2 of Greenwic
by I. IMM Tn*ul
V ** | to 0*.il. t )
Part of Westphalia and
the Rhine Province.
Middle Rhine Valley
(Coblenz -Spires.)
III.Thuringian States, &c
Scale, 1:1,500,000
English Milei
POPULATION}
GERMANY
809
The population of the empire has thus increased, since 1871, by
19.583,486 or 47-6%. The increase of population during 1895-
1900 was greatest in Hamburg. Bremen. Lubeclc. Saxony, Prussia
and Baden, and least in Mecktenburg-Strelitx and Waldeck. Of the
total population in 1900, 54-3 was urban (i.e. living in towns of
MOO inhabitants and above), leaving 45-7 % to be classified as rural.
On the ist of December 1905, of the total population 29,884,681
were males and 30.756,507 females; and it is noticeable that the
male population shows of late years a larger relative increase than
the female, the male population having in five years increased by
.U7.434 and the female by only 2,126,666. The greater increase
in the male population is attributable to diminished emigration
and to the large increase in immigrants, who are mostly males.
In 1905, 485.906 marriages were contracted in Germany, being at the
rate of 8-0 per thousand inhabitants. In the same year the total
number of births was 3,048,453. Of these, 61,300 were stillborn
and 174.494 illegitimate, being at the rate, respectively, of 3%
and 8-5 ". of the total. Illegitimacy is highest in Bavaria (about
15*.). Berlin (14%), and over 1J<> in Saxony, Mecklenburg-
Schwerin and Smxe-Meiningen. It is lowest in the Rhine Province
and Westphalia (3-9 and 2-6 respectively). Divorce is steadily on
the increase, being in 1904. n-i per 10,000 marriages, as against
8-1, 8-1, 9-3 and IO-I for the four preceding years. The average
deaths for the yean 1901-1905 amounted to 1,227,903; the rate was
thus 20-2 per thousand inhabitants, but the death-rate has materially
decreased, the total number of deaths in 1907 standing at 1,178,349;
the births for the same year were 2,060,974. In connexion with
suicides, it is interesting to observe that the highest rates prevail
in some of the smaller and more prosperous states of the empire
for example, in Saxe-Weimar. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha and Saxe-
Altenburg (on a three years' average of figures), while the Roman
Catholic country Bavaria, and the impoverished Prussian province
of Posen show the most favourable statistics. For Prussia the rate
is 20. and for Saxony it is as high as 31 per 100,000 inhabitants.
The large cities, notably Berlin, Hamburg, Breslau and Dresden,
show, however, relatively the largest proportion.
In 1900 the German-speaking population of the empire amounted
to 51,883,131. Of the inhabitants speaking other languages there
were: Polish, 3,086,480; French (mostly in Lorraine), 211,679;
Masurian, 142,049; Danish, 141,061; Lithuanian, 106,305;
Cassubian. 100,213; Wendish, 03,032 ; Dutch, 80,361; Italian,
65.961; Moravian, 64,382; Czech, 43,016; Frisian, 20,677;
English. 20.217; Walloon, 11,841. In 1905 there were resident
within the empire 1,028,560 subjects of foreign states, as compared
with 778.698 in 1900. Of these 17,293 were subjects of Great Britain
and Ireland. 17.184 of the United States of America and 20,584 of
France. The bulk of the other foreigners residing in the country
belonged to countries lying contiguous, such as Austria, which
claimed nearly the half. Russia and Italy.
Languages. The German-speaking nations in their various
branches and dialects, if we include the Dutch and the Walloons,
extend in a compact man along the shores of the Baltic and of ( In-
North Sea, from Memel in the east to a point between Gravelines
and Calais near the Straits of Dover. On this northern line the
Germans come in contact with the Danes who inhabit the northern
parts of Schleswig within the limits of the German empire. A line
from Flensburg south-westward to Joldelund and thence north-
westward to Hoyer will nearly give the boundary between the two
idioms. 1 The German-French frontier traverses Belgium from west
to east, touching the towns of St Omer, Courtrai and Maastricht.
Near Eupen, south of Aix-la-Chapelle, it turns southward, and near
Arion south-east as far as the crest of the Vosges mountains, which
it follows up to Belfort, traversing there the watershed of the Rhine
and the Doubs. _ In the Swiss territory the line of demarcation
passes through Bienne, Fribourg, Saanen, Leuk and Monte Rosa.
In the south the Germans come into contact with Rhacto-Romans
and Italians, the former inhabiting the valley of the Vorder-Rhein
and the Engadine, while the latter have settled on the southern slopes
of the Alps, and are continually advancing up the valley of the
Adige. Carinthia and Styria are inhabited by German people, except
the valley of the Drave towards Klagcnfurt. Their eastern neigh-
bours there are first the Magyars, then the northern Slavs and the
Poles. The whole eastern frontier is very much broken, and cannot
be described in a few words. Besides detached German colonies in
Hungary proper, there is a considerable and compact German (Saxon)
population in Transylvania. The liver March is the frontier north
of the Danube from Pressburg as far as Brtinn, to the north of which
the German regions begin near Olmutz, the interior of Bohemia and
Moravia being occupied by Czechsand Moravians. Inthcsecountrics
the Slav language has been steadily superseding the German. In
the Prussian provinces of Silesia and Posen the eastern parts are
mixed territories, the German language progressing very slowly
among the Poles. In Brombers and Thorn, in the valley of the
Vistula. German is prevalent. ID West Prussia some parts of the
interior, and in East Prussia a small region along the Russian frontier,
are occupied by Poles (Cassubians in West Prussia, Masurians in
1 The question, much disputed between Germans and Danes, is
exhaustively treated by P. Lauridsen in F. de Jessen's La Question
4t Slervig (Copenhagen, 1906), pp. 1 14 et seq.
East Prussia). The total number of German-speaking people,
within the boundaries wherein they constitute the compact mass
of the population, may be estimated, if the Dutch and Walloons be
included, at 65 millions.
The geographical limits of the German language thus do not Quite
coincide with the German frontiers. The empire contains about
3! millions of persons who do not make use of German in everyday
life, not counting the resident foreigners.
Apart from tne foreigners above mentioned, German subjects
speaking a tongue other than German are found only in Prussia,
Saxony and Alsace-Lorraine. The following table shows roughly
the distribution of German-speaking people in the world outside
the German empire:
Other European
Countries .
America .
Asia ....
Africa
Australia.
Austria-Hungary . 12,000,000
Netherlands (Dutch) 5,200,000
Belgium (Walloon) .
Luxemburg .
Switzerland .
France
100,000
. . 600,000
. . 150,000
According to the census of the 1st of December 1900 there were
51,634,757 persons speaking commonly one language and 248,374
speaking two languages. In the kingdom of Saxony, according to
the census of 1900, there were 48,000 Wends, mostly in Lueatia.
With respect to Alsace-Lorraine, detailed estimates (but no census)
gave the number of French in the territory of Lorraine at about
170,000, and in that of Alsace at about 46,000.
The Poles have increased very much, owing to a greater surplus of
births than in the case of the German people in the eastern provinces
of Prussia, to immigration from Russia, and to the Polomzation of
many Germans through clerical and other influences (see History).
The Poles are in the majority in upper Silesia (Government district
of Oppeln, 55%) and the province of Posen (60%). They are
numerous in West Prussia (34%) and East Prussia (14%).
The Wends are decreasing in number, as are also the Lithuanians
on the eastern border of East Prussia, Czechs are only found in
Silesia on the confines of Bohemia.
Russians flocked to Germany in thousands after the Russo-Japanese
War and the insurrections in Russia, and the figures given for 1900
had been doubled in 1907. Males preponderate among the various
nationalities, with the exception of the British, the larger proportion of
whom are females either in domestic service or engaged in tuition.
Chief Towns. According to the results of the census of the 1st
of December 1905 there were within the empire 41 towns with
populations exceeding 100,000, viz. :
State.
Population.
Berlin
Prussia
2 O4O 148
Hamburg
Hamburg
* i "r i *}**
8O2 7Q1
Munich
Bavaria
**/ 7t3
538,393
Dresden
Saxony
5"6,996
Leipzig
M
502,570
Hn--l.ui
Prussia
470,75"
Cologne
M
428,503
Franlcfort-on-Main .
f(
334,95"
Nuremberg ....
DU&seldorf. ....
Bavaria
Prussia
294.344
253,099
Hanover
250,032
Stuttgart
Chemnitz
Wurttemberg
Saxony
249.443
244,405
Magdeburg ....
Charlottenburg .
Prussia
240,661
239.5 "2
Essen
M
23".396
Stettin
Kdnigsberg ....
219^62
Bremen
Bremen
2"4.953
Duisburg
Prussia
192,227
Dortmund ....
H
"75,575
Halle
M
169,899
Alton. i
n
168,301
Strassburg ....
Alsace-Lorraine
"67,342
Kiel
Prussia
163,710
Elbcrfeld
M
162,682
Mannheim ....
Baden
162,607
Danzig
Prussia
"59.685
Barmen
156,148
Rixdorf
it
"53.650
Gclscnkirchen
tt
"47.037
Aix-la-Chapelle .
it
143.906
Schontberg ....
Brunswick ....
Brunswick
140,992
"36,423
Posen
Prussia
1-17.067
Cassel
m jt ""/
120,446
Bochum
M
""8,455
Karlsruhe . . -.
Baden
111,200
Crefeld
Prussia
110,347
Plauen
Saxony
105,182
Wiesbaden ....
Prussia
"00,953
8io
GERMANY
[AGRICULTURE
Density of Population. In respect of density of population ,
Germany with (1900) 269-9 and (1905) 290-4 inhabitants to the
square mile is exceeded in Europe only by Belgium, Holland and
England. Apart from the free cities, Hamburg, Bremen and
Lubeck, the kingdom of Saxony is the most, and Mecklenburg-
Strelitz the least, closely peopled state of the empire. The most
thinly populated districts are found, not as might be expected in
the mountain regions, but in some parts of the plains. Leaving out
of account the small centres, Germany may be roughly divided into
two thinly and two densely populated parts. In the former division
has to be classed all the North German plain. There it is only in the
valleys of the larger navigable rivers and on the southern border
of the plain that the density exceeds 200 inhabitants per square mile.
In some places, indeed, it is far greater, e.g. at the mouths of the
Elbe and the Weser, in East Holstein. in the delta of the Memel and
the environs of Hamburg. This region is bordered on the south by
a densely peopled district, the northern boundary of which may be
denned by a line from Coburg via Cassel to Munster, for in this part
there are not only very fertile districts, such as the Gpldene Aue in
Thuringia, but also centres of industry. The population is thickest
in upper Silesia around Beuthen (coal-fields), around Ratibor, Neisse
and Waldenburg (coal-fields), around Zittau (kingdom of Saxony),
in the Elbe valley around Dresden, in the districts of Zwickau and
Leipzig as far as the Saale, on the northern slopes of the Harz and
around Bielefeld in Westphalia. In all these the density exceeds
400 inhabitants to the square mile, and in the case of Saxony rises
to 750. The third division of Germany comprises the basin of the
Danube and Franconia, where around Nuremberg, Bamberg and
Wurzburg the population is thickly clustered. The fourth division
embraces the valleys of the upper Rhine and Neckar and the district
of Diisseldqrf on the lower Rhine. In this last the proportion ex-
ceeds 1 200 inhabitants to the square mile.
Emigration. There have been great oscillations in the actual
emigration by sea. It first exceeded 100,000 soon after the Franco-
German War (1872, 126,000), and this occurred again in the years
1880 to 1892. Germany lost during these thirteen years more than
1,700,000 inhabitants by emigration. The total number of those
who sailed for the United States from 1820 to 1900 may be estimated
at more than 4,500,000. The number of German emigrants to
Brazil between 1870 and 1900 was about 52,000. The greater
number of the more recent emigrants was from the agricultural
provinces of northern Germany West Prussia, Posen, Pomerania,
Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein and Hanover, and sometimes the
emigration reached I % of the total population of these provinces.
In subsequent years the emigration of native Germans greatly
decreased and, in 1905, amounted only to 28,075. But to this
number must be added 284,787 foreigners who in that year were
shipped from German ports (notably Hamburg and Bremen) to
distant parts. Of the above given numbers of purely German
emigrants 26,007 sailed for the United States of America; 243 to
Canada; 333 to Brazil; 674^ to the Argentine Republic; 7 to other
parts of America ; 57 to Africa ; and 84 to Australia.
Agriculture. Despite the enormous development of industries
and commerce, agriculture and cattle-rearing still represent
in Germany a considerable portion of its economic wealth.
Almost two-thirds of the soil is occupied by arable land, pastures
and meadows, and of the whole area, in 1900, 91% was classed
as productive. Of the total area 47-67% was occupied by land
under tillage, 0-89% by gardens, 11-02% by meadow-land,
5-01 % by pastures, and 0-25 % by vineyards. The largest estates
are found in the Prussian provinces of Pomerania, Posen and
Saxony, and in East and West Prussia, while in the Prussian Rhine
province, in Baden and Wurttemberg small farms are the rule.
The same kinds of cereal crops are cultivated in all parts of the
empire, but in the south and west wheat is predominant, and in the
north and east rye, oats and barley. To these in some districts are
added spelt, buckwheat, millet, rice-wheat, lesser spelt and maize.
In general the soil is remarkably well cultivated. The three years'
rotation formerly in use, where autumn and spring-sown grain and
fallow succeeded each other, has now been abandoned, except in
some districts, where the system has been modified and improved.
In south Germany the so-called Fruchtwechsel is practised, the fields
being sown with grain crops every second year, and with pease or
beans, grasses, potatoes, turnips, &c., in the intermediate years.
In north Germany the mixed Koppelwirthschaft is the rule, by which
system, after several years of gram crops, the ground is for two or
three seasons in pasture.
Taking the average of the six years 1900-1905, the crop of wheat
amounted to 3,550,033 tons (metric), rye to 9,206,616 tons, barley
to 3,102,883 tons, and oats to 7,160,883 tons. But, in spite of this
considerable yield in cereals, Germany cannot coyer her home
consumption, and imported on the average of the six years 1900-
1905 about 4! million tons of cereals to supply the deficiency.
The potato is largely cultivated, not merely for food, but for dis-
tillation into spirits. This manufacture is prosecuted especially in
eastern Germany. The number of distilleries throughout the
German empire was, in 1905-1906, 68,405. The common beet
(Beta, vulgaris) is largely grown in some districts for the production of
sugar, which has greatly increased of recent years. There are two
centres of the beet sugar production: Magdeburg for the districts
Prussian Saxony, Hanover, Brunswick, Anhalt and Thuringia,
and Frankfort -on-Oder at the centre of the group Silesia, Branden-
burg and Pomerania. Flax and hemp are cultivated, though not so
much as formerly, for manufacture into linen and canvas, and also
rape seed for the production of oil. The home supply of the former
no longer suffices for the native demand. The cultivation of hops
is in a very thriving condition in the southern states of Germany.
The soil occupied by hops was estimated in 1905 at 98,000 acres
a larger area than in Great Britain, which had in the same year about
48,000 acres. The total production of hops was 29,000 tons in 1905,
and of this over 25,000 were grown in Bavaria, Wurttemberg, Baden
and Alsace-Lorraine. Almost the whole yield in hops is consumed
in the country by the great breweries.
Tobacco forms a most productive and profitable object of culture
in many districts. The total extent under this crop in 1905 was about
35,000 acres, of which 45% was in Baden, 12% in Bavaria, 30%
in Prussia, and the rest in Alsace and Hesse-Darmstadt. In the
north the plant is cultivated principally in Pomerania, Brandenburg
and East and West Prussia. Of late years the production has some-
what diminished, owing to the extensive tobacco manufacturing
industries of Bremen and Hamburg, which import almost exclusively
foreign leaves.
Ulm, Nuremberg, Quedlinburg, Erfurt, Strassburg and Guben
are famed for their vegetables and garden seeds. Berlin is noted for
its flower nurseries, the Rhine valley, Wurttemberg and the Elbe
valley below Dresden for fruit, and Frankfort-on-main for cider.
The culture of the vine is almost confined to southern and western
Germany, and especially to the Rhine district. The northern limits
of its growth extend from Bonn in a north-easterly
direction through Cassel to the southern foot of the
Harz, crossing 52 N. on the Elbe, running then east some miles to
the north of that parallel, and finally turning sharply towards the
south-west on the Warthe. In the valley of the Saale and Elbe
(near Dresden), and in lower Silesia (between Guben and Griinberg),
the number of vineyards is small, and the wines of inferior quality ;
but along the Rhine from Basel to Coblenz, in Alsace, Baden, the
Palatinate and Hesse, and above all in the province of Nassau, the
lower slopes of the hills are literally covered with vines. Here are
produced the celebrated Riidesheimer, Hochheimer and Johannis-
berger. The vines of the lower Main, particularly those of Wurzburg,
are the best kinds; those of the upper Main and the valley of the
Neckar are rather inferior. The Moselle wines are lighter and more
acid than those of the Rhine. The total amount produced in
Germany is estimated at 1000 million gallons, of a value of 4,000,000 ;
Alsace-Lorraine turning out 400 millions; Baden, 175; Bavaria,
Wurttemberg and Hesse together, 300; while the remainder, which
though small in quantity is in quality the best, is produced by
Prussia.
The cultivation of grazing lands in Germany has been greatly
improved in recent times and is in a highly prosperous condition.
The provinces of Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, Hanover Llye stock
(especially the marsh-lands near the sea) and the grand-
duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin are particularly remarkable
in this respect. The best meadow-lands of Bavaria are in the
province of Franconia and in the outer range of the Alps, and those
of Saxony in the Erzgebirge. Wurttemberg, Hesse and Thuringia
also yield cattle of excellent quality. These large cattle-rearing
centres not only supply the home markets but export live stock in
considerable quantities to England and France. Butter is also
largely exported to England from the North Sea districts and from
Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg. The breeding of horses has
attained a great perfection. The main centre is in East and West
Prussia, then follow the marsh districts on the Elbe and Weser, some
parts of Westphalia, Oldenburg, Lippe, Saxony and upper Silesia,
lower Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine. Of the stud farms Trakehnen
in East Prussia and Graditz in the Prussian province of Saxony enjoy
a European reputation. The aggregate number of sheep has shown
a considerable falling off, and the rearing of them is mostly carried
on only on large estates, the number showing only 9,692,501 in 1900,
and 7,907,200 in 1904, as against 28,000,000 in 1860. As a rule,
sheep-farming is resorted to where the soil is of inferior quality and
unsuitable for tillage and the breeding of cattle. Far more attention
is accordingly given to sheep-farming in northern and north-eastern
Germany than in Schleswig-Holstein, Westphalia, the Rhineland
and south Germany. The native demand for wool is not covered by
the home production, and in this article the export from the United
Kingdom to Germany is steadily rising, having amounted in 1905
to a value of 1,691,035, as against 742,632 in 1900. The largest
stock of pigs is in central Germany and Saxony, in Westphalia, on
the lower Rhine, in Lorraine and Hesse. Central Germany (especi-
ally Gotha and Brunswick) exports sausages and hams largely, as
well as Westphalia, but here again considerable importation takes
place from other countries. Goats are found everywhere, but especi-
ally in the hilly districts. Poultry farming is a considerable industry,
thegeesepf Pomerania and the fowls of Thuringia and Lorraine being
in especial favour. Bee-keeping is of considerable importance,
particularly in north Germany and Silesia.
MANUFACTURES)
GERMANY
811
On the whole, dttpite the prosperous condition of the German
live-stock farming, the consumption of meat exceeds the amount
rendered available by home production, and prices can only be kept
down by steady increase in the imports from abroad.
Fuktrui.Tht German fisheries, long of little importance, have
been carefully fostered within recent years. The deep-sea fishing
in the North Sea. thanks to the exertions of the German fishing league
(DnttsckfT Fuckernttrnn) and to government support, is extremely
active. Trawlers are extensively employed, and steamers bring the
catches direct ly to the Urge fish markets at Geestemunde and Altona.
whence facilities are afforded by the railways for the rapid transport
of fish to Berlin and other centres. The fish mostly caught are cod,
haddock and herrings, while Heligoland yields lobsters, and the
of Fohr, Amrum and Sylt oysters of good quality. The
IPM \t* & \*i* 1 | 4 uit MIH t*i* vi -) it \*y 9* vi 9 \M K % " ^* *j ii u 11* y iiv
German North Sea fishing fleet numbered in 1005 618 boats, with
n aggregate crew of 5441 hands. Equally well developed are the
Baltic fisheries, the chief ports engaged in which are Danzig, Eckern-
fftrde, Kplberg and TravemUnde. The principal catch is haddock
and herrings. The catch of the North Sea and Baltic fisheries in
1906 was valued at over 700,000, exclusive of herrings for salting.
The fisheries do not, however, supply the demand for fish, and fresh,
omit and dried fish is imported largely in excess of the home yield.
Utiui and Minerals. Germany abounds in minerals, and the
extraordinary industrial development of the country since 1870 is
largely due to its mineral wealth. Having left France much behind
in this respect, it now rival* Great Britain and the United States.
Germany produces more silver than any other European state,
and the quantity is annually increasing. It is extracted from the
ore* in the mine* of Freiburg (Saxony), the Han Mountains, upper
Silesia. Merseburg, Aix-la-Chapelle, Wiesbaden and Arnsberg.
Gold is found in the sand of the rivers Isar, Inn and Rhine, and also,
to a limited extent, on the Harz. The quantity yielded in 1905 was,
of silver, about 400 tons of a value of 1,600,000, and gold, about 4
ton*, valued at about 548,000.
Lead i* produced in considerable quantities in upper Silesia, the
Harz Mountains, in the Prussian province of Nassau, in the Saxon
Erzgebirge and in the Sauerland. The yield in 1905 amounted to
about 153.000 tons, of which 20,000 tons were exported.
Copper is found principally in the Mansfeld district of the Prussian
province of Saxony and near Arnsberg in the Sauerland, the ore
yielding 31,713 ton* in 1905, of which 5000 tons were exported.
About 90% of the zinc produced in Europe is yielded by Belgium
and Germany. It is mostly found in upper Silesia, around Beuthen,
and in the districts of Wiesbaden and Aix-la-Chapelle. In 1905
DO leas than 198,000 tons of block zinc were produced, of which 16,500
ton* were exported.
Of other minerals (with the exceptions of coal, iron and salt treated
below) nickel and antimony are found in the upper Harz; cobalt in
the hilly district* of Hesse and the Saxon Erzgebirge; arsenic in the
Riesengebirge : quicksilver in the Sauerland and in the spurs of the
SaarbrOcken coal hills; graphite in Bavaria; porcelain clay in
Saxony and Silesia; amber along the whole Baltic coast; and lime
and gypsum in almost all parts.
Coal-mining appears to have been first practised in the 141)1 century
at Zwickau (Saxony) and on the Ruhr. There are six large coal-
field*, occupying an area of about 3600 sq. m., of which
the most important occupies the basin of the Ruhr, its
extent being estimated at 2800 sq. m. Here there are more than
60 bed*, of a total thickness of 15010200 ft. of coal; and the amount
in the pit* ha* been estimated at 45.000 millions of tons. Smaller
field* are found near Osnabruck, IbbenbQren and Minden, and a
larger one near Aix-la-Chapelle. The Saar coal-field, within the
area enclosed by the rivers Soar, N'ahe and Blies (460 sq. m.), is of
great importance. The thickness of 80 beds amounts to 250 ft.,
and the total ma** of coal i* estimated at 45.400 million tons. The
greater part of the basin belongs to Prussia, the rest to Lorraine.
A (till larger field exists in the upper Silesian basin, on the border-
land between Austria and Poland, containing about 50,000 million
ton*. Beuthen is the chief centre. The Silesian coal-fields have a
second centre in Waldenburg. east of the Riesengcbirge. The Saxon
coal-field* stretch eastwards for some miles from Zwickau. Deposits
of less consequence are found in upper Bavaria, upper Franconia,
Baden, the Harz and elsewhere.
The following table show* the rapidly increasing development
of the coal production. That of lignite is added, the provinces of
Saxony and Brandenburg being rich in this product :
Production of Coal and Lignite.
Year.
Coal.
Lignite.
Quantities.
Value.
Hand*.
Quantities.
Value.
Hands.
1871
1881
1891
1899
1900
gog
Mill. Ton*.
MM
4*"7
73-7
lot -6
100-3
121-2
Mill. Mk*.
218-4
23
---, *
789-6
966-1
1049-9
186,000
283,000
379.000
414,000
490.000
Mill. Tons.
8-5
12-8
20-5
34-a
40-5
V-5
Mill. Mks.
26-2
38-1
It*
7*4
9-5
122-2
25,600
35.700
44.700
50,000
52.800
MM- production permits a considerable export of coal to the west
and south of the empire, but the clistann ln>m the coal-fields to
i IK- < .i-iiii.iii coast is such that the import of British coal cannot yet
be dispensed with (1905, over 7,000,000 tons). Besides this, from
7,000,000 to 8,000,000 tons of lignite come annually from Bohemia.
In north Germany peat is also of importance as a fuel; the area of
the peat moors in Prussia is estimated at 8000 sq. m., of which 2000
are in the north of Hanover.
The iron-fields of Germany fall into three main groups: those of
the lower Rhine and Westphalia, of which Dortmund and Dusscldorf
are the centres; those of Lorraine and the Saar; and those of upper
Silesia. The output of the ore has enormously increased of recent
years, and the production of pig iron, as given for 1905, amounted
to 10,875,000 tons of a value of 28,900,000.
Germany possesses abundant salt deposits. The actual production
not only covers the home consumption, but also allows a yearly
increasing exportation, especially to Russia, Austriaand Scandinavia.
The provinces of Saxony and Hanover, with Thuringia and Anhalt,
produce half the whole amount. A large salt-work is found at
Strzalkowo (Posen), and smaller ones near Dortmund, Lippstadt
and Minden (Westphalia). In south Germany salt abounds most
in Wurttemberg (Hall, Heilbronn, Rottweil); the principal Bavarian
works are at the foot of the Alps near Frcilassing and Rosenhcim.
Hesse and Baden, Lorraine and the upper Palatinate have also salt-
works. The total yield of mined salt amounted in 1005 to 6,209,000
tons, including 1,165,000 tons of rock salt. The production has
made great advance, having in 1850 been only 5 minion cwts.
Manufactures. In no other country of the world has the
manufacturing industry made such rapid strides within recent
years as in Germany. This extraordinary development of
industrial energy embraces practically all classes of manufactured
articles. In a general way the chief manufactures may be
geographically distributed as follows. Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine,
Bavaria and Saxony are the chief scats of the iron manufacture.
Steel is produced in Rhenish Prussia. Saxony is predominant
in the production of textiles, though Silesia and Westphalia
manufacture linen. Cotton goods are largely produced in
Baden, Bavaria, Alsace-Lorraine and Wurttemberg, woollens
and worsteds in Saxony and the Rhine province, silk in Rhenish
Prussia (Elberfeld), Alsace and Baden. Glass and porcelain
are largely produced in Bavaria; lace in Saxony; tobacco
in Bremen and Hamburg; chemicals in the Prussian province
of Saxony; watches in Saxony (GlashUtte) and Nuremberg;
toys in Bavaria; gold and silver filagree in Berlin and Aschaffen-
burg; and beer in Bavaria and Prussia.
It is perhaps more in respect of its iron industry than of its other
manufactures that Germany has attained a leading position in the
markets of the world. Its chief centres are in Westphalia
and the Rhine province (auf roter Erde), in upper Silesia,
in Alsace-Lorraine and in Saxony. Of the total production
of pig iron in 1905 amounting to over 10,000,000 tons, more than the
half was produced in the Rnineland and Westphalia. Huge blast
furnaces are in constant activity, and the output of rolled iron and
steel is constantly increasing. In the latter the greatest advance
has been made. The greater part of it is produced at or
around Essen, where are the famous Krupp works, and Bochum.
Many states have been for a considerable time supplied by Krupp
with steel guns and battleship plates. The export of steel (railway)
rails and bridges from this part is steadily on the increase.
Hardware also, the production of which is centred in Solingen,
Heilbronn, Esslingen, &c., is largely exported. Germany stands
second to Great Britain in the manufacture of machines and engines.
There are in many large cities of north Germany extensive establish-
ments for this purpose, but the industry is not limited to the large
cities. In agricultural machinery Germany is a serious competitor
with England. The locomotives and wagons fortheGcrman railways
are almost exclusively built in Germany; and Russia, as well as
Austria, receives large supplies of railway plant from German works.
In shipbuilding, likewise, Germany is practically independent,
yards having been established for the construction of the largest
MM !>-
Before 1871 the production of cotton fabrics in France
exceeded that in Germany, but as the cotton manufacture
is pursued largely in Alsace, the balance is now
against the former country. In 1905 there
were about 9,000,000 spindles in Germany. The
export of the goods manufactured amounted in
this year to an estimated value of 19,600,000.
spinning and weaving arc not confined to one district, but
are prosecuted in upper Alsace (Mulhausen, Gebweilcr,
Colmar), in Saxony (Zwickau, Chemnitz, Annaberq), in
Silesia (Breslau, Liegnitz), in the Rhine province (Dtisscl-
dorf, MOnster, Cologne), in Erfurt and Hanover, in
Wurttembere (Reutlineen, Cannstatt), in Baden, Bavaria
(Augsburg, Bamberg, Bayreuth) and in the Palatinate.
Cotton
at
ttxtUt*.
Cotton
8l2
GERMANY
Although Germany produces wool, flax and hemp, the home pro-
duction of these materials is not sufficient to meet the demand of
manufactures, and large quantities of them have to be imported
In 1895 almost a million persons (half of them women) were employee
in this branch of industry, and in 1897 the value of the cloth, buckskin
and flannel manufacture was estimated at 18,000,000. The chiei
seats of this manufacture are the Rhenish districts of Aix-la-Chapelle
Duren, Eupen and Lennep, Brandenburg, Saxony, Silesia and lower
Lusatia, the chief centres in this group being Berlin, Cottbus, Sprem-
berg, Sagan and Sommerfeld.
The manufacture of woollen and half-woollen dress materials
centres mainly in Saxony, Silesia, the Rhine province and in Alsace
Furniture covers, table covers and plush are made in Elberfeld and
Chemnitz, in Westphalia and the Rhine province (notably in Elber-
feld and Barmen); shawls in Berlin and the Bavarian Vogtland-
carpets in Berlin, Barmen and Silesia. In the town of Schmiedeberg
in the last district, as also in Cottbus (Lusatia), oriental patterns are
successfully imitated. The chief seats of the stocking manufacture
are Chemnitz and Zwickau in Saxony, and Apolda in Thuringia.
I he export of woollen goods from Germany in 1905 amounted to
a value of 13,000,000.
Although linen was formerly one of her most important articles of
manufacture, Germany is now left far behind in this industry by
Great Britain, France and Austria-Hungary. This branch of textile
manufacture has its principal centres in Silesia, Westphalia Saxony
and Wurttemberg, while Hirschberg in Silesia, Bielefeld in Westphalia
and Zittau in Saxony are noted for the excellence of their productions.
The goods manufactured, now no longer, as formerly, coarse in tex-
ture, vie with the finer and more delicate fabrics of Belfast In the
textile industry for flax and hemp there were, in 1905, 276,000 fine
spindles, 22,300 hand-looms and 17,600 power-looms in operation
and, in 1905, linen and jute materials were exported of an estimated
value of over 2,000,000. The jute manufacture, the principal
centres of which are Berlin, Bonn, Brunswick and Hamburg has of
late attained considerable dimensions.
Raw silk can scarcely be reckoned among the products of the
empire, and the annual demand has thus to be provided for by
importation. The main centre of the silk industry is Crefeld and its
neighbourhood; then come Elberfeld and Barmen, Aix-la-Chapelle
48 wel ! ?/ Berlin, Bielefeld, Chemnitz, Stuttgart and the district
around Mulhausen in Alsace.
The manufacture of paper is prosecuted almost everywhere in the
empire. There were 1020 mills in operation in 1895, and the exports
Pacer in I9<>5 .amounted to more than 3,700,000 sterling, as
against imports of a value of over 700,000. The manu-
facture is carried on to the largest extent in the Rhine province in
.' Saxony and in Silesia. Wall papers are produced chiefly in Rhenish
Prussia, Berlin and Hamburg; the finer sorts of letter-paper in
Berlin, Leipzig and Nuremberg; and printing-paper (especially for
books) in Leipzig, Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main.
The chief seat of the leather industry is Hesse-Darmstadt, in
which Mainz and Worms produce excellent material In Prussia
Leather. J?, rge ^P" 65 ^e in operation in the Rhine province, in
Westphalia and Silesia (Bneg). Boot and shoe manu-
factures are carried on everywhere; but the best goods are produced
fe-^f nZ L and ma " S Y ***!"? ex P rt are extensively made in
Wurttemberg, and Offenbach and Aschaffenburg are renowned for
fancy leather wares, such as purses, satchels and the like.
Berlin and Mainz are celebrated for the manufacture of furniture-
Bavaria for toys; the Black Forest for clocks; Nuremberg for
pencils; Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main for various perfumes- and
Cologne for the famous eau-de-Cologne.
The beetroot sugar manufacture is very considerable. It centres
mainly in the Prussian province of Saxony, where Magdeburg is the
^ chief market for the whole of Germany, in Anhalt, Bruns-
wick and Silesia. The number of factories was, in 1905
376, and the amount of raw sugar and molasses produced amounted
to 2,643,531 metric tons, and of refined sugar 1,711,063 tons
Beer is produced throughout the whole of Germany. The pro-
duction is relatively greatest in Bavaria. The Brausteuergebiet
Betr. V^f ex F lse district) embraces all the states forming the
Zollverein, with the exception of Bavaria, Wurttemberg,
Baden and Alsace-Lorraine, in which countries the excise duties are
separately collected. The total number of breweries in the beer
excise district was, in 1905-1906, 5995, which produced 1017 million
galUms; in Bavaria nearly 6000 breweries with 392 million gallons;
in Baden over 700 breweries with 68 million gallons; in Wurttem-
berg over 5000 breweries with 87 million gallons; and in Alsace-
Lorraine 95 breweries with about 29 million gallons. The amount
brewed per head of the population amounted, in 1905, roughly to
160 imperial pints in the excise district; to 450 in Bavaria; 280 in
Wurttemberg; 260 m Baden; and 122 in Alsace-Lorraine. It may
be remarked that the beer brewed in Bavaria is generally of darker
colour than that produced in other states, and extra strong brews
are exported largely into the beer excise district and abroad?
Commerce. The rapid development of German trade dates
from the Zollverein (customs union), under the special rules
and regulations of which it is administered. The Zollverein
[COMMERCE
emanates from a convention originally entered into, in 1828,
between Prussia and Hesse, which, subsequently joined by the
Bavarian customs-league, by the kingdom of Saxony and the
Thuringian states, came into operation, as regards the countries
concerned, on the ist of January 1834. With progressive
territorial extensions during the ensuing fifty years, and embrac-
ing the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, it had in 1871, when the
German empire was founded, an area of about 209,281 sq. m.,
with a population of 40,678,000. The last important addition
was in October 1888, when Hamburg and Bremen were in-
corporated. Included within it, besides the grand-duchy of
Luxemburg, are the Austrian communes of Jungholz and
Mittelberg; while, outside, lie the little free-port territories
of Hamburg, Cuxhaven, Bremerhaven and Geestemunde,
Heligoland, and small portions of the districts of Constance
and Waldshut, lying on the Baden Swiss frontier. Down to
1879 Germany was, in general, a free-trade country. In this
year, however, a rigid protective system was introduced by the
Zotttarifgesetz, since modified by the commercial treaties between
Germany and Austria-Hungary, Italy, Switzerland and Belgium,
of the ist of February 1892, and by a customs tariff law of the
25th of December 1902. The foreign commercial relations
of Germany were again altered by the general and conventional
customs tariff, which came into force on the ist of March 1906
The Zolltarifgesetz of the isth of July 1879, while restricting
the former free import, imposed considerable duties. Exempt
from duty were now only refuse, raw products, scientific instru-
ments, ships and literary and artistic objects; forty-four articles
notably beer, vinegar, sugar, herrings, cocoa, salt, fish oils,
ether, alum and soda were unaffected by the change, while
duties were henceforth levied upon a large number of articles
which had previously been admitted duty free, such as pig iron,
machines and locomotives, grain, building timber, tallow, horses,'
cattle and sheep; and, again, the tariff law further increased
the duties leviable upon numerous other articles. Export duties
were abolished in 1865 and transit dues in 1861. The law under
which Great Britain enjoyed the " most favoured nation treat-
ment " expired on the 3 ist of December 1905, but its provisions
were continued by the Bundesrat until further notice. The
average value of each article is fixed annually in Germany under
the direction of the Imperial Statistical Office, by a commission
of experts, who receive information from chambers of commerce
and other sources. There are separate valuations for imports
and exports. The price fixed is that of the goods at the moment
of crossing the frontier. For imports the price does not include
customs duties, cost of transport, insurance, warehousing, &c.,
incurred after the frontier is passed. For exports, the price
includes all charges within the territory, but drawbacks and
bounties are not taken into account. The quantities are deter-
mined according to obligatory declarations, and, for imports,
the fiscal authorities may actually weigh the goods. For
packages an official tax is deducted. The countries whence
goods are imported and the ultimate destination of exports are
registered. The import dues amounted in the year 1906, the
first year of the revised tariff, to about 31,639,000, or about
los. sd. per head of population.
Statistics relating to the foreign trade of the Empire are necessarily
confined to comparatively recent times. The quantities of such
imported articles as are liable to duty have, indeed, been known
for many years; and in 1872 official tables were compiled showing
the value both of imports and of exports. But when the results
C ^ tables proved the importation to be very much greater
than the exportation, the conviction arose that the valuation of the
exports was erroneous and below the reality. In 1872 the value of the
imports was placed at 173,400,000 and that of the exports at
124,700,000. In 1905 the figures were imports, 371,000,000,
and exports, 292,000,000, including precious metals.
Table A following shows the classification of goods adopted
jefore the tariff revision of 1906. From 1907 a new classification
las been adopted, and the change thus introduced is so great
hat it is impossible to make any comparisons between the
statistics of years subsequent to and preceding the year 1906.
Table B shows imports and exports for 1907 and 1908 according
.o the new classification adopted.
COMMERCE]
GERMANY
813
TABLE A. Clout* of Imports and Exports. 190$-
Import.
Export.
Refute
Cotton and cotton*
Lead and by-product* ....
Brush and sieve makers' good*
Drugs, chemists' and oilmen's
colours
Iron and iron good* ....
6.866.350
23488.730
996.300
102400
15.896,900
3. 156.500
28 8 V1.O4O
1.170,300
33.949.600
979.400
515450
33,196,350
33,126400
u. HOO..I so
Flax and other vegetable spinning
materials except cotton .
Grain and agricultural produce
GUs* . " .
6,794.100
59,136,300
538,050
1. 335.700
7496,500
3,743,900
Hair, feathers, bristle* ....
Skins
Wood and wooden ware* .
Hop*
3,318,600
18,969.900
16,940,850
913,150
1,848,150
9,548450
6,056.150
3,135,600
Instruments, machines, &c.
Calendars
4.35i.5o
14,100
17,898,350
74.700
Caoutchouc. &c. . . .
Clothe*, body linen, millinery . .
Copper and copper good* . . .
Hardware Ac. .....
7.379.600
739.900
8.273400
3,043,400
4,616400
7,331.050
10,307,050
13,610,550
Leather and leather good* . . .
Linens ....
3.567.950
1,750,100
9.665,300
1 ,904,950
Candle* . . .
11,150
43,350
Literary and work* of art . . .
Groceries and confectionery . .
3,066,050
41446400
13,510,600
9,035,500
17.585,000
2,631,600
1,086,800
7,158,800
365,700
720,300
5,036,600
132,300
Silks and silk good*
Soap and perfume*
Playing card*
Stone good*
9.533.300
151,600
400
3,833,000
8,889,000
768,300
18,950
3,110,550
Coal, lignite, coke and peat . .
Straw and hemp good* ....
Tar, pitch, resin
Animals, and animal product* . .
Earthenware good*
10,136,800
561,650
3,504400
9,936,300
391 ,650
15.096450
362,100
834,100
590,700
5.076,350
i ,-;.. '
1 1 ,366,300
725,100
Oilcloth . . ...
43,150
177.300
Wools and woollen textile* . .
Zinc and zinc good* ....
Tin and japanned goods
Good* insufficiently declared . .
35.390,200
683,250
1.770,550
21,562,900
2413,600
744.100
806,300
Total
352.317.250
284,626,900
TaBLE B. Classes of Imports and Exports, 1907 and 1908.
Groups of Article*.
Agricultural and forest pro-
duce*
Agricultural produce '
Colonial produce and sub-
stitute* for the same .
Southern fruit and fruit
orest produce . . -
Resins
Animals and animal pro-
ducts' . ...
Hides and skins .
Meat, oil, sugar, beverage*
Mineral and fossil raw ma-
terial*, mineral oil* . .
Earths and stone* . .
Ore*, ilag, cinders . .
Mineral fuel . . .
Mineral oils and other
fossil raw materials . .
Coal-tar, coal-tar oils
Imports.
Value in 1000.
1907.
93.353
12,151
3.214
18,166
8,216
63,283
16,920
21,523
47.575
6,541
IVl'o
16.895
7,168
506
1908.'
205,512
102,954
12428
3.262
99
8,209
61,794
17.699
30404
45.540
7.542
15451
14,910
7.300
438
Exports.
Value in 1000.
1907.
45.796
10,369
84
3O
4.066
3,500
9.607
5.383
20,284
36,166
3.350
1407
19445
558
1.506
1908.'
50,324
15,168
108
33
3.967
2.325
9,676
5453
30,048
26.208
3,006
1,206
20,020
491
1485
1 Provisional figures only.
I ' Excluding vegetable and animal textile materials,
s Excluding vegetable textile materials.
Groups of Article*.
Chemical and pharma-
ceutical products, colours
Chemicaj primary mate-
rials, acids, salt* . .
Colours and dyeing ma-
terials
Varnish, lacquer .
Ether, alcohol not in-
cluded elsewhere, essen-
tial oils, perfumery and
cosmetics ....
Artificial manure*
Explosives of all kinds .
Other chemical and phar-
maceutical products
Animal and vegetable tex-
tile materials and wares
thereof
Silk and silk goods .
Wool
Unworked wool . . .
Worked wool . . .
Wares of spun wool
Cotton
Unworked cotton .
Worked cotton . ., . ,
Cotton wares . . _ .
Other vegetable textile
materials ....
Unworked ....
Worked
Wares thereof .
Leather and leather wares,
furriers' wares .
Leather . . . . .
Leather wares . . .
Furriers' wares .
Caoutchouc wares .
Wares of soft caoutchouc
Hardened caoutchouc and
wares thereof
Wares of animal or vegetable
material for carving or
moulding
Wooden wares ....
Paper, cardboard and wares
thereof
Books, pictures, paintings .
Earthenware ....
Glass and glassware
Precious metals and wares
thereof
Gold
Gold
Gold wares . . .
Silver
Silver
Silver wares . . .
Base metals and wares
thereof ....
Iron and iron wares .
Pig iron (including non-
malleable alloys) .
Iron wares.
Aluminium and alumi-
nium wares
Raw aluminium .
Aluminium wares
Lead and lead wares .
Raw lead (including
waste) ....
Lead wares
Zinc and zinc wares .
Raw zinc (including
waste) . . .
Zinc wares . . .
Tin and tin wares
Raw tin (including
waste) ....
Tin wares .
Nickel and nickel wares .
Raw nickel .
Imports.
Value in 1000.
1907.
14.784
9.226
35
".979
992
86
98.540
13.533
33.26o
19,975
4,625
,!,(-,
38,543
27,705
980
9.858
10,783
7 1S
2,685
6,695
2,658
1,332
2,698
694
670
24
2448
859
1,349
1.992
467
747
13,281
1 1. ',n.
11,184
432
1,665
1.434
231
26,03
5.903
I.'KII
4,302
546
529
I
M38
143
II
72
706
21
2.405
3,357
48
400
375
I.X.S.'
14.850
9.550
1,918
1,001
74
1.270
92.105
13.704
3M95
19.309
4.961
6.925
34.456
26,167
950
7.338
10,411
7.819
168
2423
6.657
2,804
1,176
2,672
754
735
19
2,068
769
1,205
2,036
377
728
21,243
19.295
18,873
422
1,948
1,716
232
26,398
4.472
912
3,560
453
433
20
1484
147'
I,
84;
821
32
2,62'
2.58
4*
54<
52
Exports.
Value in 1000.
1907.
38,116
9,661
11,630
306
I,n8
1.303
1,613
2,586
78,086
13,324
27,114
2,647
3-799
20,668
29,004
3,264
912
24,828
3,777
1.125
122
2.53'
16,778
7.503
4,016
5.237
2,328
1,694
634
4,260
1,707
9.343
4,667
5.224
5.671
18,629
15,898
11,071
4.827
2,731
1,206
1.525
57.146
38.899
966
37,933
368
'52
216
945
525
420
2.433
1,631
802
1,380
787
593
246
160
26,845
9,833
10,518
221
I.OOd
1,236
1,269
2,765
70,343
11,364
24,918
2,561
3,393
18,964
Jfl.JOl
2,987
891
22,324
3.471
I.2II
137
2,124
17,835
8,328
3,867
5,616
2,325
1,723
602
4-'3'
1,666
9,111
4.765
4,612
5.149
6,858
6,151
2,897
3.254
2,707
1,418
1,289
58,895
40,162
905
39.257
273
77
196
985
568
417
2,489
1.784
705
1,236
688
548
298
233
4 Provisional figure* only.
GERMANY
[COMMERCE
Groups of Articles.
Imports.
Exports.
Groups of Articles.
Imports.
Exports.
Value in 1000.
Value in 1000.
Value in 1000.
Value in 1000.
1907.
1908. 1
1907.
1908.'
1907.
1908.'
1907.
1908.'
Nickel wares
Copper and copper wares
Raw copper (including
copper coin, brass,
tombac, &c.) .
Copper wares .
Instruments of precision
Machinery, vehicles
Machinery ....
25
13,803
12,995
808
813
7,093
4,090
13
15,088
14,192
896
885
5,489
3,451
86
7,998
2,204
5,794
4,877
33,117
19,041
65
8,470
2,014
6,456
4,982
34,653
20,684
Electro-technical products
Vehicles and vessels .
Firearms, clocks, musical
instruments, toys .
Clocks and watches .
Musical instruments .
Toys
Total . . .
411
2,562
1-732
1,382
223
39
451
L587
1,424
i,i34
170
35
8,227
5-849
8,704
1,296
3,176
3,949
9,107
4,862
7,505
I,2IO
2,780
3,273
442,663
429,636
349,H4
336,347
1 Provisional figures only.
The following table shows the commercial intercourse in imports and exports, exclusive of bullion and coin, between Germany
and the chief countries of the world in 1905, 1906 and 1907.
Imports.
I9<
>5-
ig<
)6.
I9<
>7-
Percentage
Percentage
Percentage
Country. '
Value
of
Value
of
Value
of
in
Germany's
in
Germany's
in
Germany's
1000.
Total
1000.
Total
1000.
Total
Imports.
Imports.
Imports.
Belgium
13,439
3-8
14,315
3-6
14,586
3-4
Denmark
5,986
1-7
6,302
1-6
6,050
1-4
France ...
19,772
5-6
21,306
5-4
22,302
5-2
United Kingdom
35,320
IO-I
40,531
10-3
48,014
II-2
Italy ...
10,350
3
11,851
3
14,030
3-3
Netherlands .
12,077
3
11,864
3
11,187
2-6
Austria-Hungary
36,974
10-6
39,8i4
JO- 1
39,939
9-3
Rumania
4,568
1-3
5,774
i-5
7,365
i'7
Russia ...
47,8l6
13-6
52,528
13-4
54,447
12-7
Sweden ...
5,887
i-7
7,359
1-9
8,457
2
Switzerland
8,980
2-6
10,659
2-9
10,366
2-4
Spain .
5,742
1-6
7,410
1-9
6,878
1-6
British South Africa
1,769
o-5
1,766
0-4
2,258
o-5
Dominion of Canada
481
O-I
463
O-I
483
O-I
New Zealand .
75
87
94
British West Africa
2,562
0-7
2,731
0-7
3,601
0-8
British India .
13,657
3-9
15.842
4
20,016
4'7
Dutch Indies .
5,848
1-7
7,002
1-8
9,199
2-1
Argentine Republic
18,150
5-2
18,302
4'7
21,756
5-1
Brazil ...
8,454
2-4
9,246
2-4
9,636
2-2
Chile ...
6,536
1-9
7,131
1-8
7,074
1-6
United States
48,770
13-9
60,787
15-4
64,864
IS-I
Commonwealth of Australia
7,690
2-2
8,619
2-2
11,209
2-6
Exports.
I9<
>5-
I9<
)6.
I9<
>7-
Percentage
Percentage
Percentage
Country.
Value
of
Value
of
Value
of
in
Germany's
in
Germany's
in
Germany's
1000.
Total
1000.
Total
1000.
Total
Exports.
Exports.
Exports.
Belgium
15.364
5-5
17,509
5-6
16,861
5
Denmark
8,668
3-1
9,699
3'i
10,182
3
France ...
14,420
18,815
6
22,080
6-6
United Kingdom
51,253
18-2
52,473
16-8
52,135
15-5
Italy ...
8,045
2-9
"-354
3-6
14-893
4-4
Netherlands .
21,295
7-6
21,799
7
22,232
6-6
Norway
3,447
1-2
3.573
1-2
4,211
1-3
Austria-Hungary
28,526
IO-I
31,926
IO-2
35-231
10-5
Rumania
2,144
0-8
3,140
I
3.372
i
Russia ...
17,027
6
19,962
6-4
21,531
6-4
Sweden ...
7-653
2-7
8,675
2-8
9,177
2-7
Switzerland
17,649
6-3
18,367
5'9
21,948
6-5
Spain ... .
2,609
0-9
2,838
0-9
3,228
i
British South Africa
1,687
0-6
1,607
o-5
1,422
0-4
Dominion of Canada
1,071
0-4
1,203
0-4
1,456
0-4
New Zealand .
227
O-I
244
O-I
263
O-I
Turkey ...
3-484
1-3
3,357
i
4,011
1-2
British India .
4,226
i-5
S-oii
6
4,868
i-4
China ...
3.727
1-3
3-331
i
3,105
0-9
Japan ...
4,158
i-5
4,328
4
5,036
i-5
Argentine Republic
6,463
2-3
8,367
7
8,810
2-6
Brazil ...
3,525
1-3
4,364
4
5,"8
i-5
Chile ...
2,632
0-9
3,56i
2
4,167
1-2
United States
26,660
9-5
31,281
10
32,070
9-5
Commonwealth of Australia
2,264
0-8
2,863
0-9
3-004
0-9
RAILWAYS)
The
GERMANY
815
of Germany shows an upward tendency, which
. . i fan fain with it* greatly increased production, re-
export of ship* from the I'mied Kingdom I" the empire .!>-. n.i--< ,1
during two yean, 1903 (305.682) and 1904 (365,063), almost to a
vanishing point, German yard* being able to oupe with the demand-.
made upon them for the Mipply of veMel* of all classes, including
mercantile vr-U and ship* of war. In 1905 and subsequent years,
however, the degree of employment in German yards increased to
such an extent, principally owing to the placing of the Admiralty
contracts with private builders, that the more urgent orders for
mercantile vessels were placed abroad.
The following tables give the value of trade between the United
Kingdom and Germany in 1900 and 1905:
Staple Imports into the United Kingdom
from Germany.
1900.
1905.
Sugar
Glass and manufacture* . . .
Eggs ......
9.164.573
1,078,648
1,017,119
10,488.085
1,108.117
764,966
Cottons and varn ....
Woollens ana yarn
Iron and steel and manufacture* .
Machinery . . . . .
Paper
Musical instruments . .
Toys)
Zinc and manufactures
Wood and manufacture* . .
Chemicals
992.344
1,313,671
1,017,376
411.178
5*3.544
660.777
644,690
461,033
1470,839
513.300
1476.385
1.984.475
379.479
735.536
538.946
676.391
714,638
673.603
1,109.584
735.830
Principal Articles exported by
Great Britain to Germany.
1900.
1905-
Cottons and yarn .....
Woollens and yarn ....
Alpaca, Ac., yarn . . .
Wool
I _ .
ronwonc ......
Hemngs ......
Machinery
Coals, cinders
New ships
i
3.843.917
3.743.842
1 ,023,259
743.632
2.937.055
1.651,441
2,040,797
4,367,173
I,SQ2,86S
4.94L9I7
3.795.591
1.325.519
1,691,035
1,500,414
3,043,483
3,102,835
3.406,535
1,177,081
H. The seamen of Frisia are among the best in the
world, and the shipping of Bremen and Hamburg had won a
respected name long before a German mercantile marine,
properly so called, was heard of. Many Hamburg vessels sailed
under charter of English and other houses in foreign, especially
Chinese, waters. Since 1868 all German ships have carried a
common flag black, white, red; but formerly Oldenburg,
Hanover, Bremen, Hamburg, Lu'beck, Mecklenburg and Prussia
had each its own flag, and Schleswig-Holstein vessels sailed
under the Danish flag. The German mercantile fleet occupies,
in respect of the number of vessels, the fourth place after
Great Britain, the United States of America and Norway;
but in respect of tonnage it stands third after Great Britain
and the United States only.
The following table shows its distribution on the 1st of January
of the two years 1905 and 1908 :
The chief ports are Hamburg, Stettin, Bremen, Kiel, LUbeck,
I li n>t>urg, Bremerhaven, Danzig (Neufahrwasser), GeestemUnde
and Emden; and the number and tonnage of vessels of foreign
nationality entering nn< 1 1 Ir.miiK the ports of the empire, as compared
with national shipping, were in 1900:
Foreign Ships.
NiiiiiU i
entered
in Cargo.
Tonnage.
Number
cleared
in Cargo.
Tonnage.
Danish
British
Swedish .
Dutch
Norwegian
Russian .
5917
53^7
poi
-MM
1565
730
1.589.346
5.1*9.017
1.164,431
458.401
817483
250.564
5059
33"
3317
1973
730
439
1,319,388
3,552,368
747.656
316,563
347.8U
143.983
Baltic Ports.
North Sea Port*.
Total Shipping.
Number.
Tonnage.
Number.
Tonnage.
Number.
Tonnage.
1905
Sailing vessel* .
Steamers . .
19,067
336.509
nSi
1171
559.436
1.537.563
2567
1657
578,503
1,774.072
Total*
1908
Sailing vessels .
Steamer* . .
Totals .
872
355.576
3352
3,096.999
4224
2,353.575
394
531
17-473
374.952
2355
1401
516,180
1,981.831
3649
1933
533.652
2,356,783
915
392424
3656
2498,01 1
4571
2.790435
In 1905, 3136 vessels of 383,171 tons, and in 1908, 2218 vessels of
284,081 tons, belonged to Prussian potts, and the number of sailor*
of the mercantile marine was 60,616 in 1905 and 71,853 in 1908.
The ports of Hamburg and Bremen, which are the chief outlets for
emigration to the United States of America, carry on a vast com-
mercial trade with all the chief countries of the world, and are the
main gates of maritime intercourse between the United Kingdom
and Germany.
The inland navigation is served by nearly 25,000 river, canal and
coasting vessels, of a tonnage of about 4,000,000.
Railways. The period of rail way construction was inaugurated
in Germany by the opening of the line (4 m. in length) from
Nuremberg to Furth in 1835, followed by the main line (71 m.)
between Leipzig and Dresden, opened throughout in 1839.
The development of the railway system was slow and was not
conceived on any uniform plan. The want of a central govern-
ment operated injuriously, for it often happened that intricate
negotiations and solemn treaties between several sovereign
states were required before a line could be constructed; and,
moreover, the course it was to take was often determined less
by the general exigencies of commerce than by many trifling
interests or desires of neighbouring states. The state which
was most self-seeking in its railway politics was Hanover, which
separated the eastern and western parts of the kingdom of
Prussia. The difficulties arising to Prussia from this source
were experienced in a still greater degree by the seaports of
Bremen and Hamburg, which were severely hampered by the
particularism displayed by Hanover.
The making of railways was from the outset regarded by
some German states as exclusively a function of the government.
The South German states, for example, have only possessed state
railways. In Prussia numerous private companies, in the first
instance, constructed their systems, and the state contented
itself for the most part with laying lines in such districts only
as were not likely to attract private capital.
The development of the German railway system falls con-
veniently into four periods. The first, down in 1840, embraces
the beginnings of railway enterprise. The next, down to 1848,
shows the linking-up of various existing lines and the establish-
ment of inter-connexion between the chief towns. The third,
down to 1881, shows the gradual establishment of state control
in Prussia, and the formation of direct trunk lines. The
fourth begins from 1881 with the purchase of practically all
the railways in Prussia by the government, and the introduc-
tion of a uniform system of interworking between the various
state systems. The purchase of the railways
by the Prussian government was on the whole
equably carried out, but there were several
hard cases in the expropriation of some of
the smaller private lines.
The majority of the German railways are
now owned by the state governments. Out of
34,470 m. of railway completed and open for
traffic in 1906, only 2579 m. were the property
of private undertakings, and of these about
150 were worked by the state. The bulk of the
railways are of the normal 4 ft. 8} in. gauge.
Narrow-gauge (2! ft.) lines or light railways
extended over 1218 m. in 1903, and of these
537 m. were worked by the state.
The board responsible for the imperial control over the
whole railway system in Germany is the Reichseisenbahnaml
8i6
GERMANY
[CONSTITUTION
in Berlin, the administration of the various state systems residing,
in Prussia, in the ministry of public works; in Bavaria in the
ministry of the royal house and of the exterior; in Wiirttemberg
in the ministry of the exterior; in Saxony in the ministry of
the interior; in Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt in commissions of
the ministry of finance; and in Alsace-Lorraine in the imperial
ministry of railways.
The management of the Prussian railway system is committed
to the charge of twenty " directions," into which the whole network
of lines is divided, being those of Altona, Berlin, Breslau, Bromberg,
Danzig, Elberfeld, Erfurt, Essen a.d. Ruhr, Frankfort-on-Main,
Halle a.d. Saale, Hanover, Cassel, Kattowitz, Cologne, Konigsberg,
Magdeburg, Munster, Posen, Saarbriicken and Stettin. The entire
length of the system was in 1906 20,835 m., giving an average of about
950 m. to each " direction." The smallest mileage controlled by a
' direction " is Berlin, with 380 m., and the greatest, Konigsberg,
with 1200 m.
The Bavarian system embraces 4642 m., and is controlled and
managed, apart from the " general direction " in Munich, by ten
traffic boards, in Augsburg, Bamberg, Ingolstadt, Kempten, Munich,
Nuremberg, Regensburg, Rosenheim, Weiden and Wiirzburg.
The system of the kingdom of Saxony has a length of 1616 m., and
is controlled by the general direction in Dresden.
The length of the Wiirttemberg system is 1141 m., and is managed
by a general direction in Stuttgart.
Baden (state) controls 1233, Oldenburg (state) 382, Mecklenburg-
Schwerin 726 and Saxe-Weimar 257 m. respectively. Rail-
ways lying within the other smaller states are mostly worked by
Prussia.
Alsace-Lorraine has a separate system of 1085 m., which is worked
by the imperial general direction in Strassburg.
By the linking-up of the various state systems several grand trunk
line routes have been developed notably the lines Berlin- Vienna-
Budapest; Berlin-Cologne-Brussels and Paris; Berlin-Halle-
Frankfort-on-Main-Basel; Hamburg-Cassel-Munich and Verona;
and Breslau-Dresden-Bamberg-Geneva. Until 1907 no uniform
system of passenger rates had been adopted, each state retaining
its own fares a condition that led to much confusion. From the
1st of May 1907 the following tariff came into force. For ordinary
trains the rate for first class was fixed at ijd'. a mile; for second
class at -7d.; for third class at $d., and for fourth class at Jd. a mile.
For express trains an extra charge is made of 2s. for distances
exceeding 93 m. (150 kils.) in the two superior classes, and is. for a
lesser distance, and of Is. and 6d. respectively in the case of third
class tickets. Fourth class passengers are not conveyed by express
trains. The above rates include government duty ; but the privilege
of free luggage (as up to 56 ft) has been withdrawn, and all luggage
other than hand baggage taken into the carriages is charged for.
In 1903 371,084,000 metric tons of goods, including animals, were
conveyed by the German railways, yielding 68,085,000 sterling,
and the number of passengers carried was 957,684,000, yielding
29,500,000.
The passenger ports of Germany affording oversea communications
to distant lands are mainly those of Bremen (Bremerhaven) and
Hamburg (Cuxhaven) both of which are situate on the North Sea.
From them great steamship lines, notably the North German Lloyd,
the Hamburg-American, the Hamburg South American and the
German East African steamship companies, maintain express mail
and other services with North and South America, Australia, the
Cape of Good Hope and the Far East. London and other English
ports, French, Italian and Levant coast towns are also served by
passenger steamboat sailings from the two great North Sea ports.
The Baltic ports, such as Lubeck, Stettin, Danzig (Neufahrwasser)
and Konigsberg, principally provide communication with the coast
towns of the adjacent countries, Russia and Sweden.
Waterways. In Germany the waterways are almost solely
in the possession of the state. Of ship canals the chief is the
Kaiser Wilhelm canal (1887-1895), 61 m. long, connecting the
North Sea and the Baltic; it was made with a breadth at
bottom of 72 ft. and at the surface of 213 ft., and with a depth
of 29 ft. 6 in., but in 1908 work was begun for doubling the bottom
width and increasing the depth to 36 ft. In respect of internal
navigation, the principal of the greater undertakings are the
Dortmund-Ems and the Elbe-Trave canals. The former, con-
structed in 1892-1899, has a length of 150 m. and a mean depth
of 8 ft. The latter, constructed 1895-1900, has a length of 43 m.
and a mean depth of about 7! ft. A project was sanctioned in
1905 for a canal, adapted for vessels up to 600 tons, from the
Rhine to the Weser at Hanover, utilizing a portion of the Dort-
mund-Ems canal; for a channel accommodating vessels of similar
size between Berlin and Stettin; for improving the waterway
between the Oder and the Vistula, so as to render it capable
of accommodating vessels of 400 tons; and for the canalization
of the upper Oder.
On the whole, Germany cannot be said to be rich in canals. In
South Germany the Ludwigs canal was, until the annexation of
Alsace-Lorraine, the only one of importance. It was constructed by
King Louis I. of Bavaria in order to unite the German Ocean and the
Black Sea, and extends from the Main at Bamberg to Kelheim on
the Danube. Alsace-Lorraine had canals for connecting the Rhine
with the Rhone and the Marne, a branch serving the collieries of the
Saar valley. The North German plain has, in the east, a canal
by which Russian grain is conveyed to Konigsberg, joining the
Pregel to the Memel, and the upper Silesian coalfield is in com-
munication with the Oder by means of the Klodnitz canal. The
greatest' number of canals is found around Berlin; they serve to
join the Spree to the Oder and Elbe, and include the Teltow canal
opened in 1906. The canals in Germany (including ship canals
through lakes) have a total length of about 2600 m. Navigable
and canalized rivers, to which belong the great water-systems of
the Rhine, Elbe and Oder, have a total length of about 6000' m.
Roads. The construction of good highways has been well
attended to in Germany only since the Napoleonic wars. The
separation of the empire into small states was favourable to
road-making, inasmuch as it was principally the smaller govern-
ments that expended large sums for their network of roads.
Hanover and Thuringia have long been distinguished for the
excellence of their roads, but some districts suffer even still
from the want of good highways. The introduction of railways
for a time diverted attention from road-making, but this neglect
has of late been to some extent remedied. In Prussia the districts
(Kreise) have undertaken the charge of the construction of the
roads; but they receive a subsidy from the public funds of the
several provinces. Turnpikes were abolished in Prussia in 1874
and in Saxony in 1885. The total length of the public roads is
estimated at 80,000 m.
Posts and Telegraphs. With the exception of Bavaria and
Wiirttemberg, which have administrations of their own, all the
German states belong to the imperial postal district (Reichs-
postgebiet). Since 1874 the postal and telegraphic departments
have been combined. Both branches of administration have
undergone a surprising development, especially since the reduc-
tion of the postal rates. Germany, including Bavaria and
Wiirttemberg, constitutes with Austria-Hungary a special postal
union (Deutsch-Osterreichischer Postverband), besides forming
part of the international postal union. There are no statistics
of posts and telegraphs before 1867, for it was only when the
North German union was formed that the lesser states resigned
their right of carrying mails in favour of the central authority.
Formerly the prince of Thurn-and-Taxis was postmaster-general
of Germany, but only some of the central states belonged to his
postal territory. The seat of management was Frankfort-on-
Main.
The following table shows the growth in the number of post
offices for the whole empire :
Year.
Post Offices.
Men employed.
1872
1880
1890
1899
1904
1907
7,5l8
9,460
24,952
36,388
38,658
40,083
128,687
206,945
261,985
319,026
In 1872 there were 2359 telegraph offices; in 1880, 9980; in 1890,
17,200; and in 1907, 37,309. There were 188 places provided with
telephone service in 1888, and 13,175 in 1899. The postal receipts
amounted for the whole empire in 1907 to 33,789,460, and the ex-
penditure to 31,096,944, thus showing a surplus of 2,692,516. J
Constitution. The constitution of the German empire is, in
all essentials, that of the North German Confederation, which
came into force on the 7th of June 1867. Under this the pre-
sidency (Praesidium) of the confederation was vested in the
king of Prussia and his heirs. As a result of the Franco-German
war of 1870 the South German states j'oined the confederation;
on the gth of December 1870 the diet of the confederation
accepted the treaties and gave to the new confederation the
name of German Empire {Deutsche Reich), and on the i8th of
January 1871 the king of Prussia was proclaimed German
CONSTITUTION]
GERMANY
817
emperor (Deutscker Kaiser) at Versailles. This was a change of
style, not of functions and powers. The title is " German em-
peror," not " emperor of Germany," being intended to show
that the Kaiser is but primus inter pares in a confederation of
territorial sovereigns; his authority as territorial sovereign
(Lamdtskerr) extends over Prussia, not over Germany.
The imperial dignity is hereditary in the line of Hohenzollern,
and follows the law of primogeniture. The emperor exercises
the imperial power in the name of the confederated states. In
his office he is assisted by a federal council (Bundrsral), which
represents the governments of the individual states of Germany.
The members of this council, 58 in number, are appointed for
each session by the governments of the individual states. The
legislative functions of the empire are vested in the emperor, the
Bundesrat, and the Reichstag or imperial Diet. The members
of the latter, 397 in number, are elected for a space of five years
by universal suffrage. Vote is by ballot, and one member is
elected by (approximately) every 150,000 inhabitants.
As regards its legislative functions, the empire has supreme
and independent control in matters relating to military affairs
and the navy, to the imperial finances, to German commerce,
to posts and telegraphs, and also to railways, in so far as these
affect the common defence of the country. Bavaria and WUrttem-
berg, however, have preserved their own postal and telegraphic
administration. The legislative power of the empire also takes
precedence of that of the separate states in the regulation of
matters affecting freedom of migration (FreitUgigkril), domicile,
settlement and the rights of German subjects generally, as well
as in all that relates to banking, patents, protection of intellectual
property, navigation of rivers and canals, civil and criminal
legislation, judicial procedure, sanitary police, and control of
the press and of associations.
The executive power is in the emperor's hands. He represents
the empire internationally, and can declare war if defensive,
and make peace as well as enter into treaties with other nations;
he also appoints and receives ambassadors. For declaring
offensive war the consent of the federal council must be obtained.
The separate states have the privilege of sending ambassadors
to the other courts; but all consuls abroad are officials of the
empire and are named by the emperor.
Both the Bundesrat and the Reichstag meet in annual sessions
convoked by the emperor who has the right of proroguing and
dissolving the Diet; but the prorogation must not exceed 60
days, and in case of dissolution new elections must be ordered
within 60 days, and the new session opened within oo days. All
laws for the regulation of the empire must, in order to pass,
receive the votes of an absolute majority of the federal council
and the Reichstag.
ftliarr InmJnr is represented in the Bundesrat by four com-
UHionen (Kommusdre), without votes, who are nominated by the
Statthalter (imperial lieutenant).
The fifty-eight members of the Bundesrat are nominated by the
government! of the individual states for each session; while the
members of the Reichstag are elected by universal suffrage and ballot
for the term of five years. Every German who has completed his
twenty-fifth year is prirna facie entitled to the suffrage in the state
within which he has resided for one year. Soldiers and those in the
navy are not thus entitled, so long as they are serving under the
colours. Excluded, further, are persons under tutelage, bankrupts
and paupers, as also such persons who have been deprived of civil
rights, during the time of such deprivation. Every German citizen
who has completed his twenty-fifth year and has resided for a year
in one of the federal states is eligible for election in any part of the
empire, provided he has not been, as in the cases above, excluded
from the right of suffrage. The secrecy of the ballot is ensured by
special regulations passed on the 28th of April 1903. The voting-
paper, furnished with an official stamp, must be placed in an envelope
by the elector in a compartment set apart for the purpose in the
polling room, and. thus enclosed, be handed by htm to the presiding
officer. An absolute majority of votes decides the election. It
(as in the case of several candidates) an absolute majority over all
the others has not been declared, a test election (StukwoU) takes
place between the two candidates who have received the greatest
number of votes. In case of an equal number of votes being cast
(or both candidates, the decision is by lot.
The subjoined table gives the names of the various states com-
posing the empire and the number of votes which the separate states
have in the federal council. Each state may appoint as many
members to the federal council as it has votes. The table also gives
the number of the deputies in the Reichstag.
States of the Empire.
No. of
Members in
Bundesrat.
No. of
Members in
Reichstag.
Kingdom of Prussia . . .
236
Bavaria .
6
48
Saxony . . .
4
'3
Wurttembcrg .
Grand duchy of Baden . . ,
4
3
17
U
Hesse .
3
9
, Mecklenburg-Schwerin
2
6
, Saxe-Weimar
3
, Mecklenburg-Strelitz
l
, Oldenburg .
3
Duchy of Brunswick . . .
3
Saxe-Mciningen . .
a
Saxe-Altenburg .
i
.. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
a
_ Anhalt ....
a
Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondcrs
hausen
i
Schwarzburg-Rudol-
stadt
Waldeck
Reuss-Greiz .
Rcuss-Schleiz .
Schaumburg-Lippe
Lippe .
Free town of LUbeclc . .
Bremen .
Hamburg.
3
Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine
15
Total .
58
397
The Reichstag must meet at least once in each year. Since
November 1906 its members have been paid (see PAYMENT OF
MEMBERS).
The following table shows its composition after the elections of
1903 and 1907 :
Parties.
1903-
1907.
Centre .
IOO
81
51
49
27
19
18
16
12
9
9
3
3
108
&
57
33
22
5
20
21
16
1
i
National Liberals
Freisinnige Volkspartei .
Reichspartei
Alsatians, Guelphs and Danes
Poles
Wirtschaftliche Vereinigung (R
Freisinnige Vereinigung
Wilde (no party)
Bund dor Landwirte .
Bauernbund . , .
efon
n Pa
rtei)
All the German states have separate representative assemblies,
except Alsace-Lorraine and the two grand-duchies of Mecklenburg.
The six larger states have adopted the two-chamber system, but
in the composition of the houses great differences are found.
The lesser states also have chambers of representatives numbering
from 13 members (in Reuss-Greiz) to 48 members (in Brunswick),
and in most states the different classes, as well as the cities and
the rural districts, are separately represented. The free towns
have legislative assemblies, numbering from 120 to 200 members.
Imperial measures, after passing the Bundesrat and the
Reichstag, must obtain the sanction of the emperor in order to
become law, and must be countersigned, when promulgated, by
the chancellor of the empire (Reichskanzler). All members of the
federal council are entitled to be present at the deliberations of
the Reichstag. The Bundesrat, acting under the direction of
the chancellor of the empire, is also a supreme administrative
and consultative board, and as such it has nine standing com-
mittees, viz.: for army and fortresses; for naval purposes;
for tariffs, excise and taxes; for trade and commerce; for
railways, posts and telegraphs; for civil and criminal law; for
financial accounts; lor foreign affairs; and for Alsace-Lorraine.
Each committee includes representatives of at least four states
of the empire.
8i8
GERMANY
[LOCAL GOVERNMENT
For the several branches of administration a considerable
number of imperial offices have been gradually created. All
of them, however, either are under the immediate authority
of the chancellor of the empire, or are separately managed under
his responsibility. The most important
are the chancery office, the foreign office
and the general post and telegraph office.
But the heads of these do not form a cabinet.
The Chancellor of the Empire (Reichskanzler).
The Prussian plenipotentiary to the Bundesrat
is the president of that assembly; he is ap-
pointed by the emperor, and bears the title
Reichskanzler. This head official can be repre-
sented by any other member of the Bundesrat
named in a document of substitution. The
Reichskanzler is the sole responsible official,
and conducts all the affairs of the empire, with
the exception of such as are of a purely military
character, and is the intermediary between the
emperor, the Bundesrat and the Reichstag. All
imperial rescripts require the counter-signature
of the chancellor before attaining validity. All
measures passed by the Reichstag require the
sanction of the majority of the Bundesrat, and
only become binding on being proclaimed on
behalf of the empire by the chancellor, which
publication takes place through the Reichs-
gesetzblatt (the official organ of the chancellor).
Government Offices. The following imperial
offices are directly responsible to the chancellor and stand under his
control :
1. The foreign office, which is divided into three departments:
(i.) the political and diplomatic; (ii.) the political and commercial;
(iii.) the legal. The chief of the foreign office is a secretary of state,
taking his instructions immediately from the chancellor.
2. The colonial office (under the direction of a secretary of state)
is divided into (i.) a civil department; (ii.) a military department;
(iii.) a disciplinary court.
3. The ministry of the interior or home office (under the conduct
of a secretary of state). This office is divided into four departments,
dealing with (i.) the business of the Bundesrat, the Reichstag, the
elections, citizenship, passports, the press, and military and naval
matters, so far as the last concern the civil authorities; (ii.) purely
social matters, such as old age pensions, accident insurance, migra-
tion, settlement, poor law administration, &c. ; (iii.) sanitary
matters, patents, canals, steamship lines, weights and measures;
and (iv.) commercial and economic relations such as agriculture,
industry, commercial treaties and statistics.
4. The imperial admiralty (Reichsmar i neamt) , which is the chief
board for the administration of the imperial navy, its maintenance
and development.
5. The imperial ministry of justice (Reichsjustizamt) , presided over
by a secretary of state. This office, not to be confused with the
Reichsgericht (supreme legal tribunal of the empire) in Leipzig, deals
principally with the drafting of legal measures to be submitted to
the Reichstag.
6. The imperial treasury (Reichsschatzamt), or exchequer, is the
head financial office of the empire. Presided over by a secretary of
state, its functions are principally those appertaining to the control
of the national debt and its administration, together with such as
in the United Kingdom are delegated to the board of inland revenue.
7. The imperial railway board (Reichseisenbahnamt) , the chief
official of which has the title of " president," deals exclusively with
the management of the railways throughout the empire, in so far
as they fall under the control of the imperial authorities in respect
of laws passed for their harmonious interworking, their tariffs and
the safety of passengers conveyed.
8. The imperial post office (Reichsposlamt), under a secretary of
state, controls the post and telegraph administration of the empire
(with the exception of Bavaria and Wurttemberg) , as also those in
the colonies and dependencies.
9. The imperial office for the administration of the imperial
railways in Alsace-Lorraine, the chief of which is the Prussian
minister of public works.
10. The office of the accountant-general of the empire (Rechnungs-
hof), which controls and supervises the expenditure of the sums voted
by the legislative bodies, and revises the accounts of the imperial
bank (Retchsbank).
11. The administration of the imperial invalid fund, i.e. of the
fund set apart in 1871 for the benefit of soldiers invalided in the war
of 1870-71 ; and
13. The imperial bank (Retchsbank), supervised by a committee of
four under the presidency of the imperial chancellor, who is a fifth
and permanent member of such committee.
The heads of the various departments of state do not form, as in
England, the nucleus of a cabinet. In so far as they are secretaries
of state, they are directly responsible to the chancellor, who repre-
sents all the offices in his person, and, as has been said, is the medium
of communication between the emperor and the Bundesrat and
Reichstag.
Colonies. The following table gives some particulars of the
dependencies of the empire :
Name.
Date of
Acquisition.
Area
(estimated)
sq. m.
Pop.
(estimated).
In Africa
Togoland
Cameroon
S.W.Africa
East Africa
Total in Africa .
In the Pacific
German New Guinea
Bismarck Archipelago
Caroline, Pelewand Mariana Islands
Solomon Islands ....
Marshall Islands
Samoan Islands ....
Total in Pacific .
In Asia
Kiao-chow
Total dependencies
1884
1884
1884
1885
1884
1884
1899
1886
1885
1899
1897
33,700
190,000
322,450
364,000
1,000,000
3,500,000
200,000
7,000,000
910,150
70,000
20,000
800
4,200
1 60
985
11,700,000
no,ooo(?)
188,000
41,600
45,000
15,000
33,000
96,H5
117
432,600
60,000
1884-1899
1,006,412
12,192,600
Except Kiao-chow, which is controlled by the admiralty, the
dependencies of the empire are under the direction of the colonial
office. This office, created in 1907, replaced the colonial department
of the foreign office which previously had had charge or colonial
affairs. The value of the trade of the colonies with Germany in
1906 was: imports into Germany, 1,028,000; exports from
Germany, 2,236,000. For 1907 the total revenue from the colonies
was 849,000; the expenditure of the empire on the colonies in
the same year being 4,362,000. (See the articles on the various
colonies.)
Local Government. In the details of its organization local
self-government differs considerably in the various states of the
German empire. The general principle on which it is based,
however, is that which has received its most complete expression
in the Prussian system: government by experts, checked by
lay criticism and the power of the purse, and effective control
by the central authorities. In Prussia at least the medieval
system of local self-government had succumbed completely to
the centralizing policy of the monarchy, and when it was revived
it was at the will and for the purposes of the central authorities,
as subsidiary to the bureaucratic system. This fact determined
its general characteristics. In England the powers of the local
authorities are defined by act of parliament, and within the
limits of these powers they have a free hand. In Germany general
powers are granted by law, subject to the approval of the central
authorities, with the result that it is the government departments
that determine what the local elected authorities may do, and
that the latter regard themselves as commissioned to carry out,
not so much the will of the locality by which they are elected,
as that of the central government. This attitude is, indeed,
inevitable from the double relation in which they stand. A
Bur germeister, once elected, becomes a member of the bureaucracy
and is responsible to the central administration; even the head-
man of a village commune is, within the narrow limits of his
functions, a government official. Moreover, under the careful
classification of affairs into local and central, many things which
in England are regarded as local (e.g. education, sanitary admini-
stration, police) are regarded as falling under the sphere of the
central government, which either administers them directly
or by means of territorial delegations consisting either of
individuals or of groups of individuals. These may be purely
official (e.g. the Prussian Regierung), a mixture of officials and
of elected non-official members approved by the government
(e.g. the Bezirksausschuss), or may consist wholly of authorities
elected for another purpose, but made to act as the agents of the
central departments (e.g. the Kreisausschuss). That this system
works without friction is due to the German habit of discipline;
that it is, on the whole, singularly effective is a result of the
LOCAL GOVERNMENT]
GERMANY
819
peculiarly enlightened and progressive views of the German
bureaucracy. 1
The unit of the German system of local government is the
commune (Gemeinde, or more strictly Ortsgrmeindt). These art-
divided into rural communes (Landgrmrttidm) and urban com-
munes (Stodtgtmeindtn), the powers and functions of which,
though differing widely, are baaed upon the same general
principle of representative local self-government. The higher
organs of local government, so far as these are representative,
are based on the principle of a group or union of communes
(Gtmfindnerb<}*d). Thus, in Prussia, the representative
assembly of the Circle (Kreutag) is composed of delegates of
the rural communes, as well as of the large landowners and the
towns, while the members of the provincial diet (Prorinsial-
landtag) are chosen by the Kreistagt and by such towns as form
separate Krriit.
In Prussia the classes of administrative areas are as follows:
(i) the province, (2) the government district (Rrgitrungsbairk),
(j) the rural circle (Landkrtis) and urban circle (Stadlkreis),
(4) the official district (Amtstxxirk), (5) the town commune
(Stadtgemeindt) and rural cpmmune (Landgemtinde). Of these
areas the provinces, circles and communes are for the purposes
both of the central administration and of local self-government,
and the bodies by which they are governed are corporations.
The Regierungsbexirke and Amlsbetirke, on the other hand, arc
for the purposes of the central administration only and are not
incorporated. The Prussian system is explained in greater
detail in the article PRUSSIA (?.). Here it must suffice to
indicate briefly the general features of local government in the
other German states, as compared with that in Prussia. The
province, which usually covers the area of a formerly independent
state (e.g. Hanover) is peculiar to Prussia. The Regierungibairk,
however, is common to the larger states under various names,
Rtgierungibairk in Bavaria, Kreishaupttnannschaft in Saxony,
/CrcmnWurttemberg. Common to all is the president (Regierungs-
prtsident, Kreiskauptmann in Saxony), an official who, with a
committee of advisers, is responsible for the oversight of the
administration of the circles and communes within his jurisdic-
tion. Whereas in Prussia, however, the Regierung is purely
official, with no representative element, the Regierungsbezirk
in Bavaria has a representative body, the Landral, consisting of
delegates of the district assemblies, the towns, large landowners,
clergy and in certain cases the universities; the president
is assisted by a committee (Landrotsausschuis) of six members
elected by the Landral. In Saxony the Kreiihauptmann is
assisted by a committee (Kreisaussckusi).
Below the Regitrungsbezirk is the Kreis, or Circle, in Prussia,
Baden and Hesse, which corresponds to the Dislrikt in Bavaria,
the Oberamt in \VUrt tcmberg 1 and the Amtshauptmannschaft in
Saxony. The representative assembly of the Circle (Kreistag,
Distrikttrat in Bavaria, Amtrcersiimmlung in Wttrttemberg,
BairkneriammiitHg in Saxony) is elected by the communes, and
is presided over by an official, either elected or, as in the case
of the Prussian Landrat, nominated from a list submitted by
the assembly. So far as their administrative and legislative
functions are concerned the GermnuKreistage have been compared
to the English county councils or the Hungarian comitatus.
Their decisions, however, are subject to the approval of their
official chiefs. To assist the executive a small committee
(Kreisausschuss, Distriktsaussckvss, &c.) is elected subject to
official approval. The official district (A mlsbairk), a subdivision
of the circle for certain administrative purposes (notably police),
is peculiar to Prussia.
Rural Commuiut. A* Mated above, the lowest administrative
area U the commune, whether urban or rural. The laws as to the
constitution and powers of the rural communes vary much in the
different states. In general the commune U a body corporate, its
assembly consisting either (in small villages) of the whole body of the
qualified inhabitants (GemeindeveriaHimlung), or of a representative
1 See the comparative study in Percy Ashley's Local and Central
Government (London, 1906).
1 The Krtit in WurttembtTg corresponds to the Regierungsbezirk
elsewhere.
assembly (Grmeindtvrrtretuni) elected by them (in communes where
there are more than forty (inulituil inhabitants). At its head is an
elected headman (Stkulse, DorJvonleHer, &c.), with a small body of
assistants (SchQffen, &c.). He is a government official responsible,
inter alia, for the policing of the commune. Where there are large
estates these sometimes constitute communes of themselves. For
common purposes several communes may combine, such combina-
tions being termed in WUrttcmberg Btirgermeistereien, in the Rhine
province Amtsverbande. In general the communes are of slight
importance. Where the land is held by small peasant proprietors,
they display a certain activity; where there arc large ground land-
lords, these usually control them absolutely.
Towns. The constitution of the towns (Sladtevcrfassung) varies
more greatly in the several states than that of the rural communes.
According to the so-called Stein'sche Sladleverfassvng (the system
introduced in Prussia by Stein in 1808), which, to differentiate
between it and other systems, is called the Magistratsverfassung (or
magisterial constitution), the municipal communes enjoy a greater
degree of self-government than dp the rural. In the magisterial
constitution of larger towns and cities, the members of the Magistral,
i.e. the executive council (also called Sladtrat, Gemeinderat), are
elected by the representative assembly of the citizens (Sladtverord-
netenversammlung) out of their own body.
In those parts of Germany which come under the influence of
French legislation, the constitution of the towns and that of the
rural communes (the so-called Biirgermeislereiverfassung) is identical,
in that the members of the communal executive body arc, in the
same way as those of the communal assembly, elected to office
immediately by the whole body of municipal electors.
The government of the towns is regulated in the main by municipal
codes (Sladleordnungen), largely based upon Stein's reform of 1808.
This, superseding the autonomy severally enjoyed by the towns and
cities since the middle ages (see COMMUNE), aimed at welding the
citizens, who had hitherto been divided into classes and gilds, into
one corporate whole, and giving them all an active share in the ad-
ministration of public affairs, while reserving to the central authorities
the power of effective control.
The system which obtains in all the old Prussian provinces (with
the exception of Rugcn and Vorpommern or Hither Pomerania)
and in Westphalia is that of Stein, modified by subsequent laws
notably those of 1853 and 1856 which gave the state a greater
influence, while extending the powers of the Magistral. In Vor-
pommern and Rttgen, and thus in the towns of Greifswald, Stralsund
and Bergen, among others, the old civic constitutions remain un-
changed. In the new Prussian provinces, Frankfort-on-Main re-
ceived a special municipal constitution in 1867 and the towns of
Schleswig-Holstein in 1869. The province of Hanover retains its
system as emended in 1858, and Hesse- Nassau, with the exception
of Frankfort-on-Main, received a special corporate system in 1897.
The municipal systems of Bavaria, Wurttemberg and Saxony are
more or less based on that of Stein, but with a wider sphere of self-
government. In Mecklenburg there is no uniform system. In
Saxe-Coburg, the towns of Coburg and Neustadt have separate and
peculiar municipal constitutions. In almost all the other states
the system is uniform. The free cities of Lubeck, Hamburg and
Bremen, as sovereign states, form a separate class. Their con-
stitutions are described in the articles on them.
Where the " magisterial " constitution prevails, the members of
the Magistral, i.e. the executive council (also called variously
Stadtrat, Gemeindevor stand, &c.), are as a rule elected by the repre-
sentative assembly of the burgesses (Stadtverordnetenversammlung;
also Gemeinderat, stadtiscker Ausschuss, Koltegium der Burgenorsteker,
Sladtdltesten, &c.). The Magistral consists of the chief burgomaster
(Erster Burgermeisltr or Sladtschultheiss, and in the larg_e cities
Oberburgermeister), a second burgomaster or assessor, and in large
towns of a number of paid and unpaid town councillors (Ralsherren,
Senaloren, Sck6ffen, Ratsmdnner, Magistralsrdte), together with
certain salaried members selected for specific purposes (e.g. Baural,
for building). Over this executive body the Stadtverordneten, who
arc elected by the whole body of citizens and unpaid, exercise a
general control, their assent being necessary to any measures of
importance, especially those involving any considerable outlay.
They are elected for from three to six years; the members of the
Magistral are chosen for six, nine or twelve years, sometimes even
for life. In the large towns the burgomasters must be jurists, and
are paid. The police arc under the control of the Magistral, except
in certain large cities, where they are under a separate state de-
partment.
The second system mentioned above (BUrgermeistereiverfassung)
prevails in the Rhine province, the Bavarian Palatinate, Hesse,
Saxe-Weimar, Anhalt, Waldcck and the principalities of Reuss and
Schwarzburg. In Wurttemberg, Baden ana Hesse-Nassau the
system is a compromise between the two; both the town and rural
communes have a mayor (B<Hr germeister or Sckultheiss, as the case
may be) and a Gemeinderat for administrative purposes, the citizens
exercising control through a representative Gemeindeausschuss
(communal committee).
Justice. By the Judicature Act Gerichtmtrfassungsgeseto
of 1879, the so-called " regular litigious " jurisdiction of the
820
GERMANY
[JUSTICE
courts of law was rendered uniform throughout the empire, and
the courts are now everywhere alike in character and composition ;
and with the exception of the Reichsgericht (supreme court of the
empire), immediately subject to the government of the state
in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the imperial
government. The courts, from the lowest to the highest, are
Amtsgericht, Landgericht, Oberlandesgericht and Reichsgericht.
There are, further, Verwaltungsgerichte (administrative courts)
for the adjustment of disputes between the various organs
of local government, and other special courts, such as military,
consular and arbitration courts (Schiedsgerichl). In addition
to litigious business the courts also deal with non-litigious
matters, such as the registration of titles to land, guardianship
and the drawing up and custody of testamentary dispositions,
all which are almost entirely within the province of the Amts-
gerichte. There are uniform codes of criminal law (Strafgesetz-
buch), commercial law and civil law (Biirgerliches Geselzbuch), the
last of which came into force on the ist of
January 1900. The criminal code, based
on that of Prussia anterior to 1870, was
gradually adopted by all the other states
and was generally in force by 1872. It
has, however, been frequently emended
and supplemented.
The lowest courts of first instance are
the Amtsgerichte, each presided over by a
single judge, and with jurisdiction in petty
criminal and civil cases, up to 300 marks
(15). They are also competent to deal
with all disputes as to wages, and letting and hiring, without
regard to the value of the object in dispute. Petty criminal cases
are heard by the judge (Amtsrichter) sitting with two Schoffen
assessors selected by lot from the jury lists, who are competent
to try prisoners for offences punishable with a fine, not exceeding
600 marks (30) or corresponding confinement, or with imprison-
ment not exceeding three months. The Landgerichte revise the
decisions of the Amtsgerichte, and have also an original jurisdiction
in criminal and civil cases and in divorce proceedings. The criminal
chamber of the Landgericht is composed of five judges, and a majority
of four is required for a conviction. These courts are competent
to try cases of felony punishable with a term of imprisonment not
exceeding five years. The preliminary examination is conducted
by a judge, who does not sit on the bench at the trial. Jury courts
(Schwurgerichte) are not permanent institutions, but are periodically
held. They are formed of three judges of the Landgericht and a jury
of twelve; and a two-thirds majority is necessary to convict.
There are 173 Landgerichte in the empire, being one court for every
325,822 inhabitants. The first court of second instance is the
Oberlandesgericht, which has an original jurisdiction in grave offences
and is composed of seven judges. There are twenty-eight such
courts in the empire. Bavaria alone has an Oberstes Landesgericht,
which exercises a revising jurisdiction over the Oberhmdesgerichie in
the state. The supreme court of the German empire is the Reichs-
gericht, having its seat at Leipzig. The judges, numbering ninety-
two, are appointed by the emperor on the advice of the federal council
(Bundesrat). This court exercises an appellate jurisdiction in civil
cases remitted, for the decision of questions of law, by the inferior
courts and also in all criminal cases referred to it. It sits in four
criminal and six civil senates, each consisting of seven judges, one
of whom is the president. The judges are styled Reichsgerichtsrdte
(counsellors of the imperial court).
In the Amtsgericht a private litigant may conduct his own case;
but where the object of the litigation exceeds 300 marks (15),
and in appeals from the Amtsgericht to the Landgericht, the plaintiff
(and also the defendant) must be represented by an advocate
Rechtsanwa.lt.
A Rechtsanwalt, having studied law at a university for four years
and having passed two state examinations, if desiring to practise
must be admitted as " defending counsel " by the Amtsgericht or
Landgericht, or by both. These advocates are not state officials,
but are sworn to the due execution of their duties. In case a client
has suffered damage owing to the negligence of the advocate, the
latter can be made responsible. In every district of the Oberlandes-
gericht, the Rechtsanwalte are formed into an Anwaltkammer (chamber
of advocates), and the council of each chamber, sitting as a
court of honour, deals with and determines matters affecting the
honour of the profession. An appeal lies from this to a second
court of honour, consisting of the president, three judges of the
Reichsgericht and of three lawyers admitted to practice before that
court.
Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the name of the crown by
the Staatsanwdlte (state attorneys), who form a separate branch of the
judicial system, and initiate public prosecutions or reject evidence as
being insufficient to procure conviction. The proceedings in the
courts are, as a rule, public. Only in exceptional circumstances are
cases heard in camera.
Military offences come before the military court and serious
offences before the Kriegsgericht. The court-martial is, in every
case, composed of the commander of the district as president, and
four officers, assisted by a judge-advocate (Kriegsgerichtsrat) , who
conducts the case and swears the judges and witnesses. In the
most serious class of cases, three officers and two judge-advocates
are the judges. The prisoner is defended by an officer, whom he
may himself appoint, and can be acquitted by a simple majority,
but only be condemned by a two-thirds majority. There are also
Kaufmanns- and Cewerbegerichte (commercial and industrial courts),
composed of persons belonging to the classes of employers and
employees, under the presidency of a judge of the court. Their
aim is the effecting of a reconciliation between the parties. From
the decision of these courts an appeal lies to the Landgericht where
the amount of the object in dispute exceeds 100 marks (5).
The following . table shows the number of criminal cases tried
before the courts of first instance, with the number and sex of con-
victed persons, and the number of the latter per 10,000 of the civil
population over twelve years of age :
Year.
Cases tried.
Persons convicted.
Total.
Convictions
per 10,000
Inhabitants.
Amtsgericht.
Landgericht.
Males.
Females.
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1,143,687
1,205,558
1,221,080
1,251,662
1,287,686
94,241
101,471
104,434
105,241
105,457
396,975
419,592
431,257
424,813
435,191
72,844
77-718
81,072
80,540
81,785
469,819
497,310
512,329
505,353
516,976
"9-5
125-6
127-3
123-4
124-2
k Of those convicted in 1904, 225,326 had been previously convicted.
Poor Law.. A law passed by the North German Confederation
of the 6th of June 1870, and subsequently amended by an
imperial law of the i2th of March 1894, laid down rules for the
relief of the destitute in all the states composing the empire,
with the exception of Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine. According
to the system adopted, the public relief of the poor is committed!
to the care of local unions (Orlsarmenverbande) and provincial
unions (Landarmenverbandc),the: former corresponding, generally, i
to the commune, and the latter to a far wider area, a circle or a
province. Any person of eighteen years, who has continuously
resided with a local union for the space of two years, there
acquires his domicile. But any destitute German subject must
be relieved by the local union in which he happens to be at the
time, the cost of the relief being defrayed by the local or provin-
cial union in which he has his domicile. The wife and children
have also their domicile in the place where the husband or father
has his. 1
Relief of the poor is one of the chief duties of the organs of local
self-government. The moneys for the purpose are mainly derived
from general taxation (poor rates per se being but rarely directly
levied), special funds and voluntary contributions. In some
German states and communes certain dues (such as the dog tax in
Saxony), death duties and particularly dues payable in respect of
public entertainments and police court fines, are assigned to the poor-
relief chest. In some large towns the Elberfeld system of unpaid
district visitors and the interworking of public and private charity
is in force. The imperial laws which introduced the compulsory
insurance of all the humbler workers within the empire, and gave
them, when incapacitated by sickness, accident and old age, an
absolute right to pecuniary assistance, have greatly reduced pauper-
ism and crime. ^ ...
Workmen's Insurance. On June 15, 1883, the Reichstag, as
the result of the policy announced by the emperor William I.
in his speech from the throne in 1881, passed an act making
insurance against sickness, accident, and incapacity compulsory
on all workers in industrial pursuits. By further laws, in 1885
and 1892, this obligation was extended to certain other classes
of workers, and the system was further modified by acts passed
in 1900 and 1903. Under this system every person insured has a
right to assistance in case of sickness, accident, or incapacity,
while in case of death his widow and children receive an
annuity.
I. Insurance against sickness is provided for under these laws
partly by the machinery already existing, i.e. the sick benefit societies,
1 The system of compulsory registration, which involves a notifi-
cation to the police of any change of address (even temporary), of
course makes it easy to determine the domicile in any given case.
INSURANCE: RELIGION)
GERMANY
821
partly by new machinery devised to meet the new obligation im-
posed. The tick-funds (KrankrHkastrn) are thus of wven kinds:
(I) free assistance funds (frru lltlfikaur*). cither registered under
the law of 1876, a* modified in 1884 (Ei*ttichriebt*t HUfskassen).
or established under the law of the separate states (landesrrckllifhe
Htl/skasirn) ; (3) Betriebt- or Fabrikkrankenkaiim, funds established
by individual factory-owner*; (A) Baukrankenkasu. a fund estab-
lished for workmen engaged on the construction (Bau) of particular
engineering work* (canal-digging, &c.). by individual contractors;
(4) gild tck funds (InnuHtskraHtfHttissfn), established by the gilds
for the workmen and apprentices of their member*; (j) miners'
sick fund (Knappukaflikaist) ; (6) local sick fund (Ortskrankrnkasie) ,
eXabliihed by the commune for particular craft* or classes of
workmen; (7) CfmtinJekrankfitrmukfrunf, i.e. insurance of
member* of the commune a* such, in the event of their not subscribing
to any of the other fund*. Of these, a, 3, 6 and 7 were created
under the above-mentioned law*.
The number of such funds amounted in 1903 to 33,371, and
included 10,334.397 workmen. The Ortskrankrnkasfrn, with
4.975-3" members, had the greatest, and the Bavkrankfnkaisrn,
with 16.451), the smallest number of members. The Orlskrankm-
luusm, which endeavour to include workmen of a like trade, have
to a great extent, especially in Saxony, fallen under the control of
the Social Democrat*. The appointment of permanent doctors
(Kastenjrsie) at a fixed salary has given rise to much difference
between the medical profession and this local sick fund; and the
insistence on " freedom of choice " in doctor*, which has been made
by the members and threatens to militate against the interest of the
profession, ha* been met on the part of the medical body by the
appointment of a commission to investigate caws of undue influence
in the selection.
According to the statistics furnished in the Vierleljohreshefte zur
Stattittk da deuttcken Rrukes for 1905, the receipts amounted to
upwards of 10,000,000 for 1903, and the expenditure to somewhat
less than this sum. Administrative changes were credited with
nearly 600,000, and the invested funds totalled 9,000,000. The
workmen contribute at the rate of two-thirds and the employers at
the rate of one-third; the sum payable in respect of each worker
varying from l|-3o of the earnings in the " communal sick fund "
to at roost I J-4 % in the others.
3. Insurance against old age and invalidity comprehends all
persons who have entered upon their 171(1 year, and who belong to
one of the following classes of wage-earners: artisans, apprentices,
domestic servants, dressmakers, charwomen, laundresses, seam-
stresses, housekeepers, foremen, engineers, journeymen, clerks and
apprentices in shops (excepting assistants and apprentices inchcmists'
shops), schoolmaster*, schoolmistresses, teachers and governesses,
provided the earning* do not exceed 100 per annum. The insured
are arranged in five classes, according to the amount of their
yearly earning*: viz. 17, los.; 27, los. ; 47, los. ; 57, los. ;
and 100. The contributions, affixed to a pension book " in
tamp*, are payable each week, and amount, in English money, to
1-450.. 2-340-. 2-83d., 3-3od. and 4-33d. Of the contribution one
half is paid by the employer and the other by the employee, whose
duty it is to see that the amount has been properly entered in the
pension book. The pensions, in case of invalidity, amount (including
a state subsidy of 3, los. for each) respectively to 8, 8s.;
"i 5S-; 13, io*.; 15, 155.; and 18. The old-age pensions
(beginning at 70 years) amount to 5, los. ; 7; 8, los. ; 10;
and 11, io*. The old-age and invalid insurance is carried out by
thirty-one large territorial offices, to which must be added nine
special unions. The income of the forty establishments was, in
1903, 8,500,000 (including 1,700,000 imperial subsidy). The
capital collected was upwards of 50.000,000.
it may be added that employees in mercantile and trading houses,
who have not exceeded the age of 40 years and whose income is
belo* 150, are allowed voluntarily to share in the benefits of this
insurance.
3. Accident Insurance (UnfaUversifherunr). The insurance of
workmen and the lesser official* against the risks of accident is
effected not through the state or the commune, but through associa-
tions formed ad hoc. These association* are composed of members
following the same or allied occupation* (e.g. foresters, seamen,
smiths, Ac.), and hence are called " professional associations "
(BfTuftfenoiifnukaften). They arc empowered, subject to the
limits set by the law, to regulate their own business by means of a
general meeting and of elected committee*. The greater number
of these associations cover a very wide field, generally the whole
empire; in such case* they are empowered to divide their spheres
into sections, and to establish agents in different centres to inquire
into case* of accident, and to see to the carrying out of the rules
prescribed by the association for the avoidance of accidents. Those
associations, of which the area of operation* extend* beyond any
single state, are subordinate to the control of the imperial insurance
bureau (Reichnertuherunitamt) at Berlin; those that are confined
to a single state (as generally in the case of foresters and husband-
men) are under the control of the state insurance bureau (Landts-
ttrnckeruntsamt).
So far a* their earnings do not exceed fijoperannum.thefollowing
classes are under the legal obligation to insure: labourers in mines,
qiiarries.dockyardi, wharves, manufactoriesand breweries; bricklayer*
and navvies; post-office, railway, and naval and military servants and
officials; carters, raftsmen and canal hands; cellarmen, warehouse-
men; stevedores; and agricultural labourer*. Each of these group*
forms an association, which within a certain district embraces all the
industries with which it is connected. The funds for covering the
compensation payable in respect of accidents arc raised by payment*
based, in agriculture, on the taxable capital, and in other trades and
industries on the earnings of the insured. Compensation in respect
of injury or death is not paid if the accident was brought about
through the culpable negligence or other delict of the insured. In
case of injury, involving incapacity for more than thirteen weeks
(for the earlier period the Krankenkassen provide), the weekly sum
payable during complete or permanent incapacity is fixed at the
ratio of two-thirds of the earnings during the year preceding the
accident, and in case of partial disablement, at such a proportion
of the earnings as corresponds to the loss through disablement.
In certain circumstances (e.g. need for paid nursing) the sum may be
increased to the full rate of the previous earnings. In case of death,
MA consequence of injury, the following payments are made: (l)
a sum of at least 3, los. to defray the expenses of interment;
(s) a monthly allowance of one-fifth of the annual earning* as above
to the widow and each child up to the age of 15.
Life Insurance. There were forty-six companies in 1900 for the
insurance of life. The number of persons insured was 1,446,249
at the end of that year, the insurances amounting to roughly
330,000,000. Besides these arc sixty-one companies of which
forty-six are comprised in the above life insurance companies
paying subsidies in case of death or of military service, endowments,
&c. Some of these companies are industrial. The transactions of
all these companies included in 1900 over 4,179,000 persons, and the
amount of insurances effected was 80,000,000.
Religion. So far as the empire as a whole is concerned there
is no state religion, each state being left free to maintain its own
establishment. Thus while the emperor, as king of Prussia, is
summits episcopus of the Prussian Evangelical Church, as em-
peror he enjoys no such ecclesiastical headship. In the several
states the relations of church and state differ fundamentally
according as these states are Protestant or Catholic. In the
latter these relations are regulated cither by concordats between
the governments and the Holy See, or by bulls of circumscription
issued by the pope after negotiation. The effects of concordats
and bulls alike are tempered by the exercise by the civil
power of certain traditional reserved rights, e.g. the placetum
rcgium, rccursus ab abusu, nominatio regia, and that of vetoing
the nomination of pcrsonae minus gratae. In the Protestant
states the ecclesiastical authority remains purely territorial,
and the sovereign remains effective head of the established
church. During the ipth century, however, a large measure of
ecclesiastical self-government (by means of general synods, &c.)
was introduced, part passu with the growth of constitutional
government in the state; and in effect, though the theoretical
supremacy of the sovereign survives in the church as in the state,
he cannot exercise it save through the general synod, which is
the state parliament for ecclesiastical purposes. Where a
sovereign rules over a state containing a large proportion of
both Catholics and Protestants, which is usually the case, both
systems coexist. Thus in Prussia the relations of the Roman
Catholic community to the Protestant state are regulated by
arrangement between the Prussian government and Rome;
while in Bavaria the king, though a Catholic, is legally summus
episcopus of the Evangelical Church.
According to the religious census of 1900 there were in the German
empire 35,231,104 Evangelical Protestants, 20,327,913 Roman
Catholics, 6472 Greek Orthodox, 303,678 Christians belonging to
other confessions, 586,948 Jews, 11,597 members of other sects and
5938 unclassified. The Christians belonging to other confessions
include Moravian Brethren, Mennonites, Baptists, Methodists and
Puakers, German Catholics, Old Catholics, &c. The table on follow-
ing page shows the distribution of the population according to
religious beliefs as furnished by the census of 1900.
Almost two-thirds of the population belong to the Evangelical
Church, and rather more than a third to the Church of Rome; the
actual figures (based on the census of 1900) being (%) Evan-
gelical Protestants. 63-5 ; Roman Catholics, 36- 1 ; Dissenters and
others, -043, and Jews, i-o. The Protestants have not increased
proportionately in number since 1890, while the Roman Catholics
show a small relative increase'. Three states in Germany have a
decidedly predominant Roman Catholic population, viz. Alsace-
Lorraine, Bavaria and Baden; and in four states the Protestant
element prevails, but with from 24 to 34% of Roman Catholics:
viz. Prussia, Wurttcmberg, Hesse and Oldenburg. In Saxony and
822
GERMANY
[EDUCATION
States.
Evangelicals
Catholics.
Other
Christians.
Jews.
Prussia
2i.8i7-577
12,113,670
139,127
392,322
Bavaria
1,749,206
4.363,178
7,607
54,928
Saxony
3,972,063
198,265
19,103
12,416
Wurttemberg ....
1,497,299
650,392
9,426
11,916
Baden
704,058
1,131,639
5-563
26,132
Hesse
M ecklenburg-Sch werin
746,201
597,268
341,570
8,182
7,368
487
24,486
,763
Saxe-Weimar ....
347.H4
14,158
36i
,188
Mecklenburg-Strelitz
100,568
1,612
62
331
Oldenburg
Brunswick
309,510
436,976
86,920
24,175
1-334
1,271
,359
,824
Saxe-Meiningen
244,810
4,170
395
,351
Saxe-Altenburg ....
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha .
189,885
225,074
4,723
3-330
206
515
99
608
Anhalt . . . .
Schwarzburg-Sondsrshausen
301,953
79,593
11,699
1,110
794
27
1,605
1 66
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
92,298
676
37
48
Waldeck
55,285
1,831
164
637
Reuss-Greiz ....
66,860
!, 43
444
48
Reuss-Schleiz ....
135,958
2,579
466
178
Schaumburg-Lippe .
41,908
785
177
257
Lippe
132,708
5,157
205
879
Lubeck
93,671
2,190
213
670
Bremen
208,815
13-506
876
1,409
Hamburg
712,338
30,903
3,149
17,949
Alsace-Lorraine
372,078
1,310,450
4,301
32,379
Total .
35,231,104
20,327,913
203,678
586,948
Roman
Catholic
Church.
the eighteen minor states the number of Roman Catholics is only
from 0-3 to 3-3 % of the population.
From the above table little can be inferred as to the geographical
distribution of the two chief confessions. On this point it must be
borne in mind that the population of the larger towns, on account
of the greater mobility of the population since the introduction of
railways and the abolition of restrictions upon free settlement, has
become more mixed Berlin, Leipzig, Hamburg, &c., showing
proportionally more Roman Catholics, and Cologne, Frankfort-on-
Main, Munich more Protestants than formerly. Otherwise the
geographical limits of the confessions have been but little altered
since the Thirty Years' War. In the mixed territories those places
which formerly belonged to Roman Catholic princes are Roman
Catholic still, and vice versa. Hence a religious map of South
Germany looks like an historical map of the I7th century. The
number of localities where the two confessions exist side by side is
small. Generally speaking, South Germany is predominantly Roman
Catholic. Some districts along the Danube (province of Bavaria,
Upper Palatinate, Swabia), southern Wurttemberg and Baden, and
in Alsace-Lorraine are entirely so. These territories are bordered
by a broad stretch of country on the north, where Protestantism
has maintained its hold since the time of the Reformation, including
Bayreuth or eastern upper Franconia, middle Franconia, the northern
half of Wurttemberg and Baden, with Hesse and the Palatinate.
Here the average proportion of Protestants to Roman Catholics is
two to one. The basin of the Main is again Roman Catholic from
Bamberg to Aschaffenburg (western upper Franconia and lower
Franconia). In Prussia the western and south-eastern provinces are
mostly Roman Catholic, especially the Rhine province, together
with the government districts of Miinster and Arnsberg. The
territories of the former principality of Cleves and of the countship
of Mark (comprising very nearly the basin of the Ruhr), which went
to Brandenburg in 1609, must, however, be excepted. North of
Munster, Roman Catholicism is still prevalent in the territory of
the former bishopric of Osnabriick. In the east, East Prussia
(Ermeland excepted) is purely Protestant. Roman Catholicism was
predominant a hundred years ago in all the frontier provinces ac-
quired by Prussia in the days of Frederick the Great, but since then
the German immigrants have widely propagated the Protestant
faith in these districts. A prevailingly Roman Catholic population
is still found in the district of Oppeln and the countship of Glatz,
in the province of Posen, in the Polish-speaking Kreise of West
Prussia, and in Ermeland (East Prussia). In all the remaining
territory the Roman Catholic creed is professed only in the Eichsfeld
on the southern border of the province of Hanover and around
Hildesheim.
The adherents of Protestantism are divided by their confessions
into Reformed and Lutheran. To unite these the " church union "
Prote tant ^ as ^ een ' ntr duced in several Protestant states, as for
Church example in Prussia and Nassau in 1817, in the Palatinate
in 1818 and in Baden in 1822. Since 1817 the distinction
has accordingly been ignored in Prussia, and Christians are there
enumerated only as Evangelical or Roman Catholic. The union, how-
ever, has not remained wholly unopposed a section of the more rigid
Lutherans who separated themselves from the state church being
now known as Old Lutherans. In 1866 Prussia annexed Hanover
and Schleswig-Holstein, where the Protestants were Lutherans,
and Hesse, where the Reformed Church had
the preponderance. The inhabitants of these
countries opposed the introduction of the
union, but could not prevent their being sub-
ordinated to the Prussian Oberkirchenrat (high
church-council), the supreme court of the
state church. A synodal constitution for the
Evangelical State Church was introduced in
Prussia in 1875. The Oberkirchenrat retains
the right of supreme management. The
ecclesiastical affairs of the separate provinces
are directed by consistorial boards. The
parishes (Pfarreun) are grouped into dioceses
(Sprengel), presided over by superintendents,
who are subordinate to the superintendent-
general of the province. Prussia has sixteen
superintendents-general. The ecclesiastical
administration is similarly regulated in the
other countries of the Protestant creed.
Regarding the number of churches and
chapels Germany has no exact statistics.
There are five archbishoprics within the
German empire: Gnesen-Posen, Cologne,
Freiburg (Baden), Munich-Freising
and Bamberg. The twenty bishop-
rics are: Breslau (where the bishop
has the title of " prince-bishop "),
Ermeland (seat at Frauenburg, East Prussia).
Kulm (seat at Pelplin, West Prussia), Fulda,
Hildesheim, Osnabriick, Paderborn, Munster,
Limburg, Trier, Metz, Strassburg, Spires,
Wiirzburg, Regensburg, Passau, Eichstatt,
Augsburg, Rottenburg (Wurttemberg) and
Mainz. Apostolic vicanates exist in Dresden (for Saxony), and
others for Anhalt and the northern missions.
The Old Catholics (?..), who seceded from the Roman Church in
consequence of the definition of the dogma of papal infallibility,
number roughly 50,000, with 54 clergy.
It is in the towns that the Jewish element is chiefly to be found.
They belong principally to the mercantile class, and are to a very
large extent dealers in money. Their wealth has grown .
to an extraordinary degree. They are increasingly numer-
ous in Hamburg, Berlin, Frankfort-on-Main, Breslau, Kcnigsberg,
Posen, Cologne, Nuremberg and Furth. As a rule their numbers
are proportionately greater in Prussia than elsewhere within the
empire. But, since 1871, the Jewish population of Germany shows
a far smaller increase than that of the Christian confessions, and
even in the parts of the country where the Jewish population is
densest it has shown a tendency to diminish. It is relatively
greatest in the province of Posen, where the numbers have fallen
from 61,982 (39-1 per thousand) in 1871 1035,327 (18-7 perthpusand)
in 1900. The explanation is twofold the extraordinary increase
(i) in their numbers in Berlin and the province of Brandenburg,
and (2) in the number of conversions to the Christian faith. In this
last regard it may be remarked that the impulse is less from religious
conviction than from a desire to associate on more equal terms
with their neighbours. Though still, in fact at least, if not by law,
excluded from many public offices, especially from commands in
the army, they nevertheless are very powerful in Germany, the press
being for the most part in their hands, and they furnish in many
cities fully one-half of the lawyers and the members of the corpora-
tion. It should be mentioned, as a curious fact, that the numbers
of the Jewish persuasion in the kingdom of Saxony increased
from 3358 (1-3 per thousand) in 1871 to 12,416 (3 per thousand)
in 1900.
Education. In point of educational culture Germany ranks
high among all the civilized great nations of the world (see
EDUCATION: Germany). Education is general and compulsory
throughout the empire, and all the states composing it have, with
minor modifications, adopted the Prussian system providing
for the establishment of elementary schools Volksschulen in
every town and village. The school age is from six to fourteen,
and parents can be compelled to send their children to a Volks-
schule, unless, to the satisfaction of the authorities, they are
receiving adequate instruction in some other recognized school
or institution.
The total "number of primary schools was 60,584 in 1906-
1907; teachers, 166,597; pupils, 9,737,262 an average of about
one Volksschule to every 900 inhabitants. The annual expendi-
ture was over 26,000,000, of which sum 7,500,000 was pro-
vided by state subvention. There were also in Germany in
the same year 643 private schools, giving instruction similar to
that of the elementary schools, with 41,000 pupils. A good
criterion of the progress of education is obtained from the diminish-
ing number of illiterate army recruits, as shown by the following
EDUCATION]
GERMANY
823
Year*.
Number of
Recruit*.
Unable to Read or Write.
Total.
Per looo
Recruit*.
1875-1876
l8*0-|KMl
ittg i(M
1890-1891
- - -
tip 1*9
1900-1901
39.55
151.180
53.933
193418
250,387
353.383
253,000
33"
M06
1*57
1035
374
173
>3
33-7
15-9
i.. ^
5-4
1-5
0-7
o-45
Of the above 131 illiterate* in 1900-1901, 114 were in East and
We*t Prussia. Pawn and Silesia.
L'nitfrsitits and Higher Technical Schools. Germany owes
its large number of universities, and its widely diffused higher
education to its former subdivision into many separate states.
Only a few of the universities date their existence from the
10th century; the majority of them arc very much older. Each
of the larger provinces, except Poscn, has at least one university,
the entire number being 21. All have four faculties except
MUnster, which has no faculty of medicine. As regards theology,
Bonn, Breslau and Tubingen have both a Protestant and a
Catholic faculty; Freiburg, Munich, MUnster and WUrzburg
are exclusively Catholic; and all the rest are Protestant.
The following table gives the names of the 2 1 universities, the dates
of their respective foundation*, the number of their professors and
other teachers for the winter half-year 1908-1909, and of the students
attending their lectures during the winter half-year of 1907-1908:
Date of
Foundation.
I't '.- H '["-
and
Teachers.
Students.
Total.
Theology.
Law.
Medicine.
Philosophy.
Berlin
1809
493
326
2747
"53
3934
8220
Bonn
1818
190
395
833
282
1699
3209
Breslau . . .
18"
189
33
617
284
840
2071
ErUngen
743
77
"55
333
355
225
1058
Freiburg . .
1457
ISO
319
373
580
642
1814
Gies*en . . .
1607
100
63
204
33'
546
"44
(idttingen
1737
161
IO3
441
1 88
"26
1857
Greifswald . .
1456
105
68
188
1 86
361
803
Halle . . .
1694
174
33'
450
217
239
2237
Heidelberg . .
177
55
357
385
879
1676
1**
i ;>^
116
48
267
265
795
"375
Kid . . .
LdSg***
1665
"544
1409
131
153
i!
303
371
3'7
1013
239
218
606
480
502
2419
1025
"05
434 1
Marburg . .
'IP 7
"7
33
400
261
876
1670
Munich .
1836
239
169
1893
'903
'979
5943
Munster . .
1903
95
278
458
870
1606
Rostock
1418
65
48
67
211
322
648
Straburg
1873
167
241
369
255
844
1709
TUbingen . .
1477
"I
464
467
26 3
384
1578
\\ urzburg
1582
103
106
331
625
320
1382
Not included in the above list is the little academy Lyceum
Hosianum at Braunsberg in Prussia, having faculties of theology
(Roman Catholic) and philosophy, with 13 teachers and 1 50 students.
In all the universities the number of matriculated students in 1907-
1908 was 46,471. including 330 women, 2 of whom studied theology,
14 law, 150 philosophy and 154 medicine. There were also, within
the same period, 5653 non-matriculated Hirer (hearers), including
3480 women*
Ten schools, technical high schools, or Polytechnica, rank with the
universities, and have the power of granting certain degrees. They
have departments of architecture, building, civil engineering,
chemistry, metallurgy and, in some cases, anatomy. These schools
are as follows: Berlin (Charlottenburg), Munich, Darmstadt, Karls-
ruhe, Hanover, Dresden, Stuttgart, Aix-la-Chapellc, Brunswick
and Danzig; in 1908 they were attended by 14,149 students (2531
foreigners), and had a teaching staff of 753. Among the remaining
higher technical schools may be mentioned the three mining academies
of Berlin, Clausthal, in the Harz, and Freiberg in Saxony. For
instruction in agriculture there are agricultural schools attached to
several universities notably Berlin, Halle, Gottingen, Kdnigsberg,
Jena. Poppelsdorf near Bonn, Munich and Leipzig. Noted academies
of forestry are those of Tharandt (in Saxony),
Eberswalde, Munden on the Weser, Hohenheim Year .1570 1600
r Stuttgart, Brunswick, Eisenach, Giessen and Books
addition to 434 commercial schools of a lesser degree, 100 schools for
1 1 \iili- ma nu fact u res and numerous schools for special metal in-
.lu-itu-s, wood-working, ceramir industries, naval architecture and
engineering and navigation. For military science there are the
academies of war (KrufiatuJfrnifn) in Berlin and Munich, a naval
academy in Kiel, and various cadet and non-commissioned officers'
school*.
Libraries. Mental culture and a general diffusion of knowledge
are extensively promoted by means of numerous public libraries
established in the capital, the university towns and other plares.
The most celebrated public libraries are those of Berlin (1,000,000
volumes and 30,000 MSS.); Munich (1,000,000 volumes, 40,000
MSS.); Heidelberg (563,000 volumes, 8000 MSS.); Gottingen
(503,000 volumes, 6000 MSS.); Strassburg (760,000 volumes):
Dresden (500,000 volumes, 6000 MSS.); Hamburg (municipal
library, 600,000 volumes, 5000 MSS.); Stuttgart (400,000 volumes,
3500 MSS.) ; Leipzig (universitylibrary, 500,000 volumes, SoooMSS.) ;
WUrzburg (350,000 volumes) ; Tubingen (340,000 volumes) ; Rostock
(318,000 volumes); Breslau (university library, 300,000 volumes,
7000 MSS.); Freiburg-im-Brcisgau (250,000 volumes); Bonn
(265,000 volumes); and Kttnigsberg (230,000 volumes, l loo MSS.).
There arc also famous libraries at Gotha, WolfenbUttel and Cello.
Learned Societies. There are numerous societies and unions,
some of an exclusively scientific character and others designed for
the popular diffusion of useful knowledge. Foremost among German
academies is the Academy of Sciences (Akademie der Wissenschaften)
in Berlin, founded in 1700 on Leibnitz's great plan and opened in
1711. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it was reorganized by
Frederick the Great on the French model and received its present
constitution in 1812. It has four sections: physical, mathematical,
philosophical and historical. The members are (i) ordinary (50 in
number, each receiving a yearly dotation of 30), and (2) extra-
ordinary, consisting of honorary and corresponding (foreign) members.
It has published since 1811 a selection of treatises furnished by its
most eminent men,
among whom must be
reckoned Schleier-
macher, the brothers
Humboldt, Grimm,
Savigny, Bockh, Ritter
and Lachmann, and
has promoted philo-
logical and historical
research by helping
the production of such
works as Corpus in-
scriptionum Graecarum ;
Corpus inscriptionum
Latinarum; Monu-
menta Germaniae his-
torica, the works of
Aristotle, Frederick
the Great's works and
Kant's collected works.
Next in order come
(i) the Academy of
Sciences at Munich,
founded in 1759,
divided into three
classes, philosophical,
historical and physical,
and especially famous
for its historical research ; (2) the Society of Sciences (Gesellschaft der
Wissenschaften) in Gottingen, founded in 1742; (3) that of Erfurt,
founded 1758; (4) Gdrlitz (1779) and (5) the 7 ' Royal Saxon Society
of Sciences " (Konigliche sdchsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften),
founded in Leipzig in 1846. Ample provision is made for scientific
lounded in Leipzig in 1846. Ample provision is made for scientific
collections of all kinds in almost all places of any importance, either
at the public expense or through private munificence.
Observatories. These have in recent years been considerably
augmented. There are 19 leading; observatories in the empire, viz.
at Bamberg, Berlin (2), Bonn, Bothkamp in Schleswig, Breslau,
DUsscldorf, Gotha, Gottingen, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Jena, Kiel,
Konigsberg, Leipzig, Munich, Potsdam, Strassburg and Wilhelms-
haven.
Book Trade. This branch of industry, from the important
position it has gradually acquired since the time of the Reformation,
is to be regarded as at once a cause and a result of the mental culture
of Germany. Leipzig, Berlin and Stuttgart are the chief centres of
the trade. The number of booksellers in Germany was not less than
10,000 in 1907, among whom were approximately 6000 publishers.
The following figures will show the recent progress of German
literary production, in so far as published works are concerned :
1618
1293
1650
725
1700
95"
1219
1800
3335
1840
6904
1884
15.607
1902
26,903
339 791
KarWuhe. Other technical school* are again the
ive veterinary academies of Berlin, Hanover, Munich, Dresden and i Newspapers. While in England a few important newspapers
Stuttgart, the commercial college* Iflandelthochschulen) of Leipzig, have an immense circulation, the newspapers of Germany are much
Aix-la-Chapelle, Hanover, Frankfort-on-Main and Cologne, in I more numerous, but on the whole command a more limited sale.
824
GERMANY
Some large cities, notably Berlin, Cologne, Hamburg, Dresden,
Leipzig and Munich, have, however, newspapers with a daily circu-
lation of over 100,000 copies, and in the case of some papers in
Berlin a million copies is reached. Most readers receive their
newspapers through the post office or at their clubs, which may help
to explain the smaller number of copies sold.
Fine Arts. Perhaps the chief advantage which Germany has
derived from the survival of separate territorial sovereignties within
the empire has been the decentralization of culture. Patronage of
art is among the cherished traditions of the German princes; and
even where -as for instance at Cassel there is no longer a court,
the artistic impetus given by the former sovereigns has survived
their fall. _ The result has been that there is in Germany no such
concentration of the institutions for the encouragement and study
of the fine arts as there is jn France or England. Berlin has no
practical monopoly, such as is possessed by London or Paris, of the
celebrated museums and galleries of the country. The picture
galleries of Dresden, Munich and Cassel still rival that at Berlin,
though the latter is rapidly becoming one of the richest in the world
in works of the great masters, largely at the cost of the private
collections of England. For the same reason the country is very well
provided with excellent schools of painting and music. Of the art
schools the most famous are those of Munich, Diisseldorf, Dresden
and Berlin, but there are others, e.g. at Karlsruhe, Weimar and
Konigsberg. These schools are in close touch with the sovereigns
and the governments, and the more promising pupils are thus from
the first assured of a career, especially in connexion with the decora-
tion of public buildings and monuments. To this fact is largely
due the excellence of the Germans in grandiose decorative painting
and sculpture, a talent for the exercise of which plenty of scope has
been given them by the numerous public buildings and memorials
raised since the war of 1870. Perhaps for this very reason, however,
the German art schools have had no such cosmopolitan influence
as that exercised by the schools of Paris, the number of foreign
students attending them being comparatively small. It is otherwise
with the schools of music, which exercise a profound influence far
beyond the borders of Germany. Of these the most important are
the conservatoires of Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin, Munich and Frankfprt-
on-Main. The fame of Weimar as a seat of musical education,
though it possesses an excellent conservatoire, is based mainly on
the tradition of the abbe Liszt, who gathered about him here a
number of distinguished pupils, some of whom have continued
to make it their centre. Music in Germany also receives a
great stimulus from the existence, in almost every important
town, of opera-houses partly supported by the sovereigns or
by the civic authorities. Good music being thus brought within
the reach of all, appreciation of it is very wide-spread in all classes of
the population. The imperial government maintains institutes at
Rome and Athens which have done much for the advancement of
archaeology. (P. A. A.)
Army. The system of the " nation in arms " owes its existence
to the reforms in the Prussian army that followed Jena. The
" nation in arms " itself was the product of the French Revolu-
tionary and Napoleonic wars, but it was in Prussia that was
seen the systematization and the economical and effective
application of the immense forces of which the revolutionary
period had demonstrated the existence (see also ARMY; CON-
SCRIPTION; FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS, &c.). It was
with an army and a military system that fully represented the
idea of the " nation in arms " that Prussia created the powerful
Germany of later days, and the same system was extended
by degrees over all the other states of the new empire. But
these very successes contained in themselves the germ of new
troubles. Increased prosperity, a still greater increase in popula-
tion and the social and economic disturbances incidental to the
conversion of an agricultural into a manufacturing com-
munity, led to the practical abandonment of the principle of
universal service. More men came before the recruiting
officer than there was money to train; and in 1895 the period
of service with the colours was reduced from three to two
years a step since followed by other military powers, the idea
being that with the same peace effective and financial grants
half as many men again could be passed through the ranks as
before.
In 1907 the recruiting statistics were as follows:
Number of young men attaining service age (including
those who had voluntarily enlisted before their time)
Men belonging to previous years who had been put back
for re-examination, &c., still borne on the lists
Deduct Physically unfit, &c.
Struck off .
35,802
860
556,772
657.753
1,214,525
Voluntarily enlisted in the army and navy,
on or before attaining service age . . 57,739
Assigned as recruits to the navy . . . 10,374
Put back, &c 684,193
[ARMY
788,968
Available as army recruits, fit
Of these, (a) Assigned to the active army for two or three"
years' service with the colours ....
(b) Assigned to the Ersatz-Reserve of the "1
army and navy \untrained.\
(f) Assigned to the 1st levy of LandsturmJ
425,557
Thus only half the men on whom the government has an
effective hold go to the colours in the end. Moreover few of the
men " put back, &c.," who figure on both sides of the account for
any one year, and seem to average 660,000, are really " put back."
They are in the main those who have failed or fail to present them-
selves, and whose names are retained on the liability lists against
the day of their return. Many of these have emigrated.
By the constitution of the i6th of April 1871 every German
is liable to service and no substitution is allowed. Liability
begins at the age of seventeen, and actual service, as a rule,
from the age of twenty. The men serve in the active army and
army reserve for seven years, of which two years (three in the
case of cavalry and horse artillery recruits) are spent with the
colours. During his four or five years in the reserve, the soldier
is called out for training with his corps twice, for a maximum
of eight weeks (in practice usually for six). After quitting the
reserve the soldier is drafted into the first ban of the Landwehr
for five years more, in which (except in the cavalry, which is
not called out in peace time) he undergoes two trainings of from
eight to fourteen days. Thence he passes into the second ban
and remains in it until he has completed his thirty-ninth year i.e.
from six to seven years more, the whole period of army and Land-
wehr service being thus nineteen years. Finally, all soldiers are
passed into the Landsturm, in the first ban of which they remain
until the completion of their forty-fifth year. The second ban
consists of untrained men between the ages of thirty-nine and
forty-five. Young men who reach a certain standard of educa-
tion, however, are only obliged to serve for one year in the active
army. They are called One- Year Volunteers (Einjiihrig-Frei-
ivilligen), defray their own expenses and are the chief source of
supply of reserve and Landwehr officers. That proportion of
the annual contingents which is dismissed untrained goes either
to the Ersatz-Reserve or to the ist ban of the Landsturm (the
Landwehr, it will be observed, contains only men who have
served with the colours). The Ersatz consists exclusively of
young men, who would in war time be drafted to the regimental
depots and thence sent, with what training circumstances had
in the meantime allowed, to the front. Some men of the Ersatz
receive a short preliminary training in peace time.
In 1907 the average height of the private soldiers was 5 ft. 6 in.,
that of the non-commissioned officers 5 ft. 65 in., and that of the
one-year volunteers 5 ft. 9^ in. A much greater proportion of
the country recruits were accepted as " fit " than of those
coming from the towns. Voluntary enlistments of men who
desired to become non-commissioned officers were most frequent
in the provinces of the old Prussian monarchy, but in Berlin
itself and in Westphalia the enlistments fell far short of the
number of non-commissioned officers required for the territorial
regiments of the respective districts. Above all, in Alsace-
Lorraine one-eighth only of the required numbers were obtained.
Peace and War Strengths. German military policy is revised
every five years; thus a law of April 1905 fixes the strength and
establishments to be attained on March 31, 1910, the necessary
augmentations, &c., being carried out gradually in the intervening
years. The peace strength for the latter date was fixed at 505,839
men (not including officers, non-commissioned officers and one-year
volunteers), forming
633 battalions infantry.
510 squadrons cavalry.
574 batteries field and horse artillery.
40 battalions foot artillery.
29 battalions pioneers.
12 battalions communication troops.
23 train battalions, &c.
ARMY]
The addition of about 75.000 officer* and 85.000 non-commissioned
officer*, one-year men. c.. bringt the peace footing of the German
army in 1910 to a total of about 615.000 of alt ranks.
A* for war. the total fighting strength of the German nation
(including the navy) has been placed at an hi|;h a figure a 1 1,000,000
I these 7,000,000 have received little or no training, owing to medica
un fitness, residence abroad, failure to appear, surplus of anmi.i
contingents, *c.. as already explained, and not more than 3,000,000
of these would be available in war. The real military resources o
Germany, untrained and trained, are thus about 7.000,000, of whom
4.000,000 have at one time or another done a continuous period o
service with the colours.' This is of course for a war of defence <
**tronee. For an offensive war, only the active army, the reserve
the Ersatz and the 1st levy of the Landwehr would be really available
_A rough calculation of the number of these who go to form or to
reinforce the field armies and the mobilized garrisons may be given :
Cadres of officers and non-commissioned officers 100,000
From 7 annual contingents of recruits (i.t.
active army and reserve) . . . . i ,200,000
From 5 contingents of Landwehr (1st ban) . 600,000
From 7 classes of Ersatz reserve called to the
depots, able-bodied men .... 400,000
One-year volunteers recalled to the colours or
serving as reserve and Landwehr officers 100,000
2400,000
These again would divide into a first line army of 1,350.000 and a
cond of 1.050.000. It is calculated that the field army would
consist, in the third week of a great war, of 633 battalions, 410
squadrons and 574 batteries, with technical, departmental and
medical troop* (say 630.000 bayonets, 60,000 sabres and 3444 guns,
or 750.000 men), and that these could be reinforced in three or four
weeks by 350 fresh battalions. Behind these forces there would
rtly become available for secondary operations about 460 bat-
f*" ** f the 1st ban Landwehr, and 200 squadrons and about 220
batteries of the reserve and Landwehr. In addition, each would
leave behind depot troops to form the nucleus on which the 2nd ban
Landwehr and the Landsturm would eventually be built up. The
total number of units of the three arms in all branches may be stated
approximately at 2200 battalions, 780 squadrons and 950 batteries.
Command and Ortanuation.By the articles of the constitution
the whole of the land forces of the empire form a united army in
war and peace under the orders of the emperor. The sovereigns of
the chief states are entitled to nominate the lower grades of officers,
and the king of Bavaria has reserved to himself the special privilege
of superintending the general administration of the three Bavarian
army corps: but all appointments are made subject to the emperor's
approval. The emperor is empowered to erect fortresses in any part
of the empire. It is the almost invariable practice of the kings of
Prussia to command their forces in person, and the army commands,
too. are generally held by leaders of royal or princely rank. The
natural corollary to this is the assignment of special advisory duties
to a responsible chief of staff. The officers are recruited either
from the Cadet Corps at Berlin or from amongst those men, of
sufficient social standing, who join the ranks as " avantageurs "
with a view to obtaining commissions. Reserve and Landwehr
officers are drawn from among officers and selected non-commissioned
officer* retired from the active army, and one-year volunteers who
have passed a special examination. All candidates, from whatever
"puro* they come, are subject to approval or rejection by their
brother officer* before being definitively commissioned. Promotion
in the German army is excessively slow, the senior subalterns having
eighteen to twenty years' commissioned service and the senior
captains sometimes thirty. The number of officers on the active list
is about 25.000. The under-ofncers number about 84,000.
Tbe German army i* organized in twenty-three army corps,
stationed and recruited in the various provinces and states as follows:
Guard, Berlin (general recruiting); I. Kdnigsberg (East Prussia);
II. Stettin (Pomerania ) ; III. Berlin (Brandenburg); IV. Magdeburg
(Prussian Saxony); V. Po*en (Poland and part of Silesia); VL
Breslau (Silesia): VII. MQnster (Westphalia); VIII. Coblenz
(Rhineiand); IX. Altona (Hanse Towns and Schleswig-Holstein);
X. Hanover (Hanover); XI. Ca**el (Hesse-Cassclj ; XII. Dresden
r); XIII. Stuttgart (Wurttemberg) ; XIV. Karlsruhe
XV. Stras*bare(AIic*); XVI. Metz (Lorraine); XVII.
est Prussia); XVIII. Frankfurt-am-Main (Hesse Darm-
stadt. Main country); XIX. Leipzig (Saxony); I. Bavarian Corps,
Munich; II. Bavarian Corps, Wurzburg; III. Bavarian Corps,
Nuremberg. The formation of a XX. army corps out of the extra
division of the XIV. corps at Colmar in Alsace, with the addition of
two regiments from Westphalia and drafts of the XV. and XVI.
corps, was announced in 1908 a* the final step of the programme for
the period 1906-1910. The normal composition of an army corps
on war is (a) staff, (6) a infantry divisions, each of 2 brigade* (4
1 Actually between 1883 and 1908 over five million recruit*
med through the drill sergeant's hands, as well as perhaps 210,000
year volunteers.
GERMANY
825
regiments or 12 battalions), 2 regiments of field artillery (comprising
9 batteries of field-guns and 3 of field howitzers, 72 pieces m all),
3 squadrons of cavalry, i or 2 companies of pioneers, a briilm- train
and i or 2 bearer companies; (c) corps troops, i battalion rifles,
telegraph troops, bridge train, ammunition columns, train (supply)
battalion, field bakeries, bearer companies and field hospitals, &c.,
with, as a rule, one or two batteries of heavy field howitzers or
mortars and a machine-gun group. The remainder of the cavalry
and horse artillery attached to the army corps in peace goes in war
to form the cavalry^ divisions. Certain corps have an increased
effective ^ thus the Guard has a whole cavalry division, and the I.
corps (Konigsberg) has three divisions. Several corps possess an
extra infantry brigade of two 2-battalion regiments, but these,
unless stationed on the frontiers, are gradually absorbed into new
divisions and army corps. In war several army corps, cavalry
divisions and reserve divisions are grouped in two or more " armies, '
and in peace the army corps are divided for purposes of superior
control amongst several " army inspections."
The cavalry is organized in regiments of cuirassiers, dragoons,
lancers, hussars and mounted rifles,* the regiments having four
service and one depot squadrons. Troopers are armed with lance
sword and carbine (for which in 1908 the substitution of a short rifle
with bayonet was suggested). In peace time the highest permanent
organization is the brigade of two regiments or eight squadrons, but
in war and at manoeuvres divisions of three brigades, with horae
artillery attached, are formed.
The infantry consists of 216 regiments, mostly of three battalions
e i Y T, hese are numbered, apart from the eight Guard regiments
and the Bavarians, serially throughout the army. Certain regiments
are styled grenadiers and fusiliers. In addition there are eighteen
chasseur or rifle battalions (Jdger). The battalion has always four
companies, each, at war strength, 250 strong. The armament
of the infantry is the model 1898 magazine rifle and bayonet (see
1\I 111 1 '
The field (including horse) artillery consists in peace of 94 regi-
ments subdivided into two or three groups (Abtetlungen) , each of
two or three 6-gun batteries. The field gun in use is the quick-
firing gun 06/N.A. (see ORDNANCE: Field Equipments).
The foot artillery is intended for siege and fortress warfare, and to
furnish the heavy artillery of the field army. It consists of forty
battalions. Machine gun detachments, resembling 4-gun batteries
and horsed as artillery, were formed to the number of sixteen in
1004-1906. . These are intended to work with the cavalry divisions.
Afterwards it was decided to form additional small groups of two
funs each, less fully horsed, to assist the infantry, and a certain
number of these were created in 1906-1908.
The engineers are a technical body, not concerned with field
warfare or with the command of troops. On the other hand the
pioneers (29 battalions) are assigned to the field army, with duties
corresponding roughly to those of field companies R.E. in the British
icrvice. Other branches represented in Great Britain by the Royal
engineers are known in Germany by the title " communication
roops, and comprise railway, telegraph and airship and balloon
>attalions. The Train is charged with the duties of supply and
transport. There is one battalion to each army corps.
Remounts. The peace establishment in horses is approximately
100,000. Horses serve eight to nine years in the artillery and nine
o ten in the cavalry, after which, in the autumn of each year they
tre sold, and their places taken by remounts. The latter are bought
.t horse-fairs and private sales, unbroken, and sent to the 25 remount
depots, whence, when fit for the service, they are sent to the various
units, as a rule in the early summer. Most of the cavalry and
artillery riding horses come from Prussia proper. The Polish
districts produce swift Hussar horses of a semi-eastern type. Hanover
s second only to East Prussia in output of horses. Bavaria, Saxony
and Wr urttemberg do not produce enough horses for their own armies
nd have to draw on Prussia. Thirteen thousand four hundred
^nd forty-five young horses were bought by the army authorities
urmg 1007. The average price was about 51 for field artillery
draught horses, 65 for heavy draught horses, and 46 for riding
MM*
The military expenditure of Germany, according to a comparative
able furnished to the House of Commons by the British war office
n 1907. varied between 36,000,000 and 44,000,000 per annum
n the period 1899-1002, and between 42,000,000 and 51,000000
XT annum in that of 1905-1909.
Colonial Troops. In 1906 these, irrespective of the brigade of
occupation then maintained in north China and of special reinforce-
nents sent to S.W. Africa during the Herrero war, consisted of the
German East Africa troops, 220 Europeans and 1470 natives; the
Cameroon troops, 145 European and 1170 natives; S.W. African
roops, entirely European and normally consisting of 606 officer*
The*e last have a curious history. They were formed from about
890 onwards, by individual squadrons, two or three being voted each
rear. Ostensibly raised for the duties of mounted orderlies, at a
i me when it would have been impolitic to ask openly for more
cavalry, they were little by little trained in real cavalry work,
hen combined in provisional regiments for disciplinary purpose*
nd at last frankly classed as cavalry.
826
GERMANY
and men active and a reserve of ex-soldier settlers ; the Kiao-Chau
garrison (chiefly marines), numbering 2687 officers and men; and
various small police forces in Togo, New Guinea, Samoa, &c.
Fortresses. The fixed defences maintained by the German empire
(apart from naval ports and coast defences) belong to two distinct
epochs in the military policy of the state. In the first period
(roughly 1871-1899), which is characterized by the development of
the offensive spirit, the fortresses, except on the French and Russian
frontiers, were reduced to a minimum. In the interior only Spandau,
Ciistrin, Magdeburg, Ingolstadt and Ulm were maintained as
defensive supporting points, and similarly on the Rhine, which
was formerly studded with fortresses from Basel to Emmerich, the
defences were limited to New Breisach, Germersheim, Mainz,
Coblenz, Cologne and Wesel, all of a " barrier " character and not
organized specially as centres of activity for field armies. The
French frontier, and to a less extent the Russian, were organized
offensively. Metz, already surrounded by the French with a girdle of
forts, was extended and completed (see FORTIFICATION AND SIEGE-
CRAFT) as a great entrenched camp, and Strassburg, which in 1870
possessed no outlying works, was similarly expanded, though the
latter was regarded an instrument of defence more than of attack.
On the Russian frontier Konigsberg, Danzig, Thorn, Posen, Glogau
(and on a smaller scale Boyen in East Prussia and Graudenz on the
Vistula) were modernized and improved.
From 1899, however, Germany began to pay more attention to
her fixed defences, and in the next years a long line of fortifications
came into existence on the French frontier, the positions and strength
of which were regulated with special regard to a new strategic
disposition of the field armies and to the number and sites of the
" strategic railway stations " which were constructed about the
same time. Thus, the creation of a new series of forts extending
from Thionville (Diedenhofen) to Metz and thence south-eastward
was coupled with the construction of twelve strategic railway
stations between Cologne and the Belgian frontier, and later the
so-called " fundamental plan " of operations against France having
apparently undergone modification in consequence of changes in the
foreign relations of the German government an immense strategic
railway station was undertaken at Saarburg, on the right rear of
Thionville and well away from the French frontier, and many im-
portant new works both of fortification and of railway construction
were begun in Upper Alsace, between Colmar and Basel.
The coast defences include, besides the great naval ports
of Wilhelmshaven on the North Sea and Kiel on the Baltic,
Danzig, Pillau, Memel, Friedrichsort, Cuxhaven, Geestemtinde and
Swinemiinde. (C. F. A.)
Navy. The German navy is of recent origin. In 1848 the
German people urged the construction of a fleet. Money was
collected, and a few men-of-war were fitted out; but these
were subsequently sold, the German Bundestag (federal council)
not being in sympathy with the aspirations of the nation. Prussia
however, began laying the foundations of a small navy. To
meet the difficulty arising from the want of good harbours in
the Baltic, a small extent of territory near Jade B.ay was bought
from Oldenburg in 1854, for the purpose of establishing a war-port
there. Its construction was. completed at enormous expense,
and it was opened for ships by the emperor in June 1869 under
the name of Wilhelmshaven. In 1864 Prussia, in annexing
Holstein, obtained possession of the excellent port of Kiel,
which has since been strongly fortified. From the lime of the
formation of the North German Confederation the navy has
belonged to the common federal interest. Since ist October
1867 all its ships have carried the same flag, of the national
colours black, white, red, with the Prussian eagle and the iron
cross.
From 1848 to 1868 the increase of the navy was slow. In
1851 it consisted of 51 vessels, including 36 small gunboats
of 2 guns each. In 1868 it consisted of 45 steamers (including
2 ironclads) and 44 sailing vessels, but during the various wars
of the period 1848-1871, only a few minor actions were fought
at sea, and for many years after the French War the development
of the navy did not keep pace with that cf the empire's com-
mercial interests beyond the seas, or compete seriously with
the naval power of possible rivals. But towards the end of the
iQth century Germany started on a new naval policy, by which
her fleet was largely and rapidly increased. Details of this
development will be found in the article NAVY (see also History
below, ad fin.). It will be sufficient here to give the statistics
relating to .the beginning of the year 1909, reference being made
only to ships effective at that date and to ships authorized in
the construction programme of 1907:
[NAVY
2O effective, 4 approaching completion.
1 1 effective (4 non-effective).
9 effective, I approaching completion.
31 effective, 2 approaching completion.
Modern battleships
Old battleships and coast
defence ships
Armoured cruisers .
Protected cruisers .
Torpedo craft of modern
types 130 effective, 3 approaching completion.
Administration. In 1889 the administration was transferred
from the ministry of war to the imperial admiralty (Reichsmarineamt) ,
at the head of which is the naval secretary of state. The chief
command was at the same time separated from the administration
and vested in a naval officer, who controls the movements of the
fleet, its personnel and training, while the maintenance of the arsenals
and dockyards, victualling and clothing and all matters immediately
affecting the materiel, fall within the province of the secretary of
state. The navy is divided between the Baltic (Kiel) and North Sea
(Wilhelmshaven) stations, which are strategically linked by the
Kaiser Wilhelm Canal (opened in 1 895), across the Schleswig-Holstein
peninsula. Danzig, Cuxhaven and Sonderburg have also been
made naval bases.
Personnel. The German navy is manned by the obligatory service
of the essentially maritime population such as sailors, fishermen
and others, as well as by volunteers, who elect for naval service in
preference to that in the army. It is estimated that the total
seafaring population of Germany amounts to 80,000. The active
naval personnel was, in 1906, 2631 officers (including engineers,
marines, medical, &c.) and 51,138 under-officers and men, total
53,769. In addition, there is a reserve of more than 100,000 officers
and men. (P. A. A.)
Finance. The imperial budget is voted every year by the
Reichstag. The " extraordinary funds," from which considerable
sums appear annually in the budget, were created after the
Franco-German War. Part of the indemnity was invested
for definite purposes. The largest of these investments served
for paying the pensions of the invalided, and amounted originally
to 28,000,000. Every year, not only the interest, but part
of the capital is expended in paying these pensions, and the
capital sum was thus reduced in 1903 to 15,100,000, and in 1904
to 13,200,000. Another fund, of about 5,200,000, serves
for the construction and armament of fortresses; while
6,000,000, known as the Reichskriegsschatz or " war treasure
fund " is not laid out at interest, but is stored in coined gold
and bullion in the Juliusturm at Spandau. In addition to
these, the railways in Alsace-Lorrain'e, which France bought
of the Eastern Railway Company for 13,000,000, in order to
transfer them to the control of Germany, are also the property
of the empire.
During the years 1908 and 1909 considerable public discussion
and political activity were devoted to the reorganization of
German imperial finance, and it is only possible here to deal
historically with the position up to that time, since further
developments of an important nature were already foreshadowed.
In 1871 the system accepted was that the imperial budget
should be financed substantially by its reliance on the revenue
from what were the obvious imperial resources customs and
excise duties, stamp duties, post and telegraph receipts, and
among minor sources the receipts from the Alsace-Lorraine
railways. But it was also provided that, for the purpose of
deficits, the states should, in addition, if required by the imperial
minister of finance, contribute their quotas according to popula-
tion Matrikular Beitrage. It was not expected that these would
become chronic, but in a few years, and emphatically by the early
'eighties, they were found to be an essential part of the financial
system, owing to regular deficits. It had been intended that,
in return for the Matrikular Beitrage, regular assignments ( Vber-
weisungen) should be returned to the states, in relief of their
own taxation, which would practically wipe out the contribution;
but instead of these the Uberweisungen were considerably less.
Certain reorganizations were made in 1887 and 1902, but the
excess of the Matrikular Beitrage over the Uberweisungen con-
tinued; the figures in 1905 and 1908 being as follows (in millions
of marks) :
*
Matrikular-
Beitrage.
Uberweisungen.
Excess.
1905
1908
213
346
189
195
24
ISO
FINANCE]
GERMANY
827
These figures show how natural it was to desire to relieve the
states by increasing the direct imperial revenue.
Meanwhile, in spite of the " matricular contributions," the
calls on imperial finance had steadily increased, and up to 1908
were continually met to a large extent by loans, involving a
continual growth of the imperial debt, which in 1007 amounted
to 3643 millions of marks. The imperial budget, like that of
most European nations, is divided into two portions, the ordinary
and the extraordinary; and the increase under both heads
(especially for army and navy) became a recurrent factor. A
typical situation is represented by the main figures for 1005 and
1006 (in millions of marks):
Expenditure.
Revenue.
Raised by
Loan.
Ordinary.
Extra-
ordinary.
|M
1906
2003
2157
"93
235
.- 1 1 >
34"
258
The same process went on in 1007 and 1008, and it was
necessarily recognized that the method of balancing the imperial
budget by a regular increase of debt could not be satisfactory
in a country where the general increase of
wealth and taxable capacity had meanwhile
been conspicuous. And though the main
proposals made by the government for new
taxation, including new direct taxes, resulted
in a parliamentary deadlock in IQOQ, and led
to Prince von Billow's resignation as chancellor,
it was already evident that some important
reorganization of the imperial financial system
was inevitable.
Current*. The German empire adopted a gold
currency by the law of the 4th of December
1871. Subsequently the old local coinages
(Landeimunten) began to be called in and re-
placed by new gold and silver coins. The old gold
coins, amounting to 4,550,000, had been called in
a* early as 1873; and the old silver coins have
since been successively put out of circulation, so
that none actually remains as legal tender but the
thaler (3*.). The currency reform was at first
facilitated by the French indemnity, a great pan
of which was paid in gold. But later on that metal became scarcer ;
the London gold prices ran higher and higher, while silver prices
declined. The average rate per ounce of standard silver in 1866-
1870 was 6o|d.. in January 1875 only 57|d., in July 1876 as low as
49d. It rose in January 1877 to 57id.. but again declined, and in
September 1878 it was 5ojd. While the proportion of like weights
of fine gold and fine silver in 1866-1870 averaged I to 15-55, it was '
to 17-79 in 1876, i to 17-18 in 1877, and, in 1902, in consequence
of the heavy fall in silver, the ratio became as much as I to 39.
By the currency law of the 9th of July 1873, the present coinage
system was established and remains, with certain minor modifica-
tions, now in force as then introduced. The unit is the mark (l
hilling) the tenth part of the imperial [oU coin (Krone crown),
of which last 139) are struck from a pound of pure gold. Besides
these ten-mark pieces, there are Doppcl kronen (double crowns),
about equivalent in value to an English sovereign (the average rate
of exchange being 20 marks 40 pfennigc per i sterling), and,
formerly, half-crowns (halbe Kronen 5 marks) in gold were also
issued, but they have been withdrawn from circulation. Silver coins
are 5. 2 and I mark pieces, equivalent to 5, 2 and I shillings respec-
tively, and 50 pfennige pieces 6d. Nickel coins arc 10 and 5
pfennige pieces, and there are bronze coins of 2 and I pfennigc.
The system is decimal ; thus loo pfennige - I mark, 1000 pfennigc -
the gold krone (or crown), and id. English amounts roughly to 8
Banking. A new banking law was promulgated for the whole
empire on the I4th of March 1875. Before that date there existed
thirty-two banks with the privilege of issuing notes, and on the 31*1
of December 1872, 67,100,000 in all was in circulation, 25,100,000
of that sum being uncovered. The banking law was designed to
reduce this circulation of notes: 19.250,000 was fixed as an aggre-
gate maximum of uncovered notes of the banks. The private banks
were at the same time obliged to erect branch offices in Berlin or
Frankfort -on- Vain for the payment of their notes. In consequence
of this regulation numerous hanks resigned the privilege of issuing
notes, and at present there are in Germany but the following private
note banks issuing private notes, viz. the Bavarian, the Saxon,
the Wurttemberg. the Baden and the Brunswick, in addition to the
Imperial Bank. The Imperial Bank (Reichsbank) ranks far above
the others in importance. It took the place of the Prussian Bank
in 1876, and is under the superintendence and management of the
empire, which shares in the profits. Its head office is in Berlin, and
it is entitled to erect branch offices in any part of the empire. It
has a capital of 9,000,000 divided into 40,000 shares of 150 each,
and 60,000 shares of 50 each. The Imperial Bank is privileged to
issue bank-notes, which must l>e covered to the extent of is. 3<1. in
coined money, bullion or bank-notes, the remainder in bills at short
sight. Of the net profits, a dividend of 3) % is first payable to the
shareholders, 20% of the remainder is transferred to the reserve
until this has reached a total of 3,000,000, and of the remainder
again a quarter is apportioned to the shareholders and three-quarters
falls to the toBpSfU exchequer. If the net profits do not reach
3i%> the balance must be made good from the reserve. Private
note banks are not empowered to do business outside the state
which has conceded them the privilege to issue notes, except under
certain limitations. One of these is that they agree that their
privilege to issue private notes may be withdrawn at one year's
notice without compensation. But this condition has not been
enforced in the case of such banks as have agreed to accept as
binding the official rate of discount of the Reichsbank after this has
reached or when it exceeds 4%. At other times they are not to
discount at more than i % below the official rate of the Reichsbank,
or iii case the Reichsbank itself discounts at a lower rate than the
official rate, at more than i % below that rate.
The following table shows the financial condition of the note-
issuing banks, in thousands of marks, over a term of years:
Liabilities.
V'ear.
Banks.
Capital.
Reserve.
Notes in
Circulation.
Total, including
other Liabilities.
1900
1901
1902
93
1904
8
6
6
6
219,672
231,672
. 216,000
216,000
216,000
48,329
54-901
56.684
60,131
64.385
.313.855
.345,436
.373,482
.394.336
.433,421
2,237.017
2.360,453
2,353.951
2.365,256
2.378.845
A ssets.
Year.
Banks.
Coin and
Bullion.
Notes of State
and other Banks.
Bills.
Total.
1900
IOOI
1902
"903
1904
8
1
6
6
899.630
990,262
1,052,391
973.953
996,601
51.931
60,770
54,389
54.23
66,372
1,036,961
990,950
901,408
984,604
947,358
2,239,564
2,360,355
2,354,253
2,356,5"
*t379t334
The total turnover of the Imperial Bank was, in the first year of its
foundation, i| milliards pounds sterling; and, in 1899, 90 milliards.
Eighty-five per cent of its bank-notes have been, on the average,
covered by metal reserve.
The total value of silver coins is not to exceed 10 marks, and that
of copper and nickel 2} marks per head of the population. While
the coinage of silver, nickel and copper is reserved to the state,
the coinage of gold pieces can be undertaken by the state for the
account of private individuals on payment of a fixed charge. The
coinage takes place in the six mints belonging to the various states
thus Berlin (Prussia), Munich (Bavaria), Dresden (in the Muldener-
hiitte near Freiberg, Saxony), Stuttgart (VVUrttembere), Karlsruhe
(Baden) and Hamburg (for the state of Hamburg). Of the thalcrs,
the Vereinsthaler, coined until 1867 in Austria, was by ordinance of
the Bundesrat declared illegal tender since the 1st of January 1903.
No one can be compelled to accept more than 20 marks in silver or
more than i mark in nickel and copper coin; but, on the other hand,
the Imperial Bank accepts imperial silver coin in payment to any
amount.
The total value of thalers, which, with the exception of the
Vereinsthalcr, are legal tender, was estimated in 1894 at about
20,000,000.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Cotta, DeutscUands Boden (2 vols., 1853) ; H. A.
Daniel, DeulscMand (1806); J. Kutzcn, Das deulsche Land (Brcslau,
1900); Von Klodcn, Geographisches llandbuch, vol. ii. (1875);
G. Neumann, Das deulsche Reich (2 vols., 1874); O. Brunckow, Die
Wohnpliilze des deulschen Retches auf Grand der amtlichen Malerialien
bearbeUet (new ed., Berlin, 1897); llandbuch der Wirtschaftskunde
DeutscUands (4 vols., Leipzig, 1901-1905) ; Gothaischer tenealogischer
Hofkalender aufdas Jahr 1007 (Gotha); A. von W. Keil, Neumanns
Ortslexikon des deulschen Retches (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1894); Meyer,
Konyersations-Lexikon (1902 seqq.); Brockhaus, Konversations-
Lexikon (1900 senq.); J. KOrschncr, Stoats- Hof- und Kommnnal-
handbuch des Retches und der Eimelstaattn (Leipzig, 1900) ; P. Hage,
Grundriss der deulschen Stoats- und Rechtskunde (Stuttgart, 1906),
and for statistical matter chiefly the following: Centralblatt f&r
das deulsche Reich. Jlerausgegeben im Reichsamt der Innern (Berlin,
1900) ; Die deulsche Armee und die kaiserliche Marine (Berlin, 1889) ;
828
GERMANY
[ARCHAEOLOGY
Gewerbe und Handel im deutschen Reich nach der gewerblichen
Betriebszdhlung, vom 14. Juni 1895 (Berlin, 1899); Handbuch fur
das deutsche Reich auf das Jahr /poo, bearbeitet im Reichsamt der
Innern (Berlin) ; Handbuch fur die deutsche Handelsmarine auf das
Jahr I poo; Statistik des deutschen Reichs, published by the Kaiser-
liches Siatistisches Ami (including trade, navigation, criminal
statistics, sick insurance, &c.) ; Siatistisches Jahrbuchfur das deutsche
Reich (Berlin, 1906) and Vierteljahrshefte fur Statistik des deutschen
Reichs (including census returns, commerce and railways). See also
among English publications on geographical and statistical matter:
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign
Countries and British Possessions for the Year 1800 (London, 1900);
and G. G. Chisholm, Europe, being vols. i. and ii. of Stanford's
Compendium of Geography and Travel (London, 1899 and 1900).
The fullest general account of the geology of Germany will be found
in R. Lepsius, Geologie von Deutschland und den angrenzenden Gebieten
(Stuttgart, first volume completed in 1892). Shorter descriptions
will be found in E. Kayser, Lehrbuch der geologischen Formations-
kunde (Stuttgart, English edition under the title Text-book of Com-
parative Geology), and H. Credner, Elemente der Geologie (Leipzig).
ARCHAEOLOGY
From an archaeological point of view Germany is very far
from being a homogeneous whole. Not only has the develop-
ment of the south differed from that of the north, and the west
been subjected to other influences than those affecting the east,
but even where the same influences have been at work the period
of their operation has often varied widely in the different districts,
so that in a general sketch of the whole country the chronology
can only be a very rough approximation. In this article the
dates assigned to the various periods in south Germany are those
given by Sophus Mtiller, on the lines first laid down by Montelius.
As regards north Germany, Miiller puts the Northern Bronze age
500 years later than the Southern, but a recent find in Sweden
bears out Montelius's view that southern influence made itself
rapidly felt in the North. The conclusions of Montelius and
Miiller are disputed by W. Ridgeway, who maintains that the
Iron age originated in central Europe, and that iron must con-
sequently have been worked in those regions as far back as
c. 2000 B.C.
Older Palaeolithic Period. The earliest traces of man's
handiwork are found either at the end of the pre-Glacial epoch,
or in an inter-Glacial period, but it is a disputed point whether
the latter is the first of a series of such periods. A typical German
find is at Taubach, near Weimar, where almond-shaped stone
wedges, small flint knives, and roughly-hacked pieces of porphyry
and quartz are found, together with the remains of elephants.
There are also bone implements, which are not found in the
earliest periods in France.
Palaeolithic Transition Period (Solutrt). More highly developed
forms are found when the mammoth has succeeded the elephant.
Implements of chipped stone for the purposes of boring and
scraping suggest that man worked hides for clothing. Ornaments
of perforated teeth and shells are found.
Later Palaeolithic Period (La Madeleine). The next period is
marked by the presence of reindeer. In the Hohlefels in the
Swabian Achthal there is still no trace of earthenware, and we
find the skull of a reindeer skilfully turned into a drinking-vessel.
Saws, needles, awls and bone harpoons are found. It is to be
noticed that none of the German finds (mostly in the south and
west) show any traces of the highly developed artistic sense so
characteristic of the dwellers in France at this period.
The gap in our knowledge of the development of Palaeolithic
into Neolithic civilization has recently been partially filled in
by discoveries in north Germany and France of objects showing
rather more developed forms than those of the former period,
but still unaccompanied by earthenware. It is a disputed point
whether the introduction of Neolithic civilization is due to a new
ethnological element.
Neolithic Age (in south Germany till c. 2000 B.C.). Neolithic
man lived under the same climatic conditions as prevail to-day,
but amidst forests of fir. He shows advance in every direction,
and by the end of the later Neolithic period he is master of the
arts of pottery and spinning, is engaged in agricultural pursuits,
owns domestic animals, and makes weapons and tools of fine
shape, either ground and polished or beautifully chipped.
Traces of Neolithic settlements have been found chiefly in the
neighbourhood of Worms, in the Main district and in Thuringia.
These dwellings are usually holes in the ground, and presumably
had thatched roofs. Our knowledge of the later Neolithic age,
as of the succeeding periods, is largely gained from the remains of
lake-dwellings, represented in Germany chiefly by Bavarian
finds. The lake-dwellings in Mecklenburg, Pomerania and East
Prussia are of a different type, and it is not certain that they date
back to the Stone age. Typical Neolithic cemeteries are found at
Hinkelstein, Alzey and other places in the neighbourhood of
Worms. In these graves the skeletons lie flat, while in other
cemeteries, as at Flomborn in Rhine-Hessen, and near Heilbronn,
they are in a huddled position (hence" the name Hockergriiber).
Necklaces and bracelets of Mediterranean shells point to a con-
siderable amount of commerce. Other objects found in the
graves are small flint knives, stone axes, flint and lumps of pyrites
for obtaining fire, and, in the women's graves, hand-mills for
grinding corn. The earthenware vessels usually have rounded
bottoms. The earliest ornamentation consists of finger-imprints.
Later we find two periods of zigzag designs in south Germany
with an intermediate stage of spirals and wavy lines, while in
north and east Germany the so-called string-ornamentation
predominates. Towards the end of the period the inhabitants of
north Germany erect megalithic graves, and in Hanover especially
the passage-graves.
Bronze Age (in south Germany from c. 2000-1000 B.C.). In
the later Stone age we note the occasional use of copper, and then
the gradual appearance of bronze. The bronze civilization of the
Aegean seems to have had direct influence along the basins of
the Danube and Elbe, while the culture of the western parts of
central Germany was transmitted through Italy and France.
No doubt the pre-eminence of the north, and especially of Den-
mark, at this period, was due to the amber trade, causing southern
influence to penetrate up the basin of the Elbe to Jutland. The
earlier period is characterized by the practice of inhumation in
barrows made of clays, stones or sand, according to the district.
Bronze is cast, whereas at a later time it shows signs of the
hammer. From the finds in Bavarian graves it appears that the
chief weapons were the dagger and the long pointed Palstab
(palstave), while a short dagger fixed like an axe on a long shaft
is characteristic of the North. The women wore two bronze
pins, a bracelet on each arm, amber ornaments and a necklace of
bronze tubes in spirals. One or two vases are found in each
barrow, ornamented with finger-irrfprints, " string " decoration,
&c. The later period is characterized by the practice of crema-
tion, though the remains are still placed in barrows. Swords
make their appearance. The women wear more and more
massive ornaments. The vases are highly polished and of
elegant form, with zigzag decoration.
Hallstatt Period (in Germany 8th~5th century B.C.). The
Hallstatt stage of culture, named after the famous cemetery in
upper Austria, is marked by the introduction of iron (see
HALLSTATT). In Germany its centre is Bavaria, Baden and
Wiirttemberg, with the Thuringian forest as the northern
boundary. In Brandenburg, Lusatia, Silesia, Posen and Saxony,
where there was no strong Bronze age tradition, Hallstatt in-
fluence is very noticeable. In west Prussia the urns with human
faces deserve notice. The dead are either buried in barrows
or cremated, the latter especially in north and east Germany.
In Bavaria both practices are resorted to, as at Hallstatt. The
pottery develops beautiful form and colour. Fibulae, often of
the " kettle-drum " form, take the place of the Bronze agp pin.
La Tine Period (4th-ist century B.C.). Down to this time there
is very little evidence concerning the racial affinities of the popula-
tion. When our records first begin the western and southern
portions of Germany seem to have been inhabited by Celtic
peoples (seebelow"Ethnography"). LaTene, in Switzerland, has
given its name to the period, of which the earlier part corresponds
to the time of Celtic supremacy. It is interesting to note how
the Celts absorb Roman and still more Greek culture, even
imitating foreign coins, and pass on their new arts to their
Teutonic neighbours; but in spite of the strong foreign influence
ETHNOGRAPHY]
GERMANY
829
the Celtic civilization can in some sort be termed national.
Later it has a less rich development, betraying the political
decay of the race. Its centres in Germany are the southern
districts as far as Thuringia, and t he valleys of the Main and Saar.
The ornamentation is of the conventionalized plant type: gold
is freely used, and enamel, of a kind different from the Roman
enamel used later in Germany, is applied to weapons and orna-
ments. Chariots are used in war, and fortified towns are built,
though we must still suppose the houses to have consisted of a
wooden framework coated with clay. In these districts La Tine
influence is contemporary with the use of tumuli, but in the
(non-Celtic) coast districts it must be sought in urn-cemeteries.
Raman Period (from the ist century A.D.). The period suc-
ceeding to La Tenc ought rather to be called Romano-Germanic,
the relation of the Teutonic races to the Roman civilization
being much the same as that of the Celts to classical culture in
the preceding period. The Rhine lands were of course the centre
of Roman civilization, with Roman roads, fortresses, stone and
tiled houses and marble temples. By this time the Teutonic
peoples had probably acquired the art of writing, though the
origin of their national (Runic) alphabet is still disputed. The
graves of the period contain urns of earthenware or glass,
cremation being the prevalent practice, and the objects found
include one or more coins in accordance with Roman usage.
Period of National Migrations (A.D. 300-300)- The grave-finds
do not bear out the picture of a period of ceaseless war painted
by the Roman historians. On the contrary, weapons are seldom
found, at any rate in graves, the objects in which bear witness
to a life of extraordinary luxury. Magnificent drinking-vessels,
beautifully ornamented dice and draughtsmen, masses of gay
beads, are among the commonest grave-finds. A peculiarity
of the period is the development of decoration inspired by
animal forms, but becoming more and more tortuous and fan-
tastic. Only those eastern pans of Germany which were now
occupied by Slavonic peoples remained uninfluenced by this rich
civilization.
The Merovingian Period (A.D. 500-800) sees the completion
of the work of converting the German tribes to Christianity.
Reihtnrraber, containing objects of value, but otherwise like
modern cemeteries, with the dead buried in rows (Reihen), are
found over all the Teutonic part of Germany, but some tribes,
notably the Alamanni, seem still to have buried their dead in
barrows. Among the Franks and Burgundians we find mono-
lithic sarcophagi in imitation of the Romans, and in other
districts sarcophagi were constructed out of several blocks of
stone the so-called Plattengraber. The weapons are the ipalha,
or double-bladed German sword, the sax (a short sword, or
long knife, semis patkium), the knife, shield, and the favourite
German axe, though this latter is not found in Bavaria. The
ornaments are beads, earrings, brooches, rings, bracelets, &c.,
thickly studded with precious stones.
AUTHORITIES. S. Mailer, Urgeschiehte Europas (1905), and
Tieromamentik (1881); O. Montelius, "Chronologic der Bronze-
Kit in N. DeutKhland und Slcandinavicn," in Archiv fur Anlhro-
fnlat_ie, vols. zxv. and xxvi.; M. Hoernes, Urgesckuhte des Menscken
(1892), and Der diluviale ifensck in Europa (1903); M. Much,
Kupfmett in Europe (1893); R. Munro, Lake-dwellings of Europe
(1890); J. Naue, Bronteteit in Ober-Bayem (1894); O. Tischler,
Ostpreuisittke Allertumer (1902); R. Virchow, Goer Hunengrdber
und PfahUnuten (1866); J. Mestorf, Umenfriedhofe in Schlesvng-
Holslein (1 886); A. LtHauer. Prtkistoriicke Denkmaler Preussens
(1887); I. Undet, Erites Auflrelen des Eisens in N. Europa (1882);
L. Lindcfuchmit. Handbiuh der deutuhen AUerlumsktinde, i. (1880-
1889); and W. Ridgeway. Early Age of Greece, \. (1901). Also
article* by the above and othen, chiefly in Zeitschriflfur Ethnologie
(Berlin); Arckn fur Anlkropolorie (Brunswick); Globus (Bruns-
wick); Wesldeuttcke Zeitstknft (Trier); Schriften der physikalisch-
okonomittken GevUukaft (Konigsberg); Natkrichten tiber deutsche
Altertumskunde (Berlin): Verkandlungen der Berliner Ceselhchaft
fir A ntkropdofie. Sec. ; Beitrate tur A nlhropologie Bayerns (M unich) ;
and Zeitickrift fur deutscka AUertum (Berlin). (B. S. P.)
ETHNOGRAPHY AND EARLY HISTORY
Our direct knowledge of Germany begins with the appoint-
ment of Julius Caesar as governor of Gaul in $0 B.C. Long
before that time there is evidence of German communication
with southern civilization, as the antiquities prove, and occa-
sional travellers from the Mediterranean had made their way into
those regions (e.g. Pytheas, towards the end of the 4th
century), but hardly any records of their journeys sur- ^J* r/-
vive. The first Teutonic peoples whom the Romans are (, rr . IMn , .
said to have encountered are the Cimbri and Teuton!,
probably from Denmaik, who invaded Illyria, Gaul and Italy
towards the end of the 2nd century B.C. When Caesar arrived
in Gaul the westernmost part of what is now Germany was in
the possession of Gaulish tribes. The Rhine practically formed
the boundary between Gauls and Germans, though one Gaulish
tribe, the Menapii, is said to have been living beyond the Rhine
at its mouth, and shortly before the arrival of Caesar an invading
force of Germans had seized and settled down in what is now
Alsace, 72 B.C. At this time the Gauls were being pressed by
the Germans along the whole frontier, and several of Caesar's
campaigns were occupied with operations, either against the
Germans, or against Gaulish tribes set in motion by the Germans.
Among these we may mention the campaign of his first year of
office, 58 B.C., against the German king Ariovistus, who led the
movement in Alsace, and that of 55 B.C. in which he expelled
the Usipetes and Tencteri who had crossed the lower Rhine.
During the period of Caesar's government he succeeded in
annexing the whole of Gaul as far as the Rhine. (For the cam-
paigns see CAESAR, JULIUS.)
After peace had been established in Italy by Augustus,
attempts were made to extend the Roman frontier beyond the
Rhine. The Roman prince Nero Claudius Drusus (q.v.) Tht cmmm
in the year 1 2 B.C. annexed what is now the kingdom pt i in , O f
of the Netherlands, and constructed a canal (Fossa other
Drusiana) between the Rhine and the lake Flevo *<""
(Lacus Flevus), which partly corresponded to the
Zuyder Zee, though the topography of the district has greatly
altered. He also penetrated into regions beyond and crossed
the Weser, receiving the submission of the Bructeri, Chatti and
Cherusci. After Drusus' death in 9 B.C., while on his return from
an expedition which reached the Elbe, the German command
was twice undertaken by Tiberius, who in A.D. 5 received the
submission of all the tribes in this quarter, including the Chauci
and the Langobardi. A Roman garrison was left in the conquered
districts between the Rhine and the Elbe, but the reduction was
not thoroughly completed. About the same time the Roman
fleet voyaged along the northern coast apparently as far as the
north of Jutland, and received the nominal submission of several
tribes in that region, including the Cimbri and the Charudes.
In A.D. 9 Quintilius Varus, the successor of Tiberius, was surprised
in the Sallus Teutobergensit between the Lippe and the Weser
by a force raised by Arminius, a chief of the Cherusci, and his
army consisting of three legions was annihilated. Germanicus
Caesar, during his tenure of the command of the Roman armies
on the Rhine, made repeated attempts to recover the Roman
position in northern Germany and exact vengeance for the death
of Varus, but without real success, and after his recall the Rhine
formed for the greater part of its course the boundary of the
Empire. A standing army was kept up on the Rhine, divided
into two commands, upper and lower Germany, the head-
quarters of the former being at Mainz, those of the latter at
Vetera, near Xanten. A number of important towns grew up,
among which we may mention Trier (Augusta Trevirorum),
Cologne (C61onia Agrippincnsis) , Bonn (Bonna) , Worms(Borbeto-
magus), Spires (Noviomagus), Strassburg (Argentoratum) and
Augsburg (Augusta Vindelicorum).
At a later date, however, probably under the Flavian emperors,
the frontier of upper Germany was advanced somewhat beyond
the Rhine, and a fortification, the Pfahlgraben, constructed to
protect it. It led from Hdnningen on the Rhine, about half-way
between Bonn and Coblenz, to Mittenberg above Aschaffenburg
on the Main, thence southwards to Lorch in Wurttemberg,
whence it turned east to the junction of the AltmUhl with the
Danube at Kelheim.
During the wars of Drusus, Tiberius and Germanicus the
Romans had ample opportunity of getting to know the tribal
8 3 o
GERMANY
[EARLY HISTORY
geography of Germany, especially the western part, and though
most of our authorities lived at a somewhat later period, it is
probable that they derived their information very largely from
records of that time. It will be convenient, therefore, to give an
account of the tribal geography of Germany in thetimeof Augustus,
as our knowledge of the subject is much more complete for his
reign than for several centuries later.
Of the Gaulish tribes west of the Rhine, the most important
was the Treveri, inhabiting the basin of the Moselle, from whom
the city of Trier(Treves)derives its name. TheRauraci
German P r bably occupied the south of Alsace. To the south
tribes, of the Treveri lay the Mediomatrici, and to the west
of them lay the important tribe of the Sequani, who
had called in Ariovistus. The Treveri claimed to be of German
origin, and the same claim was made by a number of tribes in
Belgium, the most powerful of which were the Nervii. The
meaning of this claim is not quite clear, as there is some obscurity
concerning the origin of the name Germani. It appears to be a
Gaulish term, and there is no evidence that it was ever used by
the Germans themselves. According to Tacitus it was first
applied to the Tungri, whereas Caesar records that four Belgic
tribes, namely, the Condrusi, Eburones, Caeraesi and Paemani,
were collectively known as Germani. There is no doubt that
these tribes were all linguistically Celtic, and it is now the
prevailing opinion that they were not of German origin ethno-
logically, but that the ground for their claim was that they had
come from over the Rhine (cf. Caesar, De Bello Gallico ii. 4).
It would therefore seem that the name Germani originally
denoted certain Celtic tribes to the east of the Rhine, and that
it was then transferred to the Teutonic tribes which subsequently
occupied the same territory.
There is little doubt that during the last century before the
Christian era the Celtic peoples had been pushed considerably
farther west by the Teutonic peoples, a process which
mot'e- was st '^ Si n g on ' n Caesar's time, when we hear of
meats. the overthrow of the Menapii, the last Gaulish tribe
beyond the Rhine. In the south the same process can be
observed. The Boii were expelled from their territories inBohemia
by the Marcomanni in the time of Augustus, and the Helvetii
are also recorded to have occupied formerly lands east of the
Rhine, in what is now Baden and Wiirttemberg. Caesar also
mentions a Gaulish tribe named Volcae Tectosages as living
in Germany in his time. The Volcae Arecomici in the south of
France and the Tectosages of Galatia were in all probability
offshoots of this people. The name of the tribe was adopted
in the Teutonic languages as a generic term for all Celtic and
Italian peoples (O.H.G. Walha,.A..S. Wealas), from which it is
probably to be inferred that they were the Celtic people with
whom the Teutonic races had the closest association in early
times. It has been thought that they inhabited the basin of
the Weser, and a number of place-names in this district are
supposed to be of Celtic origin. Farther to the south and west
Ptolemy mentions a number of place-names which are certainly
Celtic, e.g. Mediolanion, Aregelia, Lougidounon, Lokoriton,
Segodounon. There is therefore great probability that a large
part of western Germany east of the Rhine had formerly been
occupied by Celtic peoples. In the east a Gaulish people named
Cotini are mentioned, apparently in the upper basin of the Oder,
and Tacitus speaks of a tribe in the same neighbourhood, the
Osi, who he says spoke the Pannonian language. It is probable,
therefore, that in other directions also the Germans had consider-
ably advanced their frontier southwards at a comparatively
recent period.
Coming now to the Germans proper, the basin of the Rhine
between Strassburg and Mainz was inhabited by the Tribocci,
Tribe* Nemetes and Vangiones, farther down by the Mattiaci
la the about Wiesbaden, and the Ubii in the neighbourhood
west and o f Cologne; beyond them were the Sugambri, and
in the Rhine delta the Batavi and other smaller
tribes. All these tribes remained in subjection to the Romans.
Beyond them were the Tencteri, probably about the basin of
the Lahn, and the Usipetes about the basin of the Ruhr. The
basin of the Lippe and the upper basin of the Ems were inhabited
by the Bructeri, and in the same neighbourhood were the Ampsi-
varii, who derive their name from the latter river. East of
them lay the Chasuarii, presumably in the basin of the Hase.
The upper basin of the Weser was inhabited by the Chatti, whose
capital was Mattium, supposed to be Maden on the Eder. To
the north-west of them were situated the Marsi, apparently
between the Diemel and the Lippe, while the central part of the
basin of the Weser was inhabited by the Cherusci, who seem to
have extended considerably eastward. The lower part of the
river-basin was inhabited by the Angrivarii. The coastlands
north of the mouth of the Rhine were occupied by the Cannine-
fates, beyond them by the Frisii as far as the mouth of the Ems,
thence onward to the mouth of the Elbe by the Chauci. As to
the affinities of all these various tribes we have little definite
information, but it is worth noting that the Batavi in Holland
are said to have been a branch of the Chatti, from whom they had
separated owing to a seditio domestica. The basin of the Elbe
was inhabited by Suebic tribes, the chief of which were the
Marcomanni, who seem to have been settled on the Saale during
the latter part of the ist century B.C., but moved into Bohemia
before the beginning of the Christian era, where they at once
became a formidable power under their king Maroboduus.
The Quadi were settled somewhat farther east about the source
of the Elbe. The Hermunduri in the basin of the Saale were in
alliance with the Romans and occupied northern Bavaria with
their consent. The Semnones apparently dwelt below the
junction of the Saale and Elbe. The Langobardi (see LOMBARDS)
possessed the land between the territory of the Semnones and
the mouth of the river. Their name is supposed to be preserved
in Bardengau, south of Hamburg. From later evidence it is
likely that another division of the Suebi inhabited western
Holstein. The province of Schleswig (perhaps only the west
coast) and the islands adjacent were inhabited by the Saxons,
while the east coast, at least in later times, was occupied by the
Angli. The coast of Mecklenburg was probably inhabited by
the Varini (the later Warni). The eastern part of Germany
was much less known to the Romans, information being particu-
larly deficient as to the populations of the coast districts, though
it seems probable that the Rugii inhabited the eastern part of
Pomerania, where a trace of them is preserved in the name
Riigenwalde. The lower part of the basin of the Oder was
probably occupied by the Burgundiones, and the upper part by
a number of tribes collectively known as Lugii, who seem to
correspond to the Vandals of later times, though the early
Roman writers apparently used the word Vandilii in a wider
sense, embracing all the tribes of eastern Germany. Among the
Lugii we may probably include the Silingae, who afterwards
appear among the Vandals in Spain, and whose name is preserved
in Slavonic form in that of the province Silesia. The Goths
(Gotones) apparently inhabited the basin of the Vistula about
the middle of its course, but the lower part of the basin was
inhabited by non-Teutonic peoples, among whom we may
mention the Galindi, probably Prussians, and the Aestii, either
Prussian or Esthonian, in the coastlands at the mouth of the
river, who are known especially in connexion with the amber
trade. To the east of the Vistula were the Slavonic tribes
(Veneti), and amongst them, perhaps rather to the north, a
Finnish population(Fenni), which disappeared in later times.
In the time of Augustus by far the most powerful ruler in
Germany was Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni. His
supremacy extended over all the Suebic tribes (except o omes tic
perhaps the Hermunduri), and most of the peoples wars
of eastern Germany, including apparently the Lugii otthe
and Goths. But in the year A.D. 17 he became involved Oermaa *-
in an unsuccessful campaign against Arminius, prince of the
Cherusci, in which the Semnones and Langobardi revolted
against him, and two years later he was deprived of his throne
by a certain Catualda. The latter, however, was soon expelled
by Vibilius,king of the Hermunduri, and his power was transferred
to Vannius, who belonged to the Quadi. About the same time
Arminius met his death while trying to make himself king of the
EARLY HISTORY)
GERMANY
831
Cherusci. In the year 8 the Frisians revolted from the Romans,
and though they submitted again in the year 47, Claudius
immediately afterwards recalled the Roman troops to the left
bank of the Rhine. In the year so Yannius, king of the Suebi,
was driven from the throne by Yibilius, king of the Hermunduri,
and his nephews Yangio and Sido obtained his kingdom. In
the year 58 the Chatti suffered a serious disaster in a campaign
against the Hermunduri. They seem, however, to have recovered
very soon, and at the end of the ist century had apparently
extended their power at the expense of the Chenisci. During
the latter part of the ist century the Chauci seem to have been
enlarging their territories: as early as the year 47 we find them
raiding the Roman lands on the lower Rhine, and in $8 they
expelled the Ampsivarii, who after several vain attempts to
acquire new possessions were annihilated by the neighbouring
tribes. During the last years of the ist century the Angrivarii
are found moving westwards, probably under pressure from the
Chauci, and the power of the Bructeri was almost destroyed by
their attack. In 69 the Roman territory 04 the lower Rhine
was disturbed by the serious revolt of Claudius Civilis, a prince
of the Batavi who had served in the Roman army. He was
joined by the Bructeri and other neighbouring tribes, but being
defeated by Petilius Cerealis (afterwards consular legate in
Britain) at Yetcra and in other engagements gave up the struggle
and arranged a capitulation in A.D. 70. By the end of the ist
century the Chauci and Chatti seem to have become by far
the most powerful tribes in western Germany, though the former
are seldom mentioned after this time.
After the time of Tacitus our information regarding German
affairs becomes extremely meagre. The next important con-
flict with the Romans was the Marcomannic War (166-180), in
which all the Suebic tribes together with the Vandals (apparently
the ancient Lugii) and the Sarmatian lazyges seem to have
taken part. Peace was made by the emperor Commodus in
A.D. i So on payment of large sums of money.
About the beginning of the 3rd century we find a forward
movement in south-west Germany among a group of tribes
y. jU ^ known collectively as Alamanni (q.v.) who came in
mummi, conflict with the emperor Caracalla in the year 213.
tb otiu About the same time the Goths also made their first
appearance in the south-east and soon became the
most formidable antagonists of Rome. In the year
251 they defeated and slew the emperor Decius, and in the
reign of Gallienus their fleets setting out from the north of the
Black Sea worked great havoc on the coast of the Aegean (see
GOTHS). It is not to be supposed, however, that they had quitted
their own lands on the Vistula by this time. In this connexion
we hear also of the Heruli (?..), who some twenty years later,
about 289, make their appearance in the western seas. In 286
we hear for the first time of maritime raids by the Saxons in
the same quarter. About the middle of the 3rd century the
name Franks (q.t.) makes its first appearance, apparently a
new collective term for the tribes of north-west Germany from
the Chatti to the mouth of the Rhine.
In the 4th century the chief powers in western Germany were
the Franks and the Alamanni, both of whom were in constant
conflict with the Romans. The former were pressed
in their rear by the Saxons, who at some time before
the middle of the 4th century appear to have invaded
and conquered a considerable pan of north-west
Germany. About the same time great national movements
teem to have been taking place farther east. The Burgundians
made their appearance in the west shortly before the end of the
3rd century, settling in the basin of the Main, and it is probable
that some portions of the north Suebic peoples, perhaps the
ancient Semnones, had already moved westward. By the middle
of the 4th century the Goths bad become the dominant power
in eastern Germany, and their King Hermanaric held a supremacy
which seems to have stretched from the Black Sea to Holstein.
At his death, however, the supremacy of eastern Germany
passed to the Huns, an invading people from the cast, whose
arrival seems to have produced a complete displacement of
population in this region. With regard to the course of events
in eastern Germany we have no knowledge, but during the 5th
century several of the peoples previously settled there appear
to have made their way into the lands south of the Carpathians
and Ritscngebirge, amongst whom (besides the Goths) may
be especially mentioned the Rugii and the Gepides, the latu-r
perhaps originally a branch of the Goths. According to tradition
the Vandals had been driven into Pannonia by the Goths in
the time of Constantine. We do not know how far northward
the Hunnish power reached in the time of Attila, but the in-
vasion of this nation waj soon followed by a great westward
movement of the Slavs.
In the west the Alamanni and the descendants of the Marco-
manni, now called Baiouarii (Bavarians), had broken through
the frontiers of the Roman provinces of Vindelicia The Bar-
and Noricum at the beginning of the 5th century, gundita*
while the Vandals together with some of the Suebi * ad "" r
and the non-Teutonic Alani from the east crossed *""*
the Rhine and invaded Gaul in 406. About 435-440 the Bur-
gundians were overthrown by Attila, and their king Guntha-
carius (Gundahar) killed. The remains of the nation shortly
afterwards settled in Gaul. About the same time the Franks
overran and occupied the modern Belgium, and in the course of
the next half-century their dominions were enormously extended
towards the south (see FRANKS). After the death of Attila in
453 the power of the Huns soon collapsed, but the political
divisions of Germany in the ensuing period are far from clear.
In the 6th century the predominant peoples are the Franks,
Frisians, Saxons, Alamanni, Bavarians, Langobardi, Heruli
and Warni. By the beginning of this century the The
Saxons seem to have penetrated almost, if not quite, Fnok*
to the Rhine in the Netherlands. Farther south, *adoth*n
however, the old land of the Chatti was included in ^^ 6th
thekingdomofCtovis. Northern Bavaria was occupied
by the Franks, whose king Clovis subdued the Alamanni in
495. To the east of the Franks between the Harz, the Elbe and
the Saale lay the kingdom of the Thuringi, the origin of whom
is not clear. The Heruli also had a powerful kingdom, probably
in the basin of the Elbe, and to the east of them were the Lango-
bardi. The Warni apparently now dwelt in the regions about
the mouth of the Elbe, while the whole coast from the mouth
of the Weser to the west Scheldt was in the hands of the Frisians.
By this time all the country east of the lower Elbe seems to
have been Slavonic. In the north, perhaps in the province of
Schleswig, we hear now for the first time of the Danes. Theodoric,
king of the Ostrogoths, endeavoured to form a confederacy
with the Thuringi, Heruli and Warni against Clovis in order
to protect the Visigoths in the early years of the 6th century,
but very shortly afterwards the king of the Heruli was slain
by the Langobardi and their existence as an independent power
came to an end. In 531 the Thuringian kingdom was destroyed
by the Prankish king Theodoric, son of Clovis, with whom the
Saxons were in alliance.
During the 6th and 7th centuries the Saxons were intermit-
tently under Frankish supremacy, but their conquest was not
complete until the time of Charlemagne. Shortly The
after the middle of the 6th century the Franks were SMIOOI
threatened with a new invasion by the Avars. In aadth
567-568 the Langobardi, who by this time had moved
into the Danube basin, invaded Italy and were followed by those
of the Saxons who had settled in Thuringia. Their lands were
given by the Frankish king Sigeberht to the north Suebi and
other tribes who had come either from the Elbe basin or possibly
from the Netherlands. About the same time Sigeberht was
defeated by the Avars, and though the latter soon withdrew
from the Frankish frontiers, their course was followed by a
movement of the Slavs, who occupied the basin of the Elster
and penetrated to that of the Main.
By the end of the 6th century the whole basin of the Elbe
except the Saxon territory near the mouth had probably become
Slavonic. To the east of the Saale were the Sorbs (Sorabi), and
beyond them the Daleminci and Siusli. To the east of the
GERMANY
[HISTORY
Saxons were the Polabs (Polabi) in the basin of the Elbe, and
beyond them the Hevelli about the Havel. Farther north in
Mecklenburg were the Warnabi, and in eastern Holstein the
Obotriti and the Wagri. To the east of the Warnabi were the
Liutici as far as the Oder, and beyond that river the Pomerani.
To the south of the Oder were the Milcieni and the Lusici, and
farther east the Poloni with their centre in the basin of the
Vistula. The lower part of the Vistula basin, however, was in
possession of Prussian tribes, the Prussi and Lithuani.
The Warni now disappear from history, and from this time
the Teutonic peoples of the north as far as the Danish boundary
about the Eider are called Saxons. The conquest of the Frisians
by the Franks was begun by Pippin (Pepin) of Heristal in 689
and practically completed by Charles Martel, though they were
not entirely brought into subjection until the time of Charle-
magne. The great overthrow of the Saxons took place about
772-773, and by the end of the century Charlemagne had extended
his conquests to the border of the Danes. By this time the whole
of the Teutonic part of Germany had been finally brought under
his government.
AUTHORITIES. Caesar, De bello Gallico, especially i. 31 ff., iv.
1-19, vi. 21 ff. ; Velleius Paterculus, especially ii. 105 ff. ; Strabo,
especially pp. 193 ff., 290 ff. ; Pliny, Natural History, iv. 99 ff.,
106; Tacitus, Annales, i. 38 ff., ii. 5 ff., 44 ff., 62 f., 88; Germania,
passim; Histories, iv. ; Ptolemy ii. 9, 2 ff., II, iii. 5, 19 ff.;
Dio Cassius, passim; Julius Capitolinus; Claudius Mamertinus;
Ammianus Marcellinus, passim; Zosimus; Jordanes, De origine
Getarum; Procopius, De bello Gothico; K. Zeuss, Die Deutschen und
die Nachbarstamme ; O. Bremer in Paul's Grundriss d. eerm. Philologie
(2nd ed.), vol. iii. pp. 735 ff. (F. G. M. B.)
MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTOBY
When Clovis, or Chlodovech, became king of a tribe of the
Salian Franks in 481, five years after the fall of the Western
empire, the region afterwards called Germany was
Divisions divided into five main districts, and its history for
Qerm*ny ^ e succeeding three centuries is mainly the history
of the tribes inhabiting these districts. In the north-
east, dwelling between the Rhine and the Elbe, were the Saxons
(q.v.), to the east and south of whom stretched the extensive
kingdom of Thuringia (q.v.). In the south-west the Alamanni
occupied the territory afterwards called Swabia (q.v.), and ex-
tended along the middle Rhine until they met the Ripuarian
Franks, then living in the northern part of the district which at
a later period was called after them, Franconia (q.v.); and in
the south-east were the Bavarians, although it was some time
before their country came to be known as Bavaria (q.v.).
Clovis was descended from Chlogio, or Clodion, who had ruled
over a branch of the Salian Franks from 427 to 447, and whose
successors, following his example, had secured an
o/c/ov/sT influential position for their tribe. Having obtained
possession of that part of Gaul which lay between the
Seine and the Loire, Clovis turned his attention to his eastern
neighbours, and was soon engaged in a struggle with the Alamanni
which probably arose out of a quarrel between them and the
Ripuarian Franks for the possession of the middle Rhine. When
in 496, or soon afterwards, the Alamanni were defeated, they
were confined to what was afterwards known as Swabia, and the
northern part of their territory was incorporated with the kingdom
of the Franks. Clovis had united the Salian Franks under his
rule, and he persuaded, or compelled, the Ripuarian Franks
also to accept him as their king; but on his death in 511 his
kingdom was divided, and the Ripuarian, or Rhenish, Franks
as they are sometimes called, together with some of the Alamanni,
came under the rule of his eldest son Theuderich or Theodoric I.
This was the first of the many partitions which effectually divided
the kingdom of the Franks into an eastern and a western portion,
that is to say, into divisions which eventually became Germany
and France respectively, and the district ruled by Theuderich
was almost identical with that which afterwards bore the name
of Austrasia. In 531 Theuderich killed Hermannfried, king of
the Thuringians, a former ally, with whom he had quarrelled,
conquered his kingdom, and added its southern portion to his
own possessions. His son and successor, Theudebert I. , exercised
a certain supremacy over the Alamanni and the Bavarians, and
even claimed authority over various Saxon tribes between
whom and the Franks there had been some fighting. After his
death in 548, however, the Prankish power in Germany sank to
very minute proportions, a result due partly to the spirit of
tribal independence which lingered among the German races,
but principally to the paralysing effect of the unceasing rivalry
between Austrasia and Neustria. From 548 the Alamanni were
ruled by a succession of dukes who soon made themselves in-
dependent; and in 555 a duke of the Bavarians, who exercised
his authority without regard for the Prankish supremacy, is
first mentioned. In Thuringia, which now only consisted of the
central part of the former kingdom, King Dagobert I. set up in
634 a duke named Radulf who soon asserted his independence
of Dagobert and of his successor, Sigebert III. The Saxons for
their part did not own even a nominal allegiance to the Prankish
kings, whose authority on the right bank of the Rhine was con-
fined to the district actually occupied by men of their own name,
which at a later date became the duchy of Franconia. During
these years the e'astern border of Germany was constantly
ravaged by various Slavonic tribes. King Dagobert sent troops
to repel these marauders from time to time, but the main burden
of defence fell upon the Saxons, Bavarians and Thuringians.
The virtual independence of these German tribes lasted until
the union of Austrasia and Neustria in 687, an achievement
mainly due to the efforts of Pippin of Heristal, who soon became
the actual, though not the nominal, ruler of the Prankish realm.
Pippin and his son Charles Martel, who was mayor of the palace
from 717 to 741, renewed the struggle with the Germans and
were soon successful in re-establishing the central power which
the Merovingian kings had allowed to slip from their grasp.
The ducal office was abolished in Thuringia, a series of wars
reduced the Alamanni to strict dependence, and both countries
were governed by Prankish officials. Bavaria was brought
into subjection about the same time; the Bavarian law, com-
mitted to writing between 739 and 748, strongly emphasizes the
supremacy of the Prankish king, whose authority it recognizes
as including the right to appoint and even to depose the duke
of Bavaria. The Saxons, on the other hand, succeeded in retain-
ing their independence as a race, although their country was
ravaged in various campaigns and some tribes were compelled
from time to time to pay tribute. The rule of Pippin the Short,
both before and after his coronation as king, was troubled by
constant risings on the part of his East Prankish or German
subjects, but aided by his brother Carloman, who for a time
administered this part of the Prankish kingdom, Pippin was
generally able to deal with the rebels.
After all, however, even these powerful Prankish conquerors
had but imperfect success in Germany. When they were present
with their formidable armies, they could command The
obedience; when engaged, as they often were, in saxoas
distant parts of the vast Frankish territory, they remain
could not trust to the fulfilment of the fair promises ' fl</ P<'-
they had exacted. One of the chief causes of their e "
ill-success was the continued independence of the Saxons. Ever
since they had acquired the northern half of Thuringia, this war-
like race had been extending its power. They were still heathens,
cherishing bitter hatred towards the Franks, whom they regarded
as the enemies both of their liberties and of their religion; and
their hatred found expression, not only in expeditions into
Frankish territory, but in help willingly rendered to every German
confederation which wished to throw off the Frankish yoke.
Hardly any rebellion against the dukes of the Franks, or against
King Pippin, took place in Germany without the Saxons coming
forward to aid the rebels. This was perfectly understood by
the Frankish rulers, who tried again and again to put an end to
the evil by subduing the Saxons. They could not, however, attain
their object. An occasional victory was gained , and some border
tribes were from time to time compelled to pay tribute; but the
mass of the Saxons remained unconquered. This was partly
due to the fact that the Saxons had not, like the other German
confederations, adukewho, whenbeaten, could be held responsible
HISTORY]
GERMANY
833
for the engagements forced upon him as the representative of
his subjects. A Saxon chief who made peace with the Franks
could undertake nothing for the whole people. At a conquering
race, they were firmly compact; conquered, they were in the
hands of the victor a rope of sand.
It was during the time of Pippin of Heristal and his son and
grandson that the conversion of the Germans to Christianity
was mainlyeffecled. Some traces of RomanChristianity
still lingered in the Rhine valley and in southern
Germany, but the bulk of the people were heathen,
in spite of the efforts of Frank and Irish missionaries
and the command of Ring Dagobert I. that all his subjects should
be baptized. Rupert, bishop of Worms, had already made some
progress in the work of converting the Bavarians and Alamanni,
as had Willibrord among the Thuringians when St Boniface
appeared in Germany in 7 1 7. Appointed bishop of the Germans
by PopeGregory 11-, and supported byCharles Martel.hepreached
with much success in Bavaria and Thuringia, notwithstanding
some hostility from the clergy who disliked the influence of
Rome. He founded or restored bishoprics in Bavaria, Thuringia
and elsewhere, and in 742 presided over the first German council.
When he was martyred in 755 Christianity was professed by all
the German races except the Saxons, and the church, organized
and wealthy, had been to a large extent brought under the control
of the papacy. The old pagan faith was not yet entirely destroyed,
and traces of its influence may still be detected in popular
beliefs and customs. But still Christianity was dominant, and
soon became an important factor in the process of civiliza-
tion, while the close alliance of the German church with the
papacy was followed by results of the utmost consequence for
Germany.
The reign of Charlemagne is a period of great importance
in the history of Germany. Under his rule the first signs of
national unity and a serious advance in the progress of
order and civilization may be seen. The long struggle,
which ended in 804 with the submission of the Saxons
to the emperor, together with the extension of a real
Prankish authority over the Bavarians, brought the German races
for the first time under a single ruler; while war and government,
law and religion, alike tended to weld them into one people.
The armies of Charlemagne contained warriors from all parts of
Germany; and although tribal law was respected and codified,
legislation common to the whole empire was also introduced.
The general establishment of the Prankish system of government
and the presence of Prankish officials helped to break down the
barriers of race, and the influence of Christianity was in the same
direction. With the conversion of the Saxons the whole German
race became nominally Christian; and their ruler was lavish in
granting lands and privileges to prelates, and untiring in founding
bishoprics, monasteries and schools. Measures were also taken
for the security and good government of the country. Campaigns
against the Slavonic tribes, if sometimes failing in their immediate
object, taught those peoples to respect the power of the Prankish
monarch ; and the establishment of a series of marches along
the eastern frontier gave a sense of safety to the neighbouring
districts. The tribal dukes had all disappeared, and their duchies
were split up into districts ruled by counts (?..), whose tendencies
to independence the emperor tried to check by the visits of the
miss: dominici (9.*.). Some of the results of the government
of Charlemagne were, however, less beneficial. His coronation
as Roman emperor in 800, although it did not produce at the
time so powerful an impression in Germany as in France, was
fraught with consequences not always favourable for the former
country. The tendencies of the tribe to independence were
crushed as their ancient popular assemblies were discouraged;
and the liberty of the freemen was curtailed owing to the exi-
gencies of military service, while the power of the church was
rarely directed to the highest ends.
The reign of the emperor Louis I. was marked by a number
of abortive schemes for the partition of his dominions among his
sons, which provoked a state of strife that was largely responsible
for the increasing weakness of the Empire. The mild nature of
n. 7
his rule, however, made Louis popular with his German subjects,
to whose support mainly he owed his restoration to power on
two occasions. When in 825 his son Louis, after-
wards called " the German," was entrusted with the ^nrf'ito
government of Bavaria and from this centre gradually ,,.
extended his authority over the Carolingian dominions
east of the Rhine, a step was taken in the process by which
East Francia, or Germany, was becoming a unit distinguish-
able from other portions of the Empire; a process which was
carried further by the treaty of Verdun in August 843, when,
after a struggle between Louis the German and his brothers for
their father's inheritance, an arrangement was made by which
Louis obtained the bulk of the lands east of the Rhine together
with the districts around Mainz, Worms and Spires on the left
bank. Although not yet a single people, the German tribes had
now for the first time a ruler whose authority was confined to
their own lands, and from this time the beginnings of national
life may be traced. For fifty years the main efforts of Louis
were directed to defending his kingdom from the inroads of his
Slavonic neighbours, and his detachment from the rest of the
Empire necessitated by these constant engagements towards the
east, gradually gave both him and his subjects a distinctive
character, which was displayed and emphasized when, in
ratifying an alliance with his half-brother, the West-Prankish
king, Charles the Bald, the oath was sworn in different tongues.
The East and West Franks were unable to understand each
other's speech, so Charles took the oath in a Romance, and
Louis in a German dialect.
Important as is the treaty of Verdun in German history, that
of Mersen, by which Louis and Charles the Bald settled in 870
their dispute over the kingdom of Lothair, second son Loalt tll0
of the emperor Lothair I., is still more important, oermao
The additional territory which Louis then obtained * ad *'
gave to his dominions almost the proportions which "
Germany maintained throughout the middle ages. They were
bounded on the east by the Elbe and the Bohemian mountains,
and on the west beyond the Rhine they included the districts
known afterwards as Alsace and Lorraine. His jurisdiction
embraced the territories occupied by the five ancient German
tribes, and included the five archbishoprics of Mainz, Treves
(Trier), Cologne, Salzburg and Bremen. When Louis died in
876 his kingdom was divided among his three sons, but as the
two elder of these soon died without heirs, Germany was again
united in 882 under his remaining son Charles, called " the Fat,"
who soon became ruler of almost the whole of the extensive
domains of Charlemagne. There was, however, no cohesion in
the restored empire, the disintegration of which, moreover, was
hastened by the ravages of the Northmen, who plundered the
cities in the valley of the Rhine. Charles attempted to buy off
these redoubtable invaders, a policy which aroused the anger of
his German subjects, whose resentment was accentuated by the
king's indifference to their condition, and found expression in
887 when Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman, the eldest
son of Louis the German, led an army of Bavarians against him.
Arnulf himself was recognized as German or East-Frankish
king, although his actual authority was confined to Bavaria and
its neighbourhood. He was successful in freeing his kingdom
for a time from the ravages of the Northmen, but was not equally
fortunate in his contests with the Moravians. After his death in
899 his kingdom came under the nominal rule of his young son
Louis " the Child," and in the absence of firm rule and a central
authority became the prey of the Magyars and other hordes of
invaders.
During these wars feudalism made rapid advance in Germany.
The different peoples compelled to attend to their own defence
appointed dukes for special military services (see
DUKE) ; and these dukes, chosen often from members
of the old ducal families, succeeded without much
difficulty in securing a more permanent position for
themselves and their descendants. In Saxony, for example,
we hear of Duke Otto the Illustrious, who also ruled over
Thuringia; and during the early years of the loth century dukes
834
GERMANY
[HISTORY
appear in Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine. These
dukes acquired large tracts of land of which they gave grants
on conditions of military service to persons on whom they could
rely; while many independent landowners sought their protection
on terms of vassalage. The same process took place in the case
of great numbers of freemen of a lower class, who put themselves
at the service of their more powerful neighbours in return for
protection. In this manner the feudal tenure of land began to
prevail in almost all parts of Germany, and the elaborate social
system which became known as feudalism was gradually built
up. The dukes became virtually independent, and when Louis
the Child died in 911, the royal authority existed in name
only.
While Louis the Child lived the German dukes were virtually
kings in their duchies, and their natural tendency was to make
themselves absolute rulers. But, threatened as they
were by the Magyars, with the Slavs and Northmen
always ready to take advantage of their weakness, they could
not afford to do without a central government. Accordingly
the nobles assembled at Forchheim, and by the advice of Otto
the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, Conrad of Franconia was chosen
German king. The dukes of Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine were
displeased at this election, probably because Conrad was likely
to prove considerably more powerful than they wished. Rather
than acknowledge him, the duke of Lotharingia, or Lorraine,
transferred his allegiance to Charles the Simple of France; and
it was in vain that Conrad protested and despatched armies into
Lorraine. With the help of the French king the duke maintained
his ground, and for the time his country was lost to Germany.
Bavaria and Swabia yielded, but, mainly through the fault of
the king himself, their submission was of brief duration. The
rise of the dukes had been watched with extreme jealousy by
the leading prelates. They saw that the independence they had
hitherto enjoyed would be much more imperilled by powerful
local governors than by a sovereign who necessarily regarded it
as part of his duty to protect the church. Hence they had done
everything they could to prevent the dukes from extending their
authority, and as the government was carried on during the reign
of Louis the Child mainly by Hatto I., archbishop of Mainz, they
had been able to throw considerable obstacles in the way of their
rivals. They had now induced Conrad to quarrel with both
Swabia and Bavaria, and also with Henry, duke of Saxony, son
of the duke to whom he chiefly owed his crown. In these contests
the German king met with indifferent success, but the struggle
with Saxony was not very serious, and when dying in December
919 Conrad recommended the Franconian nobles to offer the
crown to Henry, the only man who could cope with the anarchy
by which he had himself been baffled.
The nobles of Franconia acted upon the advice of their king,
and the Saxons were very willing that their duke should rise
to still higher honours. Henry I., called " the Fowler,"
wno was cnosen German king in May 919, was one of
the best of German kings, and was a born statesman
and warrior. His ambition was of the noblest order, for he sank
his personal interests in the cause of his country, and he knew
exactly when to attain his objects by force, and when by con-
cession and moderation. Almost immediately he overcame
the opposition of the dukes of Swabia and Bavaria; some time
later, taking advantage of the troubled state of France, he
accepted the homage of the duke of Lorraine, which for many
centuries afterwards remained a part of the German kingdom.
Having established internal order, Henry was able to turn
to matters of more pressing moment. In the first year of his
reign the Magyars, who had continued to scourge
Henry Germany during the reign of Conrad, broke into
Saxony and plundered the land almost without hind-
rance. In 924 they returned, and this time by good
fortune one of their greatest princes fell into the hands of the
Germans. Henry restored him to his countrymen on condition
that they made a truce for nine years; and he promised to pay
yearly tribute during this period. The barbarians accepted his
terms, and faithfully kept their word in regard to Henry's own
lands, although Bavaria, Swabia and Franconia they occasionally
invaded as before. The king made admirable use of the oppor-
tunity he had secured, confining his efforts, however, to Saxony
and Thuringia, the only parts of Germany over which he had
any control.
In the southern and western German lands towns and fortified
places had long existed; but in the north, where Roman influence
had only been feeble, and where even the Franks
had not exercised much authority until the time of Henry's
Charlemagne, the people still lived as in ancient times, saxony.
either on solitary farms or in exposed villages. Henry
saw that, while this state of things lasted, the population could
never be safe, and began the construction of fortresses and walled
towns. Of every group of nine men one was compelled to devote
himself to this work, while the remaining eight cultivated his
fields and allowed a third of their produce to be stored against
times of trouble. The necessities of military discipline were
also a subject of attention. Hitherto the Germans had fought
mainly on foot, and, as the Magyars came on horseback, the
nation was placed at an immense disadvantage. A powerful
force of cavalry was now raised, while at the same time the
infantry were drilled in new and more effective modes of fighting.
Although these preparations were carried on directly under
Henry's supervision, only in Saxony and Thuringia the neigh-
bouring dukes were stimulated to follow his example. When he
was ready he used his new troops, before turning them against
their chief enemy, the Magyars, to punish refractory Slavonic
tribes; and he brought under temporary subjection nearly
all the Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder. He proceeded
also against the Bohemians, whose duke was compelled to do
homage.
The truce with the Magyars was not renewed, whereupon in
933 a body of invaders crossed, as in former years, the frontier
of Thuringia. Henry prudently waited until dearth
of provisions forced the enemy to divide into two
bands. He then swept down upon the weaker force,
annihilated it, and rapidly advanced against the
remaining portion of the army. The second battle was more
severe than the first, but not less decisive. The Magyars, unable
to cope with a disciplined army, were cut down in great numbers,
and those who survived rode in terror from the field. The exact
scenes of these conflicts are not known, although the date of the
second encounter was the isth of March 933; but few more
important battles have ever been fought. The power of the
Magyars was not indeed destroyed, but it was crippled, and the
way was prepared for the effective liberation of Germany from
an intolerable plague. While the Magyars had been troubling
Germany on the east and south, the Danes had been irritating
her on the north. Charlemagne had established a march between
the Eider and the Schlei; but in course of time the Danes had
not only seized this territory, but had driven the German popula-
tion beyond the Elbe. The Saxons had been slowly reconquering
the lost ground, and now Henry, advancing with his victorious
army into Jutland, forced Gorm, the Danish king, to become
his vassal and regained the land between the Eider and the
Schlei. But Henry's work concerned the duchy of Saxony
rather than the kingdom of Germany. He concentrated all his
energies on the government and defence of northern and eastern
Germany, leaving the southern and western districts to profit
by his example, while his policy of refraining from interference
in the affairs of the other duchies tended to diminish the ill-feeling
which existed between the various German tribes and to bring
peace to the country as a whole. It is in these directions that
the reign of Henry the Fowler marks a stage in the history of
Germany.
When this great king died in July 936 every land inhabited
by a German population formed part of the German kingdom,
and none of the duchies were at war either with him or among
themselves. Along the northern and eastern frontier were tribu-
tary races, and the country was for the time rid of an enemy
which, for nearly a generation, had kept it in perpetual fear. Great
as were these results, perhaps Henry did even greater service
Magyars
return.
GERMANY
887.1.37
The Great Duchies
GERMANY
"37;' '54
The Tranution lo Empire
)Mr
..
Dominions of
OTTAKAR
1251-1278
GERMANY
1254-1500
HISTORYJ
GERMANY
n*
crawl**/
in beginning the growth of towns throughout north Germany.
Not content with merely making them places of defence, he
decreed that they should be centres for the administra-
tion of justice, and that in them should be held all public
festivities and ceremonies; he also instituted markets,
and encouraged traders to take advantage of the oppor-
tunities provided for them. A strong check was thus imposed
upon the tendency of freemen to become the vassals of great lords.
This movement had become so powerful by the troubles of the
epoch that , had no other current of influence set in, the entire class
of freemen must soon have disappeared. As they now knew that
they could find protection without looking to a superior, they
had less temptation to give up their independence, and many
of them settled in the towns where they could be safe and free.
Besides maintaining a manly spirit in the population, the towns
rapidly added to their importance by the stimulus they gave
to all kinds of industry and trade.
Before his death Henry obtained the promise of the nobles
at a national assembly, or diet, at Erfurt to recognize his son
Otto as his successor, and the promise was kept, Otto
being chosen German king in July 936. Otto I. the
Great began his reign under the most favourable
circumstances. He was twenty-four years of age, and at the
coronation festival, which was held at Aix-Ia-Chapelle, the dukes
performed for the first time the nominally menial offices known
as the arch-offices of the German kingdom. But these peaceful
relations soon came to an end. Reversing his father's policy,
Otto resolved that the dukes should act in the strictest sense
as his vassals, or lose their dignities. At the time of his coronation
Germany was virtually a federal state; he wished to transform
it into a firm and compact monarchy. This policy speedily led to
a formidable rebellion, headed by Thankmar, the king's half-
brother, a fierce warrior, who fancied that he had a prior claim
to the crown, and who secured a number of followers in Saxony.
He was joined by Eberhard, duke of Franconia, and it was only
by the aid of the duke of Swabia, whom the duke of Franconia
had offended, that the rising was put down. This happened in
938, and in 939 a second rebellion, led by Otto's brother Henry,
was supported by the duke of Franconia and by Giselbert, duke
of Lorraine. Otto again triumphed, and derived immense ad-
vantages from his success. The duchy of Franconia he kept
in his own hands, and in 044 he granted Lorraine to Conrad
the Red, an energetic and honourable count, whom he still
further attached to himself by giving him his daughter for his
wife. Bavaria, on the death of its duke in 947, was placed under
his brother Henry, who, having been pardoned, had become
a loyal subject. The duchy of Swabia was also brought into
Otto's, family by the marriage of his son Ludolf with Duke
Hermann's daughter, and by these means Otto made himself
master of the kingdom. For the time, feudalism in truth meant
that lands and offices were held on condition of service; the king
was the genuine ruler, not only of freemen, but of the highest
vassals in the nation.
In the midst of these internal troubles Otto was attacked
by the French king, Louis IV., who sought tq regain Lorraine.
However, the German king was soon able to turn his
arms against his new enemy; he marched into France
and made peace with Louis in 042. Otto's subsequent
interventions in the affairs of France were mainly
directed towards making peace between Louis and his
powerful and rebellious vassal, Hugh the Great, duke of the
Franks, both of whom were married to sisters of the German
Ling. Much more important than Otto's doings in France were
his wars with his northern and eastern neighbours. The duke of
Bohemia, after a long struggle, was brought to submission in
950. Among the Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder the king
was represented by Margrave Gero, a warrior well fitted for the
rough work be had to do, loyal to his sovereign, but capable
of any treachery towards his enemies, who conquered much of
the country north of Bohemia between the Oder and the upper
and middle Elbe. Margrave Billung, who looked after the
Abotrites on the lower Elbe, was less fortunate, mainly because
of the neighbourhood of the Danes, who, after the death of King
Henry, often attacked the hated Germans, but some progress
was made in bringing this district under German influence.
Otto, having profound faith in the power of the church to
reconcile conquered peoples to his rule, provided for the benefit
of the Danes the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ripen and Aarhus;
and among those which he established for the Slavs were the
important bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg. In his
later years he set up the archbishopric of Magdeburg, which
took in the sees of Meissen, Zeitz and Mcrseburg.
Having secured peace in Germany and begun the real conquest
of the border races, Otto was by far the greatest sovereign
in Europe; and, had he refused to go beyond the
limits within which he had hitherto acted, it is probable
that he would have established a united monarchy.
But a decision to which he soon came deprived posterity of the
results which might have sprung from the policy of his earlier
years. About 951 Adelaide, widow of Lothair, son of Hugh,
king of Italy, having refused to marry the son of Bcrengar,
margrave of Ivrea, was cast into prison and cruelly treated. She
appealed to Otto; other reasons called him in the same direction,
and in 951 he crossed the Alps and descended into Lombardy.
He displaced Berengar, and was so fascinated by Queen Adelaide
that within a few weeks he was married to her at Pavia. But
Otto's son, Ludolf, who had received a promise of the German
crown, saw his rights threatened by this marriage. He went
to an old enemy of his father, Frederick, archbishop of Mainz,
and the two plotted together against the king, who, hearing of
their proceedings, returned to Germany in 952, leaving Duke
Conrad of Lorraine as his representative in Italy. Otto, who
did not suspect how deep were the designs of the conspirators,
paid a visit to Mainz, where he was seized and was com-
pelled to take certain solemn pledges which, after his escape, he
repudiated.
War broke out in 953, and the. struggle was the most serious
in which he had been engaged. In Lorraine, of which duchy
Otto made his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne,
administrator, his cause was triumphant ; but every- * clv "
where else dark clouds gathered over his head. Conrad
the Red hurried from Italy and joined the rebels; in Swabia,
in Bavaria, in Franconia and even in Saxony, the native land
of the king, many sided with them. It is extremely remarkable
that this movement acquired so quickly such force and volume.
The explanation, according to some historians, is that the
people looked forward with alarm to the union of Germany with
Italy. There were still traditions of the hardships inflicted upon
the common folk by the expeditions of Charlemagne, and it is
supposed that they anticipated similar evils in the event of his
empire being restored. Whether or not this be the true explana-
tion, the power of Otto was shaken to its foundations. At last
he was saved by the presence of an immense external peril. The
Magyars were as usual stimulated to action by the disunion of
their enemies; and Conrad and Ludolf made the blunder of
inviting their help, a proceeding which disgusted the Germans,
many of whom fell away from their side and rallied to the
head and protector of the nation. In a very short time Conrad
and the archbishop of Mainz submitted, and although Ludolf
held out a little longer he soon asked for pardon. Lorraine
was given to Bruno; but Conrad, its former duke, although
thus punished, was not disgraced, for Otto needed his services
in the war with the Magyars. The great battle against
these foes was fought on the loth of August 955
on the Lechfeld near Augsburg. After a fierce and
obstinate fight, in which Conrad and many other nobles fell,
the Germans were victorious; the Magyars were even more
thoroughly scourged than in the battles in which Otto's father
had given them their first real check. The deliverance of Ger-
many was complete, and from this time, notwithstanding
certain wild raids towards the east, the Magyars began to settle
in the land they still occupy, and to adapt themselves to the
conditions of civilized life.
Entreated by Pope John XII., who needed a helper against
8 3 6
GERMANY
[HISTORY
crowned
emperor.
Berengar, Otto went a second time to Italy, in 961; and on
this occasion he received from the pope at Rome the imperial
crown. In 966 he was again in Italy, where he re-
otto mained six years, exercising to the full his imperial
rights in regard to the papacy, but occupied mainly
in an attempt to make himself master of the southern,
as well as of the northern half of the peninsula.
By far the most important act of Otto's eventful life was
his assumption of the Lombard and the imperial crowns. His
successors steadily followed his example, and the
ion at sovereign crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle claimed as his
Uermaay right coronation by the pope in Rome. Thus grew
with the U p tjje jjoiy Roman Empire, that strange state which,
directly descending through the empire of Charlemagne
from the empire of the Caesars, contained so many elements
foreign to ancient life. We are here concerned with it only as
it affected Germany. Germany itself never until our own day
became an empire. It is true that at last the Holy Roman
Empire was in reality confined to Germany; but in theory it
was something quite different. Like France, Germany was a
kingdom, but it differed from France in this, that its king was
also king in Italy and Roman emperor. As the latter title made
him nominally the secular lord of the world, it might have
been expected to excite the pride of his German subjects; and
doubtless, after a time, they did learn to think highly of them-
selves as the imperial race. But the evidence tends to show
that at first at least they had no wish for this honour, and would
have preferred their ruler to devote himself entirely to his own
people.
There are signs that during Otto's reign they began to have
a distinct consciousness of national life, their use of the word
" deutsch " to indicate the whole people being one of these
symptoms. Their common sufferings, struggles and triumphs,
however, account far more readily for this feeling than the
supposition that they were elated by their king undertaking
obligations which took him for years together away from his
native land. So solemn were the associations of the imperial
title that, after acquiring it, Otto probably looked for more
intimate obedience from his subjects. They were willing enough
to admit the abstract claims of the Empire; but in the world of
feudalism there was a multitude of established customs and
rights which rudely conflicted with these claims, and in action,
remote and abstract considerations gave way before concrete
and present realities. Instead of strengthening the allegiance
of the Germans towards their sovereign, the imperial title was
the means of steadily undermining it. To the connexion of their
kingdom with the Empire they owe the fact that for centuries
they were the most divided of European nations, and that they
have only recently begun to create a genuinely united state.
France was made up of a number of loosely connected lands,
each with its own lord, when Germany, under Otto, was to a
large extent moved by a single will, well organized and strong.
But the attention of the French kings was concentrated on their
immediate interests, and in course of time they brought their
unruly vassals to order. The German kings, as emperors, had
duties which often took them away for long periods from Germany.
This alone would have shaken their authority, for, during their
absence, the great vassals seized rights which were afterwards
difficult to recover. But the emperors were not merely absent,
they had to engage in struggles in which they exhausted the
energies necessary to enforce obedience at home; and, in order
to obtain help, they were sometimes glad to concede advantages
to which, under other conditions, they would have tenaciously
clung. Moreover, the greatest of all their struggles was with
the papacy; so that a power outside their kingdom, but exercis-
ing immense influence within it, was in the end always prepared
to weaken them by exciting dissension among their people.
Thus the imperial crown was the most fatal gift that could have
been offered to the German kings; apparently giving them
all things, it deprived them of nearly everything. And in doing
this it inflicted on many generations incalculable and needless
suffering.
By the policy of his later years Otto did much to prepare
the way for the process of disintegration which he rendered
inevitable by restoring the Empire. With the kingdom
divided into five great duchies, the sovereign could OU % tlle
always have maintained at least so much unity as Henry ^, C hies.
the Fowler secured; and, as the experience of Otto
himself showed, there would have been chances of much greater
centralization. Yet he threw away this advantage. Lorraine
was divided into two duchies, Upper Lorraine and Lower Lorraine.
In each duchy of the kingdom he appointed a count palatine,
whose duty was to maintain the royal rights; and after Margrave
Gero died in 965 his territory was divided into three marches,
and placed under margraves, each with the same powers as Gero.
Otto gave up the practice of retaining the duchies either in his
own hands or in those of relatives. Even Saxony, his native
duchy and the chief source of his strength, was given to Margrave
Billung, whose family kept it for many years. To combat the
power of the princes, Otto, especially after he became emperor
and looked upon himself as the protector of the church, immensely
increased the importance of the prelates. They received great
gifts of land, were endowed with jurisdiction in criminal as well
as civil cases, and obtained several other valuable sovereign
rights. The emperor's idea was that, as church lands and
offices could not be hereditary, their holders would necessarily
favour the crown. But he forgot that the church had a head
outside Germany, and that the passion for the rights of an order
may be not less intense than that for the rights of a family.
While the Empire was at peace with the popes the prelates did
strongly uphold it, and their influence was unquestionably,
on the whole, higher than that of rude secular nobles. But
with the Empire and the Papacy in conflict, they could not but
abide, as a rule, by the authority which had the most sacred
claims to their loyalty. From all these circumstances it curiously
happened that the sovereign who did more than almost any other
to raise the royal power, was also the sovereign who, more than
any other, wrought its decay.'
Otto II. had been crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle
and emperor ,at Rome during his father's lifetime. Becoming
sole ruler in May 973, his troubles began in Lorraine, ottoil
but were more serious in Bavaria, which was now a
very important duchy. Its duke, Henry, the brother of Otto I.,
had died in 955 and had been succeeded by a young son, Henry,
whose turbulent career subsequently induced the Bavarian
historian Aventinus to describe him as rixosus, or the Quarrel-
some. In 973 Burchard II., duke of Swabia, died, and the new
emperor refused to give this duchy to Henry, further irritating
this duke by bestowing it upon his enemy, Otto, a grandson
of the emperor Otto I. Having collected allies Henry rebelled,
and in 976 the emperor himself marched against him and drove
him into Bohemia. Bavaria was taken from him and given to
Otto of Swabia, but it was deprived of some of its importance.
The southern part, Carinthia, which had hitherto been a march
district, was separated from it and made into a duchy, and the
church in Bavaria was made dependent upon the king and not
upon the duke. Having arrived at this settlement Otto marched
against the Bohemians, but while he was away from Germany
war was begun against him by Henry, the new duke of Carinthia,
who, forgetting the benefits he had just received, rose to avenge
the wrongs of his friend, the deposed duke Henry of Bavaria.
The emperor made peace with the Bohemians and quickly put
down the rising. Henry of Bavaria was handed over to the
keeping of the bishop of Utrecht and Carinthia received another
duke.
In his anxiety to obtain possession of southern Italy, Otto I.
had secured as a wife for his son and successor Theophano,
daughter of the East Roman emperor, Romanus ottoaad
II., the ruler of much of southern Italy. Otto II., France.
having all his father's ambition with much of his
strength and haughtiness, longed to get away from Germany
and to claim these remoter districts. But he was detained for
some time owing to the sudden invasion of Lower Lorraine by
Lothair, king of France, in 978. So stealthily did the invader
HISTORY]
GERMANY
37
advance that the emperor had only just time to escape from
Aix-la-Chapelle before the town was seized and plundered.
As quickly as possible Otto placed himself at the head of
a great army and marched to Paris, but he was compelled
to retreat without taking the city, and in 080 peace was
made.
At last, after an expedition against the Poles, Otto was able
to fulfil the wish of his heart; he went to Italy in 080 and never
returned to Germany. His claims to southern Italy
were vehemently opposed, and in July 982 he suffered
a disastrous defeat at the hands of the East Roman
emperor's subjects and their Saracen allies. The news of this
crushing blow cast a gloom over Germany, which was again
suffering from the attacks of her unruly neighbours. The Saxons
were able to cope with the Danes and the German boundary
was pushed forward in the south-east; but the Slavs fought
with such courage and success that during the reigns of the
emperors Otto II. and Otto III. much of the work effected by
the margraves Hermann Billung and Gero was undone, and
nearly two centuries passed before they were driven back to
the position which they had perforce occupied under Otto the
Great. Such were the first-fruits of the assumption of the
imperial crown.
About six months before his death in Rome, in December
983, Otto held a diet at Verona which was attended by many
of the German princes, who recognized his infant
*** ' son Otto as his successor. Otto was then taken to
Germany, and after his father's death he was crowned at
Aix-la-Chapelle on Christmas Day 083. Henry of Bavaria
was released from his confinement and became his guardian;
but as this restless prince showed an inclination to secure the
crown for himself, the young king was taken from him and placed
in the care of his mother Theophano. Henry, however, gained
a good deal of support both within and without Germany and
caused much anxiety to Otto's friends, but in 985 peace was made
and he was restored to Bavaria. While Theophano acted as
regent, the chief functions of government were discharged by
Willigis, archbishop of Mainz (d. ion), a vigorous prelate who
had risen from a humble rank to the highest position in the
German Church. He was aided by the princes, each of whom
claimed a voice in the administration, and, during the lifetime of
Theophano at least, a stubborn and sometimes a successful
resistance was offered to the attacks of the Slavs. But under
the prevalent conditions a vigorous rule was impossible, and
during Otto's minority the royal authority was greatly weakened.
In Saxony the people were quickly forgetting their hereditary
connexion with the successors of Henry the Fowler; in Bavaria,
after the death of Duke Henry in 095, the nobles, heedless of the
royal power, returned to the ancient German custom and chose
Henry's son Henry as their ruler.
In 995 Otto III. was declared to have reached his majority.
He -had been so carefully trained in all the learning of the time
that he was called the " wonder of the world," and a
certain fascination still belongs to his imaginative and
fantastic nature. Imbued by his mother with the
extravagant ideas of the East Roman emperors he
introduced into his court an amount of splendour and ceremonial
hitherto unknown in western Europe. The heir of the western
emperors and the grandson of an eastern emperor, he spent most
of his time in Rome, and fancied he could unite the world under
his rule. In this vague design be was encouraged by Gerbert, the
greatest scholar of the day, whom, as Silvester II., he raised to
the papal throne. Meanwhile Germany was suffering severely
from internal disorders and from the inroads of her rude
neighbours; and when in the year 1000 Otto visited his northern
kingdom there were hopes that he would smite these enemies
with the vigour of his predecessors. But these hopes were
disappointed; on the contrary, Otto seems to have released
Boleslaus, duke of the Poles, from his vague allegiance to the
German kings, and he founded an archbishopric at Gnesen,
thus freeing the Polish sees from the authority of the archbishop
of Magdeburg.
When Otto III. ilie<l in January 1002 there remained no
representative of the elder branch of the imperial family, and
several candidates came forward for the vacant throne.
Among these candidates was Henry of Bavaria, son
of Duke Henry the Quarrelsome and a great-grandson of Henry
the Fowler, and at Mainz in June 1002 this prince was chosen
German king as Henry II. Having been recognized as king by
the Saxons, the Thuringians and the nobles of Lorraine, the new
king was able to turn his attention to the affairs of government,
but on the whole his reign was an unfortunate one for Germany.
For ten years civil war raged in Lorraine; in Saxony much blood
was shed in petty quarrels; and Henry made expeditions against
histurbulent vassals in Flanders and Friesland. He also interfered
in the affairs of Burgundy, but the acquisition of this kingdom
was the work of his successor, Conrad II. During nearly the
whole of this reign the Germans were fighting the Poles. Boleslaus
of Poland, who was now a very powerful sovereign, having
conquered Lusatia and Silesia, brought Bohemia also under his
rule and was soon at variance with the German king. Anxious
to regain these lands Henry allied himself with some Slavonic
tribes, promising not to interfere with the exercise of their
heathen religion, while Boleslaus found supporters among the
discontented German nobles. The honours of the ensuing war
were with Henry, and when peace was made in 1006 Boleslaus
gave up Bohemia, but the struggle was soon renewed and neither
side had gained any serious advantage when peace was again
made in 1013. A third Polish war broke out in 1015. Henry
led his troops in person and obtained assistance from the Russians
and the Hungarians; peace was concluded in 1018, the Elbe
remaining the north-east boundary of Germany. Henry made
three journeys to Italy, being crowned king of the Lombards
at Pavia in 1004 and emperor at Rome ten years later. Before
the latter event, in order to assert his right of sovereignty over
Rome, he called himself king of the Romans, a designation which
henceforth was borne by his successors until they received the
higher title from the pope. Hitherto a sovereign crowned at
Aix-la-Chapelle had been " king of the West Franks," or " king
of the Franks and Saxons." Henry was generous to the church,
to which he looked for support, but he maintained the royal
authority over the clergy. Although generally unsuccessful he
strove hard for peace, and during this reign the principle of
inheritance was virtually established with regard to German
fiefs.
After Henry's death the nobles met at Kamba, near Oppen-
heim, and in September 1024 elected Conrad, a Franconian
count, to the vacant throne. Although favoured by
the German clergy the new king, Conrad II., had to
face some opposition; this, however, quickly vanished and he re-
ceived the homage of the nobles in the various duchies and seemed
to have no reason to dread internal enemies. Nevertheless,
he had soon to battle with a conspiracy headed by his stepson,
Ernest II., duke of Swabia. This was caused primarily by
Conrad's avowed desire to acquire the kingdom of Burgundy, but
other reasons for dissatisfaction existed, and the revolting duke
found it easy to gather around him the scattered forces of dis-
content. However, the king was quite able to deal with the
rising, which, indeed, never attained serious proportions, although
Ernest gave continual trouble until his death in 1030. With
regard to the German duchies Conrad followed the policy of
Otto the Great. He wished to control, not to abolish them.
In 1026, when Duke Henry of Bavaria died, he obtained the
duchy for his son Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III.;
later, despite the opposition of the nobles, he invested the same
prince with Swabia, where the ducal family had died out.
Franconia was in the hands of Conrad himself; thus Saxony,
Thuringia, Carinthia and Lorraine were the only duchies not
completely dependent upon the king.
When Conrad ascended the throne the safety of Germany
was endangered from three different points. On the north was
Denmark ruled by Canute the Great; on the east was the wide
Polish state whose ruler, Boleslaus, had just taken the title of
king; and on the south-east was Hungary, which under its king.
8 3 8
GERMANY
[HISTORY
St Stephen, was rapidly becoming an organized and formidable
power. Peace was maintained with Canute, and in 1035 a treaty
The was concluded and the land between the Eider and
neigh- the Schlei was ceded to Denmark. In 1030 Conrad
bouring waged a short war against Hungary, but here also
Countries, j^ wag o bijg e d t o assent to a cession of territory.
In Poland he was more fortunate. After the death of Boleslaus
in 1025 the Poles plunged into a civil war, and Conrad was able
to turn this to his own advantage. In 103 1 he recovered Lusatia
and other districts, and in 1033 the Polish duke of Mesislaus
did homage to him at Merseburg. His authority was recognized
by the Bohemians, and two expeditions taught the Slavonic
tribes between the Elbe and the Oder to respect his power.
In Italy, whither he journeyed in 1026 and 1036, Conrad
was not welcomed. Although as emperor and as king of the
Lombards he was the lawful sovereign of that country,
Italy" ' t ' le Germans were still regarded as intruders and could
only maintain their rights by force. The event which
threw the greatest lustre upon this reign was the acquisition of
the kingdom of Burgundy, or Aries, which was bequeathed to
Conrad by its king, Rudolph III., the uncle of his wife, Gisela.
Rudolph died in 1032, and in 1033 Conrad was crowned king
at Peterlingen, being at once recognized by the German-speaking
population. For about two years his rival, Odo, count of
Champagne, who was supported by the Romance-speaking
inhabitants, kept up the struggle against him, but eventually
all opposition was overcome and the possession of Burgundy
was assured to the German king.
This reign is important in the history of Germany because
it marks the beginning of the great imperial age, but it has other
ne features of interest. In dealing with the revolt of
nobler Ernest of Swabia Conrad was aided by the reluctance
and the o f the vassals of the great lords to follow them against
the king. This reluctance was due largely to the
increasing independence of this class of landholders, who were
beginning to learn that the sovereign, and not their immediate
lord, was the protector of their liberties; the independence
in its turn arose from the growth of the principle of heredity.
In Germany Conrad did not definitely decree that fiefs should
pass from father to son, but he encouraged and took advantage
of the tendency in this direction, a tendency which was, obviously,
a serious blow at the power of the great lords over their vassals.
In 1037 he issued from Milan his famous edict for the kingdom
of Italy which decreed that upon the death of a landholder his
fief should descend to his son, or grandson, and that no fiefholder
should be deprived of his fief without the judgment of his peers.
In another direction Conrad's policy was to free himself as king
from dependence upon the church. He sought to regain lands
granted to the church by his predecessors; prelates were em-
ployed on public business much less frequently than heretofore.
He kept a firm hand over the church, but his rule was purely
secular; he took little or no interest in ecclesiastical affairs.
During this reign the centre and basis of the imperial power in
Germany was moved southwards. Saxony, the home of the
Ottos, became less prominent in German politics, while Bavaria
and the south were gradually gaining in importance.
Henry III., who had been crowned German king and also
king of Burgundy during his father's lifetime, took possession
Hear in ^ n ' s 8 reat inheritance without the slightest sign of
opposition in June 1039. He was without the im-
pulsiveness which marred Conrad's great qualities, but he had
the same decisive judgment, wide ambition and irresistible
will as his father. During the late king's concluding years a
certain Bretislaus, who had served Conrad with distinction
in Lusatia, became duke of Bohemia and made war upon the
disunited Poles, easily bringing them into subjection. Thus
Germany was again threatened with the establishment of a great
and independent Slavonic state upon her eastern frontier. To
combat this danger Henry invaded Bohemia, and after two
reverses compelled Bretislaus to appear before him as a suppliant
at Regensburg. The German king treated his foe generously
and was rewarded by receiving to the end of his reign the service
of a loyal vassal; he also gained the goodwill of the Poles by
helping to bring about the return of their duke, Casimir I., who
willingly did homage for his land. The king of Denmark, too,
acknowledged Henry as his feudal lord. Moreover, by several
campaigns in Hungary the German king brought that country
into the position of a fief of the German crown. This war was
occasioned by the violence of the Hungarian usurper, Aba Samuel,
and formed Henry's principal occupation from 1041 to 1045.
In Germany itself Henry acquired, during the first ten years
of his rule, an authority which had been unknown since the days
of Otto the Great. Early in his reign he had made a
determined enemy of Godfrey the Bearded, duke of
upper Lorraine, who, in 1044, conspired against him po iky.
and who found powerful allies in Henry I., king of
France, in the counts of Flanders and Holland, and in certain
Burgundian nobles. However, Godfrey and his friends were
easily worsted, and when the dispossessed duke again tried the
fortune of war he found that the German king had detached
Henry of France from his side and was also in alliance with the
English king, Edward the Confessor. While thus maintaining
his authority in the north-east corner of the country by alliances
and expeditions, Henry was strong enough to put the laws in
motion against the most powerful princes and to force them to
keep the public peace. Under his severe but beneficent rule,
Germany enjoyed a period of internal quiet such as she had
probably never experienced before, but even Henry could not
permanently divert from its course the main political tendency
of the age, the desire of the great feudal lords for independence.
Cowed, but unpacified and discontented, the princes awaited
their opportunity, while the king played into their hands by
allowing the southern duchies, Swabia, Bavaria and
Carinthia, to pass from under his own immediate ^^ *
control. His position was becoming gradually weaker
when in 1051 he invaded Hungary, where a reaction against
German influence was taking place. After a second campaign
in 1052 the Hungarian king, Andrew, was compelled to make
peace and to own himself the vassal of the German king. Mean-
while Saxony and Bavaria were permeated by the spirit of unrest,
and Henry returned from Hungary just in time to frustrate
a widespread conspiracy against him in southern Germany.
Encouraged by the support of the German rebels, Andrew of
Hungary repudiated the treaty of peace and the German
supremacy in that country came to a sudden end. Among the
causes which undermined Henry's strength was the fact that the
mediate nobles, who had stood loyally by his father, Conrad,
were not his friends; probably his wars made serious demands
upon them, and his strict administration of justice, especially
his insistence upon the maintenance of the public peace, was
displeasing to them.
At the beginning of Henry's reign the church all over Europe
was in a deplorable condition. Simony was universally practised
and the morality of the clergy was very low. The
Papacy, too, had sunk to a degraded condition and its
authority was annihilated, not only by the character church.
of successive popes, but by the fact that there were at
the same time three claimants for the papal throne. Henry, a
man of deep, sincere and even rigorous piety, regarded these
evils with sorrow; he associated himself definitely with the
movement for reform which proceeded from Cluny, and
commanded his prelates to put an end to simony and other
abuses. Then moving farther in the same direction he resolved
to strike at the root of the evil by the exercise of his imperial
authority. In 1046 he entered Italy at the head of an army
which secured for him greater respect than had been given to
any German ruler since Charlemagne, and at Sutri and in Rome
he deposed the three rival popes. He then raised to the papal
see Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who, as Pope Clement II.,
crowned him emperor; after Clement three other German popes
Damasus II., Leo IX. and Victor II. owed their elevation to
Henry. Under these popes a new era began for the church, and
in thus reforming the Papacy Henry III. fulfilled what was
regarded as' the noblest duty of his imperial office, but he also
HISTORY)
GERMANY
sharpened a weapon whose keen edge was first tried against
his son.
The last yean of Henry III. form a turning-point in German
history. Great kings and emperors came after him, but none
of them possessed the direct, absolute authority which he
freely wielded; even in the case of the strongest the forms of
feudalism more and more interposed themselves between the
monarch and the nation, and at last the royal authority virtually
disappeared. During this reign the towns entered upon an age
of prosperity, and the Rhine and the Weser became great
avenues of trade.
When Henry died in October 1056 the decline of the royal
authority was accelerated by the fact that his successor was a
,, child. Henry IV., who had been crowned king in
1054, was at first in charge of his mother, the empress
Agnes, whose weak and inefficient rule was closely
watched by Anno, archbishop of Cologne. In 1062,
however, Anno and other prominent prelates and laymen,
perhaps jealous of the influence exercised at court by Henry,
bishop of Augsburg (d. 1063), managed by a clever trick to
get possession of the king's person. Deserted by her friends
Agnes retired, and forthwith Anno began to rule the state.
But soon be was compelled to share his duties with Adalbert,
archbishop of Bremen, and a year or two later Adalbert became
virtually the ruler of Germany, leaving Anno to attend to affairs
in Italy. Adalbert's rule was very successful. Compelling
King Solomon to own Henry's supremacy he restored the
influence of Germany in Hungary; in internal affairs he re-
strained the turbulence of the princes, but he made many
enemies, especially in Saxony, and in 1066 Henry, who had
just been declared of age, was compelled to dismiss him. The
ambitious prelate, however, had gained great influence over
Henry, who had grown up under the most diverse influences.
The young king was generous and was endowed with considerable
intellectual gifts; but passing as he did from Anno's gloomy
palace at Cologne to Adalbert's residence in Bremen, where he
was petted and flattered, he became wayward and wilful.
Henry IV. assumed the duties of government soon after the
fall of Adalbert and quickly made enemies of many of the chief
princes, including Otto of Nordheim, the powerful
^1 duke of Bavaria, Rudolph, duke of Swabia, and
3** Berthold of Zahringen, duke of Carinthia. In Saxony,
where, like his father, he frequently held his court,
he excited intense hostility by a series of injudicious proceedings.
While the three Ottos were pursuing the shadow of imperial
greatness in Italy, much of the crown land in this duchy had been
seized by the nobles and was now held by their descendants.
Henry IV. insisted on the restoration of these estates and en-
croached upon the rights of the peasants. Moreover, he built
a number of forts which the people thought were intended for
prisons; be filled the land with riotous and overbearing Swabians ;
be kept in prison Magnus, the heir to the duchy; and is said
to have spoken of the Saxons in a tone of great contempt. All
classes were thus combined against him, and when he ordered
his forces to assemble for a campaign against the Poles the
Saxons refused to join the host. In 1073 the universal discontent
found expression in a great assembly at Wormesleben, in which
the leading part was taken by Otto of Nordheim, by Werner,
archbishop of Magdeburg, and by B uric hard II., bishop of
Halberstadt. Under Otto's leadership the Thuringians joined
the rising, which soon spread far and wide. Henry was surprised
by a band of rebels in his fortress at the Harzburg; he fled to
Hersfeld and appealed to the princes for support, but he could
not compel them to aid him and they would grant him nothing.
After tedious negotiations he was obliged to yield to the demands
of his enemies, and peace was made at Gerstungen in 1074.
Zealously carrying out the conditions of the peace, the peasants
not only battered down the detested forts, they even destroyed
the chapel at the Harzburg and committed other acts of desecra-
tion. These proceedings alarmed the princes, both spiritual and
secular, and Henry, who had gained support from the cities
of the Rhineland, was able to advance with a formidable army
into Saxony in 1075. He gained a decisive victory, rebuilt the
forts and completely restored the authority of the crown.
In 1073, while Germany was in this confused state, Hildebrand
had become pope as Gregory VII., and in 1075 he issued his
famous decree against the marriage of the clergy and
against their investiture by laymen. To the latter
decree it was impossible for any sovereign to submit, VTA
and in Germany there were stronger reasons than
elsewhere for resistance. A large part of the land of the country
was held by the clergy, and most of it had been granted to them
because it was supposed that they would be the king's most
efficient helpers. Were the feudal tie broken, the crown must
soon vanish, and the constitution of medieval society undergo
a radical change. Henry, who hitherto had treated the new
pope with excessive respect, now announced his intention of
going to Rome and assuming the imperial title. The pope,
to whom the Saxons had been encouraged to complain, responded
by sending back certain of Henry's messengers, with the command
that the king should do penance for the crimes of which his
subjects accused him. Enraged by this unexpected arrogance,
Henry summoned a synod of German bishops to Worms in
January 1076, and Hildebrand was declared deposed. The
papal answer was a bull excommunicating the German king,
dethroning him and liberating his subjects from their oath of
allegiance.
Never before had a pope ventured to take so bold a step.
It was within the memory even of young men that a German
king had dismissed three popes, and had raised in gtitctmi
turn four of his own prelates to the Roman see. And n*ary'*
now a pope attempted to drag from his throne the
successor of this very sovereign. The effect of the Jt!"' e *"
bull was tremendous; no other was ever followed by
equally important results. The princes had long been chafing
under the royal power; they had shaken even so stern an
autocrat as Henry III., and the authority of Henry IV. was
already visibly weakened. At this important stage in their
contest with the crown a mighty ally suddenly offered himself,
and with indecent eagerness they hastened to associate themselves
with him. Their vassals and subjects, appalled by the invisible
powers wielded by the head of the church, supported them in
their rebellion. The Saxons again rose in arms and Otto of
Nordheim succeeded in uniting the North and South German
supporters of the pope. Henry had looked for no such result
as this; he did not understand the influences which lay beneath
the surface and was horrified by his unexpected isolation. At
a diet in Tribur he humbled himself before the princes, but in
vain. They turned from him and decided that the pope should
be asked to judge Henry; that if, within a year, the sentence
of excommunication were not removed, the king should lose his
crown; and that in the meantime he should live in retirement.
Next came the strange scene at Canossa which burned itself
into the memory of Europe. For three days the representative
of the Caesars entreated to be admitted into the pope's
presence. No other mode of escape than complete
subjection to Gregory had suggested itself, or was
perhaps possible; but it did not save him. Although the pope
forgave him, the German princes, resolved not to miss the chance
which fortune had given them, met in March 1077, and deposed
him, electing Rudolph, duke of Swabia, as his successor. But
Henry's bitter humiliations transformed his character; they
brought out all his latent capacities of manliness.
The war of investitures that followed was the opening of the
tremendous struggle between the Empire and the Papacy,
which is the central fact of medieval history and The
which, after two centuries of conflict, ended in the tingxit
exhaustion of both powers. Its details belong more ovtr '"
to the history of Italy than to that of Germany, v " atanf -
where it took the form of a fight between two rival kings, but
in Germany its effects were more deeply felt. The nation now
plucked bitter fruit from the seed planted by Otto the Great
in assuming the imperial crown and by a long line of kings and
emperors in lavishing worldly power upon the church. In the
840
GERMANY
[HISTORY
ambition of the spiritual and the secular princes the pope had
an immensely powerful engine of offence against the emperor,
and without the slightest scruple this was turned to the best
advantage.
When this struggle began it may be said in general that Henry
was supported by the cities and the lower classes, while Rudolph
Henry IV. relied upon the princes and the opponents of a united
and the Germany; or, to make another division, Henry's
aati- strength lay in the duchies of Franconia and Bavaria,
"**' Rudolph's in Swabia and Saxony. In the Rhineland
and in southern Germany the cities had been steadily growing
in wealth and power, and they could not fail to realize that
they had more to fear from the princes than from the crown.
Hence when Henry returned to Germany in 1078 Worms,
Spires and many other places opened their gates to him and
contributed freely to his cause; nevertheless his troops were
beaten in three encounters and Pope Gregory thundered anew
against him in March 1080. However, the fortune of war soon
turned, and in October 1080 Rudolph of Swabia was defeated
and slain. Henry then carried the war into Italy; in 1084
he was crowned emperor in Rome by Wibert, archbishop of
Ravenna, whom, as Clement III., he had set up as an anti-pope,
and in 1085 Gregory died an exile from Rome. Meanwhile
in Germany Henry's opponents had chosen Hermann, count of
Luxemburg, king in succession to Rudolph of Swabia. Hermann,
however, was not very successful, and when Henry returned
to Germany in 1084 he found that his most doughty opponent,
Otto of Nordheim, was dead, and that the anti-king had few
friends outside Saxony. This duchy was soon reduced to
obedience and was treated with consideration, and when the
third anti-king, Egbert, margrave of Meissen, was murdered in
1090 there would have been peace if Germany had followed
her own impulses.
In the Papacy, however, Henry had an implacable foe; and
again and again when he seemed on the point of a complete
triumph the smouldering embers of revolt were kindled
once more ' nto fl ame - I fl Italy his son, Conrad, was
Papacy. stirred up against him and in 1093 was crowned king
at Monza; then ten years later, when Germany was
more peaceful than it had been for years and when the emperor's
authority was generally acknowledged, his second son, Henry,
afterwards the emperor Henry V., was induced to head a danger-
ous rebellion. The Saxons and the Thuringians were soon in
arms, and they were joined by those warlike spirits of Germany
to whom an age of peace brought no glory and an age of pro-
sperity brought no gain. After some desultory fighting Henry IV.
was taken prisoner and compelled to abdicate; he had, however,
escaped and had renewed the contest when he died in August
1106.
During this reign the first crusade took place, and the German
king suffered severely from the pious zeal which it expressed
and intensified. The movement was not in the end
Crusade, favourable to papal supremacy, but the early crusaders,
and those who sympathized with them, regarded the
enemies of the pope as the enemies of religion.
The early years of Henry V.'s reign were spent in campaigns
in Flanders, Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, but the new king
was soon reminded that the dispute over investitures
Henry v. was unsett i ec i. p ope Paschal II. did not doubt, now
Germany, that Henry IV. was dead, that he would speedily
triumph; but he was soon undeceived. Henry V.,
who with unconscious irony had promised to treat the pope
as a father, continued, like his predecessors, to invest prelates
with the ring and the staff, and met the expostulations of Paschal
by declaring that he would not surrender a right which had
belonged to all former kings. Lengthened negotiations took
place but they led to no satisfactory result, while the king's
enemies in Germany, taking advantage of the deadlock, showed
signs of revolt. One of the most ardent of these enemies was
Lothair of Supplinburg, whom Henry himself had made duke
of Saxony upon the extinction of the Billung family in 1106.
Lothair was humbled in 1112, but he took advantage of the
emperor's difficulties to rise again and again, the twin pillars of
his strength being the Saxon hatred of the Franconian emperors
and an informal alliance with the papal see. Henry's chief friends
were his nephews, the two Hohenstaufen princes, Frederick
and Conrad, to whose father Frederick the emperor Henry IV.
had given the duchy of Swabia when its duke Rudolph
became his rival. The younger Frederick succeeded to this
duchy in 1105, while ten years later Conrad was made duke of
Franconia, a country which for nearly a century had been under
the immediate government of the crown. The two brothers
were enthusiastic imperialists, and with persistent courage they
upheld the cause of their sovereign during his two absences
in Italy.
At last, in September 1122, the investiture question was
settled by the concordat of Worms. By this compromise,
which exhaustion forced upon both parties, the right
of electing prelates was granted to the clergy, and ^^""
the emperor surrendered the privilege of investing / Worms.
them with the ring and the staff. On the other hand
it was arranged that these elections should take place in the
presence of the emperor or his representative, and that he should
invest the new prelate with the sceptre, thus signifying that
the bishop, or abbot, held his temporal fiefs from him and not
from the pope. In Germany the victory remained with the
emperor, but it was by no means decisive. The Papacy was far
from realizing Hildebrand's great schemes; yet in regard to the
question in dispute it gained solid advantage, and its general
authority was incomparably more important than it had been
half a century before. During this period it had waged war upon
the emperor himself. Instead of acknowledging its inferiority as
in former times it had claimed to be the higher power; it had
even attempted to dispose of the imperial crown as if the Empire
were a papal fief; and it had found out that it could at any
time tamper, and perhaps paralyse, the imperial authority by
exciting internal strife in Germany. Having thus settled this
momentous dispute Henry spent his later years in restoring
order in Germany, and in planning to assist his father-in-law,
Henry I. of England, in France. During this reign under the
lead of Otto, bishop of Bamberg (c. 1063-1139), Pomerania
began to come under the influence of Germany, and of
Christianity.
The Franconian dynasty died out with Henry V. in May 1125,
and after a protracted contest Lothair, duke of Saxony, the
candidate of the clergy, was chosen in the following The reign
August to succeed him. The new king's first enter- of Lothair
prise was a disastrous campaign in Bohemia, but ttle
before this occurrence he had aroused the enmity of xot
the Hohenstaufen princes by demanding that they should
surrender certain lands which had formerly been the property
of the crown. Lothair's rebuff in Bohemia stiffened the backs
of Frederick and Conrad, and in order to contend with them
the king secured a powerful ally by marrying his daughter
Gertrude to Henry the Proud, a grandson of Welf, whom Henry
IV. had made duke of Bavaria, a duchy to which Henry himself
had succeeded in 1126. Henry was perhaps the most powerful
of the king's subjects, nevertheless the dukes of Swabia and
Franconia withstood him, and a long war desolated South
Germany. This was ended by the submission of Frederick in
1134 and of Conrad in the following year. Lothair's position,
which before 1 130 was very weak, had gradually become stronger.
He had put down the disorder in Bavaria, in Saxony and in
Lorraine; a diet held at Magdeburg in 1135 was attended by
representatives from the vassal states of Denmark, Hungary,
Bohemia and Poland; and in 1136, when he visited Italy for
the second time, Germany was in a very peaceful condition. In
June 1133 during the king's first visit to Italy he had received
from Pope Innocent II. the imperial crown and also the investi-
ture of the extensive territories left by Matilda, marchioness of
Tuscany; and at this time the pope seems to have claimed the
emperor as his vassal, a statement to this effect (post homo fit
papac, sumit quo dante coronam) being inscribed in the audience
hall of the Lateran at Rome.
HISTORY]
GERMANY
841
Nothing could indicate more dearly than this fact how much
of their old power the German kings had lost. It was not past
hope that even yet some of their former splendour
might be restored, and for a brief period monarchy
did again stand high. Still, its foundations were sapped.
Incessant war, both at home and in Italy, had deprived
it of its force; it had lost moral influence by humiliations, of
which the scene at Canossa was an extreme type. Steadily,
with unwearied energy, letting no opportunity escape, the princes
had advanced towards independence, and they might well look
forward to such a bearing in regard to the kings as the kings
had formerly adopted in regard to them.
Henry the Proud was confident that he would succeed Lothair,
who had died on his return from Italy, in December 1137; but,
by a hasty and irregular election, Conrad of Hohen-
__ staufen, duke of Franconia, was chosen king in March
1138. Henry the Proud rebelled and was declared to
have forfeited his two duchies, Saxony and Bavaria, the former
being given to Albeit the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg, and
the Utter to Leopold IV'., margrave of Austria. Henry defended
his rights with vigour and once again Germany was ravaged by
war, for although he was unpopular in Bavaria he was strongly
supported by the Saxons, who, since the time of Henry IV., had
always been ready to join in an attack on the monarchy, and he
had little difficulty in driving Albert the Bear from the land.
However, in October 1 139 Henry died suddenly, but his young
son, Henry the Lion, was recognized at once as duke of Saxony,
while his brother, Welf, upheld the fortunes of his house in
Bavaria. The struggle went on until May 1142, when peace
was made at Frankfort. Saxony, with the assent of Albert the
Bear, was granted by Conrad to Henry the Lion, and Bavaria
was given to Henry Jasomirgott, who had just succeeded his
brother Leopold as margrave of Austria. But this was only a
lull in the civil strife, which was renewed after the king had made
a successful expedition into Bohemia. The princes clerical and
lay were fighting against each other, and the Bavarians were at
war with the Hungarians, who gained a great victory in 1146.
Notwithstanding the many sources of confusion Conrad was
persuaded by the passionate eloquence of Bernard of Clairvaux
to take part in the second crusade; he left for the East in 1147
and returned to Germany in 1149, to find Welf again in arms
and Henry the Lion claiming Bavaria. The king had done
nothing to stem the rising tide of disorder when he died at Bamberg
in February 1152. During this reign the work of conquering
and Germanizing the Slavonic tribes east of the Elbe was seriously
taken in hand under the lead of Albert the Bear and Henry the
Lion, and the foundation of the margraviate of Brandenburg
by Albert tended to make life and property more secure in the
north-east of Germany.
After Conrad's death Germany passed under the rule of one
of the greatest of her sovereigns, Frederick I., called Barbarossa,
nephew of the late king and son of Frederick, that duke
tL of Swabta who had fought along with Conrad against
Henry the Proud. Frederick himself had also been
closely associated with Conrad, who advised the princes
to choose his nephew as his successor. This was done, and the
new king was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in March 1152. Allied
through his mother to the Welfs of Bavaria, and anxious to put
an end to the unrest which dominated Germany, especially to
the strife between the families of Welf and Hohenstaufen,
Frederick began hit reign by promising to secure for Henry the
Lion the duchy of Bavaria, and by appeasing Henry's uncle,
Count Welf, by making him duke of Spoleto and margrave of
Tuscany. But the new king had another, and perhaps a more
potent, reason for wishing to see peace restored in Germany.
For his adventurous and imaginative spirit Italy and the imperial
title had an irresistible charm, and in 1154, two years after he
had ascended the throne, he crossed the Alps, being crowned
emperor at Rome in June 1 155. After this event the best years
of his life were spent in Italy, where, in his long and obstinate
straggle with the Lombard cities and with Pope Alexander III.,
be chiefly acquired his fame. Although on the emperor's side
this struggle was conducted mainly with German troops it falls
properly under the history of Italy. In that country the record
of this reign is a blood-stained page, while in the history of
Germany, on the contrary, Frederick's name is associated with
a peaceful and prosperous period.
The promise that Bavaria should be granted to Henry the
Lion was not easily fulfilled, as Henry Jasomirgott refused to
give up the duchy. At last, however, in 1156, after
his return from his first expedition to Italy, Frederick ''d****
reconciled the latter prince by making Austria into a s**oay.
duchy with certain special privileges, an important
step in the process by which that country became the centre of
a powerful state. Henry Jasomirgott then renounced Bavaria,
and Henry the Lion became its duke. It was, however, in his
other duchy of Saxony that the latter duke's most important
work was done. Although he often gave offence by his haughty
and aggressive disposition, few German princes have earned so
thoroughly the goodwill of posterity. Since the death of Otto
the Great the Slavonic lands to the east of the Elbe had been
very imperfectly held in subjection by the Germans. Devoting
himself to the conquest of the lands lying along the shore of the
Baltic, Henry succeeded as no one before him had ever done.
But he was not only a conqueror. He built towns and encouraged
those which already existed; he founded and restored bishoprics
in his new territories; and between the Elbe and the Oder he
planted bodies of industrious colonists. While he was thus at
work a similar task was being performed to the south-east of
Saxony by Albert the Bear, the first margrave of Brandenburg,
who, by his energetic rule was preparing this country for its
great destinies.
Early in his reign, by settling a dispute over the crown of
Denmark, Frederick brought the king of that country once more
into the position of a German vassal. Having spent Fndciick
the year 1156 in settling the Bavarian question and la Poland
in enforcing order in the Rhineland and elsewhere, *aa or-
the emperor marched into Poland in 1157, compelled '
its ruler, Boleslaus IV., to do the homage which he had previously
refused to perform, and in return for services rendered during
the campaign and for promises of future aid, raised the duke of
Bohemia to the rank of a king, a change which in no way affected
his duties to the German crown, but which gave him a certain
precedence over other vassal princes. The king of Hungary,
too, although no attempt was made to subdue him, became a
useful ally. Thus the fame of Germany in the neighbouring
countries, which had been nearly destroyed during the confusion
of Henry IV.'s reign, was to a large extent restored. Frederick
asserted his authority in Burgundy or, as it was sometimes
called, Franche Comt6. In Germany itself internal order was
established by a strict appliance of the existing laws against
those who broke the peace, fresh orders for its observance were
issued, and in Frederick the robber nobles found a most implac-
able enemy. The cities, too, flourished during this reign. The
emperor attached them to himself by granting to many of them
the very liberties which, by a strained interpretation of his
imperial rights, he withheld from the cities of Lombardy. Yet,
notwithstanding his policy, in these directions the German nobles
appear to have been enthusiastically devoted to Frederick. Time
after time they followed him to Italy, enduring serious losses and
hardships in order that he might enforce claims which were
of no advantage to them, and which, previously, had been a
curse to their nation. Their loyalty is well illustrated by the
famous scene at Besancon in October 1157. During a meeting
of the diet a papal legate read a letter from Pope Adrian IV.,
which seemed to imply that the Empire was a papal fief. In-
dignant murmurs rose from the assembled nobles, and the life of
the legate was only saved from their fury by the intervention of
the emperor himself. The secret of Frederick's great popularity
was partly the national pride excited by his foreign achievements,
partly the ascendance over other minds which his genius gave
him, and partly the conviction that while he would forego none
of his rights he would demand from his vassals nothing more
than was sanctioned by the laws of the Empire.
842
GERMANY
IHISTORY
Having suppressed a rising at Mainz Frederick set out in the
autumn of 1163 for Italy, which country was now distracted
by a papal schism. This incident was bound to affect
u- German Pp litics - After the death of Adrian IV. in
matter in.' rI 59 the imperial party put forward an anti-pope,
Victor IV., against Alexander III., who had been
canonically elected. The emperor made stupendous efforts to
secure for Victor and then for his successor, Paschal III., recog-
nition by the sovereigns of Europe, but in vain; and almost
the only support which the anti-pope received came from the
German clergy. In May 1165 Frederick held a diet at Wiirzburg,
where the princes lay and clerical swore to be faithful to Paschal
and never to recognize Alexander. But Alexander soon found
partisans among the German clergy, hitherto the most loyal of
the emperor's friends; and Frederick retaliated by driving the
offending prelates from their sees, a proceeding which tended
to disturb the peace of the land. Then in August 1167, in the
midst of the struggle in Italy, came the pestilence which destroyed
the imperial army in Rome, and drove the emperor as a fugitive
across the Alps. After this humiliation Frederick remained for
six years in Germany. He was fully occupied in restoring order
in Saxony, in the diocese of Salzburg and elsewhere; in adding
to his hereditary lands; in negotiating for a better understanding
with France and England; and in reminding the vassal states,
Hungary, Poland and Bohemia, of their duties towards the
Empire. The success with which he carried out this work shows
clearly that, in Germany at least, the disaster at Rome had not
seriously affected his prestige. Again in Italy in 1 1 74 the contest
with the Papacy was abruptly ended by Frederick's overwhelming
defeat at Legnano in May 1176, and by the treaty of Venice made
about a year later with Alexander III.
In the later years of his reign the emperor's chief enemy was
Henry the Lion. Rendered arrogant by success and confident
that his interests were in northern, and not in southern
Eur P e > tne Saxon duke refused to assist Frederick
the Lion, in the campaign which ended so disastrously at
Legnano. Ascribing his defeat to Henry's defection,
Frederick returned to Germany full of anger against the Saxon
duke and firmly resolved to punish him. The immediate cause
of Henry's downfall, however, was not his failure to appear in
Italy, but his refusal to restore some lands to the bishop of
Halberstadt, and it was on this charge that he was summoned
before the diet. Three times he refused to appear, and early in
1180 sentence was pronounced against him; he was condemned
to lose all his lands and to go into banishment. For some time
he resisted, but at length the emperor in person marched against
him and he was forced to submit; the only favour he could
secure when peace was made at Erfurt in November 1181 was
permission to retain Brunswick and Luneburg, which have
remained in the possession of his descendants until our own day.
Bavaria was granted to Otto of Wittelsbach, but it lost some
of its importance because Styria was taken from it and made into
a separate duchy. The extensive duchy of Saxony was com-
pletely dismembered. The name was taken by the small portion
of the former duchy which was given to Bernard, son of Albert
the Bear, the founder of a new Saxon line, and the extensive
western part was added to the archbishopric of Cologne. The
chief prelates of Saxony and many of the late duke's most
important feudatories were made virtually independent of all
control save that of the crown. Frederick's object in thus break-
ing up the two greatest duchies in his kingdom was doubtless
to strengthen the imperial authority. But in reality he made it
certain that the princes would one day shake off the imperial
power altogether; for it was perhaps more difficult for the
sovereign to contend with scores of petty nobles than with two
or three great princes.
Less serious than the struggle with Henry the Lion was
Frederick's struggle with Philip of Heinsberg, archbishop of
Cologne (d. 1191), on whom he had just conferred a great part
of Saxony. When the emperor went to Italy in 1 184 he left the
government of Germany to his son Henry, afterwards the emperor
Henry VI., who had been crowned German king in 1 169. On all
sides, but especially in the north-west, Henry was faced with
incipient revolution, and while he was combating this the
quarrel between Frederick and the Papacy broke out Frederick
again in Italy. At this juncture Philip of Cologne aadPhttip
united the German and the Italian oppositions. Several t Helas -
princes rallied to his standard and foreign powers **
promised aid, but although very formidable in appearance the
combination had no vestige of popular support. The greater
part of the German clergy again proved their loyalty to Frederick,
who hurried to Germany only to see the opposition vanish before
him. In March 1188 Philip of Cologne submitted at Mainz.
Germany was now at peace. With the accession of Gregory
VIII. pope and emperor were reconciled, and by the marriage
of his son Henry with Constance, daughter of Roger I.,
king of Sicily, the emperor had reason to hope that the
Empire would soon include Naples and Sicily. Re- death.
solving that the sunset of his life should be even more
splendid than its dawn he decided to go on crusade, and in 1189
he started with a great army for the Holy Land. When the news
reached Germany that he had been drowned, an event which took
place in Cilicia in June 1 190, men felt that evil days were coming
upon the country, for the elements of discord would no longer
be controlled by the strong hand of the great emperor.
Evil days did not, however, come in the time of Henry VI.,
who, although without his father's greatness, had some of his
determination and energy, and was at least his equal Heary vl
in ambition. Having in 1 190 reduced Henry the Lion
once more to submission, the new king set out to take possession
of his Sicilian kingdom, being on the way crowned emperor at
Rome. At the end of 1191 he returned to Germany, where he
was soon faced by two serious risings. The first of these centred
round the restless and unruly Welfs; after a time these in-
surgents were joined by their former enemies, the rulers of Saxony,
of Thuringia and of Meissen, who were angered by Henry's
conduct. The Welfs also gained the assistance of Canute VI.,
king of Denmark. Equally dangerous was a rebellion in the
Lower Rhineland, where the emperor made many foes by
appointing, regardless of their fitness, his own candidates to
vacant bishoprics. At Liege this led to serious complications;
and when Bishop Albert, who had been chosen against Henry's
wish, was murdered at Reims in November 1192, the emperor
was openly accused of having instigated the crime. At once the
rulers of Brabant, of Limburg and of Flanders, with the arch-
bishops of Cologne and Trier, were in arms. In the east of
Germany Ottakar I. of Bohemia joined the circle of Henry's
enemies, and the southern duchies, Bavaria, Swabia and Austria,
were too much occupied with internal quarrels to send help
to the harassed emperor. But formidable as were these risings
they were crushed, although not entirely by force of arms.
In 1193 Richard I. of England passed as a prisoner into Henry's
keeping, and with rare skill the emperor used him as a means
of compelling his enemies to come to terms. Henry the Lion was
the last to submit. He made his peace in 1194, when his son
Henry was promised the succession to the Rhenish Palatinate.
Returning from another visit to Sicily, the emperor was now so
powerful that, in pursuance of his plan for making himself the
head of a great world monarchy, he put forward the suggestion
that the imperial crown should be declared hereditary in his
family. This proposal aroused much opposition, but Henry
persisted with it; he promised important concessions to the
princes, many of whom were induced to consent, and but for his
sudden death, which occurred in Sicily in September 1197, it is
probable that he would have attained his end.
Great as was Henry's authority many of the princes, chief
among them being Adolph, archbishop of Cologne (d. 1220),
refused to recognize his son, Frederick, who had been p W /;_ ef
chosen king of the Romans in 1196. This attitude swabia
was possibly owing to the fact that Frederick was aid otto
young and inexperienced; it was, however, more ^ lt ^ u "*'
probably due to a revival of the fear that the German
princes would be entangled in Italian politics. For a time
Adolph and his friends, who were mainly princes of the Rhineland,
HISTORY]
GERMANY
843
sought in vain for a new king. While they were thus employed
the friends of the house of Hohcnstaufcn, convinced that
Frederick's kingship was not possible, chose the late emperor's
brother, Philip, duke of Swabia, to fill the vacant throne; soon
afterwards the enemies of the house found a candidate in the
person of Henry the Lion's son, Otto of Brunswick, who was
also chosen German king. Thus the struggle between Welf and
Hohcnstaufcn was renewed and civil war broke out at once.
Philip's supporters were the nobles of southern and eastern
Germany, while a few cities in the west owned his authority;
Otto's friends were found mainly in the north and the north-west
of the country. The number of available warriors was increased
by the return of many crusaders, among them being the famous
soldier, Henry von Kalden, who was mainly responsible for the
success of Philip's cause in 1199. If Germany had been un-
connected with the Papacy, or even if the Papacy had been as
weak as in the days of Henry VI., the issue of the strife would
almost certainly have been an early victory for Philip. A
majority of the princes were on his side and the French king
Philip Augustus was his ally, while his personal character com-
manded general respect. Otto, whose chief supporter outside
Germany was his uncle Richard I! of England, on the other
hand was a harsh and violent man. But unfortunately for
Germany the papal chair at this time was occupied by Innocent
III., a pope who emulated Hildebrand in ambition and in
statesmanship. At first vacillating, but by no means indifferent,
Innocent was spurred to action when a number of princes met
at Spires in May 1200, declared Philip to be the lawful king,
and denied the right of the pope to interfere. He was also
annoyed by Philip's attitude with regard to a vacancy in the
archbishopric of Cologne, and in March 1201 he declared
definitely for Otto. The efforts of the pope helped to rekindle
the expiring flames of war, and for a year or two success com-
pletely deserted Philip. He lost the support of Ottakar of
Bohemia and of Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia; he was
driven from North Germany into Swabia and Otto's triumph
seemed assured. From 1204 onwards, however, fortune again
veered round, and Philip's prospects began to improve. Deserted
by Ottakar and even by Adolph of Cologne and his own brother
Henry, count palatine of the Rhine, Otto was forced to take
refuge in Brunswick, his last line of defence, and was only saved
by Philip's murder, which occurred at Bamberg in June 1208.
A feature of this struggle was the reckless way in which the rival
kings gave away the property of the crown in order to gain
adherents, thus enriching the princes and weakening the central
government.
Otto was now again chosen German king, and to aid and
mark the general reconciliation he was betrothed to the murdered
king's daughter Beatrix. Nearly all the princes
acknowledged him, and as pope and king were at
titUm*. P eace ' Germany en joyed a period of comparative quiet.
This however, did not last long. Having secured
his coronation at Rome in October 1200, Otto repudiated the
many pledges he had made to Innocent and began to act in
defiance of the' papal wishes. To punish him the pope put
forward his own ward, Henry VI. 's son Frederick, who was living
in Sicily, as a rival king. While Otto was warring in Italy a
number of influential princes met at Nuremberg, at the instigation
of Innocent and of his ally Philip Augustus of France, and
invited Frederick to come to Germany. Otto then left Italy
hurriedly, but he was quickly followed by his young rival, who
in the warfare which had already broken out proved himself
a formidable opponent. Seeking to mend his failing fortunes,
the Welf went to France to support his ally, the English king
John, against Philip Augustus, and at the battle of Bouvines
(July 27, 1214) memorable in the history alike of Germany, of
England and of France, his fate was sealed, although until his
death in May 1218 be maintained a desultory warfare against
Frederick.
Frederick II. was, if not the strongest, certainly the most
brilliant of German kings. With the medieval passion for
adventure be combined the intellectual culture and freedom of
a modern gentleman. A lover of poetry, of art and of science,
he was also a great statesman; he knew how to adapt his policy
to changing circumstances and how to move men by
appealing at one time to their selfishness and weak-
ness and at another time to the nobler qualities of
human nature. For outward splendour his position was never
surpassed, and before he died he possessed six crowns, those
of the Empire, Germany, Sicily, Lombardy, Burgundy and
Jerusalem. But Germany profited neither by his gifts nor by
his prestige. After Bouvines he purchased the assistance of
Valdemar II., king of Denmark, by ceding to him a large stretch
of land along the Baltic coast; and, promising to go on crusade,
he secured his coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle in July 1215.
Then being generally recognized as king he was able to do '
something to quell disturbances in various parts of the country,
and, in April 1220, to bring about the election of his young son
Henry as king of the Romans. But for this favour he had been
compelled to pay a high price. Seven years before, at Eger in
July 1213, he had made extensive concessions to the church,
undertaking to take no part in episcopal elections, thus surrender-
ing the advantages gained by the concordat of Worms, and to
allow to German bishops the right of appeal to Rome. Proceeding
a step farther in the same direction, he now promised to erect
no new toll-centre, or mint, on the lands of the spiritual princes,
and to allow no towns to be built thereon. Thus the prelates
possessed nearly all the rights of sovereigns, and regarded the
pope in Italy and not the king in Germany as their head, a state
of affairs which was fatal to the unity, nay, even to the existence
of the Empire.
Having made peace with Henry, count palatine of the Rhine
and brother of Otto IV., and settled a dispute about the lands
of the extinct family of Zahringen in the south-west Q trm
of the country, Frederick left Germany in August lafnier-
1220; engaged in his bitter contest with the Papacy **'
and the Lombard cities, in ruling Sicily, and, after ***
several real or imaginary delays, in fulfilling his crusading vow,
he did not return to it for fifteen years. During this period he
was represented by his son Henry, in whose name the government
of Germany was carried on by the regent Engelbert, archbishop
of Cologne. While Engelbert lived the country was in a fairly
peaceable condition, although, thanks to the emperor's conces-
sions, the spiritual princes were predominant, and all possible
means were taken to check the growth of the towns, whose
interests and aspirations were not favourable to this state of
affairs. There was, moreover, a struggle between Valdemar of
Denmark and some neighbouring German nobles. But after
Engelbert's murder (November 1225) there was a change for
the worse, and the only success which can be placed to the
credit of the German arms during the next few years was the
regaining of the lands ceded to Denmark in 1215, lands which
included the cities of Hamburg and Ltibeck. Under the rule
of the new regent, Louis I., duke of Bavaria, confusion reigned
supreme, and civil war prevailed in nearly every part of the
country.
After the treaty of San Germane, which was made with
Pope Gregory in 1230, and the consequent lull in the struggle
with the Papacy, Frederick was able to devote some
little attention to Germany, and in 1231 he sanctioned
the great Privilege of Worms. This was a reward
to the princes for their efforts in bringing about the
peace, and an extension of the concessions made in 1220. The
princes, now for the first time referred to officially as domini
terrae, were given full rights of jurisdiction over their lands and
all the inferior officers of justice were made subservient to them.
Practically they became independent sovereigns, and to make
their victory more complete serious restraints were laid upon the
freedom of the towns. Before this date King Henry had begun
to take a personal part in the government and was already
involved in a quarrel with Otto II., duke of Bavaria. He
disliked the Privilege of Worms and, favouring the towns against
the princes, his policy was diametrically opposed to that of the
emperor; however, in. 123 2 he went to Italy and promised to
GERMANY
[HISTORY
obey his father's commands. But in 1234, at a time of great
and increasing disorder in Germany, he rebelled; he appealed
publicly to the princes for support, gained some followers,
especially in his own duchy of Swabia, and made an alliance
with the Lombard cities. Confident of his strength Frederick
entered Germany with a few attendants in the middle of 1235,
and his presence had the anticipated effect of quelling the in-
surrection; Henry was sent a prisoner to Italy and disappeared
from history. Then, in August 1235, amid surroundings of great
splendour, the emperor held a diet at Mainz, which was attended
by a large number of princes. This diet is very important in
the legal history of Germany, because here was issued that great
" land peace " (Landfrieden) which became the model for all
subsequent enactments of the kind. By it private war was
declared unlawful, except in cases where justice could not be
obtained; a chief justiciar was appointed for the Empire; all
tolls and mints erected since the death of Henry VI. were to be
removed; and other provisions dealt with the maintenance of
order.
In 1236, during another short stay in Germany, Frederick
in person led the imperial army against Frederick II., duke of
Austria, who had defied and overcome his repre-
Frederkk se ntatives; having taken possession of Vienna and
Germany, the Austrian duchies he there secured the election
of his son Conrad, who had already succeeded his
brother as duke of Swabia, as king of the Romans (May 1237).
But in spite of these imposing displays of power the princes
looked with suspicion upon an emperor who was almost a stranger
to their country and who was believed to be a renegade from
their faith, and soon after Frederick's return to Italy the gulf
between him and his German subjects was widened by his
indifference to a great danger which threatened them. This
came from the Mongols who ravaged the eastern frontiers of the
country, but the peril was warded off by the efforts of Henry II.,
duke of Silesia, who lost his life in a fight against these foes near
Liegnitz in April 1241, and of Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia.
The emperor's attitude with regard to the Mongol invasion
is explained by events in Italy where Frederick was engaged
in a new and, if possible, a more virulent struggle with
Frederick the L om bard cities and with Gregory IX. As usual,
the course of politics in Germany, which at this time
was ruled by King Conrad and by the regent Siegfried,
archbishop of Mainz (d. 1249), was influenced by this quarrel.
Frederick of Austria had allied himself with Wenceslaus of
Bohemia, and spurred on by the papal emissary had tried to
set up a rival king; but both the Danish and the French princes
who were asked to accept this thankless position declined the
invitation, and Frederick and Wenceslaus made their peace,
the former receiving back his duchies. After the defeat of
the Mongols, however, there was again the danger of a rebellion
based upon a union between the princes and the pope. Siegfried
of Mainz deserted his master, and visiting Germany in 1242
Frederick found it necessary to purchase the support of the
towns by a grant of extensive privileges; but, although this
had the desired effect, Conrad could make but little headway
against the increasing number of his enemies. At last the Papacy
found an anti-king. Having declared Frederick deposed at
the council of Lyons in 1245, Gregory's successor, Innocent IV.,
induced a number of princes to choose as their king the land-
grave of Thuringia, Henry Raspe, who had served as regent of
Germany. This happened in May 1246, and the conduct of
the struggle against the Pfafenkonig, as Henry was called, was
left to Conrad, who was aided by the Bavarians, until February
1247, when the anti-king died. The papal party then elected
William II., count of Holland, as Henry Raspe's successor, and
during the state of anarchy which now prevailed in Germany
the emperor died in Italy in December 1250.
Upon his father's death Conrad IV. was acknowledged by
many as king in Germany, but in 1251 he went to Italy, where
Conrad iv he was fu Uy occupied in fighting against the enemies
' of his house until his death in May 1254. The
struggle to maintain the position of the Hohenstaufen in Italy
and the
pope.
was continued after this event; but in October 1268, by
the execution of Conrad's son Conradin, the family became
extinct.
After Conrad's death William of Holland received a certain
allegiance, especially in the north of the country, and was
recognized by the Rhenish cities which had just
formed a league for mutual protection, a league which %%,,.
for a short time gave promise of great strength and regaum.
usefulness. In January 1256, however, William was
killed, and in the following year there was a double election for
the German crown, Alphonso X., king of Castile, a grandson
of Philip of Swabia, and Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother of
the English king Henry III., being each chosen by parties of
electors. Richard was crowned in May 1257, but the majority
of his subjects were probably ignorant of his very name;
Alphonso did not even visit the country over which he claimed
to rule.
During the reign of Frederick II. Prussia was conquered for
Christianity and civilization by the knights of the Teutonic
Order, who here built up the state which was later, The
in association with Brandenburg, deeply to influence Teutonic
the course of history. This work was begun in 1230. Order in
Knights eager to win fame by engaging in the war Prussla -
against the heathen Prussians flocked hither from all lands;
towns, Konigsberg, Thorn, Kulm and others, were founded;
and in alliance with the Brothers of the Sword, the erder was
soon pressing farther eastwards. Courland and Livonia were
brought into subjection, and into these lands also Christian
institutions were introduced and German settlers brought the
arts of peace.
The age of the Hohenstaufen emperors is, in many respects,
the most interesting in the medieval history of Germany. It
was a period of great men and great ideas, of dramatic Period of
contrasts of character and opinion on the one side Hohen-
a broad humanitarianism combined with a gay enjoy- staufea
ment of the world, on the other side an almost super- &"**&
human spirituality which sought its ideal in the rejection of
all that the world could give. It saw the new-birth of poetry
and of art; it witnessed the rise of the friars. The contest
between Empire and Papacy was more than a mere struggle
for supremacy between two world-powers; it was a war to the
death between two fundamentally opposite conceptions of life,
which in many respects anticipated and prepared the way for
the Renaissance and the Reformation. The emperor Frederick
II. himself stands out as the type of the one tendency; Innocent
III., Francis of Assisi and Dominic, in their various degrees,
are types of the other. Frederick himself, of course, was Italian
rather than German, akin to the despots of the Renaissance
in his many-sided culture, his tolerant scepticism and his policy
of " cruelty well applied." The culture of which he was the
supreme representative, that of Italy and of Provence, took
a more serious shade when it penetrated into Germany. The
German Minnesinger and romance-writers, whose golden age
corresponded with that of the Hohenstaufen, were not content
only to sing the joy of life or the chivalrous virtues of courage,
courtesy and reverence for women; they in some sort anticipated
the underlying ideas of the Reformation by championing the
claims of the German nation against the papal monarchy and
pure religion, as they conceived it, against the arrogance and
corruption of the clergy. In them the medieval lay point of
view became articulate, finding perhaps its most remarkable
expression in the ideas of religious toleration proclaimed by
Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach.
In Germany, as elsewhere, the victory of the Papacy was the
victory of obscurantism. German culture, after a short revival,
perished once more amid the smoke of the fires kindled by
Conrad of Marburg and his fellow inquisitors.
In architecture, as in literature, this period was also one of
great achievement in Germany. Of the noble palaces which it
produced the castle of the Wartburg (q.v.) remains a perfect
specimen, while the many magnificent churches dating from
this time that still survive, prove the taste, wealth and piety
HISTORY]
GERMANY
845
of the burghers. For the science of government, too, much was
done, partly by the introduction from Italy of the study of Roman
law, partly by the collection of native customs in the Sadisen-
tpitgfl compiled by Kike von Repgow early in the I jth century,
and the less valuable Deidscktiupiegel and SckitHibenspiegel.
Altogether, Germany has seen no more fascinating epoch, none
more full of life, movement and colour.
Yet it was in this age that the German nation utterly lost its
political strength. Even after Lolhair the Saxon, a line of
sovereigns rigidly confining themselves to their own
kingdom might have mastered the many influences
W which were making for disunion. But the Hohen-
*7H** r staufen family, like their Saxon and Franconian
**** predecessors, would be content with nothing short of
universal dominion; and thus the crown which had once been
significant of power and splendour gradually sank into contempt.
Under the strong rule of Frederick Barbarossa and his son this
process was temporarily stopped, but only to advance more
rapidly when they were gone. During, the confusion of the civil
war carried on by Otto IV. and Philip, the princes, being subject
to hardly any check, freely obtained crown lands and crown
rights, and the mischief was too extensive to be undone by
Frederick II. In 1120, in order to secure the adhesion of the
church to his son Henry, he formally confirmed the spiritual
princes in their usurpations; eleven years later at Worms
still more extensive advantages were granted to the princes,
both spiritual and secular, and these formal concessions formed
the lawful basis of the independence of the princely class. Such
authority as the emperor reserved for himself he could exercise
but feebly from a distant land in which his energies were other-
wise occupied. His immediate successors can hardly be said to
have exercised any authority whatever; and they lost hold of
the border countries which had hitherto been dependent upon or
connected with Germany. Thenceforth Denmark and Poland
rendered no homage to the German crown, and Burgundy was
gradually absorbed by France.
The country was not now divided into a few duchies which,
with skilful management, might still in times of emergency
C1mttn have been made to act together. The age of the
,,t i- great duchies was past. As we have seen, Bavaria
was shorn of extensive lands, over which new dukes
were placed, and the duchy of Saxony was altogether
broken up. Swabia and Franconia ceased to have dukes, and
Lor: line gave place to the duchy of Brabant and other smaller
states. Thus there were archbishops, bishops, abbots, dukes,
margraves, landgraves, counts forming together a large body
each of whom claimed to have no superior save the emperor,
whose authority they and their predecessors had slowly destroyed.
All immediate nobles were not princes; but even petty knights
or barons, who possessed little more than the rude towers from
which they descended upon passing travellers, if their only
lord was the emperor, recognized no law save their own will.
Another independent element of the state was composed of the
imperial cities. So long as the emperor really reigned, they
enjoyed only such liberties as they could wring from him, or
as he voluntarily conferred. But when the sovereign's power
decayed, the imperial cities were really free republics, governing
themselves according to their own ideas of law and justice (see
COMMUNE). Besides the imperial cities, and the princes and
other immediate nobles, there were the mediate nobles, the
men who held land in fief of the highest classes of the aristocracy,
and who, in virtue of this feudal relation, looked down upon
the allodial proprietors or freemen, and upon the burghers.
There were also mediate towns, acknowledging the supremacy
of some lord other than the sovereign. Beneath all these, forming
the maw of the agricultural population, were the peasantry
and the serfs, the Utter attached to the land, the former ground
down by heavy taxes. There was another class, large and
increasing in number, which was drawn from various sections of
society. This was composed of men who, being without land,
attached themselves to the emperor or to some powerful noble;
they performed services, generally of a military nature, for their
lord, and were called Difnstmannrn (minisltriales). They
were often transformed into " free knights " by the grant of
a fief, and the class ultimately became absorbed in that of
the knights.
The period from the death of Conrad IV. to the election of
Rudolph of Habsburg in 1273 is generally called the Great
Interregnum, and it was used by the princes to extend
their territories and to increase their authority. On ,/*<,.
several occasions it had seemed as if the German
crown would become hereditary, but it had been kept elective
by a variety of causes, among them being the jealousy of the
Papacy and the growing strength of the aristocracy. In theory
the election of each king needed the sanction of the whole of the
immediate nobles, but in practice the right to choose the king
had passed into the hands of a small but varying number of
the leading princes. During the i.<i h century several attempts
were made to enumerate these princes, and at the contested
election of 1257 seven of them took part. This was the real
beginning of the electoral college whose members at this time
were the archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier, the duke of
Saxony, the duke of Bavaria, who was also count palatine of the
Rhine, the margrave of Brandenburg and the king of Bohemia.
After this event the electors became a distinct element in the
state. They were important because they could maintain the
impotence of the crown to check disorder by imposing conditions
upon candidates for the throne, and by taking care that no
prince powerful enough to be dangerous to themselves should
be elected to this position.
Until the time of the interregnum the territories of a prince
were rarely divided among his descendants, the reason being
that, although the private fiefs of the nobles were DM*IOO*
hereditary, their offices margrave, count and the like of the
were in theory at the disposal of the king. There was priaaiy
now a tendency to set this principle aside. Otto II.,
duke of Bavaria, a member of the Wittelsbach family, had
become by marriage ruler of the Rhenish Palatinate, and after
his death these extensive lands were ruled in common by his
two sons; but in 1255 a formal division took place and the
powerful family of Wittelsbach was divided into two branches.
About the same time the small duchy of Saxony was divided
into two duchies, those of Wittenberg and Laucnburg, the former
to the south and the latter to the north of the great mark of
Brandenburg, and there were similar divisions in the less import-
ant states. It was thus practically settled that the offices and
territories, as well as the private fiefs, of the princes were heredi-
tary, to be disposed of by them at their pleasure. This being
thoroughly established it would have been hard, perhaps im-
possible, even for a sovereign of the greatest genius, to reassert
in anything like its full extent the royal authority. The process
of division and subdivision which steadily went on broke up
Germany into a bewildering multitude of principalities; but as
a rule the members of each princely house held together against
common enemies, and ultimately they learned to arrange by
private treaties that no territory should pass from the family
while a single representative survived.
The consolidation of the power of the princes was contemporary
with the rise of the cities into new importance. Several of
them, especially Mainz,Worms and Spires, had received Tht claetf
valuable rights from the kings and other lords; they
were becoming self-governing and to some extent independent
communities and an important and growing element in the
state. The increase of trade and a system of taxation pro-
vided the governing body with funds, which were used to fortify
the city and in other ways to make life and property more secure.
The destruction of imperial authority compelled them to organize
their resources, so as to be at all times prepared against ambitious
neighbours. They began to form leagues which the greatest
princes and combinations of princes could not afford to despise.
Of these leagues the chief at this time was the Rhenish Con-
federation, which has been already mentioned. Great importance
was also acquired by the Hanseatic League, which had originated
during the interregnum in a treaty of alliance between LUbeck
8 4 6
GERMANY
[HISTORY
and Hamburg. It ultimately included more than eighty cities
and became one of the greatest commercial powers in Europe
(see HANSEATIC LEAGUE).
A political system which allowed the princes to do as they
pleased was very much to their liking, and if they had followed
their own impulse it is possible that they would never
have placed a king over their country. But the pope
burg. intervened. He found from his troubles in Italy and
from his diminished revenues from Germany that it
would be still convenient to have in the latter country a sovereign
who, like some of his predecessors, would be the protector of the
church. Therefore, after the death of Richard of Cornwall in
April 1272, Pope Gregory X., ignoring the absent Alphonso of
Castile, told the electors that if they did not choose a king
he himself would appoint one. The threat was effective. In
September 1273 the electors met and raised to the throne a
Swabian noble, Rudolph, count of Habsburg, who proved to
possess more energy than they had imagined possible. For some
time before this eve.nt the most powerful prince in Germany
had been Ottakar II., king of Bohemia, who by marriage and
conquest had obtained large territories outside his native king-
dom, including the duchy of Austria and other possessions of the
extinct family of Babenberg. Having himself cherished some
hopes of receiving the German crown Ottakar refused to do
homage to the new sovereign; after a tune war broke out
between them, and in August 1278 in a battle at Diirnkrut on
the March Ottakar was defeated and slain, his lands, save
Bohemia, passing into the possession of the victor. Rudolph
had been able to give his whole attention to this enterprise owing
to the good understanding which had been reached between
himself and the pope, to whom he had promised to allow a free
hand in Italy.
Rudolph has often been called the restorer of the German
kingdom, but he has little real claim to this honourable title.
He marched once or twice against law-breakers, but
reign. * n a ^ ^^ e German duchies there were frequent dis-
turbances which he did very little to check. In his
later years he made some attempts to maintain the public peace,
and he distinguished himself by the vigour with which he punished
robber barons in Thuringia; he also won back some of the crown
lands and dues which had been stolen during the interregnum.
But he made no essential change in the condition of Germany.
There seemed to be only one way in which a king could hope
to overcome the arrogance of the princes, and that was to en-
courage the towns by forming with them a close and enduring
alliance. Rudolph, however, almost invariably favoured the
princes and not the towns. The latter had a class of burgher
called Pfahlburger, men who lived in the open country outside
the PfiMe, or palisades of the town, but who could claim the
protection of the municipal authorities. By becoming Pfahl-
burger men were able of escape from the tyranny of the large
landholders, and consequently the princes strongly opposed the
right of the towns to receive them. Not only did the king take
the part of the princes in this important struggle, but he harassed
the towns by subjecting them to severe imposts, a proceeding
which led to several risings. About this time the princes were
gaining influence in another direction. Their assent to all im-
portant acts of state, especially to grants of crown property,
was now regarded as necessary and was conveyed by means of
Willebriefe; henceforward they were not merely the advisers
of the king, they were rather partners with him in the business
of government.
Rudolph had all the sympathies and prejudices of the noble
class, and the supreme object of his life was not to increase the
power of the state but to add to the greatness of his
own ^ m ^Yj a policy which was perhaps justified by
family. the condition of the German kingdom, the ruler of
which had practically no strength save that which he
derived from his hereditary lands. In this he was very successful.
Four years after the fall of Ottakar he obtained from the princes
a tardy and reluctant assent td the granting of Austria, Styria
and Carniola to his own sons, Rudolph and Albert. In 1286
Carinthia was given to Meinhard, count of Tirol, on condition
that when his male line became extinct it should pass to the
Habsburgs. Thus Rudolph made himself memorable as the real
founder of the house of Habsburg.
It was in vain that Rudolph sought to obtain the succession
to the crown for one of his sons; the electors would not take
a step which might endanger their own rights, and
nearly a year after the king's death in July 1 291 they
chose Adolph, count of Nassau, and not Rudolph's
surviving son Albert, as their sovereign. Adolph, an insignificant
prince, having been obliged to reward his supporters richly,
wished to follow the lines laid down by his predecessor and to
secure an extensive territory for his family. Meissen, which he
claimed as a vacant fief of the Empire, and Thuringia, which he
bought from the landgrave Albert II., seemed to offer a favourable
field for this undertaking, and he spent a large part of his short
reign in a futile attempt to carry out his plan. In his foreign
policy Adolph allied himself with Edward I. of England against
Philip IV. of France, but after declaring war on France in August
1294 he did nothing to assist his ally. At home he relieved the
cities of some of their burdens and upheld them in the quarrel
about the Pfahlburger; and he sought to isolate Albert of
Habsburg, who was treating with Philip of France. But many
of the princes were disgusted with him and, led by Albert of
Habsburg, Gerhard, archbishop of Mainz, and Wenceslaus II.,
king of Bohemia, they decided to overthrow him, and at Mainz in
June 1298 he was declared deposed. He resisted the sentence,
but Albert, who had been chosen his successor, marched against
him, and in July 1298, at Gollheim near Worms, Adolph was
defeated and killed.
After Adolph's death Albert was again chosen German king,
and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in August 1298. Like his
father Rudolph, the new king made it the principal xfflert /
object of his reign to increase the power of his house,
but he failed in his attempts to add Bohemia and Thuringia
to the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs, and he was equally
unsuccessful in his endeavour to seize the countries of Holland
and Zealand as vacant fiefs of the Empire. In other directions,
however, he was more fortunate. He recovered some of the lost
crown lands and sought to abolish new and unauthorized tolls
on the Rhine; he encouraged the towns and took measures
to repress private wars; he befriended the serfs and protected
the persecuted Jews. For a time Albert allied himself with
Philip IV. of France against Pope Boniface VIII., who had
refused to recognize him as king, but in 1303 he made peace with
the pope, a step which enabled him to turn his attention to
Bohemia and Thuringia. The greatest danger which he had to
face during his reign came from a league which was formed
against him in 1300 by the four Rhenish electors the three
archbishops and the count palatine of the Rhine who disliked
his foreign policy and resented his action with regard to the tolls.
Albert, however, supported by the towns, was victorious; and
the revolting electors soon made their peace.
After Albert's murder, which took place in May 1308, Henry,
count of Luxemburg, a brother of Baldwin (1285-1354), the
powerful archbishop of Trier, became king as Henry Hen v//
VII. Although fortunate enough to obtain for his
son John the crown of Bohemia, the aggrandizement of his
family was not the main object of this remarkable sovereign,
the last German king of the old, ambitious type. It was the
memory of the Empire which stirred his blood; from the begin-
ning of his reign he looked forward to securing the Lombard and
the imperial crowns. His purpose to cross the Alps at the head
of a great force was hailed with delight by the Ghibellines, whose
aspirations found utterance in Dante's noble prose, but his life
was too short for him to fulfil the hopes of his friends. Having
restored the Rhine tolls to the Rhenish archbishops and made his
peace with the Habsburgs, Henry went to Italy in the autumn
of 1310, not, however, with a large army, and remained in the
peninsula until his death in August 1313. As in former times
the effect of the connexion of Germany with Italy was altogether
mischievous, because to expedite his Italian journey the king
HISTORY]
GERMANY
847
I lb
had added to the great privileges of the princes and had repressed
the energies of the towns.
After Henry's death the electors, again fearing lest the German
crown should become hereditary, refused to choose the late
king's young son, John of Bohemia, as their ruler,
although the candidature of this prince was supported
by the powerful archbishops Baldwin of Trier and
Peter of Mains. They failed, intact, toagrcc upon any
one candidate, and after a long delay there was a
double election for the throne. This took place in October 1314,
when the larger party chose Louis IV., duke of Upper Bavaria,
while the smaller party gave their votes to Frederick the Fair,
duke of Austria, a son of King Albert I. Although related toeach
other, Louis and Frederick had come to blows before this event ;
they represented two rival bouses, those of Wittelsbach and
Habsburg, and the election only served to feed the flame of their
antagonism. A second time war broke out between them.
The struggle, marked by numerous raids, sieges and skirmishes,
lasted for nine years, being practically ended by Frederick's
decisive defeat at Muhldorf in September 1322. The vanquished
king remained in captivity until 1325, when, during the contest
between the Empire and the Papacy, Louis came to terms with
him. Frederick acknowledged his rival, and later the suggestion
was put forward that they should rule Germany jointly, but this
arrangement aroused much opposition and it came to nothing.
Frederick returned into an honourable captivity and died in
January 1330.
The success of Louis in his war with Frederick was to some
extent due to the imperial cities, which supported him from
C|aM( the first. Not only did they pay high taxes, but they
/ < made splendid voluntary contributions, thus enabling
****** / the sovereign of their choice to continue the fight.
Lomit - But Louis was perhaps still more indebted for his
victory to the memorable conflict between the Swiss and the
Habsburgs, the defeat of Leopold of Austria at Morgartcn in
1315 striking a heavy blow at his position. Thus this struggle
for freedom, although belonging properly to the history of
Switzerland, exercised much influence on the course of German
history.
Had Louis been wise and prudent, it would have been fairly
easy for him to attain a strong position after his victory at
Muhldorf. But he threw away his advantages. He
1 ** offended John of Bohemia, who had aided him at
Muhldorf, thus converting a useful friend into a for-
midable foe, and his other actions were hardly more
judicious. John was probably alarmed at the increase in the
power of the German king, and about the same time a similar
fear had begun to possess Pope John XXII. and Charles IV.
of France. About 1323 Louis had secured the mark of Branden-
burg for his son Louis, and he was eager to aggrandize his family
in other directions. It was just at the time when he had estranged
John of Bohemia that the pope made his decisive move. Assert-
ing that the German crown could only be worn by one who
had received the papal approbation he called upon Louis to lay
it down; the answer was an indignant refusal, and in 1324 the
king was declared deposed and excommunicate. -.Thus the ancient
struggle between the Papacy and the Empire was renewed, a
struggle in which the pen, wielded by Marsiglio of Padua, William
of Occam, John of Jandun and others, played an important part,
and in which the new ideas in religion and politics worked
steadily against the arrogant papal claim. The pope and his
French ally, Charles IV., whom it was proposed to seat upon the
German throne, had completely misread the signs of the times,
and their schemes met with very little favour in Germany.
No longer had the princes as in former years any reason to dread
the designs of an ambitious king; the destinies of the kingdom
were in their own hands and they would not permit them to be
controlled by an alien power. Such was the attitude of most of
the temporal princes, and many spiritual princes took the same
view. As for the electors, they had the strongest possible motive
for resisting the papal claim, because if this were once admitted
they would quickly lose their growing importance in the state.
Lastly, the cities which had stood behind the Empire in the most
difficult crises of its contest with Rome were not likely to desert
it now.
Thus encouraged, or rather driven forward, by the national
sentiment Louis continued to assert the independence of the
crown against the pope. In 1327 he marched into
Italy, where he had powerful and numerous friends ^i*
in the Ghibelline party, the Visconti family and others;
in January 1328 he was crowned emperor at Rome, and after
this event he declared Pope John deposed and raised Peter of
Corvara to the papal choir as Nicholas V. The concluding
stages of this expedition were not favourable to the new emperor,
but his humiliation was only slight and it did not appreciably
affect the conditions of the controversy.
For a short time after the emperor's return to Germany there
was peace. But this was soon broken by a dispute over the
succession to the duchy of Carinthia and the county
of Tirol, then ruled by Henry V., who was without
sons, and whose daughter, Margaret Maultasch, was
married to John Henry, margrave of Moravia, a son of John of
Bohemia. Upon these lands the three great families in Germany,
those of Wittelsbach, of Habsburg and of Luxemburg, were
already casting covetous eyes; Carinthia, moreover, was
claimed by the Habsburgs in virtue of an arrangement made in
1286. Thus a struggle between the Luxemburgs and the Habs-
burgs appeared certain, and Louis, anxious to secure for his
house a share of the spoil, hesitated for a time between these
rivals. In 1335 Duke Henry died and the emperor adjudged
his lands to the Habsburgs; wars broke out, and the result was
that John Henry secured Tirol while the other contending
family added Carinthia to its Austrian possessions.
During this time Louis had been negotiating continually
with Pope John and with his successor Benedict XII. to regain
the favour of the church, and so to secure a free hand
for his designs in Germany. But the pope was not Th pop*
equally complaisant, and in 1337 the emperor allied '/JJ^J*.
himself with Edward III. of England against Philip VI.
of France, whom he regarded as primarily responsible for the
unyielding attitude of the Papacy. This move was very popular
in Germany, and the papal party received a further rebuff in
July 1338 when the electors met at Rense and declared that in
no possible manner could they allow any control over, or
limitation of, their electoral rights. As a sequel to this declara-
tion the diet, meeting at Frankfort a month later, asserted that
the imperial power proceeded from God alone and that the
individual chosen by a majority of the electors to occupy this
high station needed no confirmation from the pope, or from
any one else, to make his election valid. Contrary opinions
they denounced as pestifera dogmata.
But in spite of this support Louis threw away his advantages;
he abandoned Edward III. in 1341, although this step did not
win for him, as he desired, the goodwill of the pope, Loal*
and he was soon involved in a more serious struggle mad tht
with John of Bohemia and the Luxemburgs. With Luxem-
his Bohemian followers John Henry had made himself
very unpopular in Tirol, where his wife soon counted herself
among his enemies, and in 1341 he was driven from the land,
while Margaret announced her intention of repudiating him
and marrying the emperor's son Louis, margrave of Brandenburg.
The emperor himself entered heartily into this scheme for
increasing the power of his family; he declared the marriage
with John Henry void, and bestowed upon his son and his bride
Margaret not only Tirol, but also Carinthia, now in the hands of
the Habsburgs. Nothing more was needed to unite together
all the emperor's foes, including Pope Clement VI., who, like his
predecessors, had rejected the advances of Louis; but in 1345,
before the gathering storm broke, the emperor took possession
of the counties of Holland, Zealand and Friesland, which had
been left without a ruler by the death of his brother-in-law,
Count William IV: By this time John of Bohemia and his
allies had completed their plans. In July 1346 five of the electors
met, and, having declared Louis deposed, they raised John's
GERMANY
[HISTORY
son Charles, margrave of Moravia, to the German throne. For
a time no serious steps were taken against Louis, but after King
John had met his death at Crecy Charles, who succeeded him as
king of Bohemia, began to make vigorous preparations for war,
and only the sudden death of the emperor (October 1347) saved
Germany from civil strife.
Notwithstanding the defects of Louis's personal character his
reign is one of the most important in German history. The
T i, e claim of the Papacy to political supremacy received
domestic in his time its death-blow, and the popes themselves
policy of sowed the seeds of the alienation from Rome which
was effected at the Reformation. With regard to the
public peace Louis persistently followed the lines laid down
by Albert I. He encouraged the princes to form alliances for
its maintenance, and at the time of his death such alliances
existed in all parts of the country. To the cities he usually
showed himself a faithful friend. In many of them there had
been for more than a century a struggle between the old patrician
families and the democratic gilds. Louis could not always
follow his own impulses, but whenever he could he associated
himself with the latter party. Thus in his day the government
of the imperial cities became more democratic and industry
and trade flourished as they had never before done. The steady
dislike of the princes was the best proof of the importance of
the cities. They contained elements capable of enormous
development; and had a great king arisen he might even yet,
by their means, have secured for Germany a truly national life.
In January 1349 the friends of the late emperor elected Giinther,
count of Schwarzburg, as their king, but before this occurrence
Charles Charles of Moravia, by a liberal use of gifts and promises,
iv. be- had won over many of his enemies, prominent among
whom were the cities. In a few months Giinther
himself abandoned the struggle, dying shortly after-
klag.
wards, and about the same time his victorious rival was recog-
nized by Louis of Brandenburg, the head of the Wittelsbach
family. As king of Bohemia Charles was an enlightened and
capable ruler, but he was indifferent towards Germany, although
this country never stood in more urgent need of a strong and
beneficent sovereign. In the early years of the reign the people,
especially in the south and west, attacked and plundered the
Jews; and the consequent disorder was greatly increased by the
ravages of the Black Death and by the practices and preaching
of the Flagellants, both events serving to spur the maddened
populace to renewed outrages on the Jews. In dealing with this
outburst of fanaticism many of the princes, both spiritual and
secular, displayed vigour and humanity, but Charles saw only
in the sufferings of this people an excuse for robbing them of their
wealth.
Charles's most famous achievement was the issue of the
Golden Bull (?..). Although the principle of election had
long been admitted and practised with regard to the
German crown, yet it was surrounded by many practical
Butt. difficulties. For instance, if the territory belonging
to an electoral family were divided, as was often the
case, it had never been settled whether all the ruling princes
were to vote, or, if one only were entitled to this privilege, by
what principle the choice was to be made. Over these and other
similar points "many disputes had arisen, and, having been
crowned emperor at Rome in April 1355, Charles decided to set
these doubts at rest. The Golden Bull, promulgated in January
1356 and again after some tedious negotiations in December
of the same year, fixed the number of electors at seven, Saxe-
Wittenberg and not Saxe-Lauenburg obtaining the Saxon vote,
and the vote of the Wittelsbachs being given to the ruler of the
Rhenish Palatinate and not to the duke of Bavaria. The votes
of a majority of the electors were held to make an election valid.
In order that there might be no possibility of dispute between
the princes of a single house, the countries ruled by the four
secular electors Bohemia, the Rhenish Palatinate, Saxony
and Brandenburg were declared to be indivisible and to be
heritable only by the accepted rules of primogeniture. The
electors were granted full sovereign rights over their lands,
and their subjects were allowed to appeal to the royal or the
imperial tribunals only in case they could not obtain justice else-
where. A blow was struck at the cities, which were forbidden
to form leagues or to receive Pfahlburger.
If the Golden Bull be excepted, the true interest of this reign
is in the movements beyond the range of the emperor's influence.
It is significant that at this time the Femgerichte, or
Fehmic Courts (<?..), vastly extended the sphere of courts
their activities, and that in the absence of a strong
central authority they were respected as a check upon the lawless-
ness of the princes. The cities, notwithstanding every kind of
discouragement, formed new associations for mutual defence
or strengthened those which already existed. The Hanseatic
League carried on war with Valdemar V., king of Denmark, and
his ally, the king of Norway, seventy-seven towns declaring
war on these monarchs in 1367, and emerged victorious from
the struggle, while its commerce extended to nearly all parts
of the known world. In 1376 some Swabian towns formed
a league which, in spite of the imperial prohibition, soon became
powerful in south-west Germany and defeated the forces of the
count of Wurttemberg at Reutlingen in May 1377. The emperor,
meanwhile, was occupied in numerous intrigues to strengthen
his personal position and to increase the power of his house.
In these he was very fortunate, managing far more than his
predecessors to avoid conflicts with the Papacy and the princes.
The result was that when he died in November 1378 he wore the
crowns of the Empire, of Geimany, of Bohemia, of Lombardy
and of Burgundy; he had added Lower Lusatia and parts of
Silesia to Bohemia; he had secured the mark of Brandenburg
for his son Wenceslaus in 1373; and he had bought part of the
Upper Palatinate and territories in all parts of Germany.
After the death of Charles, his son Wenceslaus, who had been
crowned German king in July 1376, was recognized by the
princes as their ruler, but the new sovereign was
careless and indolent and in a few years he left Germany
to look after itself. During his reign the struggle
between the princes and the cities reached its climax. Following
the example set by the electors at Rense both parties formed
associations for protection, prominent among these being the
Swabian League on the one side and the League of the Lion
(Lowenbund) 1 on the other. The result was that the central
authority was almost entirely disregarded. Wenceslaus favoured
first one of the antagonists and then the other, but although
he showed some desire to put an end to the increasing amount
of disorder he was unable, or unwilling, to take a strong and
definite line of action. The cities entered upon the approach-
ing contest at a considerable disadvantage. Often they were
separated one from the other by large stretches of territory
under the rule of a hostile prince and their trade was peculiarly
liable to attack by an adventurous body of knights. The
citizens, who were called upon to fight their battles, were usually
unable to contend successfully with men whose whole lives
had been passed in warfare; the isolation of the cities was not
favourable to the creation or mobilization of an active and
homogeneous force; and, moreover, at this time many of them
were disturbed by internal troubles. However, they minimized
this handicap by joining league to league; in 1381 the Swabian
and the Rhenish cities formed an alliance for three years, while
the Swabian League obtained promises of help from the Swiss.
The Swiss opened the fight. Attacked by the Habsburgs
they defeated and killed Duke Leopold of Austria at Sempach
in July 1386 and gained another victory at Nafels two
years later; but their allies, the Swabian cities,
were not equally prompt or equally fortunate. The Germany,
decisive year was 1388, when the strife became general
all over south-west Germany. In August 1388 the princes,
under Count Eberhard of Wurttemberg, completely defeated
their foes at Doffingen, while in the following November Rupert
II., elector palatine of the Rhine, was equally successful in
his attack on the forces of the Rhenish cities near Worms.
'So called from the badge worn by the knights (Lowenritter)
who composed it.
HISTORY]
GERMANY
849
Exhaustion soon compelled the combatants to come to terms, and
greatly to the disadvantage of the cities peace was made in 1389.
The main result of this struggle was everywhere to strengthen
the power of the princes and to incite them to fresh acts of
aggression. During the same time the Hanse towns were passing
through a period of difficulty. They were disturbed by democratic
movements in many of the cities and they were threatened by
the changing politics of the three northern kingdoms, Norway,
Sweden and Denmark, and by their union in 1397; their trading
successes had raised up powerful enemies and had embroiled
them with England and with Flanders, and the Teutonic Order
and neighbouring princes were not slow to take advantage of
their other difficulties.
Towards the dose of the century the discontent felt at the
incompetent and absent German king took a decided form.
The movement was led by the four Rhenish electors,
and after some preliminary proceedings these princes
met in August 1400; having declared Wenceslaus
dethroned they chose one of their number, the elector
palatine Rupert HI., in his stead, and the deposed monarch
accepted the sentence almost without demur. Rupert was an
excellent elector, and under more favourable circumstances would
have made a good king, but so serious were the jealousies and
divisions in the kingdom that he found little scope for his energies
outside the Palatinate. In spite of the peace of 1389 the cities
had again begun to form leagues for peace; but, having secured
a certain amount of recognition in the south and west of Germany,
the new king turned aside from the pressing problems of govern-
ment and in 1401 made a futile attempt to reach Rome, an
enterprise which covered him with ridicule. After his return to
Germany he had to face the hostility of many of the princes,
and this contest, together with vain attempts to restore order,
occupied him until his death in May 1410.
After's Rupert's death two cousins, Jobst, margrave of
Moravia, and Sigismund, king of Hungary, were in the autumn
of 1410 both chosen to fill the vacant throne by oppos-
ing parties; and the position was further complicated
by the fact that the deposed king, Wenceslaus, was
still alive. Jobst, however, died in January 1411,
and in the succeeding July Sigismund, having come to terms
with Wenceslaus, was again elected king and was generally
recognized. The commanding questions of this reign were
ecclesiastical. It was the age of the great schism, three popes
rliming the allegiance of Christendom, and of the councils of
Constance and of Basel; in all ranks of the Church there was an
urgent cry for reform. Unfortunately the council of Constance,
which met mainly through the efforts of Sigismund in 1414,
marred its labours by the judicial murders of John Huss and
of Jerome of Prague. This act greatly incensed the Bohemians,
who broke into revolt in 1419, and a new and fiercer outburst
occurred in 1420 when Sigismund, who had succeeded his brother
Wenceslaus as king of Bohemia in the preceding August, an-
nounced his intention of crushing the Hussites. Led by their
famous general, John Zilka, the Bohemians won several battles
and spread havoc and terror through the neighbouring German
lands. During the progress of this revolt Germany was so
divided and her king was so poor that it was impossible to collect
an army of sufficient strength to crush the malcontents. At
the diet of Nuremberg in 1422 and at that of Frankfort in 1427
Sigismund endeavoured to raise men and money by means of
contributions from the estates, but the plan failed owing to
mutual jealousies and especially to the resistance of the cities.
He secured some help from Frederick of Brandenburg, from
Albert of Austria, afterwards the German king Albert II., and
from Frederick of Meissen, to whom he granted the electoral
duchy of Saxe- Wittenberg; but it was only when the Hussites
were split into two factions, and when Ziika was dead, that
Germany was in any way relieved from a crushing and intolerable
burden.
The continual poverty which hindered the successful prosecu-
tion of the war against the Hussites, and which at times placed
Sigismund in the undignified position of having to force himself
aa an unwelcome guest upon princes and cities, had, however,
one good result. In 1415 he granted, or rather sold, the mark
of Brandenburg to his friend Frederick of Hohcn- Bnu^m'
zoilern, burgrave of Nuremberg, this land thus passing bur, mad
into the hands of the family under whom it was des- <**
lined to develop into the kingdom of Prussia. During * Uera *-
this reign the princes, especially the electors, continued their
endeavours to gain a grcatersharein the government of Germany,
and to some extent they succeeded. Sigismund, on his part,
tried to enforce peace upon the country by forming leagues of
the cities, but to no purpose; in fact all his plans for reform
came to nothing.
Sigismund, who died in December 1437, was succeeded on
the German throne and also in Hungary and Bohemia by his
son-in-law Albert of Austria, and from this time, Albert u
although remaining in theory elective, the German
crown was always conferred upon a member of the house
of Habsburg' until the extinction of the mole line of this
family in 1740. The reign of Albert II. was too short to enable
him to do more than indicate his good intentions; he acted in
general with the electors in observing a neutral attitude with
regard to the dispute between the council of Basel and Pope
Eugenius IV., and he put forward a scheme to improve the
administration of justice. He died in October 1439, and was
succeeded by his kinsman Frederick, duke of Styria, who
became German king as Frederick IV. and, after his coronation
at Rome in 1452, emperor as Frederick III.
The first concern of the new king was with the papal schism.
The council of Basel was still sitting, and had elected an anti-pope,
Felix V., in opposition to Eugenius IV., while the predtrkt
electors, adhering to their neutral attitude, sought /// and
to bring Frederick into line with them on this question. **
Some years were occupied in negotiations, but the pK
king soon showed himself anxious to come to terms with Eugenius,
and about 1446 the electors ceased to act together. At length
peace was made. The consent of several of the electors having
been purchased by concessions, Frederick signed with Pope
Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius, in February 1448 the
concordat of Vienna, an arrangement which bound the German
Church afresh to Rome and perpetuated the very evils from
which earnest churchmen had been seeking deliverance. Thus
Germany lost the opportunity of reforming the Church from
within, and the upheaval of the i6th century was rendered
inevitable.
Frederick's reign is one of great importance in the history of
Austria and of the house of Habsburg, but under him the fortunes
of Germany sank to the lowest possible point. Without
any interference from the central authority wars were
waged in every part of the country, and disputes of
every kind were referred to the decision of the sword.
The old enmity between the cities and the princes blazed out
afresh; grievances of every kind were brought forward and
many struggles were the result. Perhaps the most famous of
these was one between a confederation of Franconian and
Swabian cities under the leadership of Nuremberg on the one
side, and Albert Achilles, afterwards elector of Brandenburg,
and a number of princes on the other. The war was carried on
with great barbarity for about four years (1440-1453), and
was in every respect a critical one. If the cities had gained the
day they might still have aimed at balancing the power of the
princes, but owing partly to their imperfect union, partly to
the necessity of fighting with hired troops, they did not gain any
serious advantage. On the whole, indeed, in spite of temporary
successes, they decidedly lost ground, and on the conclusion
of peace there was no doubt that the balance of power in the state
inclined to the princes. Frederick meanwhile was involved in
wars with the Swiss, with his brother Albert and his Austrian
subjects, and later with the Hungarians. He had no influence
in Italy; in Burgundy he could neither stop Duke Philip the
Good from adding Luxemburg to his possessions, nor check the
towering ambition of Charles the Bold; while after the death of
Charles in 1477 he was equally unable to prevent the king of
8 5 o
GERMANY
[HISTORY
France from seizing a large part of his lands. Torn by dissensions
the Teutonic Order was unsuccessful in checking the encroach-
ments of the Poles, and in 1466 the land which it had won in the
north-east of Germany passed under the suzerainty of Poland,
care being taken to root out all traces of German influence therein.
Another loss took place in 1460, when Schleswig and Holstein
were united with Denmark. In Germany itself the king made
scarcely any pretence of exercising the supreme authority;
for nearly thirty years he never attended the imperial diet, and
the suggestions which were made for his deposition failed only
because the electors could not agree upon a successor. In his
later years he became more of a recluse than ever, and even
before February 1486, when his son Maximilian was chosen
German king, he had practically ceased to take any part in the
business of the Empire, although he survived until August 1493.
During the reign of Frederick the electors and the greater
princes continued the process of consolidating and increasing
their power. Lands under their rule, which were
technically imperial fiefs, were divided and devised
princes. by them at will like other forms of private property;
they had nearly all the rights of a sovereign with
regard to levying tolls, coining money, administering justice
and granting privileges to towns; they were assisted in the work
of government by a privy council, while their courts with their
numerous officials began to resemble that of the king or emperor.
They did not, however, have everything their own way. During
this century their power was limited by the formation of diets in
many of the principalities. These bodies were composed of the
mediate prelates, the mediate nobles and representatives of the
mediate cities. They were not summoned because the princes
desired their aid, but because arms could only be obtained from
the nobles and money from the cities, at least on an adequate
scale. Once having been formed these local diets soon extended
their functions. They claimed the right of sanctioning taxation;
they made their voice heard about the expenditure of public
money; they insisted, although perhaps not very effectually,
on justice being administered. Such institutions as these were
clearly of the highest importance, and for two centuries they did
something to atone for the lack of a genuine monarchy.
During this reign the conditions of warfare began to change.
The discovery of gunpowder made small bodies of men,
adequately armed, more than a match for great forces
/' * equipped in medieval fashion. Hence the custom of
OTWMT*
fun. hiring mercenary troops was introduced, and a prince
could never be certain, however numerous his vassals
might be, that the advantage would not rest with his opponent.
This fact, added to the influence of the local diets, made even
the princes weary of war, and a universal and continuous demand
arose for some reform of the machinery of government. Partly
at the instance of the emperor a great Swabian confederation
was formed in 1488. This consisted of both princes and cities
and was intended to enforce the public peace in the south-
western parts of Germany. Its effects were excellent; but
obviously no partial remedy was sufficient. It was essential
that there should be some great reform which would affect every
part of the kingdom, and for the present this was not to be secured.
Maximilian came to the throne in 1486 with exceptional advan-
tages. He was heir to the extensive Austrian lands, and as the
widowed husband of Charles the Hold's daughter
Mary he administered the Netherlands. Although
he soon gave up these provinces to his son Philip, the
fact that they were in the possession of his family added to his
influence, and this was further increased when Philip married
Joanna, the heiress of the Spanish kingdoms. From Maximilian's
accession the Empire exercised in the affaii ) of Europe an
authority which had not belonged to it for centuries. The reason
for this was not that the Empire was stronger, but that its
crown was worn by a succession of princes who were great
sovereigns in their own right.
Having in 1490 driven the Hungarians from Vienna and
recovered his hereditary lands, and having ordered the aftairs
of the Netherlands, Maximilian turned his attention to Italy,
Mmxl-
mllltn I.
whither he was drawn owing to the invasion of that country by
Charles VIII. of France in 1494. But before he could take any
steps to check the progress of Charles pecuniary neces- Reforms
sities compelled him to meet the diet. At this time the
German, or imperial, diet consisted of three colleges,
one of the electors, another of the princes, both spiritual
and secular, and a third of representatives of the free cities,
who had, however, only just gained the right to sit beside the
other two estates. The diet was an extremely clumsy instrument
of government, and it was perhaps never more discredited or
more impotent than when it met Maximilian at Worms in March
1495. But in spite of repeated rebuffs the party of reform was
valorous and undaunted; its members knew that their case was
overwhelmingly strong. Although disappointed in the hope
which they had nourished until about 1490 that Maximilian
himself would lead them, they had found a capable head in
Bertold, elector of Mainz. The king lost no time in acquainting
the diet with his demands. He wished for men and money to
encounter the French in Italy and to resist the Turks. Bertold
retorted that redress' of grievances must precede supply, and
Maximilian and the princes were soon discussing the proposals
put forward by the sagacious elector. His first suggestion that
a council nominated by the estates should be set up with the
power of vetoing the acts of the king was abandoned because
of the strenuous opposition of Maximilian; but Bertold was
successful in getting the diet to proclaim an eternal Landfriede,
that is, to forbid private war without any lihiitation of time,
and it was agreed that the diet should meet annually to advise
the king on matters of moment. The idea of a council, however,
was not given up although it took a different form. An imperial
court of justice, the Reichskammergericht, was established;
this consisted of sixteen members nominated by the estates and
a president appointed by the king. Its duties were to judge
between princes of the Empire and to act as the supreme court
of appeal in cases where humbler persons were concerned.
Partly to provide for the expenses of this court, partly to furnish
Maximilian with the promised monetary aid, a tax called the
common penny was instituted, this impost taking the form both
of a property tax and of a poll tax. Such in outline were the
reforms effected by the important diet of Worms.
The practical difficulties of the reformers, however, were
only just beginning. Although Maximilian took some interest
in the collection of the common penny it was difficult, DMH-
and from some classes impossible, to obtain payment cuities and
of this tax, and the king was persistently hostile to
the imperial court of justice, his hostility and the want
of money being indeed successful in preventing that institution
for a time from doing any real service to Germany. In 1497
he set up a new Aulic council or Hofrat, the members of which
were chosen by himself, and to this body he gave authority to
deal with all the business of the Empire. Thus he undermined
the foundations of the Reichskammergericht and stole a march
upon Bertold and his friends. A series of diets between 1495
and 1499 produced only mutual recriminations, and then
Maximilian met with a serious rebuff. The Swiss refused to
pay the common penny and to submit to the jurisdiction of the
imperial court of justice. Consequently, in 1499, Maximilian
sent such troops as he could collect against them, but his forces
were beaten, and by the peace of Basel he was forced to concede
all the demands made by the Swiss, who became virtually
independent of the Empire. Heartened by this circumstance
Bertold and his followers returned to the attack when the diet
met at Augsburg in 1500. The common penny as a means of
taxation fell into the background, and in its place a scheme
was accepted which it was thought would provide the king with
an army of about 30,000 men. But more important perhaps
was the administrative council, or Reichsregiment, which was
established by the diet at this time. A revival of the idea put
forward by the elector of Mainz at Worms in 1495, this council
was to consist of twenty members appointed by the electors
and other princes and by representatives of the cities, with a
president named by the king. Its work was practically that of
HISTORY]
GERMANY
851
governing Germany, and it was the most considerable encroach-
ment which had yet been made on the power of the king. It
is not surprising therefore that Maximilian hated the new body,
to the establishment of which he had only consented under
great pressure.
In i $00 the Rticksrcgiment met at Nuremberg and began
at once to treat for peace with France. Maximilian was not
slow to resent this interference; he refused to appoint
a president, and soon succeeded in making the meetings
of the council impossible. The relations between
the king and the princes were now very strained.
Bertold called the electors together to decide upon a
plan of campaign; Maximilian on his pan tried to destroy
the electoral union by winning over individual members.
The result was that when the elector of Mainz died in 1504
the king's victory was complete. The Reickskammergerickt and
the RfuksTtfimmt were for all practical purposes destroyed,
and greater authority had been given to the Hofral. Hence-
forward it was the king who put forward schemes of reform and
the diet which modified or rejected them. When the diet met
at Cologne in 1505 Maximilian asked for an army and the
request was granted, the necessary funds being raised by the old
plan of a levy on the estates. At Constance, two years Liter,
the diet raised men and money in a similar fashion, and on this
occasion the imperial court of justice was restored, with some
slight alteration in the method of appointing its members. After
Maximilian had taken the novel step of assuming the title of
Roman emperor at Trent in 1 508 the last of the reforming diets
met at Cologne in 1512. In 1500 Germany had been divided
into six circles (Krrise) or districts, for the purpose of sending
representatives to the Reicksregimenl. These circles were now
increased in number to ten and an official (Hattplmann) was
placed over each, his duties being to enforce the decisions of
the Reickskammergcrickt. But it was some time before the circles
came into working order; the only permanent reform of the
reign was the establishment of the imperial court of justice,
and even this was not entirely satisfactory, Maximilian's remain-
ing diets loudly denouncing it for delay and incompetence.
The period marked by the attempted reform of Bertold of Mainz
was that of the last struggle between the supporters of a united
Germany and those who preferred a loose confederation of states.
Victory remained with the latter party. Maximilian himself
had done a great deal to promote the unity of his Austrian
lands and, incidentally, to cut them off from the remainder
of the German kingdom, and other princes were following his
example. This movement spelled danger to the small princi-
palities and to the free cities, but it gave a powerful impetus
to the growth of Brandenburg, of Saxony, of Bavaria and of the
Palatinate, and the future of the country seemed likely to
remain with the particularist and not with the national idea.
During the period of these constitutional struggles the king's
chief energies were spent in warring against the French kings
Hjl< . Charles VIII. and Louis XII. in Italy, where he hoped
mm*m't to restore the claims, dormant, perhaps even extinct,
* of the German kings. In 1508 he helped to promote
the league of Cambrai, formed to despoil Venice, but
he soon returned to his former policy of waging war against
France, and be continued to do this until peace was made in
1516. The princes of Germany showed themselves singularly
indifferent to this struggle, and their king's battles were largely
fought with mercenary troops. Maximilian gained his most
conspicuous success in his own kingdom in 1504, when he
interfered in a struggle over the succession to the duchy of
Bavaria-Landshut. He gained some additions of territory,
but his victory was more important because it gave him the
prestige which enabled him to break down the opposition of
the princes and to get his own way with regard to bis domestic
policy.
In many respects the reign of Maximilian must be regarded
as the end of the middle ages. The feudal relation between the
king and the princes and between the princes and their vassals
had become purely nominal. No real control was exerted by the
crown over the heads of the various states, und, now that war was
carried on mainly by mercenary troops, the mediate nobles did
not hold their lands on condition of military service.
The princes were sovereigns, not merely feudal lords; ***'
and by the institution of local diets in their territories n i*tiooi.
an approach was made to modern conceptions of
government. The age of war was far indeed from being
over, but men were at least beginning to see that unnecessary
bloodshed is an evil, and that the true outlet for the mass of
human energies is not conflict but industry. By the growth
of the cities in social, if not in political, importance the products
of labour were more and more widely diffused; and it was
easier than at any previous time for the nation to be moved
by common ideas and impulses. The discovery of America,
the invention of printing, the revival of learning and many
other causes had contributed to effect a radical change in the
point of view from which the world was regarded; and the
strongest of all medieval relations, that of the nation to the
Church, was about to pass through the fiery trial of the Reforma-
tion. This vast movement, which began in the later years of
Maximilian, definitely severed the medieval from the modern
world.
The seeds of the Reformation were laid during the time of
the great conflict between the Papacy and the Empire. The
arrogance and the ambition of the popes then stamped
upon the minds of the people an impression that was
never effaced. During the struggle of Louis IV.
with the popes of his day the feeling revived with fresh intensity;
all classes, clerical as well as lay, looked upon resistance to papal
pretensions as a necessity imposed by the national honour.
At the same time the spiritual teaching of the mystics awakened
in many minds an aspiration which the Church, in its corrupt
state, could not satisfy, and which was in any case unfavourable
to an external authority. The Hussite movement further
weakened the spell of the Church. Still more powerful, because
touching other elements of human nature and affecting a more
important class, was the influence of the Renaissance, which,
towards the end of the i$th century, passed from Italy to the
universities of Germany. The men of the new learning did not
sever themselves from Christianity, but they became indifferent
to it; its conceptions seemed to them dim and faded, while
there was a constantly increasing charm in literature, in
philosophy and in art. No kind of effort was made by the
Church to prepare for the storm. The spiritual princes, besides
displaying all the faults of the secular princes, had special defects
of their own; and as simony was universally practised, the
lives of multitudes of the inferior clergy were a public scandal,
while their services were cold and unimpressive. The moral
sense was outraged by such a pope as Alexander VI.; and
neither the military ambition of Julius II. nor the refined
paganism of Leo X. could revive the decaying faith in the
spirituality of their office. Pope Leo, by his incessant demands
for money and his unscrupulous met hods of obtaining it , awakened
bitter hostility in every class of the community.
The popular feeling for the first time found expression when
Luther, on All Saints' day 1517, nailed to a church door in
Wittenberg the theses in which he contested the doctrine
which lay at the root of the scandalous traffic in in-
dulgences carried on in the pope's name by Tetzel and his like.
This episode, derided at first at Rome as the act of an obscure
Augustinian friar intent on scoring a point in a scholastic dis-
putation, was in reality an event of vast significance, for it
brought to the front, as the exponent of the national sentiment,
one of the mightiest spirits whom Germany has produced.
Under the influence of Luther's strong personality the most
active and progressive elements of the nation were soon in more
or less open antagonism to the Papacy.
When Maximilian died in January 1519 his throne was com-
peted for by his grandson Charles, king of Spain, and by Francis I.
of France, and after a long and costly contest the former was
chosen in the following June. By the time Charles reached
Germany and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle (October 1520)
Lulhtr.
8 5 2
GERMANY
[HISTORY
le v
'
Luther.
Luther had confronted the cardinal legate Cajetan, had passed
through his famous controversy at Leipzig with Johann Eck, and
was a k ut to kurn t ' le bull * excommunication.
After this daring step retreat was impossible, and with
keen excitement both the reformer's followers and
his enemies waited for the new sovereign to declare
himself on one side or on the other. Charles soon made
up his mind about the general lines of his policy, although
he was completely ignorant of the strength of the feeling which
had been aroused. He fancied that he had to deal with a mere
monkish quarrel; at one time he even imagined that a little
money would set the difficulty at rest. It was not likely, however,
in any case that he would turn against the Roman Church,
and that for various reasons. He was by far the most important
ruler of the time, and the peoples under his direct sway were still
adherents of the old faith. He was king of Spain, of Sicily,
of Naples and of Sardinia ; he was lord of the Netherlands, of
the free county of Burgundy and of the Austrian archduchies;
he had at his command the immense resources of the New World;
and he had been chosen king of Germany, thus gaining a title
to the imperial crown. Following the example set by Maxi-
milian he called himself emperor without waiting for the formality
of a coronation at Rome. Now the protection of the Church
had always been regarded as one of the chief functions of the
emperors; Charles could not, therefore, desert it when it was
so greatly in need of his services. Like his predecessors he
reserved to himself the right to resist it in the realm of politics;
in the realm of faith he considered that he owed to it his entire
allegiance. Moreover, he intended to undertake the subjugation
of northern Italy, a task which had baffled his imperial grand-
father, and in order to realize this scheme it was of the highest
importance that he should do nothing to offend the pope. Thus
it came about that at the diet of Worms, which met in January
1521, without any thorough examination of Luther's position,
Charles issued the famous edict, drawn up by Cardinal Aleandro,
which denounced the reformer and his followers. This was
accepted by the diet and Luther was placed under the imperial
ban.
When Charles was chosen German king he was obliged to
make certain promises to the electors. Embodied in a Wahl-
Charies kapitulation, as it was called, these were practically
and the the conditions on which the new sovereign was allowed
move- to take the crown, and the precedent was followed
at subsequent elections. At the diet of Worms steps
were taken to carry these promises into effect. By
his Wahlkapitulation Charles had promised to respect the freedom
of Germany, for the princes looked upon him as a foreigner. He
was neither to introduce foreign troops into the country, nor to
allow a foreigner to command German soldiers; he must use
the German language and every diet must meet on German soil.
An administrative council, a new Reichsregiment, must be
established, and other reforms were to be set on foot. The
constitution and powers of this Reichsregiment were the chief
subject of difference between Charles and the princes at the
diet. Eventually it was decided that this council should consist
of twenty-two members with a president named by the emperor;
but it was only to govern Germany during the absence of the
sovereign, at other times its functions were merely advisory.
The imperial chamber was restored on the lines laid down
by Bertold of Mainz in 1495 (it survived until the dissolution
of the Empire in 1806), and the estates undertook to aid the
emperor by raising and paying an army. In April 1521 Charles
invested his brother Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Fer-
dinand I., with the Austrian archduchies, and soon afterwards
he left Germany to renew his long struggle with Francis I. of
France.
While the emperor was thus absent great disturbances took
place in Germany. Among Luther's friends was one, Ulrich von
Hutten, at once penetrated with the spirit of the Renaissance
and emphatically a man of action. The class to which Hutten and
his friend, Franz von Sickingen, a daring and ambitious Rhenish
baron, belonged, was that of the small feudal tenants in chief, the
meat tor
reform.
Ritterschaft or knights of the Empire. This class was subject
only to the emperor, but its members lacked the territorial
possessions which gave power to the princes; they were
partly deprived of their employment owing to the
suppression of private wars, and they had suffered rising.
through the substitution of Roman law for the ancient
feudal laws and customs. They had no place in the con-
stitution or in the government of Germany, and they had
already paralysed the administration by refusing to pay the taxes.
They were intensely jealous of the princes, and it occurred to
Hutten and Sickingen that the Reformation might be used to
improve the condition of the knights and to effect a total
change in the constitution of the Empire. No general reform,
they maintained, either in church or state, could be secured
while the country was divided into a number of principalities,
and their plan was to combine with all those who were dis-
contented with the existing order to attack the princes and to
place the emperor at the head of a united nation. Sickingen,
who has been compared to Wallenstein, and who doubtless hoped
to secure a great position for himself, had already collected
a large army, which by its very presence had contributed some-
what to the election of Charles at Frankfort in 1519. He had
also earned renown by carrying on feuds with the citizens of
Worms and of Metz, and now, with a view to realizing his larger
ambitions, he opened the campaign (August 1522) by attacking
the elector of Trier, who, as a spiritual prince, would not, it
was hoped, receive any help from the religious reformers. For
a moment it seemed as if Hutten's dream would be realized,
but it was soon evident that it was too late to make so great a
change. Luther and other persons of influence stood aloof
from the movement ; on the other hand, several princes, includ-
ing Philip, landgrave of Hesse, united their forces against the
knights, and in May 1523 Sickingen was defeated and slain.
A few weeks later Hutten died on an island in the lake of Zurich.
This war was followed by another of a much more serious
nature. The German peasants had grievances compared with
which those of the knights and lesser barons were Tfle
imaginary. For about a century several causes had causes
tended to make their condition worse and worse, of the
While taxes and other burdens were increasing the ^, aat!> '
power of the king to protect them was decreasing;
with or without the forms of law they were plundered by every
other class in the community; their traditional privileges were
withdrawn and, as in the case of the knights, their position had
suffered owing to the introduction of Roman law into Germany.
In the west and south-west of the country especially, opportuni-
ties of migration and of expansion had been gradually reduced,
and to provide for their increasing numbers they were compelled
to divide their holdings again and again until these patches of
land became too small for the support of a household. Thus,
solely under the influence of social and economic conditions,
various risings of the peasants had taken place during the latter
part of the isth century, the first one being in 1461, and at times
the insurgents had combined their forces with those of the
lower classes in the towns, men whose condition was hardly
more satisfactory than their own. In the last decade of the
1 5th and the first decade of the i6th century there were several
insurrections in the south-west of Germany, each of which was
called a Bundschuh, a shoe fastened upon a pole serving as the
standard of revolt. In 1514 Wiirttemberg was disturbed by the
rising of " poor Conrad," but these and other similar revolts
in the neighbourhood were suppressed by the princes. These
movements, however, were only preludes to the great revolution,
which is usually known as the Peasants' War (Bauernkrieg) .
The Renaissance and the Reformation were awakening extra-
vagant hopes in the minds of the German peasants, and it is
still a matter of controversy among historians to what
extent Luther and the reformers were responsible for pe asua ts'
their rising. It may, however, be stated with some War.
certainty that their condition was sufficiently wretched
to drive them to revolt without any serious pressure from outside.
The rising was due primarily neither to religious nor to political,
HISTORY]
GERMANY
853
but to economic causes. The Peasants' War, properly so called,
broke out at StUhlingen in June 1527. The insurgents found a
leader in Hans MUller of Bulgenbach, who gained some support
in the surrounding towns, and soon all Swabia was in revolt.
Quickly the insurrection became general all over central and
southern Germany. In the absence of the emperor and of his
brother, the archduke Ferdinand, the authorities in these parts
of the country were unable to check the movement and, aided
by many knights, prominent among whom was Gdtz von Ber-
lichingen, the peasants were everywhere victorious, while another
influential recruit, Ulrich, the dispossessed duke of WUrttemberg,
joined them in the hope of recovering his duchy. Ulrich's
attempt, which was made early in 15*5, was, however, a failure,
and about the same time the peasants drew up twelve articles
embodying their demands. These were sufficiently moderate.
They asked for a renewal of their ancient rights of fishing and
hunting freely, for a speedier method of obtaining justice, and
for the removal of new and heavy burdens. In many places the
lords yielded to these demands, among those who granted con-
cessions being the elector palatine of the Rhine, the bishops of
Bamberg and of Spires, and the abbots of Fulda and of Hersfeld.
But meanwhile the movement was spreading through Franconia
to northern Germany and was especially formidable in Thuringia,
where it was led by Thomas MUnzer. Here again success attended
the rebel standards. But soon the victorious peasants became
so violent and so destructive that Luther himself urged that they
should be sternly punished, and a number of princes, prominent
among whom was Phttip of Hesse, banded themselves together
to crush the rising. MUnzer and his followers were defeated at
Frankenhausen in May, the Swabian League gained victories
in the area under its control, successes were gained elsewhere by
the princes, and with much cruelty the revolt of the peasants
was suppressed. The general result was that the power of the
territorial lords became greater than ever, although in some cases,
especially in Tirol and in Baden, the condition of the peasants
was somewhat improved. Elsewhere, however, this was not
the case; many of the peasants suffered still greater oppression
and some of the immediate nobles were forced to submit to a
detested yoke.
Before the suppression of this rising the Reichsregiment had
met with very indifferent success in its efforts to govern Germany.
Meeting at Nuremberg early in 1522 it voted some
slight assistance for the campaign against the invading
Turks, but the proposals put forward for raising the
necessary funds aroused much opposition, an opposition
which came mainly from the large and important cities. The
citizens appealed to Charles V., who was in Spain, and after some
hesitation the emperor decided against the Reichsregiment.
Under such disheartening conditions it is not surprising that this
body was totally unable to cope with Sickingen's insurrection,
and that a few weeks after its meeting at Nuremberg in 1524
it succumbed to a series of attacks and disappeared from the
history of Germany. But the Reichsregiment had taken one step,
although this was of a negative character. It had shown some
sympathy with the reformers and had declined to put the edict
of Worms into immediate execution. Hardly less lukewarm,
the imperial diet ordered the edict to be enforced, but only as far
as possible, and meanwhile the possibilities of accommodation
between the two great religious panics were becoming more and
more remote. A national assembly to decide the questions at
issue was announced to meet at Spires, but the emperor forbade
this gathering. Then the Romanists, under the guidance of Car-
dinal Campeggio and the archduke Ferdinand, met at Regens-
burg and decided to take strong and aggressive measures to
destroy Lutheranism, while, on the other hand, representatives
of the cities met at Spires and at Ulm, and asserted their inten-
tion of forwarding and protecting the teaching of the reformed
doctrines. All over the country and through all classes of the
people men were falling into line on one side or the other, and
everything was thus ready for a long and bitter religious war.
During these years the religious and political ideas of the
Reformation were rapidly gaining ground, and, aided by a
r*
vigorous and violent polemic literature, opposition to Rome
was growing on every side. Instigated by George of Saxony
the Romanist princes formed a defensive league at Dessau in
1525; the reforming princes took a similar step at promn*
Got ha in 1526. Such were the prevailing conditions at the
when the diet met at Spires in June 1526 and those *to""-
who were still loyal to the Roman Church clamoured ***
for repressive measures. But on this occasion the reformers were
decidedly in the ascendant. Important ecclesiastical reforms
were approved, and instructions forbidding all innovations and
calling upon the diet to execute the edict of Worms, sent by the
emperor from Spain, were brushed aside on the ground that
in the preceding March when this letter was written Charles
and the pope were at peace, while now they were at war. Before
its dissolution the diet promulgated a decree providing that,
pending the assembly of a national council, each prince should
order the ecclesiastical affairs of his own state in accordance
with his own conscience, a striking victory for the reformers
and incidentally for separatist ideas. The three years which
elapsed between this diet and another important diet which
met in the same city are full of incident. Guided by Luthdr and
Melanchthon, the principal states and cities in which the ideas of
the reformers prevailed electoral Saxony, Brandenburg, Hesse
and the Rhenish Palatinate, Strassburg, Nuremberg, Ulm and
Augsburg began to carry out measures of church reform.
The Romanists saw the significance of this movement and,
fortunately for them, were able to profit by the dissensions
which were breaking out in the ranks of their opponents, especi-
ally the doctrinal differences between the followers of Luther
and those of Zwingli. Persecutions for heresy had begun,
the feeling between the two great religious parties being further
embittered by some revelations made by Otto von Pack (q.v.)
to Philip of Hesse. Pack's stories, which concerned the existence
of a powerful league for the purpose of making war upon the
reformers, were proved to be false, but the soreness occasioned
thereby remained. The diet met in February 1529 and soon
received orders from the emperor to repeal the decree of 1526.
The supporters of the older faith were now predominant and,
although they were inclined to adopt a somewhat haughty
attitude towards Charles, they were not averse from taking
strong measures against the reformers. The decree of the diet,
formulated in April, forbade the reformers to make further
religious changes, while the toleration which was conceded to
Romanists in Lutheran states was withheld from Lutherans in
Romanist states. This decree was strongly resented by the
reforming princes and cities. They drew up a formal protest
against it (hence the name " Protestant "), which they presented
to the archduke Ferdinand, setting forward the somewhat novel
theory that the decree of 1 526 could not be annulled by a succeed-
ing diet unless both the parties concerned assented thereto.
By this decree they declared their firm intention to abide.
The untiring efforts of Philip of Hesse to unite the two wings
of the Protestant forces met with very little success, and the
famous conference at Marburg in the autumn of 1529,
for which he was responsible, revealed the fact that it
was practically impossible for the Lutherans and the
Zwinglians to act together even when threatened by
a common danger, while a little later the alliance between the
Lutheran states of north Germany and the Zwinglian cities of
the south was destroyed by differences upon points of doctrine.
In 1 530 the emperor, flushed with success in Italy and at peace
with his foreign foes, came to Germany with the express intention
of putting an end to heresy. In June he opened the diet at
Augsburg, and here the Lutherans submitted a summary of
their doctrines, afterwards called the Augsburg Confession.
Drawn up by Melanchthon, this pronouncement was intended
to widen the breach between the Lutherans and the Zwinglians,
and to narrow that between the Lutherans and the Romanists;
from this time it was regarded as the chief standard of the
Lutheran faith. Four Zwinglian cities, Strassburg, Constance,
Lindau and Memmingen, replied with a confession of their own
and the Romanists also drew up an answer. The period of
854
GERMANY
[HISTORY
negotiation which followed served only to show that no accom-
modation was possible. Charles himself made no serious effort
to understand the controversy; he was resolved, whether the
Lutherans had right on their side or not, that they should submit,
and he did not doubt but that he would be able to awe them
into submission by an unwonted display of power. But to his
surprise the Lutheran princes who attended the diet refused to
give way. They were, however, outnumbered by their enemies,
and it was the Romanist majority which dictated the terms of
the decree, which was laid before the diet in September, enjoining
a return to religious conformity within seven months. The
Protestant princes could only present a formal protest and
leave Augsburg. Finally the decree of the diet, promulgated
in November, ordered the execution of the edict of Worms,
the restoration of all church property, and the maintenance
of the jurisdiction of the bishops. The duty of enforcing the
decree was especially entrusted to the Reichskammergericht;
thus by the processes of law the Protestant princes were to be
deprived of much of their property, and it seemed probable
that if they did not submit the emperor would have recourse
to arms.
For the -present, however, fresh difficulties with France and
an invasion by the Turks, who had besieged Vienna with an
The immense army in the autumn of 1529, forced Charles
league of to mask his designs. Meanwhile some of the Lutherans,
Schmai- angered and alarmed by the decisions of the Reichs-
'"' hammer gericht, . abandoned the idea that resistance
to the imperial authority was unlawful and, meeting in December
1530, laid the foundation of the important league of Schmalkalden,
among the first members of the confederation being the rulers
of Saxony and Hesse and the cities of Bremen and Magdeburg.
The league was soon joined by other strong cities, among them
Strassburg, Ulm, Constance, Lubeck and Goslar; but it was not
until after the defeat and death of Zwingli at Kappel in October
1531 that it was further strengthened by the adhesion of those
towns which had hitherto looked for leadership to the Swiss
reformer. About this time the military forces of the league
were organized, their heads being the elector of Saxony and the
landgrave of Hesse. But the league had a political as well as a
religious aspect. It was an alliance between the enemies of the
house of Habsburg, and on this side it gained the support of the
duke of Bavaria and treated with Francis I. of France. To this
its rapid growth was partly due, but more perhaps to the fact
that the Reformation in Germany was above all things a popular
movement, and thus many princes who would not have seceded
from the Roman Church of their own accord were compelled to
do so from political motives. They had been strong enough
to undermine the imperial power; they were not strong enough
to resist the pressure put upon them by a majority of their
subjects. It was early in 1532, when faced with the necessity
of resisting the Turkish advance, that Charles met the diet
at Regensburg. He must have men and money for this purpose
even at the price of an arrangement with the Protestants. But
the -Lutherans were absent from the diet, and the Romanists,
although they voted help, displayed a very uncompromising
temper towards their religious foes. Under these circumstances
the emperor took the matter into his own hands, and his negotia-
tions with the Protestants resulted in July 1532 in the religious
peace of Nuremberg, a measure which granted temporary tolera-
tion to the Lutherans and which was repeatedly confirmed
in the following years. Charles's reward was substantial and
immediate. His subjects vied with each other in hurrying
soldiers to his standard, and in a few weeks the great Turkish
host was in full retreat.
While the probability of an alliance between Pope Clement
VII. and Francis I. of France, together with other international
complications, prevented the emperor from following
l aHair*ot U P his victory over the Turks, or from reducing the
Germany, dissenters from the Roman religion to obedience,
Protestantism was making substantial progress in
the states, notably in Anhalt and in Pomerania, and in the
cities, and in January 1534 the Protestant princes were bold
enough to declare that they did not regard the decisions of the
Reichskammergericht as binding upon them. About this time
Germany witnessed three events of some importance. Through
the energy of Philip of Hesse, who was aided by Francis I.,
Ulrich of Wurttemberg was forcibly restored to his duchy.
The members of the Romanist league recently founded at Halle
would not help the Habsburgs, and in June 1534, by the treaty
of Cadan, King Ferdinand was forced to recognize the restoration
as a. fait accompli', at the same time he was compelled to promise
that he would stop all proceedings of the Reichskammergericht
against the members of the league of Schmalkalden. The two
other events were less favourable for the new religion, or rather
for its orthodox manifestations. After a struggle, the Ana-
baptists obtained control of MUnster and for a short time
governed the town in accordance with their own peculiar ideas,
while at Lubeck, under the burgomaster Jurgen Wullenweber,
a democratic government was also established. But the bishop
of MUnster and his friends crushed the one movement, and after
interfering in the affairs of Denmark the Lubeckers were com-
pelled to revert to their former mode of government. The
outbreak of the war between the Empire and France in 1536
almost coincided with the enlargement of the league of Schmal-
kalden, the existence of which was prolonged for ten years.
All the states and cities which subscribed to the confession
of Augsburg were admitted to it, and thus a large number
of Protestants, including the . duchies of Wurttemberg and
Pomerania and the cities of Augsburg and Frankfort, secured
a needful protection against the decrees of the Reichskammer-
gericht, which the league again repudiated. Among the new
membersof the confederation was Christian III., king of Denmark.
About the same time (May 1536) an agreement between the
Lutherans and the Zwinglians was arranged by Martin Bucer,
and was embodied in a document called the Concord of Witten-
berg, and for the present the growing dissensions between the
heads of the league, John Frederick, elector of Saxony, and
Philip of Hesse, were checked. Thus strengthened the Protestant
princes declared against the proposed general council at Mantua,
while as a counterpoise to the league of Schmalkalden the imperial
envoy, Mathias Held (d. 1563), persuaded the Romanist princes
in June 1538 to form the league of Nuremberg. But, although
he had made a truce with France at Nice in this very month,
Charles V. was more conciliatory than some of his representatives,
and at Frankfort in April 1539 he came to terms with the
Protestants, not, however, granting to them all their demands.
In 1 539, too, the Protestants received a great accession of strength ,
the Lutheran prince Henry succeeding his Romanist brother
George as duke of Saxony. Ducal Saxony was thus completely
won for the reformed faith, and under the politic elector Joachim
II. the same doctrines made rapid advances in Brandenburg.
Thus practically all North Germany was united in supporting
the Protestant cause.
In 1542, when Charles V. was again involved in war with
France and Turkey, who were helped by Sweden, Denmark and
Scotland, the league of Schmalkalden took advantage Successes
of his occupations to drive its stubborn foe, Henry, o/ the
duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, from his duchy and ^^ st "
to enthrone Protestantism completely therein. But
this was not the only victory gained by the Protestants about
this time. The citizens of Regensburg accepted their doctrines,
which also made considerable progress in the Palatinate and in
Austria, while the archbishop of Cologne, Hermann von Wied,
and William, duke of Gelderland, Cleves and Juliers, announced
their secession from the Roman religion. The Protestants
were now at the height of their power, but their ascendancy
was about to be destroyed, and that rather by the folly and
imprudence of their leaders than by the skill and valour of their
foes. The unity and the power of the league of Schmalkalden
were being undermined by two important events, the
bigamy of Philip of Hesse, which for political reasons defeats.
was condoned by the Lutheran divines, and the dissen-
sions between John Frederick, the ruler of electoral, and Maurice,
the new ruler of ducal Saxony. To save himself from the
HISTORY]
GERMANY
855
consequences of his double marriage, which had provided him
with powerful enemies, Philip in June 1 54 1 came to terms with t he
emperor, who thus managed to spike the gun* of the league of
Schmalkalden, although the strength of this confederation did
not fail until alter the campaign against Henry of Brunswick.
But while on the. whole the fortunes of the European war, both
in the east and in the west, were unfavourable to the imperialists,
Charles V. found time in 1543 to lead a powerful force against
William of Gelderland, who had joined the circle of his foreign
foes. William was completely crushed; Gelderland was added
to toe hereditary lands of the Habsburgs, while the league of
Schmalkalden impotenlly watched the proceedings. This
happened about a year after war between the two branches of
the Saxon house had only been averted by the mediation of
Luther and of Philip of Hesse, The emperor, however, was
unable, or unwilling, to make a more general attack on the
Protestants. In accordance with the promises made to them
at Frankfort in i 539, conferences between the leaders of the two
religious parties were held at Hagenau, at Worms and at Regens-
burg, but they were practically futile. The diets at Regensburg
and at Nuremberg gave very little aid for the wars, and did
nothing to solve the religious difficulties which were growing
more acute with repeated delays. At the diet of Spires in 1 544
Charles purchased military assistance from the Protestants by
making lavish promises to them. With a new army he marched
against the French, but suddenly in September 1544 he concluded
the treaty of Crepy with Francis I. and left himself free to begin
a new chapter in the history of Germany.
Charles was now nearly ready to crush the Protestants, whose
influence and teaching had divided Germany and weakened
the imperial power, and were now endangering the
supremacy of the Habsburgs in the Netherlands and
in Alsace. His plan was to bring about the meeting
of a general council to make the necessary reforms in
the church, and then at whatever cost to compel the
Protestants to abide by its decisions. While Pope
Paul III., somewhat reluctantly, summoned the council which
ultimately met at Trent, Charles made vigorous preparations
for war. Having made peace with the Turks in October 1545
be began to secure allies. Assistance was promised by the pope ;
the emperor purchased the neutrality of Duke William of Bavaria,
and at a high price the active aid of Maurice of Saxony; he
managed to detach from the league of Schmalkalden those
members who were without any enthusiasm for the Protestant
cause and also those who were too timid to enter upon a serious
struggle. Meanwhile the league was inactive. Its chiefs differed
on questions of policy, one section believing that the emperor
did not intend to proceed to extremities, and for some time no
measures were taken to meet the coming peril. At last, in June
1 546, during the meeting of the diet at Regensburg, Philip and
John Frederick of Saxony realized the extent of the danger and
began to muster their forces. They were still much more powerful
than the emperor, but they did not work well together, or with
Sebastian Schirtlin von Burtenbach, who led their troops in
South Germany. In July 1546 they were placed under the
imperial ban, and the war began in the valley of the Danube.
Charles was aided by soldiers hurried from Italy and the Nether-
lands, but he did not gain any substantial successes until after
October 1546, when his ally Maurice invaded electoral Saxony
and forced John Frederick to march northwards to its defence.
The Lutheran cities of southern and central Germany, among
them Strassborg, Augsburg, Ulm and Frankfort, now submitted
to the emperor, while Ulrich of Wiirttembcrg and the elector
palatine of the Rhine, Frederick II., followed their example.
Having restored Roman Catholicism in the archbishopric of
Cologne and seen Henry of Brunswick settled in his duchy early
in 1547, Charles led his men against his principal enemies, Philip
of Hesse and John Frederick, who had quickly succeeded fn
driving Maurice from his electorate. At MUhlberg in April 1547
be overtook the army of the Saxon elector. His victory was
complete. John Frederick was taken prisoner, and a little later
Philip of Hesse, after vainly prolonging the struggle, was induced
./OB.
to surrender. The rising in the other parts of northern Germany
was also put down, and the two leaders of political Lutheranism
were prisoners in the emperor's hands.
Unable to shake the allegiance of John Frederick to the
Lutheran faith, Charles kept him and Philip of Hesse in captivity
and began to take advantage of his triumph, although
Magdeburg was still offering a stubborn resistance f,ntaT'*"
to his allies. By the capitulation of Wittenberg the
electorate of Saxony was transferred to Maurice, and in the
mood of a conqueror the emperor met the diet at Augsburg
in September 1547. His proposals to strengthen and reform
the administration of Germany were, however, not acceptable
to the princes, and the main one was not pressed; but the
Netherlands were brought under the protection of the Empire
and some minor reforms were carried through. A serious quarrel
with the pope, who had moved the council from Trent to Bologna,
only increased the determination of Charles to establish religious
conformity. In consultation with both Romanist and Lutheran
divines a confession of faith called the Interim was drawn up;
this was in the nature of a compromise and was issued as an edict
in May 1548, but owing to the opposition of the Romanist
princes it was not made binding upon them, only upon the
Lutherans. There was some resistance to the Interim, but
force was employed against Augsburg and other recalcitrant
cities, and soon it was generally accepted. Thus all Germany
seemed to lie at the emperor's feet. The Reformation had
enabled him to deal with the princes and the imperial cities
in a fashion such as no sovereign had dealt with them for three
centuries.
Being now at the height of his power Charles wished to secure
the succession to the imperial throne to his son Philip, after-
wards Philip II. of Spain. This intention produced The
dissensions among the Habsburgs, especially between
the emperor and bis brother Ferdinand, and other
causes were at work, moreover, to undermine the
former's position. The Romanist princes were becoming alarmed
at his predominance, the Protestant princes resented his arbitrary
measures and disliked the harsh treatment meted out to John
Frederick and to Philip of Hesse; all alike, irritated by the
presence of Spanish soldiers in their midst, objected strongly
to take Philip for their king and to any extension of Spanish
influence in Germany. Turkey and France were again threaten-
ing war, and although the council had returned to Trent it
seemed less likely than ever to satisfy the Protestants. The
general discontent found expression in the person of Th*
Maurice of Saxony, a son-in-law of Philip of Hesse, nvottot
whose services to Charles against the league of Schmal- M* urtct ol
kalden had made him very unpopular in his own
country. Caring little or nothing about doctrinal disputes, but
a great deal about increasing his own importance, Maurice now
took the lead in plotting against the emperor. He entered into
an alliance with John, margrave of Brandenburg-CUstrin, with
another Hohenzollern prince, Albert Alcibiades of Bayreuth,
and with other Lutheran leaders, and also with Henry II. of
France, who eagerly seized this opportunity of profiting by the
dissensions in the Empire and who stipulated for a definite-
reward. Charles knew something of these proceedings, but his
recent victory had thrown him partly off his guard. The treaty
with France was signed in January 1552; in March Henry II.
invaded Germany as the protector of her liberties, while Maurice
seized Augsburg and marched towards Innsbruck, where theem-
peror was residing, with the intention of making him a prisoner.
An attempt at accommodation failed; Charles fled into
Carinthia; and at one stroke all the advantages which he had
gained by his triumph at MUhlberg were lost. Masters of the
situation, Maurice and his associates met their opponents at
Passau in May 1552 and arranged terms of peace, although the
emperor did not assent to them until July. The two captive
princes were released, but the main point agreed upon was that
a diet should be called for the purpose of settling the religious
difficulty, and that in the meantime the Lutherans were to enjoy
full religious liberty.
856
GERMANY
(HISTORY
Delayed by the war with France and Turkey, the diet for the
settlement of the religious difficulty did not meet at Augsburg
until February 1555. Ferdinand represented his
TI> aceof brother, and after a prolonged discussion conditions
Augsburg, of peace were arranged. Romanists and Lutherans
were placed upon an equal footing, but the toleration
which was granted to them was not extended to the Calvinists.
Each secular prince had the right to eject from his land all those
who would not accept the form of religion established therein;
thus the principle of cujus regio ejus religio was set up. Although
the Lutherans did not gain all their demands, they won solid
advantages and were allowed to keep all ecclesiastical property
secularized before the peace of Passau. A source of trouble,
however, was the clause in the treaty usually called the eccles-
iastical reservation. This required an ecclesiastical prince, if
he accepted the teaching of the confession of Augsburg, or in
other words became a Lutheran, forthwith to resign his princi-
pality. The Lutherans denied the validity of this clause, and
notwithstanding the protests of the Roman Catholics several
prelates became Lutheran and kept their territories as secular
possessions. The peace of Augsburg can hardly be described
as a satisfactory settlement. Individual toleration was not
allowed, or only allowed in unison with exile, and in the treaty
there was abundant material for future discord.
After Maurice of Saxony had made terms with Charles at
Passau he went to help Ferdinand against the Turks, but one
of his allies, Henry II. of France, continued the war
. *** Germany while another, Albert Alcibiades, entered
upon a wild campaign of plunder in Franconia. The
French king seized Metz, which was part of the spoil promised
to him by his allies, and Charles made an attempt to regain the
city. For this purpose he took Albert Alcibiades into his
service, but after a stubborn fight his troops were compelled
to retreat in January 1553. Albert then renewed his raids, and
these became so terrible that a league of princes, under Maurice
of Saxony, was formed to crush him; although Maurice lost
his life at Sievershausen in July 1553, this purpose was accom-
plished, and Albert was driven from Germany. After the peace
of Augsburg, which was published in September 1555, the
emperor carried out his intention of abdicating. He entrusted
Spain and the Netherlands to Philip, while Ferdinand took over
the conduct of affairs in Germany, although it was not until
1558 that he was formally installed as his brother's successor.
Ferdinand I., who like all the German sovereigns after him
was recognized as emperor without being crowned by the pope,
made it a prime object of his short reign to defend
and 1. an d enforce the religious peace of Augsburg for which
he was largely responsible. Although in all probability
numerically superior at this time to the Romanists, the Pro-
testants were weakened by divisions, which were becoming
daily more pronounced and more serious, and partly owing to
this fact the emperor was able to resist the demands of each
party and to moderate their excesses. He was continually
harassed by the Turks until peace was made in 1562, and con-
nected therewith were troubles in Bohemia and especially in
Hungary, two countries which he had acquired through marriage,
while North Germany was disturbed by the wild schemes of
Wilhelm von Grumbach (q.v.) and his associate John Frederick,
duke of Saxony. With regard to the religious question efforts
were made to compose the differences among the Protestants;
but while these ended in failure the Roman Catholics were
gaining ground. Ferdinand sought earnestly to reform the
church from within, and before he died in July 1564 the Counter-
Reformation, fortified by the entrance of the Jesuits into Germany
and by the issue of the decrees of the council of Trent, had
begun.
Under Ferdinand's rule there were some changes in the
administration of the Empire. Lutherans sat among the judges
Adminis- of the Reichskammergericht, and the Aulic Council, or
trative Hofrat, established by Maximilian I. for the Austrian
changes, lands, extended its authority over the Empire
and was known as the Reichshofrat. Side by side with these
changes the imperial diet was becoming more useless and un-
wieldy, and the electors were gaining power, owing partly to-
the Wahlkapitulation, by which on election they circumscribed
the power of each occupant of the imperial throne.
Ferdinand's son and successor, the emperor Maximilian II.,
was a man of tolerant views; in fact at one .time he was sus-
pected of being a Lutheran, a circumstance which
greatly annoyed the Habsburgs and delayed his own
election as king of the Romans. However, having
given to the electors assurances of his fidelity to the Roman
Church, he was chosen king in November 1562, and became
ruler of Germany on his father's death nearly two years later.
Like other German sovereigns Maximilian pursued the phantom
of religious union. His first diet, which met at Augsburg in
1566, was, however, unable, or unwilling, to take any steps in
this direction, and while the Roman Catholics urged the enforce-
ment of the decrees of the council of Trent the serious differences
among the Protestants received fresh proof from the attempt
made to exclude the Calvinist prince Frederick III., elector
palatine of the Rhine, from the benefits of the peace of Augsburg.
After this Frederick and the Calvinists looked for sympathy
more and more to the Protestants in France and the Netherlands,
whom they assisted with troops, while the Lutherans, whose
chief prince was Augustus, elector of Saxony, adopted a more
cautious policy and were anxious not to offend the emperor.
There were, moreover, troubles of a personal and private nature
between these two electors and their families, and these embittered
their religious differences. But these divergences of opinion
were not only between Roman Catholic and Lutheran or between
Lutheran and Calvinist, they were, in electoral and ducal
Saxony at least, between Lutheran and Lutheran. Thus the
Protestant cause was weakened just when it needed strengthen-
ing, as, on the other side, the Roman Catholics, especially Albert,
duke of Bavaria, were eagerly forwarding the progress of the
older faith, which towards the end of this reign was restored
in the important abbey of Fulda. In secular affairs Maximilian
had, just after his accession, to face a renewal of the Turkish
war. Although his first diet voted liberal assistance for the
defence of the country, and a large and splendid army was
collected, he had gained no advantage when the campaign ended.
The diet of Spires, which met in 1570, was mainly occupied
in discussing measures for preventing the abuses caused by
the enlistment by foreigners of German mercenary troops, but
nothing was done to redress this grievance, as the estates were
unwilling to accept proposals which placed more power in the
emperor's hands. Maximilian found time to make earnest but
unavailing efforts to mediate between his cousin, .Philip II.
of Spain, and the revolted Netherlands, and also to interfere
in the affairs of Poland, where a faction elected him as their
king. He was still dealing with this matter and hoping to gain
support for it from the diet of Regensburg when he died (October
IS76).
Maximilian's successor was his son, Rudolph II., who had been
chosen king of the Romans in October 1575, and who in his
later years showed marked traces of insanity. The lfu . lo , /.
new emperor had little of his father's tolerant spirit, y/_
and under his feeble and erratic rule religious and
political considerations alike tended to increase the disorder
in Germany. The death of the Calvinist leader, the elector
palatine Frederick III., in October 1576 and the accession of
his son Louis, a prince who held Lutheran opinions, obviously
afforded a favourable opportunity for making another attempt
to unite the Protestants. Under the guidance of Augustus of
Saxony a Lutheran confession of faith, the Formula concordiae,
was drawn up; but, although this was accepted by 51 princes
and 35 towns, others like the landgraves of Hesse and the
cities of Madgeburg and Strassburg refused to sign it, and thus
it' served only to emphasize the divisions among the Protestants.
Moreover, the friendship between the Saxon and the Palatine
houses was soon destroyed; for, when the elector Louis died
in 1583, he was succeeded by a minor, his son Frederick IV.,
who was under the guardianship of his uncle John Casimir
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HISTORY)
GERMANY
(1543-1501), a prince of very marked Calvinist sympathies and
of some military experience. Just before this time much unrest
in the north-west of Germany had been caused by the settlement
there of a number of refugees from the Netherlands. Spreading
their advanced religious views, these settlers were partly
responsible for two serious outbreaks of disorder. At Aix-la-
Chapelle the Protestants, not being allowed freedom of worship,
took possession of the city in 1 581. The matter came before the
diet, which was opened at Augsburg in July 1581, but the case
was left undecided; afterwards, however, the Reifkskofrat
declared against the insurgents, although it was not until 1508
that Protestant worship was abolished and the Roman Catholic
governing body was restored. At Cologne the archbishop,
Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg, married and announced his
intention of retaining his spiritual office. Had this proceeding
passed unchallenged, the Protestants, among whom Gebhard
now counted himself, would have had a majority in the electoral
college. The Roman Catholics, however, secured the deposition
of Gebhard and the election in his stead of Ernest, bishop of
Liege, and war broke out in 1583. Except John Casimir, the
Protestant princes showed no eagerness to assist Gebhard, who
in a short time was driven from his sec, and afterwards took up
his residence in Strassburg, where also he instigated a rebellion
on a small scale. Thus these quarrels terminated in victories
for the Roman Catholics, who were successful about this time
in restoring their faith in the bishoprics of Wiirzburg, Salzburg,
Bamberg, Paderborn, Minden and Osnabrtick. Another dispute
also ended in a similar way. This was the claim made by the
administrator of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, a Hohenzollcrn
prince, Joachim Frederick, afterwards elector of Brandenburg,
to sit and vote in the imperial diet; it was not admitted, and
the administrator retired from Augsburg, a similar fate befalling
a similar claim made by several other administrators some
years later.
After the death of Augustus of Saxony in February 1586
there was another brief alliance between the Protestant parties,
n,pn- although on this occasion the lead was taken not by
ttM< the Saxon, but by the Palatine prince. Less strict
***"7 in his adherence to the tenets of Lutheranism than
Augustus, the new elector of Saxony, Christian I.,
fell under the influence of John Casimir. The result was that
Protestant princes, including the three temporal electors, united
in placing their grievances before the emperor; obtaining no
redress they met at Torgau in 1591 and offered help to Henry
IV. of France, a proceeding which was diametrically opposed to
the past policy of Saxony. But this alliance, like its forerunner,
was of very short duration. Christian I. died in 1 591 , and under
Christian II. electoral Saxony re-established a rigid Lutheranism
at home and pursued a policy of moderation and neutrality
abroad. A short time afterwards the militant party among
the Protestants suffered a heavy loss by the death of their
leader, John Casimir, whose policy, however, was continued by
his nephew and pupil, the elector Frederick IV. But neither
desertion nor death was able to crush entirely the militant
Protestants, among whom Christian, prince of Anhalt (1568-
1630), was rapidly becoming the most prominent figure. They
made themselves very troublesome at the diet of Regcnsburg
in 1593, and also at the diet held in the same city four years
later, putting forward various demands for greater religious
freedom and seeking to hinder, or delay, the payment of the
grant for the Turkish war. Moreover, in 1 598 they put forward
the theory that the vote of a majority in the diet was not binding
upon the minority; they took up the same position at Regens-
burg in 1603, when they raised strong objections to the decisions
of the Reickfkofrat and afterwards withdrew from the diet in
a body. Thus, under Maximilian of Bavaria and Christian of
Anhalt respectively the two great parties were gaining a better
idea of their own needs and of each other's aims and were
watching vigilantly the position in the duchies of Cleves, Jiilich
and Berg, where a dispute over the succession was impending.
While wars and rumours of wars were disturbing the peace in
the west of Germany the Turks were again harassing the east.
The war between them and the Empire, which was renewed in
1593, lasted almost without interruption until November 1606,
when peace was made, the tribute long paid by the emperor
to the sultan being abandoned. This peace was concluded not
by Rudolph, but by his brother, the archduke Matthias, who
owing to the emperor's mental incapacity had just been declared
by his kinsman the head of the house of Habsburg. Rudolph
resented this indignity very greatly, and until his death in January
1612 the relations between the brothers were very strained, but
this mainly concerns the history of Hungary and of Bohemia,
which were sensibly affected by the fraternal discord.
By this time however, there were signs of substantial progress
on the part of the great Catholic reaction, which was to have
important consequences for Germany. This was due The
mainly to the persistent zeal of the Jesuits. For a Couatir-
long time the Protestants had absorbed the intellectual K*fonum-
strength of the country, but now many able scholars
and divines among the Jesuits could hold their own with their
antagonists. These devoted missionaries of the church gave
their attention mainly to the young, and during the reign of
Rudolph II. they were fortunate enough to make a deep im-
pression upon two princes, each of whom was destined to play
a great part in the events of his time. These princes were
Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, and Ferdinand, archduke of
Styria, the former a member of the house of Wittelsbach, and
the latter of the house of Habsburg. Maximilian became pro-
minent in 1607 by executing an imperial mandate against the
free city of Donauworth, where a religious riot had taken place,
and afterwards treating it as his own. Rendered suspicious
by this arbitrary act, the Protestant princes in 1608 formed a
confederation known as the Evangelical Union, and in response
the Roman Catholics, under the guidance of Maximilian, united
in a similar confederation afterwards called the Catholic League.
This was founded at Munich in July 1609. As the Union was
headed by the elector palatine of the Rhine, Frederick IV.,
who was a Calvinist, many Lutherans, among them the elector
of Saxony, were by no means enthusiastic in its support. It
acquired, however, immense importance through its alliance
with Henry IV. of France, who, like Henry II., wished to profit
by the quarrels in Germany, and who interfered in the disputed
succession to the duchies of Cleves and Jtilich. War seemed
about to break out between the two confederations and their
foreign allies over this question, but after the murder of the
French king in May 1610 the Union did not venture to fight.
Ferdinand was even more vigorous than Maximilian in defence
of his religion. On assuming the government of Styria he set
to work to extirpate Protestantism, which had made
considerable progress in the Austrian arch-duchies. a> '*"**'
Soon afterwards he was selected by the Habsburgs
as the heir of the childless emperor Matthias, and on coming to
Vienna after the death of that sovereign in March 1619 he found
himself in the midst of hopeless confusion. The Bohemians
refused to acknowledge him as their king and elected in his
stead Frederick V., the elector palatine of the Rhine, a son-in-
law of the English king James I., and the Hungarians and the
Austrians were hardly less disaffected. As Ferdinand II.,
however, he succeeded in obtaining the imperial crown in
August 1619, and from that time he was dominated by a fixed
resolve to secure the triumph of his church throughout the
Empire, a resolve which cost Germany the Thirty Years' War.
He began with Bohemia. Although supported by Spain he
could not obtain from this quarter an army sufficiently strong
to crush the Bohemians, and for some time he remained
powerless and inactive in Vienna. Then at the Tl " coa '
beginning of 1620 he came to terms with Maximilian Bohemim
of Bavaria, who, after carefully securing his own
interests, placed the army of the League, commanded by the
celebrated Tilly, at his disposal. Conditionally the Union
promised assistance to Frederick, but he wasted several months
and vaguely hoped that the English king would help him out
of his embarrassments. Meanwhile Tilly advanced into Bohemia,
and in November 1620 Frederick's army was utterly routed at
858
GERMANY
[HISTORY
the battle of the White Hill, near Prague, and the unfortunate
elector had just time to escape from the kingdom he had rashly
undertaken to govern. Ferdinand drove to the uttermost the
advantages of his victory. The Union being destroyed and
the Bohemian revolution crushed, attention was turned to the
hereditary lands of the elector palatine. The Spanish troops
and the army of the League invaded the Rhenish Palatinate,
which was defended by Frederick'sremaining adherents, Christian
of Brunswick and Count Ernst von Mansfeld, but after several
battles it passed completely into the possession of the imperialists.
Having been placed under the imperial ban Frederick became
an exile from his inheritance, and the electorate which he was
declared to have forfeited was conferred on Maximilian.
Thus ended the first stage of the Thirty Years' War, although
some desultory fighting continued between the League and
Danish > ts opponents. The second began in 1625 with the
later- formation, after much fruitless negotiation, of a
fenacela Protestant combination, which had the support of
rmr ' England, although its leading member was Christian
IV., king of Denmark, who as duke of Holstein was a prince of
the Empire, and who like other Lutherans was alarmed at the
emperor's successes. It was in this war that Europe first became
familiar with the great name of Wallenstein. Unable himself
to raise and equip a strong army, and restive at his depend-
ence on the League, Ferdinand gladly accepted Wallenstein's
offer to put an army into the field at no cost to him-
self. After Wallenstein had beaten Mansfeld at the bridge
of Dessau in April 1626, and Tilly had defeated Christian of
Denmark at Lutter in the succeeding August, the two generals
united their forces. Denmark was invaded, and Wallenstein.
now duke of Friedland, was authorized to govern the conquered
duchies of Mecklenburg and Pomerania; but his ambitious
scheme of securing the whole of the south coast of the Baltic
was thwarted by the resistance of the city of Stralsund, which
for five months he vainly tried to take. Denmark, however,
was compelled to conclude peace at Ltibeck in May 1629.
Intoxicated by success, Ferdinand had issued two months
before the famous Edict of Restitution. This ordered the
restoration of all ecclesiastical lands which had come
mto the P ssess i n f tne Protestants since the peace
of Passau in 1552, and, as several archbishoprics
and bishoprics had become Protestant, it struck
a tremendous blow at the emperor's foes and stirred among
them intense and universal opposition. A little later, yielding
to Maximilian and his colleagues in the League, Ferdinand
dismissed Wallenstein, whose movements had aroused their
resentment, from his service. A more inauspicious moment
could not have been chosen for these two serious steps, because
in the summer of 1630 Gustavus Adolphus left Sweden at the
head of a strong army for the purpose of sustaining the Protestant
cause in Germany. At first this great king was coldly received
by the Protestants, who were ignorant of his designs and did not
want a stranger to profit by the internal disputes of their country.
A mistake at the outset would probably have been fatal to him,
but he saw the dangers of his position and moved so warily
that in less than a year he had obtained the alliance of the
elector of Saxony, a consequence of the terrible sack of Magdeburg
by the imperialists in May 1631 and of the devastation of the
electorate by Tilly. He had also obtained on his own terms the
assistance of France, and was ready to enter upon his short but
brilliant campaign.
Having captured Frankfort-on-Oder and forced the hesitating
elector of Brandenburg, George William, to grant him some assist-
Tae cam- ance, Gustavus Adolphus added the Saxon army to his
own, and in September 1631 he met Tilly, at the head
of nearlv the whole force of the Lea g ue . at Breitenfeld,
near Leipzig, where he gained a victory which placed
North Germany entirely at his feet. So utterly had he shattered
the emperor's power that he could doubtless have marched
straight to Vienna; he preferred, however, to proceed through
central into southern Germany, while his Saxon ally, the elector
John George, recovered Silesia and Lusatia and invaded Bohemia.
cY*VK/Aen-
stela.
Wurzburg and Frankfort were among the cities which opened
their gates to the Swedish king as the deliverer of the Protestants;
several princes sought his alliance, and, making the captured
city of Mainz his headquarters, he was busily engaged for some
months in resting and strengthening his army and in negotiating
about the future conduct of the war. Early in 1632 he led his
troops into Bavaria. In April he defeated Tilly at the crossing
of the Lech, the imperialist general being mortally wounded
during this fight, and then he took possession of Augsburg and
of Munich. Before these events Ferdinand had realized how
serious had been his mistake in dismissing Wallenstein, and after
some delay his agents persuaded the great general to emerge
from his retirement. The conditions, however, upon which
Wallenstein consented to come to the emperor's aid were remark-
ably onerous, but Ferdinand had perforce to assent to them.
He obtained sole command of the imperial armies, with the
power of concluding treaties and of granting pardons, and
he doubtless insisted on the withdrawal of the Edict of Restitu-
tion, although this is not absolutely certain; in brief, the only
limits to his power were the limits to the strength of his army.
Having quickly assembled this, he drove the Saxons from
Bohemia, and then marched towards Franconia, with the
intention of crossing swords with his only serious rival, Gustavus
Adolphus, who had left Munich when he heard that this foe
had taken the field. The Swedes and their allies occupied Nurem-
berg, while the imperialists fortified a great camp and blockaded
the city. Gustavus made an attempt to storm these fortifications,
but he failed to make any impression on them; he failed also
in inducing Wallenstein to accept battle, and he was forced to
abandon Nuremberg and to march to the protection of Saxony.
Wallenstein followed, and the two armies faced each other at
Liitzen on the i6th of November 1632. Here the imperialists
were beaten, but the victory was even more disastrous to the
Protestant cause than a defeat, for the Swedish king was among
the slain.
The Swedes, whose leader was now the chancellor Oxenstjerna,
were stunned by this catastrophe, but in a desultory fashion
they maintained the struggle, and in April 1633 a
new league was formed at Heilbronn between them and j^,, of
the representatives of four of the German circles, Heiibnaa
while by a new agreement France continued to furnish
monetary aid. Of this alliance Sweden was the pre-
dominant member, but the German allies had a certain stela,
voice in the direction of affairs, the military command
being divided between the Swedish general Horn and Bernhard,
duke of Saxe-Weimar. About this time some discontent arose
in the allied army, and to allay this Bernhard was granted the
bishoprics of Wiirzburg and of Bamberg, with the title of duke
of Franconia, but on the strange condition that he should hold
the duchy as the vassal of Sweden, not as a vassal of the Empire.
The war, thus revived, was waged principally in the valleys
of the Danube and the Rhine, the Swedes, seizing Alsace while
Bernhard captured Regensburg. Meanwhile Wallenstein was
again arousing the suspicions of his nominal allies. Instead of
attacking the enemy with his accustomed vigour, he withdrew
into Bohemia and was engaged in lengthy negotiations with the
Saxon soldier and diplomatist, Hans Georg von Arnim (1581-
1641), his object being doubtless to come to terms with Saxony
and Brandenburg either with or without the emperor's consent.
His prime object was, however, to secure for himself a great
territorial position, possibly that of king of Bohemia, and it is
obvious that his aims and ambitions were diametrically opposed
to the ends desired by Ferdinand and by his Spanish and Bavarian
allies. At length he set his troops in motion. Having gained
some successes in the north-east of Germany he marched to
succour the hardly pressed elector of Bavaria; then suddenly
abandoning this purpose he led his troops back to Bohemia and
left Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar in possession of the Danube
valley. It is not surprising that a cry, louder than ever, now
arose for his dismissal. Ferdinand did as he was required.
In January 1634 he declared Wallenstein deposed from his
command, but he was still at the head of an army when he was
HISTORY]
GERMANY
859
murdered in the following month at Eger. Commanded now by
the king of Hungary, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand III.,
the imperialists retook Regcnsburg and captured Donauwtirth;
then, aided by some Spanish troops, they gained a victory at
Nordlingen in September 1634, the results of which were as
decisive and as satisfactory for them as the results of Brcitenfeld
had been for their foes two yean before.
The demoralization of the Swedes and their allies, which was
consequence of the defeat at Nordlingen, was the opportunity
of France. Having by clever diplomacy placed gar-
*p*rt risons in several places in Alsace and the Palatinate,
' '* the king of France, or rather Cardinal Richelieu, now
entered the field as a principal, made a definite alliance
with Sweden at Compiegne in April 1635, and in the following
month declared war and put four armies in motion. But the
thoughts of many had already turned in the direction of peace,
and in this manner John George of Saxony took the lead, signing
in May 1635 the important treaty of Prague with the emperor.
The vexed and difficult question of the ownership of the ecclesi-
astical lands was settled by fixing November 1627 as the deciding
date; those who were in possession then were to retain them
for forty yean, during which time it was hoped a satisfactory
arrangement would be reached. The Saxon elector gained
some additions of territory and promised to assist Ferdinand
to recover any lands which had been taken from him by the
Swedes, or by other foes. For this purpose a united army was
to serve under an imperial general, and all leagues were to be
dissolved. In spite of the diplomatic efforts of Sweden the treaty
of Prague was accepted almost at once by the elector of Branden-
burg, the duke of Wiirttemberg and other princes, and also by
several of the most important of the free cities. It was only, in
fact, the failure of Saxony and Sweden to come to terms which
prevented a general peace in Germany. The Thirty Years'
War now took a different form. Its original objects were almost
forgotten and it was continued mainly to further the ambitions
of France, thus being a renewal of the great fight between
the houses of Habsburg and of Bourbon, and to secure for
Sweden some recompense for the efforts which she had put
forward.
While the signatories of the peace of Prague were making
ready to assist the emperor the only Germans on the other side
were found in the army under Bernhard of Saxe-
uMN Weimar. The final stage of the war opened with con-
mr. siderable Swedish successes in the north of Germany,
especially the signal victory gained by them over the
imperialists and the Saxons at Wittstock in October 1636. At
the same time good fortune was attending the operations of the
French in the Rhineland, where they were aided by Bernhard of
Saxe-Weimar, a satisfactory financial arrangement between
these parties having been reached in the autumn of 1635. The
year 1638 was an especially fortunate one for France and her
allies. Bemhard's capture of Rheinfelden and of Breisach gave
them possession of the surrounding districts, but dissensions
arose concerning the division of the spoil; these, however, were
stopped by the death of Bernhard in July 1639, when France
took his army into her pay. Thus the war continued, but the
desire for peace was growing stronger, and this was reflected in
the proceedings of the diet which met at Regensburg in 1640.
Under Count Tontenssen the Swedes defeated the imperialists
at Breitenfeld in 1642; three yean later they gained another
victory at Jankau and advanced almost to Vienna, and then the
last decisive move of the war was made by the great French
general, Turenne. Having been successful in the Rhineland, where
he had captured Philippsburg and Worms, Turenne joined his
forces to those of Sweden under Wrangel and advanced into
Bavaria. Ravagingtheland, they compelled the elector Maximilian
to sign a truce and to withdraw his troops from the imperial army.
When, however, the allied army had retired Maximilian repented
of his action. Again he joined the emperor, but his punishment
was swift and sure, as Turenne and Wrangel again marched into
the electorate and defeated the Bavarians at Zusmanhausen,
near Augsburg, in May 1648. A few minor operations followed,
and then came the welcome news of the conclusion of the treaty
of Westphalia.
The preliminary negotiations for peace were begun at Hamburg
and Cologne before the death of the emperor Ferdinand II. in
1637. By a treaty signed at Hamburg in December
1641 it was agreed that peace conferences should meet T ?V > ** C "
at Munster and at OsnabrUck in March 1642, the '
emperor treating with France in the former, and with
Sweden in the latter city. The Roman Catholic princes of the
Empire were to be represented at MUnster and the Protestants
at Osnabrtick. Actually the conferences did not meet until 1645,
when the elector of Brandenburg had made, and the elector of
Saxony was about to make, a truce with Sweden, these two
countries being withdrawn from the ravages of the war. In
three yean the many controvenial questions were discussed and
settled, and in October 1648 the treaty of Westphalia was signed
and the Thirty Yean" War was at an end.
The Thirty Yean' War settled once for all the principle that
men should not be persecuted for their religious faith. It is true
that the peace of Westphalia formally recognized only EHtctM /
the three creeds, Catholicism, Luthcranism and n, r ihin>
Calvinism, but so much suffering had been caused
by the interference of the state with individual con-
viction, that toleration in the largest sense, so far as law was
concerned, was virtually conceded. This was the sole advantage
gained from the war by the Protestants. The Catholics insisted
at first on keeping all the ecclesiastical lands which had been
taken from them before the Edict of Restitution in 1629. The
Protestants responded by demanding that they should lose
nothing which they had held before 1618, when the war began.
A compromise was at last effected by both parties agreeing to the
date 1624, an arrangement which secured to the Catholics their
gains in Bohemia and the other territories of the house of
Habsburg. The restoration of the elector palatine to part of his
lands, and his reinstatement in the electoral office, were im-
portant concessions; but on the other hand, the duke of Bavaria
kept the Upper Palatinate, the elector palatine becoming the
eighth and junior member of the electoral college.
The country suffered enormous territorial losses by the war.
Up to this time the possession of Metz, Toul and Verdun by
France had never been officially recognized; now
these bishoprics were formally conceded to her. She 'territory
also received as much of Alsace as belonged to Austria.
To the Swedes were granted Western Pomerania, with Stettin,
and the archbishopric of Bremen and the bishopric of Verden.
These acquisitions, which surpassed the advantages Gustavus
Adolphus had hoped to win, gave Sweden the command both of
the Baltic and of the North Sea. In virtue of her German posses-
sions Sweden became a member of the Empire; but France
obtained absolute control of her new territories. There was a
further diminution of Germany by the recognition of the inde-
pendence of Switzerland and the United Provinces. Both had
long been virtually free; they now for the fint time took the
position of distinct nations.
In the political constitution of Germany the peace of West-
phalia did not so much make changes as sanction those already
effected. The whole tendency of the Reformation had
been to relax the bonds which united the various
elements of the state to each other and to their head, and the
It divided the nation into two hostile parties, and the politic*!
emperor was not able to assume towards them a
perfectly impartial position. His imperial crown im-
posed upon him the necessity of associating himself with the
Roman Catholics; so that the Protestants had a new and power-
ful reason for looking upon him with jealousy, and trying to
diminish his authority. The Roman Catholics, while maintaining
their religion, were willing enough to co-operate with them for this
object; and Germany often saw the strange spectacle of princes
rallying round the emperor for the defence of the church, and at
the same time striking deadly blows at his political influence.
The diet was a scene of perpetual quarrelling between the two
factions, and their differences made it impossible for the imperial
86o
GERMANY
[HISTORY
chamber to move beyond the region of official routine. Thus
before the Thirty Years' War the Empire had virtually ceased
to exist, Germany having become a loose confederation of princi-
palities and free cities. For a moment the emperor Ferdinand
appeared to have touched the ideal of Charles V. in so far, at
least, as it related to Germany, but only for a moment. The
stars in their courses fought against him, and at the time of his
death he saw how far beyond his power were the forces with
which even Charles had been unable to contend. The state of
things which actually existed the peace of Westphalia made
legal. So nearly complete was the independence of the states
that each received the right to form alliances with any of the
others, or with foreign powers, nominally on condition that their
alliances should not be injurious to the emperor or to the Empire.
Any authority which still lawfully belonged to the emperor was
transferred to the diet. It alone had now the power of making
laws, of concluding treaties in the name of Germany, and of
declaring war and re-establishing peace. No one, however, ex-
pected that it would be of any real service. From 1663 it became
a permanent body, and was attended only by the representatives
of the princes and the cities; and from that time it occupied
itself mainly with trifles, leaving the affairs of each state to be
looked after by its own authorities, and those of the country
generally to such fortunes as chance should determine.
It would not have been strange if so shadowy an Empire had
been brought altogether to an end. Some slight bond of con-
Coatiau- nexion was, however, necessary for defence against
mace common dangers; and the Empire had existed so long,
of the an( i so many great associations were connected with
emp it, that it seemed to all parties preferable to any other
form of union. Moreover, Sweden, and other states which were
now members of the Empire, warmly supported it; and the
house of Habsburg, on which it reflected a certain splendour,
would not willingly have let it die. An Austrian ruler, even
when he spoke only in the name of Austria, derived authority
from the fact that as emperor he represented many of the greatest
memories of European history.
The effect of the Thirty Years' War on the national life was
disastrous. It had not been carried on by disciplined armies,
but by hordes of adventurers whose sole object was
ute. "' plunder. The cruelties they inflicted on their victims
are almost beyond conception. Before the war the
population was nearly twenty millions; after it the number
was probably about six millions. Whole towns and villages
were laid in ashes, and vast districts turned into deserts.
Churches and schools were closed by hundreds, and to such
straits were the people often reduced that cannibalism is said to
have been not uncommon. Industry and trade were so com-
pletely paralysed that in 1635 tne Hanseatic League was virtually
broken up, because the members, once so wealthy, could not
meet the necessary expenditure. The population was not only
impoverished and reduced in numbers but broken in spirit.
It lost confidence in itself, and for a time effected in politics,
literature, art and science little that is worthy of serious
study.
The princes knew well how to profit by the national prostration.
The local diets, which, as we have seen, formed a real check
on petty tyranny, and kept up an intimate relation
between the princes and their subjects, were nearly
all destroyed. Those which remained were injurious
rather than beneficial, since they often gave an appearance of
lawfulness to the caprices of arbitrary sovereigns. After the
Thirty Years' War it became fashionable for the heirs of princi-
palities to travel, and especially to spend some time at the court
of France. Here they readily .imbibed the ideas of Louis XIV.,
and in a short time nearly every petty court in Germany was a
feeble imitation of Versailles. Before the Reformation, and even
for some time after it, the princes were thorough Germans in
sympathies and habits; they now began to be separated by a
wide gulf from their people. Instead of studying the general
welfare, they wrung from exhausted states the largest possible
revenue to support a lavish and ridiculous expenditure. The
The
princes.
The
cities.
pettiest princeling had his army, his palaces, his multitudes of
household officers; and most of them pampered every vulgar
appetite without respect either to morality or to decency. Many
nobles, whose lands had been wasted during the war, flocked to
the little capitals to make their way by contemptible court
services. Beneath an outward gloss of refinement these nobles
were, as a class, coarse and selfish, and they made it their chief
object to promote their own interests by fostering absolutist
tendencies. Among the people there was no public opinion to
discourage despotism; the majority accepted their lot as
inevitable, and tried rather to reproduce than to restrain the vices
of their rulers. Even the churches offered little opposition to
the excesses of persons in authority, and in many instances the
clergy, both Protestant and Catholic, acquired an unenviable
notoriety for their readiness to overlook or condone actions
which outraged the higher sentiments of humanity. In the
free imperial cities there was more manliness of tone than else-
where, but there was little of the generous rivalry
among the different classes which had once raised them
to a high level of prosperity. Most of them resigned
their liberties into the hands of oligarchies, and others allowed
themselves to be annexed by ambitious princes. (A. W. H.*)
Ferdinand III. succeeded to the throne when the fortunes
of his house were at a low ebb, and he continued the Thirty
Years' War, not in the hope of re-establishing the
Roman Catholic religion or of restoring the imperial t f L
authority, but of remedying as far as he could the
havoc caused by his father's recklessness. After the conclusion
of peace nothing happened to make his reign memorable. His
son Leopold I. was a man of narrow intellect and . .
feeble will; yet Germany seldom so keenly felt the
need of a strong emperor, for she had during two generations to
contend with a watchful and grasping rival. For more than a
century it had been the policy of France to strengthen herself
by fostering the internal dissensions of Germany. This was now
easy, and Louis XIV. made unscrupulous use of the
advantages his predecessors had helped to gain for y?^'* /
him. Germany, as a whole, could not for a long time Prance.
be induced to resist him. His schemes directly
threatened the independence of the princes; but they were too
indolent to unite against his ambition. They grudged even the
contributions necessary for the maintenance of the frontier
fortresses, and many of them stooped to accept the bribes he
offered them on condition that they should remain quiet. In his
war with the' United Provinces and Spain, begun in 1672, he was
opposed by the emperor as ruler of Austria, and by Frederick
William, the elector of Brandenburg; and in 1675 tne latter
gained a splendid victory at Fehrbellin over his allies, the Swedes.
At the end of the war, in 1678, by the peace of Nijmwegen, Louis
took care that Frederick William should be deprived of the
fruits of his victory, and Austria had to resign Freiburg im
Breisgau to the French. Under the pretence that when France
gained the Austrian lands in Alsace she also acquired a right
to all places that had ever been united to them, Louis began a
series of systematic robberies of German towns and territories.
" Chambers of Reunion " were appointed to give an appearance
of legality to these proceedings, which culminated, hi 1681, in
the seizure of Strassburg. Germans of all states and ranks were
indignant at so gross a humiliation, but even the loss of Strassburg
did not suffice to move the diet. The emperor himself might
probably have interfered, but Louis had provided him with
ample employment by stirring up against him the Hungarians
and the Turks. So complete was his hold over the majority of
the princes that when the Turks, in 1683, surrounded Vienna,
and appeared not unlikely to advance into the heart of Germany,
they looked on indifferently, and allowed the emperor to be saved
by the promptitude and courage of John Sobieski, king of Poland.
At last, when, in 1680, on the most frivolous pretext, Louis
poured into southern Germany armies which were guilty of
shameful outrages, a number of princes came forward and aided
the emperor. This time France was sternly opposed by the
league of which William III. of England was the moving spirit;
HISTORY)
GERMANY
861
and although at the end of the war he kept Strassburg, he had
to give up Freiburg. Philipsburg, Breisach, and the places he
had seized because of their former connexion with
Alsace. In the War of the Spanish Succession two
powerful princes, the elector of Bavaria and the elector
of Cologne, joined Louis; but as the states of the
Empire declared war against him in 1702, the other princes,
more or less loyally, supported the emperor and his allies.
Leopold died during the progress of this war, but it was vigorously
continued by his son Joseph I.
Joseph's brother and successor, Charles VI., also went on with
it; and such were the blows inflicted on France by the victories
, of Blenheim, Ramillies and Malplaquet that the war
' was generally expected to end in her utterdiscomfiture.
But the conclusion of the treaty of Utrecht by England, in 1713,
so limited the military power of Charles VI. that he was obliged
to resign the claims of Austria to the Spanish throne, and to
content himself with the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples
and Sardinia. He cared so little for Germany, as distinguished
from Austria, that he allowed Louis to compel the diet to cede the
imperial fortress of Landau. At a later stage in his reign he was
guilty of an act of even grosser selfishness; for after the War
of the Polish Succession, in which he supported the claims of
Augustus III., elector of Saxony, he yielded Lorraine to Stanislaus
Leszczynski, whose claims had been defended by France, and
through whom France ultimately secured this beautiful German
province. Having no son, Charles drew up in 1713
the pragmatic sanction, which ordained that, in the
event of an Austrian ruler being without male heirs,
his hereditary lands and titles should pass to his nearest female
relative. The aim of his whole policy was to secure for this
measure, which was proclaimed as a fundamental law in 1724,
the approval of Europe; and by promises and threats he did
at last obtain the guarantee of the states of the Empire and the
leading European powers.
Germany was now about to be aroused from the torpor into
which she had been cast by the Thirty Years' War; but her
awakening was due, not to the action of the Empire,
which was more and more seen to be practically dead,
but to the rivalry of two great German states, Austria
and Prussia. The latter had long been laying the foundations
of her power. Brandenburg, the centre of the Prussian kingdom,
was, as we have seen, granted in the 1 5th century by the emperor
Sigismund to Frederick, count of Hohenzollern. In his hands,
and in those of his prudent successors, it became one of the most
flourishing of the North-German principalities. At the time of
the Reformation Albert, a member of a subordinate branch of
the house of Hohenzollern, happened to be grand master of the
Teutonic Order. He became a Protestant, dissolved the order,
and received in fief of the king of Poland the duchy of Prussia.
In 161 1 this duchy fell by inheritance to the elector of Branden-
burg, and by the treaty of Wehlau, in 1657, in the time of
Frederick William, the Great Elector, it was declared independent
of Poland. By skill, foresight and courage Frederick William
managed to add largely to his territories; and in an age of
degenerate sovereigns he was looked upon as an almost model
ruler. His son, Frederick, aspired to royal dignity, and in 1701,
having obtained the emperor's assent, was crowned king of
Prussia. The extravagance of Frederick drained the resources
of his state, but this was amply atoned for by the rigid economy
of Frederick William I., who not only paid off the debts accumu-
lated by his father, but amassed an enormous treasure. He so
organized all branches of the public service that they
w ere brought to a point of high efficiency, and his
army was one of the largest, best appointed and best
trained in Europe (see PRUSSIA: History). He died in 1740,
and within six months, when Frederick II. was on the Prussian
throne, Maria Theresa claimed, in virtue of the pragmatic sanc-
tion, the lands and hereditary titles of her father Charles VI.
Frederick II., a young, ambitious and energetic sovereign,
longed not only to add to bis dominions but to play a great
part in European politics. His father had guaranteed the prag-
Onwib or
matic sanction, but as the conditions on which the guarantee had
been granted had not been fulfilled by Charles VI., Frederick
did not feel bound by it, and revived some old claims
of his family on certain Silusiun duchies. Maria *****
Theresa would not abate her rights, but before she </',-'<
could assert them Frederick had entered Silesia and
made himself master of it. Meanwhile, the elector of Bavaria
had come forward and disputed Maria Theresa's right to the
succession, and the elector of Saxony had also put in a
claim to the Austrian lands. Taking advantage of
these disputes, France formed an alliance with the two
electors and with the king of Prussia against Austria; and in
the war which followed the allies were at first so successful
that the elector of Bavaria, through the influence of France,
was crowned emperor as Charles VII. (1742-1745). Maria
Theresa, a woman of a noble and undaunted spirit,
appealed, with her infant son, afterwards Joseph II., vl *
in her arms, to the Hungarian diet, and the enthusiastic
Magyars responded chivalrously to her call. To be more at
freedom she concluded peace with Frederick, and ceded Silesia
to him, although greatly against her will. Saxony also was
pacified and retired from the struggle. After this Maria Theresa,
supported by England, made way so rapidly and so triumphantly
that Frederick became alarmed for his new possessions; and
in 1742 he once more proclaimed war against her,
nominally in aid of the emperor, Charles VII. Ulti-
mately, in 1748, she was able to conclude an honourable
peace at Aix-la-Chapelle; but she had been forced,
as before, to rid herself of Frederick by confirming him in the
sovereignty of the territory he had seized.
After the death of CharlesVII., Francis, grand duke of Tuscany,
Maria Theresa's husband, was elected emperor. Francis I.
(1745-1765), an amiable nonentity, with the instincts
of a shopkeeper, made no pretence of discharging
important imperial duties, and the task of ruling the hereditary
possessions of the house of Habsburg fell wholly to the empress-
queen. She executed it with discretion and vigour, so that
Austria in her hands was known to be one of the most formidable
powers in the world. Her rival, Frederick II., was, if possible,
still more active. It did not occur to him, any more than to
the other German sovereigns of the iSth century, to associate
his people with him in the government of the country; he was
in every respect a thoroughly absolute sovereign. But he shared
the highest ideas of the age respecting the responsibilities of a
king, and throughout his long reign acted in the main faithfully
as " the first servant of the state." The army he always kept
in readiness for war; but he also encouraged peaceful arts, and
diffused throughout his kingdom so much of his own alert and
aggressive spirit that the Prussians became more intelligent
and more wealthy than they had ever before been. He excited
the admiration of the youth of Germany, and it was soon the
fashion among the petty princes to imitate his methods of govern-
ment. As a rule, they succeeded only in raising far larger
armies than the taxpayers could afford to maintain.
Maria Theresa never gave up the hope of winning back Silesia,
and, in order to secure this object, she laid aside the jealousies
of her house, and offered to conclude an alliance with France.
Frederick had excited the envy of surrounding sovereigns, and
had embittered them against him by stinging sarcasms. Not
only France, therefore, but Russia, Saxony and ultimately
Sweden, willingly came to terms with Austria, and the aim of
their union was nothing short of the partition of Prussia.
Frederick, gaining knowledge of the plot, turned to
England, which had in the previous war helped
Austria. At the close of 1755 his offer of an alliance War,
was acceded to; and in the following year, hoping
by vigorously taking the initiative to prevent his
enemies from united action, he invaded Saxony, and began the
Seven Years' War (q.v.), the result of which was to confirm
Prussia in the possession of Silesia.
Prussia now took rank as one of the leading European powers,
and by her rise a new clement was introduced into the political
862
GERMANY
[HISTORY
life of Germany. Austria, although associated with the Empire,
could no longer feel sure of her predominance, and it was inevi-
table that the jealousies of the two states should lead to a final
conflict for supremacy. Even before the Seven Years' War
there were signs that the German people were beginning to
tire of incessant imitation of France, for in literature they
welcomed the early efforts of Klopstock, Wieland and Lessing;
but the movement received a powerful impulse from the great
deeds of Frederick. The nation, as a whole, was proud of him,
and began, for the first time since the Thirty Years' War, to
feel that it might once more assume a commanding place in the
world.
In 1772 the necessities of Frederick's position compelled him
to join Russia and Austria in the deplorable partition of Poland,
whereby he gained West Prussia, exclusive of Danzig
of Poland. an< ^ Thorn, and Austria acquired West Silesia. After
this he had to watch closely the movements of the
emperor Joseph II., who, although an ardent admirer of Frederick,
was anxious to restore to Austria the greatness she had partially
lost. The younger branch of the Wittelsbach line, which
had hitherto possessed Bavaria, having died out in
1777) Joseph asserted claims to part of its territory.
Frederick intervened, and although no battle was fought in the
nominal war which followed, the emperor was obliged to content
himself with a very unimportant concession. He made a second
attempt in 1785, but Frederick again came forward. This time
he formed a league (Fiirstenbund) for the defence of the imperial
constitution, and it was joined by the majority of the small
states. The memory of this league was almost blotted out by
the tremendous events which soon absorbed the attention of
Germany and the world, but it truly indicated the direction of
the political forces which were then at work beneath the surface,
and which long afterwards triumphed. The formation of the
league was a distinct attempt on the part of Prussia to make
herself the centre for the national aspirations both of northern
and of southern Germany.
The French Revolution was hailed by many of the best minds
of Germany as the opening of a new era. Among the princes
it excited horror and alarm, and in 1792 the emperor
Leopold II. and Frederick William II., the unworthy
successor of Frederick the Great, met at Pillnitz,
and agreed to support by arms the cause of the French
king. A more important resolution was never taken. It plunged
Europe into a conflict which cost millions of lives, and which
overthrew the entire states system of the continent. Germany
herself was the principal sufferer. The structure which the
princes had so laboriously built up crumbled into ruins, and
the mistakes of centuries were expiated in an agony of disaster
and humiliation.
The states of the Empire joined Austria and Prussia, and,
had there been hearty co-operation between the allies, they
could scarcely have failed of success. While the war was in
progress, in 1793, Prussia joined Russia in the second partition
of Poland. Austria considered herself overreached, and began
negotiations with Russia for the third and final partition, which
was effected by the three powers in 1795. Prussia, irritated
by the proceedings of her rival, did as little as possible in the war
with France; and in 1795 she retired from the struggle, and
by the treaty of Basel ceded to the French republic her possessions
on the left bank of the Rhine. The war was continued by
Austria, but her power was so effectually shattered by blow
after blow that in 1797 she was forced to conclude the peace
of Campo Formic. Napoleon Bonaparte, to whose genius the
triumph of France was mainly due, began separate negotiations
with the states of the Empire at Rastadt; but, before terms
could be agreed upon, war again began in 1799, Austria acting
on this occasion as the ally of Great Britain and Russia. She
was beaten, and the peace of Lun6ville added fresh humiliations
to those imposed upon her by the previous war. France now
obtained the whole of the left bank of the Rhine, the dispossessed
princes being compensated by grants of secularized church
lands and of mediatized imperial cities (1803). The contempt
ton
of Napoleon for the Empire was illustrated by his occupation of
Hanover in 1803, and by his seizure of the duke of Enghien on
imperial territory in 1804. In 1805 Austria once more appealed
to arms in association with her former allies, but in vain. By
the peace of Presburg she accepted more disastrous terms than
ever, and for the moment it seemed as if she could not again
hope to rise to her former splendour. In this war she was
opposed not only by France, but by Bavaria, Wurttemberg
and Baden, all of which were liberally rewarded for their services,
the rulers of the two former countries being proclaimed kings.
The degradation of Germany was completed by the formation,
in 1806, of the Confederation of the Rhine, which was composed
of the chief central and southern states. The welfare of the
Empire was asserted to be its object, but a body of ^j of
which Napoleon was the protector existed, of course, the Hofy
for no other purpose than to be a menace to Austria Roman
and Prussia. Francis II., who had succeeded Leopold m P' re -
II. in 1792 and in 1804 had proclaimed himself hereditary
emperor of Austria, as Francis I., now resigned the imperial
crown, and thus the Holy Roman Empire and the German
kingdom came to an end. The various states, which had for
centuries been virtually independent, were during the next
few years not connected even by a nominal bond. (J. Si.)
Frederick William III. (1797-1840) of Prussia, the successor
of Frederick William II., had held aloof from the struggle of
Austria with France. This attitude had been dictated
partly by his constitutional timidity, partly by the
desire to annex Hanover, to which Austria and Russia
would never have assented, but which Napoleon was
willing to concede in return for a Prussian alliance. The Con-
federation of the Rhine, however, was a menace to Prussia too
serious to be neglected; and Frederick William's hesitations
were suddenly ended by Napoleon's contemptuous violation of
Prussian territory in marching three French brigades through
Ansbach without leave asked. The king at once concluded a
convention with the emperor Alexander I. of Russia and declared
war on France. The campaign that ended in the disastrous
battle of Jena (October 14, 1806) followed; and the prestige
of the Prussian arms, created by Frederick the Great, perished
at a blow. With the aid of Russia Frederick William held out a
while longer, but after Napoleon's decisive victory at Friedland
(June 14, 1807) the tsar came to terms with the French emperor,
sacrificing the interests of his ally. By the treaty of Tilsit
(July 9) the king of Prussia was stripped of the best part of his
dominions and more than half his subjects.
Germany now seemed fairly in the grip of Napoleon. Early
in November 1806 he had contemptuously deposed the elector
of Hesse and added his dominions to Jerome's kingdom
of Westphalia; on the aist of the same month he
issued from Berlin the famous decree establishing the
" continental system," which, by forbidding all trade with
England, threatened German commerce with ruin. His triumph
seemed complete when, on the nth of October 1807, Metternich
signed at Fontainebleau, on behalf of Austria, a convention that
conceded all his outstanding claims, and seemed to range the
Habsburg monarchy definitely on his side. There was, however,
to be one final struggle before Napoleon's supremacy was estab-
lished. The submission of Austria had been but an expedient
for gaining time; under Count Stadion's auspices she set to
work increasing and reorganizing her forces; and when it
became clear from Napoleon's resentment that he was meditating
fresh designs against her she declared war (1809). The campaign
ended in the crushing defeat of Wagram (July 6) and the humiliat-
ing treaty of peace dictated by Napoleon at the palace of Schon-
brunn in Vienna (October 14). Austria, shorn of her fairest
provinces, robbed of her oversea commerce, bankrupt and
surrounded on all sides by the territories of the French emperor
and his allies, seemed to exist only on sufferance, and had
ceased to have any effective authority in Germany now
absolutely in the power of Napoleon, who proved this in 1810
by annexing the whole of the northern coast as far as the Elbe
to his empire.
HISTORY)
GERMANY
863
The very completeness of the humiliation of Germany was
the means of her deliverance. She had been taught self-respect
by Frederick II., and by her great writers in literature
and philosophy; it was felt to be intolerable that
in politics she should do the bidding of a foreign
master. Among a large section of the community patriotism
became for the first time a consuming passion, and it was
stimulated by the counsels of several manly teachers, among
whom the first place belongs to the philosopher Fichte. The
governments cautiously took advantage of the national move-
ment to strengthen their position. Even in Austria, where on
the 8th of October 1809 Metternich had become minister for
foreign affairs and the dominant influence in the councils of the
empire, some timely concessions were made to the various
populations. Prussia, under the guidance of her great minister
Stein, reorganized her entire administration. She abolished
serfdom, granted municipal rights to the cities, established
an admirable system of elementary and secondary education,
and invited all classes to compete for civil offices; and ample
means were provided for the approaching struggle by drastic
military reform. Napoleon had extracted an engagement
that the Prussian army should be limited to 42,000 men. This
was fulfilled in the letter, but in spirit set aside, for one body
of men was trained after another until the larger part of the male
population were in a position, when a fitting opportunity should
occur, to take up arms for their country.
The disastrous retreat of the French from Moscow in 1812
gave Germany the occasion she desired. In 1813 King Frederick
William, after an agony of hesitation, was forced by
the patriotic initiative of General Yorck, who concluded
with the Russians the convention of Tauroggen on
his own responsibility, and by the pressure of public
opinion supported by Queen Louise and by Hardenberg, to enter
into an alliance with Russia. All now depended on the attitude
of Austria; and this was for some time doubtful. The diplomacy
of Metternich (?..), untouched by the patriotic fervour which he
disliked and distrusted, was directed solely to gaining time to
enable Austria to intervene with decisive effect and win for
the Habsburg monarchy the position it had lost. When the
time came, after the famous interview with Napoleon at Dresden,
and the breakdown of the abortive congress of Prague, Austria
threw in her lot with the allies. The campaign that followed,
after some initial reverses, culminated in the crushing victory of
the allies at Leipzig (October 16-18, 1813), and was succeeded by
the joint invasion of France, during which the German troops
wreaked vengeance on the unhappy population for the wrongs
and violences of the French rule in Germany.
Long before the issue of the War of Liberation had been finally
decided, diplomacy had been at work in an endeavour to settle
the future constitution of Germany. In this matter, as in others,
the weakness of the Prussian government played into the hands
of Austria. Metternich had been allowed to take the initiative
in negotiating with the princes of the Confederation of the Rhine,
and the price of their adhesion to the cause of the allies had been
the guarantee by Austria of their independent sovereignty. The
guarantee had been willingly given; for Metternich had no
desire to see the creation of a powerful unified German empire,
but aimed at the establishment of a loose confederation of weak
states over which Austria, by reason of her ancient imperial
prestige and her vast non-German power, would exercise a
dominant influence. This, then, was the view that prevailed,
and by the treaty of Chaumont (March i, 1814) it was decided
that Germany should consist of a confederation of sovereign
states.
The new constitution of Germany, as embodied in the Final
Act of the congress of Vienna (June 9, 1815) was based on this
principle. It was the work of a special committee of
trmn the congress, presided over by Metternich; and,
owing to the panic created by Napoleon's return from
Elba (March 5), it remained a mere sketch, the hasty
output of a few hurried sessions, of which the elaboration was
reserved for the future. In spite of the clamour of the mediatized
Tht
princes for the restoration of their " liberties," no attempt was
made to reverse the essential changes in the territorial disposition
of Germany made during the revolutionary epoch. Of the
300 odd territorial sovereignties under the Holy Empire only
39 survived, and these were readjusted on the traditional prin-
ciples of " compensations," " rectification of frontiers " and
" balance of power." The most fateful arrangements were
naturally those that affected the two leading powers, Austria
and Prussia. The latter had made strenuous efforts, supported
by Alexander I. of Russia, to obtain the annexation of the whole
of Saxony, a project which was defeated by the opposition of
Great Britain, Austria and France, an opposition which resulted
in the secret treaty of the 3rd of January 1815 for eventual
armed intervention. She received, however, the northern part
of Saxony, Swedish Pomerania, Posen and those territories
formerly part of the kingdom of Westphalia which constitute
her Rhine provinces. While Prussia was thus established on
the Rhine, Austria, by exchanging the Netherlands for Lombardo-
Venetia and abandoning her claims to the former Habsburg
possessions in Swabia, definitively resigned to Prussia the task
of defending the western frontier of Germany, while she
strengthened her power in the south-cast by recovering from
Bavaria, Salzburg, Vorarlberg and Tirol. Bavaria, in her turn,
received back the greater part of the Palatinate on the left bank
of the Rhine, with a strip of territory to connect it with the main
body of her dominions. For the rest the sovereigns of WUrttem-
berg and Saxony retained the title of king bestowed upon them
by Napoleon, and this title was also given to the elector of
Hanover; the dukes of Weimar, Mecklenburg and Oldenburg
became grand dukes; and LUbeck, Bremen, Hamburg and
Frankfort were declared free cities.
As the central organ of this confederation (Bund) was estab-
lished the federal diet (Bundestag), consisting of delegates of
the several states. By the terms of the Final Act
this diet had very wide powers for the development
of the mutual relations of the governments in all
matters of common interest. It was empowered to
arrange the fundamental laws of the confederation; to fix the
organic institutions relating to its external, internal and military
arrangements; to regulate the trade relations between the
various federated states. Moreover, by the famous Article
13, which enacted that there were to be " assemblies of
estates " in all the countries of the Bund, the constitutional
liberties of the German people seemed to be placed under its
aegis. But the constitution of the diet from the first condemned
its debates to sterility. In the so-called narrower assembly
(Engere Versammlung), for the transaction of ordinary business,
Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Wurttemberg,
Baden, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Holstein and Luxemburg
had one vote each; while the remaining twenty -eight states
were divided into six curiae, of which each had but a single
vote. In this assembly a vote of the majority decided. Questions
of more than usual importance were, however, to be settled in
the general assembly (Plenum) where a two-thirds majority
was necessary to carry a resolution. In this assembly the voting
power was somewhat differently distributed; but the attempt
to make it bear some proportion to the importance of the various
states worked out so badly that Austria had only four times
the voting power of the tiny principality of Liechtenstein.
Finally it was laid down by Article 7 that a unanimous vote
was necessary for changing " fundamental laws, organic institu-
tions, individual rights, or in matters of religion," a formula
wide enough to embrace every question of importance with
which the diet might be called upon to deal. Austria, in virtue
of her tradition, received the perpetual presidency of the diet.
It was clear that in such a governing body neither Austria nor
Prussia would be content with her constitutional position, and
that the internal politics of Germany would resolve themselves
into a diplomatic duel for ascendancy between the two powers,
for which the diet would merely serve as a convenient arena.
In this duel the victory of Austria was soon declared. The
Prussian government believed that the effective government
864
GERMANY
[HISTORY
of Germany could only be secured by a separate understanding
between the two great powers; and the indiscretion of the
Prussian plenipotentiary revealed to the diet a plan for what
meant practically the division of Germany into Prussian and
Austrian spheres of influence. This threw the lesser princes,
already alarmed at the growth of Prussian military power, into
the arms of Austria, which thus secured a permanent majority
in the diet. To avoid any possible modification of a situation
so satisfactory, Count Buol, the Austrian president of the diet,
was instructed to announce that the constitution as fixed by the
Final Act, and guaranteed by Europe, must be regarded as
final; that it might be interpreted, but not altered.
The conception of the diet as a sort of international board of
control, responsible in the last resort not to Germany but to
Europe, exactly suited Metternich's policy, in which the interests
of Germany were subordinate to the wider ambitions of the
Habsburg monarchy. It was, moreover, largely justified by
the constituent elements of the diet itself. Of the German
states represented in it even Prussia, by the acquisition of Posen,
had become a non-German power; the Habsburg monarchy
was predominantly non-German; Hanover was attached to
the crown of Great Britain, Holstein to that of Denmark, Luxem-
burg to that of the Netherlands. The diet, then, properly
controlled, was capable of being converted into an effective
instrument for furthering the policy of " stability " which
Metternich sought to impose upon Europe. Its one effort to
make its authority effective as the guardian of the constitution,
in the matter of the repudiation of the Westphalian debt and of
the sale of the domains by the elector of Hesse, was crushed
by the indignant intervention of Austria. Henceforth its sole
effective function was to endorse and promulgate the decrees
of the government of Vienna.
In this respect the diet fairly reflected the place of Germany
in Europe. The constitution was the work of the powers,
The which in all matters arising out of it constituted the
question final court of appeal. The result was not wholly one-
ot con- sided. Until the congress of Troppau in 1820
ttttutioas. j aco binism" was still enthroned in high places
in the person of Alexander I. of Russia, whose " divine mission,"
for the time, included a not wholly disinterested advocacy of the
due carrying out of Article 13 of the Final Act. It was not
to Russia's interest to see Austrian influence supreme in the
confederation. The lesser German princes, too, were quick to
grasp at any means to strengthen their position against the
dominant powers, and to this end they appealed to the Liberal
sentiment of their peoples. Not that this sentiment was very
deep or widespread. The mass of the people, as Metternich
rightly observed, wished for rest, not constitutions; but the
minority of thoughtful men professors, students, officials,
many soldiers resented the dashing of the hopes of German
unity aroused by the War of Liberation, and had drunk deep
of the revolutionary inspiration. This sentiment, since it could
not be turned to the uses of a united Germany, might be made
to serve the purposes of particularism. Prussia, in spite of the
promises of Frederick William in the hour of need, remained
without a central constitution; all the more reason why the
states of second rank should provide themselves with one.
Charles Augustus, the enlightened grand duke of Weimar, set
the example, from the best of motives. Bavaria, Baden,
WUrttemberg and others followed, from motives less dis-
interested. Much depended on the success of these experiments.
To Metternich they were wholly unwelcome. In spite of the
ring-fence of censors, and custom-house officers, there was danger
Metier- f tne Liberal infection spreading to Austria, with
nich ana disintegrating results; and the pose of the tsar as
the con- protector of German liberties was a perpetual menace.
tat. fpj je zea j an( j ; nex p er i ence o f German Liberals played
into his hands. The patriotism and Pan-Germanism of the
gymnastic societies (Turnvereine) and students' associations
(Burschenschaflen) expressed themselves with more noise than
discretion; in the South-German parliaments the platitudes and
catchwords of the Revolution were echoed. Soon, in Baden, in
WUrttemberg, in Bavaria, the sovereigns and the chambers
were at odds, united only in a common opposition to the central
authority. To sovereigns whose nerves had been shattered by
the vicissitudes of the revolutionary epoch these symptoms
were in the highest degree alarming; and Metternich was at
pains to exaggerate their significance. The " Wartburg The
festival " of October 1818, which issued in nothing Wartburg
worse than the solemn burning, in imitation of Dr **>'/,
Martin Luther, of Kamptz's police law, a corporal's I8U '
cane and an uhlan's stays, was magnified into a rebellion; drew
down upon the grand duke of Weimar a collective protest of the
powers; and set in motion the whole machinery of reaction.
The murder of the dramatist Kotzebue, as an agent of this
reaction, in the following year, by a fanatical student named
Karl Sand, clinched the matter; it became obvious to the govern-
ments that a policy of rigorous repression was necessary if a
fresh revolution were to be avoided. In October, after a pre-
liminary meeting between Metternich and Hardenberg, in the
course of which the latter signed a convention pledging Prussia
to Austria's system, a meeting of German ministers was held at
Carlsbad, the discussion of which issued in the famous Carlsbad
Decrees (October 17, 1819). These contained elaborate pro visions
for supervising the universities and muzzling the press, laying
down that no constitution " inconsistent with the monarchical
principle " should be granted, and setting up a central com-
mission at Mainz to inquire into the machinations of the great
revolutionary secret society which existed only in the imagina-
tion of the authorities. The Carlsbad Decrees, hurried through
the diet under Austrian pressure, excited considerable opposition
among the lesser sovereigns, who resented the claim of the diet
to interfere in the internal concerns of their states, and whose
protests at Frankfort had been expunged from the records.
The king of WUrttemberg, ever the champion of German
" particularism," gave expression to his feelings by issuing a
new constitution to his kingdom, and appealed to his relative,
the emperor Alexander, who had not yet been won over by
Metternich to the policy of war d entrance against reform, and
took this occasion to issue a fresh manifesto of his Liberal creed.
At the conference of ministers which met at Vienna, on the 2oth
of November, for the purpose of " developing and completing
the Federal Act of the congress of Vienna," Metternich found
himself face to face with a more formidable opposition than at
Carlsbad. The " middle " states, headed by Wurttemberg,
had drawn together, to form the nucleus of an inner league of
" pure German States " against Austria and Prussia, and of
" Liberal particularism " against the encroachments of the diet.
With Russia and, to a certain extent, Great Britain sympathetic,
it was impossible to ignore their opposition. Moreover, Prussia
was hardly prepared to endorse a policy of greatly strengthening
the authority of the diet, which might have been fatal to the
Customs Union of which she was laying the foundation. Metter-
nich realized the situation, and yielded so gracefully that he gave
his temporary defeat the air of a victory. The result was that
the Vienna Final Act (May 15, 1820), which received the sanction
of the diet on the 8th of June, was not unsatisfactory to the
lesser states while doing nothing to lessen Austrian prestige.
This instrument merely defined more clearly the principles of
the Federal Act of 1815. So far from enlarging the powers of
the diet, it reaffirmed the doctrine of non-intervention; and,
above all, it renewed the clause forbidding any fundamental
modification of the constitution without a unanimous vote.
On the vexed question of the interpretation of Article 13
Metternich recognized the inexpediency of requiring the South
German states to revise their constitutions in a reactionary sense.
By Articles 56 and 57, however, it was laid down that constitu-
tions could only be altered by constitutional means; that the
complete authority of the state must remain united in its head;
and that the sovereign could be bound to co-operate with the
estates only in the exercise of particular rights. These provisions,
in fact, secured for Metternich all that was necessary for the
success of his policy: the maintenance of the status quo. So
long as the repressive machinery instituted by the Carlsbad
HISTORY]
GERMANY
865
Decrees worked smoothly, Germany was not likely to be troubled
by revolutions.
The period that followed was one, outwardly at least, of
political stagnation. The Mainz Commission, though hampered
by the jealousy of the governments (the king of Prussia refused
to allow his subjects to be haled before it), was none the less
effective enough in preventing all free expression of opinion;
while at the universities the official " curators " kept Liberal
enthusiasts in order. The exuberance of the epoch of Liberation
gave place to a dull lethargy in things political, relieved only by
the Philhellenism which gave voice to the aspirationsof Germany
under the disguise of enthusiasm for Greece. Even the July
revolution of 1830 in Paris reacted but partially and spasmodic-
ally on Germany. In Hanover, Brunswick, Saxony and
Hesse-Cassel popular movements led to the granting
of constitutions, and in the states already constitu-
tional Liberal concessions were made or promised.
But the governments of Prussia and Austria were unaffected;
and when the storm had died down Met ternich was able, wit h the
aid of the federal diet , to resume his task of holding " the Revolu-
tion " in check. No attempt was, indeed, made to restore the
deposed duke of Brunswick, who by universal consent had
richly deserved his fate; but the elector of Hesse could reckon
on the sympathy of the diet in his struggle with the chambers
(ice HESSE-CASSEL), and when, in 1837, King Ernest Augustus
of Hanover inaugurated his reign by restoring the old illiberal
constitution abolished in 1831, the diet refused to interfere.
It was left to the seven professors of Gottingen to protest;
who, deprived of their posts, became as famous in the con-
stitutional history of Germany as the seven bishops in that of
England.
Yet this period was by no means sterile in developments
destined to produce momentous results. In Prussia especially
the government continued active in organizing and
f-^,1,, consolidating the heterogeneous elements introduced
...(. into the monarchy by the settlement of 1815. The
task was no easy one. There was no sense of national
unity between the Catholics of the Rhine provinces, long sub-
mitted to the influence of liberal France, and the Lutheran
squires of the mark of Brandenburg, the most stereotyped class
in Europe; there was little in common between either and the
Polish population of the province of Posen. The Prussian
monarchy, the traditional champion of Protestant orthodoxy,
found the new Catholic elements difficult to assimilate; and
premonitory symptoms were not wanting of a revival of the
secular contest between the spiritual and temporal powers which
was to culminate after the promulgation of the dogma of papal
infallibility (1870) in the Kuiturkampf. These conditions formed
the excuse for the continual postponement of the promised
constitution. But the narrow piety of Frederick William III.
was less calculated to promote the success of a benevolent
despotism than the contemptuous scepticism of Frederick the
Great, and a central parliament would have proved a safety
valve for jarring passions which the mistaken efforts of the king
to suppress, by means of royal decrees and military coercion,
only served to embitter. Yet the conscientious tradition of
Prussian officialism accomplished much in the way of administra-
tive reform,
Above all it evolved the Customs-Union (Zollverein), which
gradually attached the smaller states, by material interests if
not ty *y>Pthy, to the Prussian system. A reform
of the tariff conditions in the new Prussian monarchy
had been from the first a matter of urgent necessity,
and this was undertaken under the auspices of Baron
Hcinrich von Bulow (i 791-1846), minister in the foreign depart-
ment for commerce and shipping, and Karl Georg Maassen
(1769-1834), the minister of finance. When they took office
there were in Prussia sixty different tariffs, with a total of nearly
2800 classes of taxable goods: in some parts importation was
free, or all but free; in others there was absolute prohibition,
or duties so heavy as to amount to practical prohibition. More-
over, the long and broken line of the Prussian frontier, together
n. 28
r
**'*
with the numerous enclaves, made the effective enforcement
of a high tariff impossible. In these circumstances it was decided
to introduce a system of comparative free trade; raw materials
were admitted free; a uniform import of 10% was levied on
manufactured goods, and 20% on " colonial wares," the tax
being determined not by the estimated value, but by the weight
of the articles. It was soon realized, however, that to make
this system complete the neighbouring states must be drawn
into it; and a beginning was made with those which were
enclaves in Prussian territory, of which there were no less than
thirteen. Under the new tariff laws light transit dues were
imposed on goods passing through Prussia; and it was easy
to bring pressure to bear on states completely surrounded by
Prussian territory by increasing these dues or, if need were,
by forbidding the transit altogether. The small states, though
jealous of their sovereign independence, found it impossible to
hold out. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen was the first to succumb
(1819); Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (1822), Saxe- Weimar and
Anhalt-Bernburg (1823), Lippe-Detmold and Mecklcnburg-
Schwerin (1826) followed suit so far as their " enclaved "
territories were concerned; and in 1826 Anhalt-Dessau and
Anhalt-C6then, after several years' resistance, joined the
Prussian Customs-Union. In 1828 Hesse-Cassel entered into
a commercial treaty with Prussia. Meanwhile, alarmed at this
tendency, and hopeless of obtaining any general system from
the federal diet, the " middle " states had drawn together; by
a treaty signed on the i8th of January 1828 WUrttemberg and
Bavaria formed a tariff union, which was joined in the following
year by the Hohenzollern principalities; and on the 24th of
September 1828 was formed the so-called " Middle German
Commercial Union " (Handelsverein) between Hanover, Hesse-
Cassel, the Saxon duchies, Brunswick, Nassau, the principalities
of Reuss and Schwarzburg, and the free cities of Frankfort and
Bremen, the object of which was to prevent the extension of
the Prussian system and, above all, any union of the northern
Zollverein with that of Bavaria and WUrttemberg. It was
soon, however, found that these separate systems were unwork-
able; on the 27th of May 1829 Prussia signed a commercial
treaty with the southern union; the Handelsverein was broken
up, and one by one the lesser states joined the Prussian Customs-
Union. Finally, on the 22nd of March 1833, the northern and
southern unions were amalgamated; Saxony and the Thuringian
states attached themselves to this union in the same year;
and on the ist of January 1834 the German Customs- and
Commercial-Union (Deutscher Zoll- und Handelsverein) came
into existence, which included for tariff purposes within a single
frontier the greater part of Germany. Outside this, though not
in hostility to it, Hanover, Brunswick, Oldenburg and Schaum-
burg-Lippe formed a separate customs-union (Steuerverein) by
treaties signed on the ist of May 1834 and the 7th of May 1836,
and to this certain Prussian and Hessian enclaves were attached.
Subsequently other states, e.g. Baden and Nassau (1836), Frank-
fort and Luxemburg (1842), joined the Prussian Zollverein, to
which certain of the members of the Steuerverein also transferred
themselves (Brunswick and Lippe, 1842). Finally, as a counter-
move to the Austrian efforts to break up the Zollverein, the latter
came to terms with the Steuerverein, which, on the ist of January
1854, was absorbed in the Prussian system. Hamburg was to
remain outside until 1883; but practically the whole of what
now is Germany was thus included in a union in which Prussia
had a predominating influence, and to which, when too late,
Austria in vain sought admission. 1
Even in the earlier stages of its development the Zollverein
had a marked effect on the condition of the country. Its
growth coincided with the introduction of railways, and enabled
the nation to derive from them the full benefit; so that, in spite
of the confusion of political powers, material prosperity increased,
together with the consciousness of national unity and a tendency
to look to Berlin rather than to Vienna as the centre of this
unity.
* The bert account, in English, of the development of the Zoll-
verein is in Percy Ashley's Modern Tariff History (London, 1904).
866
GERMANY
[HISTORY
This tendency was increased by the accession to the throne
of Prussia, in 1840, of Frederick William IV., a prince whose
conspicuous talents and supposed " advanced " views
Frederick ra j sec i the hopes of the German Liberals in the same
/v> ' degree as they excited the alarm and contempt of
Metternich. In the end, however, the fears were more
justified than the hopes. The reign began well, it is true,
notably in the reversal of the narrow ecclesiastical policy of
Frederick William III. But the new king was a child of the
romantic movement, with no real understanding of, and still
less sympathy with, the modern Liberal point of view. He
cherished the idea of German unity, but could conceive of it
only in the form of the restored Holy Empire under the house
of Habsburg; and so little did he understand the growing
nationalist temper of his people that he seriously negotiated
for a union of the Lutheran and Anglican churches, of which
the sole premature offspring was the Protestant bishopric of
Jerusalem.
Meanwhile the Unionist and Liberal agitation was growing
in strength, partly owing to the very efforts made to restrain
it. The emperor Nicholas I. of Russia, kept informed by his
agents of the tendencies of opinion, thought it right to warn his
kinsman of Prussia of the approach of danger. But Frederick
William, though the tsar's influence over him was as great as
over his father, refused to be convinced. He even thought the
time opportune for finishing " the building begun by Papa "
by summoning the central assembly of the diets, and wrote to
the tsar to this effect (December 31, 1845); and he persevered
in this intention in spite of the tsar's paternal remonstrances.
On the i3th of February 1847 was issued a patent summoning
the united diet of Prussia. But, as Metternich had prophesied,
this only provided an organ for giving voice to larger constitu-
tional aspirations. The result was a constitutional dead-lock;
for the diet refused to sanction loans until its " representative "
character was recognized ; and the king refused to allow " to
come between Almighty God in heaven and this land a blotted
parchment, to rule us with paragraphs, and to replace the
ancient, sacred bond of loyalty." On the z6th of June the diet
was dissolved, nothing having been done but to reveal the
widening gulf between the principle of monarchy and the growing
forces of German Liberalism.
The strength of these forces was revealed when the February
revolution of 1848 in Paris gave the signal for the outbreak of
popular movements throughout Europe. The effect of the
revolution in Vienna, involving the fall of Metternich (May 13)
and followed by the nationalist movements in Hungary and
Bohemia, was stupendous in Germany. Accustomed to look to
Austria for guidance and material support, the princes every-
where found themselves helpless in face of the popular clamour.
The only power which might have stemmed the tide was Prussia.
But Frederick William's emotional and kindly temperament
little fitted him to use " the mailed fist "; though the riot
which broke out in Berlin on the i sth of March was suppressed
by the troops with but little bloodshed, the king shrank with
horror from the thought of fighting his " beloved Berliners,"
and when on the night of the i8th the fighting was renewed,
he entered into negotiation with the insurgents, negotiations
that resulted in the withdrawal of the troops from Berlin. The
next day, Frederick William, with characteristic histrionic
versatility, was heading a procession round the streets of Berlin,
wrapped in the German tricolour, and extolling in a letter to the
indignant tsar the consummation of " the glorious German
revolution."
The collapse of the Prussian autocracy involved that of the
lesser German potentates. On the 30th of March the federal
diet hoisted the German tricolour and authorized
lut/oaa/- tne assem bling of the German national parliament at
ltm ' Frankfort. Arrangements for this had already been
made without official sanction. A number of deputies,
belonging to different legislative assemblies, taking it upon them-
selves to give voice to the national demands, had met at Heidel-
berg, and a committee appointed by them had invited all
Germans who then were, or who had formerly been, members
of diets, as well as some other public men, to meet at Frankfort
for the purpose of considering the question of national reform.
About 500 representatives accepted the invitation. They con-
stituted themselves a preliminary parliament (Vorparlament),
and at once began to provide for the election of a national
assembly. It was decided that there should be a representative
for every group of 50,000 inhabitants, and that the election
should be by universal suffrage. A considerable party wished
that the preliminary parliament should continue to act until
the assembly should be formed, but this was overruled, the
majority contenting themselves with the appointment of a
committee of 50, whose duty it should be in the interval to guard
the national interests. Some of those who were discontented
with this decision retired from the preliminary parliament, and
a few of them, of republican sympathies, called the population
of Upper Baden to arms. The rising was put down by the
troops of Baden, but it did considerable injury by awakening
the fears of the more moderate portion of the community.
Great hindrances were put in the way of the elections, but, as
the Prussian and Austrian governments were too much occupied
with their immediate difficulties to resist to the uttermost, the
parliament was at last chosen, and met at Frankfort on the
i8th May. The old diet, without being formally dissolved,
(an omission that was to have notable consequences) broke up,
and the national representatives had before them a clear field.
Their task would in any case have been one of extreme difficulty.
The new-born sentiment of national unity disguised
a variety of conflicting ideals, as well as deep-seated ^"^f rt
traditional local antagonisms; the problem of con- meat.
structing a new Germany out of states, several of
which, and those the most powerful, were largely composed of
non-German elements, was sure to lead to international com-
plications; moreover, the military power of the monarchies had
only been temporarily paralysed, not destroyed. Yet, had the
parliament acted with promptitude and discretion it might have
been successful. Neither Austria nor Prussia was for some
time in a position to thwart it, and the sovereigns of the smaller
states were too much afraid of the revolutionary elements
manifested on all sides to oppose its will. But the Germans
had had no experience of free political life. Nearly every deputy
had his own theory of the course which ought to be pursued,
and felt sure that the country would go to ruin if it were not
adopted. Learned professors and talkative journalists insisted
on delivering interminable speeches and on examining in the
light of ultimate philosophical principles every proposal laid
before the assembly. Thus precious time was lost, violent
antagonisms were called forth, the patience of the nation was
exhausted, and the reactionary forces were able to gather
strength for once more asserting themselves. The very first
important question brought out the weaknesses of the deputies.
This related to the nature of the central provisional executive.
A committee appointed to discuss the matter suggested that
there should be a directory of three members, appointed by the
German governments, subject to the approval of the parliament,
and ruling by means of ministers responsible to the latter
body. This elaborate scheme found favour with a large number
of members, but others irlsisted that there should be a president
or a central committee, appointed by the parliament, while
another party pleaded that the parliament itself should exercise
executive as well as legislative functions. At last, after a vast
amount of tedious and useless discussion, it was agreed that the
parliament should appoint an imperial vicar (Reichsvenveser)
who should carry on the government by means of a ministry
selected by himself; and on the motion of Heinrich von Gagcrn
the archduke John of Austria was chosen by a large majority
for the office. With as little delay as possible he formed an
imperial cabinet, and there were hopes that, as his appointment
was generally approved both by the sovereigns and the people,
more rapid progress would be made with the great and compli-
cated work in hand. Unfortunately, however, it was necessary
to enter upon the discussion of the fundamental laws, a subject
HISTORY]
GERMANY
867
presenting many opportunities for the display of rhetoric and
intellectual subtlety. It was soon obvious that beneath all
varieties of individual opinion there were two bitterly hostile
tendencies republican and constitutionalist. These two parties
attacked each other with constantly growing animosity, and in
a few weeks sensible men outside the parliament gave up all hope
of their dealing satisfactorily with the problem they had been
appointed to solve.
In the midst of these disputes the attention of the nation
was occupied by a question which had arisen before the out-
__^_ break of the revolutionary movements the so-
called " Schleswig-Holstein question " (q.v.). In 1846
HtMrfw Christian VIII. of Denmark had officially proclaimed
that Schleswig and the greater part of Holstein were
indissolubly connected with the Danish monarchy. This excited
vehement opposition among the Germans, on the ground that
Holstein, although subject to the king of Denmark, was a member
of the German confederation, and that in virtue of ancient treaties
it could not be severed from Schleswig. In 1848 the German
party in the duchies, headed by Prince Frederick of August enburg,
rose against the Danish government. Frederick VII., who had
just succeeded Christian VIII., put down the rebellion, but
Prussia, acting in the name of the confederation, despatched
an army against the Danes, and drove them from Schleswig.
The Danes, who were supported by Russia, responded by
blockading the Baltic ports, which Germany, having no navy,
was unable effectually to defend. By the mediation of Great
Britain an armistice was concluded, and the Prussian troops
evacuated the northern districts of Schleswig. As the Danes
soon afterwards took possession of Schleswig again, t he-Prussians
once more drove them back, but, in view of the threatening
attitude of the powers, Frederick William summoned up courage
to flout the opinion of the German parliament, and on the 26th
of August, without the central government being consulted, an
armistice of seven months was agreed upon at Malmoe.
The full significance of this event was not at once realized.
To indignant patriots it seemed no more than a piece of perfidy,
Dtopatu for which Prussia should be called to account by united
ia tit* Germany. The provisional government of the duchies
Fr*i.ifort appealed from Prussia to the German regent; and
*""*"**' the Frankfort parliament hotly took up its cause. A
large majority voted an order countermanding the withdrawal
of the Prussian troops, in spite of the protest of the ministry,
who saw that it would be impossible to make it effective. The
ministry resigned, but no other could be found to take its place;
and the majority began to realize the situation. The central
government depended ultimately on the armed support of the
two great powers; to quarrel with those would be to ruin the
constitution, or at best to play into the hands of the extreme
revolutionists. On the i4th of September the question of the
convention of Malmoe again came up for discussion, and was
angrily debated. The democrats called their adherents to arms
against the traitors who were preparing to sell the Schleswig-
Holsteiners. The Moderates took alarm; they had no stomach
for an open war with the governments; and in the end the
convention was confirmed by a sufficient majority. The result
was civil war in the streets of Frankfort; two deputies were
murdered; and the parliament, which could think of no better
way of meeting the crisis than by continuing " with imposing
calm " to discuss " fundamental rights," was only saved from
the fury of the mob by Prussian troops. Its existence was
saved, but its prestige bad vanished; and the destinies of the
German people were seen to be in the hands that held the
sword.
While these events were in progress, it seemed not impossible
that the Austrian empire would fall to pieces. Bohemia and the
Italian states were in revolt, and the Hungarians
^^^ strove with passionate earnestness for independence.
ia Aattrim. Towards the end of 1848 Vienna was completely in
the hands of the revolutionary party, and it was re-
taken only after desperate fighting. A reactionary ministry,
headed by Prince Schwarzenberg, was then raised to power,
and in order that a strong policy might be the more vigorously
pushed forward, the emperor Ferdinand resigned, and was
succeeded by bis nephew, Francis Joseph.
The prospects of reform were not much more favourable
in Prussia. The assembly summoned amid the revolutionary
excitement of March met on the aand of May. De-
mands for a constitutional system were urged with
great force, and they would probably have been
granted but for the opposition due to the violence of politicians
out of doors. The aristocratic class saw ruin before it if the
smallest concession were made to popular wishes, and it soon
recovered from the terror into which it had been plunged at
the outbreak of the revolution. Extreme antagonism was excited
by such proposals as that the king should no longer be said to
wear his crown " by the grace of God "; and the animosity
between the liberal and the conservative sections was driven to
the highest pitch by the attack of the democratic majority of
the diet on the army and the attempt to remodel it in the direction
of a national militia. Matters came to a crisis at the end of
October when the diet passed a resolution calling on the king to
intervene in favour of the Viennese revolutionists. When, on
the evening of the 3Oth, a mob surrounded the palace, clamouring
for the king to give effect to this resolution, Frederick William
lost patience, ordered General Wrangel to occupy Berlin with
troops, and on the and of November placed Count Brandenburg,
a scion of the royal house and a Prussian of the old school, at
the head of a new ministry. On the pretext that fair deliberation
was impossible in the capital, the assembly was now ordered
to meet in Brandenburg, while troops were concentrated near
Berlin and a state of siege was proclaimed. In vain the assembly
protested and continued its sittings, going even so far as to
forbid the payment of taxes while it was subjected to illegal
treatment. It was forced in the end to submit. But the dis-'
cussions in Brandenburg were no more successful than those
in Berlin; and at last, on the 5th of December, the king dissolved
the assembly, granted a constitution about which it had not
been consulted, and gave orders for the election of a representative
chamber.
About the time that the Prussian parliament was thus
created, and that the emperor Ferdinand resigned, the Frankfort
parliament succeeded in formulating the fundamental f ht qutt .
laws, which were duly proclaimed to be those of Ger- tioa of the
many as it was now to be constituted. The principal taamoiu-
clauses of the constitution then began to be discussed. iloa '
By far the most difficult question was the relation in which
Austria should stand to the Germany of the future. There
was a universal wish that the Austrian Germans should be
included in the German state; on the other hand, it was felt
that if all the various nationalities of Austria formed a united
monarchy, and if this monarchy as a whole were included in
the confederation, it would necessarily overshadow Germany,
and expose her to unnecessary external dangers. It was therefore
resolved that, although a German country might be under the
same ruler as non-German lands, it could not be so joined to
them as to form with them a single nation. Had the parliament
adopted this resolution at once, instead of exhausting itself by
pedantic disquisitions on the abstract principles of jurisprudence,
it might have hoped to triumph; but Austria was not likely
to submit to so severe a blow at the very time when she was
strong enough to appoint a reactionary government, and bad
nearly re-established her authority, not only in Vienna, but in
Bohemia and in Italy. Prince Schwarzenberg took the earliest
opportunity to declare that the empire could not assent to any
weakening of its influence. Bitter strife now broke out in the .
parliament between the Great German (Gross- Deutsch) and
Little German (Klein- Deulsch) parties. Two of the ministers
resigned, and one of those who took their place, Heinrich von
Gagern (?..), proposed that, since Austria was to be a united
state, she should not enter the confederation, but that her
relations to Germany should be regulated by a special act of
union. This of course meant that Prussia should be at the head
of Germany, and recommended itself to the majority of the
868
GERMANY
[HISTORY
constitutional party. It was resisted by the Austrian members,
who were supported by the ultramontanes and the democrats,
both of whom disliked Prussia, the former because of her
Protestantism, the latter because of her bureaucratic system.
Gagern's proposal was, however, adopted. Immediately after-
wards the question as to the character of the executive was
raised. Some voted that a directory of princes should be ap-
pointed, others that there should be a president, eligible from
the whole German nation ; but the final decision was that the
headship of the state should be offered by the parliament to
some particular German prince, and that he should bear the
title of German emperor.
The whole subject was as eagerly discussed throughout the
country as in Frankfort. Austria firmly opposed the idea of
Pro osea a un ' te d German state, insisting that the Austrian
empire" emperor could not consent to be subordinate to any
other prince. She was supported by Bavaria, but on
the other side were Prussia, Brunswick, Baden, Nassau, Mecklen-
burg and various other countries, besides the Hanseatic towns.
For some time Austria offered no counter scheme, but she
ultimately proposed that there should be a directory of seven
princes, the chief place being held alternately by a Prussian
and an Austrian imperial vicar. Nothing came of this suggestion,
and in due time the parliament proceeded to the second reading
of the constitution. It was revised in a democratic sense, but
the imperial title was maintained, and a narrow majority
decided that it should be hereditary. Frederick William IV.
of Prussia was then chosen emperor.
All Germany awaited with anxiety the reply of Frederick
William. It was thought not improbable that he would accept
the honour offered him, for in the early part of his reign he
had spoken of German unity as enthusiastically as of liberty,
and, besides, the opportunity was surprisingly favourable. The
larger number of the North-German states were at least not
unwilling to submit to the arrangement; and Austria, whose
opposition in ordinary circumstances would have been fatal,
was paralysed by her struggle with Hungary. Frederick
William, however, whose instincts were far from democratic,
refused " to pick up a crown out of the gutter "; and the deputa-
tion which waited upon him was dismissed with the answer
that he could not assume the imperial title without the full
sanction of the princes and the free cities.
This answer was in reality a death-blow to the hopes of German
patriots, but the parliament affected to believe that its cause
Bad of was not vet ' ost > an d appointed a committee to see
Frankfort that the provisions of the constitution were carried
pariia- out ^ vigorous agitation began in the country for
the acceptance of the constitution by the governments.
The king of Wurttemberg was forced to accede to it; and in
Saxony, Baden and Rhenish Bavaria armed multitudes kept the
sovereigns in terror. Prussia, which, following the example
of Austria, had recalled her representatives from Frankfort,
sent her troops to put down these risings, and on the zist of
May 1849 the larger number of the deputies to the parliament
voluntarily resigned their seats. A few republican members
held on by it, and transferred the sittings to Stuttgart. Here
they even elected an imperial government, but they had no longer
any real influence, and on the i8th of June they were forcibly
dispersed by order of the Wurttemberg ministry.
Although Frederick William had refused to become emperor,
he was unwilling to miss altogether the opportunity afforded
by the difficulties of Austria. He invited the states
to senc ^ re P resentat; i ves to Berlin to discuss the condi-
union. tion of Germany; and he concluded a treaty with
the kings of Saxony and Hanover. Two days after-
wards the three allies agreed upon a constitution which was in
many respects identical with that drawn up by the Frankfort
parliament. The functions of the executive were, however,
extended, the electoral law was made less democratic, and it
was decided that, instead of an emperor, there should be merely
a supreme chief aided by a college of princes. This constitution
was accepted by a number of states, which assumed the name
of " The Union," and on the zoth of March 1850 a parliament
consisting of two houses met in Erfurt. Both houses accepted
the constitution; and, immediately after they broke up, the
members of the Union assembled in Berlin, and a provisional
college of princes was elected. By that time, however, the
whole situation of Germany had changed. In the autumn of
1849 Austria had succeeded, by the help of Russia, in quelling
the Hungarian insurrection, and she was then in no
mood to let herself be thrust aside by Prussia. Austria*
Encouraged by her, Hanover and Saxony had severed
themselves from the Union, and Saxony, Wurttemberg and
Bavaria arrived at an understanding as to a wholly new constitu-
tion. Afterwards all four states, with several others, accepted
the invitation of Austria to consider the propriety of re-establish-
ing the Confederation. The representatives of the states
favourable to this proposal, i.e, Austria, Luxemburg, Denmark
and the four kingdoms, came together in Frankfort on the 4th
of September 1850, constituted themselves a Plenum of the old
diet and refused to admit the other states except under the
terms of the act of 1815.
Thus the issue to which the events of about a century had
been pointing was apparently raised; Germany was divided
into two hostile parties, one set of states grouping Disturb-
themselves around Austria, another around Prussia, ante in
A difficulty which arose in Hesse-Cassel almost Hesse-
compelled the powers to bring their differences to the Cassel -
test of war. In this small state the liberal movement of 1848
had been followed by reaction, and the elector ventured to replace
Hassenpflug, the unpopular minister who had been driven from
power. Hassenpflug, being detested by the chamber, dissolved
it in June 1850; but the new one was not less hostile, and
refused to sanction the collection of the taxes until it had con-
sidered the budget. For this offence it also was dissolved, and
orders were issued for the raising of the taxes without its consent.
Many officials refused to obey; the judges remained loyal to the
constitution; and when attempts were made to solve the difficulty
by the army, the officers instructed to act resigned in a body.
Meanwhile, Hassenpflug had appealed to the representatives
in Frankfort who claimed to be the restored diet, and under the
influence of Austria they resolved to support him. Prussia, on
the other hand, announced its determination to carry out the
principles of the Union and to maintain the Hessian constitution.
Austrian and Bavarian troops having entered Hesse, a Prussian
army immediately occupied Cassel, and war appeared to be
imminent. Prussia, however, was wholly unprepared for war;
and, when this was realized, Radowitz, the foreign minister,
who had so far pursued a vigorous policy, retired, and was
replaced by Manteufiel, who, although the whole Prussian army
was mobilized, began by making concessions. The Union was
dissolved; and after Austria had despatched an ultimatum
formulating her demands, Baron Manteuffel met Prince
Schwarzenberg at Olmiitz, and, by a convention signed on the
zgth of November 1850, virtually yielded everything he insisted
upon. The difficulty in Hesse was to be left to the decision of
the German governments; and as soon as possible ministerial
conferences were to be held in Dresden, with a view to the
settlement of the German constitution.
The Austrian government strove to secure the appointment
of a stronger executive than had hitherto existed; but its
proposals met with steady opposition from Prussia.
Every Prussian scheme was in like manner resisted
by Austria. Thus, from the sheer inability of the
assembled ministers to devise a plan on which all could agree,
Prussia and the states that had joined her in the Union were
compelled to recognize the Frankfort diet. From the izth of
June 1851 its sittings went on as if nothing had occurred since
it was dispersed.
This wretched fiasco was hardly less satisfactory to the
majority of Germans than the manner in which the national
claims in Schleswig-Holstein were maintained. The armistice
of Malmoe having expired in March 1849, the war with Denmark
was resumed. A considerable army was despatched against
HISTORY!
GERMANY
869
the Danes by the Frankfort government, but on the loth of
July an armistice was signed at Berlin for six months, and
a year afterwards Prussia concluded peace. The inhabitants
of the duchies, however, continued the war. During the inter-
view at Olmiitz between Manteuffel and Schwarzenbcrg it was
agreed that, like the affairs of Hesse-Cassel, those of Schleswig-
Holstein should be submitted to the decision of all German states,
but that, in the meantime, Prussia and Austria should act
together. By the intervention of Austrian troops peace was
restored; and when, early in 1852, the government of Denmark,
in providing a constitution for the whole monarchy, promised
to appoint separate ministers for Schleswig and Holstein, and
to do equal justice to the German and the Danish populations,
the two powers declared themselves satisfied and the Austrian
forces were withdrawn. The diet also, after some delay, pro-
teased to be content with this arrangement. While it was
Hi/-iMing the subject, a conference of the European powers
met in London, and by the protocol of May 28, 1852, settled
that Frederick VII. of Denmark should be succeeded by
Christian, duke of GlUcksburg, and that the duchies should
be indissolubly united to the Danish monarchy. Austria
and Prussia accepted the protocol, but it was not signed by
the diet.
In all these later events the first place had been taken by
Austria. The temporary dissolution of the Zollverein in 1851
Atatrlm gave her an opportunity of trying to extend her in-
mndtbt fluence; she demanded that a union should be formed
** of which she should be the leading member. A congress
******* of all German states, with the exception of Prussia
and one or two states which sympathized with her, was held in
Vienna; and it was followed by several other congresses favour-
able to Austrian pretensions. Prussia, however, being here on
strong ground, refused to give way; and not only was the
customs union restored in accordance with her wishes, but
Austria concluded with her in 1853 a treaty of commerce which
embodied some important concessions.
Germany had now fairly entered a period which, although
it did not last very long, was, in some respects, as humiliating
as any in her history. The popular movement, from
which great things had been hoped, had on some
occasions almost touched its goal; and, as might have
been expected, a reaction set in, which the princes knew how to
turn to the fullest advantage. The Austrian government, after
the subjection of Hungary, withdrew every concession it had
made under pressure, and established a thorough despotism,
trampling upon the rights of the individual nationalities, and
forcing all its subjects into a common political mould. In
Prussia the parliament, summoned by the king on the 5th of
December 1848, met early in the following year. Although
the democrats had declined to vote, it was not conservative
enough for the court, and not till the 3ist of January 1850 was
an understanding arrived at respecting the constitution. The
system thus established was repeatedly revised, and always
with the same object to reduce to a minimum the power of the
national representatives, and to exalt and extend that of the
government. At the same time the ministry persecuted the
press, and allowed hardly a whisper of discontent to pass un-
punished. The smaller states followed with alacrity in the
steps of the two leading powers. The Liberal ministries of 1848
were dismissed, the constitutions were changed or abolished, and
new chambers were elected under a severely restricted suffrage.
Had the battle been fairly fought out between the govern-
ments and the people, the latter would still have triumphed;
but the former had now, in the Frankfort diet, a mightier
instrument than ever against freedom. What it could do was
seen too clearly from the case of Hesse-Cassel. After the settle-
ment of Olmiitz, federal troops occupied that country, and
federal execution was carried out with shameful harshness.
Martial law was everywhere proclaimed; officers, and all classes
of officials who had incurred the displeasure of the government,
were subjected to arbitrary penalties; and such was the misery
of the people that multitudes of them were compelled to emigrate.
The constitution having been destroyed by the Bund, the
elector proclaimed one of his own making; but even the chamber
elected under the provisions of this despotic scheme could not
tolerate his hateful tyranny, and there were incessant disputes
between it and the government. The Bund interfered in a like
spirit in Hanover, although with less disastrous results, after
the accession of George V. in 1851. For the whole of Germany
this was emphatically the period of petty despotism; and not
only from Hesse, but from all parts of the country there was a
vast stream of emigration, mainly to the New World.
The outbreak of the Crimean War profoundly moved the
German nation. The sympathies of Austria were necessarily
with the Western powers, and in Prussia the majority
of the people took the same side; but the Prussian war.
government, which was at this time completely under
the control of Russia, gave its moral support to the tsar. It
did, indeed, assent to a treaty afterwards signed on behalf
of the confederation by which Prussia and Austria guaranteed
each other, but it resolutely opposed the mobilization of the
confederate army. The Prussian people were keenly irritated
by the cordial relations between their court and the most despotic
power in Europe. They felt that they were thus most unjustly
separated from the main stream of Western progress.
During the Crimean War the political reaction continued with
unabated force. In Prussia the government appeared resolved
to make up for its temporary submission to the popular will
by the utmost violence on which it could venture. A general
election took place in the autumn of 1855, and so harshly was
the expression of opinion restrained that a chamber was returned
with scarcely a single liberal clement of serious importance.
The feudalists called for a still further revision of the constitution,
and urged that even the reforms effected by Stein should be
undone. In Bavaria a chamber elected about the same time
as that of Prussia was rather less docile; but the government
shared to the full the absolutist tendencies of the day, and
energetically combated the party which stood up for law and
the constitution. The Hanoverian government, backed by the
Frankfort diet, was still more successful in its warfare with the
moderate reformers whom it was pleased to treat as revolutionists;
and in Austria the feudalists so completely gained the upper hand
that on the i8th of August 1855 the government signed a con-
cordat, by which the state virtually submitted itself to the control
of the church.
The German people seemed to have lost both the power and
the will to assert their rights; but in reality they were deeply
dissatisfied. And it was clear to impartial observers /vj
that, in the event of any great strain upon the power and
of the governments, the absolutist system would SwUtcr-
break down. The first symptom that the reaction Uad '
had attained its utmost development displayed itself in Prussia,
whose attention was for a time distracted from home politics
by a quarrel with Switzerland. The Swiss authorities had
imprisoned some foolish royalists of Neuchatel, in which the
house of Hohenzollern had never resigned its rights. War
was threatened by Prussia, but when the prisoners were set free,
the two states entered upon negotiations, and in the summer
of 1857 King Frederick William withdrew all claims to the
principality.
Soon after this, the mental condition of the king made it
necessary that his duties should be undertaken by a substitute,
and his brother William, the prince of Prussia, took his
place for three months. In October 1858 the prince
became regent. The accession to power of the new
regent was universally recognized as involving a change
of system. The temper of William, in contradistinction to that
of his brother, was pre-eminently practical; and he had the
reputation of a brave, piously orthodox Prussian soldier. The
nickname "cartridge-prince" (Kartittschenprinz) bestowed upon
him during the troubles of '48 was undeserved; but he was notori-
ously opposed to Liberalism and, had he followed his own instincts,
he would have modified the constitution in a reactionary sense.
Fortunately, however, he was singularly open to conviction,
870
GERMANY
[HISTORY
and Otto von Bismarck, though not yet in office, was already
in his confidence. Bismarck realized that, in the struggle with
Austria which he foresaw, Prussia could only be weakened
were she to take up an attitude of opposition to the prevailing
Liberal sentiment, and that to tamper with the constitution
would not only be inexpedient, but useless, since special measures
could always be resorted to, to meet special circumstances. The
interests of Prussia, he urged, had been too often sacrificed to
abstract ideas. William listened and was convinced. He not
only left the constitution intact, but he dismissed Manteuffel's
" feudal " ministry and replaced it with moderate Liberals.
The change was more revolutionary in appearance than in
reality. Manteuffel and his policy were associated in the regent's
mind with the humiliation of Olmtitz, and the dismissal of the
ministry symbolized the reversal of this policy. William
believed with his whole soul in the unification of Germany, and
in Prussia as its instrument; and, if he doubted, it was only as
to the how and when. Of one thing he was certain that who-
ever aspired to rule over Germany must be prepared to seize
it (letter to von Natzmer, May 20, 1849). This attitude had
little in common with the Liberal appeal to the voice of the people.
Such a revolutionary foundation might be good enough for the
ephemeral empires of France; the appeal of Prussia should be
to the God of battles alone.
The antagonism between these conflicting principles was
not long in revealing itself. In Germany the relations between
Prussia' Austria and Prussia were becoming unpleasantly
and the strained in the question of the admission of the Habs-
Austro- burg monarchy to the Zollverein, in that of the elector
Italian o { jj esse an( j his parliament, in that of the relation
of the Elbe duchies to the crown of Denmark. But
for the outbreak of the Italian war of 1859 the struggle of 1866
might have been anticipated. The outcome of the war increased
the prestige of Prussia. She had armed, not with the idea
of going to the aid of a German power in difficulties, but in order,
at the right moment, to cast her sword into the scale wherein
her own interests might for the time lie. At the menace of her
armaments, concentrated on the Rhine, Napoleon had stopped
dead in the full career of victory; Austria, in the eyes of German
men, had been placed under an obligation to her rival; and Italy
realized the emergence of a new military power, whose interests in
antagonism to Austria were identical with her own.
So striking an object lesson was not lost on the Prussian regent,
and he entered on a vigorous policy of reforming and strengthen-
ing the army, General von Roon being appointed
n'tomi minister of war for this purpose. To the Liberal
and con- ministers, however, and to the Liberal majority in
stitutioaal the Prussian diet, this was wholly objectionable.
crisis in Schemes were under discussion for reforming the con-
8 *' stitution of the Confederation and drawing the German
states closer together on a Liberal basis; the moment seemed
singularly inopportune for Prussia, which had not shown herself
particularly zealous for the common interests, to menace the
other German governments by increasing her separate armaments.
When, therefore, on the loth of February 1860, the bills necessary
for carrying out the reform of the army were introduced into the
diet, they met with so strenuous an opposition that they had to
be withdrawn. Supplies were, however, granted for fourteen
months, and the regent took this as justifying him in proceeding
with his plans. On the ist of January 1861 the standards of the
new regiments were solemnly blessed; on the next day Frederick
William IV. died, and the new king was face to face with a
constitutional crisis.
Austria, meanwhile, had been making the first tentative
essays in constitutional concession, which culminated, in May
1861, in the establishment at Vienna of a Reichsrat for the whole
empire, including Hungary. The popularity she thus gained
among German Liberals and Nationalists was helped by the
course of events at Berlin. The Prussian diet of 1862 was no
whit more tractable than its predecessor, but fell to attacking
the professional army and advocating the extension of the militia
(Landwehr) system; on the nth of March the king dissolved
it in disgust, whereupon the Liberal ministry resigned, and was
succeeded by the Conservative cabinet of Prince Hohenlohe.
Public opinion was now violently excited against the govern-
ment; the new elections resulted (May 6) in the return of a yet
larger Liberal majority; on the 22nd of August the army
estimates were thrown out. Hohenlohe now declared himself
incapable of carrying on the government, and King William
entrusted it to Otto von Bismarck.
In choosing this man of iron will as his instrument during the
actual crisis the king's instinct had not betrayed him. For nine
years Prussian delegate at the diet of Frankfort,
Bismarck was intimately acquainted with all the issues
of the German problem; with his accustomed calculated blunt-
ness he had more than once openly asserted that this problem
could only be settled by Austria ceasing to influence the German
courts and transferring " her centre of gravity towards Buda-
pest "; with equal bluntness he told the committee on the
budget, on the 3oth of September 1862, that the problem could
not be solved " by parliamentary decrees," but only " by blood
and iron." For the supreme moment of this solution he was
determined that Prussia should be fully prepared; and this
meant that he must defy the majority within the diet and public
opinion without. Some sort of constitutional pretence was given
to the decision of the government to persevere with the military
reforms by the support of the Upper House, and of this Bismarck
availed himself to raise the necessary taxes without the consent
of the popular assembly. He regretted the necessity for flouting
public opinion, which he would have preferred to carry with him ;
in due course he would make his peace with Liberal sentiment,
when success should have justified his defiance of it. His plans
were singularly helped by international developments. The
Polish rising of 1863 came just in time to prevent a threatened
Franco-Russian alliance; the timid and double-faced attitude
of both France and Austria during the revolt left them isolated
in Europe, while Bismarck's ready assistance to Russia assured
at least the benevolent neutrality in the coming struggle with
the Habsburg power.
Meanwhile, among the German people the object lesson of the
Italian war had greatly stimulated the sentiment of national
unity. As to the principle, however, on which this yi twt
unity was to be based, the antagonism that had been to
fatal in 1849 still existed. The German National German
Union (Deutscher N ationolvercin) , organized in the ""My-
autumn of 1859, favoured the exclusion of Austria and the
establishment of a federation under the hegemony of Prussia;
it represented the views of the so-called "Gothaer," the political
heirs of the rump of the Frankfort parliament which had re-
assembled at Gotha in June 1849, and supported the Prussian
Union and the Erfurt parliament. To counteract this, a con-
ference of five hundred " Great Germans " assembled at Frank-
fort and, on the 22nd of October 1862, founded the German
Reform Union (Deutscher Reformverein) , which, consisting
mainly of South German elements, supported the policy of
Austria and the smaller states. The constitutional crisis in
Prussia, however, brought both societies into line, and in 1863
the National Union united with the Reform Union in an attempt
to defeat Prussian policy in the Schleswig-Holstein question.
This anti-Prussian feeling Austria now tried to exploit for
her own advantage. On the 2nd of August the emperor Francis
Joseph proposed to King William, during a meeting rfte <fap .
at Gastein, to lay before an assembly of the German steatag"
princes a scheme for the reconstitution of the Bund. ofFrank-
The king neither accepted nor refused; but, without "
waiting for his assent, invitations were sent out to the other
princes, and on the I4th the congress (Fiirstentag) opened at
Frankfort. Of the German sovereign states but four were
unrepresented Anhalt-Bernburg, Holstein, Lippe and Prussia;
but the absence of Prussia was felt to be fatal; the minor princes
existed by reason of the balance between the two great powers,
and objected as strongly to the exclusion of the one as of the other
from the Confederation; an invitation to King William was
therefore signed by all present and carried by the king of Saxony
HISTORY]
GERMANY
871
Tto
in person to Berlin. Bismarck, however, threatened to resign if
the king accepted; and the congress had to do the best it could
without Prussian co-operation. On the ist of September it
passed, with some slight modifications, the Austrian proposals for
the reconstruction of the Bund under a supreme Directory, an
assembly of delegates from the various parliaments, a federal
court of appeal and periodical conferences of sovereigns. Every-
thing now depended on the attitude of Prussia, and on the 2?nd
her decision was received. " In any reform of the Bund," it ran,
' Prussia, equally with Austria, must have the right of vetoing
war; she must be admitted, in the matter of the presidency, to
absolute equality with Austria; and, finally, she will yield no
tittle of her rights save to a parliament representing the whole
German nation."
Prussia thus made a bid for the sympathy of the democracy
at the same time as she declared war against the dynasties;
and her power was revealed by the fact that her veto was
sufficient to wreck a proposal seconded by the all but unanimous
vote of the German sovereigns. The Austrian stroke had failed,
and worse than failed, for Napoleon III., who had been filled
with alarm at this attempt to create on his flank an " empire
of 70,000,000," saw in Prussia's attitude no more than a deter-
mination to maintain for her own ends the division and weakness
of Germany; and this mistaken diagnosis of the situation
determined his attitude during the crisis that followed.
This crisis was due to the reopening of a fresh acute phase
of the Schleswig-Holstein question by the accession of the
" protocol-king " Christian IX. to the throne of Den-
mark (November 15, 1863), and his adhesion to the
new constitution, promulgated two days before, which
embodied the principle of the inalienable union of
the Elbe duchies with the Danish body politic. The
news of this event caused vast excitement in Germany; and
the federal diet was supported by public opinion in its decision
to uphold the claims of Prince Frederick of Augustenburg to the
succession of the duchies. An agitation in his favour had already
begun in Holstein and, after the promulgation of the new
Danish constitution, this was extended to Schleswig. On the
4th of December Saxon and Hanoverian troops occupied
Holstein in the name of the German Confederation, and sup-
ported by their presence and the favour of the population the
prince of Augustenburg, as Duke Frederick VIII., assumed the
government.
From these proceedings Prussia and Austria held rigorously
aloof. Both had signed the protocol of 1852, and both realized
that, if the European powers were to be given no excuse to inter-
vene, their attitude must be scrupulously " correct "; and this
involved the recognition of King Christian's rights in the duchies.
On the other hand, the constitution of the ijth of November had
been in flat contradiction to the protocol of London, which
recognized the separate rights of the duchies; and if the two great
German powers chose to make this violation of an agreement to
which they had been parties a casus belli, Europe would have no
right to interfere. Prussia had begun to mobilize in November;
and Austria also soon realized that action must speedily be taken
if the lesser German governments were not to be allowed to get
out of hand. Russia and Great Britain had already protested
against the occupation of Holstein and the support given to
the Augustenburg claimant; and now Beust, the Saxon minister,
was proposing that the federal diet, which had been no party to
the protocol, should formally recognize his claim. Bismarck,
then, had no difficult task in persuading Austria that the time
for action had come. A last attempt of the two powers to carry
the diet with them in recognizing the protocol having failed,
they formally announced that they would act in the matter as
independent European powers. On the 1 6th of January
* 86* the agreement between them was signed, an article,
drafted by Austria, intended to safeguard the settle-
ment of 1852, being replaced at the instance, of Prussia
by another, which stated that the contracting powers would
decide only in concert upon the relations of the duchies, and that
in no case would they determine the succession save by mutual
venla.
consent. A clause was also inserted provisionally recognizing
the principle of the integrity of Denmark.
Whatever Austria's ulterior views may have been, Bismarck
certainly from the first had but one aim before him. He saw
clearly what the possession of the duchies would mean to
Germany, their vast importance for the future of German
sea-power; already he had a vision of the great war-harbour
of Kiel and the canal connecting the Baltic and the North seas;
and he was determined that these should be, if not wholly
Prussian, at least wholly under Prussian control. Annexation
was the goal which from the beginning he kept steadily before
his eyes (Reminiscences, ii. 10). As for treaties to the contrary,
he was to avow in his Reminiscences that these have little force
when no longer reinforced by the interests of the contracting
parties. His main fear was that the Danes might, refuse to fight
and appeal instead to a European congress; and, to prevent
this, he led the Copenhagen government to believe that Great
Britain had threatened to intervene in the event of Prussia
going to war, " though, as a matter of fact, England did nothing
of the kind. " This sufficed to provoke the defiance of the Danes,
and on the ist of February 1864 the Austrian and
Prussian troops crossed the Eider. The issue of a
war between powers so ill-matched was a foregone 1864.
conclusion; the famous rampart of the Dannewerk
(q.v.), on which the Danish defence chiefly relied, was turned,
and after a short campaign, in which the Danes fought with
distinguished courage, peace was concluded by the treaty of
Vienna (August i, 1864), by which Schleswig, Holstein and
Lauenburg were ceded to Austria and Prussia jointly.
The Austro-Prussian alliance had been only an interlude in the
great drama in which the two powers were playing rival parts.
To the other causes of friction between them had been ^ U *M,
added, just before the war, a renewed quarrel as to pnm*im
Austria's relation to the Zollverein. In 1862, in the *adtb
name of the customs union, Prussia had concluded with
France a commercial treaty, based mainly on free trade
principles. This treaty most of the small states refused to sign,
and they were supported in their objections by Austria, which
loudly complained that Prussia had given to a foreign power
what she had denied to a sister state of the Bund. Prussia, how-
ever, remained firm, and declared that, were the treaty rejected,
she would break up the Zollverein. After the war Bismarck
in fact succeeded in obtaining the signature of the smaller states
to the treaty; and Austria, her protests having proved unavail-
ing, was fain to sign a commercial treaty with the Zollverein,
essentially the same as that of 1853. Treaties concluded with
Great Britain and Belgium, about the same time, also tended to
enhance Prussian prestige.
Austria now sought in the question of the Elbe duchies an
occasion for re-establishing her influence in Germany. The
ambitions of Prussia were notorious, and Austria had
no wish to see her rival still further strengthened by
the annexation of the duchies. In this attitude she atttela.
was sure of the support of the German princes, and of
German public opinion, which was enthusiastically,in favour of
the Augustenburg claimant. She therefore took up the cause of
Duke Frederick, and under her influence a small majority of the
federal diet decided to request the two powers to invest him with
the sovereignty of Holstein. Bismarck's reply was to deny the
competency of the diet to interfere; and in the Prussian parlia-
ment the minister of war moved for a special grant for the creation
of a war-harbour at Kiel. Against this Austria protested, as
having the same right as Prussia to Kiel; an angry correspond-
ence followed; but neither power was quite prepared for war,
and on the 2oth of August 1865 the convention of Gastein, to
use Bismarck's phrase, " papered over the cracks." Pending
a settlement, Schleswig was to be occupied and administered
by Prussia, Holstein by Austria; while Lauenburg was made
over absolutely to Prussia in return for a money payment.
This was so far a diplomatic victory for Prussia, as it ignored
entirely the claims of the duke of Augustenburg.
Bismarck had consented to the convention of Gastein in order
872
GERMANY
[HISTORY
to gain time to prepare the ground for the supreme struggle
with Austria for the hegemony of Germany. He had no intention
of postponing the issue long; for the circumstances of the two
powers were wholly favourable to Prussia. The Prussian army
had attained an unprecedented excellence of organization and
discipline; the Prussian people, in spite of the parliamentary
deadlock, were loyal and united; while in Austria army and
state were alike disorganized by nationalist discontent and the
breakdown of the centralized system. But there were other
factors to be considered. The attitude of Napoleon was dubious ;
the active alliance of Italy was necessary to the certainty of
Prussian success; and the policy of Italy depended ultimately
upon that of France. Lastly, the conscience of King William,
though since the acquisition of Lauenburg he had " developed
a taste for conquest," shrank from provoking war with a German
power. The news of the convention of Gastein, which seemed
to re-cement the union of Germany, had been received
H 2?S"? . in France with clamorous indignation; and on the
attitude of ...... , .
France. 2 Qth f August, under pressure of public opinion, the
French government issued a circular note denouncing
it as an outrage on national liberty and European law, the protest
being backed by note of the i4th of September circulated by
Lord John Russell on behalf of the British government. But
Napoleon was himself little inclined to use the warlike tone
of his people; and Bismarck found it easy to win him over to
his views by explaining the temporary nature of the convention,
and by dropping hints at the famous interview at Biarritz
(September 30, 1865) of possible " compensations " to France
in the event of a Prussian victory over Austria; the probability of
a prolonged struggle in Germany between two powers apparently
evenly matched, moreover, held out to the French emperor the
prospect of his being able to intervene at the proper moment with
overwhelming effect.
Napoleon having been successfully hoodwinked, Bismarck
turned to Italy. His previous advances had been interrupted
End of the ^ v tne Gastein convention, which seemed to the Italian
Austro- government a betrayal of the Italian cause. Italy
Prussian attempted to negotiate with Austria for the purchase of
under- Venetia; but the offer was curtly refused by the
Banding. em p eror F ranc ; s Joseph, and the counter-proposal of
a commercial rapprochement was forestalled by Prussia, which
with the aid of most of the lesser states, angered by the betrayal
of their interests by Austria at Gastein, arranged a commercial
treaty between Italy and the Zollverein, an act which involved
the recognition of the Italian kingdom. The counter-stroke of
Austria was to embarrass Prussia by allowing full play in Holstein
to the agitation in favour of the Augustenburg claimant. To
the protests of Prussia, Austria replied that she had a full right
to do what she liked in the duchy, and that she still adhered to
the declaration of the princes, made on the a8th of May 1864, in
favour of Duke Frederick. This " perfidy " removed the last
scruples of King William; and the Austro-Prussian alliance
came to an end with the declaration of Bismarck that Prussia
" must win full freedom for her own entire policy " and his
refusal to continue the correspondence.
War, though still postponed, was now certain; and with this
certainty the desire of the Italians for the Prussian alliance,
now recommended by Napoleon, revived. By the i6th of March
1866 the Austrian war preparations were so far advanced that
Count Mensdorff thought it safe to send an ultimatum to Prussia
and, at the same time, a circular note to the princes declaring
that, in the event of an evasive reply, Austria would move in the
diet for the mobilization of the federal forces. On the 24th
Bismarck in his turn issued a circular note stating that, in view
of the Austrian war preparations, Prussia must take measures
for her defence; at the same time he laid before the princes the
outline of the Prussian scheme for the reform of the Confedera-
tion, a scheme which included a national parliament to be elected
by universal suffrage, " as offering surer guarantees for conserva-
tive action than limitations that seek to determine the majority
beforehand." Clearly Prussia meant war, and the Italian
government thought it safe to sign, on the 8th of April 1866,
of the
"Bund.'
a treaty of alliance. By this instrument it was agreed that in
the event of her proposals for the reform of the federal constitu-
tion being rejected by the German princes, Prussia
should declare war " in order to give effect to her pro-
posals," and that, in that case, Italy would also declare alliance.
war against Austria. As a result of the war Venetia
was to be added to Italy and an equivalent amount of territory
in North Germany to Prussia. The agreement, however, was only
to hold good if war broke out within three months.
On the day after the signature of the treaty the Prussian
project of reform was presented to the federal diet. It was,
however, no more than a bid for the support of public
opinion on the part of Bismarck ; for even while it was
under discussion an angry correspondence was being for the
carried on between Berlin and Vienna on the question
of armaments, and by the beginning of May both
powers were making undisguised preparations for
war. On the 2ist of April, the very day when the discussion
of the Prussian proposals began in the diet, Austria, alarmed
at a threatened attack by Garibaldi on Venetia, began to mobilize
in defiance of an agreement just arrived at with Prussia. Five
days later, in spite of this, she sent an ultimatum to Berlin,
demanding the continuance of the Prussian disarmament and
an immediate settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question.
The supreme issue was, however, delayed for a few weeks by the
intervention of Napoleon, who, urged on by the loud alarm of the
French people at the prospective aggrandizement of Prussia,
attempted to detach Italy from the Prussian alliance by persuad-
ing Austria to a cession of Venetia. The negotiations broke
down on the refusal of Italy to throw over her ally, and Napoleon's
proposal of a European congress, to reconsider the whole settle-
ment under the treaties of 181 5, proved equally abortive. Mean-
while the preparations for war had been continued, and on the
ist of June Austria flung down the gage by declaring her intention
of submitting the whole question of the duchies to the federal diet
and of summoning a meeting of the Holstein estates. This was
denounced by Bismarck in a circular note to the powers as a
breach of the convention of Gastein and of the treaty of
January 16, 1864, by which Austria and Prussia had agreed to
govern the duchies in common. At the same time he handed in
the formal protest of Prussia to the federal diet. Prussia, he
said, would only recognize the right of a reformed federal poTver
to settle the Schleswig-Holstein question, and this power must
be based on a German parliament, which alone could guarantee
Prussia that any sacrifices she might make would be for the good
of Germany and not of the dynasties. The Prussian plan of
reform laid before the diet included the exclusion of Austria
from the Confederation; the creation of a federal navy; the
division of the supreme command of the army between Prussia
and Bavaria; a parliament elected by manhood suffrage; the
regulation of the relations between the Confederation and
Austria by a special treaty. In the event of the actual constitu-
tion of the Bund being shattered by war, the German states were
asked whether they would be prepared to join this new organiza-
tion. On the gth of June Prussian troops had already marched
into Holstein, the Austrians, with Duke Frederick, falling back
on Altona. On the i4th the Prussian scheme of reform was laid
before the diet, together with Austria's counter-proposal for a
decree of federal execution against Prussia. In the event of the
rejection of Prussia's motion, Bismarck had made it clear that
Prussia would withdraw from the Confederation, and /vuss/a
that in the event of her being victorious in the ensuing withdraws
war those states of northern Germany that voted ^"'J e ,,
against her would cease to exist. In spite of this,
the Austrian motion was carried by nine votes to six. The
Prussian delegate at once withdrew from the diet, and on the
following day (June 15) the Prussian troops advanced over
the Saxon frontier.
The war that followed, conveniently called the Seven Weeks'
War (q.v.), culminated before a month had passed, on the 3rd
of July, in the crushing Prussian victory of Koniggratz. The
rapidity and overwhelming character of the Prussian success
HISTORY]
GERMANY
873
ensured the triumph of Bismarck's policy. The intervention
which Napoleon had planned resolved itself into diplomatic
pourparlers of which the result was wholly insignificant ;
and even before the war was ended Bismarck was
preparing for an understanding with Austria and with
the South German states that should minimize the risk
of a French attack. By the preliminary treaty of peace signed
at Nikolsburg on the 26th of July the great objects for which
Prussia had fought were fully secured. By Article
I. the integrity of the Austrian monarchy was pre-
served, with the exception of Lombardo-Venetia;
by Article II. Austria consented to " a new organiza-
tion of Germany without the participation of the empire of
Austria," consented to " the closer union " to be founded by
the king of Prussia to the north of the Main, and to the German
States south of the Main entering into a union, the national
relations of which with the North German Confederation were to
be " the subject of an ulterior agreement between the two
panics "; by Article III. Austria transferred all her rights in
Schleswig and Holstein to Prussia, reserving the right of the people
of north Schleswig to be again united to Denmark should they
" express a desire to be so by a vote freely given "; by Article
V. the territory of Saxony was to remain intact. These Articles,
enbodying the more important terms, were included with slight
verbal alterations in the treaty of peace signed at Prague on the
23rd of August. Separate treaties of peace had been signed with
Wurttemberg on the ijth, with Baden on the i;th and with
Bavaria on the 22nd of August; treaties with Hesse-Darmstadt
followed on the 3rd of September, with Saxe-Meiningen
on 'k* 8l k of OctODer an( l w ' tn SUK> n y on the zist.
The other unfortunate North German states which
had sided with Austria were left to their fate, and on
the 20th of September King William issued a decree annexing
Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau and the free city of Frankfort
to the Prussian monarchy, and bringing them under the Prussian
constitution.
The return of King William to his capital had been a triumphal
progress;
and Bismarck had shared to the full the new-born
popularity of his master. He seized the occasion to
make his peace with Liberal sentiment, and the bill
of indemnity for past ministerial breaches of the
constitution was carried in the new Prussian diet with
enthusiasm. On the 24th of February 1867 the constituent
diet of the confederation, elected by universal suffrage and
the ballot, met in Berlin, and soon accepted in its essential
features the constitution submitted to it. It was arranged that
the headship of the confederation should be hereditary, that it
should belong to the king of Prussia, and that legislative functions
should be exercised by a federal council (Bundesral), repre-
sentative of the various governments, and by a diet (Bundestag)
elected by the whole people.
The federal parliament began at once the task of consolidating
the new institutions. In the sessions of 1869 and 1870 it estab-
lished a supreme tribunal of commerce, sitting in
Leipzig, and passed a new penal code. Great as were
these results, they did not satisfy the aspirations
of patriotic Germans, who, having so suddenly and so unex-
pectedly approached unity, longed that the work should be
completed. A party called the National Liberals was formed,
whose main object was to secure the union of South with North
Germany, and it at once entered into peculiar relations with
Bismarck, who, in spite of his native contempt for parliaments
and parliamentary government, was quite prepared to make use
of any instruments he found ready to his hand. There was,
indeed, plentiful need for some show of concession to Liberal
sentiment, if a union of hearts was to be established between the
South and North Germans. The states south of the Main had
issued from the war as sovereign and independent powers, and
they seemed in no great haste to exchange this somewhat pre-
carious dignity either for a closer alliance among each other
or with the North German Confederation. The peoples, too,
fully shared the dislike of their rulers to the idea of a closer union
mat.
with North Germany. The democrats hated Prussia as " the
land of the corporal's stick," and Bismarck as the very incarna-
tion of her spirit. The Roman Catholics hated her as the land
far excellence of Protestantism and free thought. Nothing but
the most powerful common interests could have drawn the
dissevered halves of Germany together. This sense of common
interests it was Bismarck's study to create. An important
step was taken in 1867 by the conclusion of a treaty
with the southern slates, by which it was agreed that
all questions of customs should be decided by the
federal council and the federal diet, and that, for the
consideration of such questions, the southern states should send
representatives to Berlin. In reality, however, the customs
parliament (Zollparlamenl) was of little service beyond the
limits of its special activity. In the election to the south
customs parliament in 1868, WUrttcmberg did not re- Otrmma
turn asinglc deputy who was favourable to the national hottmty
cause; in Bavaria the anti-nationalists had a large toualoa -
majority; and even in Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt, where the
opposition to Prussia was less severe, a powerful minority of
the deputies had no liking for Bismarck and his ways. Thus the
customs parliament was kept rigidly to the objects for which it
was founded, greatly to the disappointment of patriots who had
not doubted that it would become an effective instrument for
the attainment of far larger purposes. Had the completion of
unity depended wholly on internal causes, it certainly would
not have been soon achieved; but other forces, not
altogether unexpectedly, came to Bismarck's aid.
France had been irritated by the enormous increase
of Prussian power, and even before the treaty of Prague was
signed the emperor Napoleon III. indicated a wish to be
" compensated " with the left bank of the Rhine. This was a
claim exactly calculated to play into Bismarck's hands. The
communication of the French emperor's original proposals to
the South German governments, whose traditional policy had
been to depend on France to save them from the ambitions of the
German great powers, was enough to throw them into the arms
of Prussia. The treaties of peace between Prussia and the South
German states were accompanied by secret treaties of offensive
and defensive alliance, under which the supreme command in
war was to be given to the Prussian king. A common war
against a common enemy now appeared the surest means of
welding the dissevered halves of Germany together, and for
this war Bismarck steadily prepared. There were soon plentiful
signs of where this enemy was to be sought. On the I4th of
March 1867 Thiers in the French Chamber gave voice to the
indignation of France at the bungling policy that had suffered
the aggrandizement of Prussia. The reply of Bismarck was
to publish (March 19) the secret treaties with the South German
states. War was now only a question of time, and the study of
Bismarck was to bring it on at the moment most favourable
to Germany, and by a method that should throw upon France
the appearance of being the aggressor. The European situation
was highly favourable. France was hampered by the Roman
question, which divided her own counsels while it embroiled her
with Italy; the Luxemburg question, arising out of her con-
tinued demand for " compensation," had only served to isolate
her still further in Europe. French patriotic feeling, suspicious,
angry and alarmed, needed only a slight provocation to cause it
to blaze up into an uncontrollable fever for war.
The provocation was supplied at the right moment by the candi-
daturcof the prince of Hohenzollern for the vacant crown of Spain.
To bring the Peninsula under French influence had nt
been for centuries the ambition of French statesmen; ttobea-
it was intolerable that it should fall to a " Prussian " xoiicra
prince and that France should be threatened by
this new power not only from the east but from the
south. High language was used at Paris; and the French am-
bassador, Count Benedetti, was instructed to demand from the
king of Prussia the withdrawal of the Hohenzollern candidature.
The demand was politely but firmly refused, and Bismarck,
judging that the moment had come for applying the match to
8 74
GERMANY
[HISTORY
/S77.
the powder magazine, published an " edited " version of the
telegram from the king describing the episode, a version which
" without the addition of a single word " turned the refusal
into an insult. The " Ems telegram " made the con-
F raac m tinuance of peace impossible; on the I4th of July
War. Napoleon III. signed the declaration of war; and on
the 2nd of August the affair of Saarbriicken opened
the struggle which was to cause the downfall of the French and
the creation of the German empire (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR).
On the i8th of January 1871, ten days before the capitulation
Prociama- of Paris, William I., king of Prussia, was proclaimed
tionofthe German emperor in the great hall of the palace of
German Versailles, on the initiative of the king of Bavaria, the
most powerful of the South German sovereigns, the
traditional ally of France. The cession of Alsace and the greater
part of Lorraine, wrested two centuries before by Louis XIV.
from the Holy Empire, was the heaviest part of the price that
France had to pay for peace (treaty of Frankfort, May 10,
1871). (W. A. P.)
The foundation of the empire in 1871 begins a new era in the
history of Germany. The rivalry of the dynasties to which
for so long the interests of the nation had been
sacrincec ^ now ceased. By the treaties of Versailles
t* 16 kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurttemberg, and the
grand-duchy of Baden, as well as the southern provinces
of the grand-duchy of Hesse, were added to the North German
Confederation. Henceforward all the German states that had
survived the struggle of 1866, with the exception of the empire
of Austria, the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, and the principality
of Liechtenstein, were incorporated in a permanent federal
state under the leadership of Prussia. The revision in 1871
made no important alterations in the constitution of 1867.
The states retained their autonomy except in those matters
which were expressly transferred to the imperial authorities;
the princes retained their sovereignty; the king of Prussia,
though he now took the title of German emperor, was only
primus inter pares; he was president of the confederation, but
had no suzerainty over the other princes. None the less, from
this time the acts of the state governments and parliaments
have ceased to have more than a local importance; the history
of the nation is centred in Berlin, in the Bundesrat or federal
council, in which the interests of the individual states are
represented; in the Reichstag, in which the feelings and wishes
of the nation are expressed; and above all, in the Prussian
government and imperial executive.
The new constitution has stood the test. The number of states
of which the empire consists has remained unaltered; 1 occasional
disputes have been settled harmoniously in a legal
r * e em ' manner. The special rights reserved to Bavaria and
^he states. Wurttemberg have not proved, as was feared, a danger
to the stability of the empire. Much apprehension
had been cause4 by the establishment of a permanent committee
for iocrtjfj affcira in the Bundesrat, over which the Bavarian
representative was to preside; but the clause remained a dead
letter. There is no record that the committee ever met until
July 1900, when it was summoned to consider the situation in
China; and on that occasion it probably formed a useful support
to the government, and helped to still apprehension lest a too
adventurous policy should be pursued. Another clause deter-
mined that in a division in the Reichstag on any law which did
not concern the whole empire, the representatives of those states
which were not concerned should not vote. This, had it been
retained, would have destroyed the coherence of the Reichstag
as representative of the whole nation. It was repealed in 1873.
The permission to maintain diplomatic missions has been equally
harmless: most of the states have recalled all their diplomatic
representatives; Saxony, Bavaria and Wurttemberg have
maintained only those at Vienna, the Vatican and at St Peters-
_ * The only formal change is that the duchy of Lauenburg, which
since 1865 had been governed by the king of Prussia as a separate
principality (but without a vote in the Bundesrat), was in 1876
incorporated in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein.
burg. Bavaria has even voluntarily adopted many imperial
laws from which it was legally exempted; for instance, the laws
of settlement.
If the states have been loyal to the empire, the imperial govern-
ment has also respected the constitutional -privileges of the states.
The harmonious working of the constitution depends
on the union of policy between the empire and Prussia,
for it is the power of Prussia which gives strength to empire.
the empire. This was practically secured by the fact
that the emperor, who is king of Prussia, appoints the chancellor,
and the chancellor is generally president of the Prussian ministry
as well as minister of foreign affairs in his person the govern-
ment of the two is identified. For twenty years the double
office was held by Bismarck, who, supported as he was by the
absolute confidence of the emperor, and also of the allied princes,
held a position greater than that ever attained by any subject
in modern Europe since the time of Richelieu. For ten months
in 1873 he, indeed, resigned the office of minister-president to
Roon; and in the same way Caprivi, during the years 1893-1894,
held the chancellorship alone; but in neither case was the
experiment successful, and Hohenlohe and Btilow adhered to the
older plan. So important is the practical co-operation of the
imperial administration and the Prussian government, that it has
become customary to appoint to seats in the Prussian ministry
the more important of the secretaries of state who administer
imperial affairs under the chancellor. Delbruck, head of the
imperial chancery, had held this position since 1868; in 1877
Biilow, secretary of state for foreign affairs, was appointed
Prussian minister, and this has become the ordinary practice.
One result of this is to diminish the control which the Prussian
parliament is able to maintain over the Prussian ministry.
In the federal council Prussian policy nearly always prevails,
for though Prussia has only seventeen votes out of fifty-eight, the
smaller states of the North nearly always support her; practically
she controls the vote of Waldeck and since 1885 those of Bruns-
wick. A definite defeat of Prussia on an important question
of policy must bring about a serious crisis; it is generally avoided
because, as the meetings are secret, an arrangement or com-
promise can be made. Bismarck, knowing that nothing would
more impede the consolidation of the empire than an outbreak
of local patriotism, always so jealous of its rights, generally used
his influence to avoid constitutional disputes, and discouraged
the discussion of questions which would require an authoritative
interpretation of the constitution. It was, however, opposition
in the Bundesrat which obliged him to abandon his scheme for
imperial railways, and when, in 1877, it was necessary to deter-
mine the seat of the new supreme court of justice, the proposal
of the government that Berlin should be chosen was out-voted
by thirty to twenty-eight in favour of Leipzig. On this occasion
Bismarck accepted the decision, but when important interests
were at stake he showed himself as ready to crush opposition
as in the older days, as in the case of Hamburg and Bremen.
The great personal qualities of the reigning emperors and the
widely extended family connexions of the house of Hohenzollern
have enabled them to hold with ease their position as leaders
among the ruling families. So far as is known, with one or two
unimportant exceptions, the other princes loyally accepted their
new position. It is only as regards the house of Brunswick
that the older dynastic questions still have some political
importance.
The other princes who were dispossessed in 1866 have all
been reconciled to Prussia. The elector of Hesse and the duke
of Nassau have formally relinquished their claims. H an over.
In 1883 the daughter of the duke of Augustenburg, the
former claimant to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein,
married the heir to the Prussian throne, who became William II.
On the other hand, the royal family of Hanover has never ceased
to protest against the acts by which they were deprived of their
dominions. King George to the end of his days, whether in
Austria or in France, still regarded himself as in a state of war
with Prussia. As he had used his large personal property to
organize a regiment in order to regain his possessions, the Prussian
HISTORY]
GERMANY
875
government had sequestrated that part of his income, amounting
to tome 50,000, over which they had control, and used it as
secret service money chiefly for controlling the press; to this
fund the name " Welfen-Fond " was commonly given. After
1870 the Hanoverian regiment was disbanded, but the sequestra-
tion continued. The death of the old king in 1878 made no
difference, for his son in a letter to the king of Prussia announced
that he assumed and maintained all his father's rights, and that
he did not recognize the legal validity of the acts by which he
was, as a matter of fact, prevented from enjoying them. His
protest was supported by a considerable number of his former
subjects, who formed a party in the Reichstag. The marriage
of the duke of Cumberland (the title by which the king called
himself till he could come into his possessions) with Princess
Thyra of Denmark in the same year was made the occasion of a
great demonstration, at which a deputation of the Hanoverian
nobility assured the duke of their continued attachment to his
home.
After Bismarck's retirement the emperor attempted to bring
about a reconciliation with the duke and the Hanoverians. His
attention had been drawn to the bad moral effect of the use to
which the Welfen-Fond was applied, and on the duke of Cumber-
land writing him a letter, in which, while maintaining his claims
to the throne of Hanover, he recognized the empire and undertook
not to support any enterprise against the empire or Prussia, with
the consent of the Prussian parliament the sequestration of his
property was removed. The attitude of passive resistance is,
however, still maintained, and has affected the position of the
duchy of Brunswick.
In 1884 William, duke of Brunswick, died after a reign of
fifty-four years. The younger son of the duke who fell at
Quatre Bras, he had been called to the throne in 1831
to take the place of his elder brother Charles, who had
been deposed. Duke Charles had died at Geneva in
1873, and as both brothers were childless the succession
went to the duke of Cumberland as head of the younger branch
of the house of B runs wick- Liineburg. Duke William before his
death had arranged that the government should be carried on
by a council of regency so long^ as the heir was prevented from
actually assuming the government; at the end of a year a
regent was to be chosen from among the non-reigning German
princes. He hoped in this way to save his duchy, the last
remnant of the dominions of his house, from being annexed by
Prussia. As soon as he died the town was occupied by the
Prussian troops already stationed therein; the duke of Cumber-
land published a patent proclaiming his succession; the council
of state, however, declared, in agreement with the Bundesrat,
that the relations in which he stood to the kingdom of Prussia
were inconsistent with the alliances on which the empire was
based, and that therefore he could not assume the government.
The claim of the duke of Cambridge as the only male heir of full
age was referred to the Bundesrat, but the duke refused to bring
it before that body, and after a year the Brunswick government
elected as regent Prince Albert of Hohenzollern, to hold office
so long as the true heir was prevented from entering on his rights.
On the death of Prince Albert in September 1006, the Brunswick
diet petitioned the Bundesrat to allow the youngest son of the
duke of Cumberland to succeed to the duchy on renouncing his
personal claims to the crown of Hanover. This was refused,
and on the j8th of May 1907 Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin was elected regent by the diet. Under the regency of
Prince Albert, Brunswick, which had hitherto steadily opposed
all attempts to assimilate and subordinate its institutions to
those of Prussia, though it retained formal independence, was
brought into very dose dependence upon Prussia, as is the case
with all the other northern states. In them the armies are
incorporated in the Prussian army; the railways are generally
merged in the Prussian system; indirect taxation, post office,
TrMir*_ anc ^ ncar 'x tne w hole of the judicial arrangements are
imperial. None, however, has yet imitated the prince of
Waldeck, who in 1867, at the wish of his own subjects, transferred
the administration of his principality to Prussia. The local estates
still meet, and the principality still forms a separate administra-
tive district, but it is managed by a director appointed by Prussia.
The chief reason for this act was that the state could not meet
the obligations laid upon it under the new system, and the re-
sponsibility for any deficit now rests with Prussia.
A curious difficulty, a relic of an older state of society, arose
in the principality of Lippc, in consequence of the extinction
of the elder ruling line and a dispute as to the succession .
(see LIPPE). Some political importance attached to
the case, for it was not impossible that similar difficulties might
occur elsewhere, and the open support given by the emperor
to the prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, who had married his sister,
caused apprehension of Prussian aggression.
A much more serious question of principle arose from the
peculiar circumstances of Mecklenburg. The grand-duchies,
which, though divided between two lines of the ducal nMtct-
house, had a common constitution, were the only kaburg
state in Germany in which the parliament still took the *
form of a meeting of the estates the nobility and the **"*'
cities and had not been altered by a written constitution.
Repeated attempts of the grand-dukes to bring about a reform
were stopped by the opposition of the Ritterschaft. Buffing,
one of the Mecklenburg representatives in the Reichstag, there-
fore proposed to add to the imperial constitution a clause that
in every state of the confederation there should be a parlia-
mentary assembly. This was supported by all the Liberal party
and carried repeatedly ; of course it was rejected by the Bundesrat,
for it would have established the principle that the constitution
of each state could be revised by the imperial authorities, which
would have completely destroyed their independence. It is
noticeable that in 1894 when this motion was introduced it was
lost; a striking instance of the decay of Liberalism.
The public political history of Germany naturally centres
around the debates in the Reichstag, and also those in the
Prussian parliament. In the Prussian parliament Public
are discussed questions of education, local government, mtfmin:
religion and direct taxation, and though of course it politic*!
is only concerned with Prussian affairs, Prussia is so pmr
large a part of Germany that its decisions have a national import-
ance. A very large number of the members of the Reichstag
and of the Prussian parliament sit in both, and the parties in
the two are nearly identical. In fact, the political parties in
the Reichstag are generally directly descended from the older
Prussian parties.
The first place belongs to the Conservatives, who for twenty
years had been the support of the Prussian government. The
party of the feudal aristocracy in North Germany, they
were strongest in the agricultural districts east of the
Elbe; predominantly Prussian in origin and in feeling,
they had great influence at court and in the army, and desired
to maintain the influence of the orthodox Lutheran Church. To
them Bismarck had originally belonged, but the estrangement
begun in 1866 constantly increased for the next ten years.
A considerable number of the party had, however, seceded in
1867 and formed a new union, to which was given the name of
the Deutsche Reichspartei (in the Prussian House they were called
the Frei Consenativen) . These did not include any prominent
parliamentary leaders, but many of the most important ministers
and officials, including Moltke and some of the great nobles.
They were essentially a government party, and took no part in
the attacks on Bismarck, which came from the more extreme
Conservatives, the party of the Kreuzzeiiung.
The events of 1866 had brought about a similar division
among the Progressives. A large section, including the most
important leaders, determined to support Bismarck
in his national policy and to subordinate to this, ubr**i*.
though not to surrender, the struggle after constitu-
tional development. Under the name of National-Liberal- Partei
they became in numbers as in ability the strongest party both in
Prussia and the empire. Essentially a German, not a Prussian,
party, they were joined by the Nationalists from the annexed
provinces of Hanover and Hesse; in 1871 they were greatly
876
GERMANY
[HISTORY
strengthened by the addition of the National representatives
from the southern states; out of fourteen representatives from
Baden twelve belonged to them, seventeen out of eighteen
Wurttemberger, and a large majority of the Bavarians. It was
on their support that Bismarck depended in building up the
institutions of the empire. The remainder of the Progressives,
the Fortschriltspartei, maintained their protest against the
military and monarchical elements in the state; they voted
against the constitution in 1867 on the ground that it did not
provide sufficient guarantees for popular liberty, and in 1871
against the treaty with Bavaria because it left too much inde-
pendence to that state. Their influence was strongest in Berlin,
and in the towns of East Prussia; they have always remained
characteristically Prussian.
These great parties were spread over the whole of Germany,
and represented the great divisions of political thought. To
them must be added others which were more local, as the Volks-
partei or People's party in Wurttemberg, which kept alive the
extreme democratic principles of 1848, but was opposed to
Socialism. They had been opposed to Prussian supremacy, and
in 1870 for the time completely lost their influence, though they
were to regain it in later years.
Of great importance was the new party of the Centre. Till
the year 1863 there had been a small party of Catholics in the
The Prussian parliament who received the name of the
Centre. Centrum, from the part of the chamber in which they
sat. They had diminished during the years of conflict
and disappeared in 1866. In December 1870 it was determined
to found a new party which, while not avowedly Catholic,
practically consisted entirely of Catholics. The programme
required the support of a Christian-Conservative tendency;
it was to defend positive and historical law against Liberalism,
and the rights of the individual states against the central power.
They were especially to maintain the Christian character of the
schools. Fifty-four members of the Prussian parliament at once
joined the new party, and in the elections for the Reichstag in
1871 they won sixty seats. Their strength lay in Westphalia
and on the Rhine, in Bavaria and the Polish provinces of Prussia.
The close connexion with the Poles, the principle of federalism
which they maintained,the support given to them by the Bavarian
" patriots," their protest against the " revolution from above "
as represented equally by the annexation of Hanover and the
abolition of the papal temporal power, threw them into strong
opposition to the prevailing opinion, an opposition which re-
ceived its expression when Hermann von Mallincrodt (1821-
1874), the most respected of their parliamentary leaders, declared
that " justice was not present at the birth of the empire." For
this reason they were generally spoken of by the Nationalist
parties as Reichsfeindlich.
This term may be more properly applied to those who still
refuse to recognize the legality of the acts by which the empire
was founded. Of these the most important were the so-called
Guelphs(Welfen), described by themselves as the Hannoverische
Rechtspartei, member of the old Hanoverian nobility who repre-
sented the rural districts of Hanover and still regarded the
deposed King George V. and, after his death, the duke of Cumber-
land as their lawful sovereign. In the elections of 1898 they still
returned nine members to the Reichstag, but in those of 1903
their representation had sunk to six, and in 1907 it had practi-
cally disappeared. A similar shrinkage has been displayed in the
case of the protesting Alsace-Lorrainers, who returned only two
deputies in 1907. A pleasant concession to Hanoverian feeling
was made in 1899, when the emperor ordered that the Hanoverian
regiments in the Prussian army should be allowed to assume
the names and so continue the traditions of the Hanoverian
army which was disbanded in 1866.
The government has also not succeeded in reconciling to the
empire the alien races which have been incorporated in the
Pgli^ kingdom of Prussia. From the Polish districts of
West Prussia, Posen and Silesia a number of repre-
sentatives have continued to be sent to Berlin to protest against
their incorporation in the empire. Bismarck, influenced by the
older Prussian traditions, always adopted towards them an atti-
tude of uncompromising opposition. The growth of the Polish
population has caused much anxiety; supported by the Roman
Catholic Church, the Polish language has advanced, especially in
Silesia, and this is only part of the general, tendency, so marked
throughout central Europe, for the Slavs to gain ground upon the
Teutons. The Prussian government has attempted to prevent
this by special legislation and severe administrative measures.
Thus in 1885 and 1886 large numbers of Austrian and Russian
Poles who had settled in these provinces were expelled. Wind-
thorst thereupon raised the question in the Reichstag, but the
Prussian government refused to take any notice of the inter-
polation on the ground that there was no right in the constitution
for the imperial authority to take cognizance of acts of the
Prussian government. In the Prussian parliament Bismarck
introduced a law taking out of the hands of the local authorities
the whole administration of the schools and giving them to the
central authority, so as to prevent instruction being given in
Polish. A further law authorized the Prussian government to
spend 5,000,000 in purchasing estates from Polish families
and settling German colonists on the land. The commission,
which was appointed for the purpose, during the next ten years
bought land to the amount of about 200, ooo acres and on it
settled more than 2000 German peasants. This policy has not,
however, produced the intended effect; for the Poles founded
a society to protect their own interests, and have often managed
to profit by the artificial value given to their property. It has
merely caused great bitterness among the Polish peasants, and
the effect on the population is also counteracted by the fact that
the large proprietors in purely German districts continue to
import Polish labourers to work on their estates.
In the general change of policy that followed after the retire-
ment of Bismarck an attempt was made by the emperor to con-
ciliate the Poles. Concessions were made to them in the matter
of schools, and in 1891 a Pole, Florian von Stablewski (1841-
1906), who had taken a prominent part in the Kulturkampf,
was accepted by the Prussian government as archbishop of Posen-
Gnesen. A moderate party arose among the Poles which
accepted their position as Prussian subjects, gave up all hopes
of an immediate restoration of Polish independence, and limited
their demands to that free exercise of the religion and language
of their country which was enjoyed by the Poles in Austria.
They supported government bills in the Reichstag, and won
the commendation of the emperor. Unfortunately, for reasons
which are not apparent, the Prussian government did not
continue a course of conciliation; in 1901 administrative edicts
still further limited the use of the Polish language; even religious
instruction was to be given in German, and an old royal ordinance
of 1817 was made the pretext for forbidding private instruction
in Polish.
All these efforts have been in vain. The children in the schools
became the martyrs of Polish nationality. Religious instruction
continued to be given to them in German, and when they refused
to answer questions which they did not understand, they were
kept in and flogged. In 1906, as a protest, the school children
to the number of 100,000 struck throughout Prussian Poland;
and, as a result of a pastoral issued by the archbishop, Polish
parents withdrew their children from religious instruction in the
schools. The government responded by fining and imprisoning
the parents. The efforts of the government were not confined
to the forcible Germanization of the children. Polish newspapers
were confiscated and their editors imprisoned, fines were imposed
for holding Polish meetings, and peasants were forbidden to
build houses on their own land. The country gentlemen could
not have a garden party without the presence of a commissary
of police.
The climax, however, was reached in 1907 when Prince Billow,
on the 26th of November, introduced into the Prussian parlia-
ment a bill to arm the German Colonization Committee in Posen
with powers of compulsory expropriation. He pointed out that
though the commission had acquired 815,000 acres of land and
settled upon it some 100,000 German colonists, nearly 250,000
HISTORY)
GERMANY
877
i more had pasted from German into Polish hands. He pro-
pOMd, therefore, to set aside a credit of 17,500,000 for this
purpose. On the 261 h of February 1008 the discussion on this
bill was continued, Count Arnim defending it on the ground that
" conciliation had failed and other measures must now be tried!"
The Poles were aiming at raising their standard of civilization
and learning and thus gradually expelling the Germans, and this,
together with the rapid growth of the IV>lish population, con-
stituted a grave danger. These arguments were reinforced by an
appeal of Prince Billow to the traditions of Bismarck, and in
spite of a strenuous and weighty opposition, the bill with certain
modifications passed by 143 votes to in in the Upper House,
and was accepted by the Lower House on the 131(1 of March.
A bill forbidding the use of any language but German at public
meetings, except by special permission of the police, had been
laid before the Reichstag in 1907 by Prince Billow at the same
time as he bad introduced the Expropriation Bill into the Prussian
parliament. The bill, with certain drastic amendments limiting
its scope, passed the House on the 8th of April by a majority of
200 to 179. This law gave increased freedom in the matter of
the right of association and public meeting; but in the case of
the Poles it was applied with such rigidity that, in order to evade
it they held " mute " public meetings, resolutions being written
up in Polish on a blackboard and passed by show of hands,
without a word being said. 1
Compared with the Polish question, that of the Danes in North
Schleswig is of minor importance ; they number less than 1 50,000,
and there is not among them, as among the Poles,
the constant encroachment along an extended line of
frontier; there is also no religious question involved. These
Danish subjects of Germany have elected one member to the
Reichstag, whose duty is to demand that they should be handed
over to Denmark. Up to the year 1878 they could appeal to
the treaty of Prague; one clause in it determined that the
inhabitants of selected districts should be allowed to vote
whether they should be Danish or German. This was inserted
merely to please Napoleon; after his fall there was no one to
demand its execution. In 1878, when the Triple Alliance was
concluded, Bismarck, in answer to the Guelphic demonstration
at Copenhagen, arranged with Austria, the other party to the
treaty of Prague, that the clause should lapse. Since then the
Prussian government, by prohibiting the use of Danish in the
schools and public offices, and by the expulsion from the country
of the numerous Danish optants who had returned to Schleswig,
has used the customary means for compelling all subjects of the
king to become German in language and feeling. 1
The attempt to reconcile the inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine
to their condition proved equally difficult. The provinces had
been placed under the immediate rule of the emperor
and the chancellor, who was minister for them; laws
were to be passed by the Reichstag. In accordance
with the treaty of Frankfort, the inhabitants were permitted to
choose between French and German nationality, but all who
chose the former had to leave the country; before the ist of
October 1872, the final day, some 50,000 had done so. In 1874,
for the first time, the provinces were enabled to elect members for
the Reichstag; they used the privilege to send fifteen Elsauer,
who, after delivering a formal protest against the annexation,
retired from the House; they joined no party, and took little
part in the proceedings except on important occasions to vote
against the government. The same spirit was shown in the
elections for local purposes. It seemed to be the sign of a change
when a new party, the Autonomiiten, arose, who demanded as
a practical concession that the dictatorship of the chancellor
should cease and local self-government be granted. To some
extent this was done in 1879; a resident governor or Statlhalter
was appointed, and a local representative assembly, which was
consulted as to new laws. All the efforts of Field marshal
1 See Annual Register (1908), pp. 289 et aeq.
' The whole question is exhaustively treated from the Danish point
at view in La Question de Slesvig (Copenhagen, 1906), a collective
work edited by F. de Jesaens.
nlorm.
Edwin von Manteuffel, the first governor, to win the confidence
of the people failed; the anti-German feeling increased; the
party of protestors continued in full numbers. The next governor,
Prince Hohenlohe, had to use more stringent measures, and in
1888, to prevent the agitation of French agents, an imperial
decree forbade any one to cross the frontier without a passport.
Since 1890 there has been, especially in the neighbourhood of
Strassburg, evidence of a spread of national German feeling,
probably to a great extent due to the settlement of Germans
from across the Rhine.
The presence of these anti-German parties, amounting some-
times to one-tenth of the whole, in the Reichstag added greatly
to the difficulty of parliamentary government. Gradually, how-
ever, as a new generation grew up their influence declined. In
the Reichstag of 1907, Guelphs, Alsace-Lorrainers and Danes
together could muster only five members.
The great work since 1870 has been that of building up the
institutions of the empire. For the first time in the history
of Germany there has been a strong administration
ordering, directing and arranging the life of the whole
nation. The unification of Germany was not ended
by the events of 1866 and 1871; it was only begun.
The work has throughout been done by Prussia; it has been the
extension of Prussian principles and Prussian administrative
energy over the whole of Germany. It naturally falls into two
periods; the first, which ends in 1878, is that in which Bismarck
depended on the support of the National Liberals. They were
the party of union and uniformity. The Conservatives were
attached to the older local diversities, and Bismarck had therefore
to turn for help to his old enemies, and for some years an alliance
was maintained, always precarious but full of results.
The great achievement of the first period was legal reform.
In nothing else was legislation so much needed. Forty-six
districts have been enumerated, each of which enjoyed
a separate legal system, and the boundaries of these
districts seldom coincided with the frontiers of the
states. Everywhere the original source of law was the old German
common law, but in each district it had been wholly or partly
superseded by codes, text-books and statutes to a great extent
founded on the principles of the Roman civil law. Owing to
the political divisions, however, this legislation, which reached
back to the I4th century, had always been carried out by local
authorities. There had never been any effective legislation
applicable to the whole nation. There was not a state, not the
smallest principality, in which some authoritative but imperfect
law or code had not been published. Every free city, even an
imperial village, had its own " law," and these exist down to the
present time. In Bremen the foundation of the civil code was
still the statutes of 1433; in Munich, those of 1347. Most of
the states by which these laws had been published had long ago
ceased to exist; probably in every case their boundaries had
changed, but the laws remained valid (except in those cases in
which they had been expressly repealed) for the whole of the
district for which they had been originally promulgated. Let
us take a particular case. In 1 591 a special code was published
for the upper county of Katzellenbogen. More than a hundred
years ago Katzellenbogen was divided between the neighbouring
states. But till the end of the njth century this code still re-
tained its validity for those villages in Hesse, and in the Prussian
province of Hesse, which in old days had been parts of Katzellen-
bogen. The law, however, had to be interpreted so as to take
into consideration later legislation by the kingdom of Westphalia,
the electorate of Hesse, and any other state(and they are several)
in which for a short time some of these villages might have been
incorporated.
In addition to these earlier imperfect laws, three great codes
have been published, by which a complete system was applied
to a large district: the Prussian Code of 1794, the Austrian
Code of 18 1 1 and the Code Napollon, which applied to all
Germany left of the Rhine; for neither Prussia, nor Bavaria, nor
Hesse had ever ventured to interfere with the French law. In
Prussia therefore the older provinces came under the Prussian
8 7 8
GERMANY
[HISTORY
Code, the Rhine provinces had French law, the newly annexed
provinces had endless variety, and in part of Pomerania con-
siderable elements of Swedish law still remained, a relic of the
long Swedish occupation. On the other hand, some districts
to which the Prussian Code applied no longer belonged to the
kingdom of Prussia for instance, Anspach and Bayreuth, which
are now in Bavaria. In other parts of Bavaria in the same
way Austrian law still ran, because they had been Austrian in
1811. In two states only was there a more or less uniform
system : in Baden, which had adopted a German translation of
the Code Napoleon; and in Saxony, which had its own code,
published in 1865. In criminal law and procedure there was an
equal variety. In one district was trial by jury in an open court ;
in another the old procedure by written pleadings before a judge.
In many districts, especially in Mecklenburg and some of the
Prussian provinces, the old feudal jurisdiction of the manorial
courts survived.
The constant changes in the law made by current legislation
in the different states really only added to the confusion, and
though imperial laws on these points with which the central
government was qualified to deal superseded the state laws, it is
obvious that to pass occasional acts on isolated points would
have been only to introduce a further element of complication.
It was therefore convenient, so far as was possible, to allow
the existing system to continue until a full and complete code
dealing with the whole of one department of law could be agreed
upon^and thus a uniform system (superseding all older legislation)
be adopted. Legislation, therefore, has generally taken the form
of a series of elaborate codes, each of which aims at scientific
completeness, and further alterations have been made by amend-
ments in the original code. The whole work has been similar in
character to the codification of French law under Napoleon;
in most matters the variety of the older system has ceased, and
the law of the empire is now comprised in a limited number of
codes.
A beginning had been made before the foundation of the
empire; as early as 1861 a common code for trade, commerce
and banking had been agreed upon by the states included in the
Germanic Confederation. It was adopted by the new confedera-
tion of 1869. In 1897 it was replaced by a new code. In 1869
the criminal law had been codified for the North German Con-
federation, and in 1870 there was passed the Gewerbeordnung,
an elaborate code for the regulation of manufactures and the
relations of masters to workmen. These were included in the
law of the empire, and the work was vigorously continued.
In 1871 a commission was appointed to draw up regulations
for civil and criminal procedure, and also to frame regulations
for the organization of the law courts. The draft code of civil
procedure, which was published in December 1872, introduced
many important reforms, especially by substituting public and
verbal procedure for the older German system, under which the
proceedings were almost entirely carried on by written documents.
It was very well received. The drafts for the other two laws
were not so successful. Protests, especially in South Germany,
were raised against the criminal procedure, for it was proposed
to abolish trial by jury and substitute over the whole empire the
Prussian system, and a sharp conflict arose as to the method of
dealing with the press. After being discussed in the Reichstag,
all three projects were referred to a special commission, which
after a year reported to the diet, having completely remodelled
the two latter laws. After further amendment they were
eventually accepted, and became law in 1877. By these and
other supplementary laws a uniform system of law courts was
established throughout the whole empire; the position and pay
of the judges, the regulations regarding the position of advocates,
and costs, were uniform, and the procedure in every state was
identical. To complete the work a supreme court of appeal was
established in Leipzig, which was competent to hear appeals
not only from imperial law, but also from that of the individual
states.
By the original constitution, the imperial authorities were
only qualified to deal with criminal and commercial law; the
whole of the private law, in which the variety was greatest,
was withdrawn from their cognizance. Lasker, to remedy this
defect, proposed, therefore, an alteration in the constitution,
which, after being twice carried against the opposition of the
Centre, was at last accepted by the Bundesrat. A commission
was then appointed to draw up a civil code. They completed
the work by the end of 1887; the draft which they then published
was severely criticized, and it was again submitted for revision
to a fresh commission, which reported in 1895. In its amended
form this draft was accepted by the Reichstag in 1896, and it
entered into force on the ist of January 1900. The new Civil
Code deals with nearly all matters of law, but excludes those
concerning or arising out of land tenure and all matters in which
private law comes into connexion with public law; for instance,
the position of government officials, and the police: it excludes
also the relations of master and servant, which in most points
are left to the control of individual states. It was accompanied
by a revision of the laws for trade and banking.
Equal in importance to the legal was the commercial reform,
for this was the condition for building up the material prosperity
of the country. Germany was a poor country, but the
poverty was to a great extent the result of political * oni " .
causes. Communication, trade, manufactures, were reform.
impeded by the political divisions, and though the
establishment of a customs union had preceded the foundation
of the empire, the removal of other barriers required imperial
legislation. A commoto system of weights and measures was
introduced in 1868. The reform of the currency was the first task
of theempire. In 1871 Germanystill hadseven different systems;
the most important was the Thaler and the Groschen, which pre-
vailed over most of North Germany, but even within this there
were considerable local differences. Throughout the whole of
the south of Germany and in some North German states the
gulden and kreuzer prevailed. Then there were other systems
in Hamburg and in Bremen. Everywhere, except in Bremen,
the currency was on a silver basis. In addition to this each
state had its own paper money, and there were over 100 banks
with the right of issuing bank-notes according to regulations
which varied in each state. In 1871 a common system for the
whole empire was established, the unit being the M ark ( = i i-fd.) ,
which was divided into a hundred Pfennige: a gold currency
was introduced (Doppel-Kronen= 20 M.; Kronen \Q M.)',
no more silver was to be coined, and silver was made a legal
tender only up to the sum of twenty marks. The gold required
for the introduction of the new coinage was provided from the
indemnity paid by France. Great quantities of thalers, which
hitherto had been the staple of the currency, were sold. The
right of coinage was, however, left to the individual states, and as
a special concession it was determined that the rulers of the states
should be permitted to have their head placed on the reverse of
the gold coins. All paper currency, except that issued by the
empire, ceased, and in 1873 the Prussian Bank was converted
into the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank) .
Closely connected with the reform of the currency and the
codification of the commercial law was the reform of the bank-
ing laws. Here the tendency to substitute uniform
imperial laws for state laws is clearly seen. Before
1870 there had been over 100 banks with the right of
issue, and the conditions on which the privilege was granted
varied in each state. By the Bank Act of March 14, 1875,
which is the foundation of the existing system, the right of
granting the privilege is transferred from the governments of
the states to the Bundesrat. The existing banks could not be
deprived of the concessions they had received, but unless they
submitted to the regulations of the new law their notes were not
to be recognized outside the limits of the state by which the
concession had been granted. All submitted to the conditions
except the Brunswick Bank, which remained outside the banking
system of the empire until the Bank Act of June 5, 1906,
was passed, when it surrendered its right to issue notes. The
experience of Germany in this matter has been different from
that of England, for nearly all the private banks have now
Banking
laws.
HISTORY)
GERMANY
879
surrendered their privilege, and there remain only five banks,
including the Reichsbank, which still issue bank notes. The other
four arc situated in Bavaria, Saxony, WUrttemberg and Baden.
The total note-issue was fixed by the law of 1875, a proposal being
assigned to each bank. Any pan of this issue assigned to private
banks which might be withdrawn from circulation, owing to a
deficiency in the legal reserve funds, was to be transferred to the
Reichsbank. The result has been the tendency of the latter
gradually to absorb the whole note-issue. By the law of 1906
the Reichsbank was authorized to issue 20 M. and 50 M. notes.
Treasury notes (Rticks-Kiusensdieinr) for these amounts were
no longer to be issued; but the state reserved the right to
circulate notes of the value of 5 M. and 10 M.
The organization of the imperial post-office was carried out
with great success by Heir von Stephan (?..), who remained at
the head of this department from its creation till his death in
1897. Proposals were also made to Bavaria and WUrttemberg to
surrender their special rights, but these were not accepted.
The unification of the railways caused greater difficulties.
Nearly every state had its own system; there was the greatest
9mgw variety in the methods of working and in the tariffs, and
the through traffic, so important for the commercial
prosperity of the country, was very ineffective. In Baden,
Wurttemberg and Hanover the railways were almost entirely
the property of the state, but in all other pans public and private
lines existed side by side, an arrangement which seemed to
combine the disadvantages of both systems. In 1871 three-
quarters of the railway lines belonged to private companies,
and the existence of these powerful private corporations, while
they were defended by many of the Liberals, was, according to
the national type of thought, something of an anomaly. Bis-
marck always attached great importance to the improvement
of the railway service, and he saw that uniformity of working
and of tariffs was very desirable. In the constitution of the
empire he had introduced several clauses dealing with it. The
independent administration of its lines by each state was left,
but the empire received the power of legislating on railway
matters; it could build lines necessary for military purposes
even against the wish of the state in whose territory they lay,
and the states bound themselves to administer their lines as part
of a common system. In order to carry out these clauses a law
was passed on the 27th of June 1873 creating an imperial railway
office (Reichseisenbahnamt) for the purpose of exercising a general
control over the railways. This office has done much in
the matter of unifying the systems of various railways and of
regulating their relations to the military, postal and telegraph
organizations; it also took a leading part in the framing of the
international laws regarding goods traffic; but the imperial
code of railway law which it drafted has never been laid before
the Reichstag. It effectively controls only the privately owned
lines in Prussia. Yet, in setting it up, Bismarck had in mind
the ultimate acquisition of all the railways by the empire. He
found, however, that it was impossible to carry any Bill enforcing
this. He therefore determined to begin by transferring to the
imperial authority the Prussian state railways; had he been able
to carry this out the influence of the imperial railways would
have been so great that they would gradually have absorbed
those of the other states. The Bill was carried through the
Prussian parliament, but the opposition aroused in the other
states was so great that he did not venture even to introduce
in the Bundesrat a law empowering the empire to acquire the
Prussian railways. In many of the state parliaments resolutions
were carried protesting against the system of imperial railways,
and from that time the preservation of the local railway manage-
ment has been the chief object towards which, in Saxony, Bavaria
and WUrttemberg, local feeling has been directed. The only
imperial railways are those in Alsace-Lorraine.
The result of the legal reform and other laws has been greatly
to diminish the duties of the state governments, for every new
imperial law permanently deprives the local parliaments of part
of their authority. Generally there remains to them the control
of education and religion their most important duty police,
all questions connected with land tenure, local government,
the raising of direct taxes, and, in the larger states, the manage-
ment of railways. The introduction of workmen's insurance,
factory legislation, and other measures dealing with the condition
of the working classes by imperial legislation, was at a later
period still further to limit the scope of state legislation.
Meanwhile the government was busy perfecting the administra-
tion of the national defences. From the war indemnity large
sums had been expended on coast defence, on fortifica-
tions and on replacing the equipment and stores ^"M/M.
destroyed during the war. A special fund, producing (/.
annually about a million pounds, was put aside, from
which pensions to the wounded, and to the widows and orphans
of those who had fallen, should be provided. It was also desir-
able to complete the military organization. It must be remem-
bered that technically there is no German army, as there is no
German minister of war. Each state, however small, maintains
its own contingent, subject to its own prince, who has the right
and the obligation of administering it according to the provisions
of the treaty by which he entered the federation. Practically
they are closely tied in every detail of military organization.
The whole of the Prussian military system, including not only
the obligation to military service, but the rules for recruiting,
organization, drill and uniforms, has to be followed in all the
states; all the contingents are under the command of the emperor,
and the soldiers have to swear obedience to him in addition to the
oath of allegiance to their own sovereign. It is therefore not
surprising that, having so little freedom in the exercise of their
command, all the princes and free cities (with the exception of
the three kings) arranged separate treaties with the king of
Prussia, transferring to him (except for certain formal rights)
the administration of their contingents, which are thereby
definitely incorporated in the Prussian army. The first of these
treaties was arranged with Saxe-Coburg Gotha in 1861; those
with the other North German states followed at short intervals
after 1866. The lost was that with- Brunswick, which was
arranged in 1885; Duke William had always refused to surrender
the separate existence of his army. Owing to the local organiza-
tion, this does not prevent the contingent of each state from
preserving its separate identity; it is stationed in its own district,
each state contributing so many regiments.
In 1872 a common system of military jurisprudence was
introduced for the whole empire except Bavaria (a revised code
of procedure in military courts was accepted by Bavaria
in 1898); finally, in February 1874, an important
law was laid before the Reichstag codifying the
administrative rules. This superseded the complicated system
of laws and royal ordinances which had accumulated in Prussia
during the fifty years that had elapsed since the system of short
service had been introduced; the application to other states
of course made a clearer statement of the laws desirable. Most
of this was accepted without opposition or debate. On one clause
a serious constitutional conflict arose. In 1867 the peace
establishment had been provisionally fixed by the constitution
at i% of the population, and a sum of 225 thalers (33, 155.)
had been voted for each soldier. This arrangement had in 1871
been again continued to the end of 1874, and the peace estab-
lishment fixed at 401,659. The new law would have made this
permanent. If this had been done the power of the Reichstag
over the administration would have been seriously weakened ;
its assent would no longer have been required for either the
number of the army or the money. The government attached
great importance to the clause, but the Centre and the Liberal
parties combined to throw it out. A disastrous struggle was
averted by a compromise suggested by Bennigsen. The numbers
were fixed for the next seven years (the so-called Septennat);
this was accepted by the government, and carried against the
votes of the Centre and some of the Progressives. On this
occasion the Fortschrittpartei, already much diminished, split
up into two sections. The principle then established has since
been maintained; the periodical votes on the army have become
the occasion for formally testing the strength of the Government.
ThtStp-
t*eott.
88o
GERMANY
[HISTORY
The influence of Liberalism, which served the government so
well in this work of construction, brought about also the conflict
Kuitur w ^ tne R man Catholic Church which distracted
kampf. Germany for many years. The causes were, indeed,
partly political. The Ultramontane party in Austria,
France and Bavaria had, after 1866, been hostile to Prussia;
there was some ground to fear that it might still succeed in
bringing about a Catholic coalition against the empire, and
Bismarck lived in constant dread of European coalitions. The
Polish sympathies of the Church in Germany made him regard
it as an anti-German power, and the formation of the Catholic
faction in parliament, supported by Poles and Hanoverians,
appeared to justify his apprehensions. But besides these reasons
of state there was a growing hostility between the triumphant
National parties and the Ultramontanes, who taught that the
pope was greater than the emperor and the Church than the
nation. The conflict had already begun in Baden. As in every
other country, the control of the schools was the chief object
of contention, but the government also claimed a control over
the education and training of the clergy. With the formation of
the empire the conflict was transferred from Baden to Prussia,
where there had been for thirty years absolute peace, a peace
gained, indeed, by allowing to the Catholics complete freedom;
the Prussian constitution ensured them absolute liberty in the
management of ecclesiastical affairs; in the ministry for religion
and education there was a separate department for Catholic
affairs, and (owing to the influence of the great family of the
Radziwills) they enjoyed considerable power at court.
The latent opposition was aroused by the Vatican decrees.
A small number of Catholics, including several men of learning
ou and distinction, refused to accept Papal Infallibility.
Catholics. They were encouraged by the Bavarian court, which
maintained the Febronian tradition and was jealous
of any encroachment of the Papacy (see FEBRONIANISM) ; but
besides this the Protestants throughout Germany and all
opponents of the Papacy joined in the agitation. They made it
the occasion for an attack on the Jesuits; even in 1869 there had
been almost a riot in Berlin when a chapel belonging to a religious
order was opened there. During 1870 and 1871 meetings were
held by the Gustavus Adolphus Verein, and a great Protestant
conference was called, at which resolutions were passed demand-
ing the expulsion of the Jesuits and condemning the Vatican
decrees. As the leaders in these meetings were men like Virchow
and Bluntschli, who had been lifelong opponents of Catholicism
in every form, the result was disastrous to the Liberal party
among the Catholics, for a Liberal Catholic would appear as the
ally of the bitterest enemies of the Church; whatever possibility
of success the Old Catholic movement might have had was
destroyed by the fact that it was supported by those who
avowedly wished to destroy the influence of Catholicism. No
bishop joined it in Germany or in Austria, and few priests, though
the governments were ready to protect them in the enjoyment
of the privileges secured to Catholics, and to maintain them in the
use of the temporalities. There was no great following among
the people; it was only in isolated places that priests a.nd con-
gregation together asserted their rights to refuse to accept the
decrees of the Church. Without the help of the bishops, the
leaders had no legal basis; unsupported by the people, they
were generals without an army, and the attempt to use the
movement for political purposes failed.
None the less this was the occasion for the first proceedings
against the Catholics, and curiously enough the campaign began
in Bavaria. The archbishop of Munich had published the
Vatican decrees without the Regium placetum, which was re-
quired by the constitution, and the government continued to
treat Old Catholics as members of the Church. In the con-
troversy which ensued, Lutz, the chief member of the ministry,
found himself confronted by an Ultramontane majority, and the
priests used their influence to stir up the people. He therefore
turned for help to the imperial government, and at his instance
a clause was added to the penal code forbidding priests in their
official capacity to deal with political matters. (This law, which
still exists, is popularly known as the Kanzlei or Pulpit-para-
graph.) It was of course opposed by the Centre, who declared
that the Reichstag had no right to interfere in what was after
all a religious question, and the Bavarian Opposition expressed
much indignation that their government should turn for help
to the Protestants of the North in order to force upon the
Catholics of Bavaria a law which they could not have carried
in that state.
For twenty years the Old Catholics continued to be a cause
of contention in Bavaria, until the struggle ended in the victory
of the Ultramontanes. In 1875 the parliament which had been
elected in 1869 for six years came to an end. In order to
strengthen their position for the new elections, the Liberal
ministry, who owed their position chiefly to the support of the
king, by royal ordinance ordered a redistribution of seats. By
the constitution this was within their power, and by clever
manipulation of the constituencies they brought it about that the
Ultramontane majority was reduced to two. It does not appear
that this change represented any change of feeling in the majority
of the people. The action of the government, however, caused
great indignation, and in a debate on the address an amendment
was carried petitioning the king to dismiss his ministry. They
offered their resignation, but the king refused to accept it,
publicly expressed his confidence in them, and they continued in
office during the lifetime of the king, although in 1881 the growing
reaction gave a considerable majority to the Ultramontane
party. After the death of the king the prince-regent, Luitpold,
still retained the old administration, but several concessions
were made to the Catholics in regard to the schools and univer-
sities, and in 1890 it was decided that the claim of the Old
Catholics to be regarded officially as members of the Church
should no longer be recognized.
Meanwhile at Berlin petitions to the Reichstag demanded the
expulsion of the Jesuits, and in 1872 an imperial law to this
effect was carried ; this was again a serious interference
.. r May Laws.
with the control over religious matters reserved to
the states. In Prussia the government, having determined to
embark on an anti-Catholic policy, suppressed the Catholic
division in the ministry, and appointed a new minister, Falk,
a Liberal lawyer of uncompromising character. A law was
carried placing the inspection of schools entirely in the hands of
the state; hitherto in many provinces it had belonged to the
clergy, Catholic or Protestant. This was followed by the measures
to which the name Kulturkampf really applied (an expression used
first by Virchow to imply that it was a struggle of principle
between the teaching of the Church and that of modern society).
They were measures in which the state no longer, as in the school
inspection law or in the introduction of civil marriage, defended
its prerogatives against the Church, but assumed itself a direct
control over ecclesiastical matters.
At the end of 1872 and the beginning of 1873 Falk laid before
the Prussian Lower House the draft of four laws. Of these, one
forbade ministers of religion from abusing ecclesiastical punish-
ment; the second, which was the most important, introduced a
law already adopted in Baden, that no one should be appointed
to any office in the Church except a German, who must have
received his education in a German gymnasium, have studied
for three years in a German university, and have passed a state
examination in philosophy, history, German literature and
classics; all ecclesiastical seminaries were placed under the
control of the state, and all seminaries for boys were forbidden.
Moreover, every appointment to an ecclesiastical benefice was to
be notified to the president of the province, and the confirmation
could be refused on the ground that there were facts which could
support the assumption that the appointment would be dangerous
to public order. The third law appointed a court for trying
ecclesiastical offences, to which was given the right of suspending
both priests and bishops, and a fourth determined the procedure
necessary for those who wished to sever their connexion with the
Roman Catholic Church.
As these laws were inconsistent with those articles of the
Prussian constitution which guaranteed to a religious corporation
HISTORY]
GERMANY
881
the independent management of its own affairs, it was therefore
Decenary to alter the constitution. This was done, and a later
law in 1875 repealed the articles altogether.
The opposition of the bishops to these laws was supported
even by many Protestants, especially by the more orthodox
Lutherans, who feared the effect of this increased subjection
of all churches to the state; they were opposed also by the
Conservative members of the Upper House. All, however, was
unavailing. Bismarck in this case gave the Liberals a free hand,
and the laws eventually were carried and proclaimed on the
i$th of May 1873; hence they got the name of the May laws, by
which they are always known. The bishops meanwhile had
held a meeting at Fulda, at the tomb of St Boniface, whence
they addressed a protest to the king, and declared that they
would be unable to recognize the laws as valid. They were
supported in this by the pope, who addressed a protest personally
to the emperor. The laws were put into force with great severity.
Within a year six Prussian bishops were imprisoned, and in over
1300 parishes the administration of public worship was suspended.
The first sufferer was the cardinal archbishop of Posen, Count
Ledochowski. He refused to report to the president of the
province appointments of incumbents; he refused also to allow
the government commissioners to inspect the seminaries for
priests, and when he was summoned before the new court refused
to appear. He was then deprived of the temporalities of his office ;
but the Polish nobles continued to support him, and he continued
to act as bishop. Heavy fines were imposed upon him, but he
either could not or would not pay them, and in March 1874
he was condemned to imprisonment for two years, and dismissed
from his bishopric. The bishop of Trier, the archbishop of
Cologne, and other bishops soon incurred a similar fate. These
measures of the government, however, did not succeed in winning
over the Catholic population, and in the elections for the Reichs-
tag in January 1874 the party of the Centre increased in number
from 63 to 91; 1,443,170 votes were received by them. In
Bavaria the Ultramontanes won a complete victory over the
more moderate Catholics. The Prussian government proceeded
to further measures. According to the ordinary practice towards
panics in opposition, public meetings were broken up on the
smallest pretence, and numerous prosecutions for insult to
government officials (Beamltnbeleidigung) were brought against
members of the party. The Catholic agitation was, however,
carried on with increased vigour throughout the whole empire;
over a hundred newspapers were founded (three years before
there had been only about six Catholic papers in the whole of
Germany), and great numbers of pamphlets and other polemical
works were published. The bishops from their prisons continued
to govern the dioceses; for this purpose they appointed repre-
sentatives, to whom they transferred their rights as ordinary
and secretly authorized priests to celebrate services and to
perform the other duties of an incumbent. To meet this a
further law was passed in the Prussian parliament, forbidding
the exercise of ecclesiastical offices by unauthorized persons,
and it contained a provision that any one who had been convicted
under the law could be deprived of his rights of citizenship,
ordered to live in a particular district, or even expelled from the
kingdom. The result was that in numerous parishes the police
were occupied in searching for the priest who was living there
among the people; although his habitation was known to
hundreds of people, the police seldom succeeded in arresting him.
Bismarck confesses that his doubts as to the wisdom of this
legislation were raised by the picture of heavy but honest
gem formes pursuing light-footed priests from house to house.
This law was followed by one authorizing the government to
suspend, in every diocese where the bishop continued recalcitrant,
the payment of that contribution to the Roman Catholic Church
which by agreement had been given by the state since 1817.
The only result of this was that large sums were collected by
voluntary contribution among the Roman Catholic population.
The government tried to find priests to occupy the vacant
parishes; few consented to do so, and the Slaatskatholiken who
consented to the new laws were avoided by their parishioners.
*""'
Men refused to attend their ministrations; in some cases
they were subjected to what was afterwards called boycotting,
and it was said that their lives were scarcely safe. Other
laws excluded all religious orders from Prussia, and civil marriage
was made compulsory; this law, which at first was confined
to Prussia, was afterwards passed also in the Reichstag.
These laws were all peculiar to Prussia, but similar legislation
was carried out in Baden and in Hesse, where in 1871, after
twenty-one years of office, the particularist and Conservative
government of Dolwigk 1 had come to an end and after the
interval of a year been succeeded by a Liberal ministry. In
WUrtterabcrg alone the government continued to live peaceably
with the bishops.
The government had used all its resources; it had alienated
millions of the people; it had raised up a compact party of nearly
a hundred members in parliament. The attempt of the Liberals
to subjugate the Church had given to the Papacy greater power
than it had had since the time of Wallcnstein.
The ecclesiastical legislation and other Liberal measures
completed the alienation between Bismarck and the Conserva-
tives. In the Prussian parliament seventy-three RtKtioa
members broke off from the rest, calling them- m x aiatt
selves the "old Conservatives"; they used their
position at court to intrigue against him, and hoped to
bring about his fall; Count A mini (q.v.) was looked upon as his
successor. In 1876, however, the party in Prussia, reunited on
a programme which demanded the maintenance of the Christian
character of the schools, cessation of the Kulturkampf, limitation
of economic liberty, and repression of social democracy, and this
was accepted also by the Conservatives in the Reichstag. This
reunion of the Conservatives became the nucleus of a great
reaction against Liberalism. It was not confined to any one
department of life, but included Protection as against Free Trade,
State Socialism as against individualism, the defence of religion
as against a separation of Church and State, increased stress
laid on the monarchical character of the state, continued increase
of the army, and colonial expansion.
The causes of the change in public opinion, of which this was
to be the beginning, are too deep-seated to be discussed here.
We must note that it was not peculiar to Germany; it was part
of that great reaction against Liberal doctrine which marked
the lost quarter of the igth century in so many countries. In
Germany, however, it more rapidly attained political importance
than elsewhere, because Bismarck used it to carry out a great
change of policy. He had long been dissatisfied with his position.
He was much embarrassed by the failure of his ecclesiastical
policy. The alliance with the Liberals had always been half-
hearted, and he wished to regain his full freedom of action; he
regarded as an uncontrollable bondage all support that was not
given unconditionally. The alliance had been of the nature of a
limited co-operation between two hostile powers for a definite
object; there had always been suspicion and jealousy on either
side, and a rupture had often been imminent, as in the debates on
the military bill and the law reform. Now that the immediate
object had been attained, he wished to pass on to other projects
in which they could not follow him. Political unity had been
firmly established; he desired to use the whole power of the
imperial government in developing the material resources of the
country. In doing this he placed himself in opposition to both
the financial and the economic doctrines of the Liberals.
The new period which now begins was introduced by some
alterations in the official organization. Hitherto almost the
whole of the internal business had been concentrated
in the imperial chancery (Reichskanzleramt), and
Bismarck had allowed great freedom of action to
Dclbriick, thchcadof theoffice. DclbrUck, however, had resigned
in 1876, justly foreseeing that a change of policy was imminent
1 Reinhard Karl Friedrich von Dalwigk (1802-1880). Though a
Lutheran, he had been accused in 1854 of an excessive subserviency
to the Roman Catholic Church. He was responsible for the policy
which threatened to involve the grand-duchy of Hesse in the fate
of the Electorate in 1866. But it was due to his diplomatic skill
that Upper Hesse was saved for the grand-duke.
882
GERMANY
[HISTORY
in which he could no longer co-operate with Bismarck. The work
of the office was then divided between several departments,
at the head of each of which was placed a separate official, the
most important receiving the title of secretary of state. Bis-
marck, as always, refused to appoint ministers directly re-
sponsible either to the emperor or to parliament; the new officials
in no way formed a collegiate ministry or cabinet. He still
retained in his own hands, as sole responsible minister, the
ultimate control over the whole imperial administration. The
more important secretaries of state, however, are political
officials, who are practically almost solely responsible for their
department; they sit in the Bundesrat, and defend their policy
in the Reichstag, and they often have a seat in the Prussian
ministry. Moreover, a law of 1878, the occasion of which was
Bismarck's long absence from Berlin, empowered the chancellor
to appoint a substitute or representative (Stellvertreter) either
for the whole duties of his office or for the affairs of a particular
department. The signature of a man who holds this position
gives legal validity to the acts of the emperor.
This reorganization was a sign of the great increase of work
which had already begun to fall on the imperial authorities, and
was a necessary step towards the further duties which Bismarck
intended to impose upon them.
Meanwhile the relations with the National Liberals reached
a crisis. Bismarck remained in retirement at Varzin for nearly
a year; before he returned to Berlin, at the end of 1877, he was
visited by Bennigsen, and the Liberal leader was offered the post
of vice-president of the Prussian ministry and vice-president
of the Bundesrat. The negotiations broke down, apparently
because Bennigsen refused to accept office unless he received a
guarantee that the constitutional rights of the Reichstag should
be respected, and unless two other members of the party, Forcken-
beck and Stauffenberg, were given office. Bismarck would not
assent to these conditions, and, even if he had been willing to do
so, could hardly have overcome the prejudices of the emperor.
On the other hand, Bennigsen refused to accept Bismarck's
proposal for a state monopoly of tobacco. From the beginning
the negotiations were indeed doomed to failure, for what Bismarck
appears to have aimed at was to detach Bennigsen from the rest
of his party and win his support for an anti-Liberal policy.
The session of 1878, therefore, opened with a feeling of great
uncertainty. The Liberals were very suspicious of Bismarck's
intentions. Proposals for new taxes, especially one on
after f7 tobacco, were not carried. Bismarck took the oppor-
tunity of avowing that his ideal was a monopoly of
tobacco, and this statement was followed by the resignation
of Camphausen, minister of finance. It was apparent that
there was no prospect of his being able to carry through the
great financial reform which he contemplated. He was looking
about for an opportunity of appealing to the country on some
question which would enable him to free himself from the control
of the Liberal majority. The popular expectations were ex-
pressed in the saying attributed to him, that he would " crush
the Liberals against the wall." The opportunity was given by
the Social Democrats.
The constant increase of the Social Democrats h/d for some
years caused much uneasiness not only to the government,
but also among the middle classes. The attacks on
national feeling, the protest against the war of 1870,
cracy. the sympathy expressed for the Communards, had
offended the strongest feelings of the nation, especially
as the language used was often very violent; the soldiers were
spoken of as murderers, the generals as cut-throats. Attacks
on religion, though not an essential part of the party programme,
were common, and practically all avowed Social Democrats
were hostile to Christianity. These qualities, combined with the
open criticism of the institutions of marriage, of monarchy,
and of all forms of private property, joined to the deliberate
attempt to stir up class hatred, which was indeed an essential
part of their policy, caused a widespread feeling that the Social
Democrats were a serious menace to civilization. They were
looked upon even by many Liberals as an enemy to be crushed ;
much move was this the case with the government. Attempts
had already been made to check the growth of the party. Charges
of high treason were brought against some. In 1872 Bebel and
Liebknecht were condemned to two years' imprisonment. In
1876 Bismarck proposed to introduce into the Criminal Code a
clause making it an offence punishable with two years' imprison-
ment " to attack in print the family, property, universal military
service, or other foundation of public order, in a manner which
undermined morality, feeling for law, or the love of the Father-
land." The opposition of the Liberals prevented this from being
carried. Lasker objected to these " elastic paragraphs," an ex-
pression for which in recent years there has been abundant use.
The ordinary law was, however, sufficient greatly to harass the
Socialists. In nearly every state there still existed, as survivals
of the old days, laws forbidding the union of different political
associations with one another, and all unions or associations of
working men which followed political, socialistic or communistic
ends. It was possible under these to procure decisions in courts
of justice dissolving the General Union of Workers and the coali-
tions and unions of working men. The only result was, that the
number of Socialists steadily increased. In 1874 they secured
nine seats in the Reichstag, in 1877 twelve, and nearly 500,000
votes were given to Socialist candidates.
There was then no ground for surprise that, when in April
1878 an attempt was made on the life of the emperor, Bismarck
used the excuse for again bringing in a law expressly ifgltlM ,
directed against the Socialists. It was badly drawn up tion
and badly defended. The National Liberals refused to against
voteforit,anditwaseasilydefeated. TheReichstagwas *? e
prorogued; six days later a man named Nobiling again
shot at the emperor, and this time inflicted dangerous injuries.
It is only fair to say that no real proof was brought that the
Socialists had anything to do with either of these crimes, or that
either of the men was really a member of the Socialist party;
nevertheless, a storm of indignation rose against them. The
government seized the opportunity. So great was the popular
feeling, that a repressive measure would easily have been carried;
Bismarck, however, while the excitement was at its height,
dissolved the Reichstag, and in the elections which took place
immediately, the Liberal parties, who had refused to vote for the
first law, lost a considerable number of seats, and with them their
control over the Reichstag.
The first use which Bismarck made of the new parliament was
to deal with the Social Democrats. A new law was introduced
forbidding the spread of Socialistic opinions by books, news-
papers or public meetings, empowering the police to break up
meetings and to suppress newspapers. The Bundesrat could
proclaim a state of siege in any town or district, and when this
was done any individual who was considered dangerous by the
police could be expelled. The law was carried by a large majority,
being opposed only by the Progressives and the Centre. It was
applied with great severity. The whole organization of news-
papers, societies and trades unions was at once broken up.
Almost every political newspaper supported by the party was
suppressed; almost all the pamphlets and books issued by them
were forbidden; they were thereby at once deprived of the only
legitimate means which they had for spreading their opinions.
In the autumn of 1878 the minor state of siege was proclaimed
in Berlin, although no disorders had taken place and no resistance
had been attempted, and sixty-seven members of the party
were excluded from the city. Most of them were married and
had families; money was collected in order to help those who
were suddenly deprived of their means of subsistence. Even this
was soon forbidden by the police. At elections every kind of
agitation, whether by meetings of the party or by distribution
of literature, was suppressed. The only place in Germany
where Socialists could still proclaim their opinions was in the
Reichstag. Bismarck attempted to exclude them from it also.
In this, however, he failed. Two members who had been ex-
pelled from Berlin appeared in the city for the meeting of the
Reichstag at the end of 1878. The government at once asked
permission that they should be charged with breaking the law.
HISTORY]
GERMANY
883
The constitution provided that no member of the House might
be brought before a court of justice without the permission of
the House, a most necessary safeguard. In this case the per-
mission was almost unanimously refused. Nor did they assent
to Bismarck's proposal that the Reichstag should assume power
to exclude from the House members who were guilty of mis-
using the liberty of speech which they enjoyed there. Bismarck
probably expected, and it is often said that he hoped, to drive
the Socialist} into some flagrant violation of the law, of such a
kind that it would be possible for him completely to crush them.
This did not happen. There were some members of the party
who wished to turn to outrage and assassination. Most, a printer
from Leipzig, who had been expelled from Berlin, went to
London, where he founded the Prakrit, a weekly paper, in which
he advocated a policy of violence. He was thereupon excluded
from the party, and after the assassination of the emperor
Alexander II. of Russia had to leave England for Chicago.
A similar expulsion befell others who advocated union with the
Anarchists. As a whole, however, the party remained firm in
opposition to any action which would strengthen the hands of
their opponents. They carried on the agitation as best they could,
chiefly by distributing reports of speeches made in the Reichstag.
A weekly paper, the Social-Democrat, was established at Zurich.
Its introduction into Germany was of course forbidden, but it
was soon found possible regularly to distribute thousands of
copies every week in every part of the country, and it continued
to exist till 1887 at Zurich, and till 1800 in London. In August
of 1880 a congress of Socialists was held at the castle of Wyden, in
Switzerland, at which about eighty members of the party met,
discussed their policy, and separated before the police knew
anything of it. Here it was determined that the members of
the Reichstag, who were protected by their position, should
henceforward be the managing committee of the party, and
arrangements were made for contesting the elections of 1881.
A similar meeting was held in 1883 at Copenhagen, and in 1887
at St Gallen, in Switzerland. Notwithstanding all the efforts of
UK government, though every kind of public agitation was for-
bidden, they succeeded in winning twelve seats in 1881. The
law, which had obviously failed, was renewed in 1881; the state
of siege was applied to Hamburg, Leipzig and Stettin, but all
to no purpose; and though the law was twice more renewed,
in 1886 and in 1888, the feeling began to grow that the Socialists
were more dangerous under it than they had been before.
The elections of 1878, by weakening the Liberal parties,
enabled Bismarck also to take in hand the great financial reform
which he had long contemplated.
At the foundation of the North German Confederation it had
been arranged that the imperial exchequer should receive the
^^ produce of all customs duties and also of excise. It
n f tfm depended chiefly on the taxes on salt, tobacco, brandy,
beer and sugar. So far as the imperial expenses were
not covered by these sources of revenue, until imperial taxes
were introduced, the deficit had to be covered by " matricular "
contributions paid by the individual states in proportion to their
population. All attempts to introduce fresh imperial taxes had
failed. Direct taxation was opposed by the governments of the
states, which did not desire to see the imperial authorities
interfering in those sources of revenue over which they had
hitherto had sole control; moreover, the whole organization
for collecting direct taxes would have had to be created. At
the same time, owing to the adoption of free trade, the income
from customs was continually diminishing. The result was that
the sum to be contributed by the individual states constantly
increased, and the amount to be raised by direct taxation,
including local rates, threatened to become greater than could
conveniently be borne. Bismarck had always regarded this
system with disapproval, but during the first four or five years he
had left the care of the finances entirely to the special officials,
and had always been thwarted in his occasional attempts to
introduce a change. His most cherished project was a large in-
crease in the tax on tobacco, which at this time paid, for home-
grown tobacco, the nominal duty of four marks per hundred
kilo, (about a farthing a pound), and on imported tobacco twenty-
four marks. Proposals to increase it had been made in 1869
and in 1878, and on the latter occasion Bismarck for the first
time publicly announced his desire for a state monopoly, a
project which he never gave up, but for which he never was able
to win any support. Now, however, he was able to take up the
work. At his invitation a conference of the finance ministers
met in July at Heidelberg; they agreed to a great increase in
the indirect taxes, but refused to accept the monopoly on tobacco.
At the beginning of the autumn session a union of 204 members
of the Reichstag was formed for the discussion of economic
questions, and they accepted Bismarck's reforms. In December
he was therefore able to issue a memorandum explaining his
policy; it included a moderate duty, about 5%, on all imported
goods, with the exception of raw material required for German
manufactures (this was a return to the old Prussian principle);
high finance duties on tobacco, beer, brandy and petroleum;
and protective duties on iron, corn, cattle, wood, wine and sugar.
The whole of the session of 1879 was occupied with the great
struggle between Free Trade and Protection, and it ended with
a decisive victory for the latter. On the one side p^, <ec< / 011
were the seaports, the chambers of commerce, and the
city of Berlin, the town council of which made itself the centre
of the opposition. The victory was secured by a coalition
between the agricultural interests and the manufacturers;
the latter promised to vote for duties on corn if the landlords
would support the duties on iron. In the decisive vote the duty
on iron was carried by 218 to 88, on corn by 226 to 109. The
principle of protection was thus definitely adopted, though
considerable alterations have been made from time to time in
the tariff. The result was that the income from customs and
excise rose from about 230 million marks in 1878-1879 to about
700 millions in 1898-1899, and Bismarck's object in removing
a great burden from the states was attained.
The natural course when the new source of income had been
obtained would have been simply to relieve the states of part
or all of their contribution. This, however, was not
done. The Reichstag raised difficulties on the con-
stitutional question. The Liberals feared that if the
government received so large a permanent source of
revenue it would be independent of parliament; the Centre,
that if the contributions of the states to the imperial exchequer
ceased, the central government would be completely independent
of the states. Bismarck had to come to an agreement with one
party or the other; he chose the Centre, probably for the reason
that the National Liberals were themselves divided on the policy
to be pursued, and therefore their support would be uncertain;
and he accepted an amendment, the celebrated Franckemtein
Clause, proposed by Georg Arbogast Freiherr von Franckenstein
(1825-1800), one of the leaders of the Centre, by which all pro-
ceeds of customs and the tax on tobacco above 130 million marks
should be paid over to the individual states in proportion to
their population. Each year a large sum would be paid to the
states from the imperial treasury, and another sum as before paid
back to meet the deficit in the form of state contributions.
From 1871 to 1879 the contribution of the states had varied
from 94 to 67 million marks; under the new system the surplus
of the contributions made by the states over the grant by the
imperial treasury was soon reduced to a very small sum, and in
1884-1885 the payments of the empire to the states exceeded
the contributions of the states to the empire by 20 million marks,
and this excess continued for many years; so that there was,
as it were, an actual grant in relief of direct taxation. In Prussia,
by the Lex Huene, from 1885 to 1895, all that sum paid to
Prussia, so far as it exceeded 1 5 million marks, was handed over
to the local authorities in relief of rates. The increased ex-
penditure on the navy after 1897 again caused the contributions
required from the states to exceed the grants to them from the
imperial exchequer. In 1903 Baron von Stengel, who succeeded
Baron von Thielmann as finance minister in this year, proposed
that the matricular contributions of the several states, instead
of varying as heretofore with the exigencies of the annual budget,
88 4
GERMANY
[HISTORY
Party
changes.
Seces-
sionists.
should be fixed by law. This plan, originally suggested by Dr
von Miquel, was adopted by the Reichstag in May 1904. The
deficits in the imperial budget, however, continued. In 1909
the whole system of German imperial finance was once more
in the melting-pot, and, in spite of the undoubted wealth of the
country, the conflict of state and party interests seemed to make
it practically impossible to remould it on a satisfactory basis.
The acceptance by Bismarck of the principle of Protection and
his alliance with the Catholic Centre were followed by the dis-
ruption of the National Liberal party and a complete
change in the parliamentary situation. Already the
Liberal ministers, Falk and Hobrecht, had resigned,
as well as Max von Forckenbeck the president, and Stauffenberg
the vice-president of the Reichstag; in their place there were
chosen a Conservative, and the Catholic Baron von Francken-
stein. The whole party had voted against the Franckenstein
Clause, but a few days later fifteen of the right wing left the party
and transferred their support to the government. For another
year the remainder kept together, but there was no longer any
real harmony or co-operation; in 1880 nineteen, including most
of the ablest leaders, Lasker, Forckenbeck, Bamberger and
Bunsen, left the party altogether. The avowed cause of difference
was commercial policy; they were the Free Traders, but they
also justly foresaw that the reaction would extend to other
matters. They took the name of the Liberate Vereini-
gung, but were generally known as the Sezessionisten;
they hoped to become the nucleus of a united Liberal
party in which all sections should join together on the principles
of Free Trade and constitutional development. At the elections
of 1 88 1 they secured forty-seven seats, but they were not strong
enough to maintain themselves, and with great reluctance
in 1884 formed a coalition with the Progressives (Freisinnigen),
who had gained greatly in strength owing to the breach among
the government parties. They did so reluctantly, because they
would thereby condemn themselves to assume that attitude of
purely negative criticism which, during the great days of their
prosperity, they had looked down upon with contempt, and were
putting themselves under the leadership of Eugen Richter, whom
they had long opposed. The new party, the Deutschfreisinnige,
had no success; at the election of 1884 they secured
only sixty-seven seats, a loss of thirty-nine; they were
subjected to all inconveniences which belonged to
opposition; socially, they were boycotted by all who were
connected with the court or government; they were cut off from
all hope of public activity, and were subjected to constant
accusations for Bismarck Beleidigung. Their only hope was in
the time when the crown prince, who had shown great sympathy
with them, should succeed. They were popularly known as the
crown prince's party. Lasker soon died; others, such as Forcken-
beck and Bunsen, retired from public life, unable to maintain
their position at a time when the struggle of class interests had
superseded the old conflicts of principle. At the election of 1887
they lost more than half their seats, and in 1893 the party again
broke up.
The remainder of the National Liberals only won forty-five
seats in 1881, and during the next three years they were without
influence on the government; and even Bennigsen, unable to
follow Bismarck in his new policy, disgusted at the proposals
for biennial budgets and the misuse of government influence at
the elections, retired from political life. In 1884 a new develop-
ment took place: under the influence of Miquel a meeting was
held at Heidelberg of the South German members of the party,
who accepted the commercial and social policy of the govern-
ment, including the Socialist law; their programme received
Bismarck's approval, and was accepted by the rest of the party,
so that they henceforward were taken into favour by the govern-
ment; but they had won the position by sacrificing almost all the
characteristics of the older Liberalism; the hope of a reunion
for all the different sections which had hitherto kept the name
of Liberal was at an end.
These events had a very unfortunate effect on the character
of the parliament. From 1878 to 1887 there was no strong party
Frelsla-
alge.
on which Bismarck could depend for support. After 1881 the
parties of opposition were considerably strengthened. Alsatians
and Poles, Guelphs, Clericals and Radicals were joined
in a common hostility to the government. Parlia-
mentary history took the form of a hostile criticism
of the government proposals, which was particularly bitter
because .of the irreconcilable opposition of the Free Traders.
Few of the proposals were carried in their entirety, many were
completely lost; the tobacco monopoly and the brandy monopoly
were contemptuously rejected by enormous majorities; even an
increase of the tax on tobacco was refused; the first proposals
for a subsidy to the Norddeutsche Lloyd were rejected. The
personal relations of the chancellor to Parliament were never so
bitter. At the same time, in Prussia there was a tendency to
make more prominent the power of the king and to diminish
the influence of the parliament. A proposal to introduce
biennial budgets was for this reason regarded with great suspicion
by the Opposition as a reactionary measure, and rejected. The
old feelings of suspicion and jealousy were again aroused; the
hostility which Bismarck encountered was scarcely less than
in the old days of the conflict. After the elections of 1881 a
protest was raised against the systematic influence exercised
by Prussian officials. Puttkammer, who had now become
minister of the interior, defended the practice, and a royal
edict of 4th January 1882 affirmed the monarchical character
of the Prussian constitution, the right of the king personally to
direct the policy of the state, and required those officials who held
appointments of a political nature to defend the policy of the
government, even at elections.
One result of the new policy was a reconciliation with the
Centre. Now that Bismarck could no longer depend on the
support of the Liberals, it would be impossible to carry
on the government if the Catholics maintained their
policy of opposition to all government measures,
They had supported him in his commercial reform
of 1878, but by opposing the Septennate in 1880 they had shown
that he could not depend upon them. It was impossible to con-
tinue to treat as enemies of the state a party which had supplied
one of the vice-presidents to the Reichstag, and which after the
election of 1881 outnumbered by forty votes any other single
party. Moreover, the government, which was now very seriously
alarmed at the influence of the Social Democrats, was anxious
to avail itself of every influence which might be used against
them. In the struggle to regain the adherence of the working
men it seemed as though religion would be the most valuable
ally, and it was impossible to ignore the fact that the Roman
Catholic priests had alone been able to form an organization in
which hundreds of thousands of working men had been enlisted.
It was therefore for every reason desirable to remedy a state of
things by which so many parishes were left without incumbents,
a condition the result of which must be either to diminish the hold
of Christianity over the people, or to confirm in them the belief
that the government was the real enemy of Christianity. It
was not easy to execute this change of front with dignity, and
impossible to do so without forsaking the principles on which
they had hitherto acted. Ten years were to pass before the work
was completed. But the cause of the conflict had been rather
in the opinions of the Liberals than in the personal desire of
Bismarck himself. The larger political reasons which had brought
about the conflict were also no longer valid; the fears to which
the Vatican decrees had given rise had not been fulfilled; the
failure of the Carlists in Spain and of the Legitimists in France,
the consolidation of the new kingdom in Italy, and the alliance
with Austria had dispelled the fear of a Catholic league. The
growth of the Catholic democracy in Germany was a much more
serious danger, and it proved to be easier to come to terms with
the pope than with the parliamentary Opposition. It would
clearly be impossible to come to any agreement on the principles.
Bismarck hoped, indeed, putting all questions of principle aside,
to establish a modus vivendi; but even this was difficult to attain.
An opportunity was given by the death of the pope in 1878.
Leo XIII. notified his accession to the Prussian government in
HISTORY]
GERMANY
885
courteous despatch; the interchange of letters was followed
by a confidential discussion between Bismarck and Cardinal
Kranchi at Kissingen during the summer of 1878. The hope
that this might bring about some agreement was frustrated by
the sudden death of the cardinal, and his successor was more
under the influence of the Jesuits and the more extreme party.
Bismarck, however, was not discouraged.
The resignation of Falk in July 1870 was a sign of the change
of policy; h was succeeded by Puttkammer, who belonged to
the old-fashioned Prussian Conservatives and had no sympathy
with the Liberal legislation. The way was further prepared
by a lenient use of the penal laws. On the 24th of February 1880
the pope, in a letter to the ex-archbishop of Cologne, said he was
willing to allow clerical appointments to be notified if the govern-
ment withdrew the obnoxious laws. In 1880 a provisional Bill
was submitted to parliament giving the crown discretionary
power not to enforce the laws. It was opposed by the Liberals
on the ground that it conceded too much, by the Clericals that
it granted too little, but, though carried only in a mutilated
form, it enabled the priests who had been ejected to appoint
substitutes, and religious worship was restored in nearly a
thousand parishes. In the elections of 1881 the Centre gained
five more seats, and in 1883 a new law was introduced prolong-
ing and extending that of 1881. Meanwhile a Prussian envoy
had again been appointed at the Vatican; all but three of the
vacant bishoprics were filled by agreement between the pope
and the king, and the sequestrated revenues were restored.
Finally, in 1886, a fresh law, besides other concessions, did
away with the Kultur Examen, and- exempted seminaries from
state control. It also abolished the ecclesiastical court, which,
in fact, had proved to be almost unworkable, for no priests
would appeal to it. By this, the real Kulturkampf, the attempt
of the state to control the intellect and faith of the clergy,
ceased. A further law of 1887 permitted the return to Prussia
of those orders which were occupied in charitable work.
As permanent results of the conflict there remain only the
alteration in the Prussian constitution and the expulsion of the
Jesuits; the Centre continued to demand the repeal of this,
and to make it the price of their support of government
measures; in 1897 the Bundesrat permitted the return of the
Redemptorists, an allied order. With these exceptions absolute
religious peace resulted; the Centre to a great extent succeeded
to the position which the National Liberals formerly held;
in Bavaria, in Baden, in Prussia they obtained a dominant
position, and they became a government party.
Meanwhile Bismarck, who was not intimidated by the parlia-
mentary opposition, irritating and embarrassing though it was,
resolutely proceeded with his task of developing the
mater ' a ' resources of the empire. In order to do so
tne better, he undertook, in addition to his other
offices, that of Prussian minister of commerce. He
was now able to carry out, at least partially, his railway schemes,
for he could afford to ignore Liberal dislike to state railways,
and if he was unable to make all the lines imperial, he could make
most of them Prussian. The work was continued by his suc-
cessors, and by the year 1806 there remained only about 2000
kilometres of private railways in Prussia; of these none except
those in East Prussia belonged to companies of any great import-
ance. More than this, Bismarck was able to obtain Prussian
control of the neighbouring states; in 1886 the Brunswick
railways were acquired by the Prussian government, and in 1895
the private lines in Thuringia. The imperial railways in Alsace-
Lorraine are managed in close connexion with the Prussian
system, and in 1895 an important step was taken towards ex-
tending Prussian influence in the south. A treaty was made
between Prussia and Hesse by which the two states together
bought up the Hesse-Ludwig railway (the most important
private company remaining in Germany), and in addition to
this agreed that they would form a special union for the joint
administration of all the lines belonging to either state. What
this mean* is that the Hessian lines are managed by the Prussian
department, but Hesse has the right of appointing one director,
and the expenses and profits arc divided between the two states
in proportion to their population. Thus a nucleus and precedent
has been formed similar U> that by which the Zollverein was begun,
and it was hoped that it might be possible to arrange similar
agreements with other states, so that in this way a common
management for all lines might be established. There is, how-
ever, strong opposition, especially in South Germany, and most
of the stales cling to the separate management of their own lines.
Fearful that Prussia might obtain control over the private lines,
they have imitated Prussian policy and acquired all railways
for the state, and much of the old opposition to Prussia is
revived in defence of the local railways.
A natural supplement to the nationalization of railways was
the development of water communication. This is of great
importance in Germany, as all the chief coal-fields and c*a*i
manufacturing districts Silesia, Saxony, Westphalia
and Alsace are far removed from the sea. The most important
works were the canal from Dortmund to the mouth of the Ems,
and the Jahde canal from the Ems to the Elbe, which enables
Westphalian coal to reach the sea, and so to compete better
with English coal. In addition to this, however, a large number
of smaller works were undertaken, such as the canalization of
the Main from Frankfort to the Rhine, and a new canal from
the Elbe to LUbeck. The great ship canal from Kiel to the Elbe,
which was begun in 1887 and completed in 1896, has perhaps
even more importance for naval than for commercial purposes.
The Rhine, so long the home of romance, has become one of the
great arteries of traffic, and lines of railways on both sides have
caused small villages to become large towns. The Prussian
government also planned a great scheme by which the West-
phalian coal-fields should be directly connected with the Rhine
in one direction and the Elbe in the other by a canal which
would join together Minden, Hanover and Magdeburg. This
would give uninterrupted water communication from one end
of the country to the other, for the Elbe, Oder and Vistula are
all navigable rivers connected by canals. This project, which
was a natural continuation of Bismarck's policy, was, however,
rejected by the Prussian parliament in 1899. The opposition
came from the Agrarians and extreme Conservatives, who feared
that it would enable foreign corn to compete on better terms
with German corn; they were also jealous of the attention paid
by the government to commercial enterprise in which they were
not immediately interested. The project was again laid by the
government before the Prussian Landtag on the I4th of April
1901 and was again rejected. In 1904 it was once more intro-
duced in the modified form of a proposal of a canal from the
Rhine to Leine in Hanover, with a branch from Datteln to Ham,
and also of a canal from Berlin to Stettin. This bill was passed
in February 1005.
Equally important was the action of the government in
developing foreign trade. The first step was the inclusion of
Hamburg and Bremen in the Zollverein; this was
necessary if German maritime enterprise was to become Hamburg
a national and not merely a local concern, for the two nma .
Hansa cities practically controlled the whole foreign
trade and owned three-quarters of the shipping; but so long
as they were excluded for the Customs Union their interests
were more cosmopolitan than national. Both cities, but especi-
ally Hamburg, were very reluctant to give up their privileges and
the commercial independence which they had enjoyed almost
since their foundation. As a clause in the constitution deter-
mined that they should remain outside the Customs Union until
they voluntarily offered to enter it, there was some difficulty
in overcoming their opposition. Bismarck, with characteristic
energy, proposed to take steps, by altering the position of the
imperial customs stations, which would practically destroy the
commerce of Hamburg, and some of his proposals which seemed
contrary to the constitution aroused a very sharp resistance in
the Bundesrat. It was, however, not necessary to go to ex-
tremities, for in 1 88 1 the senate of Hamburg accepted an agree-
ment which, after a keen struggle, was ratified by the citizens.
By this Hamburg was to enter the Zollverein; a part of the
886
GERMANY
[HISTORY
Colonies.
harbour was to remain a free port, and the empire contributed two
million pounds towards rearranging and enlarging the harbour.
A similar treaty was made with Bremen, the free port of that
city being situated near the mouth of the Weser at Bremerhaven;
and in 1888, the necessary works having been completed, the
cities entered the Customs Union. They have had no reason to
regret the change, for no part of the country profited so much by
the great prosperity of the following years, notwithstanding
the temporary check caused by the serious outbreak of cholera
at Hamburg in 1892.
During the first years of the empire Bismarck had occasionally
been asked to interest himself in colonial enterprise. He had
refused, for he feared that foreign complications
might ensue, and that the country might weaken itself
by dissipation of energy. He was satisfied that the Germans
should profit by the commercial liberty allowed in the British
colonies. Many of the Germans were, however, not contented
with this, and disputes regarding the rights of German settlers
in Fiji caused some change of feeling. The acquisition of German
colonies was really the logical and almost necessary sequel of
a protective policy. For that reason it was always opposed by
the extreme Liberal party.
The failure of the great Hamburg house of Godefroy in 1879
threatened to ruin the growing German industries in the South
Seas, which it had helped to build up. Bismarck therefore con-
sented to apply to the Reichstag for a state guarantee to a com-
pany which would take over its great plantations in Samoa.
This was refused, chiefly owing to the influence of the Liberal
party. Bismarck therefore, who took this rebuff much to heart,
said he would have nothing more to do with the matter, and
warned those interested in colonies that they must depend on
self-help; he could do nothing for them. By the support of
some of the great financial firms they succeeded in forming a
company, which carried on the business and undertook fresh
settlements on the islands to the north of New Guinea. This
event led also to the foundation of a society, the Deutscher
Kolonial Verein, under the presidency of the prince of Hohenlohe-
Langenburg, to educate public opinion. Their immediate
object was the acquisition of trading stations. The year 1884
brought a complete change. Within a few months Germany
acquired extended possessions in several parts both of Africa and
the South Seas. This was rendered possible owing to the good
understanding which at that time existed between Germany
and France. Bismarck therefore no longer feared, as he formerly
had, to encounter the difficulties with Great Britain which would
be the natural result of a policy of colonial expansion.
His conversion to the views of the colonial party was gradual,
as was seen in his attitude to the proposed acquisition of German
stations in South- West Africa. In Namaqualand and
Africa. Damaraland, British influence, exercised from Cape
Colony, had long been strong, but the British government had
refused to annex the country even when asked so to do by the
German missionaries who laboured among the natives. In 1882
F. A. Luderitz, a Bremen tobacco merchant, approached Bis-
marck on the question of establishing a trading station on the
coast at Angra Pequena. The chancellor, while not discouraging
Liideritz, acted with perfect fairness to Great Britain, and
throughout 1883 that country might have acted had she known
her mind. She did not, and in the summer of 1884 Bismarck
decided no longer to await her pleasure, and the south-west
coast of Africa from the frontier of the Portuguese possessions
to the Orange river, with the exception of Walfish Bay, was
taken under German protection. During the same year Dr
Nachtigal was despatched to the west coast, and stealing a
march on his British and French rivals he secured not only
Togoland but Cameroon for the Germans. On the east coast
Bismarck acted decisively without reference to British interests.
A company, the Gesellschaft fiir deutsche Kolonization, was
founded early in 1884 by Dr Carl Peters, who with two com-
panions went off to the east coast of Africa and succeeded in
November of that year in negotiating treaties with various chiefs
on the mainland who were alleged to be independent of Zanzibar.
The
Pacific.
In this region British opposition had to be considered, but in
February 1885 a German protectorate over the territory acquired
by Peters was proclaimed.
Similar events took place in the South Seas. The acquisition
of Samoa, where German interests were most extensive, was
prevented (for the time being) by the arrangement made in
1879 with Great Britain and the United States. But in 1884 and
1885 the German flag was hoisted on the north of New
Guinea (to which the name Kaiser Wilhelmsland has
been given), on several parts of the New Britain Archi-
pelago (which afterwards became the Bismarck Archipelago),
and on the Caroline Islands. The last acquisition was not kept.
The Spanish government claimed the islands, and Bismarck,
in order to avoid a struggle which would have been very disastrous
to monarchical government in Spain, suggested that the pope
should be asked to mediate. Leo XIII. accepted the offer,
which was an agreeable reminiscence of the days when popes
determined the limits of the Spanish colonial empire, all the more
gratefully that it was made by a Protestant power. He decided
in favour of Spain, Germany being granted certain rights in the
islands. The loss of the islands was amply compensated for by
the political advantages which Bismarck gained by this attention
to the pope, and, after all, not many years elapsed before they
became German.
Bismarck in his colonial policy had repeatedly explained that
he did not propose to found provinces or take over for the
government the responsibility for their administration; he
intended to leave the responsibility for their material develop-
ment to the merchants, and even tc> entrust to them the actual
government. He avowedly wished to imitate the older form of
British colonization by means of chartered companies, which
had been recently revived in the North Borneo Company; the
only responsibility of the imperial government was to be their
protection from foreign aggression. In accordance with this
policy, the territories were not actually incorporated in the empire
(there would also have been constitutional difficulties in doing
that), and they were officially known as Protectorates (Schutz-
gebiete), a word which thus acquired a new signification. In 1885
two new great companies were founded to undertake the govern-
ment. The Deutsch-Ost-Afrika Gesellschaft, with a capital of
200,000, took over the territories acquired by Dr Peters, and
for the South Seas the Neu-Guinea Gesellschaft, founded by an
amalgamation of a number of firms in 1884, received a charter
in 1885. It was not, however, possible to limit the imperial
responsibility as Bismarck intended. In East Africa the great
revolt of the Arabs in 1888 drove the company out of all their
possessions, with the exception of the port of Dar-es-Salam.
The company was not strong enough to defend itself; troops
had to be sent out by the emperor under Captain Wissmann,
who as imperial commissioner took over the government. This,
which was at first a temporary arrangement, was afterwards
made permanent.
The New Guinea Company had less formidable enemies to
contend with, and with the exception of a period of three
years between 1889 and 1892, they maintained a full responsi-
bility for the administration of their territory till the year 1899,
when an agreement was made and ratified in the Reichstag,
by which the possession and administration was transferred
to the empire in return for a subsidy of 20,000 a year, to be
continued for ten years. The whole of the colonies have therefore
now come under the direct administration of the empire. They
were at first placed under the direction of a special department
of the Foreign Office, and in 1890 a council of experts on colonial
matters was instituted, while in 1907 a separate office for colonial
affairs was created. In 1887 the two chief societies for supporting
the colonial movement joined under the name of the Deutsche
Kolonialgesellschaft. This society takes a great part in forming
public opinion on colonial matters.
This new policy inevitably caused a rivalry of interests with
other countries, and especially with Great Britain. In every spot
at which the Germans acquired territory they found themselves
in opposition to British interests. The settlement of Angra
HISTORY]
GERMANY
887
Pcquefta caused much ill-feeling in Cape Colony, which was,
however, scarcely justified, for the Cape ministry was equally
r^qw>niKU> with the British government for the dila-
toriness which led to the loss of what is now German
South- West Africa. In Togoland and Cameroon British
traders had long been active, and the proclamation of
British sovereignty was impending when the German flag was
hoisted. The settlement in East Africa menaced the old-estab-
lished British influence over Zanzibar, which was all the more
serious because of the close connexion between Zanzibar and the
rulers of the Persian Gulf; and Australia saw with much concern
the German settlement in New Guinea, especially as a British
Protectorate (which in the view of Australians should have in-
cluded the whole of what Germany was allowed to take) had
previously been established in the island. In Africa Britain and
France proceeded to annex territory adjacent to the German
acquisitions, and a period followed during which the boundaries
of German, French and British possessions were determined by
negotiation. The overthrow of Jules Ferry and the danger of
war with France made a good understanding with Great Britain
of more importance. Bismarck, by summoning a conference
to Berlin (1884-1885) to discuss African questions, secured for
Germany a European recognition which was very grateful to the
colonial parties; and in 1888, by lending his support to the anti-
slavery movement of Cardinal Lavigerie, he won the support
of the Centre, who had hitherto opposed the colonial policy.
Finally a general agreement for the demarcation of Africa was
made in 1800 (see AFRICA, J 5). A similar agreement had been
made in 1886 regarding the South Seas. It was made after
Bismarck had retired from office, and he, as did the colonial party,
severely criticized the details; for the surrender of Zanzibar
and Witu cut short the hopes which had been formed of building
up a great German empire controlling the whole of East Africa.
Many of the colonial party went further, and criticized not only
the details, but the principle. They were much offended by
Caprivi's statement that no greater injury could be done to
Germany than to give her the whole of Africa, and they refused
to accept his contention that " the period of flag-hoisting was
over," and that the time had come for consolidating their
possessions. It must, however, be recognized that a continuation
of the ambitious policy of the last few years might easily have
involved Germany in dangerous disputes.
It appeared a small compensation that Great Britain sur-
rendered to Germany the island of Heligoland, which she had
taken from the Danes in the Napoleonic wars. It
was annexed to Prussia; the natives born before the
year 1880 were exempted from military service, and
till the year 1001 no additional import duties were to be imposed.
It has been strongly fortified and made a naval station.
It was easy for the Opposition to criticize the colonial policy.
They could point out that, with the exception of parts of South-
West Africa, no territory had been acquired in which
any targe number of German emigrants could live
and rear families. They went as a rule to the United
States and South America, or to territories under the
British flag. As markets for German products the colonies
remained of small importance; in 1007 the whole value of the
trade, import and export, between Germany and her colonies
was less than 3,300,000, and the cost of administration, including
the grant to the shipping companies, often exceeded the total
trade. Many mistakes were made in the administration, and cases
of misconduct by individual officials formed the text for attacks
on the whole system. Generally, however, these criticisms were
premature; it was surely wise, while the opportunity was still
open, to take care that Germany, in the partition of the world
among European races, should not alone go entirely without a
share. The lack of colonial experience, and, often, the lack of
sympathy with, or understanding of, the negro and other races
over whom they had assumed a protectorate, were contributory
causes in the slow development of Germany's African colonies.
The unwillingness of the Reichstag to sanction the expenditure
of any large sums on railways and other public works also
hindered the exploitation of the economic resources of very large
areas. Yet at the close of the first twenty-five years' existence
of the colonial empire it might be said that the initial difficulties
had been overcome, and sufficient knowledge gained to ensure
Germany a return fairly commensurate with the efforts she had
put forth. The necessity to enlist the interests of the natives on
the side of the government, if any progress was to be made in
industry or trade, was a lesson slowly learned. After the Arab
opposition had been crushed on the east coast of Africa, O(toata j
there still remained the native states to be dealt with, .,.
and few tribes voluntarily submitted to European fh
control. There was a serious rising in 1005-1006, ^JjJJJj*
when thousands of lives were lost. In Togoland there
were disturbances of a comparatively minor character; in the
Cameroon hinterland campaigns were undertaken against the
Fulu and Bornuese princes. It was, however, in South-West
Africa that the Germans had their chief and most bitter ex-
perience in colonial warfare. Though " annexed " in 1884 it was
not till ten years later, after protracted fighting, that the Hotten-
tots of Namaqualand recognized Germany. After another decade
of comparative peace war again broke out (1003) and spread from
the Hottentots to the Herero. The Anglo-Boer War had then
but recently ended, and in Germany generally, and especially in
military circles, it had provoked much adverse criticism on the
inability of the British to bring the contest to a speedier con-
clusion. To their surprise the Germans now found that, against
an inferior foe operating in a more restricted area, they were
unable to do as well as the British army had done. The
story of the war is told elsewhere (see GERMAN SOUTH-WEST
AFRICA) ; it lasted well into 1908 and the Germans were indebted
to the Cape Mounted Police for material help in bringing it to an
end. As it progressed the Germans adopted many of the methods
employed by the British in their colonial wars, and they learned
to appreciate more accurately the immensity of the task which
Lord Kitchener accomplished in overcoming the guerrilla war-
fare in the Boer republics.
It was obviously little use acquiring colonies and creating manu-
factures if German foreign trade was to be in the hands of other
nations. As early as 1881 the government had pub-
lished a proposal for a subvention to German shipping;
it was criticized with peculiar, energy by Bamberger
and the Free Traders; a Bill introduced in 1884 was
abandoned, but in 1885 Bismarck succeeded in carrying a vote
by which, for fifteen years, four million marks could annually
be devoted to helping a line of mail steamers to the Pacific and
Australia and a branch line in the Mediterranean. An agree-
ment was made with the Norddeutsche Lloyd, one clause of
which was that all the new steamers were to be built in Germany;
in 1800 a further vote was passed for a line to Delagoa Bay and
Zanzibar. This far from exhausts the external activity of the
nation and the government: the establishment of studentships
for the study of oriental languages enabled Germans to make
their way in the Turkish and Persian empires, and to open up
a fresh market for German goods; by the great excavations at
Pergamum and Olympia Germany entered with great distinction
on a field in which the way had been shown by France and Great
Britain. The progress of technical studies and industrial enter-
prise enabled Germany to take a leading place in railway and
shipbuilding, in the manufacture of military weapons, in chemical
experiments, and in electrical work.
It was a part of the new policy not only to combat Social
Democracy by repression, but to win the confidence of the
working men by extending to them the direct protection
of the state. Recent legislation, culminating in the
Gewerbeordnung of 1869, had, in accordance with the
principles of the Liberal Economists, or, as the Germans called
it, the Manchester School, instituted freedom from state control
in the relations between employers and workmen. The old gilds
had been destroyed, compulsory apprenticeship had ceased;
little protection, however, was given to the working men, and
the restrictions on the employment of women and children were
of little use, as there was no efficient system of factory inspection.
888
GERMANY
[HISTORY
Christian
socialism.
It was difficult for the men by their own exertions to improve
their condition, for the masters had full liberty of association,
which the law refused to the workmen. Even before 1870 a
protest was raised against this system among the Roman Catholics,
who were chiefly concerned for the preservation of family life,
which was threatened by the growth of the factory system and
also by the teaching of the Social Democrats. Baron von
Ketteler, archbishop of Mainz, had maintained that it was the
duty of the state to secure working men work and provision
during sickness and old age. The general interest of the Church
in the social question was recognized by a congress of the bishops
at Fulda. Ketteler's work was continued by Canon Moufang,
and Catholics brought forward motions in the Reichstag demand-
ing new factory legislation. The peculiar importance
of the Catholic movement is that it alone was able to
some extent to meet the Socialists on their own ground.
The Catholics formed societies which were joined by large
numbers of workmen. Originated by Father Kolping on the
Rhine, they soon spread over the whole of Catholic Germany.
Herr von Schorlemer-Ast, a Catholic landed proprietor from
Westphalia, formed similar associations among the peasants.
The result of this has been that the Social Democrats have failed
to conquer the Catholic as they have the Protestant districts.
A similar movement began among the Protestants after the
commercial crisis of 1873, which forms an epoch in German
thought, since it was from that year that men first began to
question the economic doctrines of Liberalism, and drew attention
to the demoralization which seemed to arise from the freedom
of speculation and the influence of the stock exchange a move-
ment which in later years led to some remarkable attempts to
remedy the evil by legislation. A minister, Rudolph Todt,
and Rudolph Meyer criticized the moral and economic doctrines
of Liberalism ; his writings led to the foundation of the Christlich-
Soziale-Arbeitemerein, which for a few years attained considerable
notoriety under the leadership of Adolph Stocker. The Pro-
testant movement has not succeeded in attaining the same
position as has the Catholic among the working men; but it
received considerable support among the influential classes
at court, and part of the programme was adopted by the Con-
servative party, which in 1876 demanded restriction of industrial
liberty and legislation which would prevent the ruin of the
independent artizans.
In a country where learned opinion has so much influence
on public affairs it was of especial importance that several of
the younger teachers separated themselves from the dominant
Manchester School and asserted the duty of the state actively
to promote the well-being of the working classes. At a congress
held in Erfurt in 1873, Schmoller, Wagner, Brentano and others
founded the Verein fur Sozial-Politik, which by its publications
has had much influence on German thought.
The peculiar social conditions brought it about that in many
cases the Christian Social movement took the form of Anti-
Semitism (?..). Nearly all the bankers and stock-
brokers in Germany were Jews. Many of the leaders
of the Liberal parties, e.g. Bamberger and Lasker,
were of Jewish origin ; the doctrines of Liberalism were supported
by papers owned and edited by Jews; hence the wish to restore
more fully the avowedly Christian character of the state, coincid-
ing with the attack on the influence of finance, which owed so
much to the Liberal economic doctrines, easily degenerated into
attacks on the Jews. The leader in this was Stocker. During
the years 1879 to 1881 the anti-Semite agitation gained consider-
able importance in Berlin, Breslau and other Prussian cities,
and it culminated in the elections of that year, leading in some
cases to riots and acts of violence.
So long as the government was under the influence of the
National Liberals, it was indifferent if not hostile to these move-
ments. The Peasants' Union had actually been forbidden by
the police; Bismarck himself was violently attacked for his
reputed connexion with a great Jewish firm of bankers. He had,
however, kept himself informed regarding these movements,
chiefly by means of Hermann Wagener, an old editor of the
Anti-
Semites.
Kreuzzeilung, and in the year 1878 he felt himself free to return
in this matter to his older opinions. The new policy suggested
in that year was definitely announced at the opening of the
session in the spring of 1881, and at the meeting of the new
Reichstag in November 1881. It was explained in a speech from
the throne, which, as the emperor could not be present, became
an imperial message. This is generally spoken of as the beginning
of a new era. The help of the Reichstag was asked for " healing
social evils by means of legislation . . . based on the moral
foundation of Christianity." Compulsory insurance, the creation
of corporate unions among working men under the protection
of the state, and the introduction of indirect taxes, were the chief
elements in the reform.
The condition of parties was such that Bismarck could not
hope to win a majority for his schemes, especially as he could
not obtain the monopoly on tobacco on which he depended to
cover the expense. The first reform was the restoration of the
gilds, to which the Conservatives attached great importance.
Since 1869 they continued to exist only as voluntary associations
with no public duties; many had been dissolved, and this is
said to have brought about bad results in the management of
lodging-houses, the condition of apprentices, support during
illness, and the maintenance of labour bureaus. It was supposed
that, if they could be restored, the corporate spirit would
prevent the working men from falling under the influence of the
Socialists. The law of 1881, while it left membership voluntary,
gave to them many duties of a semi-public nature, especially
that of arbitration between masters and men. These were ex-
tended by a further law in 1884.
The really important element was the scheme for a great
imperial system by which all working men and women should
be provided for in case of sickness, accident or old age.
Bismarck hoped by this to relieve the parishes of the
burden of the poor-rate, which would be transferred
to the empire; at the same time the power of the
government would be greatly extended. The first proposal in
March 1881 was for compulsory insurance against accidents.
Every one employed on railways, mines and factories was to
be insured in an imperial office; the premium was to be divided
equally between masters, workmen and the state. It was bitterly
opposed by the Liberals, especially by Bamberger; all essential
features were altered by the Reichstag, and it was withdrawn
by the government after it had passed the third reading.
In 1882 a fresh scheme was laid before the newly elected
Reichstag dealing with insurance against accident and against
sickness. The two parts were separated by the Reichstag; the
second, which was the necessary prelude to the other, was passed
in 1883. The law was based on an old Prussian principle;
insurance was made compulsory, but the state, instead of doing
the work itself, recognized the existing friendly and other
societies; they were still to enjoy their corporate existence and
separate administration, but they were placed under state con-
trol, and for this purpose an imperial insurance department
was created in the office of the secretary of state for the interior.
Uniform regulations were to be followed in all trades and districts ;
one-third of the premium was paid by the employer, two-thirds
by the workmen.
The Accident Law of 1883 was rejected, for it still included
the state contribution to which the Reichstag would not assent,
and also contributions from the workmen. A new law, drafted
according to their wishes, was passed in 1884. It applied only
to those occupations, mines and factories, in which the use of
machinery was common; it threw the whole burden of com-
pensation on to the masters; but, on the other hand, for the
first thirteen weeks after an accident the injured workman
received compensation from the sick fund, so that the cost only
fell on the masters in the more serious cases. The masters were
compelled to insure themselves against the payments for which
they might become liable, and for this purpose had to form trades
associations, self-governing societies, which in each district
included all the masters for each particular trade. The applica-
tion of this law was subsequently extended to other trades.
HISTORY)
GERMANY
889
It was not till 1889 that the greatest innovation, that of insurance
against old age, was carried. The obligation to insure rested
on all who were in receipt of wages of not more than two pounds
a week. Half the premium, according to the wages received, was
paid by the master. The pension began at the age of seventy,
the amount varying by very complicated rules, but the state
paid a fixed sum of two pounds ten shillings annually in addition
to the pension. These measures worked well. They were re-
garded with satisfaction by masters and men alike. Alterations
have been made in detail, and further alterations demanded,
but the laws have established themselves in practice. The large
amount of self -administration has prevented an undue increase
of bureaucratic power. The co-operation of masters and men
in the administration of the societies has a good effect on the
relations of the classes.
Except in the matter of insurance, the total result, however,
for the moment was small. The demands repeatedly made
by the Centre and the Conservatives for effective factory legis-
lation and prohibition of Sunday labour were not successful.
Bismarck did not wish to lay heavier burdens on the capitalists,
and it was not till a later period that they were carried out.
During all this period Bismarck's authority was so great,
that in the conduct of foreign affairs he was freed from the
criticism and opposition which so often hampered
him in his internal policy, and he was able to establish
that system of alliances on which for so many years
the political system of Europe depended. The close
union of the three empires which had existed since the meeting
of the emperors in 1872 did not survive the outbreak of dis-
turbances in the East. Bismarck had maintained an attitude of
neutrality, but after the congress of Berlin he found himself
placed between the alternatives of friendship with Austria or
Russia. Movements of Russian troops on the western frontier
threatened Austria, and the tsar, in a letter to the German
emperor, stated that peace could only be maintained if Germany
gave her support to Russia. Bismarck, now that the choice
was forced upon him, determined in favour of Austria, and during
a visit to Vienna in October, arranged with Count Andrassy an
alliance by which in the event of either being attacked by Russia
the other was to assist; if either was attacked by any power
other than Russia, the other was to preserve benevolent neutrality
unless the attacking power was helped by Russia. The effect of
this was to protect Austria from attack by Russia, and Germany
from the danger of a combined attack by France and Russia.
Bismarck with some difficulty procured the consent of the
emperor, who by arranging a meeting with the tsar had attempted
to preserve the old friendship. From that time the alliance with
Austria has continued. In 1883 it was joined by Italy, and was
renewed in 1887, and in 1891 for six years, and if not then
denounced, for twelve.
In 1882, after the retirement of Gorchakov, the relations
with Russia again improved. In 1884 there was a meeting of
the three emperors, and at the same time Bismarck came to a
dose understanding with France on colonial questions. The
period of quiet did not last long. The disaster in Tongking
brought about a change of ministry in France, and Bulgarian
affairs again alienated Austria and Russia. Bismarck with great
skill used the growing foreign complications as a means of freeing
himself from parliamentary difficulties at the same time that
he secured the position of Germany in Europe.
To meet the increase in the French army, and the open
i in which the Russian press indulged, a further increase
in the German army seemed desirable. The Septennate
nas7. would expire in 1888. In the autumn of 1886 a pro-
posal was laid before the Reichstag to increase the peace
establishment for the next seven years to 468,409 men. The
Reichstag would not assent to this, but the opposition parties
offered to vote the required increase for three years. Bismarck
refused to accept this compromise, and the Reichstag was dis-
solved. Under his influence the Conservatives and National
Liberals formed a coalition or Cartel by which each agreed to
support the candidates of the other. The elections caused
greater excitement than any which had taken place since 1870.
The numbers who went to the poll were much larger, and all the
opposition parties, except the Catholics, including even the
Socialists, suffered severe loss. Bismarck, in order to win the
support of the Centre, appealed directly to the pope, but Wind-
thorst took the responsibility of refusing to obey the pope's
request on a matter purely political. The National Liberals
again became a government party, but their position was much
changed. They were no longer, as in the old days, the leading
factor. They had to take the second place. They were sub-
ordinate to the Conservatives. They could no longer impose their
will upon the government. In the new parliament the govern-
ment proposals were accepted by a majority of 223 to 48 (seven
members of the Centre voted for it, the others abstained). The op-
position consisted chiefly of Socialists and Radicals (Freisinnigcn).
The fall of Boulanger removed the immediate danger from
France, but for the rest of the year the relations with Russia
caused serious apprehensions. Anti-German articles
appeared in Russian newspapers. The growth of the ^/'
Nationalist party in Russia led to measures injurious
to German trade and German settlers in Russia.
German vessels were forbidden to trade on the Niemen. The
increase of the duties on iron injured German trade. Stringent
measures were taken to stamp out German nationality in the
Baltic provinces, similar to those used by the Germans against
the Poles. Foreigners were forbidden to hold land in Russia.
The German government retaliated by a decree of the Reichs-
bank refusing to deal with Russian paper. Large accumulations
of troops on the western frontier excited alarm in Germany and
Austria. During a short visit paid by the emperor of Russia to
Berlin in November Bismarck discovered that forged despatches
misrepresenting the policy of Germany in the Eastern Question
had been communicated to him. This did not seem to remove
all danger, and in February 1888 the government introduced
an amendment to the imperial Military Law extending the
obligation for service from twelve to eighteen years. In this
way it was possible to increase the war establishment, excluding
the Landsturm, by about half a million men without adding to
the burden in time of peace. Another law authorized a loan
of 14,000,000 for military equipment. At the same time
the text of the Triple Alliance was published. The two laws
were adopted without opposition. Under the effect of one of
Bismarck's speeches, the Military Bill was unanimously passed
almost without debate.
It was probably at the meeting of 1884 that a secret treaty,
the existence of which was not known for many years, was
arranged between Germany and Russia. The full text Secnt
has never been published, and the exact date is un- in*ty
certain. Either state pledged itself to observe bene- "*i.
volent neutrality in case the other were attacked
by a third power. Apparently the case of an attack by France
on Germany, or by Austria on Russia, was expressly mentioned.
The treaty lapsed in 1800, and owing to Bismarck's dismissal
was not renewed. Caprivi refused to renew it because it was
doubtful whether by increasing the number of treaties the value
of them was not diminished. Under this system it was to be
apprehended that if war broke out between Austria and Russia,
Austria would claim the support of Germany under the Triple
Alliance, Russia neutrality under this reaty. The decision of
Germany would theoretically have to depend on the question
which party was the aggressor a question which notoriously
is hardly ever capable of an answer. (For this treaty see the
debate in the Reichstag of the i6th of November 1896; the
Hamburger Nachrichlen of 24th October in the same year;
and Schulthess, Europdischcs Geschichtskalendar, 1896.)
The emperor William died on the 9th of March 1888. He was
succeeded by his son, who took the title of Frederick III. In
Italy the older title of king of Piedmont has been
absorbed in the newer kingdom of Italy; this is not
the case in Germany, where the title German ernperor ///.
is merely attached to and not substituted for that of
king of Prussia. The events of this short reign, which lasted
8go
GERMANY
[HISTORY
only ninety-nine days, have chiefly a personal interest, and are
narrated under the articles FREDERICK III. and BISMARCK.
The illness and death of the emperor, however, destroyed the
last hope of the Liberals that they might at length succeed to
power. For a generation they had waited for his accession,
and bitter was their disappointment, for it was known that his
son was more inclined to follow the principles of Bismarck than
those of his own father. The emperor, crippled and dying though
he was, showed clearly how great a change he would, had he
lived, have introduced in the spirit of the government. One of
his first acts was severely to reprimand Puttkammer for misusing
government influence at elections. The minister sent in his
resignation, which was accepted, and this practice, which had
been deliberately revived during the last ten years, was thereby
publicly disavowed. Bismarck's own position would naturally
have been seriously affected by the fall of a colleague with whom
he was closely connected, and another point of internal policy
showed also how numerous were the differences between the
chancellor and the emperor. Laws had been passed prolonging
the period of both the Prussian and Imperial parliaments from
three to five years; when they were laid before the emperor
for his signature he said that he must consider them. Bismarck
then pointed out that the constitution of the empire did not
authorize the emperor to withhold his assent from a law which
had passed both the Reichstag and the Bundesrat; he could
as king of Prussia oppose it by his representatives in the federal
council, but when it had been accepted there, it was his duty as
emperor to put the law into execution. The emperor accepted
this exposition of the constitution, and after some delay eventu-
ally gave his consent also to the Prussian law, which he was
qualified to reject.
He was succeeded by his eldest son, William II. (q.v.). The
first year of the new reign was uneventful. In his public speeches
the emperor repeatedly expressed his reverence for
the memory of his grandfather, and his determination
to continue his policy; but he also repudiated the
attempt of the extreme Conservatives to identify him with their
party. He spent much time on journeys, visiting the chief courts
of Europe, and he seemed to desire to preserve close friendship
with other nations, especially with Russia and Great Britain.
Changes were made in the higher posts of the army and civil
service, and Moltke resigned the office of chief of the staff,
which for thirty years he had held with such great distinction.
The beginning of the year 1890 brought a decisive event.
The period of the Reichstag elected in 1887 expired, and the new
elections, the first for a quinquennial period, would take
Bismarck. P' ace - The chief matter for decision was the fate of
the Socialist law; this expired on the 3oth of September
1890. The government at the end of 1889 introduced a new law,
which was altered in some minor matters, and which was to be
permanent. The Conservatives were prepared to vote for it;
the Radicals and Centre opposed it ; the decision rested with the
National Liberals, and they were willing to accept it on condition
that the clause was omitted which allowed the state governments
to exclude individuals from districts in which the state of siege
had been proclaimed. The final division took place on the 2$th
of February 1890. An amendment had been carried omitting
this clause, and the National Liberals therefore voted for the
bill in its amended form. The Conservatives were ready to
vote as the government wished; if Bismarck was content with
the amended bill, they would vote for it, and it would be carried;
no instructions were sent to the party; they therefore voted
against the bill, and it was lost. The House was immediately
dissolved. It was to have been expected that, as in 1878, the
government would appeal to the country to return a Conservative
majority willing to vote for a strong law against the Socialists.
Instead of this, the emperor, who was much interested in social
reform, published two proclamations. In one addressed to the
chancellor he declared his intention, as emperor, of bettering the
lot of the working classes; for this purpose he proposed to call
an international congress to consider the possibility of meeting
the requirements and wishes of the working men; in the other,
which he issued as king of Prussia, he declared that the regulation
of the time and conditions of labour was the duty of the state,
and the council of state was to be summoned to discuss this
and kindred questions. Bismarck, who was less hopeful than
the emperor, and did not approve of this policy, was thereby
prevented from influencing the elections as he would have wished
to do; the coalition parties, in consequence, suffered severe loss;
Socialists, Centre and Radicals gained numerous seats. A few
days after the election Bismarck was dismissed from office. The
difference of opinion between him and the emperor was not
confined to social reform; beyond this was the more serious
question as to whether the chancellor or the emperor was to
direct the course of the government. The emperor, who, as
Bismarck said, intended to be his own chancellor, required
Bismarck to draw up a decree reversing a cabinet order of
Frederick William IV., which gave the Prussian minister-
president the right of being the sole means of communication
between the other ministers and the king. This Bismarck refused
to do, and he was therefore ordered to send in his resignation.
Among those more immediately connected with the govern-
ment his fall was accompanied by a feeling of relief which was
not confined to the Opposition, for the burden of his chancel-
rule had pressed heavily upon all. There was, however, lorship of
no change in the principles of government or avowed Count von
change in policy; some uncertainty of direction and CaDrM -
sudden oscillations of policy showed the presence of a less ex-
perienced hand. Bismarck's successor, General von Caprivi,
held a similar combination of offices, but the chief control passed
now into the hands of the emperor himself. He aspired by his
own will to direct the policy of the state; he put aside the reserve
which in modern times is generally observed even by absolute
rulers, and by his public speeches and personal influence took
a part in political controversy. He made very evident the
monarchical character of the Prussian state, and gave to the office
of emperor a prominence greater than it had hitherto had.
One result of this was that it became increasingly difficult in
political discussions to avoid criticizing the words and actions of
the emperor. Prosecutions for lese-majeste became commoner
than they were in former reigns, and the difficulty was much felt
in the conduct of parliamentary debate. The rule adopted was
that discussion was permitted on those speeches of the emperor
which were officially published in the Reichsanzeiger. It was,
indeed, not easy to combine that respect and reverence which
the emperor required should be paid to him, with that open
criticism of his words which seemed necessary (even for self-
defence) when the monarch condescended to become the censor
of the opinions and actions of large parties and classes among his
subjects. The attempts to combine personal government with
representative institutions was one of much interest; it was more
successful than might have been anticipated, owing to the dis-
organization of political parties and the absence of great political
leaders; in Germany, as elsewhere, the parliaments had not
succeeded in maintaining public interest, and it is worth noting
that even the attendance of members was very irregular. There
was below the surface much discontent and subdued criticism
of the exaggeration of the monarchical power, which the Germans
called Byzantinismus; but after all the nation seemed to welcome
the government of the emperor, as it did that of Bismarck. The
uneasiness which was caused at first by the unwonted vigour of
his utterances subsided, as it became apparent how strong was
his influence for peace, and with how many-sided an activity he
supported and encouraged every side of national life. Another
result of the personal government by the emperor was that it
was impossible, in dealing with recent history, to determine how
far the ministers of state were really responsible for the measures
which they defended, and how far they were the instruments
and mouthpieces of the policy of the emperor.
The first efforts of the " New course," as the new administra-
tion was termed, showed some attempt to reconcile to the govern-
ment those parties and persons whom Bismarck had kept in
opposition. The continuation of social reform was to win over
the allegiance of the working men to the person of the emperor:
HISTORY]
GERMANY
891
an attempt was made to reconcile the Guelphs, and even the
Poles were taken into favour; Windthorst was treated with
marked distinction. The Radicals alone, owing to their ill-timed
criticism on the private relations of the imperial family, and their
continued opposition to the army, were excluded. The attempt,
however, to unite and please all parties failed, as did the similar
attempt in foreign policy. Naturally enough, it was social re-
form on which at first activity was concentrated, and the long-
delayed factory legislation was now carried out. In 1887 and
1888 the Clerical and Conservative majority had carried through
the Reichstag laws restricting the employment of
women andchildren and prohibiting labour onSundays.
These were not accepted by the Bundesrat, but after
the International Congress of 1800 an important amendment
and addition to the Gevxrbtordnung was carried to this effect. It
was of even greater importance that a full system of factory
inspection was created. A further provision empowered the
Bundesrat to fix the hours of labour in unhealthy trades; this
was applied to the bakeries by an edict of 1895, but the great
outcry which this caused prevented any further extension.
These acts were, however, accompanied by language of great
decision against the Social Democrats, especially on the occasion
-^^ of a great strike in Westphalia, when the emperor
]^*^L. warned the men that for him every Social Democrat
turn. was an enemy to the empire and country. None the
less, all attempts to win the working men from the
doctrinaire Socialists failed. They continued to look on the
whole machinery of government, emperor and army, church and
police, as their natural enemies, and remained completely under
the bondage of the abstract theories of the Socialists, just as much
as fifty years ago the German bourgeois were controlled by the
Liberal theories. It is strange to see how the national character-
istics appeared in them. What began as a great revolutionary
movement became a dogmatic and academic school of thought ;
it often almost seemed as though the orthodox interpretation
of Marx's doctrine was of more importance than an improvement
in the condition of the working men, and the discussions in the
annual Socialist Congress resembled the arguments of theologians
rather than the practical considerations of politicians. The
party, however, prospered, and grew in strength beyond all
anticipation. The repeal of the Socialist law was naturally wel-
come to them as a great personal triumph over Bismarck; in the
elections of 1890 they, won thirty-five, in 1893 forty-four, in 1898
fifty-six seats. Their influence was not confined to the artisans;
among their open or secret adherents were to be found large
numbers of government employes and clerks. In the autumn
of 1890 they were able, for the first time, to hold in Germany a
general meeting of delegates, which was continued annually.
In the first meetings it appeared that there were strong opposing
tendencies within the party which for the first time could be
brought to public discussion. On the one side there was a small
party, die Jungen, in Berlin, who attacked the parliamentary
leaders on the ground that they had lent themselves to com-
promise and had not maintained the old iniransigcani spirit.
In 1891, at Erfurt, Werner and his followers were expelled from
the party; some of them drifted into anarchism, others dis-
appeared. On the other hand, there was a large section, the
leader of whom was Herr von Vollmar, who maintained that the
social revolution would not come suddenly, as Bebel and the
older leaders had taught, but that it would be a gradual evolution ;
they were willing to co-operate with the government in remedial
measures by which, within the existing social order, the prosperity
and freedom of the working classes might be advanced; their
position was very strong, as Vollmar had succeeded in extending
Socialism even in the Catholic parts of Bavaria. An attempt
to treat them as not genuine Socialists was frustrated, and they
continued in co-operation with the other branch of the party.
Their position would have been easier were it not for the repeated
attempts of the Prussian government to crush the party by fresh
legislation and the supervision exercised by the police. It was
a sifn of most serious import for the future that in 1897 the
electoral law in the kingdom of Saxony was altered with the
express purpose of excluding the Socialists from the Saxon
Landtag. This and other symptoms caused serious apprehension
that some attempt might be made to alter the law of universal
suffrage for the Reichstag, and it was policy of this kind which
maintained and justified the profound distrust of the governing
classes and the class hatred on which Social democracy depends.
On the other hand, there were signs of a greater willingness among
the Socialists to co-operate with their old enemies the Liberals.
In foreign affairs a good understanding with Great Britain
was maintained, but the emperor failed at that time to preserve
the friendship of Russia. The close understanding
between France and Russia, and the constant increase
in the armies of these states, made a still further increase
of the German army desirable. In 1890, while the
Septennate had still three more years to run, Caprivi had to ask
for an additional 20,000 men. It was the first time that an
increase of this kind had been necessary within the regular
period. When, in 1893, the proposals for the new period were
made, they formed a great change. Compulsory service was
to be made a reality; no one except those absolutely unfit was
to escape it. To make enlistment of so large an additional
number of recruits possible, the period of service with the colours
was reduced to two years. The parliamentary discussion was
very confused; the government eventually accepted an amend-
ment giving them 557,093 for five and a half years instead of the
570,877 asked for; this was rejected by 210 to 162, the greater
part of the Centre and of the Radicals voting against it. Parlia-
ment was at once dissolved. Before the elections the Radical.
party broke up, as about twenty of them determined to accept the
compromise. They took the name of thef reisinnige Vereinigung,
the others who remained under the leadership of Richter forming
the Freitinnige Volkspartei. The natural result of this split was
a great loss to the party. The Liberal opposition secured only
twenty-three seats instead of the sixty-seven they had held
before. It was, so far as now can be foreseen, the final collapse
of the old Radical party. Notwithstanding this the bill was only
carried by sixteen votes, and it would have been thrown out again
had not the Poles for the first time voted for the government,
since the whole of the Centre voted in opposition.
This vote was a sign of the increasing disorganization of parties
and of growing parliamentary difficulties which were even more
apparent in the Prussian Landtag. Miquel, as minister of finance,
succeeded indeed in carrying a reform by which the proceeds of
the tax on land and buildings were transferred to the local
government authorities, and the loss to the state exchequer
made up by increased taxation of larger incomes and industry.
The series of measures which began in 1891, and were completed
in 1895, won a more general approbation than is usual, and
Miquel in this successfully carried out his policy of reconciling
the growing jealousies arising from class interests.
Caprivi's administration was further remarkable for the
arrangement of commercial treaties. In 1892 treaties with
Austria-Hungary, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland for
twelve years bound together the greater part of the
continent, and opened a wide market for German matin.
manufactures; the idea of this policy was to secure,
by a more permanent union of the middle European states, a
stable market for the goods which were being excluded owing
to the great growth of Protection in France, Russia and America.
These were followed by similar treaties with Rumania and Servia,
and in 1894, after a period of sharp customs warfare, with Russia.
In all these treaties the general principle was a reduction of the
import duties on corn in return for advantages given to German
manufactures, and it is this which brought about the struggle
of the government with the Agrarians which after 1894 took the
first place in party politics.
The agricultural interests in Germany had during the middle
of the 1 9th century been in favour of Free Trade. The reason
of this was that, till some years after the foundation
of the empire, the production of corn and food-stuffs * rm
was more than sufficient for the population; as long as they
exported corn, potatoes and cattle, they required no protection
892
GERMANY
[HISTORY
from foreign competition, and they enjoyed the advantages of
being able to purchase colonial goods and manufactured articles
cheaply. Mecklenburg and Hanover, the purely agricultural
states, had, until their entrance into the Customs Union, followed
a completely Free Trade policy. The first union of the Agrarian
party, which was formed in 1876 under the name of the Society
for the Reform of Taxation, did not place protection on their
programme; they laid stress on bimetallism, on the reform of
internal taxation, especially of the tax on land and buildings,
and on the reform of the railway tariff, and demanded an increase
in the stamp duties. These last three points were all to some
extent attained. About this time, however, the introduction
of cheap corn from Russia began to threaten them, and it was
in 1879 that, probably to a great extent influenced by Bismarck,
they are first to be found among those who ask for protection.
After that time there was a great increase in the importation
of food-stuffs from America. The increase of manufactures and
the rapid growth of the population made the introduction of
cheap food from abroad a necessity. In the youth of the empire
the amount of corn grown in Germany was sufficient for the
needs of its inhabitants; the amount consumed in 1899 exceeded
the amount produced by about one-quarter of the total. At
the same time the price, making allowance for the fluctuations
owing to bad harvests, steadily decreased, notwithstanding the
duty on corn. In twenty years the average price fell from about
235 to 135 marks the 1000 kilo. There was therefore a constant
decrease in the income from land, and this took place at a time
when the great growth of wealth among the industrial classes had
made living more costly. The agriculturists of the north and
east saw themselves and their class threatened with loss, and
perhaps ruin; their discontent, which had long been growing,
broke out into open fire during the discussion of the commercial
treaties. As these would inevitably bring about a large increase
in the importation of corn from Rumania and Russia, a great
agitation was begun in agricultural circles, and the whole in-
fluence of the Conservative party was opposed to the treaties.
This brought about a curious situation, the measures being only
carried by the support of the Centre, the Radicals, and the
Socialists, against the violent opposition of those classes, especi-
ally the landowners in Prussia, who had hitherto been the
supporters of the government. In order to prevent the com-
mercial treaty with Russia, a great agricultural league was
founded in 1893, the Bund der Landivirte; some 7000 land-
owners joined it immediately. Two days later the Peasants'
League, or Deutsche Bauernbund, whic^h had been founded in
1885 and included some 44,000 members, chiefly from the
smaller proprietors in Pomerania, Posen, Saxony and Thuringia,
merged itself in the new league. This afterwards gained very
great proportions. It became, with the Social Democrats, the
most influential society which had been founded in Germany for
defending the interests of a particular class; it soon numbered
more than 200,000 members, including landed proprietors of all
degrees. Under its influence a parliamentary union, the Wirt-
schaflsvereinigung, was founded to ensure proper consideration
for agricultural affairs; it was joined by more than 100 members
of the Reichstag; and the Conservative party fell more and
more under the influence of the Agrarians.
Having failed to prevent the commercial treaties, Count Kanitz
introduced a motion that the state should have a monopoly of
all imported corn, and that the price at which it was to be sold
should be fixed by law. On the first occasion, in 1894, only fifty
members were found to vote for this, but in the next year ninety-
seven supported the introduction of the motion, and it was con-
sidered worth while to call together the Prussian council of state
for a special discussion. The whole agitation was extremely
inconvenient to the government. The violence with which it
was conducted, coming, as it did, from the highest circles of the
Prussian nobility, appeared almost an imitation of Socialist
methods; but the emperor, with his wonted energy, personally
rebuked the leaders, and warned them that the opposition of
Prussian nobles to their king was a monstrosity. Nevertheless
they were able to overthrow the chancellor, who was specially
Ftll of
Caprivl.
obnoxious to them. In October 1894 he was dismissed suddenly,
without warning, and almost without cause, while the emperor
was on a visit to the Eulenburgs, one of the most influential
families of the Prussian nobility.
Caprivi's fall, though it was occasioned by a difference between
him and Count Eulenburg, and was due to the direct act of the
emperor, was rendered easier by the weakness of his
parliamentary position. There was no party on whose
help he could really depend. The Military Bill had
offended the prejudices of conservative military critics; the
British treaty had alienated the colonial party; the commercial
treaties had only been carried by the help of Poles, Radicals and
Socialists; but it was just these parties who were the most easily
offended by the general tendencies of the internal legislation,
as shown in the Prussian School Bill. Moreover, the bitter and
unscrupulous attacks of the Bismarckian press to which Caprivi
was exposed made him unpopular in the country, for the people
could not feel at ease so long as they were governed by a minister
of whom Bismarck disapproved. There was therefore no prospect
of forming anything like a stable coalition of parties on which he
could depend.
The emperor was fortunate in securing as his successor Prince
Chlodwig von Hohenlohe. Though the new chancellor once
more united with this office that of Prussian minister- chancellor
president, his age, and perhaps also his character, Prince v.
prevented him from exercising that constant activity Holtea '
and vigilance which his two predecessors had displayed.
During his administration even the secretary of state for foreign
affairs, Baron Marschall von Bieberstein, and afterwards Count
von Billow, became the ordinary spokesman of the government,
and in the management of other departments the want of a strong
hand at the head of affairs was often missed. Between the
emperor, with whom the final direction of policy rested, and his
subordinates, the chancellor often appeared to evade public
notice. The very first act of the new chancellor brought upon
him a severe rebuff. At the opening of the new buildings which
had been erected in Berlin for the Reichstag, cheers were called
for the emperor. Some of the Socialist members remained
seated. It was not clear that their action was deliberate, but
none the less the chancellor himself came down to ask from the
House permission to bring a charge of lese-majeslt against them,
a request which was, of course, almost unanimously refused.
The Agrarians still maintained their prominent position in
Prussia. They opposed all bills which would appear directly
or indirectly to injure agricultural interests. They looked with
suspicion on the naval policy of the emperor, for they disliked
all that helps industry and commerce. They would only give
their support to the Navy Bills of 1897 and 1900 in return for
large concessions limiting the importation of margarine and
American preserved meat, and the removal of the Indemniliits
Nachweis acted as a kind of bounty on the export of corn. They
successfully opposed the construction of the great canal from
Westphalia to the Elbe, on the ground that it would facilitate
the importation of foreign corn. They refused to accept all the
compromises which Miquel, who was very sympathetic towards
them, suggested, and thereby brought about his retirement in
May 1901.
The opposition of the Agrarians was for many reasons peculiarly
embarrassing. The franchise by which the Prussian parliament
is elected gave the Conservatives whom they controlled a pre-
dominant position. Any alteration of the franchise was, however,
out of the question, for that would admit the Socialists. It was,
moreover, the tradition of the Prussian court and the Prussian
government (and it must be remembered that the imperial
government is inspired by Prussian traditions) that the nobility
and peasants were in a peculiar way the support of the crown
and the state. The old distrust of the towns, of manufacturers
and artisans, still continued. The preservation of a peasant class
was considered necessary in the interests of the army. Besides,
intellectual and social prejudices required a strong Conservative
party. In the south and west of Germany, however, the Con-
servative party was practically non-existent. In these parts,
HISTORY]
GERMANY
893
owing to the changes introduced at the revolution, the nobility,
who hold little land, are, comparatively speaking, without
political importance. In the Catholic districts the Centre had
become absolutely master, except so far as the Socialists threaten
their position. Those of the great industrialists who belonged to
the National Liberals or the Moderate Conservatives did not
command that influence which men of their class generally hold
in Great Britain, because the influence of Social Democracy
banded together the whole of the working men in a solid phalanx
of irreconcilable opposition, the very first principle of which
was the hostility of classes. The government, therefore, were
compelled to turn for support totheCentre and the Conservatives,
the latter being almost completely under the influence of the old
Prussian nobility from the north-east. But every attempt to
carry out the policy supported by these parties aroused an
opposition most embarrassing to the government.
The Conservatives distrusted the financial activity which
centred round the Exchanges of Berlin and other towns, and
in this they had the sympathy of Agrarians and
Anti-Semites, as well as of the Centre. The Agrarians
believed that the Berlin Exchange was partly re-
sponsible for the fall of prices in corn; the Anti-
Semites laid stress on the fact that many of the financiers were of
Jewish extraction; the Centre feared the moral effects of specula-
tion. This opposition was shown in the demand for additional
duties on stamps (this was granted by Bismarck), in the opposi-
tion to the renewal of the Bank Charter, and especially in the
new regulations for the Exchange which were carried in 1896.
One clause in this forbade the dealing in " futures " in corn,
and at the same time a special Prussian law required that there
should be representatives of agriculture on the managing com-
mittee of the Exchange. The members of the Exchanges in
Berlin and other towns refused to accept this kw. When it
came into effect they withdrew and tried to establish a private
Exchange. This was prevented, and after two years they were
compelled to submit and the Berlin Bourse was again opened.
Political parties now came to represent interests rather than
principles. The government, in order to pass its measures,
was obliged to purchase the votes by class legislation,
and it bought those with whom it could make the best
bargain these being generally the Centre, as the ablest
tacticians, and the Conservatives, as having the highest
social position and being boldest in declaring their demands.
No great parliamentary leader took the pkce of Windthorst,
Lasker and Bennigsen ; the extra - parliamentary societies,
less responsible and more violent, grew in influence. The Anti-
Semites gained in numbers, though not in reputation. The
Conservatives, hoping to win votes, even adopted an anti-
Semite clause in their programme. The general tendency
among the numerous societies of Christian Socialism, which
broke up almost as quickly as they appeared, was to drift from
the alliance with the ultra-Conservatives and to adopt the
economic and many of the political doctrines of the Social
Democrats. The Nationol-SmiaUr Verein defended the union
of Monarchy and Socialism. Meanwhile the extreme spirit of
nationality was fostered by the AU-deulscher Verein, the policy
of which would quickly involve Germany in war with every
other nation. More than once the feelings to which they gave
expression endangered the relations of Germany and Austria-
Hungary. The persecution of the Poles in Prussia naturally
aroused indignation in Austria, where the Poles had for long been
among the strongest elements on which the government depended ;
and it was not always easy to prevent the agitation on behalf
of the Germans in Bohemia from assuming a dangerous aspect.
In the disintegration of parties the Liberals suffered most.
The unity of the Conservatives was preserved by social forces
and the interests of agriculture; the decay of the Liberals was
the result of universal suffrage. Originally the opponents of
the landed interest and the nobility, they were the party of the
educated middle class, of the learned, of the officials and finance.
They never succeeded in winning the support of the working
men. They had identified themselves with the interests of the
capitalists, and were not even faithful to their own principles.
In the day of their power they showed themselves as intolerant
as their opponents had been. They resorted to the help of the
government in order to stamp out the opinions with which they
disagreed, and the claims of the artisans to practical equality
were rejected by them, as in earlier days the claims of the middle
class had been by the nobles.
The Centre alone maintained itself. Obliged by their con-
stitution to regard equally the material interests of all classes
for they represent rich and poor, peasants and artisans they
were the natural support of the government when it attempted
to find a compromise between the clamour of opposing interests.
Their own demands were generally limited to the defence of
order and religion, and to some extent coincided with the wishes
of the emperor; but every attempt to introduce legislation in
accordance with their wishes led to a conflict with the educated
opinion of the country, which was very detrimental to the
authority of the government. In the state parliaments of Bavaria,
Baden and Hesse their influence was very great. There was,
moreover, a tendency for local parties to gain in numbers and
influence the Volkspartei in WUrttemberg, the Anti-Semites
in Hesse, and the Bauernbund (Peasants' League) in Bavaria.
The last demanded that the peasants should be freed from the
payment to the state, which represented the purchase price for
the remission of feudal burdens. It soon lost ground, however,
partly owing to personal reasons, and partly because the Centre,
in order to maintain their influence among the peasants, adopted
some features of their programme.
Another class which, seeing itself in danger from the economic
changes in society, agitated for special legislation was the small
retail traders of the large towns. They demanded UIH.L.
additional taxation on the vast shops and stores, the s tand-
growth of which in Berlin, Munich and other towns potnik.
seemed to threaten their interests. As the preservation
of the smaller middle class seemed to be important as a bulwark
against Socialism, they won the support of the Conservative and
Clerical parties, and laws inspired by them were passed in Bavaria,
WUrttemberg and Prussia. This MiUelstand-Politik, as it is
called, was very characteristic of the attitude of mind which was
produced by the policy of Protection. Every class appealed
to the government for special laws to protect itself against the
effects of the economic changes which had been brought about
by the modern industrial system. Peasants and landlords,
artisans and tradesmen, each formed their own league for the
protection of their interests, and all looked to the state as the
proper guardian of their class interests.
After the fall of Caprivi the tendency of the German govern-
ment to revert to a strong Conservative policy in matters of
religion, education, and in the treatment of political
discussions became very marked. The complete f^'^'t
alienation of the working classes from Christianity polity.
caused much natural concern, combined as it was
with that indifference to religion which marks the life of the
educated classes in the krge towns, and especially in Berlin.
A strong feeling arose that social and political dangers could only
be avoided by an increase in religious life, and the emperor gave
the authority of his name to a movement which produced
numerous societies for home mission work, and (at least in Berlin)
led to the erection of numerous churches. Unfortunately,
this movement was too often connected with political reaction,
and the working classes were inclined to believe that the growth
of religion was valued because it afforded an additional support
to the social and political order. The situation was somewhat
similar to that which existed during the last years of Frederick
William IV., when the close association of religion with a Con-
servative policy made orthodoxy so distasteful to large sections
of society. The government, which had not taken warning by
the fate of the School Bill, attempted to carry other measures of
the same kind. The emperor had returned to Bismarck's policy
of joining social reform with repressive legislation. In a speech
at KSnigsberg in November 1894, he summoned the nobles of
Prussia to support him in the struggle for religion, for morality,
8 94
GERMANY
[HISTORY
Lex
Hclnxe.
for order, against the parties of Umslurz, or Revolution, and
shortly afterwards an amendment of the Criminal Code, com-
monly called the Umsturz-Vorlage, was introduced,
containing provisions to check attempts to undermine
the loyalty of the soldiers, and making it a crime
punishable with three years' imprisonment to attack religion,
monarchy, marriage, the family or property by abusive expres-
sions in such a manner as to endanger public peace. The dis-
cussion of this measure occupied .most of the session of 1895;
the bill was amended by the Centre so as to make it even more
strongly a measure for the defence of religion; and clauses were
introduced to defend public morality, by forbidding the public
exhibition of pictures or statues, or the sale of writings, which,
" without being actually obscene, might rudely offend the feeling
of modesty." These Clerical amendments aroused a strong
feeling of indignation. It was represented that the freedom of
art and literature was being endangered, and the government
was obliged to withdraw the bill. The tendency towards a
stricter censorship was shown by a proposal which was carried
through the Prussian parliament for controlling the instruction
given at the universities by the Privatdozenten. Some of the Con-
servative leaders, especially Baron von Stumm, the great manu-
facturer (one of Bismarck's chief advisers on industrial matters),
demanded protection against the teaching of some of the pro-
fessors with whose economic doctrines they did not agree;
pastors who took part in the Christian-Social movement incurred
the displeasure of the government; and Professor Delbriick
was summoned before a disciplinary court because, in the
Preussische Jahrbucher, which he edited, he had ventured to
criticize the policy of the Prussian government towards the Danes
in Schleswig. All the discontent and suspicion caused by this
policy broke out with greater intensity when a fresh
attempt was made in 1900 to carry those clauses
of the old Umsturz- Vorlage which dealt with offences
against public morality. The gross immoralities connected with
prostitution in Berlin had been disclosed in the case of a murderer
called Heinze in 1891; and a bill to strengthen the criminal law
on the subject was introduced but not carried. The measure
continued, however, to be discussed, and in 1900 the government
proposed to incorporate with this bill (which was known as the
Lex Heinze) the articles from the Umsturz-Vorlage subjecting
art and literature to the control of the criminal law and police.
The agitation was renewed with great energy. A Goethe- Verein
was founded to protect Kttltur, which seemed to be in danger.
In the end the obnoxious clauses were only withdrawn when the
Socialists used the forms of the House to prevent business from
being transacted. It was the first time that organized obstruction
had appeared in the Reichstag, and it was part of the irony of
the situation that the representatives of art and learning owed
their victory to the Socialists, whom they had so long attacked
as the great enemies of modern civilization.
These were not the only cases in which the influence of the
parties of reaction caused much discontent. There was the
question of the right of combination. In nearly every
Law of state there still existed old laws forbidding political
societies to unite with one another. These laws had
been passed in the years immediately after the revolu-
tion of 1848, and were quite out of place under modern conditions.
The object of them was to prevent a network of societies from
being formed extending over large districts, and so acquiring
political power. In 1895 the Prussian police used a law of 1850
as a- pretext for dissolving the Socialist organization in Berlin,
as had been done twenty years before. A large majority of the
Reichstag demanded that an imperial law should be passed
repealing these laws' and establishing the right of combination,
and they refused to pass the revised Civil Code until the chancellor
promised that this should be done. Instead of this course being
adopted, however, special laws were introduced in most of the
states, which, especially in Prussia and Saxony, while they gave
the right of combination, increased the power of the police to
forbid assemblies and societies. It was apparent that large and
influential parties still regarded political meetings as something
cotnblna-
in themselves dangerous and demoralizing, and hence the demand
of the Conservatives that women and young persons should be
forbidden to attend. In Prussia a majority of the Upper House
and a very large minority of the Lower House (193 to 206)
voted for an amendment expressly empowering the police to
break up meetings in which anarchistic, socialistic or communistic
doctrines were defended in such a manner as to be dangerous to
society; the Saxon Conservatives demanded that women at
least should be forbidden to attend socialistic meetings, and it
remained illegal for any one under twenty-one years of age to be
present at a political meeting. In consequence of the amend-
ments in the Upper House the Prussian law was lost; and at last,
in 1899, a short imperial law was carried to the effect that
" societies of every kind might enter into union with one
another." This was at once accepted by the chancellor; it was
the time when the Navy Bill was coming on, and it was necessary
to win votes. The general feeling of distrust which this pro-
longed controversy aroused was, however, shown by the almost
contemptuous rejection in 1899 of a Bill to protect artisans
who were willing to work against intimidation or violence (the
Zuchthaus-Vorlage), a vote which was the more significant as
it was not so much occasioned by the actual provisions of the
bill, but was an expression of the distrust felt for the motives
by which the government was moved and the reluctance to place
any further powers in their hands.
Meanwhile the emperor had set himself the task of doing for
the German fleet what his grandfather had done for the army.
The acquisition of Heligoland enabled a new naval station to be
established off the mouth of the Elbe; the completion of the
canal from Kiel to the mouth of the Elbe, by enabling ships of
war to pass from the Baltic to the North Sea greatly increased the
strategic strength of the fleet. In 1890 a change in the organiza-
tion separated the command of the fleet from the office of secre-
tary of state, who was responsible for the representation of the
admiralty in the Reichstag, and the emperor was brought into
more direct connexion with the navy. During the first five
years of the reign four line-of-battle ships were added and several
armoured cruisers for the defence of commerce and colonial
interests. With the year 1895 began a period of expansion abroad
and great naval activity. The note was given in a speech of
the emperor's on the twenty-fifth anniversary of the foundation
of the empire, in which he said, " the German empire has become
a world empire." The ruling idea of this new Welt-
Politik was that Germany could no longer remain
merely a continental power; owing to the growth of
population she depended for subsistence on trade and exports;
she could not maintain herself amid the rivalry of nations unless
the government was able actively to support German traders in
all parts of the world. The extension of German trade and in-
fluence has, in fact, been carried out with considerable success.
There was no prospect of further territory in Equatorial Africa,
and the hopes of bringing about a closer union with the South
African Republic was not fulfilled. On the Pacific, however,
there were great gains; 1 long-established plans for obtaining
a port in China which might serve as a base for the growing
trade at Tientsin were carried out at the end of 1897 ; the murder
of two Catholic missionaries was made the pretext for landing
troops in the bay of Kiao-chau; and in amends China
granted the lease of some 50 sq. m. of territory, and T^,^
also a concession for building railways. The emperor ntt- .,
showed his strong personal interest by sending his
brother, Prince Henry, in command of a squadron to take
possession of this territory, and the visit of a German prince to
the emperor of China strongly appealed to the popular imagina-
tion. The emperor's characteristically rhetorical speeches on
this occasion particularly his identification of his brother with
the " mailed fist " of Germany excited considerable comment.
1 In 1899, following the Spanish-American War, Germany pur-
chased the Caroline, Pelew and Marianne Islands from Spain ; in
1899-1900 by agreement with Great Britain and America she
acquired the two largest of the Samoan islands, renouncing in
favour of Britain her protectorate over certain of the Solomon
islands.
HISTORY]
GERMANY
895
In Turkey the government, helped again by the personal interest
of the emperor, who himself visited the sultan at Constantinople,
gained important concessions (or German influence and German
commerce. The Turkish armies were drilled and commanded
by German officers, and in 1809 a German firm gained an im-
portant concession for building a railway to Baghdad. In Brazil
organized private enterprise established a considerable settle-
ment of German emigrants, and though any political power was
for the time impossible, German commerce increased greatly
throughout South America.
Encouraged by the interest which the events in China had
aroused, a very important project was laid before the Reichstag
in November 1897, which would enable Germany to
'*' take a higher place among the maritime powers. A
" completely new procedure was introduced. Instead
of simply proposing to build a number of new ships,
the bill laid down permanently the number of ships of every
kind of which the navy was to consist. They were to be com-
pleted by 1004; and the bill also specified how often ships of
each class were to be replaced. The plan would establish a
normal fleet, and the Reichstag, having once assented, would
lose all power of controlling the naval budget. The bill was
strongly opposed by the Radicals; the Centre was divided;
but the very strong personal influence of the emperor, supported
by an agitation of the newly-formed Flottenverein (an imitation
of the English Navy League), so influenced public opinion that
the opposition broke down. A general election was imminent,
and no party dared to go to the country as the opponents of the
fleet.
Scarcely had the bill been carried when a series of events took
place which still more fully turned public attention to colonial
affairs, and seemed to justify the action of the govern-
ment. The war between the United States and Spain
showed how necessary an efficient fleet was under
modern conditions, and also caused some feeling of
apprehension for the future arising from the new policy of ex-
tension adopted by the United States. And the brewing of the
storm in South Africa, where the Boers were preparing to resist
British suzerainty, helped to make the nation regret that their
fleet was not sufficiently strong to make German sympathies
effective. The government used with great address the bitter
irritation against Great Britain which had become one of the-
most deep-seated elements in modern German life. This feeling
had its origin at first in a natural reaction against the excessive
admiration for English institutions which distinguished the
Liberals of an older generation. This reaction was deliberately
fostered during Bismarck's later years for internal reasons;
for, as Great Britain was looked upon as the home of parlia-
mentary government and Free Trade, a less favourable view
might weaken German belief in doctrines and institutions adopted
from that country. There also existed in Germany a curious
compound of jealousy and contempt, natural in a nation the
whole institutions of which centred round the army and com-
pulsory service, for a nation whose institutions were based not on
military, but on parliamentary and legal institutions. It came
about that in the minds of many Germans the whole national
regeneration was regarded as a liberation from British influence.
This feeling was deliberately fostered by publicists and historians,
and was intensified by commercial rivalry, since in the struggle
for colonial expansion and trade Germans naturally came to look
on Great Britain, who held the field, as their rival. The sympathy
which the events of 1806 and 1899 awakened for the
Boers caused all these feelings, which had long been
growing, to break out in a popular agitation more
widespread than any since the foundation of the empire.
It was used by the Nationalist parties, in Austria as well as
in Germany, to spread the conception of Pan- Germanism;
the Boers as Low Germans were regarded as the representatives
of Teutonic civilization, and it seemed possible that the con-
ception might be used to bring about a closer friendship, and even
alliance, with Holland. In 1806 the emperor, by despatching
a telegram of congratulation to President Kruger after the collapse
of the Jameson Raid, had appeared to identify himself with the
national feeling. When war broke out in 1899 it was obviously
impossible to give any efficient help to the Boers, but the govern-
ment did not allow the moment to pass without using
it for the very practical purpose of getting another * Ble '
bill through the Reichstag by which the navy was to
be nearly doubled. Some difficulties which arose regarding the
exercise by the British government of the right of search for
contraband of war were also used to stimulate public feeling.
The Navy Bill was introduced in January 1900. There were
some criticisms of detail, but the passing of the bill was only a
matter of bargaining. Each party wished in return for its
support to get some concessions from the government. The
Agrarians asked for restrictions on the importation of food;
the Centre for the Lex Heinze and the repeal of the Jesuit law;
the Liberals for the right of combination.
The murder of the German ambassador, Baron von Ketteler,
at Peking in 1000 compelled the government to take a leading
part in the joint expedition of the powers to China.
A force of over 20,000 men was organized by voluntary
enlistment from among the regular army; and the
supreme command was obtained by the emperor for
Count von Waldersee, who had succeeded Moltke as chief of the
staff. The government was, however, sharply criticized for not
first consulting the Reichstag in a matter involving the first
military expedition since the foundation of the empire. It was
desirable in such circumstances that a younger and more vigorous
statesman than Prince Hohenlohe should be placed at the head
of affairs before the Reichstag met; and on the i/th of October
he resigned, and was succeeded as chancellor by Herr von Billow,
the foreign secretary. (J. W. HE.; W. A. P. )
It remains only to sketch the main features of German history
in later years. In spite of the denunciation by the Social Demo-
cratic leaders of what they stigmatized as a " policy
of brag," the general popularity of the idea of estab- pngn**.
lishing a strong sea power was proved by the rapid
extension of the Navy League, which in 1904 had already 3395
branches. For an increase in the navy there was, indeed,
sufficient excuse in the enormous expansion of German over-sea
commerce and the consequent growth of the mercantile marine;
the value of foreign trade, which in 1894 was 365,000,000, had
risen in 1904 to 610,000,000, and in the same period the tonnage
of German merchant shipping had increased by 234%. In
the session of 1901 Admiral von Tirpitz, the minister of marine,
admitted in answer to a Socialist interpellation that the naval
programme of 1900 would have to be enlarged. In 1903 Count
Billow declared in the Reichstag that the government was
endeavouring to pursue a middle course between " the extrava-
gant aspirations of the Pan-Germans and the parochial policy
of the Social Democrats, which forgets that in a struggle for life
and death Germany's means of communication might be cut off."
At the same time the emperor presented to the Reichstag a com-
parative table, drawn up by his own hand, showing the relative
strength of the British and German navies. An inspired article in
the Gretaboten declared the object of this to be to moderate at
once the aggressive attitude of the Pan-Germans towards Great
Britain and British alarms at the naval development of Germany.
This gave a fresh impetus to the naval agitation and counter-
agitation. In 1904 Count Bttlow again found it necessary, in
reply to the Socialist leader Bebel, to declare that the German
naval armaments were purely defensive. "I cannot conceive,"
he said, " that the idea of an Anglo-German war should be
seriously entertained by sensible people in either country."
On the i6th of November 1005 a new Navy Bill amplifying the
programme of 1000 was accepted by the Federal Diet. The Navy
League, encouraged by its success, now redoubled its exertions
and demanded that the whole programme should be completed
by 1912 instead of 1917. Bebel denounced this agitation as
obviously directed against England; and the government
thought it expedient to disavow the action of its too zealous
allies. A telegram addressed by the emperor William to the
presidents of the League, Generals Keim and Menges, led to
GERMANY
[HISTORY
their resignation; but the effect of this was largely counteracted
by the presence of Prince Henry of Prussia and the king of
Wurttemberg at the annual congress of the League at Stuttgart in
May, while at the Colonial Congress in the autumn the necessity
for a powerful navy was again one of the main themes of dis-
cussion. That the government was, in fact, at one with the
League as to the expediency of pushing on the naval programme
was proved by the revelations of the first lord of the admiralty,
Mr McKenna, in the debate on the naval estimates in the British
parliament of 1909. From these it was clear that the German
government had for some time past been pressing on its naval
armaments with little regard to the ostensible programme, and
that in the matter of the newest types of battleships, Great
Britain had to reckon with the fact that, before the date fixed
for the completion of the programme, Germany might establish
at least an equality.
The same determined spirit which characterized German naval
policy was evident also in her relations with the other powers.
The suspicions as to the stability of the Triple Alliance
polhy? produced, indeed, for some years a kind of nervous-
ness in the attitude of the government, whose deter-
mination to assert for Germany a leading international role
tended to isolate her in Europe. This nervousness was, in 1903
and 1904, especially evident in the efforts to weaken the Franco-
Russian alliance by the policy of what Bebel denounced as
Germany " crawling on her stomach before Russia." Germany
not only backed up Russian policy in the East, and at the out-
break of the Russo-Japanese War took up towards her an attitude
of more than benevolent neutrality, but the cabinets of Berlin
and St Petersburg entered into an agreement under which political
offenders against either government were to be treated as traitors
to both. This arrangement, which made the Prussian police
the active allies of the Third Section in. the persecution of
The political suspects, created vast indignation among all
shades of Liberal opinion in Germany, an indignation
which culminated with the famous Konigsberg trial.
This was a prosecution of nine German subjects for
sedition, conspiracy and tese-majeslt against the Russian emperor,
and for the circulation of books and pamphlets attacking him
and his government. The defendants were poor smugglers
from the Esthonian border marshes, who in the course of their
ordinary avocations had carried bales of revolutionary tracts
into Russia without troubling as to their contents. The trial,
which took place in July 1904, excited widespread attention.
The prosecution was conducted with all the force of the govern-
ment; the defence was undertaken by some of the most brilliant
Liberal advocates of Germany and developed in effect into an
elaborate indictment, supported by a great weight of first-hand
evidence, of the iniquities of the Russian regime. The verdict
of the court was a serious rebuff for the government; after a
preliminary investigation of nine months, and a public trial of a
fortnight, the major charges against the prisoners were dismissed,
and six of them were condemned only to short terms of imprison-
ment for conspiracy.
The progress of the Russo-Japanese War, however, soon re-
lieved Germany of all anxiety as to the safety of her eastern
frontiers, and produced a corresponding change in her attitude.
The Russian disasters in Manchuria at the beginning of 1905
were followed by an extraordinary demonstration of the emperor
William's ideas as to " the world-wide dominion of the Hohen-
zollerns," in a sort of imperial progress in the East, made for the
purpose of impressing the Mahommedan world with the power
of Germany. In 1904 the German attitude towards Great
Britain had been in the highest degree conciliatory; the Anglo-
French agreement as to Egypt was agreed to at Berlin; a visit
of King Edward VII. to Kiel was reciprocated by that of the
German squadron to Plymouth; in July a treaty of arbitration
was signed between the two countries, while in the Reichstag
the chancellor declared that, Germany's interests in Morocco
being purely commercial, the understanding between France and
England as to that country, embodied in the convention of the
8th of April 1904, did not immediately concern her. This attitude
M * L
was now changed. On the 3ist of March 1905 the emperor
William landed at Tangier, and is reported on this occasion to
have used language which in effect amounted to a promise to
support the sultan of Morocco in resisting French control. His
visit to the Holy Land and the solemn pilgrimage to Jerusalem
were, in the same way, a striking coup de the&tre designed to
strengthen the influence won by Germany in the councils of the
Ottoman empire, an influence which she had been careful not
to weaken by taking too active a part in the concert of the
powers engaged in pressing on the question of Macedonian
reform.
Meanwhile pressure was being put upon France to admit the
German claim to a voice in the affairs of North Africa, a claim
fortified by the mission of Count von Tattenbach, German
minister at Lisbon, to Fez for the purpose of securing from the
sherifian government special privileges for Germany. This
aggressive policy was firmly resisted by M. Delcasse, the French
minister of foreign affairs, and for a while war seemed to be
inevitable. At Berlin powerful influences, notably that of Herr
von Holstein that mysterious omnipotence behind the throne
were working for this end; the crippling of Russia seemed
too favourable an opportunity to be neglected for crushing the
menace cf French armaments. That an actual threat of war
was conveyed to the French government (through the German
ambassador at Rome, it is said) there can be no doubt. That
war was prevented was due partly to the timidity of French
ministers, partly to the fact that at the last moment Herr von
Holstein shrank from the responsibility of pressing his arguments
to a practical conclusion. The price of peace, however, was the
resignation of M. Delcasse, who had been prepared to maintain
a bold front. Germany had perhaps missed an opportunity for
putting an end for ever to the rivalry of France; but she had
inflicted a humiliation on her rival, and proved her capacity to
make her voice heard in the councils of Europe. 1 The proceedings
of the conference of Algeciras (see MOROCCO) emphasized the
restored confidence of Germany in her international position.
It was notably the part played by Austria in supporting the
German point of view throughout at the conference that
strengthened the position of Germany in Europe, by drawing
closer the bonds of sympathy between the two empires. How
strong this position had become was demonstrated during the
crisis that arose after the revolution in Turkey and the annexa-
tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in October 1908.
The complete triumph of Baron von Aehrenthal's policy, in the
face of the opposition of most of the European powers, was due
to German support, and Germany suddenly appeared as the
arbiter of the affairs of the European continent (see EUROPE:
History) . German nervousness, which had seen B ritish intrigues
everywhere, and suspected in the beneficent activities of King
Edward VII. a Machiavellian plan for isolating Germany and
surrounding her with a net of hostile forces, gave way to a spirit
of confidence which could afford to laugh at the terror of Germany
which, to judge from the sensational reports of certain popular
British journals, had seized upon Great Britain.
The great position gained by the German empire in these
years was won in the face of great and increasing internal diffi-
culties. These difficulties were, in the main, the out-
come of the peculiar constitution of the empire, of j"jjj -/
the singular compromise which it represented between cu ities
the traditional medieval polity and the organization
of a modern state, and of the conflicts of ideals and of interests
to which this gave rise; these being complicated by the masterful
personality of the emperor William, and his tendency to confuse
his position as German emperor by the will of the princes with
his position as king of Prussia by the grace of God.
In general, Germany had passed since the war through a social
and economic revolution similar to that undergone by Great
Britain during the earlier half of the igth century, though on
a greater scale and at a much accelerated pace. A country
1 The elevation of Count Billow to the rank of prince immediately
after the crisis was significantly compared with the same honour
bestowed on Bismarck at Versailles in 1871.
HISTORY)
GERMANY
897
mainly agricultural, and in parts purely feudal, was changed into
one of vast industries and of great concentrations of population;
and for the ferment created by this change there was no such
safety-valve in the representative system as had existed in England
aincc the Reform Bill. In spite of the elect ion of the Reichstag by
manhood suffrage, there existed, as Count Billow pointed out in
1904. no real parliamentary system in Germany, and " owing to
the economic, political, social and religious structure of the
nation" there could never be one. Of the numerous groups
composing the German parliament no one ever secured a majority,
and in the absence of such a majority the imperial government,
practically independent of parliament, knew how to secure its
assent to its measures by a process of bargaining with each
group in turn. This system had curious and very far-reaching
results. The only group which stood outside it, in avowed
hostility to the whole principle on which the constitution was
based, was that of the Social Democrats, " the only great party
in Germany which," so the veteran Mommsen declared in 1001,
" has any claim to political respect." The consequence was the
rapid extension and widening of the chasm that divided the
German people. The mass of the working-class population in
the Protestant parts of Germany belonged to the Social
Democracy, an inclusive term covering variations of opinion
from the doctrinaire system of Marx to a degree of Radicalism
which in England would not be considered a bar to a peerage.
To make head against this, openly denounced by the emperor
himself as a treasonable movement, the government was from
time to time forced to make concessions to the various groups
which placed their sectional interests in the forefront of their
programmes. To conciliate the Catholic Centre party, numeri-
cally the strongest of all, various concessions were from time to
time made to the Roman Catholic Church, e.g. the repeal in 1004
of the clause of the Anti-Jesuit Law forbidding the settlement
of individual members of the order in Germany. The Conserva-
tive Agrarians were conciliated by a series of tariff acts placing
heavy duties on the importation of agricultural produce and
exempting from duty agricultural implements.
The first of these tariffs, which in order to overcome Socialist
obstruction was passed tn bloc on December 13-14, 1902, led
to an alarming alteration in the balance of parties
in the new Reichstag of 1903, the Socialists who
had previously numbered 58 winning 81 seats, a gain
of 23. Of the other groups only one, and that hostile
to the government the Poles had gained a seat. This startling
victory of the Social Democracy, though to a certain extent
discounted by the dissensions between the two wings of the
party which were revealed at the congress at Dresden in the same
year, was in the highest degree disconcerting to the government ;
but in the actual manipulation of the Reichstag it facilitated
the work of the chancellor by enabling him to unite the other
groups more readily against the common enemy. The most
striking effect of the development of this antagonism was the
gradual disappearance as a factor in politics of the Liberals,
the chief builders of the Empire. Their part henceforth was
to vote blindly with the Conservative groups, in a common fear
of the Social Democracy, or to indulge in protests, futile because
backed by no power inside or outside the parliament; their
impotence was equally revealed when in December 1002 they
voted with the Agrarians for the tariff, and in May 1009 when
they withdrew in dudgeon from the new tariff committee, and
allowed the reactionary elements a free hand. The political
struggle of the future lay between the Conservative and Clerical
elements in the state, alike powerful forces, and the organized
power of the Social Democracy. In the elections of 1907, indeed,
the Social Democratic party, owing to the unparalleled exertion
of the government, had a set-back, its representation in parlia-
ment sinking to 43; but at the International Socialist Congress,
which met at Stuttgart on the i8th of August, Herr Bebel was
able to point out that, in spite of its defeat at the polls, the
Socialist cause had actually gained strength in the country,
their total poll having increased from 3,010,771 in 1903 to
3,250,000.
. ao
of the
emperor.
In addition to the political strife and anxiety due to this
fundamental cleavage within the nation, Germany was troubled
during the first decade of the 2oth century by friction
and jealousies arising out of the federal constitution Pna*iu
of the Empire and the preponderant place in it of r-mpin
Prussia. In the work of pressing on the national and
international expansion of Germany the interests and views of
the lesser constituent states of the Empire were apt to be over-
looked or overridden; and in the southern states there was
considerable resentment at the Unitarian tendency of the north,
which seemed to aim at imposing the Prussian model on the whole
nation. This resentment was especially conspicuous in Bavaria,
which clings more tenaciously than the other states to its separate
traditions. When, on the istof April 1902, a new stamp, with the
superscription " Deutsches Reich," was issued for the Empire,
including Wurttemberg, Bavaria refused to accept it, retaining
the stamp with the Bavarian lion, thus emphasizing her deter-
mination to retain her separate postal establishment. On the
23rd of October 1903 Baron Podevils, the new premier, addressing
the Bavarian diet, declared that his government " would combat
with all its strength" any tendency to assure the future of the
Empire on any lines other than the federative basis laid down
in the imperial constitution.
This protest was the direct outcome of an instance of the
tendency of the emperor to interfere in the affairs of the various
governments of the Empire. In 1902 the Clerical pgrtoumi
majority in the Bavarian diet had refused to vote later-
20,000 asked by the government for art purposes, veatloa
whereupon the emperor had telegraphed expressing
his indignation and offering to give the money himself,
an offer that was politely declined. Another instance of the
emperor's interference, constitutionally of more importance as
directly affecting the rights of the German sovereigns, was in
the question of the succession to the principality of Lippe (see
LIPPE). The impulsive character of the emperor, which led him,
with the best intentions and often with excellent effect, to
interfere everywhere and in everything and to utter opinions
often highly inconvenient to his ministers, was the subject of an
interpellation in the Reichstag on the 2oth of January 1903
by the Socialist Herr von Vollmar, himself a Bavarian. Count
Btilow, in answer to his criticisms, declared that " the German
people desired, not a shadow, but an emperor of flesh and
blood." None the less, the continued " indiscretions " of the
emperor so incensed public opinion that, five years later, the
chancellor himself was forced to side with it in obtaining from
the emperor an undertaking to submit all his public utterances
previously to his ministers for approval (see WILLIAM II.,
German emperor).
Meanwhile, the attempt to complete the Germanization of the
frontier provinces of the Empire by concilia! ion or repression con-
tinued. In this respect progress was made especially rfc , aoa .
in Alsace-Lorraine. In May 1902, in return for the Herman
money granted by the Reichsl&nder for the restoration "attoo-
of the imperial castle of Hohekdnigsburg in the Vosges, """
the emperor promised to abolish the Diktaturparagraphen; the
proposal was accepted by the Reichstag, and the exceptional
laws relating to Alsace-Lorraine were repealed. Less happy
were the efforts of the Prussian government at the Germaniza-
tion of Prussian Poland and Schleswig. In the former, in spite
of, or perhaps because of, the attempt to crush the Polish language
and spirit, the Polish element continuously increased, reinforced
by immigrants from across the frontier; in the latter the Danish
language more than held its own, for similar reasons, but the
treaty signed on the nth of January 1007 between Prussia and
Denmark, as to the status of the Danish " opt ants " in the duchies,
removed the worst grievance from which the province was suffer-
ing (see SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEDJ QUESTION).
Of more serious import were the yearly and increasing deficits
in the imperial budget, and the consequent enormous growth of
the debt. This was partly due to the commercial and industrial
depression of the early years of the century, partly was another
outcome of the federal constitution, which made it difficult to
GERMANY
[HISTORY
adjust the budget to the growing needs of the Empire without
disarranging the finances of its constitutent states. The crisis
Resigns- became acute when the estimates for the year 1909
tloa ot showed that some 25,000,000 would have to be raised
Prince voa j^y additional taxes, largely to meet the cost of the ex-
panded naval programme. The budget presented to
the Reichstag by Prince Bulow, which laid new burdens upon the
landed and capitalist classes, was fiercely opposed by the Agrarians,
and led to the break-up of the Liberal-Conservative bloc on whose
support the chancellor had relied since the elections of 1906.
The budget was torn to pieces in the committee selected to report
on it; the Liberal members, after a vain protest, seceded; and
the Conservative majority had a free hand to amend it in accord-
ance with their views. In the long and acrimonious debates that
followed in the Reichstag itself the strange spectacle was pre-
sented of the chancellor fighting a coalition of the Conservatives
and the Catholic Centre with the aid of the Socialists and Liberals.
The contest was from the first hopeless, and, but for the personal
request of the emperor that he would pilot the Finance Bill
through the House in some shape or other, Prince Bulow
would have resigned early in the year. So soon as the budget
was passed he once more tendered his resignation, and on the
1 4th of July a special edition of the Imperial Gazette announced
that it had been accepted by the emperor. The post of imperial
chancellor was at the same time conferred on Theobald von
Bethmann-Hollweg, the imperial secretary of state for the
interior. 1 (W. A. P.)
Bibliography of German History. Although the authorities
for the history of Germany may be said to begin with Caesar, it
is Tacitus who is especially useful, his Germania being an in-
valuable mine of information about the early inhabitants of the
country. In the dark and disordered centuries which followed
there are only a few scanty notices of the Germans, mainly in
the works of foreign writers like Gregory of Tours and Jordanes;
and then the 8th and gth centuries, the time of the revival of
learning which is associated with the name of Charlemagne, is
reached. By the end of this period Christianity had been firmly
established among most of the German tribes; the monks were
the trustees of the new learning, and we must look mainly,
although not exclusively, to the monasteries for our authorities.
The work of the monks generally took the form of Annales or
Chronica, and among the numerous German monasteries which
are famous in this connexion may be mentioned Fulda, Reichenau,
St Gall and Lorsch. For contemporary history and also for the
century or so which preceded the lifetimes of their authors these
writings are fairly trustworthy, but beyond this they are little
more than collections of legends. There are also a large number
of lives of saints and churchmen, in which the legendary element
is still more conspicuous.
With regard to the Annales and Chronica three important
considerations must be mentioned. They are local, they are
monastic, and they are partisan. The writer in the Saxon abbey
of Corvey, or in the Franconian abbey of Fulda, knows only about
events which happened near his own doors; he records, it is true,
occurrences which rumour has brought to his ears, but in general
he is trustworthy only for the history of his own neighbourhood.
The Saxon and the Franconian annalists know nothing of the
distant Bavarians; there is even a gulf between the Bavarian
and the Swabian. Then the Annals are monastic. To their
writers the affairs of the great world are of less importance than
1 He was born on November 29, 1856, the son of a wealthy
Rhenish landowner, and grandson of Moritz August von Bethmann-
Hollweg (17951877), professor of law at Bonn, ennobled in 1840,
and from 1858 to 1862 minister of education and religion at Berlin.
Herr von Bethmann-Hollweg studied law at Strassburg, Leipzig and
Berlin, entered the Prussian civil service in 1882, and, passing
successfully through the various stages of a German administrative
career, became governor (Oberprasident) of the province of Branden-
burg in 1899. In 1905 he became Prussian minister of the interior.
Two years later hesucceeded Count Posadowsky as imperial secretary
of state for the interior and representative of the imperial chancellor,
and was at the same time made vice-president of the council of
Prussian ministers, an office and title which had been in abeyance
for some years and were now again suppressed.
those of the monastery itself. The Saxon Widukind, for instance,
gives more space to the tale of the martyrdom of St Vitus than
he does to several of the important campaigns of Henry the
Fowler. Lastly, the annalist is a partisan. One is con-
cerned to glorify at all costs the Carolingian house; another
sacrifices almost everything to attack the emperor Henry IV.
and to defend the Papacy; while a third holds a brief for
some king or emperor, like Louis the Pious or Otto the
Great.
Two difficulties are met with in giving an account of the
sources of German history. In the 7th, 8th and gth centuries
it is hard, if not impossible, to disentangle the history of Germany
from that of the rest of the Prankish empire of which it formed
part; in fact it is not until the time of the dissensions between
the sons of the emperor Louis I. that there are any signs of
demarcation between the East and the West Franks, or, in other
words, any separate history of Germany. The second difficulty
arises later and is due to the connexion of Germany with the
Empire. Germany was always the great pillar of the imperial
power; for several centuries it was the Empire in everything
but in name, and yet its political history is often overshadowed
by the glamour of events in Italy. While the chroniclers were
recording the deeds of Frederick I. and of Frederick II. in the
peninsula, the domestic history of Germany remained to a large
extent unwritten.
Among the early German chroniclers the Saxon Widukind, the
author of the Res gestae Saxonicae, is worthy of mention. He was
a monk of Corvey, and his work is the best authority for the early
history of Saxony. Lambert, a monk of Hersfeld, and Widu-
kind's countryman, Bruno, in his De bello Saxonico, tell the story
of the great contest between the emperor Henry IV. and Pope
Gregory VII., with special reference to the Saxon part of the
struggle. But perhaps the ablest and the most serviceable of
these early writers is Otto of Freising, a member of the Baben-
berg family. Otto was also related to the great house of Hohen-
staufen, a relationship which gave him access to sources of
information usually withheld from the ordinary monastic annalist,
and his work is very valuable for the earlier part of the career
of Frederick I. Something is learned, too, from biographies
written by the monks, of which Einhard's Vita Karoli Magni
is the greatest and the best, and Wipo's life of the emperor
Conrad II. is valuable, while another Carolingian courtier,
Nithard, has a special interest as, almost alone among these
early chroniclers, being a soldier and not a monk.
The monastic writers remain our chief authorities until the
great change brought about by the invention of printing, although
a certain amount of work was done by clerical writers attached
to the courts of various rulers. Parallel with this event the
revival of learning was producing a great number of men who could
write, and, more important still, of men who were throwing off
the monastic habits of thought and passing into a new intellectual
atmosphere. The Renaissance was followed by the fierce con-
troversies aroused by the Reformation, and the result was the
output of an enormous mass of writings covering every phase
of the mighty combat and possessing every literary virtue save
that of impartiality. But apart from these polemical writings,
many of which had only an ephemeral value, the Renaissance
was the source of another stream of historical literature. Several
princes and other leading personages, foremost among whom
was the emperor Maximilian I., had spent a good deal of time
and money in collecting the manuscripts of the medieval
chroniclers, and these now began to be printed. The chronicle
of Otto of Freising, which appeared in 1515, and the Vita of
Einhard, which appeared six years later, are only two among
the many printed at this time. The publication of collections
of chronicles began in 1529, and the uncritical fashion in which
these were reproduced made forgeries easy and frequent. There
was, indeed, more than a zeal for pure learning behind this new
movement; for both parties in the great religious controversy
of the time used these records of the past as a storehouse of
weapons of offence. The Protestants eagerly sought out the
writings which exposed and denounced the arrogance of the
HISTORY]
GERMANY
899
popes, while the Romanists attempted to counter them with
the numerous lives of the saints.
But before the raw material of history thus began to increase
enormously in bulk, it had already begun to change its character
and to assume its modern form. The Ckrcmide still survived as
a medium of conveying information, though more often than not
this was now written by a layman; but new stores of information
were coming into existence, or rather the old stores were expanding
and taking a different form. Very roughly these may be divided
into six sections, (i) Official documents issued by the emperors
and other German rulers, (a) Treaties concluded between
Germany and other powers and also between one German state
and another, (j) Despatches sent to England, Spain and other
countries by their representatives in various parts of Germany.
(4) Controversial writings or treatises written to attack or defend
a given position, largely the product of the Reformation period.
(5) The correspondence of eminent and observant persons. (6)
An enormous mass of personal impressions taking the form of
Commentaries, Memoirs and Diaries (Tagebucher). Moreover,
important personages still find eulogistic biographers and
defenders, e.g. the fanciful writings about the emperor Maxi-
milian I. or Pufendorf's De rebus gestis Fridcrici Wilhdmi Magni
tltctoris Brandenburgiti.
Through the dust aroused by the great Reformation controversy
appear the dim beginnings of the scientific spirit in the writing
of history, and in this connexion the name of Aventinus, " the
Bavarian Herodotus," may be mentioned. But for many years
hardly any progress was made in this direction. Even if they
poeMMcd the requisite qualifications the historiographers attached
to the courts of the emperor Charles V. and of lesser potentates
could not afford to be impartial. Thus new histories were written
and old ones unearthed, collected and printed, but no attempt
was made to criticize and collate the manuscripts of the past,
or to present two sides of a question in the writings of the present.
Among the collections of authorities made during the i6th and
i;th centuries those of J. Pistorius (Frankfort, 1583-1607),
of E. Lindenbrog (Frankfort, 1609) and of M. Freher (Frankfort,
1600-1611), may be noticed, although these were only put
together and printed in the most haphazard and unconnected
fashion. Passing thus through these two centuries we reach the
beginning of the i8th century and the work done for German
historical scholarship by the philosopher Leibnitz, who sought
to do for his own country what Muratori was doing for Italy.
For some years it had been recognized that the collection and
arrangement of the authorities for German history was too great
an undertaking for any one man, and societies under very
influential patronage were founded for this purpose. But very
slight results attended these elaborate schemes, although their
failure did not deter Leibnitz from pursuing the same end.
The two chief collections which were issued by the philosopher
are the Accessiones kistoricae (1608-1700) and the Scriptores
rerum Brunmcensium; the latter of these, containing docu-
ments centring round the history of the Wclf family, was pub-
lished in three volumes at Hanover (1707-1711). Leibnitz
worked at another collection, the Originej dteljicae, which was
completed and issued by his pupils (Hanover, 1750-1780), and
also at Annales imperii occidentis Brunsticenses, which, although
the most valuable collection of the kind yet made, was not pub-
lished until edited by G. H. Pertz (Hanover, 1843-1846). Other
collections followed those of Leibnitz, among which may be
mentioned the Corpus kittoricum medii aevi of J. G. Eccard
(Leipzig, 1723) and the Scriptores return Germanicarum of J. B.
Mencke (Leipzig, 1728). But these collections are merely
heaps of historical material, good and bad; the documents
therein were not examined and they are now quite superseded.
They give, however, evidence of the great industry of their
authors, and are the foundations upon which modern German
scholarship has built.
In the iQth century the scientific spirit received a great
impetus from the German system of education, one feature of
which was that the universities began to require original work
for some of their degrees. In this field of scientific research the
Germans were the pioneers, and in it they are still pre-eminent,
with Ranke as their most famous name and the Monumenta
Hrrmaniae kistorica as their greatest production. The Monu-
tnenta is a critical and ordered collection of documents relating
to the history of Germany between 500 and 1500. It owes its
origin mainly to the efforts of the statesman Stein, who was
responsible for the foundation of the GeseUschaft fur tillere deulsche
Geschichtskunde, under the auspices of which the work was begun.
The Gesellsckaft was established in 1819, and, the editorial work
having been entrusted to G. H. Pertz, the first volume of
the Monumenta was published in 1826. The work was divided
into five sections: Scriptores, Leges, Diplomata, Epistolae and
Anliquitates, but it was many years before anything was done
with regard to the two last-named sections. In the three
remaining ones, however, folio volumes were published regularly,
and by 1909 thirty folio volumes of Scriptores, five of Leges
and one of Diplomata imperil had appeared. But meanwhile
a change of organization had taken place. When Pertz resigned
his editorial position in 1874 and the Gesellschaft was dissolved,
twenty-four folio volumes had been published. The Prussian
Academy of Sciences now made itself responsible for the continu-
ance of the work, and a board of direction was appointed, the
presidents of which were successively G. Waitz, W. Wattenbach,
E. DUmmler and O. Holder-Egger. Soon afterwards as money
became more plentiful the scope of work was extended; the
production of the folio volumes continued, but the five sections
were subdivided and in each of these a series of quarto volumes
was issued. The titles of these new sections give a sufficient
idea of their contents. The Scriptores are divided into Auclores
aniiquissimi, Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, Scriptores rerum
Langobardicarum el Italicarum, Librlli de lite imperatorum et
pontificum, Gesta pontificum Romanorum and Deutsche Chroniken,
or Scriptores qui vernacula lingua usi sunt. The Leges are divided
into Leges nationum Germanicarum, Capitularia regum Francorum,
Concilia, Constitutiones imperatorum et regum and Formulae.
Three quarto volumes of Diplomata regum el imperatorum
Germanise and one of Diplomata Karolingorum had been pub-
lished by 1909. Work was also begun upon the Antiquilates
and the Epistolae. The sections of the former are Poelae Latini
medii aeri, Libri confraternitatum and Necrologia Germaniae,
and of the latter Epistolae saeculi XIII. and Epistolae Mero-
vingici et Karolini aevi. Meanwhile the publication of the
Scriptores proper continues, although the thirty-first and sub-
sequent volumes are in quarto and not in folio, and the number of
volumes in the whole undertaking is continually being increased.
The archives of the Gesellschaft have been published in twelve
volumes, and a large number of volumes of the Neues Archiv
have appeared. Some of the MSS. have been printed in facsimile,
and an index to the Monumenta, edited by O. Holder-Egger and
K. Zeumer, appeared in 1890. The writings of the more im-
portant chroniclers have been published separately, and many
of them have been translated into German.
It will thus be seen that the ground covered by the Monumenta
is enormous. The volumes of the Scriptores contain not only the
domestic chroniclers, but also selections from the work of foreign
writers who give information about the history of Germany for
example, the Englishman Matthew Paris. In the main these
writings are arranged in chronological order. Each has been
edited by an expert, and the various introductions give evidence
of the number of MSS. collated and the great pains taken to
ensure textual accuracy on the part of the different editors,
among whom may be mentioned Mommsen aud Lappenberg.
Other great names in German historical scholarship have also
assisted in this work. In addition to Waitz the Leges section has
enjoyed the services of F. Bluhme and of H. Brunner, and the
Diplomata section of T. Sickel, H. Bresslau and E. Mlihlbacher.
The progress of the Monumenta stimulated the production of
other works of a like nature, and among the smaller collections
of authorities which appeared during the ipth century two are
worthy of mention. These are the Ponies rerum Germanicarum,
edited by J. F. Bohmer (Stuttgart, 1843-1868), a collection of
sources of the nth, I3th and i4th centuries, and the Bibliotheca
900
GERMANY
[AUTHORITIES
rerum Germanicarum, edited by Ph. Jaffe (Berlin, 1864-1873).
Another development followed the production of the Monumenta,
this being the establishment in most of the German states of
societies the object of which was to foster the study of local
history. Reference may be made to a Verein for this purpose in
Saxony and to others in Silesia and in Mecklenburg. Much has
also been donein Prussia, in Brandenburg, in Bavaria, in Hanover,
in Wiirttemberg and in Baden, and collections of authorities
have been made by competent scholars, of which the Geschichts-
quellen der Provinz Sachsen und angrenzender Gebiete (Halle,
1870, fol.), which extends to forty volumes, the smaller Scriptores
rerum Prussicarum (Leipzig, 1861-1874), and the seventy-seven
volumes of the Publikationen aus den koniglichen preussischen
Staalsarchiven, veranlasst und unterstiltzt durch die konigliche
Archiwerwaltung (Leipzig, 1878, fol.), may be cited as examples.
The cities have followed the same path and their archives are
being thoroughly examined. In 1 836 an Urkundenbuch of Frank-
fort was published, and this example has been widely followed,
the work done in Cologne, in Bremen and in Mainz being perhaps
specially noticeable. Moreover an historical commission at
Munich has published twenty-eight volumes in the series Die
Chroniken der deutschen Stadte vom 14. bis ins 16. Jahrhundert
(Leipzig, 1862, fol.). Lastly, many documents relating to the
great families of Germany, among them those of Hohenzollern
and of Wittelsbach, have been carefully edited and given to the
world.
With this great mass of material collected, sifted and edited
by scholars of the highest standing it is not surprising that
modern works on the history of Germany are stupendous in
number and are generally of profound learning, and this in
spite of the fact that some German historians Gregorovius,
Pauli and Lappenberg, for example have devoted their time to
researches into the history of foreign lands.
The earliest period is dealt with by K. Zeuss in Die Deutschen und
die Nachbarstdmme (Munich, 1837; new ed., Gottingen, 1904); and
then by F. Dahn in his Urgesckichte der germanischen und roma-
nischen Volker (Berlin, 1880-1889) and his Die Konige der Germanen,
volumes of which have appeared at intervals between 1861 and 1909.
The Carolingian time is covered by E. Dummler's Geschichte
des ostfrdnkischen Reichs (Leipzig, 1887-1888), and then follow
Ranke s Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter dent sdchsischen
Hause (Berlin, 1837-1840), W. von Giesebrecht's Geschichte der
deutschen Kaiserzeit (1855-1888), and F. Raumer's Geschichte der
Hohenstaufen.
For the reigns of Lothair the Saxon and Conrad III. P. Jaffa's
books, Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Lothar dent Sachsen
(Berlin, 1843) and Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter Conrad III.
(Hanover, 1845), may be consulted.
The chief histories on the period between the fall of the Hohen-
staufen and the Renaissance are: T. Lindner, Deutsche Geschichte
unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern (Stuttgart, 1888-1893) '<
O. Lorenz, Deutsche Geschichte im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert (Vienna,
18631867); J. Aschbach, Geschichte Kaiser Sigmunds (Hamburg,
18381845); K. Fischer, Deutsches Leben und deutsche Zustdnde
von der Hohenstaufenzeit bis ins Reformationszeitalter (Gotha, 1 884) ;
V. von Kraus, Deutsche Geschichte im Ausgange des Mittelalters
(Stuttgart, 1888-1905), and A. Bachmann, Deutsche Reichsgeschichte
im Zeitalter Friedrichs III. und Maximilians I. (Leipzig, 1884-1894).
The two greatest works on the Reformation period are L. von
Ranke's Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipzig,
1882) and J. Janssen's Geschichte des deutschen Volkes seit dent
Ausgang des Mittelalters (1897-1903). Other works which may be
mentioned are: F. B. von Bucholtz, Geschichte der Regierung
Ferdinands I. (Vienna, 1831-1838); C. Egelhaaf, Deutsche Geschichte
im Zeitalter der Reformation (Berlin, 1893), and F. von Bezold,
Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (Berlin, 1890).
For the years after the Reformation we have Ranke, Zur deutschen
Geschichte Vpm Religionsfrieden bis zum jojdhrigen Kriege (Leipzig,
1888); M. Ritter, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Gegenrefor-
mation und des dreissigjdhrigen Krieges (Stuttgart, 1887, fol.); G.
Droysen, Geschichte der Gegenreformation (Berlin, 1893); A. Gindely,
Rudolf II. und, seine Zeit (Prague, 1862-1868) and Geschichte des
dreissigjdhrigen Krieges (Prague, 1869-1880). Gindely's book is, of
course, only one among an enormous number of works on the Thirty
Years' War.
For the period leading up to the time of Frederick the Great we
have B. Erdmannsdorner, Deutsche Geschichte vom Westfdlischen
Frieden bis zum Regierungsantritt Friedrichs des Grossen (Berlin,
1892-1893) ; and then follow Ranke, Zur Geschichte von Osterreich und
Preussen zwischen den Friedensschlussen von Aachen und Hubertus-
burg (Leipzig, 1875) and Die deutschen Mdchte und der Fiirstenbund
(Leipzig, 1871-1872); K. Biedermann, Deutschland im 18. Jahr-
hundert (Leipzig, 1854-1880); W. Oncken, Das Zeitalter Friedrichs
des Grossen (Berlin, 1880-1882); A. von Arneth, Geschichte Maria
Theresias (Vienna, 1863-1879); L. Hausser, Deutsche Geschichte
vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Grundung des Deutschen
Bundes (Berlin, 1861-1863), and K.T. vonlieige\, Deutsche Geschichte
vom Tode Friedrichs des Grossen bis zur Auflosung des alien Reichs
(Stuttgart, 1899, fol.).
For the igth century we may mention: H. von Treitschke,
Deutsche Geschichte im 19. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1879-1894); H. von
Sybel, Die Begriindung des deutschen Reiches durch Wilhelm I.
(Munich, 1889-1894); G. Kaufmann, Politische Geschichle Deutsch-
lands im 19. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1900), and H. von Zwiedeneck-
Siidenhorst, Deutsche Geschichte von der Auflosung des alien bis zur
Grundung des neuen Reiches (Stuttgart, 1897-1905). These are
perhaps the most important, but there are many others of which the
following is a selection : K. Fischer, Die Nation und der Bundestag
(Leipzig, 1880); K. Kliipfel, Geschichte der deutschen Einheits-
bestrebungen bis zu ihrer Erfullung (Berlin, 1872-1873); H. Blum,
Die deutsche Revolution 1848-1849 (Florence, 1897) and Das deutsche
Reich zur Zeit Bismarcks (Leipzig, 1893); W. Maurenbrecher,
Grundung des deutschen Reiches (Leipzig, 1892); H. Friedjung, Der
Kampf um die Vorherrschaft in Deutschland 1859-1866 (Stuttgart,
1897); C. von Kaltenborn, Geschichte der deutschen Bundesverhdlt-
nisse und Einheitsbestrebungen von 1806-1856 (Berlin, 1857); J.
Jastrow, Geschichte des deutschen Einheitstraumes und seiner Erfiillung
(Berlin, 1885), and P. Kloppel, Dreissig Jahre deutscher Verfassungs-
geschichte (Leipzig, 1900).
For the most recent developments of German politics see H.
Schulthess, Europdischer Geschichtskalender (Nordlingen, 1861, fol.,
a work similar to the English Annual Register}; W. Muller and
K. Wippermann, Politische Geschichte der Gegenwart (Berlin, 1868,
fol.); the Statistisches Jahrbuch des deutschen Reichs, and A. L.
Lowell, Governments and Parties in Continental Europe (1896).
A good general history of Germany is the Bibliothek deutscher
Geschichte, edited by H. von Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst (Stuttgart,
1876, fol.). Other general histories, although on a smaller scale, are
K. Lamprecht, Deutsche Geschichte (Berlin, 1891-1896) ; O. Kammel,
Deutsche Geschichte (Dresden, 1889); K. Biedermann, Deutsche
Volks- und Kulturgeschichte (Wiesbaden, 1885); T. Lindner, Ge-
schichte des deutschen Volks (Stuttgart, 1894) ; the Handbuch der
deutschen Geschichte, edited by B. Gebhardt (Stuttgart, 1901), and
K. W. Nitzsch, Geschichte des deutschen Volkes bis zum Augsburger
Religionsfrieden (Leipzig, 1883-1885).
Special reference is deservedly made to three works of the highest
value. These are J. G. Droysen's great Geschichte der preussischen
Politik (Berlin, 1855-1886); the Deutsche Reichstagsakten, the first
series of which was published at Munich (1867, fol.) and the second
at Gotha (18931901); and the collection known as the Regesta
imperii, which owes its existence to the labours of J. F. Bohmer.
Nearly the whole of the period between 751 and 1347 is covered by
these volumes; the charters and other documents of some of the
German kings being edited by Bohmer himself, and new and enlarged
editions of certain sections have been brought out by J. Picker,
E. Winkelmann and others. Much useful information on the
history of different periods is contained in the lives of individual
emperors and others. Among these are H. Prutz, Kaiser Friedrich I.
(Danzig, 1871-1874); F. W. Schirrmacher, Kaiser Friedrich II.
(Gottingen, 1859-1865); H. Ulmann, Kaiser Maximilian I. (Stutt-
gart, 1884-1891); F. von Hurter, Geschichte Kaiser Ferdinands II.
(Schaffhausen, 1857-1864), and H. Blum, Furst Bismarck und seint
Zeit (Munich, 1895). There is also the great series of volumes,
primary and supplementary, forming the>Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie (Leipzig, 1875, fol.), in which the word deutsche is inter-
preted in the widest possible sense.
Apart from political histories there are useful collections of laws
and other official documents of importance, and also a large number
of valuable works on the laws and constitutions of the Germans
and on German institutions generally. Among the collections are
M. Goldast, Collectio constitutionum imperialium (1613; new and
enlarged edition, 1673) ; the Capitulaliones imperatorum et regum
Romano-Germanorum (Strassburg, 1851) of Johann Limnaus, and
the Corpus juris Germanici antiqui (Berlin, 1824) of F. Walter.
Collections dealing with more recent history are J. C. Glaser's Archit
des norddeutschen Bundes. Sammlung aller Gesetze, Vertrdge und
Aktenstucke, die Verhdltnisse des norddeutschen Bundes belrefend
(Berlin. 1867); W. Jungermann's Archiv des deutschen Reiches
(Berlin, 1873, fol.), and thereto Borussica. Denkmdler der preussischen
Staatsverwaltung im 18. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1892, fol.). Mention may
also be made of C. C. Homeyer's edition of the Sachsenspiegel and
L. A. von Lassberg's edition of the Schwabenspiegel; the many
volumes of Wallenstein's letters and papers; the eighteen volumes
of the Urkunden und Aktenstucke zur Geschichte des Kurfiirsten
Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg (Berlin, 1864, fol.) ; and the thirty
volumes of the Politische Korrespondenz Friedrichs des Grossen
(Berlin, 1879-1905). Modern writers on thesesubjectsdistinguished
for their learning are G. Waitz (Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte, Kiel
and Berlin, 1844, fol.) and G. L. von Maurer (Geschichle der Stddte-
verfassung in Deutschland, Erlangen, 1869-1871, and other cognate
writings), their works being valuable not only fortheearly institutions
GERMERSHEIM GEROME
901
of the German*, but l for thoe of other Teutonic people*.
Other work* on the German constitution and German law* are
K. K. Ekhhorn. Deutsch* Stoats- und Recktsgesckickle (GOttfafW,
1843-1844): R. Schroder. Uhrbuch der drulicken Retktsgeschtfhte
(Leipzig. 1889 and again looa); H. Brunner, Deutsche Reckts-
gtsckieklt (Leipzig. 1887-1893). and Grund**t der deutschrn Rechts-
gfifktckte (Leipzig. 1901-1903). and E. Mayer. Deutsche und franto-
nscke VrrfassuntsfsckieMltvomo.-!!. Jahrhundtrt (Leipzig, 1899).
Manners and customs are dealt with in J. Scherr't Deutscke Kultur-
und SiaengescUfkl* (Leipzig, 1853-1853); L Lippert's Deutsche
SitttnfntkScklt (Vienna and Prague, 1889); O. Henne am Rhyn's
Kullurttschick* dei dtutsckn Volkes (Berlin. 1886); the Geschickte
dts drulicken Volkes und inner Kultur im MilielaJler (Leipzig. 1891-
1898) of H. Gerde*. and F. von Loher'a Kulturgeschickte der Deutscken
im Uitttialier (Munich. 1891-1894). Among the works on husbandry
may be mentioned : K. Bucher. Die F.ntstehunr der Volksu-irtschaft
(Tubingen. 1803); K. T. von Inama-Sternegg, Deutsche Wirtschafts-
ttstktchtt (Leipzig. 1879-1901), and K. Lamprecht, Drutschrs
Wirtschaflsleben im Uittefalter (Leipzig. 1886). For antiquities see
M. Hryne. Funf Bitter deutscker Hausaltertumer von den dltesten
gesckukilifkfn Zeiten bis mm 16. Jakrkundert (Leipzig. 1899-1003).
and L. Lindenschmit, Handbuck der deutscken Altertumskunde
(Brunswick. 1880-1889). For the history of the German church
see A. Hauck. Kirckengfsckickte Deutscklands (Leipzig, 1887-1903) ;
F. W. RrttlxTR. Kirckengesckickte Deutscklands (Gottingcn, 1846-
1848), and J. Fried rich. Kirckengestkickte Deutscklands (Bamberg,
1867-1869). For finance see K. D. HQIImann, Deutscke Finant-
ttschickte des ifitttlalters (1805); for the administration of justice,
O. Franklin. Das Reichshofterichtim Afittelaller (Weimar, 1867-1869),
and A. Stolzel, Die Entvickelung des grlehrten Ricktertums in deutscken
Territories (Stuttgart, 1872); for the towns and their people see
J. lastrow. Die VolkstaU drutscher Stadte ;u Ende des Uittelalters
und tu Beeinn der Neuseit (Berlin, 1886) ; F. W. Barthold, Geschichte
iff deutscken Stadte und des deutscken Biirgertums (Leipzig, 1850-
1854). and K. Hegel, Stadte und Gilden der termaniscken Volker im
Mittelalter (Leipzig, 1891); and for manufacture* and commerce
see J. Falke, Die Geschichte des deutscken Handels (Leipzig, 1859
1860); H. A. Mascher, Das deutscke Gewerbeviesen von der fruhesten
Zeit bis auf die Gerenwart (Potsdam, 1866); F. W. Stahl, Das
deutscke Itandmrk (Giessen. 1874); the numerous writings on the
history of the Hansratic League and other works. The nobles and
the other social classes have each their separate histories, among
these being C. F. F. von Strantz, Gesckichte des deutscken Adels
(Breslau, 1845), and K. H. Roth von Schrcckenstein, Die Rittenourde
und der Ritlerstand (Freiburg, 1866).
The Germans have produced some excellent historical atlases,
among them K. von Spruner's Historisck-geograpkiscker Handatlas
(Got ha, 1853); a new edition of this by T. Menke called Handatlas
fur die Geschichte des Mittelalters und der neueren Zeit (Got ha, 1880),
and G. Droysen's AUfenteiner kistoriscker Handatlas (Leipzig, 1886).
The historical geography of Germany is dealt with in B. Krnill's
Historische Georrapkie Deutscklands im Mittelalter (Breslau, 1903);
in F. H. MOIler s Die deutscken Stdmme und ikre Furslen (Hamburg,
1852). and in many other works referring to the different parts of the
country.
English books on the history of Germany are not very numerous.
There i* a short History of Germany by James Simc (1874), another
by E. F. Henderson (1902), and A History of Germany 1715-181 $ by
C. T. Atkinson (1909). H. A. L. Fisher's Medieval Empire (1898)
is very useful for the earlier period, and J. Bryce's Holy Roman
Empire is indispensable. There is a translation of Janssen's Ge-
sckukte by M. A. Mitchell and A. M. Christie (1896, fol.). and there
are useful chapter* in the different volumes of the Cambridge Modern
History. Two English historians have distinguished themselves by
their work on special periods: Carlyle with his History of Friedrich
II., called ike Great (1873-1873). and W. Robertson with his History
of Ike Reign of Charles V. (1830). There is also E. Armstrongs
Charles V. (London, 1902). Among German historical periodicals
are the Historiscke Zeilschrift. long associated with the name of
H. von Sybel, and the Historisches Jahrbuch.
In guide* to the historical source* and to modern historical works
Germany a well served. There is the QueUenkunde der deulschen
Gesckickle (Leipzig, 1906) of Dahlmann-Waitz, a most compendious
volume, and the learned Deutscklands Gesckicktsquellen im Mittelalter
(Berlin. 1893-1894) of W. Wattenbach; A. Potthast's Bibliolkeca
UsUrie* mtiU aen (Berlin. 1896), and the Deutscklands Geschickts-
queUen seit der tfitie da 13. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1886-1887) of O.
Lorenz and A. GoMmann. (A. W. H.*)
GERMERSHEIM. a fortified town of Germany in Rhenish
Bavaria, at the confluence of the Qucich and the Rhine, 8 m.
S.W. of Speyer. Pop. (1905) 5914. It possesses a Roman Catholic
and an Evangelical church, a synagogue, a progymnasium and
a hospital. The industries include fishing, shipbuilding and
brewing. Germcrsheim existed as a Roman stronghold under the
name of Vic us Julius. The citadel was rebuilt by the emperor
Conrad II., but the town itself was founded in 1276 by the em-
peror Rudolph I., who granted it the rights of a free imperial city.
From 1330 to 1622, when it was conquered by Austria, the town
formed part of the Palatinate of the Rhine. From 1644 to 1630
it was in the possession of France; but on the conclusion of the
peace of Westphalia it was again joined to the Palatinate. In
1674 it was captured and devastated by the French under
Turenne, and after the death of the elector Charles (1685) it
was claimed by the French as a dependency of Alsace. As a
consequence there ensued the disastrous Germcrsheim war of
succession, which lasted till the peace of Ryswick in 1697.
Through the intervention of the pope in 1702, the French, on
payment of a large sum, agreed to vacate the town, and in 1715
its fortifications were rebuilt. On the 3rd of July 1744 the
French were defeated there by the imperial troops, and on the
igth and 2?nd of July 1793 by the Austrians. In 1833 the new
town was built, and the present fortifications begun.
See Probst, Gesckichte der Stoat und Festung Germersheim (Speyer,
1808).
GERMISTON, a town of the Transvaal, 9 m. E. of Johannes-
burg. Pop. of the municipality (1904) 29,477, of whom 9123
were whites. It lies 5478 ft. above the sea, in the heart of the
Witwatersrand gold-mining district, and is an important railway
junction. The station, formerly called Elandsfontcin Junction,
is the meeting-point of lines from the ports of the Cape and Natal,
and from Johannesburg, Pretoria and Dclagoa Bay. Though
possessing a separate municipality, Germiston is practically a
suburb of Johannesburg (j-f.).
GERMONIUS, ANASTASIUS [ANASTASE GERMON] (1531-1627),
canon lawyer, diplomatist and archbishop of Tarantaise, belonged
to the family of the marquises of Ceve, in Piedmont, where he
was born. As archdeacon at Turin he was a member of the com-
mission appointed by Pope Clement VIII. to edit the Liber
septimus dccretalium; and he also wrote Paratitla on the five
books of the Decretals of Gregory IX. He represented the duke
of Savoy at the court of Rome under Clement VIII. and Paul V.,
and was ambassador to Spain under Kings Philip III. and IV.
He died on the 4th of August 1627. Germonius is best known
for his treatise on ambassadors, De legalis principum el populorum
libri Ires (Rome, 1627). The book is diffuse, pedantic and some-
what heavy in style, but valuable historically as written by a
theorist who was also an expert man of affairs. (See DIPLOMACY.)
GERO (c. 000-065), margrave of the Saxon east mark, was
probably a member of an influential Saxon family. In 937 he
was entrusted by the German king Otto, afterwards the emperor
Otto the Great, with the defence of the eastern frontier of Saxony
against the Wends and other Slavonic tribes; a duty which he
discharged with such ability and success that in a few years he
extended the Saxon frontier almost to the Oder, and gained the
chief credit for the suppression of a rising of the conquered
peoples in a great victory on the i6th of October 955. In 963
he defeated the Lusatians, compelled the king of the Poles to
recognize the supremacy of the German king, and extended the
area of his mark so considerably that after his death it was
partitioned into three, and later into five marks. Gero, who is
said to have made a journey to Rome, died on the 2oth of May
965, and was buried in the convent of Gernrode which he had
founded on his Saxon estates. He is referred to by the historian
Widukind as a preset, and is sometimes called the " great mar-
grave." He has been accused of treachery and cruelty, is cele-
brated in song and story, and is mentioned as the " marcgrave
Gre " in the Nibclungenlicd.
See Widukind, " Res gcstac Saxomcae," in the Monumenla
Germaniae historica. Scrtptores, Band iii. ; O. von Hcincmann,
Markg raf Gero (Brunswick, 1860).
GEROLSTEIN, a village and climatic health resort of Germany,
in the Prussian Rhine Province, attractively situated on the
Kyll, in the Eifel range, noo ft. above the sea, 58 m. W. of
Andernach by rail, and at the junction of lines to Trevcs and
StVith. The castle of Gerolstein, built in 1115 and now in ruins,
affords a fine view of the Kyllthal. Gerolstein is celebrated for its
lithia waters, which are largely exported. Pop. (1000) 1308.
GERdME, JEAN LEON (1824-1004), French painter, was born
on the nth of May 1824 at Vesoul (Hautc-Saonc). He went
to Paris in 1841 and worked under Paul Delaroche, whom he
902
GERONA
accompanied to Italy (1844-1845). On his return he exhibited
" The Cock-fight," which gained him a third-class medal in the
Salon of 1847. " The Virgin with Christ and St John " and
" Anacreon, Bacchus and Cupid " took a second-class medal in
1848. He exhibited "Bacchus and Love, Drunk," a "Greek
Interior" and " Sojuvenir d'ltalie," in 1851; "Paestum" (1852);
and " An Idyll " (1853). In 1854 Ger&me made a journey to
Turkey and the shores of the Danube, and in 1857 visited Egypt.
To the exhibition of 1855 he contributed a " Pifferaro," a
" Shepherd," " A Russian Concert " and a large historical
canvas, " The Age of Augustus and the Birth of Christ." The
last was somewhat confused in effect, but in recognition of its
consummate ability the State purchased it. Gerome's reputation
was greatly enhanced at the Salon of 1857 by a collection of
works of a more popular kind: the " Duel: after a Masquerade,"
" Egyptian Recruits crossing the Desert," " Memnon and
Sesostris " and " Camels Watering," the drawing of which
was criticized by Edmond About. In " Caesar " (1859) Gerome
tried to return to a severer class of work, but the picture failed
to interest the public. " Phryne before the Areopagus," " Le
Roi Candaule " and " Socrates finding Alcibiades in the House of
Aspasia " (1861) gave rise to some scandal by reason of the
subjects selected by the painter, and brought down on him the
bitter attacks of Paul de Saint-Victor and Maxima Ducamp.
At the same Salon he exhibited the " Egyptian chopping Straw,"
and " Rembrandt biting an Etching," two very minutely
finished works. Ger&me's best paintings are of Eastern subjects;
among these may be named the " Turkish Prisoner " and
"Turkish Butcher" (1863); "Prayer" (1865); "The Slave
Market" (1867); and "The Harem out Driving" (1869).
He often illustrated history, as in " Louis XIV. and Moliere "
(1863); "The Reception of the Siamese Ambassadors at
Fontainebleau " (1865); and the "Death of Marshal Ney "
(1868). Gerome was also successful as a sculptor; he executed,
among other works, " Omphale " (1887), and the statue of the
due d'Aumale which stands in front of the chateau of Chantilly
(1899). His " Bellona " (1892), in ivory, metal, and precious
stones, which was also exhibited in the Royal Academy of London,
attracted great attention. The artist then began an interesting
series of " Conquerors," wrought in gold, silver and gems
"Bonaparte entering Cairo" (1897); "Tamerlane" (1898);
and " Frederick the Great " (1899). Ger6me was elected
member of the Institut in 1865. He died in 1904.
GERONA, a maritime frontier province in the extreme north-
east of Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from Catalonia,
and bounded on the N. by France, E. and S.E. by the Mediter-
ranean Sea, S.W. and W. by Barcelona, and N.W. by Lerida.
Pop. (1900) 299,287; area, 2264 sq. m. In the north-west a
small section of the province, with the town of Llivia, is entirely
isolated and surrounded by French territory; otherwise Gerona
is separated from France by the great range of the Pyrenees.
Its general aspect is mountainous, especially in the western
districts. Most of the lower chains are covered with splendid
forests of oak, pine and chestnut. There are comparatively
level tracts of arable land along the lower course of the three
main rivers the Ter, Muga and Fluvia, which rise in the Pyrenees
and flow in a south-easterly direction to the sea. The coast -line
is not deeply indented, but includes one large bay, the Gulf of
Rosas. Its two most conspicuous promontories, Capes Creus and
Bagur, are the easternmost points of the Iberian Peninsula.
The climate is generally temperate and rainy during several
months in the valleys and near the coast, but cold in the Cerdana
district and other mountainous regions during eight months,
while Gerona, La Bisbal and Santa Coloma are quite Mediter-
ranean in their hot summers and mild winters. Agriculture is
backward, but there are profitable fisheries and fish-curing
establishments along the whole seaboard, notably at the ports of
Llansa, Rosas, Palam6s, San Feliu de Guixols and Blanes.
Next in importance is the cork industry at San Feliu de Guixols,
Palafrugell and Cassa. More than one hundred mineral springs
are scattered over the province, and in 1903 twenty mines were
at work, although their total output, which included antimony,
coal, copper, lead, iron and other ores, was valued at less than
7000. There are also important hydraulic cement and ochre
works, and no fewer than twenty-two of the towns are centres
of manufactures of linen, cotton, woollen stuffs, paper, cloth,
leather, steel and furniture. The commerce of the province is
important, Port Bou (or Portbou) being, after Irun, the most
active outlet for the trade by railway not only with France
but with the rest of the continent. The main railway from
Barcelona to France runs through the province, and several
branch railways, besides steam and electric tramways, connect
the principal towns. Gerona, the capital (pop. 190x3, 15,787),
and Figueras (10,714), long a most important frontier fortress,
are described in separate articles; the only other towns with
more than 7000 inhabitants are San Feliu de Guixols (11,333),
Olot (7938) and Palafrugell (7087). The inhabitants of the
province are, like most Catalans, distinguished for their enter-
prise, hardiness and keen local patriotism; but emigration,
chiefly to Barcelona, kept their numbers almost stationary during
the years 1875-1905. The percentage of illegitimate births (1-5)
is lower than in any other part of Spain. (See also CATALONIA.)
GERONA, the capital of the province of Gerona, in north-
eastern Spain, on the railway from Barcelona to Perpignan in
France, and on the right bank of the river Ter, at its confluence
with the Ona, a small right-hand tributary. Pop. (1900) 15,787.
The older part of the town occupies the steep slope of the
Montjuich, or Hill of the Capuchins, and with its old-fashioned
buildings presents a picturesque appearance against a back-
ground of loftier heights; the newer portion stretches down into
the plain and beyond the Ona, which is here crossed by a bridge
of three arches. The old city walls and their bastions still
remain, though in a dilapidated state; and the hill is crowned
by what were at one time very strong fortifications, now used
as a prison. Gerona is the seat of a bishop, has a seminary, a
public library and a theatre, and carries on the manufacture of
paper and cotton and woollen goods. Its churches are of ex-
ceptional interest. The cathedral is one of the grandest specimens
of Gothic architecture in Spain, the nave being the widest
pointed vault in Christendom, as it measures no less than 73 ft.
from side to side, while Albi, the next in size, is only 58 ft., and
Westminster Abbey is only 38. The old cathedral on the same
site was used as a mosque by the Moors, and on their expulsion
in 1015 it appears to have been very greatly modified, if not
entirely rebuilt. During the i4th century new works were again
carried out on an extensive scale, but it was not till the beginning
of the 1 5th that the proposal to erect the present magnificent
nave 'was originated by the master of the works, Guillermo
Boffiy. The general appearance of the exterior is rather un-
gainly, but there is a fine approach by a flight of 86 steps to the
facade, which rises in tiers and terminates in an oval rose-window.
Among the tombs may be mentioned those of Bishop Berenger
or Berenguer (d. 1408), Count Ramon Berenger II. (d. 1082)
and the countess Ermesinda (d. 1057). The collegiate church
of San Feliu (St Felix) is mainly of the i4th century, but it was
considerably modified in the i6th, and its facade dates from the
1 8th. It is one of the few Spanish churches that can boast of a
genuine spire, and it thus forms a striking feature in the general
view of the town. The Benedictine church of San Pedro de
Galligans (or de los Gallos) is an interesting Romanesque building
of early date. It is named from the small river Galligans, an
affluent of the Ona, which flows through the city. In the same
neighbourhood is a small church worthy of notice as a rare
Spanish example of a transverse triapsal plan.
Gerona is the ancient Gerunda, a city of the Auscetani. It
claims to be the place in which St Paul and_ St James first rested
when they came to Spain ; and it became the see of a bishop about
247. For a considerable period it was in the hands of the Moors,
and their emir, Suleiman, was in alliance with Pippin the Short,
king of the Franks, about 759. It was taken by Charlemagne in
785 ; but the Moors regained and sacked it in 795, and it was not
till 1015 that they were finally expelled. At a later date it gave
the title of count to the king of Aragon's eldest son. It has been
besieged no fewer than twenty-five times in all, and only four
GEROUSIA GERRY
903
of the sieges have resulted in its capture. The investment by
the French under Marshal Hocquincourt in 1653, that of 1684
by the French under Marshal Bellefonds, and the successful
enterprise of Marshal Noailles in 1694 are the three great events
of its history in the i;th century. Surrendered by the French
at the peace of Ryswick, it was again captured by the younger
Marshal Noailles in 1706, after a brilliant defence; and in 1717
it held out against the Austrian*. But its noblest resistance was
yet to be made. In May 1809 it was besieged by the French,
with 35,000 troops, under J. A. Verdier, P. F. Augereau and
Gou vion St Cyr ; forty batteries were erected against it and a heavy
bombardment maintained; but under the leadership of Mariano
Alvarez de Castro it held out till famine and fever compelled a
capitulation on the nth of December. The French, it is said,
had spent 20,000 bombs and 60,000 cannon balls, and their loss
was estimated at 15,900 men.
See Juan Caspar ROM y Jalpi, Resumen de las Grandetas, &c.
(H.i.-'i M i' - ' \ NMO y aMMaiHo, JfaMrfef (Tmnafoa
1810) ; G. E. Street. Gothic Architecture in Spain (London, 1869).
GEROUSIA (Gr. ytpovaia, Doric yepaJta), the ancient council
of elders at Sparta, corresponding in some of its functions to the
Athenian Boule. In historical times it numbered twenty-eight
members, to whom were added ex officio the two kings and, later,
the five epbors. Candidates must have passed their sixtieth
year, i.e. they must no longer be liable to military service, and
they were possibly restricted to the nobility. Vacancies were
filled by the Apella, that candidate being declared elected whom
the assembly acclaimed with the loudest shouts a method which
Aristotle censures as childish (PoUt. ii. 9, p. 1271 a 9). Once
elected, the geronles held office for life and were irresponsible.
The functions of the council were among the most important
in the state. It prepared the business which was to be submitted
to the Apella, and was empowered to set aside, in conjunction
with the kings, any " crooked " decision of the people. Together
with the kings and ephors it formed the supreme executive
committee of the state, and it exercised also a considerable
criminal and political jurisdiction, including the trial of kings;
its competence extended to the infliction of a sentence of exile
or even of death. These powers, or at least the greater part of
them, were transferred by Cleomenes III. to a board of patronomi
(Pausanias ii. 9. i); the gerousia, however, continued to exist
at least down to Hadrian's reign, consisting of twenty-three
members annually elected, but eligible for re-election (Sparta
Museum Catalogue, Nos. 210, 612 and Introduction 17).
Fuller discussions of the gerousia will be found in Aristotle,
Politic!, ii. 9, 17-19; Plutarch, Lycurgus, 5, 26; G. F. Schomann,
Antiquities of Greece; The State (Eng. trans.), p. 230 K.; G. Gilbert,
Constitutional A ntiquitiei of Sparta and Athens (Eng. trans.), p. 47 ff. ;
C. O. MQIIer, History and Antiquities of the Doric Race (Eng. trans.),
iii. c. 6. if 1-3; G. Busolt, Die rriecktschen Stools- und Rechtsalter-
tumer ( I wan Muller's Handbuch Her Uojsischen A Itertumswissenschaft,
iv. i). 89; Criechische Gesckichie, 2te Auflage i. 550 ff.; A. H. I.
Greenidge, Handbook of Greek Constitutional History, 100 ff. ; H.
Gabriel, De magistralikus Lacedaemoniorum, 31 ff. (M. N. T.)
GERRESHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, 6 m. by rail E. of Dusseldorf. It contains a fine
Romanesque church, dating from the 3th century, which forms
a portion of an ancient nunnery (founded in the loth century and
secularized in 1806), and has extensive glass manufactures and
wire factories. Pop. (1005) 14,434.
GERRHA (Arab. al-Jar'a), an ancient city of Arabia, on the
west side of the Persian Gulf, described by Strabo (Bk. xvi.)
as inhabited by Chaldean exiles from Babylon, who built their
houses of salt and repaired them by the application of salt water.
Pliny (Hist. Mat. vi. 32) says it was 5 m. in circumference with
towers built of square blocks of salt. Various identifications of
the site have been attempted, J. P. B. D'Anville choosing El
Katif, C. Niebuhr preferring Kuwet and C. Forster suggesting
the ruins at the head of the bay behind the islands of Bahrein.
See A. Sprenger, Die alle Geograpkie Arabiens (Bern, 1875), pp.
"35-137-
GERRUS. a small province of Persia, situated between
Khamseh and Azerbaijan in the N., Kurdistan in the W. and
Hamadan in the S. Its population is estimated at 80,000, and
its capital, Bljir. 180 m. from Hamadan, has a population of
about 4000 and post and telegraph offices. The province is
fief of the chief of the Gerrus Kurds, pays a yearly revenue of
about 3000, and supplies a battalion of infantry (the 34th) to
the army.
GERRY, ELBRIDGE (1744-1814), American statesman, was
born in Marblehead, Massachusetts, on the J7th of July 1744,
the son of Thomas Gerry (d. 1774), a native of Newton, England,
who emigrated to America in 1730, and became a prosperous
Marblehead merchant. The son graduated at Harvard in 1 762
and entered his father's business. In 1772 and 1773 he was a
member of the Massachusetts General Court, inwhich he identified
himself with Samuel Adams and the patriot party, and in 1773
he served on the Committee of Correspondence, which became
one of the great instruments of intercolonial resistance. In
1774-1775 he was a member of the Massachusetts Provincial
Congress. The passage of a bill proposed by him (November
1775) to arm and equip ships to prey upon British commerce,
and for the establishment of a prize court, was, according to his
biographer, Austin, " the first actual avowal of offensive hostility
against the mother country, which is to be found in the annals of
the Revolution." It is also noteworthy, says Austin, as " the
first effort to establish an American naval armament." From
1776 to 1781 Gerry was a member of the Continental Congress,
where he early advocated independence, and was one of those who
signed the Declaration after its formal signing on the 2nd of
August 1776, at which time he was absent. He was active in
debates and committee work, and for some time held the chair-
manship of the important standing committee for the superin-
tendence of the treasury, in which capacity he exercised a pre-
dominating influence on congressional expenditures. In February
1780 he withdrew from Congress because of its refusal to respond
to his call for the yeas and nays. Subsequently he laid his protest
before the Massachusetts General Court which voted its approval
of his action. On his return to Massachusetts, and while he was
still a member of Congress, he was elected under the new state
constitution (1780) to both branches of the state legislature,
but accepted only his election to the House of Representatives.
On the expiration of his congressional term, he was again chosen
a delegate by the Massachusetts legislature, but it was not until
1783 that he resumed his seat. During the second period of his
service in Congress, which lasted until 1785, he was a member
of the committee to consider the treaty of peace with Great
Britain, and chairman of two committees appointed to select a
permanent seat of government. In 1784 he bitterly attacked the
establishment of the order of the Cincinnati on the ground that
it was a dangerous menace to democratic institutions. In 1786
he served in the state House of Representatives. Not favouring
the creation of a strong national government he declined to
attend the Annapolis Convention in 1786, but in the following
year, when the assembling of the Constitutional Convention was
an assured fact, although he opposed the purpose for which it was
called, he accepted an appointment as one of the Massachusetts
delegates, with the idea that he might personally help to check too
strong a tendency toward centralization. His exertions in the
convention were ceaseless in opposition to what he believed to be
the wholly undemocratic character of the instrument, and eventu-
ally he refused to sign the completed constitution. Returning to
Massachusetts, he spoke and wrote in opposition to its ratifica-
tion, and although not a member of the convention called to
pass upon it, he laid before this convention, by request, his
reasons for opposing it, among them being that the constitution
contained no bill of rights, that the executive would unduly
influence the legislative branch of the government, and that the
judiciary would be oppressive. Subsequently he served as an
Anti-Federalist in the national House of Representatives in 1789-
1793, taking, as always, a prominent part in debates and other
legislative concerns. In 1797 he was sent by President John
Adams, together with John Marshall and Charles Cotesworth
Pinckney, on a mission to France to obtain from the govern-
ment of the Directory a treaty embodying a settlement of
several long-standing disputes. The discourteous and under-
banded treatment of this embassy by Talleyrand and his agents,
94
GERRYMANDER GERSON
who attempted to obtain their ends by bribery, threats and
duplicity, resulted in the speedy retirement of Marshall and
Pinckney. The episode is known in American history as the
" X Y Z Affair." Gerry, although despairing of any good
results, remained in Paris for some time in the vain hope that
Talleyrand might offer to a known friend of France terms that
had been refused to envoys whose anti-French views were more
than suspected. This action of Gerry's brought down upon him
from Federalist partisans a storm of abuse and censure, from
which he never wholly cleared himself. In 1810-1812 he was
governor of Massachusetts. His administration, which was marked
by extreme partisanship, was especially notable for the enact-
ment of a law by which the state was divided into new senatorial
districts in such a manner as to consolidate the Federalist vote
in a few districts, thus giving the Democratic-Republicans an
undue advantage. The outline of one of these districts, which
was thought to resemble a salamander, gave rise in 1812, through
a popular application of the governor's name, to the term
" Gerrymander " (?..). In 1812, Gerry, who was an ardent
advocate of the war with Great Britain, was elected vice-presi-
dent of the United States, on the ticket with James Madison.
He died in office at Washington on the 23rd of November 1814.
See J. T. Austin, Life of Elbridge Gerry, with Contemporary Letters
(2 vols., Boston, 1828-1829).
GERRYMANDER (usually pronounced " jerrymander," but
the g was originally pronounced hard), an American expression
which has taken root in the English language, meaning to arrange
election districts so as to give an unfair advantage to the party in
power by means of a redistribution act, and so to manipulate
constituencies generally, or arrange any political measure,
with a view to an unfair party advantage. The word is derived
from the name of the American politician Elbridge Gerry (q.v.).
John Fiske, in his Civil Government in the United States (1890),
says that in 1812, when Gerry was governor of Massachusetts,
the Democratic state legislature (in order, according to Winsor,
to secure an increased representation of the Democratic party
in the state senate) " redistributed the districts in such wise
that the shapes of the towns forming a single district in Essex
county gave to the district a somewhat dragon-like contour.
This was indicated upon a map of Massachusetts which Benjamin
Russell, an ardent Federalist and editor of the Cenlinel, hung
up over the desk in his office. The painter, Gilbert Stuart,
coming into the office one day and observing the uncouth figure,
added with his pencil a head, wings and claws, and exclaimed,
' That will do for a salamander! ' ' Better say a Gerrymander,'
growled the editor; and the outlandish name, thus duly coined,
soon came into general currency." It was, however, only the
name that was new. Fiske (who also refers to Winsor's Memorial
History of Boston, iii. 212, and Bryce's American Commonwealth,
i. 121) says that gerrymandering, as a political dodge, " seems
to have been first devised in 1 788, by the enemies of the Federal
constitution in Virginia, in order to prevent the election of James
Madison to the first Congress, and fortunately it was unsuccess-
ful." But it was really earlier than that, and in the American
colonial period political advantage was often obtained by
changing county lines. In 1709 the Pennsylvania counties of
Bucks, Chester and Philadelphia formed a combination for
preventing the city of Philadelphia from securing its propor-
tionate representation; and in 1732 George Burrington, royal
governor of North Carolina, divided the voting precincts of the
province for his own advantage. Gerry was not the originator
of the Massachusetts law of 1812, which was probably drafted
by Samuel Dana or by Judge Story. The law resulted in 29
seats being secured in Massachusetts by 50,164 Democratic
votes, while 51,766 Federalist votes only returned n members;
and Essex county, which, undivided, sent 5 Federah'sts to the
Senate, returned 3 Democrats and 2 Federalists after being
" gerrymandered," Stuart's drawing (reproduced in Fiske's
book) was contrived so as to make the back line of the creature's
body form a caricature of Gerry's profile. The law of 1812 was
repealed in 1813, when the Federalists had again gained control
of the Massachusetts legislature.
See also Elmer C. Griffith, The Rise and Development of the Gerry-
mander (Chicago, 1907) ; John W. Dean, " History of the Gerry-
mander," in New England Historical and Genealogical Register, vol.
xlvi. (Boston, 1892).
GERS, a department of south-western France, composed of
the whole or parts of certain districts of Gascony, viz. Armagnac,
Astarac, Fezensac, Pardiac, Pays de Gaure, Lomagne, Com-
minges, Condomois and of a small portion of Agenais. It is
bounded N. by the department of Lot-et-Garonne, N.E. by
Tarn-et-Garonne, E. and S.E. by Haute-Garonne, S. by Hautes-
Pyrenees, S.W. by Basses-Pyrenees and W. by Landes. Pop.
(1906)231,088. Area, 2428 sq. m. The department consists of
a plateau sloping from south to north and traversed by numerous
rivers, most of them having their source close together in the
Plateau de Lannemezan (Hautes-Pyrenees), from which point
they diverge in the shape of a fan to the north-west, north and
north-east. In the south several summits exceed noo ft. in
height. Thence the descent towards the north is gradual till on
the northern limit of the department the lowest point (less than
200 ft.) is reached. The greater part of the department belongs
to the basin of the Garonne, while a small portion in the west
is drained by the Adour. The chief affluents of the former are
the Save, Gimone, Arrats, Gers and Baise, which derive their
waters in great part from the Canal de la Neste in the department
of Hautes-Pyrenees; and of the latter, the Arros, Midou and
Douze, the last two uniting and taking the name of Midouze
before joining the Adour. The climate is temperate; its
drawbacks are the unwholesome south-east wind and the
destructive hail-storms which sometimes occur in spring. There
is seldom any snow or frost. Over the greater -portion of the
department the annual rainfall varies between 28 and 32 in.
Gers is primarily agricultural. The south-western district is
the most productive, but the valleys generally are fertile and the
grain produced is more than sufficient for local consumption.
Wheat, maize and oats are the principal cereals. About one-
third of the wine produced is used for home consumption, and
the remainder is chiefly manufactured into brandy, known by
the name of Armagnac, second only to Cognac in reputation.
The natural pastures are supplemented chiefly by crops of sain-
foin and clover; horses, cattle, sheep and swine are reared in
considerable numbers; turkeys, geese and other poultry are
abundant. There are mineral springs at Aurenson, Barbotan
and several other places in the department. The mineral pro-
duction and manufactures are unimportant. Building stone
and clay are obtained. Flour-mills, saw-mills, tanneries, brick-
works and cask-works are the chief industrial establishments.
Gers is divided into the arrondissements of Auch, Lectoure,
Mirande, Condom and Lombez, with 29 cantons and 466 com-
munes. The chief town is Auch, the seat of an archbishopric.
The department falls within the circumscription of the appeal-
court of Agen, and the region of the XVII. army corps. It forms
part of the academic (educational circumscription) of Toulouse.
Auch, Condom, Lectoure and Mirande are the principal towns.
The following are also of interest: Lombez, with its church of
Sainte-Marie, once a cathedral, dating from the i4th century,
when the bishopric was created; Flaran, with an abbey -church
of the last half of the I2th century; La Romieu, with a church
of the same period and a beautiful cloister; Simorre, with a
fortified abbey-church of the i4th century; and Fleurance,
with a handsome church, also of the I4th century, containing
stained glass of the i6th century.
GERSON, JOHN (1363-1429), otherwise JEAN CHARLIER DE
GERSON, French scholar and divine, chancellor of the university of
Paris, and the ruling spirit in the oecumenical councils of Pisa and
Constance, was born at the village of Gerson, in the bishopric
of Reims and department of Ardennes, on the i4th of December
1363. His parents, Arnulph Charlier and Elizabeth de la
Chardeniere, " a second Monica," were pious peasants, and seven
of their twelve children, four daughters and three sons, devoted
themselves to a religious life. Young Gerson was sent to Paris
to the famous college of Navarre when fourteen years of age.
After a five years' course he obtained the degree of licentiate of
'
GERSON
905
arts, and then began his theological studies under two very
celebrated teachers, Gilles des Champs (Aegidius Campensis)
and Pierre d'Ailly (Petrus de Alliaco), rector of the college of
Navarre, chancellor of the university, and afterwards bishop of
I'uy. archbishop of Cambrai and cardinal. Pierre d'Ailly
remained his life-long friend, and in later life the pupil seems to
have become the teacher (see pref. to Liber de vita Spir. A nimae).
Orson very soon attracted the notice of the university.
He was elected procurator for the French " nation " in 1383,
and again in 1384, in which year he graduated bachelor of
theology. Three years later a still higher honour was bestowed
upon him; he was sent along with the chancellor and others
to represent the university in a case of appeal taken to the
pope. John of Montson (Monzon de Montesono), an Aragoncse
Dominican who had recently graduated as doctor of theology
at Paris, had in 1387 been condemned by the faculty of theology
because he had taught that the Virgin Mary, like other ordinary
descendants of Adam, was born in original sin; and the
Dominicans, who were 6erce opponents of the doctrine of the
immaculate conception, were expelled the university. John
of Montson appealed to Pope Clement VII. at Avignon, and
Pierre d'Ailly, Gerson and the other university delegates, while
they personally supported the doctrine of the immaculate
conception, were content to rest their case upon the legal rights
of the university to test in its own way its theological teachers.
Gerson 's biographers have compared his journey to Avignon with
Luther's visit to Rome. It is certain that from this time onwards
he was zealous in his endeavours to spiritualize the universities,
to reform the morals of the clergy, and to put an end to the
schism which then divided the church. In 1302 Gerson became
doctor of theology, and in 1395, when Pierre d'Ailly was made
bishop of Puy, he was, at the early age of thirty-two, elected
chancellor of the university of Paris, and made a canon of Notre
Dame. The university was then at the height of its fame, and
its chancellor was necessarily a man prominent not only in France
but in Europe, sworn to maintain the rights of his university
against both king and pope, and entrusted with the conduct
and studies of a vast crowd of students attracted from almost
every country in Europe. Gerson 's writings bear witness to his
deep sense of the responsibilities, anxieties and troubles of his
position. He was all his days a man of letters, and an analysis of
his writings is his best biography. His work has three periods,
in which he was engaged in reforming the university studies,
maturing plans for overcoming the schism (a task which after
1404 absorbed all his energies), and in the evening of his life
writing books of devotion.
Gerson wished to banish scholastic subtleties from the studies
of the university, and at the same time to put some evangelical
warmth into them. He was called at this period of his life
Doctor Christianissimus; later his devotional works brought
him the title Doctor Consolatorius. His plan was to make theo-
logy plain and simple by founding it on the philosophical prin-
ciples of nominalism. His method was a clear exposition of the
principles of theology where clearness was possible, with a due
recognition of the place of mystery in the Christian system of
doctrine. Like the great nominalist William of Occam, he saved
himself from rationalism by laying hold on mysticism the
Christian mysticism of the school of St Victor. He thought that
in this way be would equally guard against the folly of the old
scholasticism, and the seductions of such Averroistic pantheism
as was preached by heretics like Amalric of Bena. His plans for
the reformation of university studies may be learned from his
Tract, de examination* doctrinarum (Opp. i. 7), Epistolae de
reform, theol. (i. 121), Epistolae ad studentes Collegii Navarrae,
quid et qualiier tludere debeat ncmu thealogiae auditor, el contra
cvrioritatem studentium (i. too), and Lectiones duae contra variant
curiositatem in negotiojidei (i. 86). The study of the Bible and of
the father* was to supersede the idle questions of the schools, and
in hi* Tract, contra romantiam de rota (iii. 297) he warns young
men against the evil consequences of romance-reading. He was
oftf ntimt i weary of the chancellorship, it involved him in
strife aad in money difficulties; he grew tired of public life, and
longed for learned leisure. To obtain it he accepted the deanery
of Bruges from the duke of Burgundy, but after a short sojourn he
returned to Paris and to the chancellorship.
Gerson's chief work was what he did to destroy the great
schism. Gregory XI. had died in 1378, one year after Gerson
went to the college of Navarre, and since his death the church had
had two popes, which to the medieval mind meant two churches
and a divided Christ. The schism had practically been brought
about by France. The popes had been under French influence so
long that it appeared to France a political necessity to have
her own pope, and pious Frenchmen felt themselves somewhat
responsible for the sins and scandals of the schism. Hence the
melancholy piety of Gerson, Pierre d'Ailly and their companions,
and the energy with which they strove to bring the schism to an
end. During the lifetime of Clement VII. the university of Paris,
led by Pierre d' Ailly, Gerson and Nicolas of Clamenges, 1 met in
deliberation about the state of Christendom, and resolved that
the schism could be ended in three ways, by cession, if both
popes renounced the tiara unconditionally, by arbitration or
by a general council. Clement died. The king of France,
urged by the university, sent orders that no new pope should be
elected. The cardinals first elected, and then opened the letter.
In the new elections, however, both at Rome and Avignon,
the influence of Paris was so much felt that each of the new
popes swore to " cede " if his rival would do so also.
Meanwhile in 1395 the national assembly of France and the
French clergy adopted the programme of the university cession
or a general council. The movement gathered strength. In
1398 most of the cardinals and most of the crowned heads in
Europe had given their adhesion to the plan. During this period
Gerson's literary activity was untiring, and the throb of public
expectancy, of hope and fear, is revealed in his multitude of
pamphlets. At first there were hopes of a settlement by way of
cession. These come out in Protest, super statum ecclesiae (ii. i),
Tract, de modo habendi se tempore schismatis, De schismate, &c.
But soon the conduct of the popes made Europe impatient,
and the desire for a general council grew strong see De concilia
generali unius obedientiae (ii. 24). The council was resolved
upon. It was to meet at Pisa, and Gerson poured forth tract
after tract for its guidance. The most important are Trilogus
in materia schismatis (ii. 83), and De unitate Ecclesiae (ii. 113),
in which, following Pierre d' Ailly (see Tschackert's Peter v. Ailli,
p. 153), Gerson demonstrates that the ideal unity of the church,
based upon Christ, destroyed by the popes, can only be restored
by a general council, supreme and legitimate, though un-
summoned by a pope. The council met, deposed both anti-
popes, and elected Alexander V. Gerson was chosen to address
the new pope on the duties of his office. He did so in his Sermo
coram Alexandra Papa in die ascensionis in concilia Pisano
(ii. 131). All hopes of reformation, however, were quenched
by the conduct of the new pope. He had been a Franciscan,
and loved his order above measure. He issued a bull which kid
the parish clergy and the universities at the mercy of the mendi-
cants. The great university of Paris rose in revolt, headed by
her chancellor, who wrote a fierce pamphlet Censura professorum
in theologia circa buttam Alexandra V. (ii. 442). The pope died
soon after, and one of the most profligate men of that time,
Pope John XXIII. (Baldassare Cossa), was elected his successor.
The council of Pisa had not brought peace; it had only added a
third pope. Pierre d'Ailly despaired of general councils (see his
De difficultate reformationis in concilia universal*), but Gerson
struggled on. Another matter too had roused him. The feuds
between the houses of Orleans and Burgundy had long distracted
France. The duke of Orleans had been treacherously murdered
by the followers of the duke of Burgundy, and a theologian,
Jean Petit (c. 1360-1411), had publicly and unambiguously
justified the murder. His eight verities, as he called them his
apologies for the murder had been, mainly through the influence
of Gerson, condemned by the university of Paris, and by the
1 Born c. 1360; rector of the university of Paris 1393; afterward*
treasurer of Langres and archdeacon of Bayeux; died at Paris in
1437.
906
GERSONIDES GERST ACKER
archbishop and grand inquisitor, and his book had been publicly
burned before the cathedral of Notre Dame. Gerson wished a
council to confirm this sentence. His literary labours were as
untiring as ever. He maintained in a series of tracts that a general
council could depose a pope; he drew up indictments against
the reigning pontiffs, reiterated the charges against Jean Petit,
and exposed the sin of schism in short, he did all he could to
direct the public mind towards the evils in the church and the
way to heal them. His efforts were powerfully seconded by the
emperor Sigismund, and the result was the council of Constance
(see CONSTANCE, COUNCIL or). Gerson's influence at the council
was supreme up to the election of a new pope. It was he who
dictated the form of submission and cession made by John
XXIII., and directed the process against Huss. Many of
Gerson's biographers have found it difficult to reconcile his
proceedings against Huss with his own opinions upon the supre-
macy of the pope; but the difficulty has arisen partly from
misunderstanding Gerson's position, partly from supposing him
to be the author of a famous tract De modis uniendi ac refor-
mandi Ecdesiam in concilia universali. All Gerson's high-sounding
phrases about the supremacy of a council were meant to apply
to some time of emergency. He was essentially a trimmer,
and can scarcely be called a reformer, and he hated Huss with
all the hatred the trimmer has of the reformer. The three bold
treatises, De necessitate reformations Ecclesiae, De modis uniendi
ac reformandi Ecdesiam, and De difficultate reformations in
concilia universali, long ascribed to Gerson, were proved by
Schwab in his Johannes Gerson not to be his work, and have since
been ascribed to Abbot Andreas of Randuf, and with more
reason to Dietrich of Nieheim (see NIEM, DIETRICH OF).
The council of Constance, which revealed the eminence of
Gerson, became in the end the cause of his downfall. He was the
prosecutor in the case of Jean Petit, and the council, overawed
by the duke of Burgundy, would not affirm the censure of the
university and archbishop of Paris. Petit's justification of murder
was declared to be only a moral and philosophical opinion, not
of faith. The utmost length the council would go was to con-
demn one proposition, and even this censure was annulled by the
new pope, Martin V., on a formal pretext. Gerson dared not
return to France, where, in the disturbed state of the kingdom,
the duke of Burgundy was in power. He lay hid for a time at
Constance and then at Rattenberg in Tirol, where he wrote his
famous book De consolatione theologiae. On returning to France
he went to Lyons, where his brother was prior of the Celestines.
It is said that he taught a school of boys and girls in Lyons, and
that the only fee he exacted was to make the children promise
to repeat the prayer, " Lord, have mercy on thy poor servant
Gerson." His later years were spent in writing books of mystical
devotion and hymns. He died at Lyons on the iath of July 1429.
Tradition declares that during his sojourn there he translated
or adapted from the Latin a work upon eternal consolation,
which afterwards became very famous under the title of The
Imitation of Christ, and was attributed to Thomas a Kempis.
It has, however, been proved beyond a doubt that the famous
Imitatio Christi was really written by Thomas, and not by
John Gerson or the abbot Gerson.
The literature on Gerson is very abundant. See Dupin, Gersoniana,
including; Vita, Gersoni, prefixed to the edition of Gerson's works in
5 vols. fol., from which quotations have here been made; Charles
Schmidt, Essai sur Jean Gerson, chancelier de I'UniversM de Paris
(Strassburg, 1839); J. B. Schwab, Johannes Gerson (Wttrzburg,
1859); H. Jadart, Jean Gerson, son origine, son village natal et
sa familie (Reims, 1882). On the relations between Gerson and
D'Ailly see Paul Tschackert, Peter von Ailli (Gotha, 1877). On
Gerson's public life see also histories of the councils of Pisa and
Constance, especially Herm. v. der Hardt, Con. Constantiensis libri
iv. (1695-1699). The best editions of his works are those of Paris
(3 vols., 1606) and Antwerp (5 yols., 1706). See also Ulysse Chevalier,
Repertoire des sources hist. Bio-bibliographie (Paris, 1905, &c.), s.v.
"Gerson." (T. M.L.;X.)
GERSONIDES, or BEN GERSON (GERSHON), LEVI, known also
as RALBAG (1288-1344), Jewish philosopher and commentator,
was born at Bagnols in Languedoc, probably in 1 288. As in the
case of the other medieval Jewish philosophers little is known
of his life. His family had been distinguished for piety and
exegetical skill, but though he was known in the Jewish com-
munity by commentaries on certain books of the Bible, he never
seems to have accepted any rabbinical post. Possibly the
freedom of his opinions may have put obstacles in the way of his
preferment. He is known to have been at Avignon and Orange
during his life, and is believed to have died in 1344, though
Zacuto asserts that he died at Perpignan in 1370. Part of his
writings consist of commentaries on the portions of Aristotle
then known, or rather of commentaries on the commentaries of
Averroes. Some of these are printed in the early Latin editions
of Aristotle's works. His most important treatise, that by which
he has a place in the history of philosophy, is entitled Milhamoth
'Adonai (The Wars of God), and occupied twelve years in com-
position (1317-1329). A portion of it, containing an elaborate
survey of astronomy as known to the Arabs, was translated into
Latin in 1342 at the request of Clement VI. The Milhamoth
is throughout modelled after the plan of the great work of Jewish
philosophy, the Moreh Nebuhim of Moses Maimonides, and
may be regarded as an elaborate criticism from the more philo-
sophical point of view (mainly Averroistic) of the syncretism
of Aristotelianism and Jewish orthodoxy as presented in that
work. The six books pass in review (i) the doctrine of the soul,
in which Gersonides defends the theory of impersonal reason as
mediating between God and man, and explains the formation of
the higher reason (or acquired intellect, as it was called) in
humanity, his view being thoroughly realist and resembling
that of Avicebron; (2) prophecy; (3) and (4) God's knowledge
of facts and providence, in which is advanced the curious theory
that God does not know individual facts, and that, while there is
general providence for all, special providence only extends to
those whose reason has been enlightened; (5) celestial substances,
treating of the strange spiritual hierarchy which the Jewish
philosophers of the middle ages accepted from the Neoplatonists
and the pseudo-Dionysius, and also giving, along with astronomi-
cal details, much of astrological theory; (6) creation and
miracles, in respect to which Gerson deviates widely from the
position of Maimonides. Gersonides was also the author of a
commentary on the Pentateuch and other exegetical and scientific
works.
A careful analysis of the Milhamoth is given in Rabbi Isidore
Weil's Philosophic religieuse de Levi-Ben-Gerson (Paris, 1868). See
also Munk, Melanges de phil. juive et arabe; and Joel, Religions-
philosophie d. L. Ben-Gerson (1862). The Milhamoth was pub-
lished in 1560 at Riva di Trento, and has been published at Leipzig,
1866. (I. A.)
GERSOPPA, FALLS OF, a cataract on the Sharavati river in
the North Kanara district of Bombay. The falls are considered
the finest in India. The river descends in four separate cascades
called the Raja or Horseshoe, the Roarer, the Rocket and the
Dame Blanche. The cliff over which the river plunges is 830 ft.
high, and the pool at the base of the Raja Fall is 132 ft. deep.
The falls are reached by boat from Honavar, or by road from
Gersoppa village, 18 m. distant. Near the village are extensive
ruins (the finest of which is a cruciform temple) of Nagarbastikere,
the capital of the Jain chiefs of Gersoppa. Their family was
established in power in 1409 by the Vijayanagar kings, but
subsequently became practically independent. The chieftaincy
was several times held by women, and on the death of the last
queen (1608) it collapsed, having been attacked by the chief of
Bednur. Among the Portuguese the district was celebrated
for its pepper, and they called its queen " Regina da pimenta "
(queen of pepper).
GERSTACKER, FRIEDRICH (1816-1872), German novelist
and writer of travels, was born at Hamburg on the loth of May
1816, the son of Friedrich Gerstacker (1790-1825), a celebrated
opera singer. After being apprenticed to a commercial house
he learnt farming in Saxony. In 1837, however, having imbibed
from Robinson Crusoe a taste for adventure, he went to America
and wandered over a large part of the United States, supporting
himself by whatever work came to hand. In 1843 he returned
to Germany, to find himself, to his great surprise, famous as an
author. His mother had shown his diary, which he regularly
GERSTENBERG GERVASE OF TILBURY
907
sent home, and which contained descriptions of his adventures
in the New World, to the editor of the Rosen, who published them
in that periodical. These sketches having found favour with the
public, Gerstacker issued them in 1844 under the title Streif-und
Jagdtuge durck die Yertinigttn Slaaten Nordamerikas. In 1845
his tint novel. Die Regulator en in Arkansas, appeared, and hence-
forth the stream of his productiveness flowed on uninterruptedly.
From 1849 to 1851 Gerstacker travelled round the world, visiting
North and South America, Polynesia and Australia, and on his
return settled in Leipzig. In 1860 he again went to South America,
chiefly with a view to inspecting the German colonies there and
reporting on the possibility of diverting the stream of German
emigration in this direction. The result of his observations and
experiences he recorded in Achtzrhn Monott in Sudamerika (1862).
In 1862 he accompanied Duke Ernest of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to
Egypt and Abyssinia, and on his return settled at Coburg, where
he wrote a number of novels descriptive of the scenes he had
visited. In 1867-1868 Gerstacker again undertook a long journey,
visiting North America, Venezuela and the West Indies, and on
his return lived first at Dresden and then at Brunswick, where
he died on the jist of May 1872. His genial and straightforward
character made him personally beloved; and his works, dealing
as they did with the great world hitherto hidden from the narrow
" parochialism " of German life, obtained an immense popularity.
This was not due to any graces of style, in which they are sin-
gularly lacking; but the unstudied freshness of the author's
descriptions, and his sturdy humour, appealed to the wholesome
instincts of the public. Many of his books were translated into
foreign languages, notably into English, and became widely
known on both sides of the Atlantic. His best works, from a
literary point of view, are, besides the above-mentioned Regula-
toren, his Flusspiraten des Mississippi (1848); the novel Tahiti
(1854); his Australian romance Die beiden Stritflinge (1857);
A us dtm Matrosenleben (1857); and Blau Wasser (1858). His
Travels exist in an English translation.
Gentacker's Gtsammette Sckriften were published at Jena in 44
voU. (1872-1879) ; a selection, edited by D. Theden in 24 vols. (1889-
1890). See A. Karl, Frudrick Gerstacker, der Weilgereiste. Bin
LebensbOd (1873).
GERSTENBERG. HEINRICH WILHELM VON (1737-1823),
German poet and critic, was born at Tondern in Schleswig on the
3rd of January 1737. After studying law at Jena he entered the
Danish military service and took part in the Russian campaign
of 1762. He spent the next twelve years in Copenhagen, where
he was intimate with Klopstock. From 1775 to 1783 he repre-
sented Denmark's interests as " Danish Resident " at Llibeck,
and in 1786 received a judicial appointment at Altona, where he
died on the ist of November 1823. In the course of his long life
Gerstenberg passed through many phases of his nation's literature.
He began as an imitator of the Anacreontic school (Tdndtleien,
1759); then wrote, in imitation of Gleim, Kriegslieder eines
danistken Grenadiers (1762); with his Gedicht eines Skaldcn
(1766) he joined the group of " bards " led by Klopstock. His
Ariadne auf \axos (1767) is the best cantata of the 1 8th century;
he translated Beaumont and Fletcher's Maid's Tragedy (1767),
and helped to usher in the Sturm und Drang period with a grue-
some but powerful tragedy, Ugolino (1768). But he did perhaps
even better service to the new literary movement with his Brief e
fiber Merkviirdigkeiten der Literalur (1766-1770), in which the
critical principles of the Sturm und Drang and especially its
enthusiasm for Shakespeare, were first definitely formulated.
In later life Gerstenberg lost touch with literature, and occupied
himself mainly with Kant's philosophy.
His Vermiftkte Sckriften appeared in 3 vols. (1815). The Briefe
uber tffrkwtirdifkftUn der Ltteratur were republished by A. von
Wetlen (1888). and a (election of hi* poetry, including Ugolino, by
R. Hamel, will be found in Kurschner's Deutsche Nationalliteralur,
voL 48 (1884).
GiRUZEZ, NICOLAS EUGENE (1790-1865), French critic,
was born on the 6th of January 1799 at Reims. He was assistant
professor at the Sorbonne, and in 1852 be became secretary to
the faculty of literature. He wrote a Histoire de i eloquence
poitiiqut el reiigieuse en France aux XI V, X V, el X VI' siecles
(1837-1838); an admirable Histoire de la litttrature franc.aise
dtpuis les engines jusqu'd la Revolution (1852), which he supple-
mented in 1859 by a volume bringing down the history to the
close of the revolutionary period; and some miscellaneous
works. IHTUZCZ died on the 29th of May 1865 in Paris. A
posthumous volume of Melanges et penstes appeared in 1877.
GERVAIS, PAUL (1816-1879), French palaeontologist, was
born on the 26th of September 1816 at Paris, where he obtained
the diplomas of doctor of science and of medicine, and in 1835
he began palaeontological research as assistant in the laboratory
of comparative anatomy at the Museum of Natural History.
In 1841 he obtained the chair of zoology and comparative
anatomy at the Faculty of Sciences in Montpellier,'of which he
was in 1856 appointed dean. In 1848-1852 appeared his im-
portant work Zoologie et paltontologie franc,aises, supplementary
to the palaeontological publications of G. Cuvicr and H. M. D.
de Blainville; of this a second and greatly improved edition
was issued in 1859. In 1865 he accepted the professorship of
zoology at the Sorbonne, vacant through the death of L. P.
Gratiolet; this post he left in 1868 for the chair of comparative
anatomy at the Paris museum of natural history, the anatomical
collections of which were greatly enriched by his exertions. He
died in Paris on the loth of February 1879.
He also wrote Histoire naturelle des mammiferes (1853, &c.);
Zoologie mfdicale (1859, with P. J. van Beneden); Recherche* sur
I'ancirnnttt de I'homme et la ptriode quaternaire, 19 pi. ( 1 867) ; Zoologie
et paUontologie generates (1867); Osteographie des cttaces (1869, &c.,
with van Beneden).
GERVASE OP CANTERBURY (d. c. 1210), English monk
and chronicler, entered the house of Christchurch, Canterbury,
at an early age. He made his profession and received holy orders
in 1163; but we have no further clue to the date of his birth.
We know nothing of his life beyond what may be gathered from
his own writings. Their evidence suggests that he died in or
shortly after 1210, and that he had resided almost continuously
at Canterbury from the time of his admission. The only office
which we know him to have held is that of sacrist, which he
received after IIQO and laid down before 1197. He took a keen
interest in the secular quarrels of the Canterbury monks with their
archbishops, and his earliest literary efforts were controversial
tracts upon this subject. But from 1188 he applied his mind to
historical composition. About that year he began the compilation
of his Chronica, a work intended for the private reading of his
brethren. Beginning with the accession of Stephen he continued
his narrative to the death of Richard I. Up to n 88 he relies
almost entirely upon extant sources; but from that date on-
wards is usually an independent authority. A second history,
the Gesla Regum, is planned on a smaller scale and traces the
fortunes of Britain from the days of Brutus to the year 1 209. The
latter part of this work, covering the years 1199-1209, is perhaps
an attempt to redeem the promise, which he had made in the
epilogue to the Chronica, of a continuation dealing with the reign
of John. This is the only part of the Gesta which deserves much
attention. The work was continued by various hands to the
year 1328. From the Gesta the indefatigable Gervasc turned to
a third project, the history of the see of Canterbury from the
arrival of Augustine to the death of Hubert Walter (1205). A
topographical work, with the somewhat misleading title Mappa
mundi, completes the list of his more important writings. The
Mappa mundi contains a useful description of England shire by
shire, giving in particular a list of the castles and religious houses
to be found in each. The industry of Gervase was greater than
his insight. He took a narrow and monastic view of current
politics; he was seldom in touch with the leading statesmen of
his day. But he appears to be tolerably accurate when dealing
with the years 1188-1209; and sometimes he supplements the
information provided by the more important chronicles.
See the introductions and notes in W. Stubbs's edition of the
Historical Works of Gervase of Canterbury (Rolls edition, 2 vols.,
1879-1880). (H. W. C. D.)
GERVASE OP TILBURY (fl. 1211), Anglo-Latin writer of the
late 1 2th and early i.^th centuries, was a kinsman and schoolfellow
of Patrick, earl of Salisbury, but lived the life of a scholarly
908
GERVEX GERYON
adventurer, wandering from land to land in search of patrons.
Before 1177 he was a student and teacher of law at Bologna;
in that year he witnessed the meeting of the emperor Frederic I.
and Pope Alexander III. at Venice. He may have hoped to
win the favour of Frederic, who in the past had found useful
instruments among the civilians of Bologna. But Frederic
ignored him; his first employer of royal rank was Henry fitz
Henry, the young king of England (d. 1183), for whom Gervase
wrote a jest-book which is no longer extant. Subsequently
we hear of Gervase as a clerk in the household of William of
Champagne, cardinal archbishop of Reims (d. 1202). Here,
as he himself confesses, he basely accused of heretical opinions
a young girl, who had rejected his advances, with the result that
she was burned to death. He cannot have remained many
years at Reims; before 1189 he attracted the favour of William
II. of Sicily, who had married Joanna, the sister of Henry fitz
Henry. William took Gervase into his service and gave him a
country-house at Nola. After William's death the kingdom
of Sicily offered no attractions to an Englishman. The fortunes
of Gervase suffered an eclipse until, some time after 1198, he
found employment under the emperor Otto IV., who by descent
and political interest was intimately connected with the Plan-
tagenets. Though a clerk in orders Gervase became marshal
of the kingdom of Aries, and married an heiress of good family.
For the delectation of the emperor he wrote, about 1211, his
Otia Imperialia in three parts. It is a farrago of history,
geography, folklore and political theory one of those books of
table-talk in which the literature of the age abounded. Evidently
Gervase coveted but ill deserved a reputation for encyclopaedic
learning. The most interesting of his dissertations are contained
in the second part of the Otia, where he discusses, among other
topics, the theory of the Empire and the geography and history
of England. We do not know what became of Gervase after the
downfall of Otto IV. But he became a canon; and may perhaps
be identified with Gervase, provost of Ebbekesdorf, who died in
1235-
See the Otia Imperialia in G. Leibnitz's Scriptores rerutn Bruns-
vicensium, vols. i. and ii. (Hanover, 1707); extracts in J. Stevenson's
edition of Coggeshall (Rolls series, 1875). Of modern accounts the
best are those by W. Stubbs in his edition of Gervase of Canterbury,
vol. i. introd. (Rolls series, 1879), and by R. Pauli in Nachrichten
der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen (1882). In the older
biographers the Dialogus de scaccario of Richard Fitz Neal (q.v.) is
wrongly attributed to Gervase. (H. W. C. D.)
GERVEX, HENRI (1852- ), French painter, was born in
Paris on the loth of December 1852, and studied painting under
Cabanel, Brisset and Fromentin. His early work belonged
almost exclusively to the mythological genre which served as an
excuse for the painting of the nude not always in the best of
taste; indeed, his " Rolla " of 1878 was rejected by the jury of
the Salon pour immoralite. He afterwards devoted himself to
representations of modern life and achieved signal success with
his " Dr Pean at the Salpetriere," a modernized paraphrase,
as it were, of Rembrandt's " Anatomy Lesson." He was en-
trusted with several important official paintings and the decora-
tion of public buildings. Among the first are " The Distribution
of Awards (1889) at the Palais de 1'Industrie " (now in the
Versailles Museum), " The Coronation of Nicolas II." (Moscow,
May 14, 1896)," The Mayors' Banquet " (1900), and the portrait
group " La Republique Frangaise "; and among the second,
the ceiling for the Salle des Fetes at the hotel de ville, Paris, and
the decorative panels painted in conjunction with Blanchon for
the mairie of the igth arrondissement, Paris. He also painted,
with Alfred Stevens, a panorama, " The History of the Century "
(1889). At the Luxembourg is his painting " Satyrs playing
with a Bacchante," as well as the large " Members of the Jury
of the Salon " (1885). Other pictures of importance, besides
numerous portraits in oils and pastel, are " Communion at
Trinity Church," " Return from the Ball," " Diana and Endy-
mion," " Job," " Civil Marriage," " At the Ambassadeurs,"
" Yachting in the Archipelago," " Nana " and " Maternity."
GERVINUS, GEORG GOTTFRIED (1805-1871), German
literary and political historian, was born on the 2oth of May
1805 at Darmstadt. He was educated at the gymnasium of
the town, and intended for a commercial career, but in 1825
he became a student of the university of Giessen. In 1826 he
went to Heidelberg, where he attended the lectures of the
historian Schlosser, who became henceforth his guide and his
model. In 1828 he was appointed teacher in a private school
at Frankfort-on-Main, and in 1830 Privatdozent at Heidelberg.
A volume of his collected Historische Schriften procured him
the appointment of professor extraordinarius; while the first
volume of his Geschichte der poetischen Nalionallitteratur der
Deutschen (1835-1842, 5 vols., subsequently entitled Geschichte
der deutschen Dichtung; 5th edition, by K. Bartsch, 1871-1874)
brought him the appointment to a regular professorship of history
and literature at Gottingen. This work is the first comprehensive
history of German literature written both with scholarly erudition
and literary skill. In the following year he wrote his Grundziige
der Historik, which is perhaps the most thoughtful of his philo-
sophico-historical productions. The same year brought his expul-
sion from Gottingen in consequence of his manly protest, in
conjunction with six of his colleagues, against the unscrupulous
violation of the constitution by Ernest Augustus, king of Hanover
and duke of Cumberland. After several years in Heidelberg,
Darmstadt and Rome, he settled permanently in Heidelberg,
where, in 1844, he was appointed honorary professor. He
zealously took up in the following year the cause of the German
Catholics, hoping it would lead to a union of all the Christian
confessions, and to the establishment of a national church.
He also came forward in 1846 as a patriotic champion of the
Schleswig-Holsteiners, and when, in 1847, King Frederick
William IV. promulgated the royal decree for summoning the
so-called " United Diet " (Vereinigter Landtag), Gervinus hoped
that this event would form the basis of the constitutional develop-
ment of the largest German state. He founded, together with
some other patriotic scholars, the Deutsche Zeitung, which
certainly was one of the best-written political journals ever
published in Germany. His appearance in the political arena
secured his election as deputy for the Prussian province of Saxony
to the National Assembly sitting in 1 848 at Frankfort. Disgusted
with the failure of that body, he retired from all active political
life.
Gervinus now devoted himself to literary and historical
studies, and between 1849 and 1852 published his work on
Shakespeare (4 vols., 4th ed. 2 vols., 1872; Eng. trans, by
F. E. Bunnett, 1863, new ed. 1877). He also revised his History
of German Literature, for a fourth edition (1853), and began at
the same time to plan his Geschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts
(8 vols., 1854-1860), which was preceded by an Einleitung in die
Geschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (1853). The latter
caused some stir in the literary and political world, owing to
the circumstance that the government of Baden imprudently
instituted a prosecution against the author for high treason.
In 1868 appeared Handel und Shakespeare, zur Asthetik der
Tonkunst, in which he drew an ingenious parallel between his
favourite poet and his favourite composer, showing that their
intellectual affinity was based on the Teutonic origin common
to both, on their analogous intellectual development and
character. The ill-success of this publication, and the indifference
with which the latter volumes of his History of the ipth Century
were received by his countrymen, together with the feeling of
disappointment that the unity of Germany had been brought
about in another fashion and by other means than he wished to
see employed, embittered his later years. He died at Heidelberg
on theiSth of March 1871.
Gervinus's autobiography (G. G. Gervinus' Leben, von ihm selbst)
was published by his widow in 1893. It does not, however, go
beyond the year 1836. See E. Lehmann, Gervinus, Versuch einer
Charakteristik (1871); R. Gosche, Gervinus (1871); J. Dorfel,
Gervinus als historischer Denker (1904).
GERYON (GERYONES, GERYONEUS), in Greek mythology, the
son of Chrysaor and Callirrhoe, daughter of Oceanus, and king
of the island of Erytheia. He is represented as a monster with
three heads or three bodies (triformis, trigeminus), sometimes
with wings, and as the owner of herds of red cattle, which were
GESENIUS GESNER, KONRAD VON
909
tended by the giant shepherd Eurytion and the two-headed dog
Orthnis. To carry off these cattle to Greece was one of the
twelve " labours " imposed by Eurystheus upon Heracles. In
order to get possession of them, Heracles travelled through Europe
and Libya, set up the two pillars in the Straits of Gibraltar to
show the extent of his journey, and reached the great river
Ocean us. Having crossed Ocean us and landed on the island,
Heracles slew Orthnis together with Eurytion, who in vain strove
to defend him, and drove off the cattle. Geryon started in pursuit,
but fell a victim to the arrows of Heracles, who, after various
adventures, succeeded in getting the cattle safe to Greece,
where they were offered in sacrifice to Hera by Eurystheus. The
geographical position of Erytheia is unknown, but all ancient
authorities agree that it was in the far west. The name itself
(- red) and the colour of the cattle suggest the fiery aspect of
the disk of the setting sun; further, Heracles crosses Oceanus in
the golden cup or boat of the sun-god Helios. Geryon (from
Yipiw, the howler or roarer) is supposed to personify the storm,
his father Chrysaor the lightning, his mother Callirrhoe the rain.
The cattle are the rain-clouds, and the slaying of their keepers
typifies the victory of the sun over the clouds, or of spring over
winter. The euhemeristic explanation of the struggle with the
triple monster was that Heracles fought three brothers in
succession.
See Apollodorus ii. 5. to; Hcsiod, Throgony, 28^; Diod. Sic.
iv. 17; Herodotus iv. 8; F. Wiesclcr in Ersch and Gniber, Allge-
meine Eneyclopad it ; F. A. Voigt in Roschcr's Lexikon der Mythologir;
L. Preller, Griechistke Mytholofit; article " Hercules " in Daremberg
and Saglio, Dutionnaire dti antiquilis.
GESENIUS, HEINRICH FRIBDRICH WILHELM (1786-1842),
German orientalist and biblical critic, was born atNordhausen,
Hanover, on the 3rd of February 1786. In 1803 he became a
student of philosophy and theology at the university of Helm-
stidt, where Heinrich Henke (1752-1809) was his most influential
teacher; but the latter part of his university course was taken
at Gottingen. where J. G. Eichhorn and T. C. Tychsen (1758-
1834) were then at the height of their popularity. In 1806,
shortly after graduation, he became Repetent and Privatdozent
in that university; and, as he was fond of afterwards relating,
had Neander for his first pupil in Hebrew. In 1810 he became
professor extraordinarius in theology, and in 1811 ordinarius,
at the university of Halle, where, in spite of many offers of high
preferment elsewhere, he spent the rest of his life. He taught
with great regularity for upward of thirty years, the only in-
terruptions being that of 1813-1814 (occasioned by the War of
Liberation, during which the university was closed) and those
occasioned by two prolonged literary tours, first in 1820 to Paris,
London and Oxford with his colleague Johann Karl Thilo (1794-
1853) for the examination of rare oriental manuscripts, and in
1835 to England and Holland in connexion with his Phoenician
studies. He soon became the most popular teacher of Hebrew
and of Old Testament introduction and exegesis in Germany;
during his later years his lectures were attended by nearly five
hundred students. Among his pupils the most eminent were
Peter von Bohlen (1796-1840), A. G. Hoffmann (1769-1864),
Hermann Hupfeld, Emil Rddiger (1801-1874), J- F- Tuch (1806-
1867), W. Vatic (1806-1882) and Theodor Benfey (1809-1881).
In 1827, after declining an invitation to take Eichhorn 's place
at Gottingen, Gesenius was made a Consistorialralh; but, apart
from the violent attacks to which he, along with his friend and
colleague Julius Wegscheider, was in 1830 subjected by E. W.
Hengstenberg and his party in the Etangdischc Kirchenzeitung,
on account of his rationalism, his life was uneventful. He died
at Halle on the 23rd of October 1842. To Gesenius belongs in
a large measure the credit of having freed Semitic philology
from the trammels of theological and religious prepossession,
and of inaugurating the strictly scientific (and comparative)
method which has since been so fruitful. As an exegete he
exercised a powerful, and on the whole a beneficial, influence on
theological investigation.
Of hit many works, the earliest, published in 1810, entitled Versuch
uttr du maUetiuke Spratke, wan a successful refutation of the widely
current opinion that the modern Maltese was of Punic origin. In the
name year appeared the first volume of the Hebraisches u. Chal-
it,i.>ihfs llanJwiirtrrbuih. completed in 1812. Revised editions of
this appear ix-n.xli, .illy in ('crmany, e.g. that of 11. Zimmcrn and
F. Buhl (1905). Tin- publication of a new English edition was
started in 1892 under the editorship of Professors C. A. Briggs,
S. R. Driver and !'. Brown. The HebrHische Grammalik, published in
1813 (27th edition by E. Kautzsch; English translation from 25th
and 26th German editions by G. W. Collins and A. E. Cowley, 1898),
was followed in 1815 by the Geschichte der hebniischrn Sprat he (now
very rare), and in 1817 by the AusfuHrliches Lchrgebdude der he-
brdtschen Sprache. The first volume of his well-known commentary
on Isaiah (Der Prophet Jesaja), with a translation, appeared in 1821 ;
but the work was not completed until 1829. The Thesaurus philo-
logifo-crilicus linguae Hebraicae et Chaldaicae V. T., begun in 1829,
he did not live to complete; the latter part of the third volume is
edited by E. Rodiger (1858). Other works: /> Pentateuchi Samari-
tani origine, indole, et auctoritate (1815), supplemented in 1822
and 1824 by the treatise De Samaritanorum theologia, and by an
edition of Carmina Samaritana; Paldographische Studien itber
phonisische u. punische Schrift (183$), a pioneering work which
he followed up in 1837 by his collection of Phoenician monuments
(Scripturae linguaeque Phoeniciae monumenta quotquot supersunt) ;
an Aramaic lexicon (1834-1839); and a treatise on the Himyaritic
language written in conjunction with E. Rodiger in 1841. Gesenius
also contributed extensively to Ersch and Gruber's Encyclopadie,
and enriched the German translation of J. L. Burckhardt's Travels in
Syria and the Holy Land with valuable geographical notes. For
many years he also edited the Halle Allgemtine Litteraturzeilung.
A sketch of his life was published anonymously in 1843 (Gesenius:
tine Erinnerung fur seine Freunde), and another by II. Gesenius,
Wilhelm Gesenius, tin Erinnerungsblatt an den hundertjahrigen
Geburtstag, in 1886. See also the article in the Allgemeine deutsche
Biographic.
OESNER, ABRAHAM (1797-1864), Canadian geologist, was
born in Nova Scotia in 1 797. He qualified as a doctor of medicine
in London in 1827. Returning to the Dominion, he published
in 1836 Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of Nova Scotia,
and continuing his researches he was enabled in 1843 to bring
before the Geological Society of London " A Geological Map of
Nova Scotia, with an accompanying Memoir " (Proc. Geol. Soc,
iv. 1 86). In 1849 he issued a volume on the industrial resources
of the country. He dealt also with the geology and mineralogy
of New Brunswick and Prince Edward's Island. Devoting
himself to the economic side of geology in various parts of North
America, he was enabled to bring out in 1861 A Practical Treatise
on Coal, Petroleum and other Distilled Oils. He died at Halifax,
N.S., on the 29th of April 1864.
GESNER, JOHANN MATTHIAS (1691-1761), German classical
scholar and schoolmaster, was born at Roth near Ansbach on the
9th of April 1691. He studied at the university of Jena, and in
1714 published a work on the PhUopatris ascribed to Lucian.
In 1713 he became librarian and conrector (vice-principal)
at Weimar, in 17 29 rector of the gymnasium at Ansbach, and in
1 730 rector of the Thomas school at Leipzig. On the foundation
of the university of G&ttingen he became professor of rhetoric
(1734) and subsequently librarian. He died at Gottingen on the
3rd of August 1761. His special merit lies in the attention he
devoted to the explanation and illustration of the subject matter
of the classical authors.
His principal works are: editions of the Scriptores rei rusticae, of
Quintifian, Claudian, Pliny the Younger, Horace and the Orphic
poems (published after his death) ; Primae lineae isagoges in eru-
dilionem universalem (1756); an edition of B. Faber s Thesaurus
eruditionis scholasticae (1726), afterwards continued under the title
Novus linguae et eruditionis Romanae thesaurus (1749); Opuscula
minor a varii argumenti (1743-1745); Thesaurus epistolicus Gesne-
rianus (ed. Klotz, 1768-1770); Index etymologicus (atinitatis (1749).
See J. A. Ernest i, Opuscula oratorio (1762), p. 305; H. Sauppe,
Goltinger Professorfn (1872); C. H. Pdhnert, /. M. Gesner und sein
Verhaltnis zum Philanihropinismus und Neuhumanismus (1898), a
contribution to the history of pedagogy in the i8th century; articles
by F. A. Eckstein in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic ix. ; and Sandys,
Hist, of Class. Schol. in. (1908), 5-9.
GESNER [improperly GESSNER; in Latin, GESNERUS],
KONRAD VON (1516-1565), German-Swiss writer and naturalist,
called " the German Pliny " by Cuvier, was born at Zurich on the
26th of March 1516. The son of a poor furrier, he was educated
in that town, but fell into great need after the death of his father
at the battle of Kappel (1531). He had good friends, however,
in his old master, Myconius, and subsequently in Heinrich
Bullinger, and he was enabled to continue his studies at the
910
GESSNER GETA
universities of Strassburg and Bourges (1532-1533); he found
also a generous patron in Paris (1534), in the person of Joh.
Steiger of Berne. In 1535 the religious troubles drove him back
to Zurich, where he made an imprudent marriage. His friends
again came to his aid, enabled him to study at Basel (1536), and
in 1537 procured for him the professorship of Greek at the newly
founded academy of Lausanne (then belonging to Berne). Here
he had leisure to devote himself to scientific studies, especially
botany. In 1540-1541 he visited the famous medical university
of Montpellier, took his degree of doctor of medicine (1541) at
Basel, and then settled down to practise at Zurich, where he
obtained the post of lecturer in physics at the Carolinum. There,
apart from a few journeys to foreign countries, and annual
summer botanical journeys in his native land, he passed the
remainder of his life. He devoted himself to preparing works
on many subjects of different sorts. He died of the plague on
the i3th of December 1565. In the previous year he had been
ennobled.
To his contemporaries he was best known as a botanist, though
his botanical MSS. were not published till long after his death
(at Nuremberg, 1751-1771, 2 vols. folio), he himself issuing only
the Enchiridion historiae plantarum (1541) and the Catalogus
plantarum (1542) in four tongues. In 1545 he published his
remarkable Bibliotheca universalis (ed. by J. Simler, 1574),
a catalogue (in Latin, Greek and Hebrew) of all writers who
had ever lived, with the titles of their works, &c. A second part,
under the title of Pandeclarium sine parlilionum universalium
Conradi Gesneri Ligurini libri xxi., appeared in 1548; only
nineteen books being then concluded. The 2ist book, a theo-
logical encyclopaedia, was published in 1549, but the 2oth,
intended to include his medical work, was never finished. His
great zoological work, Historia animalium, appeared in 4 vols.
(quadrupeds, birds, fishes) folio, 1551-1558, at Zurich, a fifth
(snakes) being issued in 1587 (there is a German translation,
entitled Thierbwh, of the first 4 vols., Zurich, 1563): this work
is the starting-point of modern zoology. Not content with such
vast works, Gesner put forth in 1555 his book entitled Mithridates
de differenliis linguis, an account of about 130 known languages,
with the Lord's Prayer in 22 tongues, while in 15 56 appeared
his edition of the works of Aelian. To non - scientific readers,
Gesner will be best known for his love of mountains (below the
snow-line) and for his many excursions among them, undertaken
partly as a botanist, but also for the sake of mere exercise and
enjoyment of the beauties of nature. In 1541 he prefixed to a
singular little work of bis (Libellus de lacte el operibus lactariis)
a letter addressed to his friend, J. Vogel, of Glarus, as to the
wonders to be found among the mountains, declaring his love
for them, and his firm resolve to climb at least one mountain
every year, not only to collect flowers, but in order to exercise
his body. In 1 555 Gesner issued his narrative (Descriptio Montis
Fracti sive Montis Pilati) of his excursion to the Gnepfstein
(6299 ft.), the lowest point in the Pilatus chain, and therein
explains at length how each of the senses of man is refreshed
in the course of a mountain excursion.
Lives by J. Hanhart (Winterthur, 1824) and J. Simler (Zurich,
1566); see also Lebert's Gesner als Arzt (Zurich, 1854). A part of
his unpublished writing, edited by Prof. Schmiedel, was published
at Nuremberg in 1753.
GESSNER, SOLOMON (1730-1788), Swiss painter and poet,
was born at Zurich on the ist of April 1730. With the exception
of some time (1749-1750) spent in Berlin and Hamburg, where he
came under the influence 6i Ramler and Hagedorn, he passed
the whole of his life in his native town, where he carried on the
business of a bookseller. He died on the 2nd of March 1788.
The first of his writings that attracted attention was his Lied
eines Schweizers an sein bewaffneles Mttdchen (1751). Then
followed Daphnis (1754), Idyllen (1756 and 1772), Inkel and
Yariko (1756), a version of a story borrowed from the Spectator
(No. n, 1 3th of March 1711) and already worked out by Gellert
and Bodmer.and Der Tod Abels (1758), a sort of idyllic pastoral.
It is somewhat difficult for us now to understand the reason of
Gessner's universal popularity, unless it was the taste of the
period for the conventional pastoral. His writings are marked
by sweetness and melody, qualities which were warmly appre-
ciated by Lessing, Herder and Goethe. As a painter Gessner
represented the conventional classical landscape.
Collected editions of Gessner's works were repeatedly published
(2 vols. 1777-1778, finally 2 vols. 1841, both at Zurich). They were
translated into French (3 vols., Paris, 1786-1793), and versions of
the Idyllen appeared in English, Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish,
Swedish and Bohemian. Gessner's life was written by Hottinger
(Zurich, 1796), and by H. Wolfflin (Frauenfeld, 1889); see also his
Briefwechsel mil seinem Sohn (Bern and Zurich, 1801).
GESSO, an Italian word (Lat. gypsum), for " plaster of Paris "
especially when used as a ground for painting, or for modelling
or sculpture.
GESTA ROMANORUM, a Latin collection of anecdotes and
tales, probably compiled about the end of the I3th century or
the beginning of the i4th. It still possesses a twofold literary
interest, first as one of the most popular books of the time, and
secondly as the source, directly or indirectly, of later literature,
in Chaucer, Gower, Shakespeare and others. Of its authorship
nothing certain is known; and there is little but gratuitous
conjecture to associate it either with the name of Helinandus
or with that of Petrus Berchorius (Pierre Bercheure). It is even
a matter of debate whether it took its rise in England, Germany
or France. The work was evidently intended as a manual for
preachers, and was probably written by one who himself be-
longed to the clerical profession. The name, Deeds of the Romans,
is only partially appropriate to the collection in its present form,
since, besides the titles from Greek and Latin history and legend,
it comprises fragments of very various origin, oriental and
European. The unifying element of the book is its moral purpose.
The style is barbarous, and the narrative ability of the compiler
seems to vary with his source; but he has managed to bring
together a considerable variety of excellent material. He gives
us, for example, the germ of the romance of " Guy of Warwick ";
the story of " Darius and his Three Sons," versified by Occleve;
part of Chaucer's " Man of Lawes' Tale "; a tale of the emperor
Theodosius, the same in its main features as that of Shakespeare's
Lear; the story of the " Three Black Crows "; the " Hermit and
the Angel," well known from Parnell's version, and a story
identical with the Fridolin of Schiller. Owing to the loose
structure of the book, it was easy for a transcriber to insert any
additional story into his own copy, and consequently the MSS.
of the Gesta Romanorum exhibit considerable variety. Oesterley
recognizes an English group of MSS. (written always in Latin),
a German group (sometimes in Latin and sometimes in German),
and a group which is represented by the vulgate or common
printed text. The earliest editions are supposed to be those of
Ketelaer and de Lecompt at Utrecht, of Arnold Ter Hoenen at
Cologne, and of Ulrich Zell at Cologne; but the exact date is in
all three cases uncertain.
An English translation, probably based directly on the MS.
Harl. 5369, was published by Wynkyn de Worde about 1510^-1515,
the only copy of which now known to exist is preserved in the
library of St John's College, Cambridge. In 1577 Richard Robin-
son published a revised edition of Wynkyn de Worde, and the book
proved highly popular. Between 1648 and 1703 at least eight
impressions were issued. In 1703 appeared the first vol. of a trans-
lation by B. P., probably Bartholomew Pratt, " from the Latin
edition of 1514." A translation by the Rev. C. Swan, first pub-
lished in 2 vols. in 1824, forms part of Bonn's antiquarian library,
and was re-edited by Wynnard Hooper in 1877 (see also the latter's
edition in 1894). The German translation was first printed at Augs-
burg, 1489. A French version, under the title of Le Violier des
hisloires romaines moralises, appeared in the early part of the i6th
century, and went through a number of editions; it has been re-
printed by G. Brunet (Paris, 1858). Critical editions of the Latin
text have been produced by A. Keller (Stuttgart, 1842) and Oesterley
(Berlin, 1872). See also Warton, " On the Gesta Romanorum, '
dissertation iii., prefixed to the History of English Poetry; Douce,
Illustrations of Shakespeare, vol. ii. ; Frederick Madden, Introduction
to the Roxburghe Club edition of The Old English Versions of the
Gesta Romanorum (1838).
GETA, PUBLIUS SEPTIMIUS (180-212), younger son of the
Roman emperor Septimius Severus, was born at Mediolanum
(Milan). In 198 he received the title of Caesar, and in 209 those of
Imperator and Augustus. Between him and his brother Caracalla
GETAE GETTYSBURG
911
there existed from their early years a keen rivalry and antipathy.
On the death of their father in 211 they were proclaimed joint
emperors; and after the failure of a proposed arrangement
for the division of the empire, Caracalla pretended a desire for
reconciliation. He arranged a meeting with his brother in his
mother's apartments, and had him murdered in her arms by
some centurions.
Dio CaMtut Ixxvti. 3 ; Spartianus, CarataUa, a ; Herodian iv. I .
GETAE. an ancient people of Thracian origin, closely akin to
the Dad (see DACU). Their original home seems to have been
the district on the right bank of the Danube between the rivers
Oeacus (Iskr) and latrus (Yantra). The view that the Getae
were identical with the Goths has found distinguished supporters,
but it is not generally accepted. Their name first occurs in con-
nexion with the expedition of Darius Hystaspis (sisB.c.)against
the Scythians, in the course of which they were brought under
his sway, but they regained their freedom on his return to the
East. During the $th century, they appear as furnishing a
contingent of cavalry to Shakes, king of the Odrysae, in his
attack on Perdiccas II., king of Macedon, but the decay of the
Odrysian kingdom again left them independent. When Philip
II. of Macedon in 342 reduced the Odrysae to the condition of
tributaries, the Getae, fearing that their turn would come next,
made overtures to the conqueror. Their king Cothclas undertook
to supply Philip with soldiers, and his daughter became the wife
of the Macedonian. About this time, perhaps being hard pressed
by the Triballi and other tribes, the Getae crossed the Danube.
Alexander the Great, before transporting his forces into Asia,
decided to make his power felt by the Macedonian dependencies.
His operations against the Triballi not having met with complete
success, he resolved to cross the Danube and attack the Getae.
The latter, unable to withstand the phalanx, abandoned their
chief town, and fled to the steppes (Frria 4 lpij/, north of
the Danube delta), whither Alexander was unwilling to follow
them. About 326, an expedition conducted by Zopyrion, a
Macedonian governor of Thrace, against the Getae, failed
disastrously. In 292, Lysimachus declared war against them,
alleging as an excuse that they had rendered assistance to certain
barbarous Macedonian tribes. He penetrated to the plains of
BcMirihii. where his retreat was cut off and he was forced to
surrender. Although the people clamoured for his execution,
Dromichaetes, king of the Getae, allowed him to depart un-
harmed, probably on payment of a large ransom, great numbers
of gold coins having been found near Thorda, some of them
bearing the name of Lysimachus. When the Gauls made their
way into eastern Europe, they came into collision with the Getae,
whom they defeated and sold in large numbers to the Athenians
as slaves. From this time the Getae seem to have been usually
called Daci; for their further history see DACIA.
The Getae are described by Herodotus as the most valiant
and upright of the Thracian tribes; but what chiefly struck
Greek inquirers was their belief in the immortality of the soul
(hence they were called &0<u>artfoiT<t) and their worship of
Zalmoxis (or Zamolxis), whom the euhemerists of the colonies
on the Euxine made a pupil of Pythagoras. They were very
fond of music, and it was the custom for their ambassadors the
priests to present themselves clad in white, playing the lyre and
singing songs. They were experts in the use of the bow and
arrows while on horseback.
See E. R. Rosier, " Die Geten und ihre Nachbarn," in Silzungs-
btritkte der k. A hod. der Wiiientckaften, philosopkisch-historiscke
Cla.su, xliv. (1863), and Romdnuche Sludien (Leipzig, 1871); W.
Tonuuchek, " Die alien Thraker," in above Stttun[tberukie, cxxviii.
(Vienna, 1893); W. Bewel. De rebut Geticii (Gottingen. 1854); C.
Mollenhoff in Erich and Gruber't AUtemtine EncyclopOdie; T.
Moranuen, Hilt, of Rome (Eng. trans.), bk. v. ch. 7.
OETHSEM ANE (Hebr. for " oil-press "), the place to which
Jesus and His disciples withdrew on the eve of the Crucifixion.
It was evidently an enclosed piece of ground, a plantation rather
than a garden in our sense of the word. It lay east of the Kidron
and on the lower slope of the mount of Olives, at the foot of which
is the traditional site dating from the 4th century and now
by the Franciscans. The Grotto of the Agony, a few
hundred yards farther north, is an ancient cave-cistern, now a
Latin sanctuary. (See further JERUSALEM.)
GETTYSBURG, a borough and the county-scat of Adams
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 35 m. S.W. of Harrisburg.
Pop. (1900) 3495; <igio) 4030. It is served by the Western
Maryland and the Gettysburg & Harrisburg railways. The site
of the borough is a valley about \\ m. wide; the neighbouring
country abounds in attractive scenery. Katalysine Spring in
the vicinity was once a well-known summer resort; its waters
contain lithia in solution. Gettysburg has several small manu-
facturing establishments and is the seat of Pennsylvania College
(opened in 1832, and the oldest Lutheran college in America),
which had 312 students (68 in the preparatory department)
in 1907-1908, and of a Lutheran theological seminary, opened in
1826 on Seminary Ridge; but the borough is best known as
the scene of one of the most important battles of the Civil War.
Very soon after the battle a soldiers' national cemetery was laid
out here, in which the bodies of about 3600 Union soldiers have
been buried; and at the dedication of this cemetery, in November
1863, President Lincoln delivered his celebrated " Gettysburg
Address." In 1864 the Gettysburg Battle-Field Memorial
Association was incorporated, and the work of this association
resulted in the conversion of the battle-field into a National Park,
an act for the purpose being passed by Congress in 1895. Within
the park the lines of battle have been carefully marked, and
about 600 monuments, 1000 markers, and 500 iron tablets
have been erected by states and regimental associations.
Hundreds of cannon have been mounted, and five observation
towers have been built. From 1816 to 1840 Gettysburg was the
home of Thaddeus Stevens. Gettysburg was settled about 1 740,
was laid out in 1787, was made the county-seat in 1800, and was
incorporated as a borough in 1806.
Battle of Gettysburg. The battle of the ist, 2nd and 3rd of July
1863 is often regarded as the turning-point of the American
Civil War (q.v.) although it arose from a chance encounter.
Lee, the commander of the Confederate Army of Northern
Virginia, had merely ordered his scattered forces to concentrate
there, while Meade, the Federal commander, held the town with
a cavalry division, supported by two weak army corps, to screen
the concentration of his Army of the Potomac in a selected
position on Pipe Creek to the south-eastward. On the ist of July
the leading troops of General A. P. Hill's Confederate corps ap-
proached Gettysburg from the west to meet Ewell's corps, which
was to the N. of the town, whilst Longstreet's corps followed Hill.
Lee's intention was to close up Hill, Longstreet and Ewcll before
fighting a battle. But Hill's leading brigades met a strenuous
resistance from the Federal cavalry division of General John
Buford, which was promptly supported by the infantry of the
I. corps under General J. F. Reynolds. The Federals so far held
their own that Hill had to deploy two-thirds of his corps for action,
and the western approaches of Gettysburg were still held when
Ewell appeared to .the northward. Reynolds had already fallen ,
and the command of the Federals, after being held for a time by
Gen. Abner Doubleday, was taken over by Gen. O. O. Howard,
the commander of the XI. corps, which took post to bar the way
to Ewell on the north side. But Ewell's attack, led by the
fiery Jubal Early, swiftly drove back the XI. corps to Gettys-
burg; the I. corps, with its flank thus laid open, fell back also,
and the remnants of both Federal corps retreated through
Gettysburg to the Cemetery Hill position. They had lost severely
in the struggle against superior numbers, and there had been
some disorder in the retreat. Still a formidable line of defence
was taken up on Cemetery Hill and both Ewell and Lee refrained
from further attacks, for the Confederates had also lost heavily
during the day and their concentration was not complete. In
the meanwhile Meade had sent forward General W. S. Hancock,
the commander of the Federal II. corps, to examine the state of
affairs, and on Hancock's report he decided to fight on the
Cemetery Hill position. Two corps of his army were st ill distant,
but the XII. arrived before night, the III. was near, and Han-
cock moved the II. corps on his own initiative. Headquarters and
the artillery reserve started for Gettysburg on the night of the ist.
912
GETTYSBURG
On the other side, the last divisions of Hill's and Ewell's corps
formed up opposite the new Federal position, and Longstreet's
corps prepared to attack its left.
Owing, however, to misunderstandings between Lee and
Longstreet (<?..), the Confederates did not attack early on the
morning of the 2nd, so that Meade's army had plenty of time to
make its dispositions. The Federal line at this time occupied
the horse-shoe ridge, the right of which was formed by Gulp's
Hill, and the centre by the Cemetery hill, whence the left wing
stretched southward, the III. corps on the left, however, being
thrown forward considerably. The XII. held Gulp's, the remnant
of the I. and XI. the Cemetery hills. On the left was the II.,
and in its advanced position the famous " Salient " the III.,
soon to be supported by the V. ; the VI., with the reserve artillery,
formed the general reserve. It was late in the day when the
Confederate attack was made, and valuable time had been lost,
but Longstreet's troops advanced with great spirit. The III.
corps Salient was the scene of desperate fighting; and the
" Peach Orchard " and the " Devil's Den " became as famous
as the " Bloody Angle " of Spottsylvania or the " Hornets'
Nest " of Shiloh. While the Confederate attack was developing,
the important positions of Round Top and Little Round Top
were unoccupied by the defenders an omission which was
repaired only in the nick of time by the commanding engineer
of the army, General G. K. Warren, who hastily called up troops
of the V. corps. The attack of a Confederate division was,
after a hard struggle, repulsed, and the Federals retained
possession of the Round Tops. The III. corps in the meantime,
furiously attacked by troops of Hill's and Longstreet's corps,
was steadily pressed back, and the Confederates actually pene-
trated the main line of the defenders, though for want of support
the brigades which achieved this were quickly driven out. Ewell,
on the Confederate left, waited for the sound of Longstreet's
guns, and thus no attack was made by him until late in the day.
Here Gulp's Hill was carried with ease by one of Ewell's divisions,
most of the Federal XII. corps having been withdrawn to aid
in the fight on the other wing; but Early 's division was re-
pulsed in its efforts to storm Cemetery Hill, and the two divi-
sions of the centre (one of Hill's, one of Ewell's corps) remained
inactive.
That no decisive success had been obtained by Lee was clear
to all, but Ewell's men on Gulp's Hill, and Longstreet's corps
below Round Top, threatened to turn both flanks of the Federal
position, which was no longer a compact horsehoe but had been
considerably prolonged to the left; and many of the units in the
Federal army had been severely handled in the two days' fighting.
Meade, however, after discussing the eventuality of a retreat
with his corps commanders, made up his mind to hold his ground.
Lee now decided to alter his tactics. The broken ground near
Round Top offered so many obstacles that he decided not to press
Longstreet's attack further. Ewell was to resume his attack
on Meade's extreme right, while the decisive blow was to be given
in the centre (between Cemetery Hill and Trestle's) by an assault
delivered in the Napoleonic manner by thefresh troops of Pickett's
division (Longstreet's corps). Meade, however, was not dis-
posed to resign Gulp's Hill, and with it the command of the
Federal line of retreat, to Ewell, and at early dawn on the 3rd
a division of the XII. corps, well supported by artillery, opened
the Federal counter-attack; the Confederates made a strenuous
resistance, but after four hours' hard fighting the other division
of the XII. corps, and a brigade of the VI., intervened with
decisive effect, and the Confederates were driven off the hill.
The defeat of Ewell did not, however, cause Lee to alter his plans.
Pickett's division was to lead in the great assault, supported
by part of Hill's corps (the latter, however, had already been
engaged). Colonel E. P. Alexander, Longstreet's chief of ar-
tillery, formed up one long line of seventy-five guns, and sixty-
five guns of Hill's corps came into action on his left. To the con-
verging fire of these 140 guns the Federals, cramped for space,
could only oppose seventy-seven. The attacking troops formed
up before 9 A.M., yet it was long before Longstreet could bring
himself to order the advance, upon which so much depended, and
it was not till about i P.M. that the guns at last opened fire to pre-
pare the grand attack. The Federal artillery promptly replied,
but after thirty minutes' cannonade its commander, Gen. H. J.
Hunt, ordered his batteries to cease fire in order to reserve their
ammunition to meet the infantry attack. Ten minutes later
Pickett asked and received permission to advance, and the infantry
moved forward to cross the 1800 yds. which separated them from
the Federal line. Their own artillery was short of ammunition,
the projectiles of that day were not sufficiently effective to cover
the advance at long ranges, and thus the Confederates, as they
came closer to the enemy, met a tremendous fire of unshaken
infantry and artillery.
The charge of Pickett's division is one of the most famous
episodes of military history. In the teeth of an appalling fire
from the rifles of the defending infantry, who were well sheltered,
and from the guns which Hunt had reserved for the crisis, the
Virginian regiments pressed on, and with a final effort broke
Meade's first line. But the strain was too great for the support-
ing brigades, and Pickett was left without assistance. Hancock
made a fierce counterstroke, and the remnant of the Confederates
retreated. Of Pickett's own division over three-quarters,
3393 officers and men out of 4500, were left on the field, two of his
three brigadiers were killed and the third wounded, and of fifteen
regimental commanders ten were killed and five wounded. One
regiment lost 90% of its numbers. The failure of this assault
practically ended the battle; but Lee's line was so formidable
that Meade did not in his turn send forward the Army of the
Potomac. By the morning of the sth of July Lee's army was
in full retreat for Virginia. He had lost about 30,000 men in
killed, wounded and missing out of a total force of perhaps
75,000. Meade's losses were over 23,000 out of about 82,000 on
the field. The main body of the cavalry on both sides was absent
from the field, but a determined cavalry action was fought on
the 3rd of July between the Confederate cavalry under J. E. B.
Stuart and that of the Federals under D. McM. Gregg some
miles E. of the battlefield, and other Federal cavalry made a
dashing charge in the broken ground south-west of Round Top
on the third day, inflicting thereby, though at great loss to them-
selves, a temporary check on the right wing of Longstreet's
infantry.
GEULINCX GEYSER
GEUUNCX. ARNOLD (1624-1669), Belgian philosopher, was
born at Antwerp on the jist of January 1624. He stiulictl
philosophy and medicine at the university of Louvain, where he
remained as a lecturer for several years. Having given offence by
his unorthodox views, he left Louvain, and took refuge in Leiden,
where be appears to have been in the utmost distress. He cnirrol
the Protestant Church, and in 1663, through the influence of his
friend Abraham Heidanus, who had assisted him in his greatest
need, he obtained a poorly paid lectureship at the university.
He died at Leiden in November 1660. His most important
works were published posthumously. The Melaphysica vera
(1601), and the \\u9i atavrov, five Ethica (under the pseudonym
" Philaretus," 1675), are the works by which he is chiefly
known. Mention may also be made of Pkysica two (1688),
Lofuu resliluia (1662) and Annotate in Principle philosophise
R. Cartesii (1601).
Geulincx principally deals with the question, left in an obscure
and unsatisfactory state by Descartes, of the relation between
soul and body. Whereas Descartes made the union between them
a violent collocation, Geulincx practically called it a miracle.
Extension and thought, the essences of corporeal and spiritual
natures, are absolutely distinct, and cannot act upon one another.
External facts are not the causes of mental states, nor are mental
states the causes of physical facts. So far as the physical universe
it concerned, we are merely spectators; the only action that
remains for us is contemplation. The influence we seem to exer-
cise over bodies by will is only apparent; volition and action
only accompany one another. Since true activity consists in
knowing what one does and how one does it, I cannot be the
author of any state of which I am unconscious; I am not con-
scious of the mechanism by which bodily motion is produced,
hence I am not the author of bodily motion (" Quod nescis
quomodo fiat, id non fads "). Body and mind are like two clocks
which act together, because both have been set together by God.
A physical occurrence is but the occasion (opportunity, occasional
cause) on which God excites in me a corresponding mental state;
UK exercise of my will is the occasion on which God moves my
body. Every operation in which mind and matter are both
concerned is an effect of neither, but the direct act of God.
Geulincx was thus the first definitely to systematize the theory
called Occasionalism, which had already been propounded by
Gcrauld de Cordemoy (d. 1684), a Parisian lawyer, and Louis
de la Forge, a physician of Saumur. But the principles on
which the theory was founded compelled a further advance.
God, who is the cause of the concomitance of bodily and mental
facts, is in truth the sole cause in the universe. No fact contains
in itself the ground of any other; the existence of the facts is
due to God, their sequence and coexistence are also due to him.
He is the ground of all that is. My desires, volitions and
thoughts are thus the desires, volitions and thoughts of God.
Apart from God, the finite being has no reality, and we only
have the idea of it from God. Descartes had left untouched,
or nearly to, the difficult problem of the relation between the
universal dement or thought and the particular desires or in-
clinations. All these are regarded by Geulincx as modes of the
divine thought and action, and accordingly the end of human
endeavour is the end of the divine will or the realization of reason.
The love of right reason is the supreme virtue, whence flow the
cardinal virtues, diligence, obedience, justice and humility.
Since it is impossible for us to make any alteration in the world
of matter, all we can do is to submit. Chief of the cardinal
virtues is humility, a confession of our own helplessness and sub-
mission to God. Geulincx's idea of life is" a resigned optimism."
Geulincx carried out to their extreme consequences the irre-
concilable elements in the Cartesian metaphysics, and his works
have the peculiar value attaching to the vigorous development
of a one-sided principle. The abrupt contradictions to which
such development leads of necessity compels revision of the
principle itself. He was thus important as the precursor of
Malebrancbe and Spinoza.
Edition of hi* philosophical work* by J. P. N. Land (1891-1893,
for which a recently discovered MS. was consulted); see also the
same editor's Arnold Geulintx und seine Phtlosophie (1895), and
article (tranl'tJ) in Mind, xvi. 333 seq.; V. van der Haeghcn,
dVu/inrx. Etude stir sa vie, sa philosophie, rt ses ouvrages (Gnent,
1886); E. Grimm, A. Geulincx' Erkenntnisslhcorie und Occasiona-
lismus (1875); E. Pflcidercr, A. G. alt Hauptvertrtter der okkasiona-
Mflapkysik und Elhik (1883); G. SanitMirn, Geulincx,
tin Vortanger Spinoias (1885); also Falckenbcre, Hist of Mod.
Philos. (Eng. trans., 1895), ch. iii. ; G. Monrhamp, Ilisl. du Cartesia-
nisme en Belfiqve (Brussels, 1886) ; H. Hoffding, (list. of Mod. Philos.
(Eng. trans., 1900), i. 345.
GEUM. in botany, a genus of hardy perennial herbs (natural
order Rosaceae) containing about thirty species, widely dis-
tributed in temperate and arctic regions. The erect flowering
shoots spring from a cluster of radical leaves, which are deeply
cut or lobed, the largest division being at the top of the leaf.
The flowers are borne singly on long stalks at the end of the stem
or its branches. They are white, yellow or red in colour, and
shallowly cup-shaped. The fruit consists of a number of dry
achcnes, each of which bears a hook formed from the persistent
lower portion of the style, and admirably adapted for ensuring
distribution. Two species occur in Britain under the popular
name " avens." G. urbanum is a very common hedge-bank
plant with small yellow flowers; G. rivale (water avens) is a rarer
plant found by streams, and has larger yellow flowers an inch
or more across. The species are easy to cultivate and well adapted
for borders or the rock-garden. They are propagated by seeds
or by division. The most popular garden species are G. chiloense
and its varieties, G. coccineum and G. montanum.
QEVELSBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, 6 m. S.W. from Hagen, on the railway to DUsseldorf.
It has two churches, schools and a hospital, and considerable
manufactures of cutlery. Pop. (1905) 15,838.
GEX, a town of eastern France, chief town of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Ain, 10 m. N.W. of Geneva and
3 m. from the Swiss frontier. Pop. (1006) town, 1385; commune,
3727. The town is beautifully situated 2000 ft. above sea-level
at the base of the most easterly and highest chain of the Jura.
It is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance,
and carries on considerable trade in wine, cheese and other
provisions, chiefly with Geneva. It gives its name to the old
Pays de Gex, situated between the Alps and the Jura, which
was at various times under the protection of the Swiss, the
Genevese and the counts of Savoy, until in 1601 it came into
the possession of France, retaining, however, until the Revolu-
tion its old independent jurisdiction, with Gex as its chief town.
The Pays de Gex is isolated by the Jura from the rest of French
territory, and comes within the circumscription of the Swiss
customs, certain restrictions being imposed on its products by
the French customs.
QEYSER, GEISER, or GEISIK, a natural spring or fountain
which discharges into the air, at more or less regular intervals
of time, a column of heated water and steam; it may conse-
quently be regarded as an intermittent hot spring. The word is
the Icelandic geysir, gusher or rager, from the verb geysa, a
derivative of gjosa, to gush. In native usage it is the proper
name of the Great Geyser, and not an appellative the general
term Aver, a hot spring, making the nearest approach to the
European sense of the word (see Cleasby and Vigfusson, Icelandic
English Dictionary, s.v.).
Any hot spring capable of depositing siliceous material by
the evaporation of its water may in course of time transform
itself into a geyser, a tube being gradually built up as the level
of the basin is raised, much in the same manner as a volcanic
cone is produced. Every geyser continuing to deposit siliceous
material is preparing its own destruction; for as soon as the
tube becomes deep enough to contain a column of water
sufficiently heavy to prevent the lower strata attaining their
boiling points, the whole mechanism is deranged. The deposition
of the sinter is due in part to the cooling and evaporation of the
siliceous waters, and in part to the presence of living algae. In
geyser districts it is easy to find thermal springs busy with the
construction of the tube; warm pools, or laugs, as the Icelanders
call them, on the top of siliceous mounds, with the mouth of
GEYSER
the shaft still open in the middle; and dry basins from which
the water has receded with their shafts now choked with rubbish.
Geysers exist at the present time in many volcanic regions,
as in the Malay Archipelago, Japan and South America; but
the three localities where they attain their highest development
are Iceland, New Zealand and the Yellowstone Park, U.S.A.
The very name by which we call them indicates the historical
priority of the Iceland group.
The Iceland geysers, mentioned by Saxo Grammaticus, are
situated about 30 m. N.W. of Hecla, in a broad valley at the foot
of a range of hills from 300 to 400 ft. in height. Within a circuit
of about 2 m., upwards of one hundred hot springs may be
counted, varying greatly both in character and dimensions.
The Great Geyser in its calm periods appears as a circular pool
about 60 ft. in diameter and 4 ft. in depth, occupying a basin on
the summit of a mound of siliceous concretion; and in the centre
of the basin is a shaft, about 10 ft. in diameter and 70 ft. in depth,
lined with the same siliceous material. The clear sea-green
water flows over the eastern rim of the basin in little runnels.
On the surface it has a temperature of from 76 to 89 C., or from
168 to 188 F. Within the shaft there is of course a continual
shifting both of the average temperature of the column and of
the relative temperatures of the several strata. The results of
the observations of Bunsen and A. L. O. Descloizeaux in 1847 were
as follows (cf. Pogg. Ann., vol. 72 and Comptes rendus, vol. 19):
About three hours after a great eruption on July 6, the tem-
perature 6 metres from the bottom of the shaft was 121-6 C.;
at 9-50 metres, 121-1; at 16-30 metres, 109 (?); and at 19-70
metres, 95 (?). About nine hours after a great eruption on
July 6, at about 0-3 metres from the bottom, it was 123;
at 4-8 metres it was 122-7; at 9'6 metres, 113; at 14-4 metres,
85-8; at 19-2 metres, 82-6. On the 7th, there having been no
eruption since the previous forenoon, the temperature at the
bottom was 127-5; at 5 metres from the bottom, 123; at 9
metres, 120-4; at 14-75 metres, 106-4; and at 19 metres,
55. About three hours after a small eruption, which took
place at forty minutes past three o'clock in the afternoon of
the 7th, the temperature at the bottom was 126-5; at 6-85
metres up it was 121-8; at 14-75 metres, 110; and at 19
metres, 55. Thus, continues Bunsen, it is evident that the
temperature of the column diminishes from the bottom upwards;
that, leaving out of view small irregularities, the temperature in
all parts of the column is found to be steadily on the increase
in proportion to the time that has elapsed since the previous
eruption; that even a few minutes before the great eruption
the temperature at no point of the water column reached the
boiling point corresponding to the atmospheric pressure at that
part; and finally, that the temperature about half -way up the
shaft made the nearest approach to the appropriate boiling point,
and that this approach was closer in proportion as an eruption
was at hand. The Great Geyser has varied very much in the
nature and frequency of its eruptions since it began to be observed.
In 1809 and 1810, according to Sir W. J. Hooker and Sir George
S. Mackenzie, its columns were 100 or 90 ft. high, and rose at
intervals of 30 hours, while, according to Henderson, in 1815
the intervals were of 6 hours and the altitude from 80 to 150 ft.
About 100 paces from the Great Geyser is the Strokkr or churn,
which was first described by Stanlay in 1789. The shaft in this
case is about 44 ft. deep, and, instead of being cylindrical, is
funnel-shaped, having a width of about 8 ft. at the mouth, but
contracting to about 10 in. near the centre. By casting stones
or turf into the shaft so as to stopper the narrow neck, eruptions
can be accelerated, and they often exceed in magnitude those
of the Great Geyser itself. During quiescence the column of
water fills only the lower part of the shaft, its surface usually
lying from 9 to 1 2 ft. below the level of the soil. Unlike that of
the Great Geyser, it is always in ebullition, and its temperature
is subject to comparatively slight differences. On the 8th of July
1847 Bunsen found the temperature at the bottom 112-9 C.;
at 3 metres from the bottom, 111-4; and at 6 metres, 108;
the whole depth of water was on that occasion 10-15 metres.
On the 6th, at 2-90 metres from the bottom it was 114-2; and
at 6- 20 metres, 109-3. On the toth, at 0-35 metres from the
bottom, the reading gave 113-9; at 4-65 metres, 113-7; and
at 8-85 metres, 99-9.
The great geyser-district of New Zealand is situated in the
south of the province of Auckland in or near the upper basin
of the Waikato river, to the N.E. of Lake Taupo. The scene
presented in various parts of the districts is far more striking
and beautiful than anything of the same kind to be found in
Iceland, but this is due not so
much to the grandeur of the
geysers proper as to the bewilder-
ing profusion of boiling springs,
steam-jets and mud-volcanoes,
and to the fantastic effects pro-
duced on the rocks by the siliceous
deposits and by the action of the
boiling water. In about 1880 the
geysers were no longer active, and
this condition prevailed until the
FIG. i.
Tarawera eruption of 1886, when seven gigantic geysers came
into existence; water, steam, mud and stones were discharged
to a height of 600 to 800 ft. for a period of about four hours,
when quieter conditions set in. Waikite near Lake Rotorua
throws the column to a height of 30 or 35 ft.
In the Yellowstone National Park, in the north-west corner of
Wyoming, the various phenomena of the geysers can be observed
on the most portentous scale. The geysers proper are about one
hundred in number; the non-eruptive hot springs are much
more numerous, there being more than 3000. The dimensions
and activity of several of the geysers render those of Iceland and
New Zealand almost insignificant in comparison. The principal
groups are situated along the course of that tributary of the
Upper Madison which bears the name of Fire Hole River. Many
of the individual geysers have very distinctive characteristics
in the form and colour of the mound, in the style of the eruption
and in the shape of the column. The " Giantess " lifts the main
column to a height of only 50 or 60 ft., but shoots a thin spire
to no less than 250 ft. The " Castle " varies in height from 10
or 15 to 250 ft.; and on the occasions of greatest effort the noise
is appalling, and shakes the ground like an earthquake. " Old
Faithful " owes its name to the regu-
larity of its action. Its eruptions, which
raise the water to a height of 100 or
150 ft., last for about five minutes, and
recur every hour or thereabouts. The
" Beehive " sometimes attains a height
of 219 ft.; and the water, instead of
falling back into the basin, is dissipated in
spray and vapour. Very various accounts
are given of the " Giant." F. V. Hayden
saw it playing for an hour and twenty
minutes, and reaching a height of 140 ft.,
and Doane says it continued in action for
three hours and a half, and had a maxi-
mum of 200 ft.; but at the earl of
Dunraven's visit the eruption lasted only
a few minutes.
Theory of Geysers. No satisfactory ex-
planation of the phenomena of geysers was
advanced till near the middle of the igth cen-
tury, when Bunsen elucidated their nature.
Sir George Mackenzie, in his Travels in
Iceland (2nd ed., 1812), submitted a theory
which partially explained the phenomena
met with. " Let us suppose a cavity C
(fig. i), communicating with the pipe PQ,
filled with boiling water to the height AB,
and that the steam above this line is con-
fined so that it sustains the water to the FiG. 2.
height P. If we suppose a sudden addition
of heat to be applied under the cavity C, a quantity of steam
will be produced which, owing to the great pressure, will be
evolved m starts, causing the noises like discharges of artillery and
the shaking of the ground." He admitted that this could be only
a partial explanation of the facts of the case, and that he was unable
GEZER GHADAMES
9*5
to account for the frequent and periodical production of the necessary
beat; but be has the credit of hitting on what u certainly the
proximate cause the sudden evolution of steam. By Bunsen'a
theory the whole difficulty u solved, as is beautifully demonstrated
by the artificial geyser designed by J. H. I. Mailer of Freiburg
(ng. 2). If the tube ab be filled with water and heated at two points,
Brit at a and then at 6, the following succession of change* u pro-
duced. The water at a beginning to boil, . the superincumbent
column is consequently raised, and the stratum of water which was
on the point of boiling at 6 being raised to d U there subjected to a
diminished pressure; a sudden evolution of steam accordingly
take* place at d, and the superincumbent water is violently ejected.
Received in the basin c, the air-cooled water sinks back into the tube,
and the temperature of the whole column is consequently lowered ;
but the under strata of water are naturally those which are least
affected by the cooling process; the boiling brains again at a, and the
sane succession of events is the result (seeR. Bunsen, " Physikalische
Beobachtungen Qber die hauptsochlichsten Geisire Islands," Pott-
Ann.. 1847, vol. 72; and MQller, " Obcr Bunsen's Geysertheorie, '
Md., 1850, vol. 79).
The principal difference between the artificial and the natural
geyser-tube is that in the latter the effect is not necessarily produced
by two distinct sources of heat like the two fires of the experimental
apparatus, but by the continual influx of
heat from the bottom of the shaft, and the
differences between the boiling-points of
the different parts of the column owing to
the different pressures of the superincum-
bent mass. This may be thus illustrated:
AB is the column ol water; on the right
side the figures represent approximately
the boiling-points (Fahr.) calculated accord-
ing to the ordinary laws, and the figures on
the left the actual temperature of the same
places. Both gradually increase as we
descend, but the relation between the two
is very different at different heights. At
the top the water is still 39 from its boiling-
point, and even at the bottom it is 19; but at D the deficiency is
only 4*. If, then, the stratum at D be suddenly lifted as high as
C, it will be 2* above the boiling-point there, and will consequently
f*pmA those 2* in the formation of steam.
GEZER (the Razir of Tethtnosis [Thothmes] III.'s list of
Palestinian cities and the Gazri of the Amarna tablets), a royal
Canaanite city on the boundary of Ephraim, in the maritime
plain (Josh, zvi 3-10), and near the Philistine border (2 Sam.
v. 25). It was allotted to the Levites, but its original inhabitants
were not driven out until the time of Solomon, when " Pharaoh,
king of Egypt " took the city and gave it as a dowry to his
daughter, Solomon's wife (i Kings ix. 16). Under the form
Gazera it is mentioned (i Mace. iv. 15) as being in the neighbour-
hood of Emmaus-Nicopolis ('Am was) and Jamnia (Yebnah).
Throughout the history of the Maccabean wars Gezer or Gazara
plays the part of an important frontier post. It was first taken
from the Syrians by Simon the Asmonean (i Mace. ziv. 7).
Josephus also mentions that the city was " naturally strong "
(Anliq. viii. 6. i). The position of Gezer is denned by Jerome
(Onomastifon, s.v.) as four Roman miles north (contra septen-
triontm) of Nicopolis ('Arnwis). This points to the mound of
debris called Tett-d-Jaari near the village of Aim ShOsheh.
The site is naturally very strong, the town standing on an isolated
hill, commanding the western road to Jerusalem just where it
begins to enter the mountains of Judea. This identification has
been confirmed by the discovery of a series of boundary inscrip-
tions, apparently marking the limit of the city's lands, which have
been found cut in rock outcrops partly surrounding the site.
They read in every case * *onn, " the boundary of Gezer,"
with the name Alkios in Greek, probably that of the governor
under whom the inscriptions were cut. The site has been
partially excavated by the Palestine Exploration Fund, and an
enormous mass of material for the history of Palestine recovered
from it, including remains of a pre-Semitic aboriginal race,
a remarkably perfect High Place, the castle built by Simon,
and other remains of the first importance.
See R. A. S. Maealister's reports in Palestine Exploration Fund
Quarterly Statement (October 1903 onwards). Also Bible" Sidelights
from Uu Hound } Goer, by the same writer. (R.A.S. M.)
GPRORER. AUGUST FRIEDRICH (1803-1861), German
historian, was bom at Calw, Wurttemberg, on the 5th of March
1 So written, with a medial mem (c) instead of the final (o).
1803, and at the close of his preliminary studies at the seminary
of Blaubeuren entered the university of Tubingen in 1821 as a
student of evangelical theology. After passing his final examina-
tions in 1825, he spent a year in Switzerland, during part of the
time acting as companion and secretary to C. von Bonstetten
(1745-1832); the year 1827 was spent chiefly in Rome. Re-
turning to WUrttemberg in 1828, he first undertook the duties of
repetent or theological tutor in Tubingen, and afterwards accepted
a curacy in Stuttgart; but having in 1830 received an appoint-
ment in the royal public library at Stuttgart, he thenceforth gave
himself exclusively to literature and historical science. His
first work on Philo (Phtto u. die jtidisch-alexandrinische Theo-
sophie, Stuttgart, 1831) was rapidly followed by an elaborate
biography, in two volumes, of Gustavus Adolpbus (Gustav
Adolf, KSnig von Sclrwcden, und seine Zeit, Stuttgart, 1835-1837),
and by a critical history of primitive Christianity (Kritische
Guckichte da Urchristenthums, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1838). Here
Gfrbrer had manifested opinions unfavourable to Protestantism,
which, however, were not openly avowed until fully developed
in his church history (AUgemeine Kirchengeichichte bis Beginn
des I4ten Jahrhunderts, Stuttgart, 1841-1846). In the autumn
of 1846 he was appointed to the chair of history in the university
of Freiburg, where he continued to teach until his death at
Carlsbad on the 6th of July 1861. In 1848 he sat as a repre-
sentative in the Frankfort parliament, where he supported the
" High German " party, and in 1853 he publicly went over to the
Church of Rome. He was a bitter opponent of Prussia and an
ardent controversialist.
Among his later historical works the most important is the Gc-
schichte der osl- u. wes'.frdnkischen Karolinger (Freiburg, 1848); but
those on the pseudo-Isidorian Decretals (Untersuchung iiber Alter,
Ursprung, u. Werth der Decretalen des falschen Isidorus, 1848), on the
primitive history of mankind (Urgeschichte des menscMichen Ge-
schlechts, 1855), on Hildebrand (Papst Gregorius VII. u. sein Zcitalter,
7 vols., 1859-1861), on the history of the i8th century (Geschichte
des iSten Jahrhunderts, 1862-1873), on German popular rights (Zur
Geschichte deutscher Volksrechte im Mittelalter, Basel, 1865-1866)
and on Byzantine history (Byzantinische Geschichten, 1872-1874),
are also of real value.
GHADAMES, GADAMES or RHADAMF.S, a town in an oasis of
the same name, in that part of the Sahara which forms part of the
Turkish vilayet of Tripoli. It is about 300 m. S.W. of the city
of Tripoli and some 10 m. E. of the Algerian frontier. According
to Gerhard Rohlfs, the last form given to the word most correctly
represents the Arabic pronunciation, but the other forms are
more often used in Europe. The streets of the town are narrow
and vaulted and have been likened to the bewildering galleries
of a coalpit. The roofs are kid out as gardens and preserved
for the exclusive use of the women. The Ghadamsi merchants
have been known for centuries as keen and adventurous traders,
and their agents are to be found in the more important places
of the western and central Sudan, such as Kano, Katsena, Kanem,
Bornu, Timbuktu, as well as at Ghat and Tripoli. Ghadames
itself is the centre of a large number of caravan routes, and in
the early part of the ipth century about 30,000 laden camels
entered its markets every year. The caravan trade was created
by the Ghadamsi merchants who, aided by their superior intelli-
gence, capacity and honesty, long enjoyed a monopoly. In
1873 Tripolitan merchants began to compete with them. In
1803 came the invasion of Bornu by Rabah,and the total stoppage
of this caravan route for nearly ten years to the great detriment
of the merchants of Ghadames. The caravans from Kano were
also frequently pillaged by the Tuareg, so that the prosperity
of the town declined. Later on, the opening of rapid means of
transport from Kano and other cities to the Gulf of Guinea also
affected Ghadames, which, however, maintains a considerable
trade. The chief articles brought by the caravans are ostrich
feathers, skins and ivory and one of the principal imports is
tea. In 1845 the population was estimated at 3000, of whom
about 500 were slaves and strangers, and upwards of 1200
children; in 1905 it amounted in round numbers to 7000. The
inhabitants are chiefly Berbers and Arabs.' A Turkish garrison
is maintained in the town.
Before the Christian era Ghadames was a stronghold of the
916
GHAT GHAZIPUR
Garamantes whose power was overthrown in the days of Augustus
by L.CorneliusBalbus Minor, whocapturedGhadames(Cydamus).
It is not unlikely that Roman settlers may have been attracted
to the spot by the presence of the warm springs which still rise
in the heart of the town, and spread fertility in the surrounding
gardens. In the 7th century Ghadames was conquered by the
Arabs. It appears afterwards to have fallen under the power
of the rulers of Tunisia, then to a native dynasty which reigned
at Tripoli, and in the i6th century it became part of the Turkish
vilayet of Tripoli. It has since then shared the political fortunes
of that country. In the first half of the igth century it was
visited by several British explorers and later by German and
French travellers.
See J. Richardson, Travels in the Great Desert of Sahara in 1845-
1846 . . . including a Description of . . . Ghadames (London, 1848) ;
G. Rohlfs, Reise durch Marokko . . . und Reise durch die Grosse
Wuste uber Rhadames nach Tripoli (Bremen, 1868).
GHAT, or RHAT, an oasis and town, forming part of the Turkish
vilayet of Tripoli. Ghat is an important centre of the caravan
trade between the Nigerian states and the seaports of the
Mediterranean (see TRIPOLI).
GHATS, or GHAUTS (literally " the Landing Stairs " from the
sea, or " Passes "), two ranges of mountains extending along
the eastern and western shores of the Indian peninsula. The
word properly applies to the passes through the mountains,
but from an early date was transferred by Europeans to the
mountains themselves.
The Eastern Ghats run in fragmentary spurs and ranges
down the Madras coast. They begin in the Orissa district of
Balasore, pass southwards through Cuttack and Puri, enter the
Madras presidency in Ganjam, and sweep southwards through
the districts of Vizagapatam, Godavari, Nellore, Chingleput,
South Arcot, Trichinopoly and Tinnevelly. They run at a
distance of 50 to 150 m. from the coast, except in Ganjam and
Vizagapatam, where in places they almost abut on the Bay of
Bengal. Their geological formation is granite, with gneiss and
mica slate, with clay slate, hornblende and primitive limestone
overlying. The average elevation is about 1500 ft., but several
hills in Ganjam are between 4000 and 5000 ft. high. For the
most part there is a broad expanse of low land between their
base and the sea, and their line is pierced by the Godavari,
Kistna and Cauvery rivers.
The Western Ghats (Sahyadri in Sanskrit) start from the
south of the Tapti valley, and run south through the districts
of Khandesh, Nasik, Thana, Satara, Ratnagiri, Kanara and
Malabar, and the states of Cochin and Travancore, meeting the
Eastern Ghats at an angle near Cape Comorin. The range of the
Western Ghats extends uninterruptedly, with the exception of a
gap or valley 25 m. across, known as the Palghat gap, through
which runs the principal railway of the south of India. The
length of the range is 800 m. from the Tapti to the Palghat gap,
and south of this about 200 m. to the extreme south of the
peninsula. In many parts there is only a narrow strip of coast
between the hills and the sea; at one point they rise in magnifi-
cent precipices and headlands out of the ocean. The average
elevation is 3000 ft., precipitous on the western side facing the
sea, but with a more gradual slope on the east to the plains below.
The highest peaks in the northern section are Kalsubai, 5427 ft.;
Harischandragarh, 4691 ft.; and Mahabaleshwar, where is the
summer capital of the government of Bombay, 4700 ft. South
of Mahabaleshwar the elevation diminishes, but again increases,
and attains its maximum towards Coorg, where the highest
peaks vary from 5500 to 7000 ft., and where the main range
joins the interior Nilgiri hills. South of the Palghat gap, the
peaks of the Western Ghats rise as high as 8000 ft. The geological
formation is trap in the northern and gneiss in the southern
section.
GHAZALl [Muhammad ibn Muhammad Abu Hamid al-
Ghazall] (1058-1111), Arabian philosopher and theologian, was
born at TQs, and belonged to a family of Ghazala (near Tus)
distinguished for its knowledge of canon law. Educated at
first in TQs, then in Jorjan, and again in Tus, he went to college
at NishSpflr, where he studied under Juwaim (known as the
Imam ul-Haramain) until 1085, when he visited the celebrated
vizier Nizam ul-Mulk, who appointed him to a professorship in
his college at Bagdad in 1091. Here he was engaged in writing
against the Isma'ilites (Assassins). After four years of this
work he suddenly gave up his chair, left home and family and
gave himself to an ascetic life. This was due to a growing scepti-
cism, which caused him much mental unrest and which gradually
gave way to mysticism. Having secured his chair for his brother
he went to Damascus, Jerusalem, Hebron, Mecca, Medina and
Alexandria, studying, meditating and writing in these cities.
In 1106 he was tempted to go to the West, where the Moravid
(Almoravid) reformation was being led by Yusuf ibn Tashfin,
with whom he had been in correspondence earlier. Yusuf,
however, died in this year, and Ghazall abandoned his idea.
At the wish of the sultan Malik Shah he again undertook pro-
fessorial work, this time in the college of Nizam ul-Mulk at
Nishapur, but returned soon after to Tus, where he died in
December mi.
Sixty-nine works are ascribed to Ghazali (cf. C. Brockelmann's
Gesch. d. arabischen Litteratur, i. 421-426, Weimar, 1898). The
most important of those which have been published are : a treatise
on eschatology called Ad-durra ul-fdkhira (" The precious pearl "),
ed. L. Gautier (Geneva, 1878); the great work, Ihya ul-'Ulum
("Revival of the sciences") (Bulaq, 1872; Cairo, 1889); see a
commentary by al-Murtada called the Ithaf, published in 13 vols.
at Fez, 1885-1887, and in 10 vols. at Cairo, 1893; the Bidayat ul-
Hidaya (Bulaq, 1870, and often at Cairo) ; a compendium of ethics,
Mizan ul-'Amal, translated into Hebrew, ed. J. Goldenthal (Paris,
1839) ; a more popular treatise on ethics, the Kirmya us-Sa'ada,
published at Lucknow, Bombay and Constantinople, ed. H. A.
Homes as The Alchemy of Happiness (Albany, N.Y., 1873); the
ethical work Child, ed. by Hammer-Purgstall in Arabic and German
(Vienna, 1838); the Destruction of Philosophers (Tahafut ul-Falasifa)
(Cairo, 1885, and Bombay, 1887). Of this work a French translation
was begun by Carra de Vaux in Mus&on, vol. xviii. (1899); the
Maqafid ul-Falasifa, of which the first part on logic was translated
into Latin by Dora. Gundisalyi (Venice, 1506), ed. with notes by
G. Beer (Leiden, 1888); the Kitab ul-Munqid, giving an account of
the changes in his philosophical ideas, ed. by F. A. Schmolders in his
Essai sur les Scales philosophiques chez les Arabes (Paris, 1842), also
printed at Constantinople, 1876, and translated into French by
Barbier de Meynard in the Journal asialique (1877, i. 1-93);
answers to questions asked of him ed. in Arabic and Hebrew, with
German translation and notes by H. Maker (Frankfort, 1896); Eng.
trans., Confessions of al-Ghazzali, by Claud Field (1909).
For Ghazali's life see McG. de Slane's translation of Ibn Khallikan,
ii. 621 ff. ; R. Gosche's Uber Ghazzali's Leben und Werke (Berlin,
1859); D. B. Macdonald's "Life of al-Ghazzali," in Journal of
American Oriental Society, vol. xx. (1899), and Carra de Vaux's
Gazali (Paris, 1902) ; see ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. (G. W. T.)
GHAZI (an Arabic word, from ghaza, to fight), the name
given to Mahommedans who have vowed to exterminate un-
believers by the sword. It is also used as a title of honour,
generally translated " the Victorious," in the Ottoman empire
for military officers of high rank, who have distinguished them-
selves in the field against non-Moslem enemies; thus it was
conferred on Osman Pasha after his famous defence of Plevna.
GHAZIABAD, a town of British India in Meerut district of the
United Provinces, 12 m. from Delhi and 28 m. from Meerut.
Pop. (1901) 11,275. The town was founded in 1740 by Ghazi-ud-
din, son of Azaf Jah, first nizam of the Deccan, and takes its
name from its founder. It has considerably risen in importance
as the point of junction of the East Indian, the North-Western
and the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway systems. The town has a
trade in grain and hides.
GHAZIPUR, a town and district of British India, in the
Benares division of the United Provinces. The town stands on
the left bank of the Ganges, 44 m. E. of Benares. It is the
headquarters of the government opium department, where all
the opium from the United Provinces is collected and manu-
factured under a monopoly. There are also scent distilleries,
using the produce of the rose-gardens in the vicinity. Lord
Cornwallis, governor-general of India, died at Ghazipur in 1805,
and a domed monument and marble statue (by Flaxman) are
erected over his grave. Pop. (1901) 39,429.
The district of Ghazipur has an area of 1389 sq. m. It forms
part of the great alluvial plain of the Ganges, which divides
it into two unequal portions. The northern subdivision lies
GHAZNI
917
between the Gumti and the Gogra, whose confluences with the
main stream mark its eastern and western limits respectively.
The southern tract is a much smaller strip of country, enclosed
between the Karamnasa and the great river itself. There are
DO hills in the district. A few lakes arc scattered here and there,
formed where the rivers have deserted their ancient channels.
The largest is that of Suraha, once a northern bend of the Ganges,
but now an almost isolated sheet of water, 5 m. long by about
4 broad. Ghazipur is said to be one of the hottest and dampest
districts in the United Provinces. In IQOI the population was
913,818, showing a decrease of 11% in the decade. Sugar
refining is the chief industry, and provides the principal article
of export. The main line of the East Indian railway traverses
the southern portion of the district, with a branch to the Ganges
bank opposite Ghazipur town; the northern portion is served
by the Bengal & North-Western system.
GHAZNI, a famous city in Afghanistan, the seat of an extensive
empire under two medieval dynasties, and again of prominent
interest in the modern history of British India. Ghazni stands
on the high tableland of central Afghanistan, in 68 i8'E. long.,
33 44' N. lat., at a height of 7280 ft. above the sea, and on the
direct road between Kandahar and Kabul, 221 m. by road N.E.
from the former, and 92 m. S.W. from the latter. A very
considerable trade in fruit, wool, skins, &c.,is carried on between
Ghazni and India by the Povindah kanlas, which yearly enter
India in the late autumn and pass back again to the Afghan
highlands in the early spring. The Povindah merchants in-
variably make use of the Gomal pass which leads to the British
frontier at Dera Ismail Khan. The opening up of this pass and
the British occupation of Wana, by offering protection to the
merchants from Waziri blackmailing, largely increased the
traffic.
Ghazni, as it now exists, is a place in decay, and probably
does not contain more than 4000 inhabitants. It stands at the
base of the terminal spur of a ridge of hills, an offshoot from the
Gul-Koh, which forms the watershed between the Arghand&b,
and Tarnak rivers. The castle stands at the northern angle of
the town next the hills, and is about 150 ft. above the plain.
The town walls stand on an elevation, partly artificial, and form
an irregular square, dose on a mile in circuit (including the
castle), the walls being partly of stone or brick laid in mud, and
partly of clay built in courses. They are flanked by numerous
towers. There are three gates. The town consists of dirty and
very irregular streets of houses several stories high, but with
two straighter streets of more pretension, crossing near the
middle of the town. Of the strategical importance of Ghazni
there can hardly be a question. The view to the south is ex-
tensive, and the plain in the direction of Kandahar stretches
to the horizon. It is bare except in the vicinity of the river,
where villages and gardens are tolerably numerous. Abundant
crops of wheat and barley are grown, as well as of madder,
besides minor products. The climate is notoriously cold,
snow lying 2 or 3 ft. deep for about three months, and tradition
speaks of the city as having been more than once overwhelmed
by snowdrift. Fuel is scarce, consisting chiefly of prickly
shrubs. In summer the heat is not like that of Kandahar or
Kabul, but the radiation from the bare heights renders the nights
oppressive, and constant dust-storms occur. It is evident that
the present restricted walls cannot have contained the vaunted
city of Mahmud. Probably the existing site formed the citadel
only of his city. The remarks of Ibn Batuta (c. 1332) already
suggest the present state of things, viz. a small town occupied,
a large space of ruin; for a considerable area to the N.E. is
covered with ruins, or rather with a vast extent of shapeless
mounds, which are pointed out as Old Ghazni. The only remains
retaining architectural character are two remarkable towers
rising to the height of about 140 ft., and some 400 yds. apart
from each other. They are similar, but whether identical, in
design, is not clearly recorded. They belong, on a smaller and
far less elaborate scale, to the same class as the Kutb Minar at
Delhi (f..). Arabic inscriptions in Cufic characters show the
northerly to have been the work of Mahmud himself, the
other that of his son Masa'ud. On the Kabul road, a mile
beyond the Minaret of Mahmud, is a village culled Rauzah
(" the Garden," a term often applied to garden-mausoleums).
Here, in a poor garden, stands the tomb of the famous conqueror.
It is a prism of white marble standing on a plinth of the same,
and bearing a Cufic inscription praying the mercy of God on the
most noble Amir, the great king, the lord of church and state,
Abul K.iMin Mahmud, son of Sabuktagin. The tomb stands in
a rude chamber, covered with a dome of clay, and hung with old
shawls, ostrich eggs, tiger-skins and so forth. The village stands
among luxuriant gardens' and orchards, watered by a copious
aqueduct. Sultan Babcr celebrates the excellence of the grapes
of Rauzah.
There are many holy shrines about Ghazni surrounded by
orchards and vineyards. Baber speaks of them, and Iclls how
he detected and put a stop to the imposture of a pretended
miracle at one of them. These sanctuaries make Ghazni a place
of Moslem pilgrimage, and it is said that at Constantinople much
respect is paid to those who have worshipped at the tomb of the
great Ghazi. To test the genuineness of the boast, professed
pilgrims are called on to describe the chief notabilia of the place,
and are expected to name all those detailed in certain current
Persian verses.
History. The city is not mentioned by any narrator of
Alexander's expedition, nor by any ancient author so as to
admit of positive recognition. But it is very possibly the Gazaca
which Ptolemy places among the Paropamisadae, and this may
not be inconsistent with Sir H. Rawlinson's identification of it
with Gazos, an Indian city spoken of by two obscure Greek poets
as an impregnable place of war. The name is probably con-
nected with the Persian and Sanskrit ganj and ganja, a treasury
(whence the Greek and Latin Gaza). We seem to have positive
evidence of the existence of the city before the Mahommedan
times (644) in the travels of the Chinese pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang,
who speaks of Ho-si-na (i.e. probably Ghazni) as one of the
capitals of Tsaukuta or Arachosia, a place of great strength.
In early Mahommedan times the country adjoining Ghazni was
called /.uliul. When the Mahommedans first invaded that
region Ghazni was a wealthy entrepot of the Indian trade.
Of the extent of this trade some idea is given by Ibn Haukal,
who states that at Kabul, then a mart of the same trade, there
was sold yearly indigo to the value of two million dinars
(1,000,000). The enterprise of Islam underwent several ebbs
and flows over this region. The provinces on the Helmund and
about Ghazni were invaded as early as the caliphate- of Moaiya
(662-680). The arms of Yaqub b. Laith swept over Kabul and
Arachosia (Al-Rukhaj) about 871, and the people of the latter
country were forcibly converted. Though the Hindu dynasty
of Kabul held a part of the valley of Kabul river till the time of
Mahmud, it is probably to the period just mentioned that we
must refer the permanent Mahommedan occupation of Ghazni.
Indeed, the building of the fort and city is ascribed by a Mahom-
medan historian to Amr b. Laith, the brother and successor
of Ya'kub (d. 901), though the facts already stated discredit
this. In the latter part of the oth century the family of the
Samanid, sprung from Samarkand, reigned in splendour at
Bokhara. Alptagin, originally a Turkish slave, and high in the
service of the dynasty, about the middle of the loth century,
losing the favour of the court, wrested Ghazni from its chief
(who is styled Abu Bakr Lawik, wali of Ghazni), and established
himself there. His government was recognized from Bokhara,
and held till his death. In 977 another Turk slave, Sabuktagin,
who had married the daughter of his master Alptagin, obtained
rule in Ghazni. He made himself lord of nearly all the present
territory of Afghanistan and of the Punjab. In 997 Mahmud,
son of Sabuktagin, succeeded to the government, and with his
name Ghazni and the Ghaznevid dynasty have beome perpetu-
ally associated. Issuing forth year after year from that capital,
Mahmud (q.v.) carried fully seventeen expeditions of devastation
through northern India and Gujarat, as well as others to the
north and west. From the borders of Kurdistan to Samarkand,
from the Caspian to the Ganges, his authority was acknowledged.
GHEE
The wealth brought back to Ghazni was enormous, and con-
temporary historians give glowing descriptions of the magnifi-
cence of the capital, as well as of the conqueror's munificent
support of literature. Mahmud died in 1030, and some fourteen
kings of his house came after him; but though there was some
revival of importance under Ibrahim (1059-1099), the empire
never reached anything like the same splendour and power.
It was overshadowed by the Seljuks of Persia, and by the rising
rivalry of Ghor (<?.!>.), the hostility of which it had repeatedly
provoked. Bahram Shah (1118-1152) put to death Kutbuddin,
one of the princes of Ghor, called king of the Jibal or Hill country,
who had withdrawn to Ghazni. This prince's brother, Saifuddin
Suri, came to take vengeance, and drove out Bahram. But
the latter recapturing the place (1149) paraded Saifuddin and his
vizier ignominiously about the city, and then hanged them on the
bridge. Ala-uddin of Ghor, younger brother of the two slain
princes, then gathered a great host, and came against Bahram,
who met him on the Helmund. The Ghori prince, after repeated
victories, stormed Ghazni, and gave it over to fire and sword.
The dead kings of the house of Mahmud, except the conqueror
himself and two others, were torn from their graves and burnt,
whilst the bodies of the princes of Ghor were solemnly dis-
interred and carried to the distant tombs of their ancestors.
It seems certain that Ghazni never recovered the splendour that
perished then (1152). Ala-uddin, who from this deed became
known in history as Jahan-soz (Brulemonde) , returned to Ghor,
and Bahram reoccupied Ghazni; he died in 1157. In the time
of his son Khusru Shah, Ghazni was taken by the Turkish tribes
called Ghuzz (generally believed to have been what are now
called Turkomans). The king fled to Lahore, and the dynasty
ended with his son. In 1173 the Ghuzz were expelled by
Ghiyasuddin sultan of Ghor (nephew of Ala-uddin Jahansoz),
who made Ghazni over to his brother Muizuddin. This famous
prince, whom the later historians call Mahommed Ghori, shortly
afterwards (1174-1175) invaded India, taking Multan and
Uchh. This was the first of many successive inroads on western
and northern India, in one of which Lahore was wrested from
Khusru Malik, the last of Mahmud's house, who died a captive
in the hills of Ghor. In 1192 Prithvi Rai or Pithora (as the
Moslem writers call him), the Chauhan king of Ajmere, being
defeated and slain near Thanewar, the whole country from the
Himalaya to Ajmere became subject to the Ghori king of Ghazni.
On the death of his brother Ghiyasuddin, with whose power he
had been constantly associated, and of whose conquests he had
been the chief instrument, Muizuddin became sole sovereign
over Ghor and Ghazni, and the latter place was then again for a
brief period the seat of an empire nearly as extensive as that of
Mahmud the son of Sabuktagin. Muizuddin crossed the Indus
once more to put down a rebellion of the Khokhars in the Punjab,
and on his way back was murdered by a band of them, or, as
some say, by one of the Mulahidah or Assassins. The slave
lieutenants of Muizuddin carried on the conquest of India, and
as the rapidly succeeding events broke their dependence on any
master, they established at Delhi that monarchy of which, after
it had endured through many dynasties, and had culminated
with the Mogul house of Baber, the shadow perished in 1857.
The death of Muizuddin was followed by struggle and anarchy,
ending for a time in the annexation of Ghazni to the empire of
Khwarizm by Mahommed Shah, who conferred it on his famous
son, Jelaluddin, and Ghazni became the headquarters of the
latter. After Jenghiz Khan had extinguished the power of his
family in Turkestan, Jelaluddin defeated the army sent against
him by the Mongol at Parwan, north of Kabul. Jenghiz then
advanced and drove Jelaluddin across the Indus, after which he
sent Ogdai his son to besiege Ghazni. Henceforward Ghazni is
much less prominent in Asiatic history. It continued subject
to the Mongols, sometimes to the house of Hulagu in Persia,
and sometimes to that of Jagatai in Turkestan. In 1326,
after a battle between Amir Hosain, the viceroy of the former
house in Khorasan, and Tarmashirin, the reigning khan of
Jagatai, the former entered Ghazni and once more subjected it
to devastation, and this time the tomb of Mahmud to desecration.
Ibn Batuta (c. 1332) says the greater part of the city was in
ruins, and only a small part continued to be a town. Timur
seems never to have visited Ghazni, but we find him in 1401
bestowing the government of Kabul, Kandahar, and Ghazni on
Pir Mahommed, the son of his son Jahangir. In the end of the
century it was still in the hands of a descendant of Timur, Ulugh
Beg Mirza, who was king of Kabul and Ghazni. The illustrious
nephew of this prince, Baber, got peaceful possession of both
cities in 1504, and has left notes on both in his own inimitable
Memoirs. His account of Ghazni indicates how far it had now
fallen. " It is," he says, " but a poor mean place, and I have
always wondered how its princes, who possessed also Hindustan
and Khorasan, could have chosen such a wretched country
for the seat of their government, in preference to Khorasan."
He commends the fruit of its gardens, which still contribute
largely to the markets of Kabul. Ghazni remained in the hands
of Baber's descendants, reigning at Delhi and Agra, till the
invasion of Nadir Shah (1738), and became after Nadir's death
a part of the new kingdom of the Afghans under Ahmad Shah
Durani. We know of but two modern travellers who have
recorded visits to the place-previous to the war of 1839. George
Forster passed as a disguised traveller with a qafila in 1783.
" Its slender existence," he says, " is now maintained by some
Hindu families, who support a small traffic, and supply the
wants of the few Mahommedan residents." Vigne visited it in
1836, having reached it from Multan with a caravan of Lohani
merchants, travelling by the Gomal pass. The historical name
of Ghazni was brought back from the dead, as it were, by the
news of its capture by the British army under Sir John Keane,
23rd July 1839. The siege artillery had been left behind at
Kandahar; escalade was judged impracticable; but the project
of the commanding engineer, Captain George Thomson, for blow-
ing in the Kabul gate with powder in bags, was adopted, and
carried out successfully, at the cost of 182 killed and wounded.
Two years and a half later the Afghan outbreak against the
British occupation found Ghazni garrisoned by a Bengal regiment
of sepoys, but neither repaired nor provisioned. They held out
under great hardships from the i6th of December 1841 to the
6th of March 1842, when they surrendered. In the autumn of
the same year General Nott, advancing from Kandahar upon
Kabul, reoccupied Ghazni, destroyed the defences of the castle
and part of the town, and carried away the famous gates of
Somnath (<?..).
GHEE (Hindostani ghi), a kind of clarified butter made in
the East. The best is prepared from butter of the milk of cows,
the less esteemed from that of buffaloes. The butter is melted
over a slow fire, and set aside to cool; the thick, opaque, whitish,
and more fluid portion, or ghee, representing the greater bulk
of the butter, is then removed. The less liquid residue, mixed
with ground-nut oil, is sold as an inferior kind of ghee. It may
be obtained also by boiling butter over a clear fire, skimming it
the while, and,, when all the water has evaporated, straining
it through a cloth. Ghee which is rancid or tainted, as is often
that of the Indian bazaars, is said to be rendered sweet by boiling
with leaves of the Moringa pterygosperma or horse-radish tree.
In India ghee is one of the commonest articles of diet, and indeed
enters into the composition of everything eaten by the Brahmans.
It is also extensively used in Indian religious ceremonies, being
offered as a sacrifice to idols, which are at times bathed in it.
Sanskrit treatises on therapeutics describe ghee as cooling,
emollient and stomachic, as capable of increasing the mental
powers, and of improving the voice and personal appearance,
and as useful in eye-diseases, tympanitis, painful dyspepsia,
wounds, ulcers and other affections. Old ghee is in special
repute among the Hindus as a medicinal agent, and its efficacy
as an external application is believed by them to increase with
its age. Ghee more than ten years old, the purdna ghrita of
Sanskrit materia medicas, has a strong odour and the colour of
lac. Some specimens which have been much longer preserved
and " clarified butter a hundred years old is often heard of "
have an earthy look, and are quite dry and hard, and nearly
inodorous. Medicated ghee is made by warming ordinary ghee
C;IIKNT
919
to remove contained water, melting, after the addition of a
little turmeric juice, in a metal pan at a gentle heat, and then
boiling with the prepared drugs till all moisture is expelled, and
straining through a cloth.
GHEEL. or GEEL, a town of Belgium, about 30 m. E. of
Antwerp and in the same province. Pop. (1004) 14,087. It is
remarkable on account of the colony of insane persons which
has existed there for many centuries. The legend reads that in
the year 600 Dymphna, an Irish princess, was executed here by
her father, and in consequence of certain miracles she had
effected she was canonized and made the patron saint of the
insane. The old Gothic church is dedicated to her, and in the
choir is a shrine, enclosing her relics, with fine panel paintings
representing incidents in her life by, probably, a contemporary
of Memling. The colony of the insane is established in the
farms and houses round the little place within a circumference
of 30 m. and is said to have existed since the i.Uh century.
This area is divided into four sections, each having a doctor and
a superintendent attached to it. The Gheel system is regarded
as the most humane method of dealing with the insane who have
no homicidal tendencies, as it keeps up as long as possible their
interest in life.
GHENT (Hem. Gent, Fr. Gand), the capital of East Flanders,
Belgium, at the junction of the Scheldt and the Lys (Ley).
Pop. (1880) 131,43'. (1904) 162,48*. The city is divided by
the rivers (including the small streams Lieve and Moere) and by
canals, some navigable, into numerous islands connected by
over JQO bridges of various sorts. Within the limits of the town,
which is 6 m. in circumference, are many gardens, meadows
and promenades; and, though its characteristic lanes are
gloomy and narrow, there are also broad new streets and fine
quays and docks. The most conspicuous building in the city
is the cathedral of St Bavon ' (Sint Boots), the rich interior of
which contrasts strongly with its somewhat heavy exterior. Its
crypt dates from 041, the choir from 1274-1300, the Late Gothic
choir chapels from the i $th century, and the nave and transept
from 1533-1554- Among the treasures of the church is the
famous " Worship of the Lamb " by Hubert and Jon van
Eyck. Of the original 12 panels, token to France during the
Revolutionary Wars, only 4 are now here, 6 being in the Berlin
museum and two in that of Brussels. Among the other 55
churches may be mentioned that of St Nicholas, an Early Gothic
building, the oldest church in date of foundation in Ghent, and
that of St Michael, completed in 1480, with an unfinished tower.
In the centre of the city stands the unfinished Belfry (Be/roi),
a square tower some 300 ft. high, built 1183-1339. It has a
cast-iron steeple (restored in 1854), on the top of which is a gold
dragon which, according to tradition, was brought from Con-
stantinople either by the Varangians or by the emperor Baldwin
after the Latin conquest. Gose to it is the former Cloth-hall,
a Gothic building of 1325. The hotel-de-ville consists of two
distinct parts. The northern facade, a magnificent example of
Flamboyant Gothic, was erected between 1518 and 1533,
restored in 1829 and again some fifty years later. The eastern
facade overlooking the market-place was built in 1595-1628,
in the Renaissance style, with three tiers of columns. It contains
a valuable collection of archives, from the i3th century onwards.
On the left bank of the Lys is the Oudeburg (s'Gravcnstein,
Chateau des Contes), the former castle of the first counts of
Flanders, dating from 1180 and now restored. The chateau of
the later counts, in which the emperor Charles V. was born,
is commemorated only in the name of a street, the Cours dea
Princes.
To the north of the Oudeburg, on the other side of the Lys, is
the March* du Vendredi, the principal square of the city. This
was the centre of the life of the medieval city, the scene of all
great public functions, such as the homage of the burghers to
1 Bavo. or Allowin (c. 589-*. 653), patron saint of Ghent, was
a nobleman converted by St Amandus, the apostle of Flanders.
He lived first as an anchorite in the forest of Mendonk, and after-
ward* in the monastery founded with bis assistance by Amandus at
Ghent.
the counts, and of the auto-da-f6s under the Spanish regime.
In it stands a bronze statue of Jacob van Arteveldc, by Devigne-
Quyo, erected in 1863. At a corner of the square is a remarkable
cannon, known as Dulle Griete (Mad Meg), 19 ft. long and n ft.
in circumference. It is ornamented with the arms of Philip
the Good, duke of Burgundy, and must have been cast between
1419 and 1467. On the Scheldt, near the Place Laurent, is the
Geerard-duivelsteen (chateau of Gerard the Devil), a 13th-century
tower formerly belonging to one of the patrician families, now
restored and used as the office of the provincial records. Of
modern buildings may be mentioned the University (1826),
the Palais de Justice (1844), and the new theatre (1848), 'all
designed by Roelandt, and the Institut des Sciences (1890) by
A. I'.iuli. In the park on the site of the citadel erected by
Charles V. are some ruins of the ancient abbey of St Bavon and
of a 12th-century octagonal chapel dedicated to St Macharius.
In the park is also situated the Museum of Fine Arts, completed
in 1902.
One of the most interesting institutions of Ghent is the great
Beguinage (Begynhof) which, originally established in 1234
by the Bruges gate, was transferred in 1874 to the suburb of
St Amandsberg. It constitutes a little town of itself, surrounded
by walls and a moat, and contains numerous small houses, 18
convents and a church. It is occupied by some 700 Beguines,
women devoted to good works (see BEGUINES). Near the station
is a second B6guinage with 400 inmates. In addition to these
there were in Ghent in 1901 fifty religious houses of various orders.
As a manufacturing centre Ghent, though not so conspicuous
os it was in the middle ages, is of considerable importance.
The main industries ore cotton-spinning, flax-spinning, cotton-
printing, tanning and sugar refining; in addition to which
there are iron and copper foundries, machine-building works,
breweries and factories of soap, paper, tobacco, &c. As a trading
centre the city is even more important. It has direct communica-
tion with the sea by a ship-canal, greatly enlarged and deepened
since 1895, which connects the Grand Basin, stretching along the
north side of the city, with a spacious harbour excavated at
Terneuzen on the Scheldt, .'i ', m. to the north, thus making
Ghent practically a sea-port; while a second canal, from the
Lys, connects the city via Bruges with Ostende.
Among the educational establishments is the State University,
founded by King William I. of the Netherlands in 1816. With
it are connected a school of engineering, a school of arts and
industries and the famous library (about 300,000 printed
volumes and 2000 MSS.) formerly belonging to the city. In
addition there are training schools for teachers, an episcopal
seminary, a conservatoire and an art academy with o fine
collection of pictures mainly taken from the religious houses of the
city on their suppression in 1795. The oldest Belgian newspaper,
the Gazei van Gent, was founded here in 1667.
History. The history of the city is closely associated with
that of the countship of Flanders (q.v.), of which it was the seat.
It is mentioned so early as the 7th century and in 868 Baldwin
of the Iron Arm, first count of Flanders, who had been entrusted
by Charles the Bald with the defence of the northern marches,
built a castle here against the Normans raiding up the Scheldt.
This was captured in 949 by the emperor Otto I. and was occupied
by an imperial burgrave for some fifty years, after which it was
retaken by the counts of Flanders. Under their protection,
and favoured by its site, the city rapidly grew in wealth and
population, the zenith of its power and prosperity being reached
between the I3th and isth centuries, when it was the emporium
of the trade of Germany and the Low Countries, the centre of a
great cloth industry, and could put some 20,000 armed citizens
into the field. The wealth of the burghers during this period
was equalled by their turbulent spirit of independence; feuds
were frequent, against the rival city of Bruges, against the
counts, or, within the city itself, between the plebeian crafts and
the patrician governing class. Of these risings the most notable
wos that, in the earlier half of the i4th century, against Louis
de Crecy, count of Flanders, under the leadership of Jacob van
Artevelde (q.v.).
920
GHETTO
The earliest charter to the citizens of Ghent was that granted
by Count Philip of Flanders between 1 169 and 1191. It did little
more than arrange for the administration of justice by nominated
jurats (scabini) under the count's baitti. Far more compre-
hensive was the second charter, granted by Philip's widow
Mathilda, after his death on crusade in 1191, as the price paid for
the faithfulness of the city to her cause. The magistrates of the
city were still nominated scabini (fixed at thirteen), but their
duties and rights were strictly defined and the liberties of the
citizens safe-guarded; the city, moreover, received the right to
fortify itself and even individuals within it to fortify their houses.
This charter was confirmed and extended by Count Baldwin VIII.
when he took over the city from Mathilda, an important new
provision being that general rules for the government of the city
were only to be made by arrangement between the count or his
officials and the common council of the citizens. The burghers
thus attained to a very considerable measure of self-government.
A charter of 1212 of Count Ferdinand (of Portugal) and his wife
Johanna introduced a modified system of election for the scabini;
a further charter (1228) fixed the executive at 39 members,
including scabini and members of the commune, and ordained
that the battli of the count and his servientes, like the podestas
of Italian cities, were not to be natives of Ghent.
Thus far the constitution of the city had been wholly aristo-
cratic; in the I3th century the patricians seem to have been
united into a gild (Commons-guide) from whose members the
magistrates were chosen. By the i4th century, however, the
democratic craft gilds, notably that of the weavers, had asserted
themselves; the citizens were divided for civic and military
purposes into three classes; the rich (i.e. those living on capital),
the weavers and the members of the 52 other gilds. In the
civic executive, as it existed to the time of Charles V., the deans
of the two lower classes sat with the scabini and councillors.
The constitution and liberties of the city, which survived its
incorporation in Burgundy, were lost for a time as a result of the
unsuccessful rising against Duke Philip the Good (1450). The
citizens, however, retained their turbulent spirit. After the
death of Mary of Burgundy, who had resided in the city, they
forced her husband, the archduke Maximilian, to conclude the
treaty of Arras (1482). They were less fortunate in their opposi-
tion to Maximilian's son, the emperor Charles V. In 1539 they
refused, on the plea of their privileges, to contribute to a general
tax laid on Flanders, and when Charles's sister Mary, the governess
of the Netherlands, seized some merchants as bail for the pay-
ment, they retaliated by driving out the nobles and the adherents
of Charles's government. The appearance of Charles himself,
however, with an overwhelming force quelled the disturbance;
the ringleaders were executed, and all the property and privileges
of the city were confiscated. In addition, a fine of 1 50,000 golden
gulden was levied on the city, and used to build the " Spanish
Citadel " on the site of what is now the public park.
In the long struggle of the Netherlands against Spain, Ghent
took a conspicuous part, and it was here that, on the 8th of
November 1576, was signed the instrument, known as the
Pacification of Ghent, which established the league against
Spanish tyranny. In 1584, however, the city had to surrender
on onerous terms to the prince of Parma.
The horrors of war and of religious persecution, and the conse-
quent emigration or expulsion of its inhabitants, had wrecked the
prosperity of Ghent, the recovery of which was made impossible
by the closing of the Scheldt. The city was captured by the
French in 1698, 1708 and 1745. After 1714 it formed part of
the Austrian Netherlands, and in 1794 became the capital of the
French department of the Scheldt. In 1814 it was incorporated
in the kingdom of the United Netherlands, and it was here that
Louis XVIII. of France took refuge during the Hundred Days.
Here too was signed (December 24, 1814) the treaty of peace
between Great Britain and the United States of America. After
1815 Ghent was for a time the centre of Catholic opposition to
Dutch rule, as it is now that of the Flemish movement in Belgium.
During the 1 9th century its prosperity rapidly increased. In 1 866-
1867, however, a serious outbreak of cholera again threatened
it with ruin; but improved sanitation, the provision of a supply
of pure water and the demolition of a mass of houses unfit for
habitation soon effected a radical cure.
See L. A. Warnkonig, Flandrische Staats- und Rechtsgeschichte bis
1305 (3 vols., Tubingen, 1835-1842), and Gueldorf, Hist, de Gand,
translated from Warnkonig, with corrections and additions (Brussels
1846); F. de Potter, Gent van den oudsten tijd tot heden (6 vols.l
Ghent, 1883-1891); Van Duyse, Gand monumental et pittoresqu'e
(Brussels, 1886); de Vlaminck, Les Origines de la ville de Gand
(Brussels, 1891); Annales Gandenses, ed. G. Funck-Brentano
(Paris, 1895); Vuylsteke, Oorkondenboek der stad Gent (Ghent,
1900, &c.); Karl Hegel, Stadte und Gilden (Leipzig, 1891), vol. ii.
p. 175, where further authorities are cited. For a comprehensive
bibliography, including monographs and published documents, see
Ulysse Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist. Topo-bibliogr., s.v..
" Gand."
GHETTO, formerly the street or quarter of a city in which Jews
were compelled to live, enclosed by walls and gates which were
locked each night. The term is now used loosely of any locality
in a city or country where Jews congregate. The derivation of
the word is doubtful. In documents of the nth century the Jew-
quarters in Venice and Salerno are styled " Judaea " or " Juda-
caria." At Capua in 1375 there was a place called San Nicolo
ad Judaicam, and later elsewhere a quarter San Martino ad
Judaicam. Hence it has been suggested Judaicam became
Italian Giudeica and thence became corrupted into ghetto.
Another theory traces it to " gietto," the common foundry at
Venice near which was the first Jews' quarters of that city.
More probably the word is an abbreviation of Italian borghetto
diminutive of borgo a " borough."
The earliest regular ghettos were established in Italy in the
nth century, though Prague is said to have had one in the
previous century. The ghetto at Rome was instituted by Paul
IV. in 1556. It lay between the Via del Pianto and Ponte del
Quattro Capi, and comprised a few narrow and filthy streets.
It lay so low that it was yearly flooded by the Tiber. The Jews
had to sue annually for permission to live there, and paid a yearly
tax for the privilege. This formality and tax survived till 1850.
During three centuries there were constant changes in the op-
pressive regulations imposed upon the Jews by the popes. In
1814 Pius VII. allowed a few Jews to live outside the ghetto, and
in 1847 Pius IX. decided to destroy the gates and walls, but
public opinion hindered him from carrying out his plans. In
1870 the Jews petitioned Pius IX. to abolish the ghetto; but it
was to Victor Emmanuel that this reform was finally due. The
walls remained until 1885.
During the middle ages the Jews were forbidden to leave the
ghetto after sunset when the gates were locked, and they were
also imprisoned on Sundays and all Christian holy days. Where
the ghetto was too small for the carrying on of their trades, a site
beyond its wall was granted them as a market, e.g. the Jewish
Tandelmarkt at Prague. Within their ghettos the Jews were
left much to their own devices, and the more important ghettos,
such as that at Prague, formed cities within cities, having their
own town halls and civic officials, hospitals, schools and rabbinical
courts. Fires were common in ghettos and, owing to the
narrowness of the streets, generally very destructive, especially
as from fear of plunder the Jews themselves closed their gates
on such occasions and refused assistance. On the i4th of June
1711 a fire, the largest ever known in Germany, destroyed
within twenty-four hours the ghetto at Frankfort-on-Main.
Other notable ghetto fires are that of Bari in 1030 and Nikols-
burg in 1719. The Jews were frequently expelled from their
ghettos, the most notable expulsions being those of Vienna
(1670) and Prague (1744-1745). This latter exile was during
the war of the Austrian Succession, when Maria Theresa, on the
ground that " they were fallen into disgrace," ordered Jews to
leave Bohemia. The empress was, however, induced by the
protests of the powers, especially of England and Holland, to
revoke the decree. Meantime the Jews, ignorant of the revoca-
tion, petitioned to be allowed to return in payment of a yearly
tax. This tax the Bohemian Jews paid until 1846. The most
important ghettos were those at Venice, Frankfort, Prague and
Trieste. By the middle of the igth century the ghetto system
GHIBERTI GHICA
921
I moribund, and with the disappearance of the ghetto at Rome
in 1870 it became obsolete.
See D. Philipwn. OU European Jewries (Philadelphia, 1894);
Ivmd Abraham*. Jansk Life t* Ike \tuidle Ates (1896); S. Kahn.
article " Ghetto " in Jnciik Encydoptdia. v. 651.
GHIBERTI. LORENZO (1378-1455), Italian sculptor, was born
at Florence in 1378. He learned the trade of a goldsmith urnlcr
hi* father Ugoccione, commonly called Cione, and his stepfather
Bartoluccio; but the goldsmith's an at that time included all
varieties of plastic arts, and required from those who devoted
themselves to its higher branches a general and profound know-
ledge of design and colouring. In the early stage of his artistic
career Ghiberti was best known as a painter in fresco, and when
Florence was visited by the plague he repaired to Rimini, where
he executed a highly prised fresco in the palace of the sovereign
Pandolfo Malatesta. He was recalled from Rimini to his native
city by the urgent entreaties of his stepfather Bartoluccio, who
informed him that a competition was to be opened for designs
of a second bronze gate in the baptistery, and that he would do
wisely to return to Florence and take part in this great artistic
coolest. The subject for the artists was the sacrifice of Isaac;
and the competitors were required to observe in their work a
certain conformity to the first bronze gate of the baptistery,
executed by Andrea Pisano about 100 years previously. Of
the six designs presented by different Italian artists, those of
Donatello, Brunelleschi and Ghiberti were pronounced the best,
and of the three Brunelleschi's and Ghiberti's superior to the
third, and of such equal merit that the thirty-four judges with
whom the decision was left entrusted the execution of the work
to the joint labour of the two friends. Brunelleschi, however,
withdrew from the contest. The first of his two bronze gates for
the baptistery occupied Ghiberti twenty years.
Ghiberti brought to his task a deep religious feeling and the
striving after a high poetical ideal which are not to be found in
the works of Donatello, though in power of characterization the
second sculptor often stands above the first. Like Donatello,
he seized every opportunity of studying the remains of ancient
ait; but he sought and found purer models for imitation
than Donatello, through his excavations and studies in
Rome, had been able to secure. The council of Florence,
which met during the most active period of Ghiberti's artistic
career, not only secured him the patronage of the pontiff, who
took part in the council, but enabled him, through the important
connexions which he then formed with the Greek prelates and
magnates assembled in Florence, to obtain from many quarters
of the Byzantine empire the precious memorials of old Greek art,
which he studied with untiring zeal. The unbounded admira-
tion called forth by Ghiberti's first bronze gate led to his receiv-
ing from the chiefs of the .Florentine gilds the order for the
second, of which the subjects were likewise taken from the Old
Testament. The Florentines gazed with especial pride on these
magnificent creations, which must still have shone with all the
brightness of their original gilding when, a century later, Michel-
angelo pronounced them worthy to be the gates of paradise.
Next to the gates of the baptistery Ghiberti's chief works still in
existence are his three statues of St John the Baptist, St Matthew
and St Stephen, executed for the church of Or San Michele.
In the bas-relief of the coffin of St Zenobius, in the Florence
cathedral, Ghiberti put forth much of his peculiar talent, and
though be did not, as is commonly stated, execute entirely
the painted glass windows in that edifice, he furnished several
of the designs, and did the same service for a painted glass
window in the church of Or San Michele. He died at the age
of 77-
We are better acquainted with Ghiberti's theories of art than
with those of most of his contemporaries, for he left behind him
a commentary, in which, besides his notices of art, he gives much
insight into his own personal character and views. Every page
attests the religious spirit in which he lived and worked. Not
only does be aim at faithfully reflecting Christian truths in his
creations, be regards the old Greek statues with a kindred feeling,
as setting forth the highest intellectual and moral attributes of
human nature. He appears to have cared as little as Donatello
for money.
Benvenuto Cellini's criticism on Ghiberti that in his creations
of plastic art he was more successful in small than in large figures,
and that he always exhibited in his works the peculiar excellences
of the goldsmith's quite as much as those of the sculptor's art,
is after all no valid censure, for it merely affirms that Ghiberti
faithfully complied with the peculiar conditions of the task im-
posed upon him. More frequent have been the discussions as
to the part played by perspective in his representations of
natural scenery. These acquired a fresh importance since the
discovery of the data, from which it appeared that Paolo Uccello,
who had commonly been regarded as the first great master of
perspective, worked for several years in the studio or workshop
of Ghiberti, so that it became difficult to determine to what
extent Uccello's successful innovations in perspective were due to
Ghiberti's teaching.
Cicognara's criticism on Ghiberti, in his History of Sculpture, has
supplied the chief materials for the illustrative text of Lasinio's
scries of engravings of the three bronze gates of the baptistery.
They consist of 42 plates in folio, and were published at Florence by
Bardi in 1821. Still more vivid representations are the repro-
ductions on a very large scale by the photographic establishment of
Alinari. Both C. C. Perkins, in his History of Tuscan Sculpture
(1864), and A. F. Rio, in his Art chrMen (1861-1867), have treated
Ghiberti's works with much fulness, and in a spirit of sound apprecia-
tion. See also the chapter expressly devoted to the history of the
competition forthe baptistery gates |n Hans Semper, Donatello (1887) ;
the articles by Adolf Rosembcrg in Dohmc's Kunst und Kiinstler
des Mittelalters (Leipzig, 1877); Leader Scott, Ghiberti and Donatella
(1882). In the Sammlung ausgewithlter Biographien Vasari, ed.
Carl Frey, vol. iii. (1886), is given Ghiberti's commentary on art.
GHICA, GHIKA or GHYKA, a family which played a great
part in the modern development of Rumania, many of its
members being princes of Moldavia and Walachia. According
to Rumanian historians the Ghicas were of very humble origin,
and came from Kiupru in Albania.
1. George or Gheorghe (c. 1600-1664), the founder of the
family, is said to have been a playmate of another Albanian
known in history as KUpruli Aga, the famous vizier, who re-
cognized George while he was selling melons in the streets of
Constantinople, and helped him on to high positions. George
became prince of Moldavia in 1658 and prince of Walachia in
1650-1660. He moved the capital from Tlrgovishtea to
Bucharest. From him are derived the numerous branches of
the family which became so conspicuous in the history of
Moldavia and Walachia.
2. The Walachian branch starts afresh from the great ban
Demetrius or Dumitru Ghica (1718-1803), who was twice
married and had fourteen children (see RUMANIA: History).
One of these, Gregory (Grigorie), prince of Walachia 1822-1828,
starts a new era of civilization, by breaking with the traditions
of the Phanariot (Greek) period and assisting in the development
of a truly national Rumanian literature. His brother, Prince
Alexander Ghica, appointed jointly by Turkey and Russia
(1834-1842) as hospodar of Walachia, died in 1862. Under him
the so-called rtglement organique had been promulgated; an
attempt was made to codify the laws in conformity with the
institutions of the country and to secure better administration
of justice. Prince Demetrius Ghica, who died as president of
the Rumanian senate in 1897, was the son of the Walachian
prince Gregory.
3. Another Gregory Ghica, prince of Moldavia from 177510 1777,
paid with his life for the opposition he offered when the Turks
ceded the province of Bukovina to Austria.
4. Michael (Michail) (1794-1850) was the father of Elena
(1827-1888), a well-known novelist, who wrote under the name
of Dora d'Istria. Brought up, as was customary at the time,
under Greek influences, she showed premature intelligence and
literary power. She continued her education in Germany and
married a Russian prince, Koltsov Mazalskiy, in 1849, but the
marriage was an unhappy one, and in 1855 she left St Petersburg
for Florence, where she died in 1888. In that city she developed
her literary talent and published a number of works characterized
by lightness of touch and brilliance of description, such as
922
Pelerinage au tombeau de Dante, La Vie monastique dans les
iglises orientates (1844), La Suisse allemande, &c. One of her
last works was devoted to the history of her own family, Gli
Albanesi in Roumenia: Sloria dei Principi Ghika nei secoli
X VII-X1X (Florence, 1873). Her sister was Sophia, Countess
O'Rourke.
5. Scarlat Ghica (1750-1802) was twice prince of Walachia.
His grandson John (loan) Ghica (1817-1897), a lifelong friend
of Turkey, was educated in Bucharest and in the West, and
studied engineering and mathematics in Paris from 1837 to 1840;
returning to Moldavia he was involved in the conspiracy of
1841, which was intended to bring about the union of Walachia
and Moldavia under one native prince (Michael Sturdza). The
conspiracy failed and John Ghica became a lecturer on mathe-
matics at the university which was founded by Prince Sturdza
in Jassy. In 1848 he joined the party of revolution and in the
name of a provisional government then established in Bucharest
went to Constantinople to approach the Turkish government.
Whilst there he was appointed Bey of Samos (1853-1859),
where he extirpated piracy, rampant in that island. In 1859
after the union of Moldavia and Walachia had been effected
Prince Cuza induced John Ghica to return. He was the first
prime minister under Prince (afterwards King) Charles of Hohen-
zollern. His restless nature made him join the anti-dynastic
movement of 1870-1871. In 1881 he was appointed Rumanian
minister in London and retained this office until 1889. He died
on the 7th of May 1897 in Gherghani. Besides his political
distinction John Ghica earned a literary reputation by his
" Letters to Alexandri " (2nd edition, 1887), his lifelong friend,
written from London and describing the ancient state of
Rumanian society, fast fading away. He was also the author of
Amintiri din pribegie, " Recollections of Exile in 1848 " (Buchar-
est, 1890) and of Conwrbiri Economice, discussions on economic
questions (Bucharest, 1866-1873). He was the first to advocate
the establishment of national industry and commerce, and also, to
a certain extent, principles of " exclusive dealing." (M. G.)
GHILZAI, a large and widespread Afghan tribe, who extend
from Kalat-i-Ghilzai on the S. to the Kabul river on the
N., and from the Gul Koh range on the W. to the Indian border
on the E., in many places overflowing these boundaries. The
popular theory of the origin of the Ghilzais traces them to the
Turkish tribe of Kilji, once occupying districts bordering the
upper course of the Syr Darya (Jaxartes), and affirms that
they were brought into Afghanistan by the Turk Sabuktagin
in the loth century. However that may be, the Ghilzai clans
now rank collectively as second to none in strength of military
and commercial enterprise. They are a fine, manly race of
people, and it is from some of their most influential clans
(Suliman Khel, Nasir Khel, Kharotis, &c.) that the main body
of povindah merchants is derived.
GHIRLANDAJO, DOMENICO (1449-1494,), Florentine painter.
His full name is given as Domenico di Tommaso Curradi di
Doffo Bigordi; it appears therefore that his father's surname
was Curradi, and his grandfather's Bigordi. The painter is
generally termed Domenico Bigordi, but some authors give him,
and apparently with reason, the paternal surname Curradi.
Ghirlandajo (garland-maker) was only a nickname, coming to
Domenico from the employment of his father (or else of his
earliest instructor), who was renowned for fashioning the metallic
garlands worn by Florentine damsels; he was not, however,
as some have said, the inventor of them. Tommaso was by
vocation a jeweller on the Ponte Vecchio, or perhaps a broker.
Domenico, the eldest of eight children, was at first apprenticed
to a jeweller or goldsmith, probably enough his own father;
in his shop he was continually making portraits of the passers-by,
and it was thought expedient to place him with Alessio Baldo-
vinetti to study painting and mosaic. His youthful years were,
however, entirely undistinguished, and at the age of thirty-one
he had not a fixed abode of his own. This is remarkable, as
immediately afterwards, from 1480 onwards to his death at a
comparatively early age in 1494, he became the most proficient
painter of his time, incessantly employed, and condensing into
GHILZAI GHIRLANDAJO, D.
that brief period of fourteen years fully as large an amount of
excellent work as any other artist that could be named; indeed,
we should properly say eleven years, for nothing of his is known
of a later date than 1491.
In 1480 Ghirlandajo painted a " St Jerome " and other frescoes
in the church of Ognissanti, Florence, and a life-sized " Last
Supper " in its refectory, noticeable for individual action and
expression. From 1481 to 1485 he was employed upon frescoes in
the Sala dell' Orologio in the Palazzo Vecchio; he painted the
apotheosis of St Zenobius, a work beyond the size of life, with
much architectural framework, figures of Roman heroes and
other detail, striking in perspective and structural propriety.
While still occupied here, he was summoned to Rome by Pope
Sixtus IV. to paint in the Sixtine chapel; he went thither in
1483. In the Sixtine he executed, probably before 1484, a
fresco which has few rivals in that series, " Christ calling Peter
and Andrew to their Apostleship," a work which, though
somewhat deficient in colour, has greatness of method and much
excellence of finish. The landscape background, in especial,
is very superior to anything to be found in the works, which had
no doubt been zealously studied by Ghirlandajo, of Masaccio
and others in the Brancacci chapel. He also did some other
works in Rome, now perished. Before 1485 he had likewise
produced his frescoes in the chapel of S. Fina, in the Tuscan
town of S. Gimignano, remarkable for grandeur and grace,
two pictures of Fina, dying and dead, with some accessory work.
Sebastian Mainardi assisted him in these productions in Rome
and in S. Gimignano; and Ghirlandajo was so well pleased with
his co-operation that he gave him his sister in marriage.
He now returned to Florence, and undertook in the church
of the Trinita, and afterwards in S. Maria Novella, the works
which have set the seal on his celebrity. The frescoes in the
Sassetti chapel of S. Trinita are six subjects from the life of St
Francis, along with some classical accessories, dated 1485.
Three of the principal incidents are " St Francis obtaining from
Pope Honorius the approval of the Rules of his Order"; his
" Death and Obsequies," and the Resuscitation, by the inter-
position of the beatified saint, of a child of the Spini family,
who had been killed by falling out of a window. In the first work
is a portrait of Lorenzo de' Medici; and in the third the painter's
own likeness, which he introduced also into one of the pictures
in S. Maria Novella, and in the " Adoration of the Magi " in the
hospital of the Innocenti. The altar-piece of the Sassetti chapel,
the " Adoiation of the Shepherds," is now in the Florentine
Academy. Immediately after disposing of this commission,
Ghirlandajo was asked to renew the frescoes in the choir of S.
Maria Novella. This choir formed the chapel of the Ricci family,
but the Tornabuoni and Tornaquinci families, then much more
opulent than the Ricci, undertook the cost of the restoration,
under conditions, as to preserving the arms of the Ricci, which
gave rise in the end to some amusing incidents of litigation. The
frescoes, in the execution of which Domenico had many assistants,
are in four courses along the three walls, the leading subjects
being the lives of the Madonna and of the Baptist. Besides their
general richness and dignity of art, these works are particularly
interesting as containing many historical portraits a method
of treatment in which Ghirlandajo was pre-eminently skilled.
There are no less than twenty-one portraits of the Tornabuoni
and Tornaquinci families; in the subject of the " Angel appearing
to Zacharias," those of Politian, Marsilio Ficino and others;
in the " Salutation of Anna and Elizabeth," the beautiful
Ginevra de' Benci; in the " Expulsion of Joachim from the
Temple," Mainardi and Baldovinetti (or the latter figure may
perhaps be Ghirlandajo's father) . The Ricci chapel was reopened
and completed in 1490; the altar-piece, now removed from the
chapel, was probably executed with the assistance of Domenico's
brothers, David and Benedetto, painters of ordinary calibre;
the painted window was from Domenico's own design. Other
distinguished works from his hand are an altar-piece in tempera
of the " Virgin adored by Sts Zenobius, Justus and others,"
painted for the church of St Justus, but now in the Uffizi gallery,
a remarkable masterpiece; " Christ in glory with Romuald and
GHIRLANDAJO, R. GHOR
923
other Saints," in the Badia of Volterra; the " Adoration of the
Magi," in the church of the Innocenti (already mentioned),
perhaps his finest panel-picture (1488); and the " Visitation,"
in the Louvre, bearing the latest ascertained date (1491) of all
his works. Ghirlandajo did not often attempt the nude; one
of his pictures of thir character, " Vulcan and his Assistants
forging Thunderbolts," was painted for Lo Spedaletto, but (like
several others specified by Vasari) it exists no longer. Two
portraits by him are in the National Gallery, London. The
mosaics which he produced date before 1401; one, of especial
celebrity, is the " Annunciation," on a portal of the cathedral
of Florence.
In general artistic attainment Ghirlandajo may fairly be
regarded as exceeding all his precursors or competitors; though
the names of a few, particularly Giotto, Masaccio, Lippo Lippi
and Botticelli, stand higher for originating power. His scheme
of composition is grand and decorous; his chiaroscuro excellent,
and especially his perspectives, which he would design on a very
elaborate scale by the eye alone; his colour is more open to
criticism, but this remark applies much less to the frescoes than
the tempera-pictures, which are sometimes too broadly and
crudely bright. He worked in these two methods alone never
in oils; and his frescoes are what the Italians term " buon
fresco," without any finishing in tempera. A certain hardness
of outline, not unlike the character of bronze sculpture, may
attest his early training in metal work. He first introduced
into Florentine art that mixture of the sacred and the profane
which had already been practised in Siena. His types in figures
of Christ, the Virgin and angels are not of the highest order; and
a defect of drawing, which has been often pointed out, is the
meagreness of his hands and feet. It was one of his maxims that
" painting is designing." Ghirlandajo was an insatiate worker,
and expressed a wish that he had the entire circuit of the walls
of Florence to paint upon. He told his shop-assistants not to
refuse any commission that might offer, were it even for a lady's
petticoat-panniers: if they would not execute such work, he
would. Not that he was in any way gt asping or sordid in money-
matters, as is proved by the anecdote of the readiness with which
he gave up a bonus upon the stipulated price of the Ricci chapel
frescoes, offered by the wealthy Tornabuoni in the first instance,
but afterwards begrudged. Vasari says that Ghirlandajo was
the first to abandon in great pan the use of gilding in his pictures,
representing by genuine painting any objects supposed to be
gilded; yet this does not hold good without some considerable
exceptions the high lights of the landscape, for instance, in
the " Adoration of the Shepherds," now in the Florence Academy,
being put in in gold. Many drawings and sketches by this
painter are in the Uffizi gallery, remarkable for vigour of outline.
One of the great glories of Ghirlandajo is that he gave some
early art-education to Michelangelo, who cannot, however, have
remained with him long. F. Granacci was another of his pupils.
This renowned artist died of pestilential fever on the nth of
January 1494, and was buried in S. Maria Novella. He had
been twice married, and left six children, three of them being
sons. He had a long and honourable line of descendants, which
came to a dose in the 1 71 h century, when the last members of
the race entered monasteries. It is probable that Domcnico died
poor; be appears to have been gentle, honourable and con-
scientious, as well as energetically diligent.
The biography of Ghirlandajo is carefully worked out in Crowe
and Cavalcaelle' book. A recent German work on the subject is
that of Enut Steinmann (1897). See also Codex Escurialensis, tin
Sktaenimck aus der Werkstatl Domenico Ghirlandaios (texts and
plain), by Chr. Hulscn, Adolf Michaelu and Hermann Egeer in the
Sander ttkrijlen det oiterr. arckaol. Inilituts in Wien (2 vof., 1006),
and rf. T. Ashby in Classical Quarterly (April 1909). (W. M. R.)
GHIRLANDAJO. RIDOLFO (1483-1560), son of Domenico
Ghirlandajo, Florentine painter, was born on the I4th of February
1483, and, being less than eleven years old when his father died,
was brought up by his uncle David. To this second-rate artist
be owed less in the way of professional training than to Granacci,
Piero di Cosimo and perhaps Cosimo Rosselli. It has been said
that Ridolfo studied also under Fra Bartolommeo, but this is
not clearly ascertained. He was certainly one of the earliest
students of the famous cartoons of Leonardo da Vinci and
Michelangelo. His works between the dates 1504 and 1508
show a marked influence from Fra Bartolommeo and Raphael,
with the latter of whom he was on terms of familiar friendship;
hence he progressed in selection of form and in the modelling
and relief of his figures. Raphael, on reaching Rome in 1508,
wished Ridolfo to join him; but the Florentine painter was of a
particularly homc-kccping humour, and he neglected the oppor-
tunity. He soon rose to the head of the Florentine oil-painters
of his time; and, like his father, accepted all sorts of commissions,
of whatever kind. He was prominent in the execution of vast
scenic canvases for various public occasions, such as the wedding
of Giuliano de' Medici, and the entry of Leo X. into Florence
in 1515. In his prime he was honest and conscientious as an
artist; but from about 1527 he declined, having already accumu-
lated a handsome property, more than sufficient for maintaining
in affluence his large family of fifteen children, and his works
became comparatively mannered and self-repeating. His sons
traded in France and in Ferrara; he himself took a part in com-
mercial affairs, and began paying some attention to mosaic work,
but it seems that, after completing one mosaic, the " Annuncia-
tion " over the door of the Annunziata, patience failed him for
continuing such minute labours. In his old age Ridolfo was
greatly disabled by gout. He appears to have been of a kindly,
easy-going character, much regarded by his friends and patrons.
The following are some of his leading works, the great majority
of them being oil-pictures:
" Christ and the Maries on the road to Calvary," now in the Palazzo
Antinori, Florence, an early example, with figures of half life-size.
An " Annunciation " in the Abbey of Montoliveto near Florence,
Leonardesque in style. In 1504, the " Coronation of the Virgin,
now in the Louvre. A " Nativity," very carefully executed, now in
the Hermitage, St Petersburg, and ascribed in the catalogue to
Granacci. A " Predella," in the oratory of the Bigallo, Florence, five
panels, representing the Nativity and other subjects, charmingly
finished. In 1514, on the ceiling of the chapel of St Bernard in the
Palazzo Pubblico, Florence, a fresco of the " Trinity," with heads of .
the twelve apostles and other accessories, and the Annunciation " ;
also the " Assumption of the Virgin, who bestows her girdle on St
Thomas, " in the choir loft of Prato cathedral. Towards the same
date, a picture showing his highest skill, replete with expression,
vigorous life, and firm accomplished pictorial method, now in the
gallery of the Uffizi, " St Zenobius resuscitating a child "; also the
translation of the remains of the same Saint. The " Virgin and
various saints," at S. Pier Maggiore, Pistoja. In 1521, the " Pieta,"
at S. Agostino, Colic di Varjelsa, life-sized. Towards 1526, the
" Assumption," now in the Berlin Museum, containing the painter's
own portrait. An excellent portrait of " Cosimo de' Medici " (the
Great) in youth. In 1543, a series of frescoes in the monastery of
the Angeli. In the National Gallery, London, is " The Procession
to Calvary." A great number of altar-pieces were executed by
Ghirlandajo, with the assistance of his favourite pupil, currently
named Michele di Ridolfo. Another of his pupils was Mariano
da Pescia. (W. M. R.)
GHOR, or GHUR, an ancient kingdom of Afghanistan. The
name of Ghor was in the middle ages, and indeed locally still is,
applied to the highlands east of Herat, extending eastward
to the upper Helmund valley, or nearly so. Ghor is the southern
portion of that great peninsula of strong mountain country
which forms the western part of modern Afghanistan. The
northern portion of the peninsula was in the middle ages com-
prehended under the names of Gharjistdn (on the west), and
Juzjdnd. (on the east), whilst the basin of the Herat river, and all
south of it, constituted Ghor. The name as now used does not
include the valley of the Herat river; on the south the limit
seems to be the declivity of the higher mountains dominating
the descent to the lower Helmund, and the road from Farah
to Kandahar. It is in Ghor that rise all those affluents of the
closed basin of Seistan, the Hari-rud, the Farah-rud, the Khash-
rud, besides other considerable streams joining the Helmund
above Girishk.
Ghor is mentioned in the Shahnama of Firdousi (A.D. 1010),
and in the Arab geographers of that time, though these latter
fail in details almost as much as we moderns, thus indicating how
little accessible the country has been through all ages. Ibn
Haukal's map of Khorasan (c. 976) shows Jibal-al-Gkttr, " the
924
GHOST
hill-country of Ghor," as a circle ring-fenced with mountains.
His brief description speaks of it as a land fruitful in crops,
cattle and flocks, inhabited by infidels, except a few who passed
for Mahommedans, and indicates that, like other pagan countries
surrounded by Moslem populations, it was regarded as a store
of slaves for the faithful. The boundary of Ghor in ascending
the valley of the Hari-rud was six and a half easy marches from
Herat, at Chist, two marches above Obeh.
The chief part of the present population of Ghor are Taimanis,
belonging to the class of nomad or semi-nomad clans called
Aimak, intermingled with Zuris and Tajiks.
The people and princes of Ghor first become known to us in
connexion with the Ghaznevid dynasty, and the early medieval
histories of Ghor and Ghazni are so intertwined that little need
be added on that subject to what will be found under GHAZNI
(<?.!>.). What we read of Ghor shows it as a country of lofty
mountains and fruitful valleys, and of numerous strongholds
held by a variety of hill-chieftains ruling warlike clans whose
habits were rife with feuds and turbulence, indeed, in character
strongly resembling the tribes of modern Afghanistan, though
there seems no good reason to believe that they were of Afghan
race. It is probable that they were of old Persian blood, like
the older of those tribes which still occupy the country. It is
possibly a corroboration of this that, in the i4th century, when
one of the Ghori kings, of the Kurt dynasty reigning in Herat,
had taken to himself some of the insignia of independent
sovereignty, an incensed Mongol prince is said to have reviled
him as " an insolent Tajik." Sabuktagin of Ghazni, and his
famous son Mahmud, repeatedly invaded the mountain country
which so nearly adjoined their capital, subduing its chiefs for
the moment, and exacting tribute; but when the immediate
pressure was withdrawn, the yoke was thrown off and the tribute
withheld. In 1020 Masa'ud, the son of Mahmud, being then
governor of Khorasan, made a systematic invasion of Ghor from
the side of Herat, laying siege to its strongholds one after the
other, and subduing the country more effectually than ever
before. About a century later one of the princely families of
Ghor, deriving the appellation of Shansabi, or Shansabaniah,
from a certain ancestor Shansab, of local fame, and of alleged
descent from Zohak, acquired predominance in all the country,
and at the time mentioned Malik 'Izzuddin al Hosain of this
family came to be recognized as lord of Ghor. He was known
afterwards as " the Father of Kings," from the further honour to
which several of his seven sons rose. Three of these were (i)
Amir Kutbuddin Mahommed, called the lord of the Jibal or
mountains; (2) Sultan Saifuddin Suri, for a brief period master
of Ghazni, both of whom were put to death by Bahram the
Ghaznevid; and (3) Sultan Alauddin Jahansoz, who wreaked
such terrible vengeance upon Ghazni. Alauddin began the con-
quests which were afterwards immensely extended both in India
and in the west by his nephews Ghiyasuddin Mahommed b. Sam
and Mahommed Ghori (Muizuddin b. Sam or Shahabuddin b.
Sam), and for a brief period during their rule it was boasted,
with no great exaggeration, that the public prayer was read in
the name of the Ghori from the extremity of India to the borders
of Babylonia, and from the Oxus to the Straits of Ormus. After
the death of Mahommed Ghori, Mahmud the son of Ghiyasuddin
was proclaimed sovereign (1200) throughout the territories of
Ghor, Ghazni and Hindustan. But the Indian dominion, from
his uncle's death, became entirely independent, and his actual
authority was confined to Ghor, Seistan and Herat. The whole
kingdom fell to pieces before the power of Mahommed .Shah
of Khwarizm and his son Jelaluddin (c. 1214-1215), a power in
its turn to be speedily shattered by the Mongol flood.
Besides the thrones of Ghor and Ghazni, the Shansabaniah
family, in the person of Fakhruddin, the eldest of the seven sons
of Malik 'Izzuddin, founded a kingdom in the Oxus basin, having
its seat at BAMIAN (q.v.), which endured for two or three genera-
tions, till extinguished by the power of Khwarizm (1214). And
the great Mussulman empire of Delhi was based on the conquests
of Muizuddin the Ghorian, carried out and consolidated by his
Turki freedmen, Kutbuddin Aibak and his successors. The
princes of Ghor experienced, about the middle of the ijth
century, a revival of power, which endured for 140 years. This
later dynasty bore the name of Kurt or Kart. The first of
historical prominence was Malik Shamsuddin Kurt, descended
by his mother from the great king Ghiyasuddin Ghori, whilst his
other grandfather was that prince's favourite minister. In 1245
Shamsuddin held the lordship of Ghor in some kind of alliance
with, or subordination to, the Mongols, who had not yet defini-
tively established themselves in Persia; and in 1248 he received
from the Great Khan Mangu an investiture of all the provinces
from Merv to the Indus, including by name Sijistan (or Seistan),
Kabul, Tirah (adjoining the Khyber pass), and Afghanistan
(a very early occurrence of this name), which he ruled from Herat.
He stood well with Hulagu, and for a long time with his son
Abaka, but at last incurred the latter's jealousy, and was poisoned
when on a visit to the court at Tabriz (1276). His son Ruknuddin
Kurt was, however, invested with the government of Khorasan
(1278), but after some years, mistrusting his Tatar suzerains,
he withdrew into Ghor, and abode in his strong fortress of Kaissar
till his death there in 1305. The family held on through a
succession of eight kings in all, sometimes submissive to the
Mongol, sometimes aiming at independence, sometimes for a
series of prosperous years adding to the strength and splendour of
Herat, and sometimes sorely buffeted by the hosts of masterless
Tatar brigands that tore Khorasan and Persia in the decline
of the dynasties of Hulagu and Jagatai. It is possible that
the Kurts might have established a lasting Tajik kingdom at
Herat, but in the time of the last of the dynasty, Ghiyasuddin
Pir-'Ali, Tatardom, reorganized and re-embodied in the person
of Timur, came against Herat, and carried away the king and
the treasures of his dynasty (1380). A revolt and massacre
of his garrison provoked Timur's vengeance; he put the captive
king to death, came against the city a second time, and showed
it no mercy (1383). Ghor has since been obscure in history.
The capital of the kingdom of Ghor, when its princes were
rising to dominion in the i2th century, was Firoz Koh, where
a city and fortress were founded by Saifuddin Suri. The exact
position of Firoz Koh is difficult to determine, unless it be
represented by the ruins of one or other of the ancient cities
in the upper Murghab valley, the habitat of the Firoz Kohi
section of the Chahar Aimak, which were visited by the sur-
veyors of the Russo- Afghan boundary delimitation of 1884-1885.
Extensive ruins were also found at Taiwara on one of the main
affluents of the Farah Rud, where walls and terraces still existing
supported the local tradition that this place was the ancient
capital of Ghor. The valleys of the Taimani tribes though
narrow are fertile and well cultivated, and there are many
walled villages and forts about Parjuman and Zarni in the south-
eastern districts. The peak of " Chalap Dalan " (described by
Ferrier as " one of the highest in the world ") is the Koh-i-Kaisar,
which is a trifle over 13,000 ft. in height. All the country now
known as Ghor was mapped during the progress of the Russo-
Afghan boundary delimitation.
See the " Tabakat-i-Nasiri," in the Bibl. Indica, transl. by Raverty ;
Journal asiatique, ser. v. torn. xvii. ; " Ibn Haukal," in J. As. Soc.
Beng. vol. xxii. ; Ferrier's Caravan Journeys; Hammer's Ilkhans, &c.
GHOST (a word common to the W. Teutonic languages;
O.E. gcest, Dutch, geest, Ger. Geist), in the sense now prevail-
ing, the spirit of a dead person considered as appearing in
some visible or sensible form to the living (see APPARITIONS;
PSYCHICAL RESEARCH, "Phantasms of the Dead "; SPIRITUALISM).
In the earlier and wider sense of spirit in general, or of the
principle of life, the word is practically obsolete. The language
of the Authorized Version of the Bible, however, has preserved
the phrase " to give up the ghost," still sometimes used of dying.
The Spirit of God, too, the third person of the Trinity, is still
called, not in the technical language of theology only, the Holy
Ghost. The adjective " ghostly " is still occasionally used for
" spiritual " (cf. the Ger. geistlich) as contrasted with " bodily,"
especially in such combinations as " ghostly counsel," " ghostly
comfort." We may even speak of a " ghostly adviser," though
not without a touch of affectation; on the other hand, the phrase
GHOST DANCE GIANNUTRI
925
" ghostly man " (or a clergyman (cf. the Ger. Geistlicker) is
an archaism the use of which could only be justified by poetic
licence, as in Tennyson's Elaine (1004). The word "ghost,"
from the shadowy and unsubstantial quality attributed to the
apparitions of the dead, has come also to be commonly used
to emphasize the want of force or substance generally, in such
phrases as " not the ghost of a chance," " not the ghost of an
idea." It is also applied to those literary and artistic " hacks "
who are paid to do work for which others get the credit.
GHOST DANCE, an American-Indian ritual dance, sometimes
called the Spirit Dance, the dancers wearing a white cloak. It is
connected with the doctrine of a Messiah, which arose in Nevada
among the Paiute Indians in 1888 and spread to other tribes.
A young Paiute Indian medicine-man, known as \Vovoka, and
called Jack Wilson by the whites, proclaimed that he had had
a revelation, and that, if this ghost dance and other ceremonies
were duly performed, the Indians would be rid of the white men.
The movement led to a sort of craze among the Indian tribes,
and in 1800 it was one of the causes of the Sioux outbreak.
SeeJ. Mooney, I41h Report (i6qib) of Bureau of Ameiican Ethnology.
GIACOMETTI, PAOLO (1816-1882), Italian dramatist, born at
Novi Ligure, was educated in law at Genoa, but at the age of
twenty had some success with his play Rosilda and then de-
voted himself to the stage. Depressed circumstances made him
attach himself as author to various touring Italian companies,
and his output was considerable; moreover, such actors as
Ristori, Rossi and Salvini made many of these plays great
successes. Among the best of them were La Donna (1850),
La Donna in seconde noae (1851), Giuditta (1857), Sofocle (1860).
La t/orle civile (1880). A collection of his works was published
at Milan in eight volumes (1850 et scq.).
GIAMBELU (or GIANIBELU), FEDERIGO, Italian military
engineer, was born at Mantua about the middle of the :6th
century. Having had some experience as a military engineer
in Italy, he went to Spain to offer his services to Philip II. His
proposals were, however, lukewarmly received, and as he could
obtain from the king no immediate employment, he took up his
residence at Antwerp, where he soon gained considerable reputa-
tion for his knowledge in various departments of science. He
is said to have vowed to be revenged for his rebuff at the
Spanish court; and when Antwerp was besieged by the duke
'of Parma in 1584, he put himself in communication with Queen
Elizabeth, who, having satisfied herself of his abilities, engaged
him to aid by his counsels in its defence. His plans for provision-
ing the town were rejected by the senate, but they agreed to a
modification of his scheme for destroying the famous bridge
which closed the entrance to the town from the side of the sea,
by the conversion of two ships of 60 and 70 tons into infernal
machines. One of these exploded, and, besides destroying
more than 1000 soldiers, effected a breach in the structure of
more than 200 ft. in width, by which, but for the hesitation
of Admiral Jacobzoon, the town might at once have been relieved.
After the surrender of Antwerp Giambclli went to England,
where he was engaged for some time in fortifying the river
Thames; and when the Spanish Armada was attacked by fire-
ships in the Calais roads, the panic which ensued was very
largely due to the conviction among the Spaniards that the fire-
ships were infernal machines constructed by Giambclli. He is
said to have died in London, but the year of his death is unknown.
See Motley's History of the Untied Netherlands, vols. i. and ii.
GIAKNONE. PIETRO (1676-1748), was born at Ischitella,
in the province of Capitanata, on the 7th of May 1676. Arriving
in Naples at the age of eighteen, he devoted himself to the study
of law, but his legal pursuits were much surpassed in importance
by his literary labours. He devoted twenty. years to the composi-
tion of his great work, the Sloria civile del regno di Nafoli,
which was ultimately published in 1723. Here in his account of
the rise and progress of the Neapolitan laws and government, he
warmly espoused the side of the civil power in its conflicts with
the Roman Catholic hierarchy. His merit lies in the fact that he
was the first to deal systematically with the question of Church
and State, and the position thus taken up by him, and the manner
in which that position was assumed, gave rise to a lifelong con-
flict between Giannone and the Church; and in spite of his
retractation in prison at Turin, he deserves the palm as he cer-
tainly endured the sufferings of a confessor and martyr in the
cause of what he deemed historical truth. Hooted by the mob
of Naples, and excommunicated by the archbishop's court, he
was forced to leave Naples and repair to Vienna. Meanwhile
the Inquisition had attested after its own fashion the value of
his history by putting it on the Index. At Vienna the favour of
the emperor Charles VI. and of many leading personages at the
Austrian court obtained for him a pension and other facilities
for the prosecution of his historical studies. Of these the most
important result was // Triregno, ossia del regno del delo, della
terra, e del papa. On the transfer of the Neapolitan crown to
Charles of Bourbon, Giannone lost his Austrian pension and was
compelled to remove to Venice. There he was at first most
favourably received. The post of consulting lawyer to the re-
public, in which he might have continued the special work of
Fra Paolo Sarpi, was offered to him, as well as that of professor
of public law in Padua; but he declined both offers. Unhappily
there arose a suspicion that his views on maritime law were not
favourable to the pretensions of Venice, and this suspicion,
notwithstanding all his efforts to dissipate it, together with
clerical intrigues, led to his expulsion from the state. On the
23rd of September 1735 he was seized and conveyed to Ferrara.
After wandering under an assumed name for three months through
Modena, Milan and Turin, he at last reached Geneva, where he
enjoyed the friendship of the most distinguished citizens, and
was on excellent terms with the great publishing firms. But in
an evil hour he was induced to visit a Catholic village within
Sardinian territory in order to hear mass on Easter day, where
he was kidnapped by the agents of the Sardinian government,
conveyed to the castle of Miolans and thence successively trans-
ferred to Ceva and Turin. In the fortress of Turin he remained
immured during the last twelve years of his life, although part
of his time was spent in composing a defence of the Sardinian
interests as opposed to those of the papal court, and he was led to
sign a retractation of the statements in his history most obnoxious
to the Vatican (1738). But after his recantation his detention
was made less severe and he was allowed many alleviations. He
died on the 7th of March 1748, in his seventy-second year.
Giannone's style as an Italian writer has been pronounced to
be below a severe classical model ; he is often inaccurate as to the
facts, for he did not always work from original authorities (see
A. Manzoni, Sloria della colonna infante), and he was sometimes
guilty of unblushing plagiarism. But his very ease and free-
dom have helped to make his volumes more popular than many
works of greater classical renown. In England the just apprecia-
tion of his labours by Gibbon, and the ample use made of them in
the later volumes of The Decline and Fall, early secured him his
rightful place in the estimation of English scholars.
The story of his life has been recorded in the Vila by L. Panzini,
which is based on Giannonc's unpublished Autobiografia and printed
in the Milan edition of the historian's works (1823); whilst a more
complete estimate of his literary and political importance may be
formed by the perusal of the collected edition of the works written
by him in his Turin prison, published in Turin in 1859 under the
care of the distinguished statesman Pasquale Stanislap Mancini,
universally recognized as one of the first authorities in Italy on
questions relating to the history of his native Naples, land especially
of the conflicts Between the civil power and the Church. See also
R. Mariano, " Giannone e Vico," in the Rivista content poranea
(1869) ; G. Ferrari, La Mente di Pietro Giannone (1868). G. Bonacci's
Saggio sulla Sloria civile del Giannone (Florence, 1903) is a bitter
attack on Giannone, and although the writer's remarks' on the
plagiarisms in the Sloria civile are justified, the charge of servility is
greatly exaggerated.
GIANNUTRI (Gr. '\prtnlou>t>, Lat. Dianium), an island of
Italy, about i sq. m. in total area, 10 m. S.E. of Giglio and about
10 m. S. of the promontory of Monte Argentario (see ORBETELLO).
The highest point is 305 ft. above sea-level. It contains the ruins
of a large Roman villa, near the Cala Maestra on the E. coast
of the island. The buildings may be divided into five groups:
(i) a large cistern in five compartments, each measuring 39 by
17 ft.; (2) habitations both for the owners and for slaves, and
926
GIANT GIANT'S CAUSEWAY
store-rooms; (3) baths; (4) habitations for slaves; (5) belvedere.
The brick-stamps found begin in the Flavian and end with the
Hadrianic period. The villa may have belonged to the Domitii
Ahenobarbi, who certainly under the republic had property
in the island of Igilium (Giglio) and near Cosa.
See G. Pellegrini in Nolizie degli scavi (1900), 609 seq.
GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant,
jeant, med. pop. Lat. gagante cf. Ital. gigante by assimilation
from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. yiyas) . The idea conveyed
by the word in classic mythology is that of beings more or less
manlike, but monstrous in size and strength. Figures like the
Titans and the Giants whose birth from Heaven and Earth is
sung by Hesiod in the Theogony, such as can heap up mountains
to scale the sky and war beside or against the gods, must be
treated, with other like monstrous figures of the wonder-tales
of the world, as belonging altogether to the realms of mythology.
But there also appear in the legends of giants some with historic
significance. The ancient and commonly repeated explanation
of the Greek word 71705, as connected with or derived from
yrryevris, or " earth-born," is etymologically doubtful, but at
any rate the idea conveyed by it was familiar to the ancient
Greeks, that the giants were earth-born or indigenous races
(see Welcker, Griechische Gotterlehre, i. 787). The Bible (the
English reader must be cautioned that the word giant has
been there used ambiguously, from the Septuagint downwards)
touches the present matter in so far as it records the traditions
of the Israelites of fighting in Palestine with tall races of the
land such as the Anakim (Numb. xiii. 33; Deut. ii. 10, iii. n;
i Sam. xvii. 4). When reading in Homer of " the Cyclopes and
the wild tribes of the Giants," or of the adventures of Odysseus
in the cave of Polyphemus (Homer, Odyss. vii. 206; ix.), we
seem to come into view of dim traditions, exaggerated through
the mist of ages, of pre-Hellenic barbarians, godless, cannibal,
skin-clothed, hurling huge stones in their rude warfare. Giant-
legends of this class are common in Europe and Asia, where the
big and stupid giants would seem to have been barbaric tribes
exaggerated into monsters in the legends of those who dis-
possessed and slew them. In early times it was usual for cities
to have their legends of giants. Thus London had Gog and
Magog, whose effigies (14 ft. high) still stand in the Guildhall
(see GOG); Antwerp had her Antigonus, 40 ft. high; Douai
had Gayant, 22 ft. high, and so on.
Besides the conception of giants, as special races distinct
from mankind, it was a common opinion of the ancients that the
human race had itself degenerated, the men of primeval ages
having been of so far greater stature and strength as to be in
fact gigantic. This, for example, is received by Pliny (Hist.
Nat. vii. 1 6), and it becomes a common doctrine of theologians
such as Augustine (De civitate Dei, xv. 9), lasting on into times
so modern that it may be found in Cruden's Concordance. Yet
so far as can be judged from actual remains, it does not appear
that giants, in the sense of tribes of altogether superhuman
stature, ever existed, or that the men of ancient time were
on the whole taller than those now living. It is now usual
to apply the word giant not to superhuman beings but merely
to unusually tall men and women. In every race of mankind
the great mass of individuals do not depart far from a certain
mean or average height, while the very tall or very short men
become less and less numerous as they depart from the mean
standard, till the utmost divergence is reached in a very few
giants on the one hand, and a very few dwarfs on the other. At
both ends of the scale, the body is usually markedly out of the
ordinary proportions; thus a giant's head is smaller and a
dwarf's head larger than it would be if an average man had
been magnified or diminished. The principle of the distribution
of individuals of different sizes in a race or nation has been ably
set forth by Quetelet (Physique sociale, vol. ii.; Anthropometrie,
books iii. and iv.). Had this principle been understood formerly,
we might have been spared the pains of criticizing assertions
as to giants 20 ft. high, or even more, appearing among mankind.
The appearance of an individual man 20 ft. high involves the
existence of the race he is an extreme member of, whose mean
stature would be at least 12 to 14 ft., which is a height no human
being has been proved on sufficient evidence to have approached
(Anthropom. p. 302). Modern statisticians cannot accept the
loose conclusion in Buffon (Hist, nat., ed. Sonnini, iv. 134)
that there is no doubt of giants having been 10, 12, and perhaps
15 ft. high. Confidence is not even to be placed in ancient
asserted measurements, as where Pliny gives to one Gabbaras,
an Arabian, the stature of 9 ft. 9 in. (about 9 ft. 55 in. English),
capping this with the mention of Posio and Secundilla, who
were half a foot higher. That two persons should be described
as both having this same extraordinary measure suggests to the
modern critic the notion of a note jotted down on the philo-
sopher's tablets, and never tested afterwards.
Under these circumstances it is worth while to ask how it is
that legend and history so abound in mentions of giants outside
all probable dimensions of the human frame. One cause is that,
when the story-teller is asked the actual stature of the huge
men who figure in his tales, he is not sparing of his inches and
feet. What exaggeration can do in this way may be judged from
the fact that the Patagonians, whose average height (5 ft. n in.)
is really about that of the Chirnside men in Berwickshire, are
described in Pigafetta's Voyage round the World as so monstrous
that the Spaniards' heads hardly reached their waists. It is
reasonable to suppose, with Professor Nilsson (Primitive In-
habitants of Scandinavia, chap, vi.), that in the traditions of
early Europe tribes of savages may have thus, if really tall,
expanded into giants, or, if short, dwindled into dwarfs. Another
cause which is clearly proved to have given rise to giant-myths
of yet more monstrous type has been the discovery of great
fossil bones, as of mammoth or mastodon, which were formerly
supposed to be bones of giants (see Tylor, Early History of
Mankind, chap, xi.; Primitive Culture, chap. x.). A tooth
weighing 4! ft and a thigh-bone 17 ft. long having been found
in New England in 1712 (they were probably mastodon), Dr
Increase Mather thereupon communicated to the Royal Society
of London his theory of the existence of men of prodigious
stature in the antediluvian world (see the Philosophical
Transactions, xxiv. 85; D. Wilson, Prehistoric Man, i. 54).
The giants in the streets of Basel and supporting the arms of
Lucerne appear to have originated from certain fossil bones
found in 1577, examined by the physician Felix Plater, and
pronounced to have belonged to a giant some 16 or 19 ft. high.
These bones have since been referred to a very different geological
genus, but Plater's giant skeleton was accepted early in the
1 9th century as a genuine relic of the giants who once inhabited
the earth. Of giants in real life whose stature has been authentic-
ally recorded Quetelet gives the palm to Frederick the Great's
Scotch giant, who measured about 8 ft. 3 in. But since his time
there have been several giants who have equalled or surpassed
this figure. Patrick Cotler, an Irishman, who died at Clifton,
Bristol, in 1802, was 8 ft. 7 in. high. The famous " Irish giant "
O'Brien (Charles Byrne), whose skeleton is preserved in the
museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, was 8 ft. 4 in.
Chang (Chang- woo-goo), who appeared in London in 1865-1866
and again in 1880, was 8 ft. 2 in. Josef Winkelmaier, an Austrian,
exhibited in London on the loth of January 1887, was 8 ft. 9 in.;
while Elizabeth Lyska, a Russian child of twelve, when shown
in London in 1889, had already reached 6 ft. 8 in. Machnow,
a Russian, born at Charkow, was exhibited in London in his
twenty-third year in igos^he then stood 9 ft. 3 in., and weighed
360 ft (25 st. 10 Ib). From his wrist to the top of his second
finger he measured 2 ft. (see The Times, loth February 1905).
The whole subject of giant myths and the now entirely exploded
theory that mankind has, as far as stature is concerned, degenerated
since prehistoric times, has been ably dealt with in avolume published
by MM. P. E. Launois and P. Roy, entitled tudes biologiques sur
les geans (Paris, 1904). See also E. I. Wood, Giants and Dwarfs
(i860).
GIANT'S CAUSEWAY, a promontory of columnar basalt,
situated on the north coast of county Antrim, Ireland. It is
divided by whin-dykes into the Little Causeway, the Middle
Causeway or "Honeycomb," as it is locally termed, and the
Larger or Grand Causeway. The pillars composing it are
GIANT'S KETTLE GIBBON
927
dace-fitting and for the most part somewhat irregular hexagons,
made up of articulated portions varying from a few inches to
tome feet in depth, and concave or convex at the upper and
lower surfaces. In diameter the pillars vary from 15 to to in.,
and in height some are as much as to ft. The Great Causeway
is chiefly from x> to 30, and for a few yards in some places nearly
40 ft. in breadth, exclusive of outlying broken pieces of rock.
It is highest at its narrowest part. At about half a dozen yards
from the cliff, widening and becoming lower, it extends outwards
into a platform, which has a slight seaward inclination, but is
easy to walk upon, and for nearly 100 yds. is always above
water. At the distance of about 150 yds. from the cliff it turns
a little to the eastward for 20 or 30 yds., and then sinks into the
tea. The neighbouring cliffs exhibit in many places columns
similar to those of the Giant's Causeway, a considerable exposure
of them being visible at a distance of 500 to 600 yds. in the bay
to the east. A group of these columns, from their arrangement,
have been fancifully named the " Giant's Organ." The most
remarkable of the cliffs is the Pleaskin, the upper pillars of
which have the appearance of a colonnade, and are 60 ft. in
height; beneath these is a mass of coarse black amygdaloid,
of the same thickness, underlain by a second range of basaltic
pillars, from 40 to 50 ft. in height. The view eastward over
Bengore and towards Fair Head is magnificent. Near the
Giant's Causeway are the ruins of the castles of Dunseverick and
Dunluce, situated high above the sea on isolated crags, and the
swinging bridge of Carrick-a-Rede, spanning a chasm So ft.
deep, and connecting a rock, which is used as a salmon-fishing
Station, with the mainland. In 1883 an electric railway,
the first in the United Kingdom, was opened for traffic, connect-
ing the Causeway with Portrush and Bushmills. After a pro-
tracted lawsuit (1807-1808) the Causeway, and certain land in
the vicinity, were declared to be private property, and a charge
is made for admission.
GIANTS KETTLE. GIANT'S CAULDRON or POT-HOLE, in
physical geography, the name applied to cavities or holes which
appear to have been drilled in the surrounding rocks by eddying
currents of water bearing stones, gravel and other detrital
matter. The size varies from a few inches to several feet in
depth and diameter. The commonest occurrence is in regions
where glaciers exist or have existed; a famous locality is the
Gletscher Garten of Lucerne, where there are 32 giant's kettles,
the largest being 26 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep; they are also
common in Germany, Norway and in the United States. It
appears that water, produced by the thawing of the ice and
mow, forms streams on the surface of the glacier, which, having
gathered into their courses a certain amount of morainic debris,
are finally cast down a crevasse as a swirling cascade or moulin.
The sides of the crevasse are abraded, and a vertical shaft is
formed in the ice. The erosion may be continued into the bed
of the glacier, and, the ice having left the district, the giant's
kettle so formed is seen as an empty shaft, or as a pipe filled with
gravel, sand or boulders. Such cavities and pipes aHord valuable
evidence as to the former extent of glaciers (see J. Geikie, The
Great Ice Age). Similar holes are met with in river beds at the
foot of cascades, and under some other circumstances. The
term " pot-bole " is also sometimes used synonymously with
"swallow-hole" (?..).
GIAOUR (a Turkish adaptation of the Pen. gdier or gdr,
an infidel), a word used by the Tucks to describe all who are
not Nfabommedans, with especial reference to Christians. The
word, fint employed as a term of contempt and reproach, has
become so general that in most cases no insult is intended in its
UK; similarly, in parts of China, the term " foreign devil "
has become void of offence. A strict analogy to giaour is found
in the Arabic kaffir, or unbeliever, which is so commonly in use
a* to have become the proper name of peoples and countries.
GIB. ADAH (1714-1788), Scottish divine and leader of the
Antiburgher section of the Scottish Secession Church, was born
on the I4th of April 1714 in the parish of Muck hart, Perthshire,
and, on the completion of his literary and theological studies
at Edinburgh and Penh, was licensed a* a preacher in 1740.
His eldest brother being a prodigal he succeeded to the paternal
estate, but threw the will into the fire on his brother's promising
to reform. In 1741 he was ordained minister of the large Seces-
sion congregation of Bristo Street, Edinburgh. In 1745 he was
almost the only minister of Edinburgh who continued to preach
against rebellion while the troops of Charles Edward were in
occupation of the town. When in 1747 " the Associate Synod,"
by a narrow majority, decided not to give full immediate effect
to a judgment which had been passed in the previous year
against the lawfulness of the " Burgess Oath," Gib led the
protesting minority, who separated from their brethren and
formed the Antiburgher Synod (April loth) in his own house in
Edinburgh. It was chiefly under his influence that it was agreed
by this ecclesiastical body at subsequent meetings to summon to
the bar their " Burgher " brethren, and finally to depose and
excommunicate them for contumacy. Gib's action in forming
the Antiburgher Synod led, after prolonged litigation, to his
exclusion from the building in Bristo Street where his congrega-
tion had met. In 1765 he made a vigorous and able reply to
the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, which had
stigmatized the Secession as " threatening the peace of the
country." From 1733 till within a short period of his death,
which took place on the i8th of June 1788, he preached regularly
in Nicolson Street church, which was constantly filled with an
audience of two thousand persons. His dogmatic and fearless
attitude in controversy earned for him the nickname " Pope
Gib."
Principal publications: Tables for the Four Evangelists (1770,
and with author's name, 1800); The Present Truth, a Display of the
Secession Testimony (3 vols., 1774); Vindiciae dominicae (Edin.,
1780). See Chambers'* Eminent Scotsmen; also article UNITED
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH.
GIBARA, or JIBARA (once " Punta del Yarey " and " Yarey
de Gibara "), a north-coast city of Oriente Province, Cuba,
80 m. N.W. of Santiago de Cuba. Pop. (1907) 6170. It is served
by railway to the S.S.W., to Holgufn and Cacocum (where it
connects with the main line between Santiago and Havana),
and is a port of call for the American Munson Line. It lies on a
circular harbour, about i m. in diameter, which, though open
to the N., affords fair shelter. At the entrance to the harbour
is San Fernando, an old fort (1817), and the city is very quaint
in appearance. At the back of the city are three stone-topped
hills, Silla, Pan and Tabla, reputed to be those referred to by
Columbus in his journal of his first voyage. Enclosing the town
is a stone wall, built by the Spaniards as a defence against attack
during the rebellion of i868-i878. Gibara is the port of Holgufn.
It exports cedar, mahogany, tobacco, sugar, tortoise-shell,
Indian corn, cattle products, coco-nuts and bananas; and is
the centre of the banana trade with the United States. Gibara
is an old settlement, but it did not rise above the status of a
petty village until after 1817; its importance dates from the
opening of the port to commerce in 1827.
GIBBON, EDWARD (1737-1794), English historian, was
descended, he tells us in his autobiography, from a Kentish
family of considerable antiquity; among his remoter ancestors
he reckons the lord high treasurer Fiennes, Lord Say and Sele,
whom Shakespeare has immortalized in his Henry VI. His
grandfather was a man of ability, an enterprising merchant of
London, one of the commissioners of customs under the Tory
ministry during the last four years of Queen Anne, and, in the
judgment of Lord Bolingbroke, as deeply versed in the " com-
merce and finances of England " as any man of his time. He
was not always wise, however, either for himself or his country;
for he became deeply involved in the South Sea Scheme, in the
disastrous collapse of which (1720) he lost the ample wealth
he had amassed. As a director of the company, moreover, he
was suspected of fraudulent complicity, taken into custody and
heavily fined; but 10,000 was allowed him out of the wreck
of his estate, and with this his skill and enterprise soon con-
structed a second fortune. He died at Putney in 1 736, leaving
the bulk of his property to his two daughters nearly disinheriting
his only son, the father of the historian, for having married
against his wishes. This son (by name Edward) was educated
928
GIBBON
at Westminster' and Cambridge, but never took a degree,
travelled, became member of parliament, first for Petersfield
(1734), then for Southampton (1741), joined the party against
Sir Robert Walpole, and (as his son confesses, not much to his
father's honour) was animated in so doing by " private revenge "
against the supposed " oppressor " of his family in the South
Sea affair. If so, revenge, as usual, was blind; for Walpole
had sought rather to moderate than to inflame public feeling
against the projectors.
Tlie historian was born at Putney, Surrey, April 27 (Old
Style), 1737. His mother, Judith Porten, was the daughter
of a London merchant. He was the eldest of a family of six
sons and a daughter, and the only one who survived childhood;
his own life in youth hung by so mere a thread as to be again
and again despaired of. His mother, between domestic cares
and constant infirmities (which, however, did not prevent an
occasional plunge into fashionable dissipation in compliance
with her husband's wishes), did but little for him. The " true
mother of his mind as well as of his health " was a maiden aunt
Catherine Porten by name with respect to whom he expresses
himself in language of the most grateful remembrance. " Many
anxious and solitary days," says Gibbon, " did she consume
with patient trial of every mode of relief and amusement.
Many wakeful nights did she sit by my bedside in trembling
expectation that each hour would be my last." As circumstances
allowed, she appears to have taught him reading, writing and
arithmetic acquisitions made with so little of remembered pain
that " were not the error corrected by analogy," he says, " I
should be tempted to conceive them as innate." At seven he
was committed for eighteen months to the care of a private
tutor, John Kirkby by name, and the author, among other things,
of a " philosophical fiction " entitled the Life of Automathes.
Of Kirkby, from whom he learned the rudiments of English
and Latin grammar, he speaks gratefully, and doubtless truly,
so far as he could trust the impressions of childhood. With
reference to Automathes he is much more reserved in his praise,
denying alike its originality, its depth and its elegance; but, he
adds, " the book is not devoid of entertainment or instruction."
In his ninth year (1746), during a " lucid interval of com-
parative health," he was sent to a school at Kingston-upon-
Thames; but his former infirmities soon returned, and his
progress, by his own confession, was slow and unsatisfactory.
" My timid reserve was astonished by the crowd and tumult of
the school; the want of strength and activity disqualified me
for the sports of the play-field. ... By the common methods
of discipline, at the expense of many tears and some blood,
I purchased the knowledge of the Latin syntax," but manifestly,
in his own opinion, the Arabian Nights, Pope's Homer, and
Dryden's Virgil, eagerly read, had at this period exercised a
much more powerful influence on his intellectual development
than Phaedrus and Cornelius Nepos, "painfully construed and
darkly understood."
In December 1747 his mother died, and he was taken home.
After a short time his father removed to the " rustic solitude "
of Buriton (Hants), but young Gibbon lived chiefly at the house
of his maternal grandfather at Putney, where, under the care of
his devoted aunt, he developed, he tells us, that passionate love
of reading " which he would not exchange for all the treasures of
India," and where his mind received its most decided stimulus.
Of 1748 he says, " This year, the twelfth of my age, I shall note
as the most propitious to the growth of my intellectual stature."
After detailing the circumstances which unlocked for him the
door of his grandfather's " tolerable library," he says, " I turned
over many English pages of poetry and romance, of history and
travels. Where a title attracted my eye, without fear or awe
I snatched the volume from the shelf." In 1749, in his twelfth
year, he was sent to Westminster, still residing, however, with
his aunt, who, rendered destitute by her father's bankruptcy,
but unwilling to live a life of dependence, had opened a boarding-
1 The celebrated William Law had been for some time the private
tutor of this Edward Gibbon, who is supposed to have been the
original of the rather clever sketch of " Flatus '" in the Serious Call.
house for Westminster school. Here in the course of two years
(1740-1750), interrupted by danger and debility, he " painfully
climbed into the third form "; but it was left to his riper age
to " acquire the beauties of the Latin and the rudiments of the
Greek tongue." The continual attacks of sickness which had
retarded his progress induced his aunt, by medical advice, to
take him to Bath; but the mineral waters had no effect. He
then resided for a time in the house of a physician at Winchester;
the physician did as little as the mineral waters; and, after a
further trial of Bath, he once more returned to Putney, and made
a last futile attempt to study at Westminster. Finally, it was
concluded that he would never be able to encounter the discipline
of a school; and casual instructors, at various times and places,
were provided for him. Meanwhile his indiscriminate appetite
for reading had begun to fix itself more and more decidedly upon
history; and the list of historical works devoured by him
during this period of chronic ill-health is simply astonishing.
It included, besides Hearne's Ductor historicus and the successive
volumes of the Universal History, which was then in course
of publication, Littlebury's Herodotus, Spelman's Xenophon,
Gordon's Tacitus, an anonymous translation of Procopius;
"many crude lumps of Speed, Rapin, Mezeray, Davila, Machiavel,
Father Paul, Bower, &c., were hastily gulped. I devoured them
like so many novels; and I swallowed with the same voracious
appetite the descriptions of India and China, of Mexico and
Peru." His first introduction to the historic scenes the study of
which afterwards formed the passion of his life took place in
1751, when, while along with his father visiting a friend in
Wiltshire, he discovered in the library " a common book, the
continuation of Echard's Roman History." " To me the reigns
of the successors of Constantine were absolutely new; and I was
immersed in the passage of the Goths over the Danube, when
the summons of the dinner bell reluctantly dragged me from my
intellectual feast." Soon afterwards his fancy kindled with the
first glimpses into Oriental history, the wild " barbaric " charm
of which he never ceased to feel. Ockley's book on the Saracens
" first opened his eyes " to the striking career of Mahomet
and his hordes; and with his characteristic ardour of literary
research, after exhausting all that could be learned in English of
the Arabs and Persians, the Tatars and Turks, he forthwith
plunged into the French of D'Herbelot, and the Latin of Pocock's
version of Abulfaragius, sometimes understanding them, but
oftener only guessing their meaning. He soon learned to call
to his aid the subsidiary sciences of geography and chronology,
and before he was quite capable of reading them had already
attempted to weigh in his childish balance the competing
systems of Scaliger and Petavius, of Marsham and Newton.
At this early period he seems already to have adopted in some
degree the plan of study he followed in after life and recom-
mended in his Essai sur I'etude that is, of letting his subject
rather than his author determine his course, of suspending the
perusal of a book to reflect, and to compare the statements with
those of other authors so that he often read portions of many
volumes while mastering one.
Towards his sixteenth year he tell us " nature displayed in his
favour her mysterious energies," and all his infirmities suddenly
vanished. Thenceforward, while never possessing or abusing
the insolence of health, he could say " few persons have been
more exempt from real or imaginary ills." His unexpected
recovery revived his father's hopes for his education, hitherto
so much neglected if judged by ordinary standards; and accord-
ingly in January 1752 he was placed at Esher, Surrey, under the
care of Dr Francis, the well-known translator of Horace. But
Gibbon's friends in a few weeks discovered that the new tutor
preferred the pleasures of London to the instruction of his pupils,
and in this perplexity decided to send him prematurely to Oxford,
where he was matriculated as a gentleman commoner of Magdalen
College, 3rd April 1752. According to his own testimony he
arrived at the university " with a stock of information which
might have puzzled a doctor, and a degree of ignorance of which
a schoolboy might be ashamed." And indeed his huge wallet
of scraps stood him in little stead at the trim banquets to which
GIBBON
929
be was invited at Oxford, while the wandering habits by which he
had tilled it absolutely unfitted him to be a guest. He was not
well grounded in any of the elementary branches, which are
CMcntial to university studies and to all success in their prosecu-
tion. It was natural, therefore, that he should dislike the
university, and as natural that the university should dislike
him. Many of his complaints of the system were certainly just ;
but it may be doubted whether any university system would have
been profitable to him, considering his antecedents. He com-
plains especially of his tutors, and in one case with abundant
reason; but, by his own confession, they might have recriminated
with justice, for he indulged in gay society, and kept late hours.
His observations, however, on the defects of the English univer-
sity system, some of which have only very recently been removed,
are acute and well worth pondering, however little relevant to
his own case. He remained at Magdalen about fourteen months.
" To the university of Oxford," he says, " I acknowledge no
obligation; and she will as cheerfully renounce me for a son as
I am willing to disclaim her fora mother. I spent fourteen months
at Magdalen College; they proved the fourteen months the most
idle and unprofitable of my whole life."
But thus " idle " though he may have been as a " student,"
he already meditated authorship. In the first long vacation
during which he, doubtless with some sarcasm, says that " his
taste for books began to revive " he contemplated a treatise on
the age of Sesostris, in which (and it was characteristic) his chief
object was to investigate not so much the events as the probable
epoch of the reign of that semi-mythical monarch, whom he was
inclined to regard as having been contemporary with Solomon.
" Unprovided with original learning, unformed in the habits of
thinking, unskilled in the arts of composition, I resolved to write
a book "; but the discovery of his own weakness, he adds, was
the first symptpm of taste. On his first return to Oxford the work
was " wisely relinquished," and never afterwards resumed.
The most memorable incident, however, in Gibbon's stay at
Oxford was his temporary conversion to the doctrines of the
church of Rome. The bold criticism of Middle-ton's recently
( 1 749) published Fret Enquiry into the Miraculous Powers which
are supposed to hate subsisted in the Christian Church appears to
have given the first shock to his Protestantism, not indeed by
destroying his previous belief that the gift of miraculous powers
had continued to subsist in the church during the first four or
five centuries of Christianity, but by convincing him that within
the same period most of the leading doctrines of popery had been
already introduced both in theory and in practice. At this stage
be was introduced by a friend (Mr Molesworth) to Bossuct's
Variations of Protestantism and Exposition of Catholic Doctrine
(see Gibbon, Decline and Fall, c. xv., note 79). " These works,"
says he, " achieved my conversion, and I surely fell by a noble
hand." In bringing about this " fall," however, Parsons the
Jesuit appears to have had a considerable share; at least Lord
Sheffield has recorded that on the only occasion on which Gibbon
talked with him on the subject he imputed the change in his
religious views principally to that vigorous writer, who, in his
opinion, had urged all the best arguments in favour of Roman
Catholicism. But be this as it may, he had no sooner adopted his
new creed than be resolved to profess it; "a momentary glow
of enthusiasm " had raised him above all temporal considerations,
and accordingly, on June 8, 1753, he records that having
privately abjured the heresies " of his childhood before a Catholic
priest of the name of Baker, a Jesuit, in London, he announced
the same to his father in an elaborate controversial epistle which
his spiritual adviser much approved, and which be himself
afterwards described to Lord Sheffield as having been " written
with all the pomp, the dignity, and self-satisfaction of a
martyr."
The elder Gibbon beard with indignant surprise of this act
of juvenile, apostasy, and, indiscreetly giving vent to his wrath,
precipitated the expulsion of his son from Oxford, a punishment
which the culprit, in after yean at least, found no cause todeplore.
In his Memoirs be speaks of the results of his " childish revolt
the religion of his country " with undisguised self-
n. jo
gratulation. It had delivered him for ever from the " port and
prejudice " of the university, and led him into the bright paths of
philosophic freedom. That his conversion was sincere at the
time, that it marked a real if but a transitory phase of genuine
religious conviction, we have no reason todoubt, notwithstanding
the scepticism he has himself expressed. " To my present
feelings it seems incredible that I should ever believe that I
believed in transubstantiation," he indeed declares; but his
incredulous astonishment is not unmixed with undoubting pride.
" I could not blush that my tender mind was entangled in the
sophistry which had reduced the acute and manly understandings
of a Chillingworth or a Bayle." .Nor is the sincerity of the
Catholicism he professed in these boyish days in any way dis-
credited by the fact of his subsequent lack of religion. Indeed,
as one of the acutest and most sympathetic of his critics has
remarked, the deep and settled grudge he has betrayed towards
every form of Christian belief, in all the writings of his maturity,
may be taken as evidence that he had at one time experienced
in his own person at least some of the painful workings of a
positive faith.
But little time was lost by the elder Gibbon in the formation
of a new plan of education for his son, and in devising some
method which if possible might effect the cure of his "spiritual
malady." The result of deliberation, aided by the advice and
experience of Lord Eliot, was that it was almost immediately
decided to fix Gibbon for some years abroad under the roof of
M. Pavilliard, a Calvinist minister at Lausanne. In as far as
regards the instructor and guide thus selected, a more fortunate
choice could scarcely have been made. From the testimony of
his pupil, and the still more conclusive evidence of his own
correspondence with the father, Pavilliard seems to have been
a man of singular good sense, temper and tact. At the outset,
indeed, there was one considerable obstacle to the free intercourse
of tutor and pupil: M. Pavilliard appears to have known little
of English, and young Gibbon knew practically nothing of French.
But this difficulty was soon removed by the pupil's diligence;
the very exigencies of his situation were of service to him in
calling forth all his powers, and he studied the language with such
success that at the close of his five years' exile he declares that he
" spontaneously thought " in French rather than in English,
and that it had become more familiar to " ear, tongue and pen."
It is well known that in after years he had doubts whether he
should not compose his great work in French; and it is certain
that his familiarity with that language, in spite of considerable
efforts to counteract its effects, tinged his style to the last.
Under the judicious regulations of his new tutor a methodical
course of reading was marked out, and most ardently prosecuted;
the pupil's progress was proportionably rapid. With the
systematic study of the Latin, and to a slight extent also of the
Greek classics, he conjoined that of logic in the prolix system
of Crousaz; and he further invigorated his reasoning powers,
as well as enlarged his knowledge of metaphysics and juris-
prudence, by the perusal of Locke, Grotius and Montesquieu.
He also read largely, though somewhat indiscriminately, in
French literature, and appears to have been particularly struck
with Pascal's Provincial Letters, which he tells us he reperused
almost every year of his subsequent life with new pleasure, and
which he particularly mentions as having been, along with
Bleterie's Life of Julian and Giannone's History of Naples, a
book which probably contributed in a special sense to form the
historian of the Roman empire. The comprehensive scheme
of study included mathematics also, in which he advanced as
far as the conic sections in the treatise of L'Hopital. He assures
us that his tutor did not complain of any inaptitude on the pupil's
part, and that the pupil was as happily unconscious of any on
bis own; but here he broke off. He adds, what is not quite
clear from one who so frankly acknowledges his limited acquaint-
ance with the science, that he had reason to congratulate himself
that he knew no more. " As soon," he says, " as I understood
the principles, I relinquished for ever the pursuit of the mathe-
matics; nor can I lament that I desisted before my mind was
hardened by the habit of rigid demonstration, so destructive
930
GIBBON
of the finer feelings of moral evidence, which must, however,
determine the action and opinions of our lives."
Under the new influences which were brought to bear on
him, he in less than two years resumed his Protestantism. " He
is willing," he says, to allow M. Pavilliard a " handsome share
in his reconversion," though he maintains, and no doubt rightly,
that it was principally due "to his own solitary reflections."
He particularly congratulated himself on having discovered the
" philosophical argument " against transubstantiation, " that
the text of Scripture which seems to inculcate the real presence
is attested only by a single sense our sight, while the real
presence itself is disproved by three of our senses the sight,
the touch, and the taste." Before a similar mode of reasoning,
all the other distinctive articles of the Romish creed " disappeared
like a dream"; and "after a full conviction," on Christmas
day, 1754, he received the sacrament in the church of Lausanne.
Although, however, he adds that at this point he suspended
his religious inquiries, " acquiescing with implicit belief in the
tenets and mysteries which are adopted by the general consent
of Catholics and Protestants," his readers will probably do him
no great injustice if they assume that even then it was rather
to the negations than to the affirmations of Protestantism that
be most heartily assented.
With all his devotion to study at Lausanne 1 (he read ten or
twelve hours a day), he still found some time for the acquisition
of some of the lighter accomplishments, such as riding, dancing,
drawing, and also for mingling in such society .as the place had
to offer. In September 1755 he writes to his aunt: " I find a
great many agreeable people here, see them sometimes, and can
say upon the whole, without vanity, that, though I am the
Englishman here who spends the least money, I am he who is
most generally liked." Thus his " studious and sedentary life "
passed pleasantly enough, interrupted only at rare intervals
by boyish excursions of a day or a week in the neighbourhood,
and by at least one memorable tour of Switzerland, by Basel,
Zurich, Lucerne and Bern, made along with Pavilliard in the
autumn of 1755. The last eighteen months of this residence
abroad saw the infusion of two new elements one of them at
least of considerable importance into his life. In 1757 Voltaire
came to reside at Lausanne; and although he took but little
notice of the young Englishman of twenty, who eagerly sought
and easily obtained an introduction, the establishment of the
theatre at Monrepos, where the brilliant versifier himself de-
claimed before select audiences his own productions on the stage,
had no small influence in fortifying Gibbon's taste for the
French theatre, and in at the same time abating that "idolatry
for the gigantic genius of Shakespeare which is inculcated from
our infancy as the first duty of an Englishman." In the same
year apparently about June he saw for the first time, and
forthwith loved, the beautiful, intelligent and accomplished
Mademoiselle Susan Curchod, daughter of the pasteur of Grassier.
That the passion which she inspired in him was tender, pure
and fitted to raise to a higher level a nature which in some
'The Journal for 1755 records that during that year, besides
writing and translating a great deal in Latin and French, he had
read, amongst other works, Cicero's Epistolae ad familiares, his
Brutus, all his Orations, his dialogues De amicitia and De seneciute,
Terence (twice), and Pliny's Epistles. In January 1756 he says:
" I determined to read over the Latin authors in order, and read this
year Virgil, Sallust, Livy, Velleius Paterculus, Valerius Maximus,
Tacitus, Suetonius, Quintus Curtius, Justin, Floras, Plautus, Terence
and Lucretius. I also read and meditated Locke Upon the Under-
standing." Again in January 1757 he writes: " I began to study
algebra under M. de Traytorrens, went through the elements of
algebra and geometry, and the three fi'st books of the Marquis de
1'Hflpital's Conic Sections. I also read Tibullus, Catullus, Propertius,
Horace (with Dacier's and Torrentius's notes), Virgil, Ovid's Epistles,
with Meziriac's commentary, the Ars amandi and the Elegies;
likewise the Augustus and Tiberius of Suetonius, and a Latin trans-
lation of Dion Cassius from the death of J ulius Caesar to the death of
Augustus. I also continued my correspondence, begun last year,
with M. Allmnand of Bex, and the Professor Breitinger of Zurich, and
opened a new one with the Professor Gesner of Gfittingen. N.B.
Last year and this I read St John's Gospel, with part of Xenophon's
Cyropaedia, the Iliad, and Herodotus; but, upon the whole, I rather
neglected my Greek."
respects was much in need of such elevation will be doubted
by none but the hopelessly cynical; and probably there are
few readers who can peruse the paragraph in which Gibbon
" approaches the delicate subject of his early love " without
discerning in it a pathos much deeper than that of which the
writer was himself aware. During the remainder of his residence
at Lausanne he had good reason to " indulge his dream of
felicity "; but on his return to England, " I soon discovered
that my father would not hear of this strange alliance, and that
without his consent I was myself destitute and helpless. After
a painful struggle I yielded to my fate; I sighed as a lover, I
obeyed as a son; my wound was insensibly healed by time,
absence, and the habits of a new life." 2
In 1758 he returned with mingled joy and regret to England,
and was kindly received at home. But he found a stepmother
there; and this apparition on his father's hearth at first rather
appalled him. The cordial and gentle manners of Mrs Gibbon,
however, and her unremitting care for his happiness, won him
from his first prejudices, and gave her a permanent place in his
esteem and affection. He seems to have been much indulged,
and to have led a very pleasant life of it; he pleased himself
in moderate excursions, frequented the theatre, mingled, though
not very often, in society; was sometimes a little extravagant,
and sometimes a little dissipated, but never lost the benefits
of his Lausanne exile; and easily settled into a sober, discreet,
calculating Epicurean philosopher, who sought the summum
bonum of man in temperate, regulated and elevated pleasure.
The first two years after his return to England he spent princi-
pally at his father's country seat at Buriton, in Hampshire,
only nine months being given to the metropolis. He has left
an amusing account of his employments in the country, where
his love of study was at once inflamed by a large and unwonted
command of books and checked by the necessary interruptions
of his otherwise happy domestic life. After breakfast " he was
expected," he says, to spend an hour with Mrs Gibbon; after
tea his father claimed his conversation; in the midst of an
interesting work he was often called down to entertain idle
visitors; and, worst of all, he was periodically compelled to
return the well-meant compliments. He mentions that he
dreaded the " recurrence of the full moon," which was the period
generally selected for the more convenient accomplishment of
such formidable excursions.
His father's library, though large in comparison with that he
commanded at Lausanne, contained, he says, " much trash ";
but a gradual process of reconstruction transformed it at length
into that " numerous and select " library which was " the
foundation of his works, and the best comfort of his life both at
home and abroad." No sooner had he returned home than he
began the work of accumulation, and records that, on the
receipt of his first quarter's allowance, a large share was appro-
priated to his literary wants. " He could never forget," he
declares, " the joy with which he exchanged a bank note of
twenty pounds for the twenty volumes of the Memoirs of the
Academy of Inscriptions," an Academy which has been well
characterized (by Sainte-Beuve) as Gibbon's intellectual father-
land. It may not be uninteresting here to note the principles
which guided him both now and afterwards in his literary
purchases. " I am not conscious," says he, " of having ever
bought a book from a motive of ostentation; every volume,
before it was deposited on the shelf, was either read or
sufficiently examined "; he also mentions that he soon adopted
the tolerating maxim of the elder Pliny, that no book is ever so
bad as to be absolutely good for nothing.
In London he seems to have seen but little select society
partly from his father's taste, " which had always preferred
the highest and lowest company," and partly from his own
reserve and timidity, increased by his foreign education, which
had made English habits unfamiliar, and the very language
2 The affair, however, was not finally broken off till 1763. Mdlle
Curchod soon afterwards became the wife of Necker, the famous
financier; and Gibbon and the Neckers frequently afterwards met
on terms of mutual friendship and esteem.
GIBBON
in some degree strange. And thus he was led to draw that
interesting picture of the literary recluse among the crowds of
London: " While coaches were rattling through Bond Street,
I have passed many a solitary evening in my lodging with my
books. My studies were sometimes interrupted with a sigh,
which I breathed towards Lausanne; and on the approach of
spring I withdrew without reluctance from the noisy and
extensive scene of crowds without company, and dissipation
without pleasure." He renewed former acquaintance, however,
with the " poet " Mallet, and through him gained access to
Lady Hervey's circle, where a congenial admiration, not to say
affectation, of French manners and literature made him a
welcome guest. It ought to be added that in each of the twenty-
five yean of his subsequent acquaintance with London " the
prospect gradually brightened," and his social as well as his
intellectual qualities secured him a wide circle of friends. In
one respect Mallet gave him good counsel in those early days.
He advised him to addict himself to an assiduous study of the
more idiomatic F-nglUh writers, such as Swift and Addison
with a view to unlearn his foreign idiom and recover his half-
forgotten vernacular a task, however, which he never per-
fectly accomplished. Much as he admiied these writers, Hume
and Robertson were still greater favourites, as well from their
subject as for their style. Of his admiiatbn of Hume's style,
of its nameless grace of simple elegance, he has left us a strong
expression, when he tells us that it often compelled him to dose
the historian's volumes with a mixed sensation of delight and
despair.
In 1761 Gibbon, at the age of twenty-four, after many delays,
and with many tlutterings of hope and fear, gave to the world,
in French, his maiden publication, an Essai sur I'ttude de la
liutratere, which he had composed two years before. It was
published partly in compliance with his father's wishes, who
thought that the proof of some literary talent might introduce
him favourably to public notice, and secure the recommendation
of his friends for some appointment in connexion with the mission
of the English plenipotentiaries to the congress at Augsburg
which was at that time in contemplation. But in yielding to
paternal authority, Gibbon frankly owns that he " complied,
like a pious son, with the wish of his own heart."
The subject of this youthful effort was suggested, its author
says, by a refinement of vanity " the desire of justifying and
praising the object of a favourite pursuit," namely, the study
of ancient literature. Partly owing to its being written in
French, partly to its character, the Essai excited more attention
abroad than at home. Gibbon has criticized it with the utmost
frankness, not to say severity; but, after every abatement, it
is unquestionably a surprising effort for a mind so young, and
contains many thoughts which would not have disgraced a
thinker or a scholar of much maturer age. His account of its
first reception and subsequent fortunes in England deserves to
be cited as a curious piece of literary history. " In England,"
he says, " it was received with cold indifference, little read, and
speedily forgotten. A small impression was slowly dispersed;
the bookseller murmured, and the author (had his feelings been
more exquisite) might have wept over the blunders and baldness
of the English translation. The publication of my history
fifteen yean afterwards revived the memory of my first perform-
ance, and the essay was eagerly sought in the shops. But I
refused the permission which Becket solicited of reprinting it; the
public curiosity was imperfectly satisfied by a pirated copy of the
booksellers of Dublin; and when a copy of the original edition
has been discovered in a sale, the primitive value of half-a-crown
has risen to the fanciful price of a guinea or thirty shillings." '
1 The Esiai. in a good English translation, now appears in the
out Work*. Villcmain finds in it " peu de vues, nulle
surtout, mais une grande passion littc'raire, 1 'amour des
savantes et du beau Tangage." Sainte-Bcuve's criticism is
with Gibbon's own ; but though he finds that " la
mat difficile et parfois obscure, la liaison des idees
. . c sou vent par trop de concision et par le desir qu'a eu le jeune
auteur d'y faire entrer, d y condenser la pi u part de sea notes, " he adds,
" il y a, cbernin faisant, des vues neuves et qui sentent I'historicn."
Some time before the publication of the essay, Gibbon had
entered a new and, one might suppose, a very uncongenial
scene of life. In an hour of patriotic ardour he became (June 12,
1759) a captain in the Hampshire militia, and for more than
two yean (May 10, 1760, to December 23, 1762) led a wandering
life of " military servitude." Hampshire, Kent, Wiltshire and
Dorsetshire formed the successive theatres of what he calls his
" bloodless and inglorious campaigns." He complains of the
busy idleness in which his time was spent; but, considering the
circumstances, so adverse to study, one is rather surprised that
the military student should have done so much, than that he
did so little; and never probably before were so many hours
of literary study spent in a tent. In estimating the comparative
advantages and disadvantages of this wearisome period of his
life, he has summed up with the impartiality of a philosopher
and the sagacity of a man of the world. Irksome as were his
employments, grievous as was the waste of time, uncongenial
as were his companions, solid benefits were to be set off against
these things; his health became robust, his knowledge of the
world was enlarged, he wore off some of his foreign idiom, got
rid of much of his reserve; he adds and perhaps in his estimate
it was the benefit to be most prized of all " the discipline and
evolutions of a modern battalion gave me a clearer notion of the
phalanx and the legion, and the captain of the Hampshire
grenadiers (the reader may smile) has not been useless to the
historian of the Roman empire."
It was during this period that he read Homer and Longinus,
having for the first time acquired some real mastery of Greek;
and after the publication of the Essai, his mind was full of projects
for a new literary effort. The Italian expedition of Charles VIII.
of France, the crusade of Richard I., the wars of the barons,
the lives and comparisons of Henry V. and the emperor Titus,
the history of the Black Prince, the life of Sir Philip Sidney,
that of Montrose, and finally that of Sir W. Raleigh, were all
of them seriously contemplated and successively rejected.
By their number they show how strong was the impulse to
literature, and by their character, how determined the bent
of his mind in the direction of history; while their variety makes
it manifest also that he had then at least no special purpose to
serve, no preconceived theory to support, no particular prejudice
or belief to overthrow.
The militia was disbanded in 1762, and Gibbon joyfully shook
off his bonds; but his literary projects were still to be postponed.
Following his own wishes, though with his father's consent,
he had early in 1 760 projected a Continental tour as the comple-
tion " of an English gentleman's education." This had been
interrupted by the episode of the militia; now, however, he
resumed his purpose, and left England in January 1763. Two
years were " loosely defined as the term of his absence," which
he exceeded by half a year returning June 1765. He first
visited Paris, where he saw a good deal of d'Alembert, Diderot,
Barthelemy, Raynal, Hclvetius, Baron d'Holbach and others
of that circle, and was often a welcome guest in the saloons of
Madame Geoffrin and Madame du Deffand. 1 Voltaire was at
Geneva, Rousseau at Montmorency, and Button he neglected
to visit; but so congenial did he find the society for which his
education had so well prepared him, and into which some literary
reputation had already preceded him, that he declared, " Had
I been rich and independent, I should have prolonged and
perhaps have fixed my residence at Paris."
From France he proceeded to Switzerland, and spent nearly a
year at Lausanne, where many old friendships and studies were
resumed, and new ones begun. His reading was largely designed
to enable him fully to profit by the long-contemplated Italian
tour which began in April 1764 and lasted somewhat more than
a year. He has recorded one or two interesting notes on Turin,
Genoa, Florence and other towns at which halt was made on his
route; but Rome was the great object of his pilgrimage, and the
words in which he has alluded to the feelings with which he
* Her letters to Walpole about Gibbon contain some interesting
remarks by this " aveugle clairvoyante," as Voltaire calls her; but
they belong to a later period (1777).
932
GIBBON
approached it are such as cannot be omitted from any sketch
of Gibbon, however brief. " My temper is not very susceptible
of enthusiasm, and the enthusiasm which I do not feel I have
ever scorned to affect. But at the distance of twenty-five years
I can neither forget nor express the strong emotions which
agitated my mind as I first approached and entered the Eternal
City. After a sleepless night, I trod with a lofty step the ruins
of the forum; each memorable spot, where Romulus stood,
or Tully spoke, or Caesar fell, was at once present to my eye;
and several days of intoxication were lost or enjoyed before I
could descend to a cool and minute investigation." Here at
last his long yearning for some great theme worthy of his historic
genius was gratified. The first conception of the Decline and
Fall arose as he lingered one evening amidst the vestiges of
ancient glory. " It was at Rome, on the isth of October 1764,
as I sat musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the bare-
footed friars were singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter, that
the idea of writing the decline and fall of the city first started
to my mind."
The five years and a half which intervened between his return
from this tour, in June 1765, and the death of his father, in
November 1770, seem to have formed the portion of his life
which " he passed with the least enjoyment and remembered
with the least satisfaction/' He attended every spring the
meetings of the militia at Southampton, and rose successively
to the rank of major and lieutenant-colonel commandant; but
was each year " more disgusted with the inn, the wine, the com-
pany, and the tiresome repetition of annual attendance and
daily exercise." From his own account, however, it appears
that other and deeper causes produced this discontent. Sincerely
attached to his home, he yet felt the anomaly of his position.
At thirty, still a dependant, without a settled occupation, without
a definite social status, he often regretted that he had not
" embraced the lucrative pursuits of the law or of trade, the
chances of civil office or India adventure, or even the fat slumbers
of the church." From the emoluments of a profession he
" might have derived an ample fortune, or a competent income
instead of being stinted to the same narrow allowance, to be
increased only by an event which he sincerely deprecated."
Doubtless the secret fire of a consuming, but as yet ungratified,
literary ambition also troubled his repose. He was still contem-
plating " at an awful distance " The Decline and Fall, and
meantime revolved some other subjects, that seemed more
immediately practicable. Hesitating for some time between
the revolutions of Florence and those of Switzerland, he consulted
M. Deyverdun, a young Swiss with whom he had formed a close
and intimate friendship during his first residence at Lausanne,
and finally decided in favour of the land which was his " friend's
by birth " and " his own by adoption." He executed the first
book in French; it was read (in 1767), as an anonymous produc-
tion, before a literary society of foreigners in London, and
condemned. Gibbon sat and listened unobserved to their
strictures. It never got beyond that rehearsal; Hume, indeed,
approved of the performance, only deprecating as unwise the
author's preference for French; but Gibbon sided with the
majority.
In 1 767 also he joined with M. Deyverdun in starting a literary
journal under the title of Memoires litleraires de la Grande-
Bretagne. But its circulation was limited, and only the second
volume had appeared (1768) when Deyverdun went abroad.
The materials already collected for a third volume were sup-
pressed. It is interesting, however, to know, that in the first
volume is a review by Gibbon of Lord Lyttelton's History of
Henry II., and that the second volume contains a contribution
by Hume on Walpole's Historic Doubts.
The next appearance of the historian made a deeper impression.
It was the first distinct print of the lion's foot. " Ex ungue
leonem " might have been justly said, for he attacked, and
attacked successfully, the redoubtable Warburton. Of the
many paradoxes in the Divine Legation, few are more extravagant
than the theory that Virgil, in the sixth book of his Aeneid,
intended to allegorize, in the visit of his hero and the Sibyl to the
shades, the initiation of Aeneas, as a lawgiver, into the Eleusinian
mysteries. This theory Gibbon completely exploded in his
Critical Observations (1770) no very difficult task, indeed,
but achieved in a style, and with a profusion of learning, which
called forth the warmest commendations both at home and
abroad. Warburton never replied; and few will believe that
he would not, if he had not thought silence more discreet.
Gibbon, however, regrets that the style of his pamphlet was
too acrimonious; and this regret, considering his antagonist's
slight claims to forbearance, is creditable to him. " I cannot
forgive myself the contemptuous treatment of a man who,
with all his faults, was entitled to my esteem; and I can less
forgive, in a personal attack, the cowardly concealment of my
name and character."
Soon after his " release from the fruitless task of the Swiss
revolution " in 1768, he had gradually advanced from the wish
to the hope, from the hope to the design, from the design to the
execution of his great historical work. His preparations were
indeed vast. The classics, " as low as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger '
and Juvenal," had been long familiar. He now " plunged into
the ocean of the Augustan history," and ''with pen almost
always in hand," pored over all the original records, Greek and
Latin, between Trajan and the last of the Western Caesars.
" The subsidiary rays of medals and inscriptions, of geography
and chronology, were thrown on their proper objects; and I
applied the collections of Tillemont, whose inimitable accuracy
almost assumes the character of genius, to fix and arrange
within my reach the loose and scattered atoms of historical
information." The Christian apologists and their pagan
assailants; the Theodosian Code, with Godefroy's commentary;
the Annals and Antiquities of Muratori, collated with " the
parallel or transverse lines" of Sigonius and Maffei, Pagi and
Baronius, were all critically studied. Still following the wise
maxim which he had adopted as a student, " multum legere
potius quam multa," he reviewed again and again the immortal
works of the French and English, the Latin and Italian classics.
He deepened and extended his acquaintance with Greek, par-
ticularly with his favourite authors Homer and Xenophon;
and, to crown all, he succeeded in achieving the third perusal
of Blackstone's Commentaries.
The course of his study was for some time seriously interrupted
by his father's illness and death in 1770, and by the many dis-
tractions connected with the transference of his residence from
Buriton to London. It was not, indeed, until October 1772 that
he found himself at last independent, and fairly settled in his
house and library, with full leisure and opportunity to set about
the composition of the first volume of his history. Even then
it appears from his own confession that he long brooded over
the chaos of materials he had amassed before light dawned upon
it. At the commencement, he says, " all was dark and doubt-
ful "; the limits, divisions, even the title of his work were
undetermined; the first chapter was composed three times,
and the second and third twice, before he was satisfied with his
efforts. This prolonged meditation on his design and its execu-
tion was ultimately well repaid by the result: so methodical
did his ideas become, and so readily did his materials shape
themselves, that, with the above exceptions, the original MS.
of the entire six quartos was sent uncopie'd to the printers. He
also says that not a sheet had been seen by any other eyes than
those of author and printer, a statement indeed which must be
taken with a small deduction; or rather we must suppose that a
few chapters had been submitted, if not to the " eyes," to the
" ears " of others; for he elsewhere tells us that he was " soon
disgusted with the modest practice of reading the manuscript
to his friends." Such, however, were his preliminary difficulties
that he confesses he was often " tempted to cast away the labour
of seven years "; and it was not until February 1776 that the
first volume was published. The success was instant, and, for a
quarto, probably unprecedented. The entire impression was
exhausted in a few days; a second and a third edition were
scarcely adequate to the demand . The author might almost have
said, as Lord Byron after the publication of ChUde Harold,
GIBBON
933
that " be awoke one morning and found himself famous." In
addition to public applause, he was gratified by the more select
praises of the highest living authorities in that branch of
literature: "the candour of Dr Robertson embraced his
disciple"; Hume's letter of congratulation "overpaid the
labour of ten years." The latter, however, with his usual
sagacity, anticipated the objections which he saw could be
urged against the famous fifteenth and sixteenth chapters. " I
think you have observed a very prudent temperament; but it
was impossible to treat the subject so as not to give grounds of
suspicion against you, and you may expect that a clamour will
arise."
The " clamour " thus predicted was not slow to make itself
heard. Within two years the famous chapters had elicited
what might almost be called a library of controversy. The
only attack, however, to which Gibbon deigned to make any
reply was that of Davies, who had impugned his accuracy or
good faith. His Vindication appeared in February 1770; and,
as Mil man remarks, " this single discharge from the ponderous
artillery of learning and sarcasm laid prostrate the whole dis-
orderly squadron " of his rash and feeble assailants. 1
Two years before the publication of this first volume Gibbon
was elected member of parliament for Liskeard (1774). His
political duties did not suspend his prosecution of his history,
except on one occasion, and for a little while, in 1779, when he
undertook, on behalf of the ministry, a task which, if well
performed, was also, it must be added, well rewarded. The
French government had issued a manifesto preparatory to a
declaration of war, and Gibbon was solicited by Chancellor
Thurlow and Lord Weymouth, secretary of state, to answer it.
In compliance with this request be produced the able Mtmoire
JHStijitatif, composed in French, and delivered to the courts of
Europe; and shortly afterwards he received a seat at the
Board of Trade and Plantations little more than a sinecure
in itself, but with a very substantial salary of nearly 800 per
annum. His acceptance displeased some of his former political
associates, and be was accused of "deserting his party." In his
Utmoir, indeed, Gibbon denies that he had ever enlisted with
the Whigs. A note of Fox, however, on the margin of a copy
of Tke Decline and Fall records a very distinct remembrance
of the historian's previous vituperation of the ministry; within
a fortnight of the date of his acceptance of office, he is there
alleged to have said that " there was no salvation for this country
until six heads of the principal persons in administration were
laid upon the table." Lord Sheffield merely replies, somewhat
weakly it must be said, that his friend never intended the words
to be taken literally. More to the point is the often-quoted
passage from Gibbon's letter to Deyverdun, where the frank
revelation is made: " You have not forgotten that I went into
parliament without patriotism and without ambition, and that
1 For a very full list of publications in answer to Gibbon's attack on
Christianity reference may be made to the Bibliographer's Manual,
pp. 885-886 (1858). Of these the earliest were Watson's Apology
(1776). Salisbury'* Strictures (1776) and Chelsum's (anonymous)
Rrmarks (1776). In 1778 the Few Remarks by a Gentleman (Francis
Eyre), the Reply of Loftus, the Letters of Apthorpe and the Examina-
tion of Davies appeared. Gibbon's Vindication (1779) called forth a
Reply by Davie* (1779), and A Short Appeal to the Public by Francis
Eyre (1779). Laugnton's polemical treatise was published in 1780,
and those of Milner and Taylor in 1781. Chelsum returned to the
attack in 1785 (A Reply to Ur Gibbon' i Vindication ), and Sir David
Dalrymple (An Inquiry into Ike Secondary Causes, &c.) made his
first appearance in the controversy in 1786. Travis's Letters on
l John v. 7 are dated 1784; and Spedalieri's Conjutatione del-
F esamt del Cnstianismo falto da Gibbon was published at Rome (2
voU. 4(0) in the same year. It is impossible not to concur in almost
every point with Gibbon's own estimate of his numerous assailants.
Their crude production*, for the most part, were conspicuous rather
for imolence and abusivenes* than for logic or learning. Those ol
Bishop Watson and Lord Hailcs were the best, but simply because
they contented themselves with a dispassionate exposition of the
general argument in favour of Christianity. The most foolish and
discreditable was certainly that of Davie*; his unworthy attempt to
depreciate the great historian's learning, and his captious, cavilling,
acrimonious charge* of petty inaccuracies and discreditable falsifi-
catioa five the object of his attack an easy triumph.
all my views tended to the convenient and respectable place of
a lord of trade."
In April 1781 the second and third quartos of his History
were published. They excited no controversy, and were com-
paratively little talked about so little, indeed, as to have
extorted from him a half murmur about " coldness and pre-
judice." The volumes, however, were bought and read with
silent avidity. Meanwhile public events were developing in a
manner that had a considerable influence upon the manner in
which the remaining years of the historian's life were spent.
At the general election in 1780 he had lost his scat for Liskeard,
but had subsequently been elected for Lymington. The ministry
of Lord North, however, was tottering, and soon after fell; the
Board of Trade was abolished by the passing of Burke's bill in
1782, and Gibbon's salary vanished with it no trifle, for his
expenditure had been for three years on a scale somewhat
disproportionate to his private fortune. He did not like to
depend on statesmen's promises, which are proverbially un-
certain of fulfilment; he as little liked to retrench; and he
was wearied of parliament, where he had never given any but
silent votes. Urged by such considerations, he once more
turned his eyes to the scene of his early exile, where he might
live on his decent patrimony in a style which was impossible in
England, and pursue unembarrassed his literary studies. He
therefore resolved to fix himself at Lausanne.
A word only is necessary on his parliamentary career. Neither
nature nor acquired habits qualified him to be an orator; his
late entrance on public life, his natural timidity, his feeble voice,
his limited command of idiomatic English, and even, as he
candidly confesses, his literary fame, were all obstacles to success.
" After a fleeting, illusive hope, prudence condemned me to
acquiesce in the humble station of a mute. 1 ... I was not
armed by nature and education with the intrepid energy of
mind and voice ' Vincentem strepitus et natum rebus agendis.'
Timidity was fortified by pride, and even the success of my
pen discouraged the trial of my voice." His repugnance to public
life had been strongly expressed to his father in a letter of a very
early date, in which he begged that the money which a seat in
the House of Commons would cost might be expended in a mode
more agreeable to him. Gibbon was eight-and-thirty when he
entered parliament; and the obstacles which even at an earlier
period he had not had courage to encounter were hardly likely
to be vanquished then. Nor had he much political sagacity.
He was better skilled in investigating the past than in divining
the future. While Burke and Fox and so many great statesmen
proclaimed the consequences of the collision with America,
Gibbon saw nothing but colonies in rebellion, and a paternal
government justly incensed. His silent votes were all given on
that hypothesis. In a similar manner, while he abhorred the
French Revolution when it came, he seems to have had no
apprehension, like Chesterfield, Burke, or even Horace Walpole,
of its approach; nor does he appear to have at all suspected that
it had had anything to do with the speculations of the philosophic
coteries in which he had taken such delight. But while it may
be doubted whether his presence in parliament was of any
direct utility to the legislative business of the country, there can
be no question of the present advantage which he derived from
it in the prosecution of the great work of his life an advantage
of which he was fully conscious when he wrote: " The eight
sessions that I sat in parliament were a school of civil prudence,
the first and most essential virtue of an historian."
Having sold all his property except his library to him
equally a necessary and a luxury Gibbon repaired to Lausanne
in September 1783, and took up his abode with his early friend
Deyverdun, now a resident there. Perfectly free from every
engagement but those which his own tastes imposed, easy in
his circumstances, commanding just as much society, and that
as select, as he pleased, with the noblest scenery spread out at
his feet, no situation can be imagined more favourable for the
1 In 1775 he writes to Holroyd: " I am still a mute; it is more
tremendous than I imagined ; the great speakers nil me with despair;
the bad ones with terror."
934
GIBBON
prosecution of his literary enterprise; a hermit in his study as
long as he chose, he found the most delightful recreation always
ready for him at the threshold. " In London," says he, " I was
lost in the crowd; I ranked with the first families in Lausanne,
and my style of prudent expense enabled me to maintain a
fair balance of reciprocal civilities. . . . Instead of a small
house between a street and a stable-yard, I began to occupy a
spacious and convenient mansion, connected on the north side
with the city, and open on the south to a beautiful and boundless
horizon. A garden of four acres had been laid out by the taste
of M. Deyverdun: from the garden a rich scenery of meadows
and vineyards descends to the Leman Lake, and the prospect
far beyond the lake is crowned by the stupendous mountains of
Savoy." In this enviable retreat, it is no wonder that a year
should have been suffered to roll round before he vigorously
resumed his great work and with many men it would never
have been resumed in such a paradise. We may remark in
passing that the retreat was often enlivened, or invaded, by
friendly tourists from England, whose " frequent incursions "
into Switzerland our recluse seems half to lament as an evil.
Among his more valued visitors were M. and Mme Necker;
Mr Fox also gave him two welcome " days of free and private
society " in 1788. Differing as they did in politics, Gibbon's
testimony to the genius and character of the great statesman
is highly honourable to both: " Perhaps no human being," he
says, " was ever more perfectly exempt from the taint of male-
volence, vanity, or falsehood."
When once fairly reseated at his task, he proceeded in this
delightful retreat leisurely, yet rapidly, to its completion. The
fourth volume, partly written in 1782, was completed in June
1784; the preparation of the fifth volume occupied less than
two years; while the sixth and last, begun i8th May 1786, was
finished in thirteen months. The feelings with which he brought
his labours to a close must be described in his own inimitable
words: " It was on the day, or rather night, of the 27th of June
1787, between the hours of eleven and twelve, that I wrote the
last lines of the last page in a summer house in my garden.
After laying down my pen, I took several turns in a berceau or
covered walk of acacias, which commands a prospect of the
country, the lake, and the mountains. The air was temperate,
the sky was serene, the silver orb of the moon was reflected
from the waters, and all nature was silent. I will not dissemble
the first emotions of joy on the recovery of my freedom, and,
perhaps, the establishment of my fame. But my pride was soon
humbled, and a sober melancholy was spread over my mind by
the idea that I had taken an everlasting leave of an old and
agreeable companion, and that whatsoever might be the future
date of my History, the life of the historian must be short and
precarious."
Taking the manuscript with him, Gibbon, after an absence
of four years, once more visited London in 1787; and the sist
anniversary of the author's birthday (27th April 1788) witnessed
the publication of the last three volumes of The Decline and
Fall. They met with a quick and easy sale, were very extensively
read, and very liberally and deservedly praised for the unflagging
industry and vigour they displayed, though just exception, if
only on the score of good taste, was taken to the scoffing tone
he continued to maintain in all passages where the Christian
religion was specially concerned, and much fault was found with
the indecency of some of his notes. 1
He returned to Switzerland in July 1788, cherishing vague
schemes of fresh literary activity; but genuine sorrow caused
by the death of his friend Deyverdun interfered with steady
work, nor was it easy for him to fix on a new subject which should
be at once congenial and proportioned to his powers: while the
premonitory mutterings of the great thunderstorm of the French
Revolution, which reverberated in hollow echoes even through
1 An anonymous pamphlet, entitled Observations on the three last
volumes of the Roman History, appeared in 1788; Disney's Sermon,
with Strictures, in 1790; and Whitaker's Review, in 1791. With
regard to the second of the above complaints, surprise will probably
be felt that it was not extended to portions of the text as well as to
the notes.
the quiet valleys of Switzerland, further troubled his repose.
For some months he found amusement in the preparation of the
delightful Memoirs (1789) from which most of our knowledge
of his personal history is derived; but his letters to friends in
England, written between 1788 and 1793 occasionally betray
a slight but unmistakable tone of ennui. In April 1793 he un-
expectedly received tidings of the death of Lady Sheffield;
and the motive of friendship thus supplied combined with the
pressure of public events to urge him homewards. He arrived
in England in the following June, and spent the summer at
Sheffield Place, where his presence was even more highly prized
than it had ever before been. Returning to London early in
November, he found it necessary to consult his physicians for
a symptom which, neglected since 1761, had gradually become
complicated with hydrocele, and was now imperatively demand-
ing surgical aid; but the painful operations which had to be
performed did not interfere with his customary cheerfulness,
nor did they prevent him from paying a Christmas visit to
Sheffield Place. Here, however, fever made its appearance;
and a removal to London (January 6, 1794) was considered
imperative. Another operation brought him some reh'ef; but
a relapse occurred during the night of the isth, and on the
following day he peacefully breathed his last. His remains
were laid in the burial place of the Sheffield family, Fletching,
Sussex, where an epitaph by Dr Parr describes his character and
work in the language at once of elegance, of moderation and of
truth.
The personal appearance of Gibbon as a lad of sixteen is
brought before us somewhat dimly in M. Pavilliard's description
of the " thin little figure, with a large head, disputing and
arguing, with the greatest ability, all the best arguments that
had ever been used in favour of popery." What he afterwards
became has been made more vividly familiar by the clever
silhouette prefixed to the Miscellaneous Works (Gibbon himself,
at least, we know, did not regard it as a caricature), and by
Sir Joshua Reynolds's portrait so often engraved. It is hardly
fair perhaps to add a reference to Suard's highly-coloured
description of the short Silenus-like figure, not more than 56 in.
in height, the slim legs, the large turned-in feet, the shrill piercing
voice; but almost every one will remember, from Croker's
Boswell, Colman's account of the great historian " tapping his
snuff-box, smirking and smiling, and rounding his periods "
from that mellifluous mouth. It has already been seen that
Gibbon's early ailments all left him on the approach of manhood;
thenceforward, " till admonished by the gout," he could truly
boast of an immunity well-nigh perfect from every bodily
complaint; an exceptionally vigorous brain, and a stomach
" almost too good," united to bestow upon him a vast capacity
alike for work and for enjoyment. This capacity he never
abused so as to burden his conscience or depress his spirits.
" The madness of superfluous health I have never known."
To illustrate the intensity of the pleasure he found alike in the
solitude of his study and in the relaxations of genial social
intercourse, almost any page taken at random, either from the
Life or from the Letters, would suffice; and many incidental
touches show that he was not a stranger to the delights of quiet
contemplation of the beauties and grandeurs of nature. His
manners, if formal, were refined; his conversation, when he
felt himself at home, interesting and unaffected; and that he
was capable alike of feeling and inspiring a very constant friend-
ship there are many witnesses to show. That his temperament
at the same time was frigid and comparatively passionless
cannot be denied; but neither ought this to be imputed to him
as a fault; hostile criticisms upon the grief for a father's death,
that " was soothed by the conscious satisfaction that I had
discharged all the duties of filial piety," seem somewhat out of
place. His most ardent admirers, however, are constrained
to admit that he was deficient in large-hearted benevolence;
that he was destitute of any " enthusiasm of humanity "; and
that so far as every sort of religious yearning or aspiration is
concerned, his poverty was almost unique. Gibbon was such
a man as Horace might have been, had the Roman Epicurean
GIBBON
935
been fonder of hard intellectual work, and less prone than he
to the indulgence of emotion. (H. Ro.; J. S. BL.)
Gibbon's literary art, the sustained excellence of his style,
is piquant epigrams and his brilliant irony, would perhaps
ot secure for his work the immortality which it seems likely
to enjoy, if it were not also marked by ecumenical grasp, extra-
ordinary accuracy and striking acuteness of judgment. It is
i to say that in many points his statements and conclu-
now be corrected. He was never content with
I accounts when the primary sources were accessible;
" I have always endeavoured," he says, " to draw from the
fountainhead; my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has
always urged me to study the originals; and if they have
sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the
evidence on whose faith a passage or a fact were
to depend." Since he wrote, new authorities have
discovered or rendered accessible; works in Greek, Latin,
Slavonic, Armenian, Syriac, Arabic and other languages, which
he was unable to consult, have been published. Again, many
of the authorities which he used have been edited in superior
texts. The relative weights of the sources have been more
nicely determined by critical investigation. Archaeology has
become a science. In the immense region which Gibbon surveyed
there is hardly a section which has not been submitted to the
microscopic examination of specialists.
But apart from the inevitable advances made in the course
of a century during which historical research entered upon a
new phase, the reader of Gibbon must be warned against one
capital defect. In judging the Decline and Fall it should carefully
be observed that it falls into two parts which are heterogeneous
in the method of treatment. The first part, a little more than
five-eighths of the work, supplies a very full history of 460 years
(A.D. 180-641); the second and smaller pan is a summary
history of about 800 years (A.D. 641-1453) in which certain
episodes are selected for fuller treatment and so made prominent.
To the first pan unstinted praise must be accorded; it may be
said that, with the materials at the author's disposition, it
hardly admitted of improvement, except in trifling details.
But the second, notwithstanding the brilliancy of the narrative
and the masterly art in the grouping of events, suffers from a
radical defect which renders it a misleading guide. The author
designates the story of the later empire at Constantinople
(after Hendius) as " a uniform tale of weakness and misery,"
a judgment which is entirely false; and in accordance with
this doctrine, he makes the empire, which is his proper subject,
merely a string for connecting great movements which affected
it, such as the Saracen conquests, the Crusades, the Mongol
invasions, the Turkish conquests. He failed to bring out the
momentous fact that up to the 1 2th century the empire was the
bulwark of Europe against the East, nor did he appreciate its
importance in preserving the heritage of Greek civilization.
He compressed into a single chapter the domestic history and
policy of the emperors from the son of Heraclius to Isaac Angelus ;
and did no justice to the remarkable ability and the indefatigable
industry shown in the service of the state by most of the sovereigns
from Leo III. to Basil II. He did not penetrate into the deeper
causes underlying the revolutions and palace intrigues. His
eye rested only on superficial characteristics which have served
to associate the name " Byzantine " with treachery, cruelty,
bigotry and decadence. It was reserved for Finlay to depict,
with greater knowledge and a juster perception, the lights and
shades of Byzantine history. Thus the later part of the Decline
and Fall, while the narrative of certain episodes will always
be read with profit, does not convey a true idea of the history of
the empire or of its significance in the history of Europe. It
must be added that the pages on the Slavonic peoples and their
relations to the empire are conspicuously insufficient; but it
most be taken into account that it was not till many years after
Gibbon's death that Slavonic history began to receive due
attention, in consequence of the rise of competent scholars
among the Slavs themselves.
The most famous chapters of the Decline and Fall are the
fifteenth and sixteenth, in which the historian traces the early
progress of Christianity and the policy of the Roman government
towards it. The flavour of these chapters is due to the irony
which Gibbon has employed with consummate art and felicity.
There was a practical motive for using this weapon. An attack
on Christianity laid a writer open to prosecution and penalties
under the statutes of the realm (9 and 10 William III. c. 22,
still unrepealed). Gibbon's stylistic artifice both averted the
peril of prosecution and rendered the attack more telling. In
his A tttobiograpky he alleges that he learned from the Provincial
Letters of Pascal " to manage the weapon of grave and temperate
irony, even on subjects of ecclesiastical solemnity." It is not
easy, however, to perceive much resemblance between the
method of Pascal and that of Gibbon, though in particular
passages we may discover the influence which Gibbon acknow-
ledges. For instance, the well-known description (in chap.
xlvii.) of the preposition " in " occurring in a theological dogma
as a " momentous particle which the memory rather than the
understanding must retain " is taken directly from the first
Provincial Letter. The main points in the general conclusions
of these chapters have been borne out by subsequent research.
The account of the causes of the expansion of Christianity is
chiefly to be criticized for its omissions. There were a number
of important contributory conditions (enumerated in Harnack's
Mission und Ausbreilung des Christentums) which Gibbon did
not take into account. He rightly insisted on the facilities of
communication created by the Roman empire, but did not
emphasize the diffusion of Judaism. And he did not realize
the importance of the kinship between Christian doctrine and
Hellenistic syncretism, which helped to promote the reception
of Christianity. He was ignorant of another fact of great
importance (which has only in recent years been fully appreciated
through the researches of F. Cumont), the wide diffusion of the
Mithraic religion and the close analogies between its doctrines
and those of Christianity. In regard to the attitude of the
Roman government towards the Christian religion, there are
questions still sub judice; but Gibbon had the merit of reducing
the number of martyrs within probable limits.
Gibbon's verdict on the history of the middle ages is contained
in the famous sentence, " I have described the triumph of
barbarism and religion." It is important to understand clearly
the criterion which he applied; it is frequently misapprehended.
He was a son of the i8th century; he had studied with sym-
pathy Locke and Montesquieu; no one appreciated more keenly
than he did political liberty and the freedom of an Englishman.
This is illustrated by his love of Switzerland, his intense interest
in the fortunes of that country, his design of writing " The
History of the Liberty of the Swiss " a theme, he says " from
which the dullest stranger would catch fire." Such views and
sentiments are incompatible with the idealization of a benevolent
despotism. Yet in this matter Gibbon has been grossly misappre-
hended and misrepresented. For instance, Mirabeau wrote thus
to Sir Samuel Romilly: " I have never been able to read the
work of Mr Gibbon without being astounded that it should ever
have been written in English; or without being tempted to turn
to the author and say, ' You an Englishman ? No, indeed.'
That admiration for an empire of more than two hundred millions
of men, where not one had the right to call himself free; that
effeminate philosophy which has more praise for luxury and
pleasures than for all the virtues; that style always elegant and
never energetic, reveal at the most the elector of Hanover's slave."
This criticism is based on a perverse misreading of the historian's
observations on the age of Trajan, Hadrian and the Anlonincs.
He enlarges, as it was his business to do, on the tranquillity and
prosperity of the empire in that period, but he does not fail to
place his finger on the want of political liberty as a fatal defect.
He points out that under this benevolent despotism, though men
might be happy, their happiness was unstable, because it de-
pended on the character of a single man; and the highest praise
he can give to those virtuous princes is that they " deserved the
honour of restoring the republic, had the Romans of their days
been capable of a rational freedom." The criterion by which
936
GIBBON GIBBONS, J.
Gibbon judged civilization and progress was the measure in which
the happiness of men is secured, and of that happiness he con-
sidered political freedom an essential condition. He was essenti-
ally humane; and it is worthy of notice that he was in favour ol
the abolition of slavery, while humane men like his friend Lord
Sheffield, Dr Johnson and Boswell were opposed to the anti-
slavery movement.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Of the original quarto edition of The Decline
and Fall, vol. i. appeared, as has already been stated, in 1776, vols.
11. and lii. in 1781 and vols. iv.-vi. (inscribed to Lord North) in 1788.
In later editions vol.. i. was considerably altered by the author;
the others hardly at all. The number of modern reprints has been
very considerable. For many years the most important and valuable
English edition was that of Milman (1839 and 1845), which was
reissued with many critical additions by Dr W. Smith (8 vols. 8vo,
1854 and 1872). This has now been superseded by the edition,
with copious notes, by Professor I. B. Bury (7 vols. 8vo, 1896-
1900). The edition in Bonn's British Classics (7 vols., 1853) deserves
mention. See also the essay on Gibbon in Sir Spencer Walpole's
Essays and Biographies (1907). As a curiosity of literature Bowdler's
edition, " adapted to the use of families and young persons," by the
expurgation of " the indecent expressions and all allusions of an
improper tendency " (5 vols. 8vo, 1825), may be noticed. The
French translation of Le Clerc de Septchgnes, continued by D6-
meunier, Boulard and Cantwell (1788-1795), has been frequently
reprinted in France. It seems to be certain that the portion usually
attributed to Septchgnes was, in part at least, the work of his dis-
tinguished pupil, Louis XVI. A new edition of the complete trans-
lation, prefaced by a letter on Gibbon's life and character, from the
pen of Suard, and annotated by Guizot, appeared in 1812 (and again
in 1828). There are at least two German translations of The Decline
and Fall, one by Wenck, Schreiter and Beck (1805-1807), and a
second by Johann C. Sporschil (1837, new ed. 1862). The Italian
translation (alluded to by Gibbon himself) was, along with Spedalieri's
Confutazione, reprinted at Milan in 1823. There is a Russian trans-
lation by Neviedomski (7 parts, Moscow, 1883-1886), and an Hun-
garian version of cc. 1-38 by K. Hegyessy (Pest, 1868-1869).
Gibbon's Miscellaneous Works, with Memoirs of his Lift, and Writings,
composed by himself; illustrated from his Letters, with occasional Notes
and Narrative, published by Lord Sheffield in two volumes in 1796,
has been often reprinted. The new edition in five volumes (1814)
contained some previously unpublished matter, and in particular the
fragment on the revolutions of Switzerland. A French translation
of the Miscellaneous Works by Marigne 1 appeared at Paris in 1798.
There is also a German translation (Leipzig, 1801). It may be added
that a special translation of the chapter on Roman Law (Gibbon's
historische Vbersicht des romischen Rechts) was published by Hugo
at Gottingen in 1839, and has frequently been .used as a text-book in
German universities. This chapter has also appeared in Polish
(Cracow, 1844) and Greek (Athens, 1840). The centenary of
Gibbon's death was celebrated in 1894 under the auspices of the
Royal Historical Society : Proceedings of the Gibbon Commemoration,
1794-1894, by R. H. T. Ball (1895). (J. B. B.)
GIBBON, the collective title of the smaller man-like apes
of the Indo-Malay countries, all of which may be included in
the single genus Hylobates. Till recently these apes have been
generally included in the same family (Simiidae) with the
chimpanzee, gorilla and orang-utan, but they are now regarded
by several naturalists as representing a family by themselves
the Hylobatidae. One of the distinctive features of this family
is the presence of small naked callosities on the buttocks;
another being a difference in the number of vertebrae and ribs
as compared with those of the Simiidae. The extreme length
of the limbs and the absence of a tail are other features of these
small apes, which are thoroughly arboreal in their habits, and
make the woods resound with their unearthly cries at night.
In agility they are unsurpassed; in fact they are stated to be so
swift in their movements as to be able to capture birds on the
wing with their paws. When they descend to the ground which
they must often do in order to obtain water they frequently
walk in the upright posture, either with the hands crossed behind
the neck, or with the knuckles resting on the ground. Their
usual food consists of leaves and fruits. Gibbons may be divided
into two groups, the one represented by the siamang, Hylobates
(Symphalangus) syndactylus, of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula,
and the other by a number of closely allied species. The union
of the index and middle fingers by means of a web extending
as far as the terminal joints is the distinctive feature of the
siamang, which is the largest of the group, and black in colour
with a white frontal band. Black or puce-grey is the prevailing
colour in the second group, of which the hulock (H. hulock) of
Assam, H. lar of Arakan and Pegu, H. enlelloides of Tenasserim
(fig.), and H. agilis of Sumatra are well-known representatives.
A female of the Hainan gibbon (H. hainanus) in confinement
changed from uniform sooty-black (without the white frontal
The Tenasserim Gibbon (Hylobates entelloides) .
band of the black phase of the hulock) to puce-grey; but it is
probable that this was only an individual, or at most a sexual,
peculiarity. The range of the genus extends from the southern
bank of the Bramaputra in Assam to southern China, the Malay
Peninsula, Java, Sumatra and Borneo. (R. L.*)
GIBBONS, GRINLING (1648-1721), English wood-carver,
was born in 1648, according to some authorities of Dutch parents
at Rotterdam, and according to others of English parents at
London. By the former he is said to have come to London after
the great fire in 1666. He early displayed great cleverness and
ingenuity in his art, on the strength of which he was recommended
by Evelyn to Charles II., who employed him in the execution
both of statuary and of ornamental carving in wood. In the
early part of the i8th century he worked for Sir Christopher
Wren. In statuary one of his principal works is a life-size bronze
statue in the court of Whitehall, representing James II. in the
dress of a Roman emperor, and he also designed the base of the
statue of Charles I. at Charing Cross. It is, however, chiefly as
a sculptor in wood that he is famous. He was employed to
execute the ornamental carving for the chapel at Windsor, the
Eoiiage and festoons in the choir of St Paul's, the baptismal fonts
in St James's, and an immense quantity of ornamental work
at Burleigh, Chatsworth, and other aristocratic mansions. The
finest of all his productions in this style is believed to be the
ceiling which he devised for a room at Petworth. His subjects
are chiefly birds, flowers, foliage, fruit and lace, and many of
tiis works, for delicacy and elaboration of details, and truthfulness
of imitation, have never been surpassed. He, however, some-
times wasted his ingenuity on trifling subjects; many of his
Sowers used to move on their stems like their natural prototypes
when shaken by a breeze. In 1714 Gibbons was appointed
master carver in wood to George I. He died at London on the
3rd of August 1721.
GIBBONS, JAMES (1834- ), American Roman Catholic
cardinal and archbishop, was born in Baltimore, Maryland,
on the 23rd of July 1834, and was educated at St Charles College,
Ellicott City, Maryland, and St Mary's Seminary, Baltimore,
where he finished his theological training and was ordained priest
GIBBONS, O. GIBEON
937
on the joth of June 1861. After short time spent on the
missions of Baltimore, he was called to be secretary to Arch-
bishop Martin J. Spalding and assistant at the cathedral. When
in iS66 the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore considered the
matter of new diocesan developments, he was selected to organize
the new Vicariate Apostolic of North Carolina; and was con-
secrated bishop in August 1868. During the four successful years
spent in North Carolina he wrote, for the benefit of his mission
work, The Faith of our Fathers, a brief presentation of the
doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, especially intended to
reach Protestants; the books passed through more than forty
editions in America and about seventy in England, and an
answer was made to it in Faith of our Forefathers (1879), by
Edward J. Stearns. Gibbons was transferred to the see of
Richmond, Virginia, in 1872, and in 1877 was made coadjutor,
with the right of succession, to the Archbishop (James R. Bayley)
of Baltimore. In October of the same year he succeeded to the
archbishopric. Pope Leo XIII. in 1883 selected him to preside
over the Third Plenary Council in Baltimore (1884), and on the
3oth of June 1886 created him a cardinal priest, with the title
of Santa Maria Trastevere. His simplicity of life, foresight
and prudence made him a power in the church. Thoroughly
American, and a lover of the people, he greatly altered the atti-
tude of the Roman Catholic Church toward the Knights of Labor
and other labour organizations, and his public utterances dis-
played the true instincts of a popular leader. He contributed
frequently to periodicals, but as an author is known principally
by his works on religious subjects, including Our Christian
Heritage (1889) and The Ambassador of Christ (1896). For
many years an ardent advocate of the establishment of a
Catholic university, at the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore
(1884) he saw the realization of his desires in the establish-
ment of the Catholic University of America at Washington, of
which he became first chancellor and president of the board
of trustees.
GIBBONS, ORLANDO (1583-1625), English musical composer,
was the most illustrious of a family of musicians all more or
less able. We know of at least three generations, for Orlando's
father, William Gibbons, having been one of the waits of Cam-
bridge, may be assumed to have acquired some proficiency in
the art. His three sons and at least one of his grandsons inherited
and further developed his talent. The eldest, Edward, was made
bachelor of music at Cambridge, and successively held important
musical appointments at the cathedrals of Bristol and Exeter;
Ellis, the second son, was organist of Salisbury cathedral, and
is the composer of two madrigals in the collection known as the
The Triumphs of Oriana. Orlando Gibbons, the youngest and
by far the most celebrated of the brothers, was born at Cambridge
in 1 583. Where and under whom he studied is not known, but
in his twenty-first year he was sufficiently advanced and cele-
brated to receive the important post of organist of the Chapel
Royal. His first published composition " Fantasies in three
parts, composed for viols," appeared in 1610. It seems to have
been the first piece of music printed in England from engraved
plates, or " cut in copper, the like not heretofore extant." In
1622 he was created doctor of music by the university of Oxford.
For this occasion be composed an anthem for eight parts, Oclap
your Hands, still extant. In the following year he became
organist of Westminster Abbey. Orlando Gibbons died before
the beginning of the civil war, or it may be supposed that, like
his eldest brother, be would have been a staunch royalist. In
a different sense, however, he died in the cause of his master;
for having been summoned to Canterbury to produce a com-
position written in celebration of Charles's marriage, he there
fell a victim to smallpox on the 5th of June 1625.
For a full list of hi* compositions, see Grove'* Dictionary of Music.
His portrait may be found in Hawkin*'* well-known History. Hi*
vocal piece*, madrigal*, motet*, canon*, Ac., are admirable, and
prove him to have Men a great master of pure polyphony. We
have aNo some specimen* of jib instrumental music, *uch a* the MX
pieces for the virginal* publuheH in Parthenia, a collection of in-
strumental musk produced by Gibbons in conjunction with Dr Bull
an ! ('. r ;
OIBBS. JOSIAH WILLARD (1830-1903), American mathe-
matical physicist, the fourth child and only son of Josiah Willard
Gibbs (1790-1861), who was professor of sacred literature in
Yale Divinity School from 1824 till his death, was born at New
Haven on the nth of February 1839. Entering Yale College
in 1854 he graduated in 1858, and continuing his studies there
was appointed tutor in 1863. He taught Latin in the first two
years, and natural philosophy in the third. He then went to
Europe, studying in Paris in 1866-1867, '" Berlin in 1867 and
in Heidelberg in 1868. Returning to New Haven in 1869, he
was appointed professor of mathematical physics in Yale College
in 1871, and held that position till his death, which occurred at
New Haven on the 28th of April 1903. His first contributions
to mathematical physics were two papers published in 1873 in
the. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy on "Graphical
Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids," and " Method of
Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties
of Substances by means of Surfaces." His next and most im-
portant publication was his famous paper " On the Equilibrium
of Heterogeneous Substances " (in two parts, 1876 and 1878),
which, it has been said, founded a new department of chemical
science that is becoming comparable in importance to that created
by Lavoisier. This work was translated into German by W.
Ostwald (who styled its author the " founder of chemical
energetics ") in 1891 and into French by H. le Chatelicr in
1899. In 1881 and 1884 he printed some notes on the elements
of vector analysis for the use of his students; these were never
formally published, but they formed the basis of a text-book on
Vector Analysis which was published by his pupil, E. B. Wilson,
in 1901. Between 1882 and 1889 a series of papers on certain
points in the electromagnetic theory of light and its relation to
the various elastic solid theories appeared in the American
Journal of Science, and his last work, Elementary Principles in
Statistical Mechanics, was issued in 1902. The name of Willard
Gibbs, who was the most distinguished American mathematical
physicist of his day, is especially associated with the " Phase
Rule," of which some account will be found in the article
ENERGETICS. In 1901 the Copley medal of the Royal Society
of London was awarded him as being " the first to apply the
second law of thermodynamics to the exhaustive discussion
of the relation between chemical, electrical and thermal energy
and capacity for external work."
A biographical sketch will be found in his collected Scientific
Papers (2 vols., 1906).
OIBBS, OLIVER WOLCOTT (1822-1908), American chemist,
was born at New York on the 2ist of February 1822. His
father, Colonel George Gibbs, was an ardent mineralogist; the
mineral gibbsite was named after him, and his collection was
finally bought by Yale College. Entering Columbia College
in 1837, Wolcott (the Oliver he dropped at an early date)
graduated in 1841, and, having assisted Robert Hare at Penn-
sylvania University for several months, he next entered the
College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York, qualifying as
a doctor of medicine in 1845. Leaving America he studied in
Germany with K. F. Rammelsberg, H. Rose and J. von Liebig,
and in Paris with A. Laurent, J.B. Dumas, and H. V. Regnault,
returning in 1848. In that year he became professor of chemistry
at the Free Academy, now the College of the City of New York,
and in 1863 he obtained the Rumford professorship in Harvard
University, a post retained until his retirement in 1887 as pro-
fessor emeritus. He died on the 9th of December 1008. Gibbs'
researches were mainly in analytical and inorganic chemistry,
the cobaltammincs, platinum metals and complex acids being
especially investigated. He was an excellent teacher, and
contributed many articles to scientific journals.
See the Memorial Lecture by F. W. Clarke in the J.C.S. (1909),
p. 1299.
GIBEON, a town in Palestine whose inhabitants wrested a
truce from Joshua by a trick (Josh. ix.,x.); where the champions
of David fought those of Ish-bosheth (2 Sam. ii. 12-32); where
Joab murdered Amasa (ib. xx. 8-10); and where Johanan went
against Ishmael to avenge the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. xli. 12).
938
GIBEONITES GIBRALTAR
Here was an Important high place (i Kings iii. 4) where for a
time the tabernacle was deposited (2 Chron. i. 3). The present
name is El- Jib; this is a small village about 5 m. N.W. of
Jerusalem, standing on an isolated hill above a flat corn valley.
The village is famous for its springs, and the reputation seems
ancient (cf. 2 Sam. ii. 13; Jer. xli. 12). The principal spring
issues from under a cliff on the south-east side of the hill, and
the water runs to a reservoir lower down. The sides of the
hill are rocky, and remarkable for the regular stratification
of the limestone, which gives the hill at a distance the appear-
ance of being terraced. Scattered olive groves surround the
place. (R. A. S. M.)
GIBEONITES, the inhabitants of Gibeon, an Amorite or
Hivite stronghold, the modern El- Jib, 5 m. N.W. from Jerusalem.
According to Joshua xviii. 25 it was one of the cities of Benjamin.
When the Israelites, under Joshua, invaded Canaan,' the
Gibeonites by a crafty ruse escaped the fate of Jericho and Ai
and secured protection from the invaders (Joshua ix.). Cheyne
thinks this story the attempt of a later age to explain the long
independence of Gibeon and the use of the Gibeonites as slaves
in Solomon's temple. An attempt on the part of Saul to exter-
minate the clan is mentioned in 2 Sam. xxi., and this slaughter
may possibly be identified with the massacre at Nob recorded
in i Sam. xxii. 17-19 (see Ency. Bib. col. 1717). The place is
also associated with the murders of Asahel (2 Sam. ii. 12), Amasa
(2 Sam. xx. 8) and Gedaliah (Jer. xli. 12), and with the wrathful
intervention of Yahweh referred to by Isaiah (xxviii. 21), which
we may identify with the memorable victory of David over the
Philistines recorded in 2 Sam. v. 25 (reading Gibeon for Geba).
Gibeon was the seat of an old Canaanitish sanctuary afterwards
used by the Israelites; it was here that Solomon, immediately
after his coronation, went to consult the oracles and had the
dream in which he chose the gift of wisdom (i Kings iii.).
GIBRALTAR, a British fortress and crown colony at the
western entrance to the Mediterranean. The whole territory is
rather less than 3 m. in length from north to south and varies in
width from J to J m. Gibraltar is called after Tariq (or Tarik)
ben Zaid, its name being a corruption of Jebel Tariq (Mount
Tariq). Tariq invaded Andalusia in A.D. 711 with an army of
12,000 Arabs and Berbers, and in the last days of July of that year
destroyed the Gothic power in a three days' fight on the banks of
the river Guadalete near where Jerez de la Frontera now stands.
In order to secure his communications with Africa he ordered
the building of a strong castle upon the Rock, known to the
Romans as Mons Calpe. This work, begun in the year of the great
battle, was completed in 742. It covered a wide area, reaching
from the shores of the bay to a point half-way up the north-
western slope of the rock; here the keep, a massive square
tower, still stands and is known as the Moorish castle.
The Rock itself is about 25 m. in length, and at its northern end
rises almost perpendicularly from the strip of flat sandy ground
which connects it with the Spanish mainland. At the north end,
on the crest of the Rock 1200 ft. above sea-level, is the Rock
gun, famous in the great siege. Some six furlongs to the south
is the signal station (1255 ft.), through which the names and
messages of passing ships are cabled to all parts of the world.
Rather less than m. south of the signal station is O'Hara's
Tower(i4o8ft.),thehighestpointof theRock. Southof O'Hara's
Tower the ground falls steeply to Windmill Hill, a fairly even
surface about i of a sq. m. in area, and sloping from 400 to 300 ft.
above the sea-level. South of Windmill Hill are Europa Flats,
a wall-like cliff 200 ft. or more in height dividing them. Europa
Flats, sloping south, end in cliffs 50 ft. high, which at and around
Europa Point plunge straight down into deep water. Europa
Point is the most southern point of the Rock, and is distant
iii nautical miles from the opposite African coast. On Europa
Point is the lighthouse in 5 21' W. and 36 6' 30* N. On the
Mediterranean side the Rock is almost as steep and inaccessible
as it is from the north. Below the signal station, at the edge of
the Mediterranean, lies Catalan Bay, where there is a little village
chiefly inhabited by fishermen and others who make their
living upon the waters; but Catalan Bay can only be approached
by land from the north or by a tunnel through the Rock from the
dockyard; from Catalan Bay to Europa Point the way is barred
by impassable cliffs. On the west side of the Rock the slopes are less
steep, especially as they near the sea, and on this side lie the town,
the Alameda or public gardens, the barracks and the dockyard.
Geology. The rock of Gibraltar consists, for the most part, of
pale grey limestone of compact and sometimes crystalline structure,
generally stratified but in places apparently amorphous. Above the
limestone are found layers of dark grey-blue shales with intercalated
beds of grit, mudstone and limestone. Both limestone and shales
are of the Lower Jurassic age. Professors A. C. Ramsay and James
Neutral Ground
GIBRALTAR
Scale i :34.ooo
o ^
i. Convent
M. Cathedral
3. Garriton Library
, 4. Civil Hospital
5. Court Houst
6. xchanyt
7' Prttbyttrian Ch*relt
8. Wttleyan Church
Europa Poftit
Emery WHuTc-
Geikie (Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, London, August
1878) found also in the superficial formations of the Rock various
features of interest to the students of Pleistocene geology, including
massive accumulations of limestone breccia or agglomerate, bone
breccias, deposits of calcareous sandstone, raised beaches and loose
sands. The oldest of these superficial formations is the limestone
breccia of Buena Vista, devoid of fossils and apparently formed
under the stress of hard frosts, indicating conditions of climate of
great severity. To account for frosts like these, it is suggested that
the surface of the Rock must have been raised to an elevation much
greater than its present height. In that case Europe and Africa
would probably have been connected by an isthmus across some part
of the present site of the Straits, and there would have been a wider
area of low ground round the base of the Rock. The low ground at
this, and probably at a later period, must have been clothed with a
rich vegetation, necessary for the support of a varied mammalian
fauna, whose remains have been found in the Genista caves. After
this there would seem to have been a subsidence to a depth of some
GIBRALTAR
939
TOO ft. below the existing level. Thi* would account for the ledges
and platforms which have been formed by erosion of the sea luith
above the present sea-level, and for the deposits of calcareous sand-
stone containing sea shells of existing Mediterranean species.
The extent of some of these eroded ledges shows that pauses of long
duration intervened between the periods of depression. The Rock
seems after this to have been raised to a level considerably above
that at wh*ch it now stands; Europe and Africa would then again
have been united. At a later date still the Rock sank once more to
its present level.
Many caves, some of them of great extent, penetrate the interior
of the rock ; the best known of these are the Genista and St Michael's
caves. St Michael's cave, about 1 100 ft. above sea-level at its mouth,
slopes rapidly down and extends over 400 ft. into the Rock; its
extreme Emits have not, however, been fully explored. It consists
of a series of five or more chamber* of considerable extent , connected
by narrow and crooked pssssgn. The outermost cave is 70 ft. in
height and aoo in length, with massive pillar* of stalactite reaching
from roof to floor. The second cave was named the Victoria cave
by its discoverer Captain Brome; beyond these are three caves
known as the Leonora caves. " Nothing," writes Captain Brome,
"can exceed the beauty of the stalactite*; they form cluster* of
every imaginable shape-statuette*, pillars, foliages, figures," and
he adds that American visitor* have admit ted that even the Mammoth
cave itself could not rival these giant stalactites in picturesque beauty.
The mammalian remains of the Genista cave have been described
by G. Busk (" Quaternary Fauna of Gibraltar " in Tram, of Zool.
Site. vol. x. p. 2, 1877). They were found to contain remains of a
bear, probably Urstu fossilu of Goldfuss; of a hyena, //. croeuta or
tftdoM: of cats varying from a leopard to a wild cat in size; of a
rhinoceros, resembling in speck* remains found in the Thames
valley; two forms of ibex; the hare and rabbit. No trace has
been found as yet of Rhinoceros tichorinus, of Urstu spelaeus or of the
reindeer ; and of the elephant only a molar tooth of Elephas anliquus.
Further details may be found in the Quarterly Journ. of Geol. Soc.
(James Smith of lordanhill), vol. ii. and in vol. xxi. (Fossil Contents
of Uu Genista Cote, G. Busk and Hugh Falconer; reprinted in
Ptlatfultlftical Memoirs. H. Falconer, London, 1 868).
flora. The upper part of the Rock is in summer burnt up and
brown, but after the first autumn rains and during the winter,
spring and early summer, it abounds in wild flowers and shrubs.
In the public and other gardens on the lower ground, where there
is a greater depth of soil, the vegetation is luxuriant and is only
limited by the supply of water available for summer irrigation.
Dr E. F. Kelaart (Flora Calpensis, London, 1846) enumerates more
than four hundred varieties of plants and ferns indigenous to
Gibraltar, and about fifty more which have been introduced from
abroad. Of the former a few are said to be species peculiar to the
Rock. The stone-pine and wild-olive are perhaps the only trees
found growing in a natural state. In the public and private gardens
and by the roadside may be seen the pepper tree, the plane, the white
poplar, the acacia, the bella-sombra ( Pkytoltuto dioica), the eucalyptus
or blue gum tree, and palms of different pecies; and, of fruit trees,
the orange, lemon, fig, pomegranate, loquat and almond. The aloe,
flowering aloe and pnckly pear are common, and on the eastern side of
the Rock tbepalmitoor dwarf palm (Chamaerops humilis) isabundant.
Aaao. Toe fauna of Gibraltar, from want of space, is necessarijy
scanty. The Barbary apes, said to be the only wild monkeys in
Europe, are still to be found on the upper part of the Rock, but in
very reduced numbers; about the beginning of the 2oth century
four or five only remained, which were said to be all females; a
young male, however, was brought from Africa. The last male of
the original stock, an old patriarch, who had died shortly before this,
is believed to have killed and, it is said, eaten all the young ones.
A small variety of pigeon breeds in the steep cliffs at the north end
of the Rock. A few red-legged partridges, some rabbits, two or three
foxes and a badger or two will complete the list.
Climate. The climate of Gibraltar is pleasant and healthy,
mild in winter, and only moderately hot in summer; but the
beat, though not excessive, is lasting. The three months of June,
July and August are almost always without rain, and it is not
often that rain falls in the months of May and September. The
first autumn rains, however, which sometimes begin in September,
are usually heavy. From October to May the climate is for the
most part delightful, warm sunshine prevailing, tempered by
cool breezes; the spells of bad weather, although blustering
enough at times, are seldom of more than a few days' duration.
The thermometer in summer does not often reach 00 F. in the
shade; from 83 to 85 may be taken to be the average maximum
for July and August, and these are the hottest months of the
year. The average yearly rainfall is 34-4 in., and in fifty years
from 1857 to 1006 the greatest recorded rainfall was 59-35 in.,
and the smallest 16-75 '" The water-supply for drinking and
cooking purposes is almost wholly derived from rain-water
stored chiefly in underground tanks; there are very few good
wells. Many of the better class of houses have their own rain-
water tanks, and there are large tanks belonging to the naval
and military authorities. Large storage tanks have been con-
structed by the sanitary commissioners with specially prepared
collecting areas high up the Rock. The collecting areas cover 16
acres, and the storage tanks have a capacity of over six million
gallons. The tanks are excavated in the solid rock, whereby
the water is kept in the dark and cool. A large quantity of
brackish water for flushing purposes and baths is pumped from
the sandy flats of the north fronton the Spanish side of the Rock.
The Town. The modern town of Gibraltar is of comparatively
recent date, nearly all the older buildings having been destroyed
during the great siege (1779-1783). The town lies, with most of
its buildings crowded together, at the north-western corner of
the Rock, and covers only about one-ninth part of the whole
area; only a small part of it is on level ground, and those of its
narrow streets and lanes which are at right angles to the line wall,
or sea front, are for the most part, except at their western ends,
little more than ramps or rough stairs formed of rubble stones,
contracting in places into stone steps.
The public buildings present few, if any, features of general
interest. The " Convent " rebuilt upon the remains of an old
Franciscan monastery is the official residence of the governor.
The Anglican cathedral is a poor imitation of Moorish archi-
tecture. The garrison library has excellent reading rooms and
a large number of volumes of miscellaneous interest. The civil
hospital is a well-planned and roomy modern building. The court-
house and exchange buildings are suited to the needs of the town.
The antiquary may here and there find the remains of a Moorish
bath forming part of a stable, or fragments of a sculptured stone
gateway bearing the arms of Castile or of Aragon built into the
wall of a modern barrack. In a small disused graveyard, near
Southport gate, lie buried a number of those who fell at Trafalgar.
To the south of the town are the Alarm-da parade and gardens,
a lunatic asylum, the dockyard, graving docks and the naval
and military hospitals.
Population. The inhabitants of Gibraltar are of mixed race;
after the capture of the town by the British nearly the whole of
the former Spanish population emigrated in a body and founded,
6 m. away, the little town of San Roque. Most of the native
inhabitants are of Italian or Genoese descent; there are also a
number of Maltese, and between two and three thousand Jews.
The Jews never intermarry with other races and form a distinct
society of their own. The language of the people is Spanish, not
very correctly spoken. English is learnt as a foreign language
and is rarely, if ever, spoken by the people in their own homes.
Gibraltar being primarily a fortress and naval base, every
effort, in view of war contingencies, is made by the authorities
to prevent the natural increase of the population. Sanitary and
building regulations, modelled upon English statutes designed
with quite different objects, are administered with some ingenuity
and not a little severity. In this way the house room available
for the poorer classes is steadily reduced. The poor are thus
being gradually pushed across the frontier into the neighbouring
Spanish town of La Linea de la Concepcion, itself a mere suburb
of Gibraltar, whose population, however, is nearly double that
of the parent city. A large army of workers come daily from
" the Lines " into Gibraltar, returning at " first evening gunfire "
shortly after sunset, at which time the gates arc closed and
locked for the night. . Aliens are not allowed to reside in Gibraltar
without a special permit, which must be renewed at short in-
tervals. By an order in council, taking effect from November
1900, the like disabilities were extended to British subjects not
previously resident.
The recorded births, marriages and deaths over a period of 23
years are as follow*:
Yearly Average.
Births.
Marriage*.
Deaths.
1883-1885
1886-1800
1891-1895
1896-1900
i.,..i !</>;
621
603
626
641
629
177
167
186
201
201
5'3
5'4
460
498
47*
940
GIBRALTAR
The numbers of the population from causes which have been referred
to are almost stationary, showing a slight tendency to decrease.
There are no available statistics later than those of a census taken
in 1901, from which it appeared that the population then numbered
27,460, of whom the garrison and its families amounted to 6595,
the civil population, being British subjects, to 17,818, and aliens
resident under permits to 3047. The latter are chiefly working men
and domestic servants.
Constitution. Gibraltar is a crown colony. Of local govern-
ment properly so called there is none. There is a sanitary
commission which is vested with large powers of spending and
with the control of buildings and streets and other matters
managed by local authorities in England. Its members are
appointed by the governor. An appeal from their decisions, so
far as they affect individuals, lies to the supreme court. Apart
from the garrison and civil officials there are comparatively
few members of the Anglican Church. The great majority of
the people belong to the Church of Rome. The Jews have
four synagogues. The Protestant dissenters have two places
of worship, Presbyterian and Wesleyan. Education is not
compulsory for the civil population, but most of the children, if
not all, receive a fair education in private or private aided
schools. The number of the children on the rolls of the private
and private aided schools was in 1905: boys, 1504; girls, 1733;
total 3237.
Commerce. Except in respect of alcoholic liquors and tobacco
Gibraltar has been a free port since the year 17053 distinction
due, it is said, to the refusal of a sultan of Morocco to allow of much-
needed exports from Morocco to Gibraltar if full liberty of trade
were not granted to his subjects. During the great wars of the
beginning of the igth century trade was most active in Gibraltar,
and some large fortunes were made; but trade on a large scale has
almost disappeared. At the point of contact of two continents,
on the direct line of ocean trade with the far East, in regular steam
communication with all the great ports of Europe and with North
and South America, Gibraltar, by its position, is fitted to be a trade
centre of the world, but the unrest and suspicion engendered in
Morocco by the intrigues and designs of the European powers, and
excessive protective duties and maladministration in Spain, have
done much to extinguish the trade of Gibraltar. There are, however,
no trustworthy statistics of imports and exports. Before the year
1898 wine, beer and spirits were the only goods which paid duty. In
that year a duty of id. per ft was for the first time put upon
tobacco and produced 1444; the duty was, however, in force only
for a part of the year; in 1899 the duty, at the same rate, produced
77 O 3- In 1902 the duty on tobacco was raised to 2d. per lb
and produced 29,311. In 1905 this duty produced 24,575. The
chief business of Gibraltar is the coaling of passing steamers; this
gives work to several thousand men. Goods are also landed for re-
export to Morocco, but the bulk of the Morocco trade, much of
which formerly came to Gibraltar, is now done by lines of steamers
trading to and from Morocco direct to British, German or French
ports. Nearly all the fresh meat consumed in Gibraltar comes from
Morocco, also large quantities of poultry and eggs. A fair amount of
retail business is done with the passengers of ocean steamers which
call on their way to and from the East and from North and South
America.
The steam tonnage cleared annually since 1883 is shown in the
following table :
Yearly Average.
British.
Foreign.
Total.
1883-1885 . .
1886-1890 . .
1.891-1895 . .
1896-1900 . .
1901-1905 . .
3,525,135
4,507,101
3,710,856
3,281,165
2,810,849
817,926
908,419
975,39
1,063,367
1,309,649
4,343,061
5,415,520
4,686,246
4,344,532
4,120,498
The main sources of revenue are (i.) duties upon wine, spirits, malt
liquors and tobacco; (ii.) port and harbour dues; (lii.) tavern
and other licences; (iv.) post and telegraph; (v.) ground and
other rents; (vi.) stamps and miscellaneous. The returns before
1898 were made in pesetas (5 = 81). In the following table
these have been converted into sterling at an average of exchange
Yearly Average.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
V.
vi.
Total.
1886-1890
1891-1895
1896-1900
1001-1905
Year 1905
9,692
9,250
14,071
35,900
36,554
17,070
13,157
8,435
6,028
5,872
5387
4275
4136
3905
4050
6,805
7,833
10,016
12,091
i6,55i
6485
6208
5924
6945
7489
2,873
10,113
14,460
15,859
17,007
48,312
50,836
57.042
80,728
87,523
The money, weights and measures in legal use are British. Before
1898 Spanish money only was in use. The great depreciation of the
Spanish currency during the war with the United States led in 1898
to the reproduction of British currency as the legal tender money
of Gibraltar. Notwithstanding this change the Spanish dollar still
remains in current use; much of the retail business of the town
being done with persons resident in Spain, the dollar fully holds
its own.
Harbour and Fortifications. Great changes were made in the
defences of Gibraltar early in the 2oth century. Guns of the
newest types replaced those of older patterns. The heavier
pieces instead of being at or near the sea-level, are now
high up, many of them on the crest line of the Rock; their
lateral range and fire area has thereby been greatly increased
and their efficiency improved in combination with an elaborate
system of range finding.
With the completion of the new dockyard works the value
of Gibraltar as a naval base has greatly increased. It can now
undertake all the ordinary repairs and coaling of a large fleet.
There is an enclosed harbour in which a fleet can safely anchor
secure from the attacks of torpedo boats. A mole, at first
intended for commercial purposes, closes the north end of the
new harbour. The Admiralty, Jiowever, soon found that their
needs had outgrown the first design and the so-called Commercial
Mole has been taken over for naval purposes, plans for a new
commercial mole being prepared. The funds for these extensive
works were provided by the Naval Works Loan Acts of 1895
and subsequent years.
The land space available for the purposes of dockyard exten-
sion being very limited, a space of about 64 acres was reclaimed
from the sea in front of the Alameda and the road to Rosia;
some of the land reclaimed was as much as 40 ft. under water.
The large quantity of material required for this purpose was
obtained by tunnelling the Rock from W. to E. and from quarries
above Catalan Bay village, to which access was gained through
the tunnel. The graving docks occupy the dug-out site of the
former New Mole Parade. There are three of these docks,
850,55 and 450 ft. in length respectively. The largest dock
is divisible by a central caisson so that four ships can be docked
at one time. The docks are all 95 ft. wide at the entrance with
35s ft. of water over the sills at low- water spring tides. The
pumping machinery can empty the largest dock, 105,000 tons
of water, in five hours. There are two workshops for the chief
constructor's and chief engineer's departments, each 407 ft. long
and 322 broad. For the staff captain's department and stores
there are buildings with 250,000 ft. of floor space. At the north
end of the yard are the administrative offices, slipways for
destroyers, a slip for small craft, an ordnance wharf and a boat
camber. The reclaimed area is faced with a wharf wall of con-
crete blocks for an unbroken length of 1600 ft. with 33 ft. of
water alongside at low tide; on this wharf are powerful shears
and cranes.
The enclosed harbour covers 440 acres, 250 of which have a
minimum depth of 30 ft. at low water. It is closed on the S.
and S. W. by the New Mole (1400 ft.) and the New Mole extension
(2700 ft.), together 4100 ft.; on the W. by the Detached Mole
(2720 ft.) and on the N. by the Commercial Mole.
The New Mole, so called to distinguish it from the Old Mole
and its later extension the Devil's Tongue at the north end of
the town, is said to have been begun by the Spaniards in 1620.
It was successfully assaulted by landing parties from the British
fleet under Sir George Rooke at the capture of Gibraltar by the
British in 1 704. It was extended at different times, and before
the beginning of the new works was 1400 ft. in length. The
New Mole, with its latest extension, has a width at top of 102 ft.
It is formed of rubble stone floated into position in barges. It
has a continuous wharf wall on the harbour side
3500 ft. long, with water alongside 30 to 35 ft. deep.
On the outer side coal is stacked in sheds extending
nearly the whole length of the mole.
' The Detached Mole is a vertical wall formed of concrete
blocks, each block weighing 28 tons. These blocks were
built together on the sloping block system upon a rubble
GIBRALTAR
941
foundation of stone deposited by barges and levelled by divers |
for the reception of the concrete blocks.
The Commercial Mole is now chiefly used by the navy as a
convenient wharf for destroyers. It encloses the harbour to
the north and extends westward from the end of the Devil's
Tongue. At the end nearest the town are large stores; there is
also a small wharf on its outer side which is used by the tenders
of ocean steamers and by the small boats which ply to Algeciras.
This mole is built of rubble, and at its western end it has an
arm about 1600 ft. long running S. in the direction of the Detached
Mole. Parallel with and inside the western arm are five jetties.
The jetties and western arm have extensive coal sheds and are
faced with a concrete wharf wall of a total length of 7000 ft.
with jo to 30 ft. of water alongside. The Devil's Tongue was
an extension of the Old Mole, constructed during the great siege
1770-1783 in order to bring a flanking fire to bear upon part of
the Spanish lines. It owes its name to the success with which
it played its destined part. (H. If.*)
History. Gibraltar was known to the Greek and Roman
geographers as Calpe or Alybe, the two names being probably
corruptions of the same local (perhaps Phoenician) word. The
eminence on the African coast near Ceuta which bears the
modern English name of Apes' Hill was then designated Abyla;
and Calpe and Abyla, at least according to an ancient and widely
current interpretation, formed the renowned Pillars of Hercules
(Herculii columns, 'HpaxX<ovf <rrjXeu), which for centuries
were the limits of enterprise to the seafaring peoples of the
Mediterranean world. The military history of the Rock begins
with its capture and fortification by Tariq in 711. In 1309
it was retaken by Alonxo Perez de Guzman for Ferdinand IV.
of Castile and Leon, who, in order to attract inhabitants to the
spot, offered an asylum to thieves and murderers, and promised
to levy no taxes on the import or export of goods. The attack
of Ismail ben Ferez in 1315 (2nd siege) was frustrated; but in
1333 Vasco Perez de Meyra, having allowed the fortifications
and garrison to decay, was obliged to capitulate to Mahomet IV.
(3rd siege) after a defence of five months. Alonzo's attempts
to recover possession (4th siege) were futile, though pertinacious
and heroic; but after his successful attack on Algeciras in 1344
he was encouraged to try his fortune again at Gibraltar. In
1349 he invested the Rock, but the siege (sth siege) was brought
to an untimely close by his death in March 1350. The next or
6th siege resulted simply in the transference of the position from
the hands of the king of Morocco to those of Yussef III. of
Granada (141 1), and the 7th, undertaken by the Spanish count of
Niebla, Enrique de Guzman, proved fatal to the besieger and his
forces (1435). In 1462, however, success attended the efforts
of Alonzo de Arcos (Sth siege), and in August the Rock passed
once more under Christian sway. The duke of Medina Sidonia,
a powerful grandee who had assisted in its capture, was anxious
to get possession of the fortress, and though Henry IV. at first
managed to maintain the claims of the crown, the duke ultimately
made good his ambition by force of arms (gth siege), and in 1469
the king was constrained to declare his son and his heirs perpetual
governors of Gibraltar. In 1479 Ferdinand and Isabella made
the second duke marquess of Gibraltar, and in 1492 the third
duke, Don Juan, was reluctantly allowed to retain the fortress.
At length in 1 502 it was formally incorporated with the domains
of the crown. Don Juan tried in 1506 to recover possession,
and added a loth to the list cf sieges. In 1540 the garrison had
to defend itself against a much more formidable attack (nth
siege) the pirates of Algiers having determined to recover the
Rock for Mahomet and themselves. The conflict was severe,
but resulted in the repulse of the besiegers. After this the
Spaniards made great efforts to strengthen the place, and they
succeeded so well that throughout Europe Gibraltar was regarded
as impregnable, the engineer Daniel Speckle (1536-1589) being
chiefly responsible for the design of the fortifications.
Gibraltar was taken by the allied British and Dutch forces,
after a three days' siege, on the 24th of July 1704 (see SPANISH
SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE). The capture was made, as the
being fought, in the interests of Charles, archduke of
Austria, but Sir George Rooke (</.), the British admiral, on his
own responsibility caused tin- Uriiish (lag to be hoisted, and
took possession in name of Queen Anne, whose government
ratified the occupation. A great number of the inhabitants of the
town of Gibraltar abandoned their homes rather than recognize
the authority of the invaders. The Spaniards quickly assembled
an army to recapture the place, and a new siege opened in October
1704 by troops of France and Spain under the marquess of
Villadarias. The activity of the British admiral, Sir John Leake,
and of the military governor, Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt
(who had commanded the land forces in July), rendered the
efforts of the besiegers useless. A notable incident of this siege
was the gallant attempt made by 500 chosen volunteers to surprise
the garrison (3ist of October), an attempt which, at first success-
ful, in the end failed disastrously. Finally, in April 1705 the
French marshal de Tess, who had replaced Villadarias, gave up
the siege and retired. During the next twenty years there were
endless negotiations for the peaceful surrender of the fortress,
varied in 1720 by an abortive attempt at a coup de main, which
was thwarted by the resourcefulness of the governor of Minorca
(Colonel Kane), who threw reinforcements and supplies into
Gibraltar at the critical moment. In 1726 the Spaniards again
appealed to arms. But the count of las Torres, who had the
chief command, succeeded no better than his predecessors. The
place had been strengthened since 1705, and the defence of
the garrison under Brigadier Clayton, the lieutenant-governor,
Brigadier Kane of Minorca, and the governor, the earl of Port-
more, who arrived with reinforcements, was so effective that the
armistice of the 1 2th of June practically put a close to the siege,
though two years elapsed before the general pacification ensued.
Neither in the War of the Austrian Succession nor in that of 1 762
did Spain endeavour to besiege the rock, but the War of American
Independence gave her better opportunities, and the siege ot
great siege of 1779-1783 is justly regarded as one of aibnitir
the most memorable sieges of history. The governor, i'Jf. 9 '
General Sir George Augustus Elliot (afterwards Lord
Heathfield), was informed from England on the 6th of July 1779
that hostilities had begun. A short naval engagement in the
straits took place on the nth, and General Elliot made every
preparation for resistance. It was not, however, until the month
of August that the Spaniards became threatening. The method
of the besiegers appeared to be starvation, but the interval
between strained relations and war had been well employed by
the ships, and supplies were, for the time at any rate, sufficient.
While the Spanish siege batteries were being constructed the
fortress fired, and many useful artillery experiments were carried
out by the garrison at this time and subsequently throughout the
siege. On the i .ji li of November there took place a spirited naval
action in which the privateer " Buck," Captain Fagg, forced her
way into harbour. This was one of many such incidents, which
usually arose from the attempts made from time to time by vessels
to introduce supplies from Tangier and elsewhere. December
1779, indeed, was a month of privation for the garrison,' though
of lit t Ic actual fighting. In January 1 780, on the rumour of an
approaching convoy, the price of foods " fell more than two-
thirds," and Admiral Sir George Rodney won a great victory
over De Langara and entered the harbour. Prince William
Henry (afterwards King William IV.) served on board the British
fleet as a midshipman during this expedition. Supplies and
reinforcements were thrown into the fortress by Rodney, and the
whole affair was managed with the greatest address both by the
home government and the royal navy. " The garrison, " in spite
of the scurvy, " might now be considered in a perfect state of
defence," says Drinkwater.
On the 7th of June took place an attack by Spanish fireships,
which were successfully dealt with by the naval force in the bay
under Captain Lesley of H.M. frigate " Enterprise." Up to
October the state of things within the fortress was much what it
had been after Rodney's success. " The enemy's operations on
the land side had been for many months so unimportant as
scarcely to merit our attention " (Drinkwater). Scurvy was,
however, prevalent (see Drinkwater, p. 121), and the supply
942
GIBSON, C. D. GIBSON, EDMUND
question had again become acute. Though the enemy's batteries
did riot open fire, the siege works steadily progressed, in spite
of the fire from the fortress, and there were frequent small engage-
ments at sea in which the English were not always successful.
Further, the expulsion, with great harshness, of the English
residents of Barbary territory put an end to a service of supply
and information which had been of the greatest value to Elliot
(January 1781). Three more months passed in forced inaction,
which the garrison, stinted as it was, endured calmly. Then, on the
izth of April 1781, on the arrival of a British relieving squadron
under Admiral Darby, the whole of the Spanish batteries opened
fire. Stores were landed in the midst of a heavy bombardment,
and much damage was done both to the fortifications and military
buildings and to the town. At this time there was a good deal
of indiscipline in the garrison, with which General Elliot dealt
severely. This was in the last degree necessary, for the bom-
bardment continued up to the ist of June, after which the rate
of the enemy's fire decreased to 50x5 rounds per day. By the
i zth of July it had almost ceased. In September the firing again
became intense and the casualties increased, the working parties
suffering somewhat heavily. In October there was less ex-
penditure of ammunition, as both sides were now well covered,
and in November the governor secretly prepared a great counter-
stroke. The sortie made on the night of the z6th-27th of
November was brilliantly successful, and the Spanish siege
works were mostly destroyed. At the close of the year the
garrison was thus again in an excellent position.
Early in 1782 a new form of gun-carriage wheel, allowing of
a large angle of depression being given, was invented by an
officer of the Royal Artillery, and indeed throughout the siege
many experiments (such as would nowadays be carried out at a
school of gunnery) were made with guns, mountings, ammuni-
tion, methods of fire, &c., both in Gibraltar and hi the Spanish
camp. The gun-carriage referred to enabled 93% of hits to
be obtained at 1400 yds. range. In April grates for heating
shot were constructed by order of the governor; these were
destined to be famous. At the same time it was reported that
the due de Crillon was now to command the besiegers (French
and Spaniards) with D'Arcon as his chief engineer. The grand
attack was now imminent, and preparations were made to repel
it (July 1782). The chief feature of the attack was to be, as
reported on the 26th of July, ten ships " fortified 6 or 7 ft.
thick . . . with green timber bolted with iron, cork and raw
hides; which were to carry guns of heavy metal and be bomb-
proof on the top with a descent for the shells to slide off; that
these vessels . . . were to be moored within half gunshot of
the walls," &c. On the other side many of the now existing
rock galleries were made about this time. The count of Artois
and another French prince arrived in the French lines in August
to witness the culminating effort of the besiegers, and some
polite correspondence passed between Crillon and the governor
(reprinted in Drinkwater, p. 267). The garrison made a pre-
liminary trial of the red-hot shot on the 8th of September, and
the success of the experiment not only elated the garrison but was
partly instrumental in causing Crillon to hasten the main attack.
After a preliminary bombardment the famous battering ships
took up their positions in broad daylight on the I3th and
opened fire. The British solid shot seem to have failed absolutely
to penetrate the massive wooden armour on the sides and the
roofs of the battering ships, and about noon the ships had
settled down to their work and were shooting coolly and accur-
ately. But between i and 2 P.M. the British artillerymen began
to use the red-shot freely. All day the artillery duel went
on, the shore guns, though inferior in number, steadily gaining
the upper hand, and the battering ships were in great distress
by nightfall. The struggle continued in the dark, the garrison
now shooting rapidly and well, and one by one the ten ships
were set on fire. Before noon on the i4th the attack had come
to an end by the annihilation of the battering fleet, every ship
having been blown up or burnt to the water's edge. Upwards of
8300 rounds were expended by the garrison though less than a
hundred pieces were in action. The enemy's bombardment
was, however, resumed and partial engagements continued up to
the third naval relief of the fortress by Lord Howe, who won a
great victory at sea over the Spaniards. The long siege came to
an end on the 6th of February 1783, when the due de Crillon
informed Elliot that the preliminaries of peace had been signed.
On the 3ist of March the duke visited the fortress, and many
courtesies passed between the late enemies. Captain (after-
wards Colonel) John Drinkwater (1762-1844), the historian of
the siege, first published his work in 1785. A new edition of
A History of the Siege of Gibraltar was published in 1905. The
history of the four eventful years' siege is fully detailed also in
the Memoir, attached to Green's Siege of Gibraltar (1784), of its
gallant defender Sir George Augustus Elliot, afterwards Lord
Heathfield, whose military skill and moral courage place him
among the best soldiers and noblest men of his time.
Since 1783 the history of Gibraltar has been comparatively
uneventful. In the beginning of 1801 there were rumours of a
Spanish and French attack, but the Spanish ships were defeated
off Algeciras in June by Admiral Saumarez. Improvements
in the fortifications, maintenance of military discipline and
legislation in regard to trade and smuggling, are the principal
matters of recent interest.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. To the works which have been already mentioned
may be added : I. L. de Ayala, Historia de Gibraltar (Madrid, 1792) ;
Jas. Bell, translation of Ayala's history (London, 1845) ; F. Carter,
Gibraltar to Malaga (London, 1777-1780) ; G. Cockburn, Gibraltar,
Cadiz, &c. (London, 1815) ; O. Debeaux and G. Dautez, Synopsis de
la flore de Gibraltar (1889); E. D. Fenton, Sorties from Gibraltar,
(1872); H. M. Field, Gibraltar (New York, 1888); J. Gait, Gibraltar,
Sardinia, &c. (London, 1813); J. Heriot, Historical Sketch of Gib-'
raltar (London, 1792); R. Hort, The Rock of Gibraltar (London,
1839); L. W. L. Irby, Ornithology of the Straits (London, 1875);
Thos. James, History of the Herculean Straits (London, 1771) ; J. H.
Mann, Gibraltar and its Sieges (London, 1870) ; Montero, Historia
de Gibraltar (Cadiz, 1860); A. M. Monti, Historia de Gibraltar
(Seville, 1851) ; J. Navarrete, Las Llaves del Estrecho (Madrid, 1882) ;
M. S. Pasley, Wild Flowers of Gibraltar (Portsmouth, 1887); John
Purdy, Gibraltar and Mediterranean Sailing Directions (London,
1840); H. J. M. Rey, Essai sur la topographie medicale de Gibraltar
(Paris, 1833); Captain Sayer, History of Gibraltar (London, 1862);
D. Sutherland, Gibraltar to Constantinople (London, 1790) ; Walker,
A Year's Insect Hunting in Gibraltar (London, 1888). (C. F. A.)
GIBSON, CHARLES DANA (1867- ), American artist and
illustrator, was born at Roxbury, Massachusetts, on the i4th of
September 1867. After a year's study at the schools of the Art
Students' League, he began with some modest little drawings
for the humorous weekly Life. These he followed up with more
serious work, and soon made a place for himself as the delineator
of the American girl, at various occupations, particularly those
out of doors. These obtained an enormous vogue, being after-
wards published in book form, running through many editions.
The " Gibson Girl " stood for a type of healthy, vigorous,
beautiful and refined young womanhood. Some book illustra-
tions followed, notably for The Prisoner oj Zenda. He was
imitated by many of the younger draughtsmen, copied by
amateurs, and his popularity was shown in his engagement by
Collier's Weekly to furnish weekly for a year a double page,
receiving for the fifty-two drawings the sum of $50,000, said
to have been the largest amount ever paid to an illustrator
for such a commission. These drawings covered various local
themes and were highly successful, being drawn with pen and
ink with masterly facility and great directness and economy of
line. So popular was one series, " The Adventures of Mr Pipp,"
that a successful play was modelled on it. In 1006, although
besieged with commissions, Gibson withdrew from illustrative
work, determining to devote himself to portraiture in oil, in
which direction he had already made some successful experi-
ments; but in a few years he again returned to illustration.
GIBSON, EDMUND (1660-1748), English divine and jurist,
was born at Bampton in Westmorland in 1669. In 1686 he
was entered a scholar at Queen's College, Oxford, where in 1692
he published a valuable edition of the Saxon Chronicle with
a Latin translation, indices and notes. This was followed in
1693 by an annotated edition of the De institutione oratoria of
Quintilian, and in 1695 by a translation in two volumes folio
GIBSON, JOHN
of Camden's Britannia, " with additions and improvements," in
the preparation of which he had been largely assisted by William
Lloyd, John Smith and other English antiquaries. Shortly
after Thomas Tenison's elevation to the ice of Canterbury in
1694 Gibson was appointed chaplain and librarian to the arch-
bishop, and in 1703 and 1710 respectively he became rector of
Lambeth and archdeacon of Surrey. In the discussions which
arose during the reigns of William and Anne relative to the rights
and privileges of the Convocation, Gibson took a very active
pan, and in a series of pamphlets warmly argued for the right
of the archbishop to continue or prorogue even the lower house
of that assembly. The controversy suggested to him the idea
of those researches which resulted in the famous Code* juris
tccUsitutiti Anglicani, published in two volumes folio in 1713, a
work which discusses more learnedly and comprehensively than
any other the legal rights and duties of the English clergy, and
the constitution, canons and articles of the English Church. In
1716 Gibson was presented to the see of Lincoln, whence he was in
1710 translated to that of London, where for twenty-five years he
exercised an immense influence, being regularly consulted by Sir
Robert Walpole on all ecclesiastical affairs. While a conserva-
tive in church politics, and declaredly opposed to methodism,
he was no persecutor, and indeed broke with Walpole on the
Quakers' Relief Bill of 1736. He exercised a vigilant over-
sight over the morals of his diocese; and his fearless denunciation
of the licentious masquerades which were popular at court
finally lost him the royal favour. Among the literary efforts
of his later years the principal were a series of Pastoral Letters
in defence of the " gospel revelation," against " lukewarmness "
and " enthusiasm," and on various topics of the day; also the
Preservative against Popery, in 3 vols. folio (1738), a compilation
of numerous controversial writings of eminent Anglican divines,
dating chiefly from the period of James II. Gibson died on the
6th of September 1748.
A tecond edition of the Codex juris, " revised and improved, with
Urge additions by the author," was published at Oxford in 1761.
the works already mentioned, Gibson published a number
of Sermons, and other works of a religious and devotional kind.
The Vita Tkomae Bodleii with the Historia Bibliolhecae Bodleianae
in the Catalan librorum manuscriptorvm (Oxford, 1697), and the
Reliquiae Spefmannianae (Oxford, 1698), are also from his pen.
GIBSON. JOHN (1700-1866), English sculptor, was born near
Con way in 1700, his father being a market gardener. To his
mother, whom he described as ruling his father and all the family,
he owed, like many other great men, the energy and determina-
tion which carried him over every obstacle. When he was nine
yean old the family were on the point of emigrating to America,
but Mrs Gibson's determination stopped this project on their
arrival at Liverpool, and there John was sent to school. The
windows of the print shops of Liverpool riveted his attention,
and, having no means to purchase the commonest print, he
acquired the habit of committing to memory the outline of one
figure after another, drawing it on his return home. Thus early
be formed the system of observing, remembering and noting,
sometimes even a month later, scenes and momentary actions
from nature. In this way he, by degrees, transferred from the
shop window to his paper at home the chief figures from David's
picture of Napoleon crossing the Alps, which, by particular
request, be copied in bright coloun as a frontispiece to a little
schoolfellow's new prayer-book, for sixpence. At fourteen yean
of age Gibson was apprenticed to a firm of cabinetmaken,
portrait and miniature painters in Liverpool requiring a premium
which his father could not give. This employment so disgusted
him that after a year (being interesting and engaging then
apparently as. in after-life) he penuaded his masten to change
his indentures, and bind him to the wood-carving with which
their furniture was ornamented. This satisfied him for another
year, when an introduction to the foreman of some marble
works, and the sight of a small head of Bacchus, unsettled him
again. He had here caught a glimpse of his true vocation, and
in his leisure hours began to model with such success that his
efforts found their way to the notice of Mr Francis, the proprietor
of the marble works. The wood-carving now, in turn, became
943
his aversion; and having in vain entreated his masters to set
him free, he instituted a strike. He was every day duly at his
post, but did no work. Threats, and even a blow, moved him
not. At length the offer of 70 from Francis for the rebellious
apprentice was accepted, and Gibson found himself at last
bound to a master for the art of sculpture. Francis paid the
lad 6s. a week, and received good prices for his works, sundry
early works by the youthful sculptor, which exist in Liverpool
and the neighbourhood, going by the name of Francis to this
day. It was while thus apprenticed that Gibson attracted
the notice of William Roscoe, the historian. For him Gibson
executed a basso rilievo in terra-cotta, now in the Liverpool
museum. Roscoe opened to the sculptor the treasures of his
library at Allerton, by which he became acquainted with the
designs of the great Italian masters.
A cartoon of the Fall of the Angels marked this period, now
also in the Liverpool museum. We must pass over his studies
in anatomy, pursued gratuitously by the kindness of a medical
man, and his introductions to families of refinement and culture
in Liverpool. Roscoe was an excellent guide to the young
aspirant, pointing to the Greeks as the only examples for a
sculptor. Gibson here found his true vocation. A basso rilievo
of Psyche carried by the Zephyrs was the result. He sent it to
the Royal Academy, where Flaxman, recognizing its merits, gave
it an excellent place. Again he became unsettled. The ardent
young breast panted for " the great university of Art " Rome;
and the first step to the desired goal was to London. Here he
stood between the opposite advice and influence of Flaxman
and Chantrey the one urging him to Rome as the highest school
of sculpture in the world, the other maintaining that London
could do as much for him. It is not difficult to guess which was
Gibson's choice. He arrived in Rome in October 1817, at a
comparatively late age for a first visit. There he immediately
experienced the charm and goodness of the true Italian character
in the person of Canova, to whom he had introductions, the
Venetian putting not only his experience in art but his purse
at the English student's service. Up to this time, though his
designs show a fire and power of imagination in which no teaching
is missed, Gibson had had no instruction, and had studied at no
Academy. In Rome he first became acquainted with rules and
technicalities, in which the merest tyro was before him. Canova
introduced him into the Academy supported by Austria, and,
as is natural with a mind like Gibson's, the first sense of his
deficiencies in common matters of practice was depressing to him.
He saw Italian youths already excelling, as they all do, in the draw-
ing of the figure. But the tables were soon turned. His first
work in marble a " Sleeping Shepherd " modelled from a
beautiful Italian boy has qualities of the highest order. Gibson
was soon launched, and distinguished patrons, first sent by
Canova, made their way to his studio in the Via Fontanella. His
aim, from the first day that he felt the power of the antique, was
purity of character and beauty of form. He very seldom declined
into the prettiness of Canova, and if he did not often approach the
masculine strength which redeems the faults of Thorwaldsen,
he more than once surpassed him even in that quality. We allude
specially to his " Hunter and Dog," and to the grand promise
of his " Theseus and Robber," which take rank as the highest
productions of modern sculpture. He was essentially classic
in feeling and aim, but here the habit of observation we have
mentioned enabled him to snatch a grace beyond the reach of a
mere imitator. His subjects were gleaned from the free actions
of the splendid Italian people noticed in his walks, and afterwards
baptized with such mythological names as best fitted them.
Thus a girl kissing a child, with a sudden wring of the figure,
over her shoulder, became a " Nymph and Cupid "; a woman
helping her child with his foot on her band on to her lap, a
" Bacchante and Faun "; his " Amazon thrown from her Hone,"
one of his most original productions, was taken from an accident
he witnessed to a female rider in a circus; and the " Hunter
holding in his Dog " was also the result of a street scene. The
prominence he gave among his favourite subjects to the little
god " of soft tribulations" was no less owing to his facilities
GIBSON, T. MILKER GIBSON, W. H.
944
for observing the all but naked Italian children, in the hot
summers he spent in Rome.
In 'monumental and portrait statues for public places,
necessarily represented in postures of dignity and repose, Gibson
was very happy. His largest effort of this class the group of
Queen Victoria supported by Justice and Clemency, in the Houses
of Parliament was his finest work in the round. Of noble
' character also in execution and expression of thought is the
statue of Huskisson with the bared arm; and no less, in effect of
aristocratic ease and refinement, the seated figure of Dudley
North. But great as he was in the round, Gibson's chief
excellence lay in basso rilievo, and in this less-disputed sphere
he obtained his greatest triumphs. His thorough knowledge
of the horse, and his constant study of the Elgin marbles casts
of which are in Rome resulted in the two matchless bassi rilievi,
the size of life, which belong to Lord Fitzwilliam the " Hours
leading the Horses of the Sun," and " Phaethon driving the
Chariot of the Sun." Most of his monumental works are also
in basso rilievo. Some of these are of a truly refined and pathetic
character, such as the monument to the countess of Leicester,
that to his friend Mrs Huskisson in Chichester cathedral, and that
of the Bonomi children. Passion, either indulged or repressed,
was the natural impulse of his art: repressed as in the " Hours
leading the Horses of the Sun," and as in the " Hunter and Dog " ;
indulged as in the meeting of Hero and Leander, a drawing
executed before he left England. Gibson was the first to intro-
duce colour on his statues, first, as a mere border to the drapery
of a portrait statue of the queen, and by degrees extended to
the entire flesh, as in his so-called " tinted " Venus, and in the
" Cupid, tormenting the Soul," in the Holford collection.
Gibson's individuality was too strongly marked to be affected
by any outward circumstances. In all worldly affairs and business
of daily life he was simple and guileless in the extreme; but
he was resolute in matters of principle, determined to walk
straight at any cost of personal advantage. Unlike most artists,
he was neither nervous nor irritable in temperament. It was said
of him that he made the heathen mythology his religion; and
indeed in serenity of nature, feeling for the beautiful, and a certain
philosophy of mind, he may be accepted as a type of what a
pure-minded Greek pagan, in the zenith of Greek art, may have
been. Gibson was elected R.A. in 1836, and bequeathed all his
property and the contents of his studio to the Royal Academy,
where his marbles and casts are open to the public. He died at
Rome on the 27th of January 1866.
The letters between Gibson and Mrs Henry Sandbach, grand-
daughter of Mr Roscoe, and a sketch of his life that lady induced
him to write, furnish the chief materials for his biography. See his
Life, edited by Lady Eastlake. (E. E.)
GIBSON, THOMAS MILNER (1806-1884), English politician,
who came of a good Suffolk family, was born in Trinidad, where
his father, an officer in the army, was serving. He went to
Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1837 was elected to parlia-
ment as Conservative member for Ipswich, but resigned two
years later, having adopted Liberal views, and became an
ardent supporter of the free-trade movement. As one of Cobden's
chief allies, he was elected for Manchester in 1841, and from
1846 to 1848 he was vice-president of the board of trade in
Lord John Russell's ministry. Though defeated in Manchester
in 1857, he found another seat for Ashton-under-Lyne; and
he sat in the cabinets from 1859 to 1866 as president of the board
of trade. He was the leading spirit in the movement for the
repeal of " taxes on knowledge," and his successful efforts on
behalf of journalism and advertising were recognized by a public
testimonial in 1862. He retired from political life in 1868, but
he and his wife, whose salon was a great Liberal centre, were
for many years very influential in society. Milner Gibson was a
sportsman and a typical man of the world, who enjoyed life and
behaved liberally to those connected with him.
GIBSON, WILLIAM HAMILTON (1850-1896), American
illustrator, author and naturalist, was born in Sandy Hook,
Connecticut, on the sth of October 1850. The failure and (in
1868) death of his father, a New York broker, put an end to his
studies in the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute and made it
necessary for him to earn his own living. 'From the life insurance
business, in Brooklyn, he soon turned to the study of natural
history and illustration, he had sketched flowers and insects
when he was only eight years old, had long been interested in
botany and entomology, and had acquired great skill in making
wax flowers, and his first drawings, of a technical character,
were published in 1870. He rapidly became an expert illustrator
and a remarkably able wood-engraver, while he also drew on
stone with great success. He drew for The American Agri-
culturist, Hearth and Home, and Appleton's American Cyclo-
paedia; for The Youth's Companion and St Nicholas; and then
for various Harper publications, especially Harper's Monthly
Magazine, where his illustrations first gained popularity. He
died of apoplexy, brought on by overwork, on the i6th of
July 1896 at Washington, Connecticut, where he had had a
summer studio, and where in a great boulder is inset a relief
portrait of him by H. K. Bush-Brown. He was an expert
photographer, and his drawings had a nearly photographic
and almost microscopic accuracy of detail which slightly lessened
their artistic value, as a poetic and sometimes humorous quality
somewhat detracted from their scientific worth. Gibson was
perfectly at home in black-and-white, but rarely (and feebly)
used colours. He was a popular writer and lecturer on natural
history; in his best-known lecture, on " Cross-Fertilization," he
used ingenious charts and models.
Gibson illustrated S. A. Drake's In the Heart of (he White Moun-
tains, C. D. Warner's New South, and E. P. Roe's Nature's Serial
Story; and his own books, The Complete American Trapper (1876;
revised, 1880, as Camp Life in the Woods); Pastoral Days: or,
Memories of a New England Year (1880); Highways and Byways
(1882); Happy Hunting Grounds (1886); Strolls by Starlight and
Sunshine (1891); Sharp Eyes: a Rambler's Calendar (1891); Our
Edible Mushrooms and Toadstools (1895); Eye Spy: Afield with
Nature among Flowers and Animate Things (1897); and My Studio
Neighbours (1898).
See John C. Adams, William Hamilton Gibson. Artist, Naturaltst,
Author (New York, 1901).
END OF ELEVENTH VOLUME
HILL
REFERENCE
LIBRARY
ST. PAUL
Printed by R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS COMPANY, Chicago.
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BRITANNICA:
ELEVENTH
EDITIOK
YOU. XI.
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